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COLLIER'S
NEW
ENCYCLOPEDIA
A LOOSE-LEAF AND SELF- REVISING
REFERENCE WORK
IN TEN VOLUMES W ITH 515 ILLUSTRATIONS
AND NINETY- SIX MAPS
iiV/ ^
VOLUME FOUR
P. F. COLLIER Gf SON COMPANY
New York
Copyright 1921
By P. F. CoLUEB & Son Company
MANUFACTURED IN U. S. A.
GENERAL EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD AND
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
DR. WILLIAM A. NEILSON, Chairman
PRESIDENT SMITH COLLEGE, NORTHAMPTON, MASS.
REAR ADMIRAL AUSTIN' M. KNIGHT
FORMER PRESIDENT OF NAVAL WAR COLLEGE, NEWPORT, R. I.
DR. JOSEPH H. ODELL
DIRECTOR, SERVICE CITIZENS OF DELAWARE, VVIL.M INGTO.'i, DEL.
DR. KENNETH C. M. SILLS
PRESIDENT BOWDOIN COLLEGE, BRUNSWICK, ME.
DR. HENRY S. CANBY
EDITOR LITERARY REVIEW, NEW YORK, .\. V.
DR. W. T. COUNCILMAN
DEPARTMENT OF P.\THOLOGY, HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS.
DR. CH.VRLES F. THWING
PRESIDENT WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, CLEVELAND, OHIO
DR. EDWIN GREENLAW
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA, CHAPEL HILL, N. C.
DR. J. H. KIRKLAND
CHANCELLOR VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY, NASHVILLE, TENN.
PROFESSOR IRVING FISHER
YALE UNIVERSITY, NEW H.WEN. CONN
EDITOR IN CHIEF
FILANCIS J. REYNOLDS
FORMER REFERENCE LIBRARIAN, LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
MANAGING EDITOR
ALLEN L. CHURCHILL
ASSOCIATE EDITOR THE NEW INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
J. W. DUFFIELD
EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE NEW YORK TIMES
ALBERT SONNICHSEN
ECONOMIST, W.\R CORRESPONDENT
T. C. SHAFFER
PROFESSOR OF HISTORY
B. H. GOLDSMITH
EDITOR, ECONOMIST
BENEDICT FITZP.VTRICK
FORMERLY LITERARY EDITOR OF THE LONDON MAIL
C. E. MELOY SMITH
DREXEL INSTITUTE, CONSULTING ENGINEER
E. D. PIERSON
EDITOR, CORRESPONDENT LONDON TIMES
J. B. GIBSON
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
J. L. FRENCH
EDITOR, AUTHOR
653195
List of Illustrations
Paris — Colored Frontispiece
Opposite page 52
Buckingham Palace, England
King George Going to Parliament
Windsor Castle, England
Esquimau With Harpoon
Esquimaux With Sled
Douglas Fir
Fjord, Norway
FiuME, on the Adriatic
Opposite page 1U8
Seal Fishery
Boston Fishing Boat
Tuna Fishing
Sardine Fishery
A Catch of Herring
Oyster Schooners
Flammenwerfer
Flax Spinning
Florida
Rheims Cathedral, France
Opposite page 260
Battlefield in France
Fur Industry
Galveston Sea Wall
Atlanta, Georgia
Genoa, Italy
Berlin, Germany
Hamburg, Germany
Geneva, Switzerland
Opposite page 308
Geyser in Eruption
Mammoth Hot Springs
Hot Springs, New Zealand
Castle Geyser
Bathtub Geyser
Glass Making
Glass Blowing
Greenland
Opposite page JtOJt
Granada, from Alhambra
Grand Canon
Grapefruit
Athens, Greece
Parthenon, Athens
Cleveland, Great Lakes Port
Fort William, Great Lakes Port
Construction on Welland Canal,
Great Lakes
Opposite page 468
President Harding
Palace at The Hague
Port au Prince, Haiti
Baled Hay, California
Hemp, Philippines
Surf Riding, Hawaii
Heidelberg, Germany
Harbor of Havana
List of Maps
England and Wales
Europe, Eastern Half
Europe, Western Half
Florida
France, North
FjiANCB, South
French Indo-China — See Burma,
SiAM, French Indo-China
Georgia
Germany
Greece — See Balkan States
Hawaii
*^ELKINS — HERPES"
Ul
ELKINS
ELKS
ELKINS, a city of West Virginia, the
county-seat of Randolph co. It is on
the Western Maryland and the Coal and
Coke railroads. The chief industries
are tanning, locomotive and car repair-
ing, and the manufacture of boxes and
extracts. The city is the seat of Davis
and Elkins College, and has an Odd Fel-
lows' home, hospitals, and other public
institutions. Pop. (1910) 5,260; (1920)
6,788.
ELKINS, STEPHEN BENTON, an
American capitalist and public official,
born in Perry co., O., in 1841. He grad-
uated from the University of Missouri in
1860 and after studying law was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1864. In the same
ELK, MOOSE, or MOOSE DEER, the
largest of the deer family, a native of
northern Europe, Asia, and America. The
American form (to which the name moose
is usually given), is sometimes separated
from the European, but most naturalists
find no specific difference between them.
The elk or moose has a short, compact
body, standing about 6 feet in height at
the shoulders, a thick neck, large, clumsy
head, and horns which flatten out almost
from the base into a bi'oad, palmate form
with numerous snags. In color the elk is
grayish brown, the limbs, sides of head,
and coarse mane being, however, of a
lighter hue. The moose has a wide
range in Canada, extending from the
AMERICAN ELK
year he removed to New Mexico and was
elected to the Territorial Legislature. He
became in succession district attorney,
Attorney-General of the Territory and
United States District Attorney. He
was a delegate to Congress from New
Mexico from 1873 to 1877. He later re-
moved to West Virginia and married the
daughter of Henry Gassaway Davis, thus
acquiring large business interests, par-
ticularly in the coal business and rail-
ways. From 1891 to 1893 he was Secre-
tary of War in President Harrison's cab-
inet, and in 1894 he was elected to the
Senate. He was twice re-elected. He
was the author of Elkins' Railway Law
Of 1903. He died in 1911.
Arctic Ocean, and British Columbia, to
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; it is
found also in Maine. It feeds largely on
the shoots of trees or shrubs. In Sweden
its destruction is illegal, and in Norway
there are many restrictions.
ELKS, BENEVOLENT AND PRO-
TECTIVE ORDER OF, a fraternal so-
ciety organized in New York, 1868, by
members of the Jolly Corks theatrical
club. The Grand Lodge was incorpo-
rated in 1871, the first members being
the past officers of N. Y. Lodge No. 1.
Lodges were formed successively in Phil-
adelphia, San Francisco, Chicago, Cincin-
nati, Sacramento, Baltimore, Louisville,
ELL
ELLIOTT
St. Louis and other cities. The number
of lodges has now grown to between 1,200
and 1,400, and they are found in places
as distant as Honolulu and Alaska. The
order, in addition to the help given its
members, has liberally contributed to
outside causes, with over $3,000,000 hav-
ing been so donated. Citizens over 21
are eligible and lodges are confined to
cities with a population of at least 5,000.
The property and cash of the order
amount to over $11,000,000, its member-
ship is nearly 500,000, and its annual dis-
bursement close to $600,000.
ELL, a measure originally taken in
some vague way from the arm, and
which has been used to denote very dif-
ferent lengths. The English ell, as a
measure of cloth, is equal to IV4 yard,
the Flemish % yard, and the French
to 1% yard.
ELLENBOROUGH, EDWARD LAW,
1st EARL OF, son of Lord Chief -Justice
Ellenborough ; born in 1790. He was
educated at Eton and Cambridge, and in
1818, having succeeded his father as sec-
ond baron, he entered the House of
Lords. He took office in 1828 as lord
privy-seal, and became president of the
board of control in 1828-1830, and again
in 1834. In 1841 he accepted the gover-
nor-generalship of India, and arrived in
Calcutta in 1842, in time to bring the
Afghan war to a successful issue; but
he was recalled early in 1844. On his
return, however, he was defended by
Wellington, and received the thanks of
Parliament, an earldom, and the Grand
Cross of the Bath. He then held the
post of first lord of the admiralty (1845-
1846), and was president of the board of
control from February to June, 1858.
His dispatch censuring the policy of
Lord Canning as governor-general of
India led to his resignation, and he never
resumed office. He died in 1871.
ELLESMERE LAND, the southern
body of land W. of north Greenland, and
N. of Jones Sound, forming the extreme
N. extension of the Arctic archipelago
of North America. It has no inhabit-
ants and is a region of perpetual ice.
Baffin noted it early in the 17th century,
but Otto Sverdrup's explorations (1898-
1902) have added most to our knowledge.
ELLICE ISLANDS, a group in the
Pacific, discovered in 1819, situated in
lat. 8° 30' S., and Ion. 179° 13' E. They
form, with the Marshall and the Gilbert
group, a continuation of the Carolines,
and these three archipelagoes, in fact,
have sometimes been called the Eastern
Carolines. Their discovery, their settle-
ment, and their history, however, all
shov/ that they should be considered dis-
tinct from the Carolines, the Gilberts, or
the Pelews. In 1892 they were annexed
by Great Britain, though they are of no
great strategic importance.
ELLIOTT, HOWARD, an American
railway president, born in New York in
1860. He was educated at Cambridge
High School and the Lawrence Scientific
School. After serving in various capac-
ities for several railroads in the West,
he became general manager of the Chi-
cago, Burlington and Kansas City, and
other roads in 1896, serving until 1902.
He was in succession 2d vice-president
of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy;
president of the Northern Pacific; and
president of the New York, New Haven
and Hartford railroads. He served in
the latter capacity until 1917, when he
resigned to become chairman of the board
of directors of the New Haven system.
He was president of the Northern Pacific
railway until 1920, and was chairman of
the board of directors of that railroad
from that date. He was a member of
many engineering societies. During the
World War he acted as a member of the
special committee on national defense of
the American Railway Association.
ELLIOTT, JOHN, an American artist,
born in England in 1858. He was pri-
vately educated and studied art in Paris.
His art work was chiefly portraits and
mural decorations. Among the latter
were ceiling decorations in the Boston
Public Library, and a mural painting in
the National Museum of Washington. In
1908 he served with the American Red
Cross in the relief of the sufferers of the
Messina earthquake, and was architect
of the American village constructed for
the sufferers of that catastrophe. _ He re-
ceived decorations from the Italian and
Spanish Governments.
ELLIOTT, MAUD HOWE, an Ameri-
can writer, the daughter of Julia Ward
Howe, born in Boston in 1854. She was
privately educated in America and Eu-
rope. In 1887 she married John Elliott.
She wrote many books, including: "Roma
Beata" (1904) ; "Two in Italy" (1905)
"Sun and Shadow in Spain" (1908)
"Life and Letters of Julia Ward Howe'
(1915). In 1917 she was awarded the
Joseph Pulitzer prize for the best Amer-
ican biography teaching patriotism. Dur-
ing the World War she was a member of
the executive committee of the N. E.
Italian War Relief Fund, and was also
a member of the Rhode Island Food Con-
servation Commission.
ELLIOTT, MAXINE, an American
actress. Her real name was Jessie Der-
mot. She was born in Rockland, Me., in
1873. She made her first appearance on
ELLIPSIS
ELMIRA
the stage with E. S. Willard in 1890, and
afterward played as leading woman in
Shakespearean and other plays. In 1898
she married Nathaniel C. Goodwin, but
later secured a divorce from him. From
1908 she was owner and manager of the
Maxine Elliott Theater in New York
City. She appeared as star in many
successful plays, including "When We
Were Twenty-One," "Her Own Way,"
"Under the Greenwood Tree," "The
Chaperon," and "Deborah of Tods."
ELLIPSIS, a term used in grammar
and rhetoric, to signify the omission of a
word necessary to complete the ex-
pression or sentence in its usual form.
The object of ellipsis is shortness and
impressiveness; accordingly, it prevails
in proverbs. Ellipses are used in all
languages, but the same form of ellipses
are not common to all.
ELLSWORTH, EPHRAIM ELMER,
an American military officer; born in
Mechanicsville, N. Y., April 23, 1837. He
removed to Chicago before he was of age,
and studied law. He organized about
1859 a zouave corps which became noted
for the excellence of its discipline. In
March, 1861, he accompanied President
Lincoln to Washington, and in April he
went to New York City, where he organ-
ized a zouave regiment of firemen, of
which he became colonel. Ordered to
Alexandria, he lowered a Confederate
flag floating over a hotel, for which act
the hotelkeeper shot him dead, May 24,
1861.
ELM, a genus of trees, consisting of
13 species, all natives of the N. temper-
ate zone. Two species are common in
Great Britain (U. campestris and U.
montand), with many varieties. The U.
campestris, or common elm, is a fine
tree, of rapid and erect growth, and
yielding a tall stem, remarkable for the
uniformity of its diameter throughout.
The average height of a mature tree is
70 or 80 feet, but some reach 150 feet.
The wood is brown, hard, of fine grain,
and not apt to crack. The tree generally
attains maturity in 70 or 80 years. U.
montdna (the mountain or wych elm),
a native of Scotland, grows to a less
height than the English elm, is of slower
grovvth, and yields a much shorter bole,
but it is far bolder in its ramification and
more hardy. It usually attains to the
height of about 50 feet. The timber is
strong and elastic, and the tree often
yields large protuberances of gnarled
wood, finely knotted and veined, and
much esteemed for veneering, U. glabra,
the smooth-leaved elm, is a species com-
mon in some parts of Great Britain. The
most ornamental tree of the genus is U.
pendula, the weeping elm. The Auier-
ican or white elm {U. ameHcaiia) is
abundant in the Western States, attain-
ing its loftiest stature between lat. 42"
and 46°; here it reaches the height of 100
feet, with a trunk 4 or 5 feet in diameter,
rising sometimes 60 or 70 feet before it
separates into a few primary limbs. The
red or slippery elm {U. fulva) is found
over a great extent of country in Canada,
Missouri, and as far S. as lat. 31"; it
attains the height of 50 or 60 feet, with
a trunk 15 or 20 inches in diameter; the
wood is of better quality than that of the
white elm. The leaves and bark yield
an abundant mucilage. The wahoo {U.
alata), inhabiting from lat. 37° to Flor-
ida, Louisiana, and Arkansas, is a small
tree, 30 feet high.
ELMAN, MISCHA, a violinist, bom
at Stalnoje, Russia, in 1891. He played
violin in public at the age of five. He
studied with Fidelmann, at Odessa, five
years and accepted the invitation of Pro-
fessor Auer, of St. Petersburg, to study
with him in 1902. In 1904, when he
was 13, he was looked upon as an artist
of great promise in St. Petersburg. He
then began to make a tour of the capitals
of Europe, and finally crossed to the
United States. He made his debut in
New York with the Russian Symphony
Orchestra, in 1908, and from that year
has toured America a great many times,
always receiving much applause. He
has also shown talent as a composer and
has a number of songs and violin pieces
to his credit.
ELMINA (el-me'na) , a British settle*
ment and fortified seaport on the Gold
Coast, a few miles W. of Cape Coast
Castle. It was first settled by merchants
of Dieppe, came into the hands of the
Portuguese in 1471, of the Dutch in 1637,
and in 1872 was ceded to the British,
who destroyed the native town during
the Ashanti war. Pop. about 4,000.
ELMIRA, a city and county-seat of
Chemung co., N. Y., on both sides of the
Chemung river, and on the Lackawanna,
the Lehigh Valley, the Northern Central,
and the Erie railroads, and the Chemung
canal; 46 miles S. W. of Ithaca. It is
the largest city in that part of the State ;
is beautifully laid out; has a fine water
supply; is lighted by gas and electricity;
and besides its river and railroad facili-
ties has a valuable commercial outlet in
the Chemung canal, which connects it
with Seneca lake. The chief industries
are the large shops of the Erie and the
Northern Central railroads, rolling-mills
and blast furnace, boot and shoe fac-
tories, iron foundries, the manufacturing
and repairing shops of the Pullman Car
Company, woolen mills, a steam fire en-
ELMIRA COLLEGE
EL BENO
gine manufactory, tanneries, flour mills,
and carriage factories. The proximity
of the iron and coal fields of Pennsylva-
nia to Elniira, with its numerous facili-
ties for manufactures, gives the city a
prominent position among the industrial
centers of the country. There are large
coal mines 20 miles S. of Elmira, and
the Blossburg soft coal field about the
same distance S. W. Just beyond the
city limits are several quarries of excel-
lent stone. Elmira is the seat of the
State Reformatory, Elmira College, El-
mira Industrial School, the Arnot-Ogden
Hospital, and Elmira Free Academy. It
has a public high school, the Steele Me-
morial Library, several parks, electric
lights and street railways, daily, weekly,
monthly, and quarterly periodicals, 2
National and several savings banks. Pop.
(1910) 37,176; (1920) 45,305.
ELMIRA COLLEGE, an educational
institution in Elmira, N. Y., for women;
founded in 1855 under the auspices of
the Presbyterian Church; reported at
the close of 1919: Professors and in-
structors, 32; students, 323; president,
Frederick Lent, Ph. D.
ELMO, or ERMO, a corrupted Italian-
ized form of Erasmus, Bishop of For-
miae, a town of ancient Italy, who suf-
fered martyrdom under Diocletian, in
A. D. 303. He is invoked by Italian sail-
ors during storms.
ELOCUTION, the art of correct speak-
ing or reading in public, including the
appropriate use of gestures. Great at-
tention was paid by the ancients to this
art as a branch of oratory. The rhetors
in Greece had schools in which young
men were trained in the correct use of
the voice. Many of the Romans were
sent to Greece to study and afterward
there were similav teachers of elocution
and oratory in Rome. In modern times,
the^ stage has fostered the study of elo-
cution and special attention has been
given to it in the Paris Conservatoire,
where the strictest canons of the art
have been maintained. Many colleges
have established professorships of elo-
cution. Perhaps the most successful
teacher of this century was Gustave
Delsarte, whose theories and practice
worked a revolution both in France and
other countries. Notable schools of elo-
cution have been established in this coun-
try by Charles Wesley Emerson, Frank-
lin H. Sargent, and others. The list of
distinguished elocutionists includes the
names of Burbank, Frobisher, Riddle,
Riley, Powers, and Mackaye.
ELOHIM (e-16-hem'), the ordinary
name of God in the Hebrew Scriptures.
There is the grammatical anomaly that
this plural stands as the nominative to
a singular verb. This has been held to
imply that in the Divine nature there is
a certain plurality and a certain unity.
The plural has been called also the plu-
ral of majesty. It is generally used of
the true God, but Jehovah is deemed by
far the more sacred name.
ELOI (a-lwa'), or ELIGIUS (e-1/
jius), SAINT, Bishop of Noyon and
apostle of Flanders; born in 588. Orig-
inally a goldsmith, he became patron of
goldsmiths and hammermen. He died
in 658.
EL PASO, a city, port of entry, and
county-seat of El Paso co., Tex.; on the
Rio Grande, and on the Atchison, To-
peka and Santa Fe, the Texas and Pa-
cific, El Paso and Southwestern, and
the Mexican Central railroads; 712
miles N. W. of Austin. The pass El
Paso del Norte, the principal thorough-
fare between Mexico and New Mexico
through the mountains, is near the city,
which is a customs port. It is opposite
Ciudad Juarez, the N. terminus of the
Mexican Central railroad in Mexico,
across the Rio Grande. Among the
notable public buildings are the high
school, County Court House, and the
Federal Building. The State School of
Mines is located here. El Paso has 3
National banks, daily and weekly news-
papers, ore smelting establishments, and
varied manufactures, and carries on an
extensive grain trade. It is a noted
health resort for victims of lung trouble.
Pop. (1910) 39,279; (1920) 77^60.
ELPHINSTONE, WILLIAM, a Scot-
tish prelate, founder of King's College
and University, Aberdeen; born in Glas-
gow, in 1431. He was educated at Glas-
gow College, and served four years as
priest of St. Michael's in that city. He
then went to France and became Pro-
fessor of Law, first at Paris and subse-
quently at Orleans, but about 1471-1474
he returned home at the request of Muir-
head. Bishop of Glasgow, who made him
commissary of the diocese. In 1478 he
was made commissary of the Lothians,
and in 1479 Archdeacon of Argyle. Soon
after he was made Bishop of Ross; and
in 1483 was transferred to the see of
Aberdeen. In 1484 and 1486 he was
commissioned to negotiate truces with
England, and in 1488 was lord high-
chancellor of the kingdom for several
months. He was next sent on a mission
to Germany, and after his return held
the office of lord privy-seal till his death,
in 1514.
EL RENO, a city of Oklahoma, the
county-seat of Canadian co. It is on the
Rock Island, and the St. Louis, El Reno
ELSINOBE
EMANCIPATION
and Western railroads, and on the Cana-
dian river. Its industries include cotton
gins, machine shops, brick plants, and
manufactories of brooms, cement stone,
"washing machines, etc. It has repair
shops and division offices of the Rock
Island system. Pop. (1910) 7,872 (1920)
7,737.
ELSINOBE, a aeaport of Denmark on
the island of Seeland, at the narrowest
part of the Sound (here only 3% miles
broad), 24 miles N. by E. of Copenhagen,
and opposite Helsingborg in Sweden.
Saxo Grammaticus, a famous writer of
the 12th century, was born in Elsinore,
and here too Shakespeare lays the scene
of "Hamlet." Elsinore was raised to
the rank of a town in 1416; it was sev-
eral times destroyed by the Hanseatic
League, and in 1658 was taken by the
Swedes, but restored to Denmark two
years later. Pop. about 14,000.
ELSSLEB, FANNY, a celebrated
dancer; born in Vienna, June 23, 1810.
She was the daughter of Johann Elssler,
Haydn's factotum, and was educated at
Naples for the ballet, with her elder sis-
ter Theresa, who in 1851 became the
wife of Prince Adalbert of Prussia, and
was ennobled. Fanny helped to raise
money for the Bunker Hill Monument.
She died in Vienna, Nov. 27, 1884.
ELSWICK, a township on the W. out-
skirts of Newcastle, England. Here are
located the gun-founding works of the
firm of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Mitchell
& Co., "which are among the largest of
the kind in Europe. The frontage toward
the river is about one mile, the entire
area occupied is about 125 acres, and in
busy times about 14,000 work-people are
employed. Elswick Park, including Els-
"wick Hall, was opened as a recreation
ground in 1878. Pop. about 60,000.
ELVAS (al'vas), the strongest forti-
fied city of Portugal, in the province of
Alemtejo, near the Spanish frontier; 10
miles W. of Badajoz. Standing on a hill,
it is defended by seven large bastions
and two isolated forts.
ELWOOD. a city of Indiana in Madi-
son CO. It is on the Lake Erie and West-
ern, and the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chi-
cago, and St. Louis railroads. There is
an important trade in live stock, grain
and produce, and the industries include
tin-plate mills, iron works, canning fac-
tories, plate glass factories, etc. The
city has a public library. Pop. (1910)
11,028; (1920) 10,790.
ELY, an episcopal city of England, in
the county of Cambridge. The ecclesi-
astical structures comprise the cathedral
and the churches of St. Mary, and the
Holy Trinity, the last belonging to the
time of Edward II., and one of the most
perfect buildings of that age. The su-
perb cathedral occupies the site of a
monastery founded about the year 673
by Etheldreda, daughter of the King of
East Anglia. Its entire length, E. to W.
is 537 feet, and its W. tower is 170 feet
high. The whole structure comprises
an almost unbroken series of the vari-
ous styles of architecture which pre-
vailed in England from the Conquest to
the Reformation, yet with no loss of
impressiveness as a whole. It has under-
gone of late years extensive additions
and restoration. Most of the inhabitants
are engaged in agricultural labor. Pon.
8,000.
ELY, BICHABD THEODOBE, an
American educator; born in Ripley, N.
Y., April 13, 1854; was graduated at
Columbia University in 1876; api>ointed
head of the department of Political
Economy at Johns Hopkins (1881-1892) ;
and professor of Political Economy at
University of Wisconsin since 1892. His
publications incluae "French and German
Socialism in Modern Times" (1883) ;
"The Past and Present of Political Econ-
omy" (1884); "The Labor Movement in
America" (1886); "Problems of Today"
(1888) ; "Political Economy" (1889) ;
"Social Aspects of Christianity" (1889);
"Studies in the Evolution of Industrial
Society" (1903); "Property and Con-
tract" (1914). He edited Macmillan's
"Citizens' Library of Economics" and
several sociological text-books.
ELYBIA, a city of Ohio, the county-
seat of Lorain co. It is on the Lake
Shore and Michigan Southern, and the
Baltimore and Ohio railroads, and on
the Black river. There are important
manufactures of automobiles, telephones,
flour, canned goods, concrete blocks, iron
pipe, steel, etc. The public buildings
include a library and a hospital. There
is also a fine natural park. Pop. (1910)
14,825; (1920) 20,474.
EMANCIPATION, the act by which
in the Roman law, the paternal authority
was dissolved in the lifetime of the
father. It took place in the fonn of a
sale by the father of the son to a third
party, who manumitted him. The Twelve
Tables required that this ceremony should
be gone through three times, and it was
only after the third sale that the son
came under his own law. In general,
the son was at last resold to the father,
who manumitted him, and thus acquired
the rights of a patron which would
otherwise have belonged to the alien pur-
chaser who finally manumitted him. In
the case of daughters and grandchildren
one sale was sufficient. In the law of
EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION 6
EMBARGO ACT
Scotland, emancipation is called foris-
familiation. The Roman Catholic Eman-
cipation Act was the act, signed April
13, 1829, which removed the most gall-
ing of the Roman Catholic disabilities in
England.
EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION,
a proclamation providing for the eman-
cipation of the slaves in certain parts of
the Confederate States, issued as a war
measure by President Lincoln, Jan. 1,
1863. The number of slaves emancipated
by this proclamation was, taking the
census of 1860 as a basis, as follows:
Alabama 435,080
Arkansas 111,115
Florida 61,745
Georgia 462,198
Louisiana 247,715
Mississippi 436,631
North Carolina 331,059
South Carolina 402,046
Texas 182,566
Virginia 450.000
Total 3,120,155
The number of slaves not affected by
its provisions was about 832,000. The
full text of the proclamation is as fol-
lows:
"Whereas, on the twenty-second day of Sep-
tember, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-
two, a proclamation was issued by the President
of the United States, containing, among other
things, the following to wit :
That, on the first day of January, in the year
of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and
sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within
any State, or designated part of State, the
people whereof shall be in rebellion against the
United States, shall be then, thenceforth and
forever free, and the Executive Government of
the United States, Including the military and
naval officers thereof, will recognize and main-
tain the freedom of such persons, and will do
no act or acts to repress such persons, or any
of them, in any efforts they may make for their
actual freedom.
That the Executive will, on the first day of
January aforesaid, by proclamation, designate
the States and parts of States, if any, in which
the people thereof shall be in rebellion against
the United States, and the fact that any State,
or the people thereof, shall, on that day, be, in
good faith, represented in the Congress of the
United States by members chosen thereto at
elections wherein a majority of the qualified
voters of such State shall have participated,
shall, in the absence of strong countervailing
testimony be deemed conclusive evidence that
such State and the people thereof are not then
in rebellion against the United States.
Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President
of the United States, by virtue of the power in
me vested as Commander-in-chief of the Army
and Navy of the United States in time of actual
armed rebellion against the authority and Gov-
erment of the United States, and as a fit and
necessary war measure for suppressing said re-
bellion, do, on this first day of January, in the
year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred
and sixty-three, and in accordance with my
purpose so to do, publicly proclaim for the full
period of one hundred days from the day of the
first above-mentioned order, and designate, as
the States and parts of States wherein the
people thereof respectively are this day in re-
bellion against the United States, the following,
to wit : Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the
parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jefferson,
St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, As-
sumption, Terre Bonne, Lafourche, St. Mary,
St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of
New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida,
Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and
Virginia (except the forty-eight counties desig-
nated as West Virginia, and also the counties
of Berkeley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth
City, York, Princess Ann, and Norfolk, includ-
ing the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and
which excepted parts are, for the present, left
precisely as if this proclamation were not issued.
And by virtue of the power and for the pur-
pose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all
persons held as slaves within said designated
States and parts of States are, and hencefor-
ward shall be, free ; and that the Executive
Government of the United States, including the
military and naval authorities thereof, will
recognize and maintain the freedom of said
persons.
And I hereby enjoin upon the people so de-
clared to be free to abstain from all violence,
unless In necessary self-defense, and I recom-
mend to them that, in all cases, when allowed,
they labor faithfully for reasonable wages.
And I further declare and make known, that
such persons, of suitable conditions, will be re-
ceived into the armed service of the United
States, to garrison forts, positions, stations, and
other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in
said service.
And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an 'y,
act of justice, warranted by the Constitution, ^
upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate
judgment of mankind and the gracious favor of
Almighty God.
In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my
name, and caused the seal of the United States
to be afllxed.
[L. S.] Done at the city of Washington, this
first day of January, In the year of our Lord, one
thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of
the Independence of the United States the
eighty-seventh.
By the President Abraham Lincoln.
William H. Sewakd,
Secretary of State.
EMANUEL THE GREAT, King of ^
Portugal; born May 3, 1469. He suc-
ceeded his cousin John II. in 1495; and
aided the expeditions of Vasco da Gama,
Cabral, Cortereal, and Albuquerque. He
died in Lisbon, Dec. 13, 1521.
EMBARGO ACT, an act passed by the
American Congress, Dec. 22, 1807, pro-
hibiting exportations from the United
States. The act was a measure of re-
taliation against England and France
for their interference with American
commerce in 1806-1807, and aimed at
forcing them to recede from their posi-
tion by showing the importance of our
comi.iercial relations. It had some effect
on these nations, but a far more ruinous
result on our own commerce. It was a
measure of the Democratic party, and
was approved by the agricultural por-
tions of the United States. The New
England States, deeply interested in for-
eign commerce, and the Federalists loudly
condemned it. Its opponents, spelling
the name backward, called it the "O grab
me" Act, and threats of secession were
heard from New England. As a result,
Congress fixed March 4, 1809, for the
termination of the embargo. The first
embargo in our history was laid in 1794
for a period of 60 days, and other minor
EMBEB DAYS
EMEBAXD
acts of a similar nature were passed
during the War of 1812. The plan of
limiting commercial intercourse by em-
bargo, non-importation and non-inter-
course acts was called the "restrictive
system." In the course of the World
War (1914-1918) attempts were made
by pro-Germans, pacifists, and well-
meaning humanitarians to place an em-
bargo on the shipment of arms to En-
tente nations, but the attempt failed.
EMBER DAYS, certain days set apart
for prayer and fasting, one special theme
of supplication being that the blessing
of God may descend on the crops, and
consequently that there may be plenty in
the land. Stated days of this character
began to be observed in the 3d century,
but at first there was no unity over the
Christian world as to the precise days.
In A. D. 1095 the Council of Placentia
diffused them over the year.
EMBROIDERY, the art of producing
ornamentation by means of needlework
on textile fabrics, leather and other ma-
terials. Embroidery is closely allied to
lace-work, which is the direct develop-
ment of the cut, drawn, and embroidered
linen of the classic and early Christian
periods. Embroidery pure and simple
does not admit of applique, which, in
conjunction with embroidery, forms a
separate art in itself; nor should it be
confused with tapestry work, which is
to weaving what lace-work is to embroid-
ery. Embroidery has had many schools
and styles, but it may be classed under
six general heads :
1. Linen embroidery, embracing all
work done on linen or cotton in threads
of the same color as the textile, and
where the ornamentation is dependent
wholly on the fineness of the needlework
and the form nf the design for its beauty.
This work includes cut work and drawn
work, to the point where netlike inter-
weaving of the embroidery threads be-
comes lace.
2. Linen embroidery in color. — Linen
and cottons are embroidered in colors
with either silk, cotton, or wool. This
work includes most of the Oriental work,
where the colored design produces the
ornament, and fine needlework and for
more secondary considerations to the
disposition of color. This work in fine
wool reaches its highest excellence in the
India shawls, which are the nearest bond
between embroidery and weaving.
3. Gold and silver embroidery, in which
threads and spangles are sometimes used
in addition to the metal threads. The
Italians and Spanish of the 16th cen-
tury, and the Orientals (notably the
Japanese), have done much in this class
of work. .
4. Silk, gold and wool. — This sty!'.
reached its highest excellence in the ec-
clesiastical embroideries of Europe in
the 15th and 16th centuries.
5. Silk and wool embroidery on coarse
canvas, where the foundation textile is
entirely hidden by the regular inter-
woven stitches. This work often so nearly
resembles certain tapestries as to cause
confusion in distinguishing them.
6. Modern imitations in coarse mate-
rials of the fine work of the past, and
the development of those imitations
known variously as crewel work, tapestry
work, etc.
EMBRYO, an unborn young animal,
or the rudimentary young plant, espe-
cially when within the seed. The term
foetus is equivalent to embryo, but is re-
stricted to mammalian development. The
term larva is also applied to a young
animal which is more or less markedly
different from the adult form.
EMBRYOLOGY, that department of
biology which traces the development of
the individual organism before birth. It
gives the history of the organism from
its earliest individual appearance till it
is born or hatched, properly including
all the anatomical and physiological
changes that take place in the embryo,
whether in the uterus or the Q?:^. The
investigation necessarily takes two
forms; a description of the successive
structural stages, and an analysis of the
vital processes associated with each step.
The development of the chick was watched
in Greece 2,000 years ago by Aristotle
and Galen; and in 1651 Harvey sought
to establish two main propositions: (1)
that every animal was produced from
an ovum, and (2) that the organs arose
by new formation (epigenesis) , not from
the expansion of some invisible prefor-
mation. But as a systematic science
embryology dates from the 19th century.
Wolff in 1759 reasserted Harvey's epi-
genesis, and showed that the germ con-
sisted of almost structureless material,
and that the process of development was
a gradual organization. In 1817 Pander
took up Wolff's work virtually where he
left it. He was immediately re-enforced
and soon left behind by Von Baer, whose
investigations laid a firm foundation for
modern embryology. Since the estab-
lishment of the cell-theory in 1838-1839.
and the now well-known facts that the
organism starts from a fusion of two
sex-cells, and that development consists
in the division of the fertilized ovum and
differentiation of the results, progress
has been rapid.
EMERALD, a variety of beryl, dis-
tinguished from the latter by being
emerald-green in place of pale green.
EMERALD ISLE
8
EMERSON
light blue, yellow or white, the colors of
the beryl. The finest emeralds are found
in Peru, but they occur in various other
places. In heraldry, the term designates
the green tincture in coat-armor; vert.
EMERALD ISLE, an epithet applied
to Ireland, from the freshness and bright
color of the verdure, produced by the
abundant heat and moisture continually
reaching it from the Atlantic. This epi-
thet was first used by Dr. W. Drennan
(1754-1820), in his poem entitled "Erin."
EMERALD MOTH, the name given to
the genus HipjMrchus; the large emer-
ald moth is the Hipparchus papilio-
narius. The wings are 2 or 2% inches
icross their surface, grass-green, with
■:wo rows of whitish spots, and a green-
ish-yellow fringe. Its antennae are red-
dish-brown. The caterpillar feeds on the
leaves of the elm, the alder, the beech,
the lime, etc. The moth is principally
found in England and in southern Scotland.
EMERITUS (e-mer'i-tus), a name
given to Roman soldiers who had ful-
filled the legal term of military service.
It is now applied in colleges and univer-
sities to professors who, after meritori-
ous services, are honorably discharged on
account of age, etc.
EMERSON, RALPH WALDO, an
American essayist, poet, and philosopher,
born in Boston, May 25, 1803. Seven
generations of his ancestors had been
clergymen; he inherited a tradition of
scholarship and heroic living, and was
himself trained to continue the tradition.
He knew few pleasures in boyhood; he
was quiet and studious, though not bril-
liant; he worked his way through Har-
vard. In 1829 he was ordained minister
of the Second Church of Boston, mar-
ried, and settled down, apparently, to the
life of his ancestors. After three years,
however, he resigned, being unable to
follow the forms and ceremonies of the
church. He spent a time in Europe,
where he was more interested in person-
alities than in the sort of thing usually
looked for by tourists. He met Carlyle,
then unknown, who exerted a profound
influence upon him. He brought out
Carlyle's books in America, where they
had a greater sale than in England, and
a lifelong correspondence was carried
on by the two friends.
In 1835 he returned to Concord, to the
Old Manse, where he studied and wrote.
For the anniversary of Lexington, April
19, 1836, he composed the hymn which
has become famous. He did a little lec-
turing, was interested in gardening,
bought several tracts of land, studied
Nature rather than books. At length
he published (1836) his first important
book, a slender volume entitled "Nature,'*
which, with his oration on the American
Scholar (1837) and an address delivered
at Dartmouth in 1838, forms an intro-
duction to his philosophy. In the first
of these he urged the divinity of the
soul and its capacity to attain all knowl-
edge; the conception of Nature as a gi-
gantic shadow of God, able to unlock
powers of the soul either as energy or
as knowledge; and the idea that God, by
these means, teaches the soul directly.
Thus each man may build his own world,
casting aside external authority and all
tradition. In the Harvard address on
the American Scholar he puts Nature
a3 first of the influences on the scholar's
RALPH WALDO EMERSON
development; the second influence is the
mind of the past, able to inspire and to
call forth latent powers, though not to
dominate the active soul; the third is
action, since the idea that scholarship
means seclusion from the world is wrong.
The scholar must guide men by showing
them realities underneath appearances;
he must be free and brave; so shall he
help to make a nation of men. The Dart-
mouth College address supplements these
ideas, especially the belief that the chief
duty of the educated man is to project
his own soul into the universe — the past,
the realm of external nature, the realm
EMERSON
ZMMET
cf active life — and so realize his own
divine personality.
With the publication of the first series
€f "Essays," 1841, Emerson's leading
ideas were almost completely stated.
"Self -Reliance" is a development of what
had already had briefer statement, espe-
cially in the Harvard address. The
theme is the direct relation between man
and divinity, cutting away dependence
upon party, creed, travel, books, worldly
ideas of success. In "The Oversoul" we
have an amplification of a paragraph in
"Self-Reliance," of which the kernel is
to the effect that "we lie in the lap of
immense intelligence, which makes us
organs of its activity and receivers of
its truth." The doctrine is Platonic,
and is developed on Platonic lines. We
live only partially; at times of inspira-
tion the soul of the whole comes to life
in us, the wise silence, the universal
beauty. This universal beauty belongs
to the ages; spirit may incarnate itself
at any time. Other essays, such as
"Circles," "Spiritual Laws," and the
like, contain a similar message, always
phrased so suggestively as to seem to be
said for the first time. Essays on politi-
cal relations, such as "History," "Poli-
tics," "Experience," teach that all the
past, as well as all that Nature gives,
meet in the Now of the Soul. Personal-
ity is thus the concentration of experi-
ence in moments of illumination. Be-
cause of his emphagis on personality he
seems to neglect the state, oi the con-
ception of organized society. He is not
sympathetic toward reform; a law is
but a memorandum; not riches or terri-
tories, but men form the highest end of
government; there is danger in "under-
taking for another;" only man and the
world spirit remain, and their union is
the sole value in life.
These ideas, and others related to
them, were developed in a series of es-
says unique for their inspiring idealism.
The second series of essays appeared in
1844, followed in 1847 by a volume of
poems. His poetry, like his prose, is
distinguished for its compactness, its
oracular quality, and for its beauty.
Many of the poems are miniatures of
the essays, and may be attached to them.
His chief source of inspiration is Nature,
though he also wrote a series of patriotic
and anniversary poems that have become
justly famous. A volume entitled "Na-
ture, Addresses, and Lectures" appeared
in 1849, and another collection of lec-
tures. "Representative Men," in 1850.
He published "English Traits" in 1856;
"The Conduct of Life" in 1860. Other
collected works, such as "The Natural
History of Intellect," the "Journals,"
and the correspondence with Carlyle,
appeared after his death, which toolc
place on April 27, 1882.
EMERY, HENRY CROSBY, an Amer-
ican economist, born at Ellsworth, Me.,
in 1872. He graduated from Bowdoin
College in 1892 and took post-graduate
courses at Columbia and the University
of Berlin. He was instructor and pro-
fessor of political economy at Bowdoin
from 1894 to 1900, and from 1900 to
1915 was Professor of Political Economy
at Yale. From 1909 to 1913 he was
chairman of the United States Tariff
Board. He was foreign representative
of the Guaranty Trust Company of New
York from 1916. During the World
War he was arrested while traveling in
Russia and for some time held prisoner.
He wrote "Speculation on the Stock and
Produce Exchanges of the United States"
(1896); "Politician, Party, and People"
(1913). He also contributed many ar-
ticles on economic and political questions
to various magazines.
EMEU. See Emu.
EMIGRATION. See Immigration.
EMILIA, a compartimento of central
Italy, comprising the provinces of Bo-
logna, Ferrara, Forli, Modena, Parma,
Piacenza, Ravenna and Reggio Emilia.
The name is derived from the ancient
Via .(Emilia (a continuation of the Via
Flaminia) which passed through these
territories.
EMINENT DOMAIN, the power to
take private property for public use. It
is well settled that such power exists
only in cases where the public exigency
demands its exercise.
EMIN PASHA. See ScHNiTZER, Ed-
ward.
EMIR, or AMIR, a sovereign, a
prince. The title was instituted in a. d.
650 by Fatima, the daughter of Moham-
med, and was applied to the descendants
of the "Prophet." They alone were per-
mitted to wear the green turban. In the
forms, amir and ameer, it is known in
English-speaking countries chiefly in
connection with the Ameers of Scinde
vanquished by Sir Charles Napier at the
battle of Meanee, Feb. 17, 1843, their
territory being subsequently annexed to
the Anglo-Indian empire.
EMMET, ROBERT, an Irish patriot;
born in Dublin, in 1778. He was ex-
pelled from Trinity College, Dublin, in
1798, on the ground of exciting disaffec-
tion and rebellion, and having become an
object of suspicion to the government,
quitted Ireland. He returned there on
the repeal of the suspension of the
Habeas Corpus Act, and became a mem-
EMMICH 10
jer of the Society of United Irishmen
for the establishment of the independ-
3nce of Ireland. In July, 1803, he was
the ringleader in the rebellion in which
Lord Kilwarden and others perished. He
was arrested a few days afterward,
tried, and executed. His fate excited
EMPLOYEES' LIABILITY
ROBERT EMMET
special interest from his attachment to
Miss Sarah Curran, daughter of the
celebrated barrister.
EMMICH, GENERAL VON, a Ger-
man army officer. He was in command of
the Tenth Hanoverian Army Corps when
the World War broke out, in 1914, but
was detached from his command to di-
rect the operations of the troops which
began hostilities on the western front
by attacking Liege, in Belgium. So
heavy were the casualties inflicted by the
Belgians on Von Emmich's shock battal-
ions that the German advance was held
up for almost a week, giving the French
and British forces in France time to pre-
pare a partial defense,
EMPLOYERS' ASSOCIATIONS. With
the growth of labor organizations it
is only natural that there should have
developed associations of similar na-
ture and aims among those to whom
the labor unions are opposed, the em-
ployers. Employers', or masters', as-
sociations, were formed in Great Britain
as far back as the beginning of last
century, for the purpose of combating
the power of the trades unions. For a
while both were of the nature of secret
organizations, and both sides were
equally unscrupulous in the methods they
employed in harming each other.
In this country the first employers'
association was the Stove Founders' Na-
tional Defense Association, founded in
1868. In 1913 a Congressional Commis-
sion, appointed to investigate the alleged
evil influence of manufacturers' combines
in procuring legislation favorable to em-
ployers, reported the existence of two
hundred employers' associations, most of
which were frankly arrayed against the
labor unions, to combat them by either
economic or legislative action. Most im-
portant of these, in regard to size, scope
of activity and general significance, was
the National Association of Manufac-
turers, founded in Cincinnati, O., in
1895. The openly avowed object of this
organization is to increase the volume of
export trade, by means of disseminating
a knowledge of conditions in foreign
countries and their needs in the way of
commodities of American manufacture;
to oppose "harmful" labor legislation and
to exert influence in favor of "beneficial"
legislation; and to arbitrate labor dis-
putes. The Association of Manufac-
turers is a thoroughly "class conscious"
organization, and devotes a great deal
of energy, both directly and indirectly,
in promoting the interests of manufac-
turers in general and in fighting the de-
mands of the labor unions where they
extend to the closed shop, minimum
wages and, in some cases, recognition
through their national organizations. In
the famous litigation brought against
the American Federation of Labor for
its boycott of the Bucks Stove and Range
Co., lasting over a period of many years,
the Manufacturers' Association was the
backbone of the forces opposed to the
labor body. Within more recent years,
however, and especially since the close
of the World War, it has turned its
attention more in the direction of radi-
cal labor organizations, and especially
against the I. W. W. The movements of
the members of this revolutionary order
are closely watched, and reported to
those members of the Association
threatened by encroachment by agitators
for the Red doctrine.
EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY, the re-
sponsibility of the master for the safety
of his workmen which the law implies
in certain contracts between capital and
labor. In most of the United States this
liability is not statutory, but is de-
EMPOBIA
11
ENDIVE
termined by a suit for damages under
the law of negligence. If the employer
can show contributory negligence on the
part of the workmen, he is exempt from
liability in a damage suit. In 1897, 1900,
and 1913 laws were passed that insured
an employee agahist injury. Many of
the States have compensation laws that
apply to public as well as private con-
cerns. Compensation or insurance is
provided generally; either law may be
elective or compulsory. In England em-
ployers' liability is recognized and regu-
lated by act of Parliament in which the
element of contributory negligence is
largely ignored.
EMPORIA, a city and county-seat of
Lyon CO., Kan.; on the Neosho and Cot-
tonwood rivers, and on the Atchison,
Topeka and Santa Fe, and the Missouri,
Kansas and Texas railroads; 60 miles
S. W. of Topeka. It is the farming and
stock-raising center of the district, and
has a Court House, State Normal School,
College of Emporia, foundries, woolen
and flour mills, canning and carriage
factories, gas and electric lights, con-
servatory of music, daily and weekly
newspapers, and 2 National banks. Pop.
(1910) 9,053; (1920) 11,273.
V^iwf*:
EMU
EMU, a large bird, native of Aus-
tralia. Its color is a dull brown, mottled
with dingy gray; the young are striped
with black. When assailed it strikes
backward and obliquely with its feet, and
it is so powerful that a stroke of its foot
is said to be sufficient to break a man's
leg. Well-trained dogs run in before it
and spring at its neck. It cannot fly,
but runs very fleetly. The eggs are
highly esteemed as food. As much as
six or seven quarts of oil have been ob-
tained from the skin of a single bird.
The food of the emu consists chiefly of
roots, fruit, and herbage.
ENAREA (e-na'ra-a), or LIMMU
(le'mo), a region of Abyssinia, S. W.
of Shoa, with an area of over 1,100
square miles, and about 40,000 inhabit-
ants. It is a land of forest-clad hills,
rising beyond 8.000 feet, with their slopes
covered with the wild coffee plant. Its
people, belonging to a stem of the Gallas,
are mostly Mohammedans. The chief
town is Saka, near the Gibbe river.
ENCAUSTIC, a mode of painting in
which the colors are laid on or fixed by
heat.
ENCAUSTIC BRICK, a brick orna-
ment with various colors baked and
glazed.
ENCYCLICAL (-sik'li-kal) , a letter
addressed by the Pope to all his bishops,
condemning current errors or advising
the Christian people how to act in re-
gard to great public questions. It dif-
fers from a "bull'' mainly in that the
latter is usually more special in its des-
tination. The famous encyclical issued
Dec. 8, 1864, by Pius IX., was accom-
panied by a "Syllabus" condemning
specifically 80 principles in religion,
philosophy, and politics.
ENCYCLOP-ffiDIA. See CYCLOPAEDIA.
ENDICOTT, JOHN, a colonial gov-
ernor of Massachusetts ; born in Dorches-
ter, England, in 1589. He landed as
manager of the plantation of Naumkeag
(Salem) in 1628. Giving place in 1630
to John Winthrop, he headed a sangui-
nary expedition against the Indians in
1636, was deputy-governor in 1641-1644,
1650, and 1654, and govenior in 1644-
1649, 1650-1653, and 1655-1665. Endicott
was an austere Puritan, choleric, benevo-
lent, and brave. He died in Boston,
March 15, 1665.
ENDIVE, a composite plant, a native
of Asia ; early cultivated in Egypt, used
by the Greeks and Romans, and intro-
duced into Great Britain some time be-
fore A. D. 1548. It has a head of pale-
blue flowers. There are two leading
varieties, one with broad, ragged leaves,
the other with leaves narrower and
curled. The leaves, after being blanched
to diminish their bitterness, are used in
salads and stews.
ENDOR
ENDOB, a village of Palestine, 4
miles S. of Tabor; a poor mud hamlet.
It was the place which Saul visited (I
Sam. xxviii : 7), to consult the "woman
with a familiar spirit" previous to his
fatal engagement with the Philistines.
ENDYMION (-diml-on), a shepherd,
son of uEthlios and Calyce. It is stated
that he asked Jupiter to grant him to be
always young, and to sleep as much as
he would; whence came the proverb, "to
sleep the sleep of Endymion." Diana, or
the moon, saw him unclothed as he slept
on Mount Latmos, and became enamored
of his great beauty, coming down from
heaven every night to visit him.
ENEMY, one who is unfriendly or
hostile to another; one who hates or dis-
likes; a hostile army or force; the great
adversary of mankind, the devil.
According to ancient military usage,
the utmost cruelty was lawful toward
enemies. In modern times more humane
principles prevail, and men recognize
that, by taking up arms against one an-
other in public war, they do not cease on
this account to be moral beings, and re-
sponsible to one another and to God.
Warfare is now carried on subject to
certain general rules, which are intended
to abridge the calamities of war, and to
protect the rights of individuals. An ad-
mirable summary of these rules may be
found in the "Instructions for United
States Armies," issued in 1863. In 1874
an International Conference, held in
Brussels, devoted much time to the elab-
oration of rules for military warfare.
The Institute of International Law, at
its meeting at Oxford, in 1880, prepared
and adopted a "Manual of the Laws of
War on Land," in which minute rules for
the conduct of hostilities are set forth.
Military necessity admits of all direct
destruction of life or limb of armed ene-
mies, and of other persons where destruc-
tion is unavoidable; it allows of all de-
struction of property, and obstruction of
the way^ and channels of traffic, and of
all withholding of sustenance or means
of life from the enemy. Such military
necessity does not, however, admit of
cruelty, nor of maiming or wounding ex-
cept in fight, nor of the use of poison in
any way, nor of the wanton devastation
of a district. It admits of deception, but
disclaims all acts of perfidy. In the case
of the occupation of a country by the en-
emy, the persons of the inhabitants, es-
pecially of women, are respected, and the
maxims of religion and morality are ac-
knowledged. Private property, unless
forfeited by crimes, can be seized only on
the ground of military necessity; if the
proprietor has not fled receipts are usu-
ally given, which enable the spoliated
Vol. IV — Cyc— A
12 ENFIELD
owner to obtain indemnity. Trade between
the subjects of two hostile powers is abso-
lutely suspended during hostilities unless
permitted by express sanction, and the
importation of articles particularly use-
ful in war is contraband. All such mate-
rial, whether supplied by subjects of the
enemy or of another state, is seized and
confiscated. In the World War (1914-
1918) the English courts held that an
enemy alien residing in England could
defend an action brought against him,
but an interned enemy subject could not.
The Germans allowed an enemy alien
residing in the Empire access to the Ger-
man courts, but not those living in
other countries. In France some of the
lower courts allowed enemy aliens to take
action and some did not. In April, 1916,
the French Court of Appeal upheld this
right. In the United States alien en-
emies had access to the courts as freely
as citizens.
ENERGETICS, that branch of science
which investigates the laws relating to
physical or mechanical forces, as opposed
to vital. It thus comprehends the con-
sideration of the whole range of physical
phenomena.
ENERGY, the power that a body or
system possesses of doing work; a term
in physics. There is no manifestation of
energy apart from matter. There are
two main types of energy: Energy of
motion (kinetic energy), and energy of
position (potential energy). Currents of
air or of water possess kinetic energ:y; a
stone resting on the brow of a cliff, and
water at the edge of a fall, possess poten-
tial energy. There is energy of visible
motion and energy of position in visible
arrangements of bodies, as in the bullet
moving upward or downward, or at rest
at its highest position. A bullet project-
ed vertically upward possesses a great
amount of energy. The higher it rises
the less resistance can it overcome; and
having reached the highest it can attain,
it seems incapable of doing work, yet it
will gradually acquire speed in the down-
ward direction, and will finally (the re-
sistance of the air being neglected) reach
the ground with the same speed it had at
first, and is thus capable of doing the
same amount of work. When at its
highest position and seemingly incapable
of doing work, it really possesses energy
as at first. A bent spring possesses po-
tential energy.
ENFIELD, a town of Connecticut, in
Hartford co. It is on the Connecticut
river, and on the New York, New Haven
and Hartford railroad. Its industries
include carpet factories, brick works, and
the manufacture of filter presses, under-
ENGHIiiN 13
takers' supplies, etc. It is the center of
an important tobacco-growing industry.
Within the town limits is a settlement of
Shakers. There is a public library. Pop.
(1910) 9,719; (1920) 11,719.
ENGHIEN (on-gyon'), LOUIS AN-
TOINE HENRI DE BOURBON, DUKE
OF; born in Chantilly, Aug. 2, 1772;
son of Louis Henry Joseph Conde, Duke
of Bourbon. On the outbreak of the
Revolution he quitted France, traveled
through various parts of Europe, and
went in 1792 to Flanders to join his
grandfather, the Prince of Conde, in the
campaign against France. From 1796 to
1799 he commanded the vanguard of
Conde's army, which was disbanded at
the Peace of Luneville (1801). He then
took up residence as a private citizen at
Ettenheim, in Baden, where he married
the Princess Charlotte de Rohan Roche-
fort. He was genera^y looked on as the
leader of the French Emigres. An armed
force was sent to seize him in Baden in
violation of all territorial rights, and he
was brought to Vincennes, March 20,
1804. A mock trial was held the same
night; and on the follovsring morning he
was shot in the ditch outside the walls.
ENGINEERING, the branch of science
dealing with the design, construction
and operation of various machines, struc-
tures, and engines used in the arts,
trades, and everyday life. Engineering
is divided into many branches, the most
important being civil, mechanical, elec-
trical, mining, military, marine, and san-
itary engineering.
Civil Engineering is the most exten-
sive and embraces the arts of architec-
ture, surveying, bridge, railroad, harbor,
and canal construction, and the building
trades.
Mechanical Engineering comprises the
design, construction, and operation of
machinery, the design of manufacturing
plants, and all branches of industrial
production.
Electrical Engineering is a branch of
mechanical engineering and includes the
application of electricity to mechanical
and industrial pursuits, as derived from
some other source of energy.
Mining Engineering is a combination
of the three preceding branches as ap-
plied to the discovery and operation of
mines, the building of mineral working
plants, and treatment of ores.
Military Engineering deals entirely
with the arts of war, the design, con-
struction and maintenance of fortifica-
tions, machines of defense and attack,
ordnance, and the surveying of country
in preparation for military operations.
Marine Engineermg is partly military
Vol. IV— Cyc — B
ENGLAND
and partly civil, embracing naval archi-
tecture, building and operating of ships
and naval accessories. In the military
sense, it comprises the construction of war
vessels and the construction and plac-
ing of torpedoes, submarine mines, etc,
Sanitary Engineering consists of the
construction of sewers and drains, pro-
viding for the cleaning of city streets
and the disposal of garbage and sewage,
reclaiming of swamps, and overcoming
of all sources tending to interfere with
public health.
The education and training of the en-
gineer in modern times have called for
the establishment of technical schools
and courses in engineering in the large
colleges and universities. These schools
provide the student with the theories of
mathematics, mechanics, and engineer-
ing, and by means of extensive labora-
tory and outside work provide him with
practice in the desigii, construction, and
use of modern engineering appliances.
Among the most noted technical schools
are the University of Glasgow, Ecole
Polytechnique, in Paris; Stevens Insti-
tute of Technology, in Hoboken, N. J.;
the Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy, in Boston; and Cornell and Colum-
bia Universities.
ENGINEERS, ROYAL, a corps in the
British army intrusted with the con-
struction of all military works, plans,
surveys, etc. In 1772 the first company
of "sappers and miners" was organized
at Gibraltar. In 1783 the engineers were
raised to be a royal corps, and in 1812
several companies of artificers were con-
verted into "sappers and miners." This
name was abolished and that of royal
engineers substituted in 1857. The corps
usually numbers from 5,000 to 6,000 offi-
cers and men. The privates, who are
generally skilled artisans, receive a much
higher rate of pay than ordinary infan-
try soldiers.
ENGLAND, including WALES, the
S. and larger portion of the island of
Great Britain, is situated between 50"
and 55° 46' N. lat., and 1° 46' E. and
5° 42' W. Ion. On the N. it is bounded
by Scotland; on all other sides it is
washed by the sea; on the E. by the
North Sea or German Ocean; on the S.
by the English Channel; and on the W.
by St. George's Channel and the Irish
Sea. Its figure is, roughly speaking, tri-
angular, but with many windings and
indentations, the coast-line measuring
not less than 2,765 miles. The length of
the country, measured on a meridian
from Berwick nearly to St. Alban's
Head, is 365 miles. Its breadth, measured
on a parallel of latitude, attains its maxi-
ENGLAND
mum between St. David's Head, in South
Wales, and the Naze, in Essex, where it
amounts to 280 miles.
Area and Population. — The area of
England and Wales is 58,311 square
miles and the population (estimated
1919), England, 34,045,290; Wales. 2,-
026,202; or a total of 36,070,492.
The population of the principal cities in
England in 1919 is estimated as follows:
London (Greater), 7,258,263; Birming-
ham, 861,585; Liverpool, 772,665; Man-
chester, 741,068; Sheffield, 473,695;
Leeds, 430,834; Bristol, 361,247; Brad-
ford, 282,714.
Physical Features.^The chief indenta-
tions are: On the E., the Humber, the
Wash, and the Thames estuary; on the
W., the Solway Firth, Morecambe Bay,
Cardigan Bay, and the Bristol Channel;
those on the S. are less prominent,
though including some useful harbors.
The greater part of the coast consists
of cliffs, in some places clayey, in others
rocky, and sometimes jutting out, as at
Whitby and Flamborough Head on the
E., Beachy Head, the Isle of Portland,
the Lizard and Land's End on the S.
and S. W., St. David's Head and St.
Bees Head on the W., into bold, lofty,
and precipitous headlands. The most ex-
tensive stretches of flat coast are on the
E., in the county of Lincoln, and from
the S. part of Suffolk to South Foreland
in Kent, and in Sussex and Hants on the
S. coast. The chief islands are: Holy
Island, the Fame Islands, Sheppy, and
Thanet on the E. coast; the Isle of Wight
on the S.; the Scilly Isles at the S. W,
extremity; and Lundy Island, Anglesey,
Holyhead, and Walney on the W.
The loftiest heights of England and
Wales are situated at no great distance
from its W. shores, and consist of a suc-
cession of mountains and hills, stretch-
ing, with some interruptions, from N. to
S., and throwing out numerous branches
on both sides, but particularly to the
W., where all the culminating summits
are found. The N. portion of this range
has received the name of the Pennine
chain. It is properly a continuation of
the Cheviot Hills, and, commencing at
the Scottish border, proceeds S. for about
270 miles, till, in the counties of Derby
and Stafford, it assumes the form of an
elevated moorland plateau. In Derby-
shire The Peak rises to the height of
2,080 feet. By far the most important of
its offsets are those of the W., more
especially if we include in them the lofty
mountain masses in northwestern Eng-
land sometimes classed separately as the
Cumbrian range. Amid these mountains
lie the celebrated English lakes, of which
the most important are Windermere,
14 ENGLAND
Derwent Water, Coniston Lake and Ulls-
water. Here also is the highest summit
of northern England, Scawfell (3,210
feet). The Pennine chain, with its ap-
pended Cumbrian range, is succeeded by
one which surpasses both these in lofti-
ness and extent, but has its great nucleus
much farther to the W., where it covers
the greater part of Wales, deriving from
this its name, the Cambrian range. Itfj
principal ridge stretches through Car-
narvonshire from N. N. E. to S. S. W.,
with Snowdon (3,571 feet) as the cul-
minating point of south Great Britain.
Across the Bristol channel from Wales
is the Devonian range. It may be con-
sidered as commencing in the Mendip
Hills of Somerset, and then pursuing a
S. W. direction through that county and
the counties of Devon and Cornwall to
the Land's End, the wild and desolate
tract of Dartmoor forming one of its
most remarkable features (highest sum-
mit, Yes Tor, 2,050 feet). Other ranges
are the Cotswold Hills, proceeding in a
N. E. direction from near the Mendip
Hills; the Chiltern Hills taking a similar
direction farther to the E.; and the
North and South Downs running E.,
the latter reaching the S. coast near
Beachy Head, the former reaching the
S. E. coast at Folkestone.
A large part of the surface of Eng-
land consists of wide valleys and plains.
Beginning in the N., the first valleys on
the E. side are those of the Soquet, Tyne,
and Tees; on the W. the beautiful valley
of the Eden, which, at first hemmed in
between the Cumbrian range and Pen-
nine chain, gradually widens out into a
plain of about 470 square miles, with the
town of Carlisle in its center. The most
important of the N. plains is the Vale of
York, which has an area of nearly 1,000
square miles. Properly speaking, it is
still the same plain which stretches, with
scarcely a single interruption, across the
counties of Lincoln, Suffolk, and Essex,
to the mouth of the Thames, and to a
considerable distance inland, comprising
the central plain and the region of the
fens. On the W. side of the island, in
South Lancashire and Cheshire, is the
fertile Cheshire plain. In Wales there
are no extensive plains, the valleys gen-
erally having a narrow, rugged form
favorable to romantic beauty, but not
compatible with great fertility. Wales,
however, by giving rise to the Severn,
can justly claim part in the vale, or
series of almost unrivaled vales, along
which it pursues its romantic course
through the counties of Montgomery,
Salop, Worcester, and Gloucester. S. E.
of the Cotswold Hills is Salisbury plain,
a large elevated plateau, of an oval
ENGLAND
15
ENGLAND
shape, with a thin, chalky soil only suit-
able for pasture. In the S. W. the only
vales deserving of notice are those of
Taunton in Somerset and Exeter in
Devon. A large portion of the S. E. may
be regarded as a continuous plain, con-
sisting of the Wealds of Sussex, Surrey,
and Kent, between the North and South
Downs, and containing an area of about
1,000 square miles. The S. E. angle of
this district is occupied by the Romney
marsh, an extensive level tract composed
for the most part of a rich marine de-
posit. Extensive tracts of a similar
nature are situated on the E. coast, in
Yorkshire and Lincoln, where they are
washed by the Humber; and in the
counties which either border the Wash,
or, like Northampton, Bedford, Hunting-
don, and Cambridge, send their drainage
into it by the Nen and the Ouse. Many
of these lands are nj^turally the richest
in the kingdom; but have only been
utilized by means of drainage.
England is well supplied with rivers,
many of them of great importance to in-
dustry and commerce. Most of them
carry their waters to the North Sea. If
we consider the drainage as a whole, four
principal river basins may be distin-
guished, those of the Thames, Wash, and
Humber belonging to the German Ocean ;
and the Severn belonging to the Atlantic.
The basin of the Thames has its greatest
length from E. to W., 130 miles, and its
average breadth about 50 miles, area
6,160 square miles. The river itself,
which is the chief of English rivers, has
a length of 215 miles. The basin of the
Wash consists of the subordinate basins
of the Great Ouse, Nen, Welland, and
Witham, which all empty themselves into
that estuary, and has an area computed
at 5,850 square miles. The basin of the
Severn consists of two distinct portions,
that on the right bank, of an irregularly
Dval shape, and having for its principal
tributaries the Teme and the Wye; and
that on the left, of which the Upper
Avon is the principal tributary stream.
The area of the whole basin is 8,580
square miles. The next basin, that of the
Humber, the largest of all, consists of
the three basins of the Humber proper,
the Ouse, and the Trent, and its area
is 9,550 square miles, being about one-
sixth of the whole area of England and
Wales. Other rivers unconnected with
these systems are the Tyne, Wear, and
Tees, in the N. E.; the Eden, Ribble,
Mersey, and Dee, in the N. W. The S.
coast streams are very unimportant ex-
cept for their estuaries.
CivilHistory. — The history of England
proper begins when it ceased to be a Ro-
man possession. On the withdrawal of
the Roman forces, about the beginning of
the 5th century a. d., the South Britons,
or inhabitants of what is now called Eng-
land, were no longer able to withstand
the attacks of their ferocious N. neigh-
bors, the Scots and Picts. They applied
for assistance to Aetius, but the Roman
general was too much occupied to attend
to their petition. In their distress they
appear to have sought the aid of the Sax-
ons; and according to the Anglo-Saxon
narratives three ships, containing 1,600
men, were dispatched to their help under
the command of the brothers Hengest
and Horsa. Marching against the N.
foe, they obtained a complete victory. The
date assigned to these events is A. d. 449,
the narratives asserting further that the
Saxons, finding the land desirable, turned
their arms against the Britons, and re-
inforced by new bands, conquered first
Kent and ultimately the larger part of
the island. It is certain that in the
middle of the 5th century the occasional
Teutonic incursions gave place to per-
sistent invasion with a view to settlement.
These Teutonic invaders were Low Ger-
man tribes from the country about the
mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, the
three most prominent being the Angles,
the Saxons, and the Jutes. Of these the
Jutes were the first to form a settlement,
taking possession of part of Kent, the
Isle of Wight, etc., but the larger con-
quests of the Saxons in the S. and the
Angles in the N. gave to these tribes
the leading place in the kingdom. The
struggle continued 150 years, and at the
end of that period the whole S. part
of Great Britain, with the exception of
Strathclyde, Wales, and West Wales
(Cornwall) , was in the hands of the Teu-
tonic tribes. This conquered territory was
divided among a number of small states,
seven of the most conspicuous of which
are often spoken of as the Heptarchy.
These wei'e: (1) The kingdom of Kent;
founded by Hengest in 455; ended in 823.
(2) Kingdom of South Saxons, con-
taining Sussex and Surrey; founded by
Ella in 477; ended in 689. (3) Kingdom
of East Angles containing Norfolk,
Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely (Isle of) ;
founded by Uffa in 571 or 575 ; ended
in 792. (4) Kingdom of West Saxons,
containing Devon, Dorset, Somerset,
Wilts, Hants, Berks, and part of Corn-
wall; founded by Cerdic 519; swallowed
up the rest in 827. (5) Kingdom of
Northumbria, containing York, Durham,
Cumberland, Westmoreland, Northumber-
land, and the E. coast of Scotland to the
Firth of Forth; founded by Ida 547; (
absorbed by Wessex in 827. (6) King-
dom of East Saxons, containing Essex,
Middlesex, Hertford (part) ; founded by
Erchew in 527; ended in 823. (7) King-
dom of Mercia, containing Gloucester,
ENGLAND
16
ENGLAND
Hereford, Worcester, Warwick, Leicester,
Rutland, Northampton Lincoln, Hunting-
don. Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford, Staf-
ford, Derby, Salop, Nottingham, Chester,
Hertford (part) ; founded by Cridda
about 584; absorbed by Wessex in 827.
Each state was, in its turn, annexed to
more powerful neighbors; and at length,
in 827, Egbert, by his valor and superior
capacity, united in his own person the
sovereigTity of what had formerly been
seven kingdoms, and the whole came to
be called England, that is Angle-land.
Meanwhile certain important changes
had occurred. The conquest had been
the slow expulsion of a Christian race by
a purely heathen race, and the country
had returned to something of its old iso-
lation with regard to the rest of Europe.
But before the close of the 6th century
Christianity had secured a footing in the
S. E. of the island. Ethelbert, King of
Kent and suzerain over the kingdoms S.
of the Humber, married a Christian wife,
Bertha, daughter of Charibert of Sois-
sons, and this event led indirectly to the
coming of St. Augustine. The conversion
of Kent, Essex, and East Anglia was
followed by that of Northumberland and
then by that of Mercia, of Wessex, of
Sussex, and lastly of Wight, the contest
between the two religions being at its
height in the 7th century. The legal and
political changes immediately consequent
on the adoption of Christianity were not
great, but there resulted a more intimate
delation with Europe and the older civili-
zations, the introduction of new learning
and culture, the formation of a written
literature, and the fusion of the tribes
and petty kingdoms into a closer and
more lasting unity than that which could
have been otherwise secured.
The kingdom, however, was still kept
in a state of disturbance by the attacks
of the Danes, who had made repeated
incursions during the whole of the Saxon
period, and about half a century after
the unification of the kingdom became
for the moment masters of nearly the
whole of England. But Alfred the Great,
who had ascended the throne in 871, de-
feated the Danes at Ethan dune (887).
Guthrum, their king, embraced Chris-
tianity, became the vassal of the Saxon
king, and retired to a strip of land on the
E. coast including Northumbria and
called the Danelagh. The two imme-
diate successors of Alfred, Edward (901-
925) and Athelstan (925-940), the son
and grandson of Alfred, had each to
direct his arms against these settlers of
the Danelagh. The reigns of the next
five kings, Edmund, Edred, Edwy, Edgar,
and Edward the Martyr, are chiefly re-
markable on account of the conspicuous
place occupied in them by Dunstan, who
was counsellor to Edmund, minister of
Edred, treasurer under Edwy, and su-
preme during the reigns of Edgar and
his successor. It was possibly due to his
policy that from the time of Athelstan
till after the death of Edward the
Martyr (978 or 979), the country had
comparative rest from the Danes. Dur-
ing the 10th century many changes had
taken place in the Teutonic constitution.
Feudalism was already taking root; the
king's authority had increased; the folk-
land was being taken over as the king's
personal property; the nobles by birth, or
earldormen, were becoming of less im-
portance in administration than the
nobility of thegns, the officers of the
king's court. Ethelred (978-1016), who
succeeded Edward, was a minor, the gov-
ernment was feebly conducted, and the
incursions of the Danes became more
frequent and destructive. A general
massacre of them took place in 1002.
The following year Sweyn invaded the
kingdom with a powerful army and as-
sumed the crown of England. Ethelred
was compelled to take refuge in Nor-
mandy; and though he afterward re-
turned, he found in Canute an adversary
no less formidable than Sweyn. Ethelred
left his kingdom in 1016 to his son Ed-
mund, who displayed great valor, but
was compelled to divide his kingdom
with Canute; when he was assassinated
in 1017, the Danes succeeded to the
sovereignty of the whole.
Canute (Knut), who espoused the
vddow of Ethelred, obtained the name of
Great, not only on account of his per-
sonal qualities but from the extent of
his dominions, being master of Denmark
and Norway as well as England. In 1035
he died, and in England was followed by
the other two Danish kings, Harold and
Hardicanute, whose joint reigns lasted
till 1042, after which the English line was
again restored in the person of Edward
the Confessor. Edward was a weak
prince, and in the latter years of his
reign had far less real power than his
brother-in-law Harold, son of the great
earl Godwin. On Edward's death in
1066 Harold accordingly obtained the
crown. He found a formidable opponent
in the second cousin of Edward, William
of Normandy, who instigated the Danes
to invade the N. countries, while he, with
60,000 men, landed in the S. Harold
vanquished the Danes, and hastening
southward met the Normans near Has-
tings, at Senlac, afterward called Battle.
Harold and his two brothers fell (Oct.
14, 1066), and William (1066-1087) im-
mediately claimed the government as
lawful King of England, being subse-
quently known as William I., the Con-
queror. For some time he conducted the
ENGLAND
17
ENGLAND
government with great moderation; but
being obliged to reward those who had
assisted him, he bestowed the chief offices
of government on Normans, and divided
among them a great part of the country.
The revolts of the native English which
followed were quickly crushed, conti-
nental feudalism in a modified form was
established, and the English Church re-
organized under Lanfranc as Archbishop
of Canterbury.
At his death, in 1087, William II.,
tommonly known by the name of Rufus,
the conqueror's second son, obtained the
crown, Robert, the eldest son, receiving
the Duchy of Normandy. In 1100, when
William II. was accidentally killed in the
New Forest, Robert was again cheated
of his throne by his younger brother
Henry (Henry I.), v/ho in 1106 even
wrested from him the Duchy of Nor-
niandy. Henry's power being secured, he
entered into a dispute with Anselm the
primate, and with the Pope, concerning
the right of granting investiture to the
clergy. He supported his quarrel with
firmness, and brought it to a favorable
issue. His reign was also marked by
the suppression of the greater Norman
nobles in England. In 1135 he died in
Normandy, leaving behind him only a
daughter, Matilda.
By the will of Henry I. his daughter
Maud or Matilda, wife of Geoffrey Plan-
tagenet. Count of Anjou, who had first
been married to Henry V., Emperor of
Germany, was declared his successor.
But Stephen, son of the Count of Blois,
and of Adela, daughter of William the
Conqueror, raised an army in Normandy,
landed in England, and declared himself
king. After years of civil war and blood-
shed it was agreed that Stephen should
continue to reign during the remainder
of his life, but that he should be suc-
ceeded by Henry, son of Matilda and the
Count of Anjou. Stephen died in 1154,
and Henry Plantagenet ascended the
throne with the title of Henry II., being
the first of the Plantagenet or Angevin
kings. A larger dominion was united
under his sway than had been held by
any previous sovereign of England, for
at the time when he became King of
England he was already in the posses-
sion of Anjou, Normandy, and Aquitaine.
Henry II. found far less difficulty in
restraining the license of his barons than
in abridging the exorbitant privileges of
the clergy, who were supported by the
primate Becket. The king's wishes wei'e
formulated in the Constitutions of Clar-
endon (1164), which were at first ac-
cepted and then repudiated by the pri-
mate. The assassination of Becket, how-
ever, placed the king at a disadvantage
in the struggle, and after his conquest
of Ireland (1171) he submitted to the
Church and did penance at Becket's
tomb. Henry was the first who placed
the common people of England in a situa-
tion which led to their having a share
in the government. The system of frank-
pledge was revived, trial by jury was
instituted by the Assize of Clarendon,
and the Eyre courts were made perma-
nent by the Assize of Nottingham. To
curb the power of the nobles he granted
charters to towns, thus laying the foun-
dation of a new order in society.
Richard I., called Cceur de Lion, who in
1189 succeeded his father, Henry II.,
spent most of his reign away from Eng-
land. Having gone to Palestine to join in
the third crusade he proved himself an
intrepid soldier. Returning homeward in
disguise through Germany, he was made
prisoner by Leopold, Duke of Austria,
but was ransomed by his subjects. In the
meantime John, his brother, had aspired
to the crown, and hoped, by the assistance
of the French, to exclude Richard from
his right. Richard's presence for a time
restored matters to some appearance of
order; but having undertaken an ex-
pedition against France, he received a
mortal wound at the siege of Chalons, in
1199.
John was at once recognized as King
of England, and secured possession of
Normandy; but Anjou, Maine, and Tou-
raine acknowledged the claim of Arthur,
son of Geoffrey, second son of Henry II.
On the death of Arthur, while in John's
power, these four French provinces were
at once lost to England. John's opposi-
tion to the Pope in electing a successor
to the see of Canterbury in 1205 led to
the kingdom being placed under an inter-
dict; and the nation being in a disturbed
condition, he was at last compelled to re-
ceive Stephen Langton as archbishop,
and to accept his kingdom as a fief of
the papacy (1213). His exactions and
misgovernment had equally embroiled
him with the nobles. In 1213 they re-
fused to follow him to France, and on
his return defeated, they at once took
measures to secui'e their own privileges
and abridge the prerogatives of the
crown. King and barons met at Runny-
mede, and on June 15, 1215, the Great
Charter (Magna Charta) was signed. It
was speedily declared null and void by
the Pope, and war broke out between
John and the barons, who were aided by
the French king. In 1216, however, John
died, and his turbulent reign was suc-
ceeded by the almost equally turbulent
reign of Henry III.
During the first years of the reign of
Henry III. the abilities of the Earl of
Pembroke, who was regent until 1219,
kept the kingdom in tranquillity; but
ENGLAND
■when, in 1227, Henry assumed the reins
of government he showed himself in-
capable of managing them. The Charter
was three times reissued in a modified
form, and new privileges were added to
it, but the king took no pains to observe
its provisions. The struggle, long main-
tained in the great council (hencefor-
ward called Parliament), reached an
acute stage in 1263, when civil war broke
out. Simon de Montfort, who had laid
the foundations of the House of Com-
mons by summoning representatives of
the shire communities to the Mad Parlia-
ment of 1258, had by this time engrossed
the sole power. He defeated the king and
his son Edward at Lewes in 1264, and
in his famous Parliament of 1265 still
further widened the privileges of the
people by summoning to it burgesses as
well as knights of the shire. The escape
of Prince Edward, however, was followed
by the battle of Evesham (1265), at
which Earl Simon was defeated and
slain, and the rest of the reign was un-
disturbed.
On the death of Henry III., in 1272,
Edward I. succeeded without opposition.
From 1276 to 1284 he was largely oc-
cupied in the conquest and annexation of
Wales. When, in 1294, war broke out
with France, Scotland also declared war.
The Scots were defeated at Dunbar
(1296), and the country placed under an
English regent; but the revolt under
Wallace (1297), was followed by that of
Bruce (1306), and the Scots remained
unsubdued. The reign of Edward was
distinguished by many legal and legisla-
tive reforms, such as the separation of
the old King's Court into the Court of
Exchequer, Court of King's Bench, and
Court of Common Pleas, the passage of
the Statute of Mortmain, etc. In 1295
the first perfect Parliament was sum-
moned. Two years later the imposition
of taxation without consent of Parlia-
ment was forbidden by special act. The
great aim of Edward, however, to in-
clude England, Scotland, and Wales in
one kingdom proved a failure, and he
died in 1307 marching against Robert
Bruce.
The reign of his son Edward II. was un-
fortunate to himself and to his kingdom.
At Bannockburn (1314), the English re-
ceived a defeat from Robert Bruce which
insured the independence of Scotland.
The king soon proved incapable of regu-
lating the lawless conduct of his barons;
and his wife, a woman of bold, intriguing
disposition, joined in the confederacy
against him, which resulted in his im-
prisonment and death in 1327.
The reign of Edward III. was as bril-
liant as that of his father had been the
reverse. The main projects of the third
18 ENGLAND
Edward were directed against France,
the crown of which he claimed in 1328,
in virtue of his mother, the daughter of
King Philip. The victory won by the
Black Prince at Crecy (1346), the cap-
ture of Calais (1347), and the victory
of Poitiers (1356), ultimately led to the
Peace of Bretigny in 1360, by which Ed-
ward III. received all the W. of France
en condition of renouncing his claim to
the French throne. Before the close of
his reign, however, these advantages
were all lost again, save a few principal
towns on the coast.
Edward III. was succeeded in 1377 by
his grandson Richard II., son of Edward
the Black Prince. In 1380 an unjust
and oppressive poll-tax brought their
popular grievances to a head, and 100,-
000 men under Wat Tyler, marched to-
ward London (1381). Wat Tyler was
killed while conferring with the king, and
the prudence and courage of Richard
appeased the insurgents. In 1398 he ban-
ished his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke ; and
on the death of the latter's father, the
Duke of Lancaster, unjustly appropri-
ated his cousin's patrimony. To avenge
the injustice Bolingbroke landed in Eng-
land during the king's absence in Ireland,
and at the head of 60,000 malcontents
compelled Richard to surrender. He was
confined in the Tower, and despite the
superior claims of Edmund Mortimer,
Earl of March, Henry was appointed
king (1399), the first of the House of
Lancaster. Richard was, in all prob-
ability, murdered early in 1400.
The manner in which the Duke of Lan-
caster, now Henry IV., acquired the
crown rendered his reign extremely tur-
bulent, but the vigor of his administra-
tion quelled every insurrection. The most
important — that of the Percies of North-
umberland, Owen Glendower, and Doug-
las of Scotland — was crushe.d by the
battle of Shrewsbury (1403). During the
reign of Henry IV. the clergy of Eng-
land first began the practice of burning
heretics. The act under which this was
done was directed chiefly against the Lol-
lards, as the followers of Wyclif now
came to be called. Henry died in 1413,
leaving his crown to his son, Henry V.,
who revived the claim of Edward III.
to the throne of France in 1415, and in-
vaded that country at the head of 30,000
men. The disjointed councils of the
French rendered their country an easy
prey; the victory of Agincourt was
gained in 1415; and after a second cam-
paign a peace was concluded at Troyes
in 1420, by which Henry received the
hand of Catherine, daughter of Charles
VI., was appointed regent of France
during the reign of his father-in-law, and
declared heir to the throne on his death.
ENGLAND
19
ENGLAND
The two kings, however, died within a
few weeks of each other in 1422, and
the infant son of Henry thus became
King of England (as Henry VI.) and
France at the age of nine months.
England during the reign of Henry
VI., was subjected to all the confusion in-
cident to a long minority, and afterward
to a civil war. Henry allowed himself
to be managed by anyone who had the
courage to assume the conduct of his af-
fairs, and the influence of his wife Mar-
garet of Anjou, was of no advantage
either to himself or the realm. In France
(1422-1453) the English forces lost
ground, and were finally expelled by the
celebrated Joan of Arc, Calais alone
being retained. The rebellion of Jack
Cade in 1450 was suppressed, only to be
succeeded by more serious trouble. In
that year Richard, Duke of York, the
father of Edward, afterward Edward
IV., began to advance his pretensions to
the throne. His claim was founded on
his descent from the third son of Edward
III., who was his great-great-grand-
father on the mother's side, while Henry
was the great-grandson on the father's
side of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lan-
caster, the fourth son of Edward III.
Richard of York was also grandson on
the father's side of Edmund, fifth son of
Edward III. The wars which resulted,
called the Wars of the Roses, from the
fact that a red rose was the badge of the
House of Lancaster and a white one that
of the House of York, lasted for 30
years, from the first battle of St. Albans,
May 22, 1455, to the battle of Bosworth,
Aug. 22, 1485. Henry VI. was twice
driven from the throne (in 1461 and
1471) by Edward of York, whose father
had previously been killed in battle in
1460. Edward of York reigned as Ed-
ward IV. from 1461 till his death in
1483, with a brief interval in 1471; and
was succeeded by two other sovereigns
of the House of York, first his son Ed-
ward v., who reigned for 11 weeks in
1483; and then by his brother Richard
III., who reigned from 1483 till 1485,
when he was defeated and slain on Bos-
worth field by Henry Tudor, of the House
of Lancaster, who then became Henry
VII.
Henry VII. was at this time the repre-
sentative of the House of Lancaster, and
in order at once to strengthen his own
title, and to put an end to the rivalry
between the Houses of York and Lan-
caster, he married in 1486 Elizabeth,
the sister of Edward V. and heiress of
the House of York. His reign was dis-
turbed by insurrections attending the im-
postures of Lambert Simnel (1487) and
Perkin Warbeck (1488) ; but neither of
these attained any magnitude. "The king's
worst fault was avarice. His adminis-
tration throughout did much to increase
the royal power and to establish order
and prosperity. He died in 1509.
The authority of the English crown,
which had been so much extended by
Henry VII., was by his son Henry VIII.
exerted in a tyrannical and capricious
manner. The most important event of
the reign was undoubtedly the Reforma-
tion; though it had its origin rather in
Henry's caprice and in the casual situa-
tion of his private affairs than in his
conviction of the necessity of a reforma-
tion in religion, or in the solidity of rea-
soning employed by the reformers. Henry
had been espoused to Catherine of Spain,
who was first married to his elder
brother Arthur, who died young. Henry
became enamored of one of her maids of
honor, Anne Boleyn. He had recourse to
the Pope to dissolve his marriage; but
failing in his desires he broke away
entirely from the Holy See, and in 1534
got himself recognized by act of Parlia-
ment as the head of the English Church.
He died in 1547. He was married six
times, and left three children, each of
whom reigned in turn. These were:
Mary, by his first wife, Catherine of
Aragon; Elizabeth, by his second vfite,
Anne Boleyn; and Edward by his third
wife, Jane Seymour.
Edward, who reigned first with the
title of Edward VI., was nine years of
age at the time of his succession, and
died in 1553, when he was only 16. His
short reign, or rather the reign of the
Earl of Hertford, afterward Duke of
Somerset, who was appointed regent, was
distinguished chiefly by the success which
attended the measures of the reformers,
who acquired great part of the power-
formerly engrossed by the Catholics. The
intrigues of Dudley, Duke of North-
umberland, during the reign of Edward,
caused Lady Jane Grey to be declared
his successor; but her reign, if it could
be called such, lasted only a few days.
Mary, daughter of Henry VIII. was
placed on the throne, and Lady Jane
Grey and her husband were both ex-
ecuted. Mary seems to have wished for
the crown only for the purpose of re-
establishing the Roman Catholic faith.
Political motives had induced Philip of
Spain to accept of her as a spouse; but
she could never prevail on her subjects
to allow him any share of power. She
died in 1558.
Elizabeth, who succeeded her sister
Mary, was attached to the Protestant
faith, and found little difficulty in estab-
lishing it in England. Having concluded
peace with France (1559), Elizabeth set
herself to promote the confusion which
prevailed in Scotland, to which hef
ENGLAND
20
ENGLAND
cousin Mary had returned from France
as queen in 1561. In this she was so far
Buccessful that Mary placed herself in
her power (1568), and after many years'
imprisonment was sent to the scaffold
(1587). As the most powerful Protes-
tant nation, and as a rival to Spain in
the New World, it was natural that Eng-
laiid should become involved in difficulties
with that country. The dispersion of the
Armada by the English fleet under
Howard, Drake, and Hawkins was the
most brilliant event of a struggle which
abounded in feats of valor. In Eliza-
beth's reign London became the center of
the world's trade, the extension of Brit-
ish commercial enterprise being coin-
cident with the ruin of Antwerp in 1585.
The Parliament was increased, and its
members were exempted from arrest. In
literature not less than in politics and
in commerce the same full life displayed
itself, and England began definitely to
assume the characteristics which dis-
tinguish her from the other European
nations of to-day.
To Elizabeth succeeded (in 1603)
James VI. of Scotland and I. of England,
son of Mary Queen of Scots and Darn-
ley. His accession to the crown of Eng-
land in addition to that of Scotland
did much to unite the two nations,
though a certain smoldering animosity
Still lingered. His dissimulation, how-
ever, ended in his satisfying neither of
the contending ecclesiastical parties — the
Puritans or the Catholics; and his
absurd insistence on his divine right
made his reign a continuous struggle
between the prerogative of the crown
and the freedom of the people. His
extravagance kept him in constant dis-
putes with the Parliament, and compelled
him to resort to monopolies, loans, be-
nevolences, and other illegal methods.
The nation at large, however, continued
to prosper. His son, Charles I., who suc-
ceeded him in 1625, inherited the same
exalted ideas of royal prerogative, and
his marriage with a Catholic, his arbi-
trary rule, and illegal methods of rais-
ing money, provoked bitter hostility.
Civil war broke out in 1642, between the
king's party and that of the Parliament,
and the latter proving victorious, in
1649 the king was beheaded.
A commonwealth or republican gov-
ernment was now established, in which
the most prominent figure was Oliver
Cromwell. Mutinies in the army among
Pifth-monarchists and Levellers were
subdued by Cromwell and Fairfax, and
Cromwell in a series of masterly move-
ments subjugated Ireland and gained
the important battles of Dunbar and
Worcester. At sea Blake had destroyed
the Royalist fleet under Rupert, and was
engaged in an honorable struggle with the
Dutch under Van Tromp. But within the
governing matters had come to a dead-
lock. A dissolution was necessary, yet
Parliament shrank from dissolving itself
and in the meantime the reform of the
law, a settlement with regard to the
Church, and other important matters re-
mained untouched. In April, 1653, Crom-
well cut the knot by forcibly ejecting the
members and putting the keys in his
pocket. From this time he was practi-
cally head of the government, which was
vested in a council of 13. A Parliament
— ^the Little or Barebones Parliament —
was summoned and in December of the
same year Cromwell was installed Lord
Protector of the Commonwealth of Eng-
land, Scotland, and Ireland. With more
than the power of a king, he succeeded
in dominating the confusion at home and
made the country feared thoughout the
whole of Europe. Cromwell died in 1658,
and the brief and feeble protectorate of
his son Richard followed.
There was now a wide-spread feeling
that the country would be better under
the old form of government, and Charles
II., son of Charles I., was called to the
throne by the Restoration of 1660. He
took complete advantage of the popular
reaction from the narrowness and in-
tolerance of Puritanism, and even latter-
ly endeavored to re-establish the Cath-
olic religion. The promises of religious
freedom made by him before the Res-
toration in the Declaration of Breda
were broken by the Test and Corpora-
tion Acts, and by the Act of Unifor-
mity, which drove 2,000 clergymen from
the Church and created the great dis-
senting movement of modem times. The
Conventicle and Five-Mile Acts followed,
and the "Drunken Parliament" restored
Episcopacy in Scotland. At one time
even civil war seemed again imminent.
The abolition of the censorship of the
press (1679) and the reaffirmation of
the Habeas Corpus principle are the
most praiseworthy incidents of the
reign.
As Charles II. left no legitimate issue,
his brother, the Duke of York, succeeded
him as James IL (1685-1688). An in-
vasion by an illegitimate son of Charles,
the Duke of Monmouth, who claimed the
throne, was suppressed, and the king's
arbitrary rule was supported by the
wholesale butcheries of Kirke and Jef-
freys. The king's zealous countenance
of Roman Catholicism and his attempts
to force the Church and the universities
to submission provoked a storm of op-
position. The whole nation was prepared
to welcome any deliverance, and in 1688
William of Orange, husband of James'
daughter Mary, landed in Torbay. JameF
ENGLAND
21
ENGLAND
fiid to France, and a convention sum-
riioned by William settled the crown on
him, he thus becoming William III. An-
nexed to this settlement was a Declara-
tion of Rights, circumscribing the royal
prerogative. This placed henceforward
the right of the British sovereign to the
throne on a purely statutory basis. A
toleration act, passed in 1689, released
dissent from many penalties.
In 1692 originated the national debt,
the exchequer having been drained by
the heavy military expenditure. A bill
for triennial Parliaments was passed in
1694, the year in which Queen Mary
died. For a moment after her death
William's popularity was in danger, but
his successes at Namur and elsewhere,
and the obvious exhaustion of France,
once more confirmed his power. The
treaty of Ryswick followed in 1697, and
the death of James II. in exile in 1701
removed a not unimportant source of
danger. Early in the following year
William also died, and by the act of
settlement Anne succeeded him.
The closing act of William's reign had
been the formation of the grand alliance
between England, Holland, and the Ger-
man Empire, and the new queen's rule
opened with the brilliant successes of
Marlborough at Blenheim (1704) and Ra-
millies (1706). Throughout the earlier
part of her reign the Marlboroughs
practically ruled the kingdom, the duke's
■wife, Sarah Jennings, being the queen's
most intimate friend and adviser. In
1707 the history of England becomes
the history of Great Britain, the Act
of Union passed in that year binding the
Parliaments and realms of England and
Scotland into a single and more power-
ful whole. On the death of Anne, the
House of Brunswick came to the throne
in the person of George I. (1714-1727).
The principal events of the reign were
abortive Jacobite risings, the divorce of
the queen, and the ''South Sea bubble."
George II. ascended the throne in 1727.
His reign was prosperous, but not very
eventful, except for the rebellion under
the young pretender. George III. be-
came king in 1760. Under his rule, the
British Empire in India was founded,
the American colonies established their
independence, and the French Revolu-
tion burst forth. England was for a
time on the verge of ruin. The national
debt reached enormous pi'oportions. But
the genius of Chatham, Pitt, Fox, Nel-
son, Olive and Wellington rescued the
country, after the failure of George
III.'s plan of personal government had
been demonstrated. During this reign
the legislative union of Great Britain
and Ireland was effected. The king died
in 1820, and was succeeded by George
IV. His reign of 10 years witnessed'
Roman Oatholic emancipation, the first
development of England as a colonial
power in the sense of to-day, and marked
industrial expansion. William IV. ruled
seven years (1830-1837). During this
period the great Reform Bill, extending
the suffrage, marked the dawn of the
democratic era in English politics.
Victoria became Queen of England
in 1837, and died Jan. 22, 1901, her re ign
being the longest in the country's his-
tory. Her sway covered the period which
embraces the revolutions of 1848
throughout Europe, the wars of Prussia
against Austria and France, the Orim-
ean war, the Oivil War in the United
States, the struggle for Egypt and the
control of Afghanistan, the problem of
Ohina and the conflict with the Boers
which ended with the absorption of the
Transvaal and the South African Re-
public into the British Empire. The
matters of purely domestic concern were
the corn-law agitation, the condition of
the working classes, trade-union regula-
tion, free trade and popular education.
During these years, the naval supremacy
of England was maintained, the colonial
empire of Great Britain was cemented
and strengthened, and home rule, in the
face of persistent agitation, was refused
to Ireland. There was a very democratic
extension of the suffrage during one of
the Gladstone administrations. The In-
dian Empire did not, on the whole, pros-
per during the period from 1890 to
1900, but the occupation of Egypt, dat-
ing from 1882, was successful. The
British North American Act of 1867
and the Oommonwealth of Australia Act
of 1900 indicated the tendency to im-
perial federation, of which England's
commanding position makes her the cen-
ter. The royal power meanwhile waned
to an extent which, with the extension of
suffrage, left the country practically a
democracy at the end of the 19th cen-
tury. Edward VII. became king in 1901.
In 1902 the New Education Bill was
enacted and in the following year a
Land Act for Ireland was passed, which
provided for the distribution of £100,-
000,000 to tenants for the purpose of
enabling them to acquire ownership of
land. The distribution was made in the
form of long-term loans. In the same
year Joseph Ohamberlain introduced a
proposal for the modification of the fiscal
arangements of the country which was
equivalent to the abandonment of free
trade. He proposed that the United
Kingdom should enforce a duty on food
imports from foreign countries and ad-
mit products from the colonies free. This
question was agitated both within and
without Parliament for several years,
ENGLAND
22
ENGLAND
bnt with no political results. The Bal-
four cabinet resigned in 1905. A Liberal
Ministry was organized by Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman. In foreign politics
British prestige following the South
African War was greatly increased. An
alliance was made with Japan in 1902
and 1905, Trade relations were estab-
lished with Tibet in 1904. In the same
year the position of England in Egypt
improved by an agreement with France
by which the latter gave her approval
to the British acquisition of that
country.
In 1907 relations which had been
growing increasingly strained between
the House of Commons and the House
of Lords brought about a desire for a
modification of the powers of the latter
body. This was accomplished in 1911
when a bill was passed depriving the
House of Lords of practically all power
over money bills and providing other
curbs on the power of the Upper House.
An old-age pension bill was passed in
1908. In the year following, David Lloyd
George became Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer, and he at once began prepara-
tions of measures to produce increased
revenues. These included a tax on land
which met with wide opposition, espe-
cially in the House of Lords, which de-
feated it. The government went twice
to the country in 1910 on this issue and
was each time sustained. Edward VIL
died in 1910 and was succeeded bj
George V. In 1914 the Home Rule Bill
for Ireland was passed, as well as a bill
disestablishing the Anglican Church in
Wales. The Home Rule Bill was de-
ferred on account of the outbreak of
the World War.
When the war began in August, 1914,
political conditions were most unfavor-
able. Ireland was on the verge of Civil
War. The army was in poor condition and
there were disagreements with the col-
onies in regard to the naval policy, and
other matters. In spite of these condi-
tions, however, England went into the
war with great enthusiasm. War mea-
sures were passed providing for the
authorization of war credits, and other
legislation aiming at a successful prose-
cution of the war was put into effect.
For an account of the part taken by
England and Great Britain in the World
War, see that title. See also articles on
the separate battles, Canada, Aus-
tralia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Pales-
tine, Turkey, etc.
Although by April, 1915, 750,000 men
had been sent to the front it was evi-
dent that more man power must be sup-
plied. Conscription was proposed by
many prominent men but did not at first
meet with favor. A great campaign of
recruiting was carried on in 1915 which
resulted in the enlistment of about 830,-
000 men. In January, 1916, a military-
service bill was introduced in Parlia-
ment. This provided that all bachelors
and widowers between the ages of 18
and 41 were liable for military service.
Ireland was excluded from the operation
of the bill. The bill was finally passed
in May, 1916.
One of the chief problems to be met
by the government was the question of
munitions, which during the first period
of the war was entirely inadequate to
meet the demands of the rapidly form-
ing new army. The Munitions Act was
passed which provided for government
supervision of all manufacturing, which
made strikes and lockouts illegal.
In May, 1915, as a result of the
cabinet crisis, a coalition cabinet was
formed consisting of 12 Liberals, 8
Unionists, and one Labor member. In
December, 1915, Parliament introduced
a bill prolonging its life for 12 months.
By a later compromise this was reduced
to 8 months.
In April, 1916, a serious outbreak oc-
curred in Ireland under the direction of
Sir Roger Casement. (See Ireland.) In
February, 1917, a bill was introduced
into Parliament requiring all men be-
tween the ages of 18 to 61 to be en-
rolled. This bill was passed in March.
Among other important events of 1917
were the introduction of the new budget
which largely increased taxation besides
providing for electoral reforms and
woman suffrage. In March of that year
the First Imperial War Cabinet includ-
ing representatives from all British
dominions was held in London. The
Irish question continued to be the most
serious domestic problem during this
year. During 1918 many stringent meas-
ures were passed providing for in-
creased efficiency in war work. A new
military-service bill was enacted in
April. This provided military service
from every British male between the
ages of 18 and 51 who had been in Eng-
land since August, 1915. The second
session of the Imperial War Cabinet
took place June 10, 1918. The House of
Commons in October of this year passed
a measure providing for the member-
ship of women in Parliament. A general
election was held on December 14, 1918.
The Liberal party was divided into two
factions, one of which supported Lloyd
George and the other Asquith. The
Coalition Government was successfuji in
the election, electing almost 5 to 1 of
its members as candidates. This marked
the complete overthrow of the Asquith
Liberals and the Pacifists. During the
year an Irish convention was held for
ENGIiAND
23
ENGLAND, CHURCH OF
the purpose of arriving at some agree-
ment between the Irish factions. This,
however, resulted in no substantial
success and the Irish question was still
unsettled at the end of the year.
When Parliament met in 1919 the
traditional party lines were more or less
obliterated. Several of the most con-
spicuous members, including Mr. As-
quith, had lost their seats. David Lloyd
George had been Prime Minister since
December 7, 1916, and from that period
until the end of the war he was the
strongest figure and practically a dicta-
tor of the English government. He was
given the fullest possible powers and
was in most cases warmly supported by
the people. With President Wilson, he
was the most conspicuous figure at the
Peace Conference in 1919. During 1919
economic conditions in England were
very unfavorable and there were fre-
quent strikes in the industrial centers.
A threatened strike of the coal miners
resulted in the formation of a coal com-
mission, which succeeded in recommend-
ing conditions which were accepted by
the miners. The railway strike was in
force during the latter part of the year,
but was broken by lack of support by
the people. During 1919 the Prince of
Wales visited the United States, where
he was received with great enthusiasm.
In February 10, 1920, Parliament began
a new session. Herbert Asquith, the
former premier, was elected to the
Hou.se of Commons from Paisley. After
remaining in session until August 16,
the House of Commons adjourned until
October 19. At the beginning of the
session on that date, supplementary
army estimates were introduced bring-
ing the total estimates for the year to
about il65,000,000.
During 1920 and 1921 disorder con-
tinued in Ireland. In some portions of
the country a practfcal condition of civil
war existed. For an account of these
conditions, see Ireland. The Irish Home
Rule Bill was signed by King George
in December, 1920, which was to go into
effect at the discretion of the king.
In 1921 agi'eement was made with
France in regard to the control of Syria
and Palestine, and a practical protector-
ate was established over Mesopotamia.
Egypt had already become an integral
part of the British Empire. In March,
1921, the Supreme Council of the Peace
Conference held sessions in London to
decide the question of reparations by
Germany.
For statistical data relating to Eng-
land, see Great Britain. For the terri-
tory embraced in the Empire, see
British Empire. See also articles on the
various subdivisions of the Empire, as
Australia, Canada, New Zealand,
India, etc.
Sovereigns
Began to
reign.
Anglo Saxon Link —
Egbert 800
Ethclwulf .... 836
Ethclbald .... 857
Ethclbert 860
Ethelred 866
Alfred 871
Edward the Eld-
er 901
AthelBtan .... 925
Edmund 940
Bdred 946
Edwy 955
Edgar 957
Edward the Mar-
tyr 975
Ethelred' the Un-
ready 978
Edmund Iron-
side 1016
Danish Line —
Canute 1017
Harold 1 1036
Hardicanute ..1039
Saxon Line —
Edward the Con-
fessor 1041
Harold II 1066
Norman Line —
William 1 1066
William II. . . .1087
Henry 1 1100
House of Blois —
Stephen 1135
Plantagenet Line —
Henry II 1154
Richard 1 1189
John 1199
Henry III 121G
Edward 1 1272
OF England
Began to
reign.
Edward II 1307
Edward III... 1327
Richard II 1377
House op Lancaster—
Henry IV 1399
Henry V 1413
Henry VI 1422
HousK OF York —
Edward IV 1461
Edward V. . . .1483
Richard III...14S3
House of Tudor —
Henry VII 1485
Henry VIII . . . 1509
Edward VI 1547
Mary 1553
Elizabeth 1558
Stuart Line —
James 1 1603
Charles 1 1625
Commonwealth . 1649
Stuart Line —
Charles II 1660
James II 1685
House op Orange —
William and
Mary 1688
Stuart Line —
Anne 1702
Brunswick Line —
George 1 1714
George II 1727
George III 1760
George IV 1820
William IV... 1830
Victoria 1837
Edward VII... 1901
Windsor Line —
George V 1910
ENGLAND, CHURCH OF, the official
name of that body of Christians who
have a formal head in the person of the
hereditary ruler of England. This des-
ignation is used in two senses: first, a
general one signifying the Church re-
garded as continuous, which, from the
first triumph of Christianity till now,
has been that of the English people;
secondly, in a more specific sense, the
Protestant Church now established in
England as distinguished from the
Church of Rome.
The evangelistic zeal of Whitfield,
Wesley, and various other clergymen, in
the 18th century, awoke the Church to
new life, which did not pass away even
when the followers of these two great
preachers ceased to belong to the Eng-
lish Church. The evangelical party, still
the most numerous in the Establishment,
is, in large measure, the fruit of 18th
century revival effort. In the 19th, the
movement was in other directions. With
1833, just after the passing of the first
Reform Bill, the first of a series of
"Tracts for the Times" came forth, and
90 in all were issued within the next
eight years. The ritualistic party, at a
Jater date, carried on the work which
ENGLEWOOD
24
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
the tractarians had begun. In 1860 the
"Essays and Reviews," and in 1862 a
work by Bishop Colenso on the Penta-
teuch, gave prominence to the opposite
pole of thought, being what theologians
call strongly rationalistic. Church con-
gresses, bringing the representatives of
these three parties face to face, softened
their antagonisms, and fear of common
danger renders them more united than
they otherwise would be.
In the English Church there are 3
archbishops (Canterbury, York, and
Wales) and 143 bishops, and 39 suffra-
gan and assistant bishops, 2 of the arch-
bishops and 24 of the bishops having
seats in the House of Lords ; subordinate
to these ai'e 30 deans, 100 archdeacons,
613 rural deans, and about 13,500 bene-
ficed clergy, the whole clerical staff of
all grades being about 23,000. The total
membership throughout the world in
1919 was estimated at over 6,000,000,
of whom about 2,400,000 were in Eng-
land and Wales, about 576,000 in Ireland,
about 56,000 in Scotland, and about
3,000,000 in other parts of the world.
Previous to 1871, the English Church
and the Established Church of Ireland,
constituted but a single body, called the
United Church of England and Ireland.
It is powerful also in the colonies, and
by means of its two great societies, the
Propagation and the Church Missionary
Societies, acts powerfully on nearly every
part of the heathen world. The Church
in Wales and Monmouthshire was dis-
established and disendowed by an act
passed in 1914 which came into force in
1920.
Under the National Assembly of the
Church of England (Powers) Act of
1919 there is, in England, a National As-
sembly, consisting of a House of Bishops,
a House of Clergy, and a House of
Laymen, and having power to legislate
regarding Church matters.
ENGLEWOOD, a city of New Jersey,
in Bergen co. It is on the Erie railroad.
It is chiefly a residential city, and con-
tains a hospital, a public library, and
other public buildings. Pop. (1910)
9,924; (1920) 11,627.
ENGLISH, THOMAS DUNN, an
American author; born in Philadelphia,
Pa., June 29, 1819; was graduated in
medicine at the University of Pennsyl-
vania in 1839; admitted to the bar in
1842; engaged in journalism in New
York in 1844-1859; then resumed medi-
cal practice in Newark, N. J. He was a
member of tR'e state assembly in 1863-
1864, and of Congress in 1891-1895. He
was the author of "Ben Bolt," an exceed-
ingly popular ballad (1843); "Walter
•Woolfe" (1842) ; "Ambrose Fecit, or the
Peer and the Painter" (1869) ; "Ameri-
can Ballads" (1882) ; "Book of Battle
Lyrics" (1886) ; "Jacob Schuyler's Mil-
lions" (1886) ; "Old Glory" song (1898) ;
etc. He died in 1902.
ENGLISH, WILLIAM HAYDEN, an
American capitalist; born in Lexington,
Ind., Aug. 27, 1822; received a college
education and became a lawyer; was
elected to Congress in 1852 and served
there through four consecutive terms.
As a member of the Committee on Terri-
tories, in opposition to his own party, he
worked against the admission of Kansas
to the Union. He reported from the
Committee of Conference what was
known as the "English bill," in which
it was urged that the question of admis-
sion be referred back to the people of
Kansas according to the provision of the
Lecompton constitution. This bill was
adopted and the people voted against
admission. He strongly opposed seces-
sion. In 1861 he retired to private life;
was president of the First National bank
of Indianapolis, in 1863-1877, and was
also interested in railroads. In 1880 he
was the Democratic nominee for Vice-
President on the ticket with General
Hancock. He published a historical and
biographical work on the constitution
and lawmakers of his State. He died in
Indianapolis, Ind., Feb. 7, 1896.
ENGLISH CHANNEL, the arm of sea
which separates England from France,
extending on the English side, from
Dover to Land's End; and on the French
from Calais to the island of Ushant. On
the E. it communicates with the Ger-
man Ocean by the Strait of Dover, 21
miles wide; and on the W. it opens into
the Atlantic by an entrance about 100
miles wide. At its greatest breadth it is
about 150 miles. The pilchard and
mackerel fisheries are very important.
The advantages of a railway tunnel
across the Channel at its narrowest part
have been frequently urged ; and an Eng-
lish company formed for the purpose of
constructing a tunnel half way across
from Dover to meet a similar tunnel
starting from near Calais, pushed an ex-
cavation under the sea for over 2,000
yards, but was interdicted by the British
goveiTiment for military reasons. This
tunnel would have a total length of 23
miles.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE, a member of
the Teutonic family of languages, which
form three groups: (1) Low German.
(2) Scandinavian, and (3) High Ger-
man. The English language belongs to
the first of these groups. The Teutonic
languages themselves form a subdivision
of the European division of that great
ENGLISH LANGUAGE 25
family of languages called Indo-Euro-
pean. The English language is closely
related to dialects still spoken on the N.
shores and lowlands of Germany. The
original inhabitants of England were
Celts, and but few words of their lan-
guage survive.
The language introduced by the Teu-
tonic invaders was an inflected language,
and free from admixture of foreign ele-
ments. But the English of the present
day, which is a direct development of the
Anglo-Saxon, has lost its inflections, and
has adopted words freely from other
tongues. First it adopted many words
from the Roman missionaries, by whom
the island was converted to Christianity
in A. D. 596. Secondly, a large number
were adopted from the Northmen (the
Norwegians, Danes, and Swedes). These
words are numerous in old Northern
English literature, and in Northern pro-
vincial dialects. A few still survive. But
the event which exercised the greatest
influence on the English language was
the Norman invasion in 1066. After
this, French became the language of the
court, of the nobility, the clergy, and of
literature, and continued to be so for
nearly 300 years. In 1349 Latin ceased
to be taught in schools through the me-
dium of French, and in 1362, the plead-
ings in the law courts were directed by
act of Parliament to be for the future
conducted in English. But the English
of the end of the 14th century had be-
come, through the influence of the Nor-
man-French, analytic; that is to say,
prepositions and auxiliaries were used
instead of inflections to express the vari-
ous modifications of the idea to be con-
veyed.
The English language may be divided
into five periods :
1. First Period A. D. 450-1100.
2. Second Period A. D. 1100-1250.
3. Third Period A. D. 1250-1350.
4. Fourth Period A. D. 1350-1460.
5. Fifth Period A. D. 1460-the present
day.
In the first period (called also Anglo-
Saxon or Old English), the language
was inflectional; in the second it began
to show a tendency to become analytic,
the tendency increasing till in the fourth
period inflections had virtually disap-
peared. Befoi-e the Norman conquests
there were two dialects in English, a
Southern and a Northern, the former of
which was the literary language. After
the Conquest dialects became much more
marked, so that we can distinguish three
great varieties, the Northern, the Mid-
land, and the Southern, distinguished
ft-om each other by various grammatical
differences. The Midland dialect was
ENGLISH LITERATTJRE
that most widely spread, and it ultimate-
ly became the standard language, a re-
sult principally due to the influence of
Chaucer, and in a less degree of Wyclif,
Gower, and others.
ENGLISH LITERATURE, the mass
of expression in written prose and
poetry, of the mind of the English-speak-
ing peoples, through the medium of the
English language.
Before any English literature, in the
strict sense of the term, existed, four
literatures had arisen in England — the
Celtic, Latin, Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-
Norman. The first included the name of
Merlin. The Latin literature prior tc
the Conquest presented the names of
Bede, Alcuin, and Asser. With the com.-
ing of the Normans the native language
practically ceased for a time to be used
in literature, Latin being employed in
law, history, and philosophy, French in
the lighter forms of literature. The
Norman trouvere displaced the Saxon
scop, or gleeman, introducing the fabliau
and the romance. By the fabliau the
literature was not greatly influenced till
the time of Chaucer; but the romance
attained an early and striking develop-
ment in the Arthurian cycle, founded on
the legends of Geoffrey of Monmouth's
Latin "History of the Britons" (1147),
by Geoffrey Gaimar, Maistre Wace, Wal-
ter Map, and other writers of the 12th
century. The Latin literature included
important contributions to the Scholastic
philosophy by Alexander Hales (died
1245), Duns Scotus (died 1308), the
philosophic works of Roger Bacon
(1214-1292), the Golias poems of Wal-
ter Map, and a long list of chronicles
or histories, either in prose or verse, by
Eadmer (died 1124), William of Malm.es-
bury (died 1143), Geoffrey of Monmouth
(died 1154), Henry of Huntingdon (died
after 1154), Joseph of Exeter (died
1195), Roger of Wendover (died 1237),
Ro^er de Hoveden (12th and 13th cen-
turies), Joscelin de Brakclonde (12th
and 13th centuries), and Matthew Paris
(died 1259).
Apart from a few brief fragments, the
first English writers after the Conquest
are the "Brut" of Layamon (about
1200), and the "Ormulum," a collection
of metrical homilies attributed to Orm
or Ormin, an Augustine monk. Next in
importance come the rhyming chroniclers
Robert of Gloucester (time of Henry III..
Edward I.) and Robert of Brunne or
Mannyng (died 1340). To this pre-
Chaucerian period belong also several
English translations of French ro-
mances. Between the beginning and
middle of the 14th century a rapid ex-
pansion of the literature took place,
ENGLISH LITEBATURE
26
ENGLISH LITERATURE
having as the foremost figure Chaucer
(1340-1400). Contemporary with him
were the poets William or Robert Lang-
land (1332-1400), John Gower (1325-
1408), John Barbour (1316-1395). In
prose the name of John Wyclif (1324-
1384) is pre-eminent.
The period from the time of Chaucer
to the appearance of Spenser (from the
end of the 14th to near the end of the
16th century), is a veiy barren one in
English literature. The center of poetic
creation was for the time transferred to
Scotland, where James I. (1394-1437)
headed the list, which comprises Andrew
de Wyntoun (15th century), Henry the
Minstrel or Blind Harry (died after
1492), William Dunbar (1460-15—),
Gavin Douglas (1474-1522), and Sir
David Lyndsay (1490-1557). In Eng-
land the only noteworthy prose prior to
that of More being that of Reginald
Pecock (1390-1460), Sir John Fortescue
(1395-1485), the'Taston Letters" (1422-
1505), and Malory's "Morte d'Arthur"
(completed 1469-1470) ; the only note-
worthy verse, that of John Skelton
(1460-1529).
The Renaissance spread from Florence
to England by means of Colet, Linacre,
Erasmus, and Sir Thomas More (1480-
1535), the last noteworthy as at the
head of a new race of historians. Im-
portant contributions to the prose of the
time were the Tyndale New Testament,
printed in 1525, and the Coverdale Bible
(1535). The first signs of an artistic
advance in poetic literature are to be
found in Wyatt (1503-1542) and Surrey
(1516-1547), who nationalized the son-
net, and of whom the latter is regarded
as the introducer of blank verse. The
drama too, had by this time reached a
fairly high stage of development. At
length farces on the French model were
constructed, the interludes of John Hey-
wood (died 1565) being the most im-
portant examples. To Nicholas Udall
(1504-1556) the first comedy, "Ralph
Roister Doister," was due. The first
tragedy was performed in 1561, and the
first prose play, the "Supposes" of Gas-
coigne, in 1566. The most prominent
figures are those of Sidney (1554-1586)
and Spenser (1552-1599). In drama
Lyly, Peele, Greene, Nash and Marlowe
(1564-1593) are the chief immediate
precursors of Shakespeare (1564-1606),
Marlowe, alone, however, being at all
comparable with him. Contemporary
and later dramatic writers were Ben
Jonson (1573-1637), Middleton (died
1627), Marston (better known as a satir-
ist), Chapman (1557-1634), Thomas
Heywood, Dekker (died 1639), Webster
(17th century). Ford (1586-1639), Beau-
mont (1586-1616) and Fletcher (1576-
1625), and Massinger (1584-1640). Tha
minor poets include Michael Drayton
(1563-1631), Samuel Daniel (1562-
1619), John Davies (1570-1626), John
Donne (1573-1631), Giles Fletcher
(1580-1623), and Phineas Fletcher
(1584-1650), Drummond of Hawthorn-
den (1585-1649) . In Elizabethan prose the
prominent names are those of Rogers
Ascham (1515-1568), Lyly the Euphuist
(1553-1606), Hooker (1554-1600), Ral-
eigh (1552-1618), Bacon (1561-1626),
the founder in some respects of modern
scientific method, Burton (1576-1640),
Herbert of Cherbury (1581-1648), and
Selden (1584-1654), with Overbury,
Knolles, Holinshed, Stowe, Camden, Flo-
rio, and North. The issue of the author-
ized version of the Bible in 1611 closed
the prose list of the period.
After the death of James I. the course
of literature breaks up into three stages,
the first from 1625 to 1640, in which the
survivals from the Elizabethan age
slowly died away. The "metaphysical
poets," Cowley, Wither, Herbert, Cra-
shaw, Habbington, and Quarles, and the
cavalier poets. Suckling, Carew, Denham,
all published poems before the close of
this period, in which also Milton's early
poems were composed, and the "Comus"
and "Lycidas" published. The second
stage (1640-1660) was given up almost
wholly to controversial prose, the Puri-
tan revolution checking the production
of pure literature. In this controversial
prose Milton was easily chief. With the
restoration a third stage was begun.
Milton turned his new leisure to the com-
position of his great poems; the drama
was revived, and Davenant and Dryden,
with Otway, Southerne, Etherege, Wy-
cherley, Congreve, Vanbrugh, and Far-
quhar in their first plays, and minor
playwrights, are the most representative
writers of the period. Butler established
a genre in satire, and Marvel as a satir-
ist in some respects anticipated Swift;
Roscommon, Rochester, and Dorset con-
tributed to the little poetry; while in
prose we have Hobbes, Clarendon, Ful-
ler, Sir Thomas Browne, Walton, Cotton,
Pepys, and Evelyn, John Bunyan, Locke,
Sir William Temple, Owen Feltham, Sir
Henry Wotton, James Harrington, and a
crowd of theological writers, of whom
the best known are Jeremy Taylor,
Richard Baxter, Robert Barclay, William
Penn, George Fox, Isaac Barrow, John
Tillotson, Stillingfleet, Bishop Pearson,
Sherlock, South, Sprat, Cudworth, and
Burnet. Other features of the last paii;
of the 17th century were the immense
advance in physical science under Boyle,
Isaac Newton, Harvey, and others, and
the rise of the newspaper press.
Dryden's death in 1700 marks the
ENGLISH LITERATURE
27
ENGLISH LITERATURE
commencement of the so-called Augus-
tan age in English literature. During
it, nowever, no greater poet appeared
than Pope (1688-1744). Against the
formal limits of his conception of poetry
signs of reaction were apparent in the
verse of Thomson (1700-1748), Gray
(1716-1771), Collins (1720-1759), Gold-
smith (1728-1774), and in the produc-
tions of Macpherson and Chatterton.
The poets Prior (1664-1721), Gay
(1688-1732), and Ambrose Phillips
(1671-1749), inherited from the later
17th century. Gay being memorable in
connection with English opera; and
there were a large number of small but
respectable poets — including Parnell,
Shenstone, Blair, Akenside, Anstey,
Beattie, and Allan Ramsay. It was in
prose that the chief development of the
18th century was found. Defoe (1661-
1731) and Swift (1667-1745) led the
Way in fiction and prose satire; Steele
(1671-1729) and Addison (1672-1719),
working on a suggestion of Defoe, estab-
lished the periodical essay; Richardson
(1689-1761), Fielding (1707-1754),
Smollett (1721-1771), and Sterne raised
the novel to sudden perfection. Gold-
smith also falls into the fictional group
as well as into those of the poets and the
essayists. Johnson (1709-1784) exer-
cised during the latter part of his life
the power of a literary dictator, with
Boswell (1740-1795) as literary depend-
ent. The other chief prose writers
were Bishop Berkeley (1685-1753), Ar-
buthnot (1675-1735), Shaftesbury (1671-
1713), Bolingbroke (1678-1751), Burke,
the historians David Hume (1711-
1776), William Robertson (1721-1793),
Edrnund Gibbon (1737-1794) ; the poli-
tical writers Wilkes and Junius, the
economist and moral philosopher Adam
Smith (1723-1790) ; the philosophical
writers Humey Bentham (1749-1832),
and Dugald Stewart (1753-1828), the
scholars Bentley (1662-1742), Sir Wil-
liam Jones (1746-1794), and Richard
Porson (1759-1808); the theologians At-
terbury, Butler (1692-1752), Warbur-
ton, and Faley, and some inferior play-
wrights, of whom Rowe, John Home,
CoUey Gibber, Colman the elder, Foote,
and Sheridan were the most important.
With the French Revolution, or a few
years earlier, the modem movement in
literature began. The departure from
the old traditions, traceable in Gray and
Collins, was more clearly exhibited in
the last years of the century in Cowper
(1731-1800) and Burns (1759-1796),
and was developed and perfected in the
hands of Blake (1757-1828), Bowles
(1762-1850), and the "Lake poets"
Wordsworth (1770-1850), Coleridge
(1772-1834), and Southey (1774-1843);
but there were at first many survivals
from the poetic manner of the 17th cen-
tury, such as Erasmus Darwin (1731-
1802), Dr. John Wolcot (1738-1819), Ro-
bert Bloomfield (1766-1823) , and Samuel
Rogers (1763-1855). Among the earlier
poets of the century, also, were George
Crabbe (1754-1832), Sir Walter Scott
(1771-1832), Hogg (1772-1835), Camp-
bell (1777-1844), James Montgomery,
Mrs. Hemans Byran, Waller Procter
("Barry Cornwall") Milman, L. E. Lan-
don, Joanna Baillie, Robert Montgomery.
A more important group was that of
Byron (1788-1824), Shelley (1792-1822),
and Keats (1796-1821), with which may
be associated the names of Leigh Hunt
(1784-1869), Thomas Moore (1779-
1852), and Landor (1775-1864). Among
the earlier writers of fiction there were
several women of note, such as Maria
Edgeworth (1767-1849), and Jane Aus-
ten (1775-1817). The greatest name in
fiction was unquestionably that of Scott.
Other prose writers were Mackintosh,
Malthus, Hallam, James Mill, Southey,
Robert Hall, John Foster, Thomas Chal-
mers, Hannah More, Cobbett, William
Hazlitt, Sydney Smith, Francis Jeffrey,
Lord Brougham. In the literature after
1830 poetry included as its chief names
Praed, Hood, Aytoun, Lord Houghton,
Sidney Dobell, Alexander Smith, Philip
James Bailey, William Allington, Eliza-
beth Barrett Browning, Coventry Pat-
more, Lord Lytton, ("Owen Meredith"),
Arthur Hugh Clough, Edwin Arnold,
Matthew Arnold, Dante G. Rossetti,
William Morris, Lewis Morris, Swin-
burne, William Watson, Kipling, and
last and gi-eatest, Tennyson and Brown-
ing. A brilliant list of novelists
for the same period includes Mar-
ryat. Lord Lytton, Ainsworth, Benja-
min Disraeli (Earl of Beaconsfield),
Dickens, Thackeray, Charles and Henry
Kingsley, Charlotte Bronte, Lover,
Lever, Wilkie Collins, George Macdonald,
Charles Reade, George Eliot, Anthony
and Augustus Trollope, William Black,
Thomas Hardy, R. D. Blackmore, George
Meredith, Conan Doyle, Hall Caine,
Robert Louis Stevenson, Miss Braddon,
Mrs. Craik (Miss Mulock) , Mrs. Oli-
phant, Miss Yonge, Miss Thackeray,
Mrs. Humphry Ward, J. M. Barrie, An-
thony Hope Hawkins, and others. To
the historical and biographical list be-
long Alison, Macaulay, Buckle, Carlyle,
Grote, Milman, Froude, Lecky, S. R.
Gardiner, Kinglake, John Richard Green,
E. A. Freeman, Charles Knight, Dean
Stanley, David Masson, John Morley,
Leslie Stephen, Justin McCarthy. Prom-
inent among the theological writers were
Dr. Newman, Whately, Augustus and
Julius Hare, Trench, Stanley, Maurice,
ENGBAVING 28
Hamilton, Alford, F. W. Robertson,
Stopford Brooke, Liddon, Isaac Taylor,
Jowett, James Martineau, Tulioch,
Henry Drummond, and Caird. In
science and philosophy among the chief
writers have been Whewell, Sir W.
Hamilton, Mansel, John Stuart Mill,
Alexander Bain, Hugh Miller, Charles
Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall, Max Miiller,
Herbert Spencer, T. H. Green, Sir
William Thomson. Of the other prose
writers of importance the chief are: De
Quincey, Harriet Martineau, Sir Arthur
Helps, Ruskin, Matthew Arnold, W. E.
Gladstone. A large number of writers
of American and colonial birth were
added to the native contributors to Eng-
lish literature in its widest sense.
Among the English novelists whose work
is notable in the twentieth century are
Pvlaurice Hewlett, John Galsworthy,
Hugh Walpole, D. H. Lawrence, J. D.
Beresford, Compton MacKenzie, Clemence
Dane, W. B. Maxwell, Gilbert Cannan,
Stephen McKenna, and W. L. George.
ENGRAVING, the art of cutting or
incising designs on metal plates or
blocks of wood, for the purpose of print-
ing impressions from them with ink on
paper, or other similar substance. Works
of this sort belong to two classes: en-
gravings on metal, in which the lines to
be printed are sunk or incised, and en-
gravings on wood, in which the lines to
be printed appear in relief, the wood be-
tween them being cut away. In the for-
mer, the plate having been inked and
wiped on the surface, retains the ink
only in its hollowed lines, from which it
is conveyed to the paper by the pres-
sure of the printing press; in the latter,
only the elevated portion of the surface
of the block is inked by means of a
roller, and, being subjected to the press,
it prints as a raised type.
Engraving on Metal. — The metal most
commonly used for engraving has been
copper; but during the 19th century
steel was largely employed on account
of its hardness. Steel is less readily en-
graved than copper, and yields a less
free and artistic result; but as the sur-
faces of copper plates can now be pro-
tected by an extremely thin coating of
steel deposited by galvanic action, which
can be renewed as often as is necessary,
they are enabled to yield a large number
of excellent impressions without being
worn. Zinc plates have also been em-
ployed to some extent for etchings. The
earliest of the impressions taken from
engraved plates are those most valued
by connoisseurs, on account of their
sharpness, clearness, and richness, quali-
ties which are gradually lost as the
surface of the metal becomes worn by
ENGRAVING
repeated printing. The term "work-
ing proofs" indicates trial impressions
printed by engravers for their own use,
to test the state of their work during its
progress. "Artist's proofs" are those
bearing the signature of the painter or
engraver, or both. "Proofs before let-
ters" are those thrown off before the
printed titling, etc., has been added; and
"open letter proofs" are those in which
the letters of the title have been added
merely in outline.
Line Engraving. — The practice of line
engraving originated with the early
Italian goldsmiths, who in this manner
were accustomed to take proofs of the
metal objects which they decorated with
engraved designs, in order to test the
progress of their work; and these nielli,
or highly decorated plates of metal, in
which the incised lines or patterns were
to be filled with a black composition,
are regarded as the earliest engravings.
A pax or metal plate used in the Roman
ritual to receive the kiss of peace, ex-
ecuted by Maso Finiguerra, in 1452, for
the Church of San Giovanni in Florence,
is considered to have been the first metal
from which impressions on paper are
known to have been taken.
Etching. — In this process a polished
metal plate is coated with a thin trans-
parent surface or "ground," impervious
to acid. A mixture of white wax, gum-
mastic and asphaltum made into the
form of a ball and covered with silk ia
applied to the heated surface of the
plate, and melting exudes through the
cloth, when it is spread evenly over the
metal by means of a pad of cotton-wool
covered with silk, termed a "dabber."
The plate is then exposed to the smol?^
of wax tapers till it becomes of a uni-
form black, which enables the etched
line, disclosing the shining metal, to be
visible on its surface. On this plate, so
prepared, the design is drawn with an
"etching needle," a sharp steel point
fitted in a handle, and held like a pencil
in the artist's hand. This needle dis-
closes lines of the bare metal ready to be
eaten or etched by the acid. The back of
the plate having been protected by an
application of Brunswick black, it is
placed in the "acid bath," a flat tray
filled with a mordant, usually composed
of nitric acid diluted with an equal vol-
ume of water, which attacks and cor-
rodes the metal in the lines that have
been exposed to its action by the needle.
After sufficient time has been allowed
for the palest lines of the subject to be
bitten, the plate is removed from the
bath; these lines are covered with a
"stopping-out varnish" of Brunswick
black, applied with a brush, y/hich pro-
tects them from further action oi tho
ENGRAVINQ 29
acid; and the plate is returned to the
bath, which attacks the lines still ex-
posed. This process is repeated as often
as necessary to produce the desired
variety in depth of the various lines of
the desi^. When the biting is completed,
the plate is finally removed from the
bath, the "ground" is cleaned off with
turpentine, and the design appears in-
cised on the metal. The plate is then
inked and printed. Various methods of
etching, and modifications of the process
described have been introduced. Sey-
mour Haden and James McN. Whistler
stand at the head of the painter-etchers
in England. Alphonse Legros and Hu-
bert Herkomer have also done much to
stimulate interest in the art. Among
the younger painter-etchers are William
Strang, Frank Short, and R. W. Mac-
beth. Among the mc_„ talented of mod-
ern etchers in America may be named
Frank Duveneck, Otto Bacher-, Henry
Farrer, Joseph Pennell, Stephen Parrish,
Mary Nimmo Moran, Thomas Moran,
Swain GifFord, and Charles A. Piatt.
Mezzotint Engraving. — This method
differs from all other processes of metal
engraving in that, while other engravers
work from light to shade, and each line
which they draw prints as a dark, the
mezzotinter works from dark to light,
and each touch which he adds to his plate
prints as a light. Mezzotint plates are
prepared by the action of a kind of
chisel, teiTned a ''cradle" or "rocking
tool," which passing over the surface
roughens it, raising a ''bur" of innu-
merable small metal points, so that if
the plate were then inked and printed it
would yield an impression of a uniform
black. The engraver, having traced his
subject on the plate, proceeds to smooth
the surface by removing the "bur" with
a scraper, in proportion as he wishes to
introduce light into his design; the bur
being left untouched in the darkest shad-
ows, partially removed in the half-
lights, and wholly cleaned away in the
high lights, in which the surface is per-
fectly smooth, and brought to a high
polish by means of the "burnisher." The
process of mezzotint was invented by an
amateur, Ludwig von Siegen (1609-
1680). Among the mezzotint engravers
of England may be mentioned Simon,
Pelham, Beard, Miller, Houston, Frye,
and Purcell. Noted in America for this
art were Thomas B. Welch (1814-1874)
and John Sartain (1808-1898).
Aquatint Engraving. — In this process
the polished metal plate is covered with
a solution of resinous gum dissolved in
spirits of wine. The spirit evaporates,
leaving the resin deposited in minute
granulations on the metal surface. The
design is then transferred to the metal
Vol. IV— Cye— C
ENGRAVING
and the plate is bitten in a bath of dilut-
ed nitrous acid, which corrodes the por-
tions left exposed between the grains of
resin. The darkest parts of the design
are longest exposed to the action of the
mordant, the lighter parts being succes-
sively protected by a series of "stoppings-
out," consisting of oxide of bismuth and
turpentine varnish applied vdth a brush
in a manner similar to that employed in
the "stopping-out" of an ordinary etch-
ing. The impressions produced resem-
ble those yielded by mezzotint, both proc-
esses working by spaces and not by
lines. This method is believed to have
been invented by Jean-Claude-Richard
de Saint-Non (1730-1804).
Chalk or Stipple Engraving. — The
metal plate is coated with an ordinary
etching ground, and the subject is drawn
upon it by means of a succession of
small dots produced by the point of the
etching-needle. The plate is then bitten
in the usual way with the acid, which
corrodes the metal at the points uncov-
ered by the needle; and it is afterward
finished by dots, applied with the point
of the etching-needle or burin on the
bare metal. Jean Charles Frangois
(1717-1769) is said to have been the
first engraver to employ this process.
Mechanical and Photographic Process.
— Engraving in recent times has been
generally superseded by photographic
and mechanical substitutes. The most
important of these is known as photo-
gravure or heliogravure. The beauty of
the work produced by means of this proc-
ess in the reproduction of paintings, of
drawings in monochrome and of photo-
graphs direct from nature, has raised it
to a position of great importance. A
photo-mechanical process which is much
used in the reproduction of the plates of
the older engravers and etchers, and in
the production of intaglio etched plate-
reproductions from pen drawings has
been carried to great perfection, some
of the work produced by Amand-Durand
of Paris being almost equal to the finest
original etchings. A positive photo-
graph is taken of the drawing or en-
graving to be reproduced (?. e., the lines
are black, the whites clear glass) ; this
is placed over a copper plate coated with
a bituminous varnish, and exposed to the
light. Where the lines of the photo-
graph have protected the varnish from
the light it remains soluble, but where
the light has affected it through the
glass it becomes insoluble. The varnish
may then be dissolved from the lines and
the copper exposed exactly as if the etch-
ing point had been used to make the
drawing on an etching ground. The
plate is then bitten in the usual manner,
and finally touched up with the graver.
ENID
30
ENTOMOLOGY
ENID, a city of Oklahoma, the county-
seat of Garfield co. It is on the Atchi-
son, Topeka and Santa Fe, the Chicago,
Rock Island and Pacific, and the St.
Louis and San Francisco railroads. It
is the center of an important agricul-
tural and poultry-raising district. Its
industries include the manufacture of
flour, lumber, machinery, boilers, brick,
steel posts, candy, etc. It is the seat
of the Phillips University, St. Francis
Institute, College of Fine Arts, a State
institution for the feeble-minded, and
has a public library, excellent schools,
Federal and county buildings, parks and
hospitals. Pop. (1910) 13,799: (1920)
16,576.
ENNEBY, ADOLPHE PHILIPPE D'
(den-ne-re'), a French dramatist; born
in Paris in 1811; began life as a clerk,
but later turned to the drama. He sub-
sequently became the master of modern
melodrama. During the 50 years of his
active life he accumulated a fortune of
$1,200,000. His most successful plays
include "Taking of Peking"; "Two Or-
phans"; "Martyrdom"; "The Grace of
God," and "Grandmother." He died in
Paris, Jan. 26, 1899.
ENNIS, a city of Texas, in Ellis co.
It is on the Texas Central and the Texas
Midland railroads. It is the center of
an important agricultural and stock-
raising region and its industries include
cotton compresses, cotton gins, cotton-
seed oil mills, railroad shops, flour mills,
etc. Pop. (1910) 5,669; (1920) 7,224.
ENNISKILLEN, a borough in Ireland,
87 miles W. S. W. of Belfast; famous
for the victory, in 1689, of the troops of
William III., under Lord Hamilton, over
a superior force of James II., under
Lord Galmoy. The banners taken in the
battle of the Boyne hang in the town
hall. The noted regiment of Enniskil-
leners, or 6th Dragoons, was first insti-
tuted from the defenders of the town.
ENNS, a river in Austria, which rises
in the Alps of Salzburg, flows N., then
E. N. E., then N. N. W., entering Upper
Austria ("Above the Enns"), which for
15 miles it separates from Lower Aus-
tria ("Below the Enns"), and finally
enters the Danube a little below the town
of Enns. Total course about 180 miles.
ENSIGN, the flag or colors of a regi-
ment. Also a former rank of commis-
sioned officers in a regiment of infantry,
by the senior of whom the regimental
ensigns or colors are carried. The name
is now abolished, the title of 2d lieuten-
ant being substituted for it. In the navy,
the national ensign consists of a red-and-
white striped flag, 13 stripes, with blue
field in upper inside corner containing a
silver star for each State of the Union.
Carried by all American vessels except
yachts, which have an ensign of their
own. Also the title of the lowest grade
of commissioned officers in the United
States navy.
ENTENTE CORDIALE (on-tonf kor-
di-al'), a cordial understanding, or
friendly disposition and relations, be-
tween the governments of two or more
countries.
ENTENTE NATIONS. Those govern-
ments which were allied against the cen-
tral European states in the war of 1914-
1918. The Triple Entente consisted of
France, England, and Russia. The cir-
cumstances of the war early forced Bel-
gium to become a member and in 1915
Italy joined the group. Servia, Rou-
mania, and Montenegro were the Balkan
states which became allies. Japan was
an early ally, but the United States,
while actively participating in the strug-
gle, never was a member of the Entente.
ENTERIC FEVER, the correct desig-
nation of what is usually called typhoid
fever.
ENTERITIS (-i'tis), inflammation of
the small intestines, marked by diar-
rhoea, pain, aggravated on pressure,
quick and strong pulse, with increased
temperature. It is very apt to become
chronic, chiefly from obstruction to the
hepatic circulation, especially by escape
of blood from the portal vein.
ENTOMOLOGY, the branch of zoology
which treats of insects. Insects have
jointed bodies and limbs, an enveloping
cuticle of chitin, a ventral chain of gan-
glia, a dorsal brain, and breathe by air-
tubes or tracheae. Contrasted with peri-
patus and myriopods, they have made
two great steps of progress; the body
is centralized, with locomotor limbs re-
duced to three pairs, and all the typical
average forms have wings. Insects fre-
quently have a metamorphosis in their
life history. The adult body is divided
into (1) a head, with three pairs of ap-
pendages (=legs), plus a pair of pre-
oral outgrowths, the antennae or feel-
ers; (2) a thorax, with three pairs of
jointed legs, typically plus two pairs of
dorsal, compressed sacs — the wings; (3)
an abdomen, without legs, except in so
far as these are rudimentarily repre-
sented in stings, ovipositors, etc. In-
sects exceed in number all other animals
taken together. Over 80,000 species of
beetles or coleoptera and about 15,000
moths and butterflies have been re-
corded; and Speyer estimates the total
census at 200,000.
ENTOMOLOGY
31
ENTOMOLOGY
Form. — The body of an insect consists
of a distinct undivided head, probably
composed of four obscured segments, of
a thorax with three divisions (pro, meso,
and metathorax), and of an abdomen
typically with 11 rings.
Appendages. — The jointed feelers or
antennae, which are outgrowths of the
head, not strictly comparable to legs,
have often numerous nerve-endings and
seem to be used in smelling, as organs of
touch and guidance or in communicating
impressions to friends. Exactly com-
parable with legs are the three pairs of
mouth appendages, projecting downward
or forward from the head, to which they
are jointed and from which they are
worked by muscles. The first pair, the
mandibles (biting and chewing organs),
more or less reduced in those insects
ENTOMOLOGY — SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY
A. Larva B. Pupa
C. Butterfly
which suck, have but one joint and are
without the lateral "palp" present in the
crustacean organs of the same name.
Next come the first pair of maxillae,
which have jointed "palps." The second
pair of maxillae, are united at their base,
and form the so-called labium, also pro-
vided with "palps." In the different
orders, and in association with the di-
verse diet, these three pairs of mouth
organs vary greatly.
Wings. — The adult insect usually
bears two pairs of dorsal outgrowths or
wings on the two posterior rings of the
thorax. They are undeveloped in some
passive females and are likewise absent
from many parasitic forms. In these
cases the wings have been lost, while
they have never been attained by the
lowest insects. When at rest the wine:s
are usually folded in various ways, the
dragon flies and some others keep them
expanded. The two pairs may be al-
most alike, as in bees and butterflies;
those in front may be merely covers for
the hind pair, as in beetles, or contorted
rudiments in the little bee-parasites
(Strepsiptera) ; the hind pair may be
linked to the fore pair, and are rudi-
mentary "balancers" or "halters" in
flies. They are often hairy or scaly,
or gorgeous with pigment, or occasion-
ally odoriferous.
Locomotion. — Insects are emphatically
locomotor animals. They walk, run and
jump with the quadrupeds; they fly with
the birds, they glide with the serpents;
and they swim with the fish. Even the
limbless larvae of many forms move
deftly, contracting their bodies, and uti-
lizing jaws, hairs, and tubercles to help
them along. The limbed larvae, and es-
pecially the true caterpillars, often move
with great rapidity; a few jump, and
many climb; others utilize their silken
threads in spiderlike fashion; while the
young dragon flies propel themselves
along by the forcible expulsion of water.
Skin. — Insects have a firm chitinous
cuticle formed from the epidermis or hy-
podermis. The cuticle bears scales, tu-
bercles and hairs, of which the last are
sometimes olfactory or otherwise sen-
sory. In spite of the ensheathing arma-
ture there are often glands in connection
with the skin. Before the full size is
reached there are often numerous skin-
castings or moltings.
Sense-organs. — Except in fleas, lice,
and the lowly Collembola, adult insects
have compound eyes. These are often
associated with simple eyes or ocelli,
which are all that ever appear in larvae,
or fleas, and such insects. Blind insects
also Occur with other blind animals in
the darkness of caves. Auditory organs
are represented in almost all orders by
peculiar nerve-endings superficially dis-
posed on various parts of the body. On
the tactile antennae, and probably also on
the maxillary palps of various insects,
there are specially innervated skin cells
and hairs believed to be olfactory in func-
tion; while others more within the
mouth are credited with gustatory sensi-
tiveness. The intelligence is greatest in
the social insects — especially the ants
and bees, where it is associated with
complex though very small brains.
Alimentary Sijstetn. — The alimentary
canal always consists of fore-, mid-, and
hind-gut. But the length and structure
vary in different insects, to some ex-
tent in association with the differences of
diet. The fore-gut includes mouth, phar-
ynx, and gullet, of which the gullet may
be swollen into a ci'op, or bear an ap-
pended pouch (so-called sucking stom-
ENTOMOLOGY
32
ENTOMOLOGY
ach), or may be continued into a giz-
zard with hard grinding plates. The
mid-gut is glandular, digestive, and ab-
sorptive; it often bears sacular out-
growths or glandular casca, and has, as
its origin implies, no chitinous lining.
The hind-gut is often coiled, terminally
expanded in the rectum, and in that
region sometimes associated with glands.
Respiratory System. — Insects when
resting often show panting movements
in the abdomen, which is swayed by mus-
cles whose activity is the chief condition
of the circulation of air throughout the
body. For in all insects the whole body
is penetrated by air-tubes or tracheae,
which send fine branches into all the
organs and tissues. These tubes are
really ingrowths from the skin, and are
lined by chitin, raised in what appear to
be spiral thickenings which keep them
elastically tense. In most cases these
trachese open to the exterior by paired
apertures or stigmata on the breast and
abdomen, often guarded by hairs and
very variously disposed. There are
never more than 10 pairs of openings,
though primitively there was probably a
pair to each segment.
Many insects produce sounds which
often express a variety of emotions. In
some cases, when not simply automatic,
these sounds serve the purpose of love
songs; they may also express fear, an-
ger, or even sorrow, or they may give
alarm and convey tidings.
Circulatory System. — As the tissues
are riddled with air-tubes, the need for
definite blood-vessels is greatly lessened,
and so the circulatory system is slight-
ly developed in comparison with the
thorough respiratory arrangements. The
biood — which is colorless, yellow, green-
ish, or even reddish, with amoeboid cells
— flows for the most part along lacunae
without definite walls. The central organ
is the dorsal blood-vessel or heart.
Metamorphosis. — From the egg-shell
of such insects as butterflies, beetles,
flies, and bees, there emerges a larva
(maggot, grub, or caterpillar) which
lives a life of its own, growing, resting,
and molting, often very active _ in its
movements and voracious. Having ac-
cumulated a rich store of reserve food in
its fat-body, the larva becomes for a
longer time more or less quiescent, be-
comes a pupa, nymph, or chrysalis. In
this stage, often within the shelter of a
spun cocoon, great transformations oc-
cur: wings bud out, appendages of the
adult pattern appear, reconstruction and
centralization of organs are effected;
and, finally, out of the pupal husk there
emerges an imago or miniature fully-
formed insect.
The Internal Metamorphosis. — In
those forms which have no metamorpho-
sis, or only an incomplete one, the organs
of the larva develop continuously into
those of the adult. It is otherwise in the
complete metamorphosis of the higher
insects. There the internal changes are
as marked as the external; there is a
gradual reconstruction of organs during
the later larval, especially during the
pupal stages. Most of the larval organs
are absorbed by amoeboid cells, and their
debris is utilized in building up new
structures.
General Life. — (a) While insects are
predominantly active animals, we find in
contrasting the families abundant illus-
tration of the antithesis between activity
and passivity, (b) In the majority of
cases the adult insect is short-lived, and
dies within a year; an adult Ephemerid
may be literally the fly of a day, but
from this there are many graduations
leading up to the rare cases of a queen-
bee five years old, or an aged queen ant
of thirteen, (c) Reproduction in a great
number of insects of both sexes is
shortly followed by death, love being in
such cases at once the climax and end of
life.
Econo^nic Impo^rt. — As far as insects
are concerned, the struggle between man
and animals is by no means finished.
Direct injuries to man's person are
familiarly illustrated in the parasitism
of fleas, lice, and other more or less inti-
mate "boarders"; but these are less im-
portant than the share the mosquito
seems to have in the loathsome disease
Elephantiasis arabum. Personal injuries
are dwarfed when we think of those
done to property, and especially to crops
and herds, by voracious or by parasitic
insects. Clothes-moth and furniture-
borer, vine-insects and Colorado beetle,
the botflies which attack sheep, cattle,
and horses are familiar illustrations of
formidable pests. It should also be noted
how the hostile insects which infest for-
est trees and vegetation generally may
occasion changes which have far-off
effects on the fauna, scenery, and even
climate of a countryside. The majority
of plants are dependent on insects, as the
unconscious bearers of the pollen essen-
tial to the normal cross-fertilization of
flowers.
Plants and Insects. — Many insects in-
jure plants without any compensating
benefit, and in this connection there are
numerous cases in which plants and in-
sects (especially ants) form a mutual
partnership. Such plants are saved by
their bodyguard of ants from_ unwel-
come visitors, and the benefit is some-
times returned by the growth of special
shelters, tenanted by the partner-insects.
ENTBE DOURO E MINHO
33
EFEE
ENTRE DOURO E MINHO (en'tre
d5'r6 a men'yo), CT MINHO, a province
of Portugal, in the extreme N. W. of the
country, bounded on the N. by the Minho
river, and on the S. by the Douro river.
It has been called the Paradise of Portu-
gal. The climate is agreeable and healthy.
The chief productions are v^ine, oil,
flax, maize, w^heat, barley, oats, and
vegetables. Wine is shipped largely at
Oporto, the capital. Along the coast are
numerous fisheries, at which great num-
bers find employment. The province of
Minho consists of three districts, Braga,
Vianna, and Oporto. Pop. about 1,300,000.
ENTRE RIOS (en'tra re'os) ("be-
tween rivers"), a province of the Argen-
tine Republic, between the Parana and
the Uruguay rivers. Estimated area,
29,021 square miles: pop. about 430,000.
The country is chiefly pastoral, but an
increasing proportion is being put under
cultivation, about 300,000 acres being
now devoted to maize and wheat. The
province is fertile, and well watered, be-
ing subject, in the S., to annual floods;
nevertheless, the climate is very healthy.
Lime and gypsum are worked. The prov-
ince has about 500 miles of railway.
The capital is Parana.
ENVER PASHA, a Turkish soldier
and politician. He was the chief and
most influential leader in the Committee
of Union and Progress, and with its ad-
vent into power through the revolution
which overthrew Abdul Hamid, he began
to take a prominent part in the political
life of the Turkish nation. Immediately
after the success of the Young Turk
party he was sent to Berlin as the mili-
tary attache of the Turkish Embassy,
and it is believed that it was through
him personally that the understanding
between Turkey and Germany was de-
veloped which led the Turks to throw
their lot in with the Central Empires
during the World War shortly after hos-
tilities began. Enver Pasha was the
most able assistant of General Liman
von Sanders in the reorganization of the
Turkish Army. After the collapse of
the Turkish Government, in 1918, he fled
to Germany. In January, 1920, he was
reported to be back in Asiatic Turkey,
where he raised the flag of revolt against
the Government established by the Allies
in Constantinople. Believing that he had
the moral support of the whole Moham-
medan world, especially in India, he de-
manded a revision of that clause of
the Paris Treaty which proposed the
partition of Turkey, his followers being
known as the Nationalists. See Turkey.
EOCENE (e'o-sen), in geology, a
term applied to the lower division of the
Tertiary strata. The Eocene beds are
arranged in two groups, termed the
Lower and Upper Eocene; the strata
formerly called Upper Eocene being now
known as Oligocene. They consist of
marls, limestones, clays, and sandstones,
and are found in the Isle of Wight and
in the S. E. of England, and N. W. of
France, in central Europe, western Asia,
northern Africa, and the Atlantic coast
of North America.
ENVER PASHA
EOLUS (e'o-lus), in Roman mythology,
god of the winds.
EPAMINONDAS, an ancient Greek
hero, who, for a time, raised his country,
Thebes, to the summit of power and pros-
perity. He was born about 418 B. C. He
led in the struggle during which Spartan
supremacy in Greece was destroyed, and
the supremacy of Thebes temporarily se-
cured. Four times he successfully in-
vaded the Peloponnesus, at the head of
the Thebans, but after his death Thebes
soon sank to her former secondary condi-
tion. He was distinguished for the
friendship subsisting between him and
Pelopidas, with whom he served in the
Spartan campaign 385 B. c. His virtues
have been praised by both Xenophon and
Plutarch. He was killed at the battle of
Mantineia 362 B. C.
EP^E (e-pa'), CHARLES MICHEL.
ABB^ DE L'. instructor of the deaf and
dumb; born in Versailles, France. Nov.
25, 1712. Taking orders, he became a
preacher and canon at Troyes, but later
EPERNAY
lived in retirement in Paris. In 1765 he
first began to occupy himself with the
education of two deaf and dumb sisters;
and invented a language of signs, by
which persons thus afflicted might be en-
abled to hold intercourse with their fel-
low-creatures. At his own expense he
founded an institution for the deaf and
dumb, which was first publicly examined
in 1771, and from 1778 received an
annual subsidy. He died in 1789.
EPERNAY, capital of an arrondis-
sement, in the department of the Marne,
on both banks of the river Marne, about
12 miles S. from the city of Rheims. It
is the center of a rich champagne wine
producing district. Important railroad
shops are located there. The population
before the World War was about 21,-
000. It was captured by the Germans
during the first German advance toward
Paris, after the beginning of military
operations, in August, 1914, and held by
them until, driven back during the battles
of the Marne, their lines were established
from ten to fifteen miles to the north-
ward.
EPHEMERIS, in astronomy, a table
giving the position of a heavenly body
from day to day, so that observers may
know where to find it. The name is also
applied to an astronomical almanac con-
taining a collection of such tables.
EPHESIANS, THE EPISTLE TO
THE, a canonical epistle addressed by
the Apostle Paul to the Church which he
had founded at Ephesus. It was written
during his first captivity at Rome, im-
mediately after he had written the
Epistle to the Colossians (a. d. 62), and
was sent by the hands of Tychicus, who
also bore the message to the Church at
Colossse.
EPHESUS (ef'e-sus), a famous city
of Asia Minor, now in ruins, about 38
miles S. S. E. of Smyrna. It was the
ancient capital of Ionia, and had one of
the seven Christian Churches founded by
the apostles. Its temple, dedicated to
Diana, was considered one of the seven
wonders of the world. Its dimensions
were 425 feet long and 200 broad. The
roof was supported by 127 columns, 60
feet high, which had been placed there by
as many kings. Of these, 36 were carved
in the most beautiful manner, one of
which was the work of the famous
Scopas. This celebrated building was not
completed till 220 years after its founda-
tion. Ctesephon was its principal archi-
tect. The riches which were in the
temple were immense, and the goddess
who presided over it was worshiped with
the most awful solemnity. It was burnt
on the night that Alexander was born,
H EPICURUS
but soon after it rose from its ruins with
greater splendor and magnificence.
EPHESUS, COUNCILS OF, two ec-
clesiastical assemblies held at Ephesus.
The first was the third ecumenical
council, summoned by Emperor Theo-
dosius II., in 431, to settle a compli-
cated controversy, involving among other
things the fate' of Nestorius (g. v.),
Bishop of Constantinople. The second
was the so-called "robber synod," con-
vened by Theodosius (449), to consider
again the case of Nestorius. In the
proceedings of this council no opposition
to the will of the president, Dioscurus,
Bishop of Alexandria, was allowed; the
bishops were overawed by monks, sol-
diers, and brawny servants, and were
compelled to sign blank papers, to be
filled up as the leaders chose. These law-
less methods, as well as the violent
measures carried through by their aid.
hastened a crisis in the Eastern Church,
and greatly fui'thered the advancing
power of the Bishop of Rome, by com-
pelling an appeal to him against oppres-
sion and wrong.
EPHRAIM, the younger son of
Joseph, and the founder of one of the 12
tribes of Israel. When the Israelites left
Egypt the Ephraimites numbered 40,500,
and their possessions in the very center
of Palestine included most of what wat
afterward called Samaria.
EPIC, a poem which narrates the his-
tory, real or fictitious, of some notable
action or achievement, or series of ac-
tions or achievements, accomplished by
some distinguished hero. The most cele-
brated epic poems are in Greek litera-
ture, the 'aiiad" and "Odyssey" of
Homer; in Latin, the "^nid of Vergil";
and in English, the "Paradise Lost" of
Milton.
EPICTETUS (ep-ik-te'tus), a Greek
Stoic philosopher; born in Hierapolis,
Phrygia, about a. d. 50. A slave and then
a freed-man at Rome where he taught
philosophy there till 94, when all philoso-
phers v,^ere banished by Domitian;^ he
apparently returned later and lived into
Hadrian's reign. The essential tenets of
Stoicism are nowhere more clearly or
feelingly set forth than by him. No
writing'^ of his are kn-^wn; but his
maxims were gathered ana published in
the "Encheiridion," or handbook, and the
"Commentaries."
EPICURUS (ep-i-kii'rus), a famous
Grecian philosopher; lived from about
341 B. C. to 270 B. C He was a teacher of
philosophy rather as a rule of life than
as a system of knoAvledge, and began to
teach when he was about 32 years old.
EPIDEMIC
36
EPINAL
first at Mitylene, then at Lampsacus ; but
his great school was at Athens, where he
settled about 305 B. C. According to him
the supi'eme good of life is found in
pleasure, but not in the momentary grati-
fication of sense, rather in the delight
inseparable from the practice of virtue.
The Epicurean doctrines were in time
misinterpreted and misunderstood, and
Epicureanism became a sjmonym of self-
indulgent and sensuous pleasure.
EPIDEMIC, a disease which attacks
many persons at the same time at dif-
ferent places, spreading with great
rapidity, extremely virulent and fatal at
the first onset, gradually becoming spent
and feeble, so that the early cases are
usually the worst. The plague, cholera,
smallp(5x, and influenza are epidemics,
and other infectious diseases are among
the number.
EPIDERMIS, in human anatomy, the
cuticle or scarf-skin constituting the ex-
ternal layer of the skin, and protecting
the inner ones. It is thickest in the
palms of the hands and the soles of the
feet, where the skin is much exposed to
pressure. In comparative anatomy, a
somewhat similar cuticle in several
animals; also a layer of animal matter
covering the shells of mollusks. In
botany, the true skin of a plant below
the cuticle; also the general integument
as a whole, divided into cuticle and
derma.
EPIGLOTTIS, a cartilaginous valve
which partly closes the aperture of the
larynx.
EPIGRAM, a short poem of a pointed
or antithetical character, or any short
composition expressed neatly and happily
or antithetically. Epigram was the name
given by the Greeks to a poetic inscrip-
tion on a public monument, and hence
the word came parsed into its modern
signification. Of the Roman poets, Catul-
lus and Martial are most celebrated for
their epigrams. In cookery, epigrams of
mutton, veal, etc., are small cutlets of
mutton, veal, etc., dressed in a particular
manner.
EPILEPSY, falling sickness. It de-
rives its name, epilepsia, from the sud-
denness of the attack. The leading symp-
toms are a temporary suspension of
consciousness, with a recurring clonic
spasm. Epilepsy may be caused by fear,
passion, etc., or by a blow operating
on the brain; it is often associated with
idiocy and the puerperal state. There is
little hope of cure.
EPILEPTIC COLONIES, establish-
ments modeled on farms in which epilep-
tics inhabit houses surrounded by open
spaces such as gardens and meadows,
and supplemented by factories, schools,
theaters, and churches; giving the pa-
tients occupation and a diversion, and the
opportunity of a life spent largely in
the open. The idea is a modem one and
has been fx'uitful of results. It was first
conceived in Germany and the epileptic
colony at Bielefeld, in Westphalia, the
best known of its kind, provides vdth the
officials and employes for about 4,000
persons. Both sexes are accommodated,
and the tabulated results show that less
than 1 per cent, of the patients have
been allowed to develop insanity. Nearly
10 per cent, are discharged as cured;
over 20 per cent, improve sufficiently to
leave for ordinary duties; 21 per cent,
show no sign of improvement; and 20 per
cent, are released by death. Epileptic
colonies, modeled on that of Bielefeld,
have been established in different parts
of Europe. There are several in Germany,
one in Holland, one in Italy, and one in
Switzerland. The English established
colonies at Chalfont St. Peter in 1894,
and another at Warford, Cheshire, in
1900. The results have been similar to
those noted at Bielefeld. The principles
that lay at the basis of the treatment
of epileptics in Germany had long re-
ceived favorable consideration in the
United States, and in course of time sev-
eral States established farm colonies of a
similar character. There are now such
colonies in New York, Virginia, Indiana,
Michigan, New Jersey, and other States.
The colony at Sonyea, N. Y., was opened
in 1896, covering something like 2,000
acres, with gardens, orchards, woods,
meadows, parks and numerous groups of
buildings, including mills, residences,
churches, libraries, schools, shops, and
barns, and the available means for many
industries. The average attendance is
about 1,500. The census of 1912 showed
745 males, 673 females, of whom 130
males and 97 females were admitted
during the previous year, 146 males and
83 females being discharged, transferred
or died, 4 recovering.
EPILOGUE, the closing speech or
short poem addressed to the audience at
the end of a play. The epilogue, is the
opposite of the prologue, or opening
addi'ess.
EPINAL, chief town of the depart-
ment of the Vosges, France, situated at
the W. base of the Vosges Mountains, on
both banks of the Moselle, and about
260 miles E. S. E. from Paris. It was
in this region that the French forces
attempted to launch an offensive against
the Germans in Alsace-Lorraine, shortly
after the beginning of the World War,
in August, 1914, but were strongly re-
EPIPHANY
36
EPWORTH LEAGUE
pulsed. The French jvere able to hold
their lines just E. of Epinal. Pop. about
30.000.
EPIPHANY (-pif'a-ni), a Church
festival, observed on Jan. 6 in honor of
the adoration of our Saviour by the three
magi, or wise men, who came to adore
Him and bring Him presents, led by the
star. As a separate festival it dates
from 813.
EPIRUS (-pi'rus), a province of an-
cient Greece, now forming the S. part of
Albania. It was separated from Grecian
Illyria by the Ceraunian Mountains, and
by the famous river Pindus from Thes-
saly. The river Acheron, also famous in
mythological story, flowed through its
limits. Here were also the celebrated
temple and sacred grove of Dodona.
Pyrrhus, King of Macedon, was a native
of Epirus, which country passed succes-
sively into the hands of the Romans and
the Turks. It was ceded to Greece by
the Turks in 1881.
EPISCOPAL CHURCH. See PROTES-
TANT Episcopal Church; Reformed
Episcopal Church.
EPITAPH, an inscription on a tomb
or monument in honor or memory of the
dead. Epitaphs were in use both among
the Greeks and Romans. The Greeks
distinguished by epitaphs onh' their il-
lustrious men. Among the Romans they
became a family institution, and private
names were regularly recorded on tomb-
stones. The same practice has generally
prevailed in Christian countries.
EPIZOOTIC, or EPIZOOTIC DIS-
EASE, a disease that at some particular
time and place attacks great numbers of
the lower animals, just as an epidemic
attacks man. Pleuro-pneumonia is often
an epizootic, as was also the rinderpest.
See Epidemic.
EPOCH, in ordinary language, a point
of time from which a new computation
of years is begun. Technical uses :
History. — A point of time in which an
event of such importance takes place that
its influence is powerfully felt in all suc-
ceeding time.
Geology. — The term is sometimes used
for period, as the Tertiary epoch; this
sense of the word is loose and objection-
able, as the term epoch more properly
refers to the moment at which a new
space of time commences than to its
whole duration.
Astronomy. — The longitude which a
planet has at any given moment of time.
To predict this for any future period the
longitude at a certain instant in the past
must be known; that instant is the epoch
of the planet, which is an abbreviation
for its longitude at that epoch.
An epoch and an era are different.
Both mark important events, but an era
is an epoch which is chronologically
dated from; an epoch is not marked in
this way. The birth of Christ and the
Reformation were both of them highly
important epochs in the history of man-
kind; the former, the inconceivably
greater event of the two, gave rise to
the Christian era ; but the Protestant na-
tions and Churches do not any of them
reckon time from the Reformation. The
birth of Christ was, therefore, both an
epoch and an era, the Reformation an
epoch only.
EPSOM, a town in the county of
Surrey, England, 15 miles S. W. of Lon-
don, formerly celebrated for a mineral
spring, from the water of which the well-
known Epsom salts were manufactured.
The principal attraction Epsom can now
boast of is the grand race meeting held
on the Downs, the chief races being the
Derby and Oaks.
EPSOM SALT, sulphate of magnesium
(Mg SO4 7H2O), a cathartic salt which
appears in capillary fibers or acicular
crystals. It is found covering crevices of
rocks, in mineral springs, etc.; but is
commonly prepared by artificial proc-
esses from magnesian limestone by
treating it with sulphuric acid, or by dis-
solving the mineral kieserite (Mg SOi
H2O) in boiling water, allowing the in-
soluble matter to settle, and crystallizing
out the Epsom salt from the clear solu-
tion. It is employed in medicine as a
purgative, and in the arts. See Epsom.
EPSTEIN, JACOB, an American
sculptor. He was born in New York,
1880, and was educated in the New York
public schools. He then took up sculpture
and after producing several minor works
was commissioned in 1907 to execute
eighteen figures to decorate the recently
erected building of the British Medical
Association in London. The work, with
the strongly marked anatomy of the
figures, aroused much adverse criticism,
though it had its defenders. In 1909 he
was commissioned to execute the tomb of
Oscar Wilde for the Pere Lachaise Ceme-
tery, Paris; the tomb was carved out of
Derbyshire marble. Later he decorated
the Church Square, Pretoria, and in 1919
his figure of Christ caused much com-
ment.
EPWORTH LEAGUE, a society of
young people of the Methodist Episcopal
Church; formed May 15, 1889, in Cleve-
land, O., by the union of five societies
afliliated with the Methodist Church. It
adopted as its motto: "Look up, Lift up,"
and its declai'ed object is to "promote
inte)b>ent and loyal piety in the young
EQUATION 87
members and friends of the Church; to
aid them in the attainment of purity of
heart and constant ^owth in grace and
to train them in works of mercy and
help." The league is governed by a board
of control, appointed by the bishops, and
consisting of one bishop, who is Presi-
dent, and one member for each General
Conference District. The general secre-
tary, the assistant-general secretaries for
the German and colored conferences, and
the editor of the "Epworth Herald" are
advisory members. From the United
States the league extended to Japan,
China, India, Norway, Sweden, the Philip-
pines, Burma, Mexico, South America,
Denmark, Finland, Bulgaria, and other
countries. In 1920 there were 30,000
chapters enrolled, with over 2,000,000
members.
EQUATION, a term based on the idea
©f equality.
Algebra. — Two algebraic expressions
which are equal to one another, and are
connected by the sign = . Thus
6X— 13=:22i) + 19.
is an equation ; and, since the equality of
the members depends on the value
assigned to x, it is called an equation of
condition. The two quantities separated
by the sign= are called the members of
the equation; the quantity to the left
of=being the first member, and that to
the right the second. The quantities
separated by the signs + and — are called
the terms of the equation. Of the quan-
tities some are known and the others
unknown. The known quantities are gen-
erally represented by numbers. If letters
be used, then those employed are gen-
erally a, b, c, d, etc. — i. e., letters at or
near the beginning of the alphabet. Un-
known quantities are represented by let-
ters toward the conclusion of the alpha-
bet. If there be one unknown quantity
it is generaly represented by x; if two,
by X and y; and if three, by x, y, and z.
Sometimes a statement that two expres-
sions are equal for all numerical values
that can be assigned to the letters in-
volved, provided that the same value be
given to the same letter in each member,
e. g. —
{x ± a.)'=x' ± 2ax-\-a'.
Such a statement is called an identical
equation, or briefly, an identity. The
solution of an equation is the process
which ultimately results in discovering
and stating the value of the unknown
quantity, which value is the root of the
equation. Equations are classified accord-
ing to the highest power of the unknown
quantity sought. When that quantity
exists only in the first power we have
a simple equation, or one of the first
degree; if there be a square or second
EQUATION
power of the unknown quantity, the
equation becomes a quadratic, or one of
the second degree ; if the third power be
present a cubic equation, or of the third
degree. It is rarely that a higher power
than the cube of the unknown quantity
has to be dealt with. When such cases
occur the equation is biquadratic, or one
of the fourth degree, an equation of the
fifth, of the sixth, of any degree.
Astronomy. — Any sum to be added or
subtracted to allow for an anomaly or a
special circumstance aff'ecting the exact-
ness of a calculation. If, for instance, the
orbit of a planet were calculated on the
supposition that its orbit was circular
when in reality it is elliptical a small
number would require to be added or sub-
tracted to make the calculations accurate.
That small sum would be the astronom-
ical equation. If the movements of the
planets calculated on the supposition that
the only attraction operating on them is
that of the sun, error, though not of a
considerable magnitude, will be the re-
sult. There is a mutual attraction among
all the planets; each is capable of pro-
ducing a perturbation in the orbits of all
the rest. An equation is required for
every such perturbation before it is pos-
sible to calculate accurately the course
of the planet.
Chemistry. — A chemical equation rep-
resents symbolically a chemical reaction,
the symbols of the reacting substances
being placed on the left hand, and the
symbols of the new substances formed by
the reaction being placed on the right
hand. In a chemical equation the number
of atoms of each element must be the
same on each side of the equation, thus,
3AgN03+Na2HPO.=rAg,PO.+2NaN03+
HNO3. Three molecules of argentic
nitrate and one molecule of disodium-hy-
drogen-phosphate equal (that is, form
when added together) one molecule of
triargentic phosphate, and two molecules
of sodium nitrate, and one molecule of
hydrogen nitrate (nitric acid) . Chemical
equations are imperfect, as they do not
show the amount of heat liberated, or
absorbed, during the reaction.
Annual, Personal, Etc. — Annual equa-
tion^ in astronomy, one of the numer-
ous equations requisite in determinfl^
the moon's true longitude; equation ol
the center; the equation required to fix
the place or orbit of a planet calculated
as if it were moving in a circle when it
is doing so really in an ellipse; equa-
tion of the equinoxes; the equation re-
quired to calculate the real position of
the equinoxes from its mean one, the dis-
turbing element being the movement
called precession of the equinoxes; equa-
tion of time, the difference between mean
and apparent time; personal equation,
EQUATOR
38
EQUINOX
the difference between the time at which
an astronomical occurrence takes place
and that at which a fallible observer
notes that it does so; also, the correction
of personal differences between particu-
lar individuals as to exactness in obser-
vations with astronomical instruments;
equation of payments, a rule for ascer-
tc^ining at what time a person should in
equity pay the whole of a debt contracted
in different portions to be repaid at
different times.
EQUATOR, an imaginary great circle
of the celestial vault or on the surface
of the earth.
In Astronomy. — A great circle of the
celestial vault at right angles to its axis,
and dividing it into a northern and
southern hemisphere. It is constituted by
the plane of the earth's equator, pro-
duced in every direction till it reaches the
concave of the celestial sphere. In his
progress north and south, and vice versa,
the sun is twice a year in the celestial
equator — viz., at the Equinoxes (g. v.).
The point in the equator which touches
the meridian is raised above the true
horizon by an arc which is the comple-
ment of the latitude. The sun and
planets all have equators. They rotate
around their several axes, and the plane
at right angles in each case is the equa-
tor of the heavenly body.
In Geography. — A great circle on the
surface of the earth equidistant from its
poles, and dividing it into two hemi-
spheres. Its latitude is zero; it is there-
fore marked on the maps as 0. Other
parallels of latitude are counted from it,
augmenting in their numerical designa-
tion as their distance from it north or
south increases, the poles being 90°. The
plane of the equator is a plane perpen-
dicular to the earth's axis, and passing
through its center.
In Magnetism. — A somewhat irregular
line, nearly but not quite a great circle of
the earth, in which there is no dip of
the magnetic needle. It is hence called
also the aclinic line. It is inclined to the
equator at an angle of 12°, and cuts it at
two points almost exactly opposite to
each other, the one in the Atlantic and
the other in the Pacific. It is not far
from the geographical equator, but its
situation slowly alters year by year,
there being a slow oscillation of the mag-
netic poles, while the geographical equa-
tor and poles are fixed. The two points
in which the magnetic equator cuts the
equator seem traveling at present from
E. to W.
EQUATORIAL, an astronomical in-
strument designed to note the course of
the stars as they move through the sky.
A strong axis is constructed and perma-
nently fixed in a slanting position so as
to point exactly to the North pole of the
heavens. It turns on its axis, carrying
with it a telescope which, if it retained
its relative position to that of the re-
volving portion of the instrument, would
enable an observer looking through it to
see no more than a single great circle of
the sky. It is not, however, fixed to the
revolving portion of the instrument, but
may be moved up or down so that with
it an astronomer can follow the entire
course of a circumpolar star in its pas-
sage around the sky. It is of importance
to ascertain not only the course of a star,
but the apparent rapidity of its move-
ment. This end is attained by attaching
to the axis of the equatorial a racked
wheel in which works an endless screw
or worm, the whole put in motion by an
apparatus furnished with centrifugal
balls, like those of the governor of a
steam engine, and which render the mo-
tion uniform.
EQUATORIAL CURRENT, a current
in the ocean which crosses the Atlantic
from Africa to Brazil, having a breadth
varying from 160 to 450 nautical miles.
Its waters are cooler by 3° or 4° than
those of the ocean under the line. Its
effect, therefore, is to diminish the heat
of the tropics.
EQUATORIAL TELESCOPE, a tele-
scope so mounted as to have a motion in
two planes at right angles to each other;
one parallel to the axis of the earth,
and the other to the equator. Each axis
has a graduated circle, one for measur-
ing declination and the other right ascen-
sion.
EQUINOCTIAL, the same as the
celestial equator. The equinoctial points
are those in which the equinoctial and
the ecliptic intersect. Equinoctial time is
time reckoned from the moment in each
year when the sun passes the vernal
equinox. This instant is selected as a
convenient starting-point of a uniform
reckoning of time for the purposes of
astronomical observers.
EQUINOCTIAL GALE, a gale popu-
larly supposed to occur at the time of
the spring or autumn equinox. Long-con-
tinued observations, however, are decisive
against this popular belief.
EQUINOX, in astronomy, either one
of the two points at which the sun, in its
annual apparent course among the stars,
crosses the equator ; so called because the
days and nights are nearly equal when
the sun is at these points. The vernal
equinox occurs about March 20. When
but one equinox is referred to, vernal
equinox is meant. The autumnal equinox
occurs about Sept. 23.
EQUINOXES, PRECESSION OF 39
ERFURT
EQUINOXES, PRECESSION OF
THE, the motion of the eauinoxes along
the ecliptic due to the cnan^e in the
direction of the earth's axis of rotation,
caused by the attraction of the moon and
sun on the protuberant equatorial ring of
the earth.
EQUITY, in law, the system of supple-
mental law administered in certain
courts, founded on defined rules, I'ecorded
precedents, and established principles,
the judges, however, liberally expound-
ing and developing them to meet new exi-
gencies. While it aims to assist the de-
fects of the common law, by extending
relief to those rights of property which
the strict law does not recognize, and by
giving more ample and distributive re-
dress than the ordinary tribunals afford,
equity by no means either controls, miti-
gates or supersedes the common law, but
rather guides itself by its analogies, and
does not assume any power to subvert its
doctrines. Courts of equity grant redress
to all parties where they have rights,
ex ieguo et bono, and modify and fashion
that redress according to circumstances.
They bring before them all the parties
interested in the subject-matter of the
suit, and adjust the rights of all.
ERA. See Epoch.
ERASED, in heraldry, signifies vio-
lently plucked or torn off, and showing a
ragged edge ; as opposed to couped or cut,
which shows a smooth edge. The term is
chiefly applied to the heads and limbs of
animals.
ERASMUS, DESIDERIUS (-raz'
nous), a Dutch scholar; born in Rotter-
dam in 1467. His original name was
Gerard. At the age of 17 he assumed the
monastic habit; the Bishop of Cambray
delivered him from this constraint. In
1492 he traveled to "Paris to perfect him-
self in theology and polite literature. A
rich Englishman there, Lord Mountjoy,
pensioned him for life. In 1497 he went
to England. He returned soon after to
the Continent, took his doctor's degree,
was relieved from his monastic vows by
dispensation from the Pope, and pub-
lished several of his works. He returned
to England in 1510, resided with Sir
Thomas More, and was appointed Mar-
garet Professor of Divinity and Greek
Lecturer at Cambridge. In 1514 he re-
turned to the Continent. He rendered
gi'eat and lasting service to the cause of
reviving scholarship. Though he took no
direct part in the Reformation, he at-
tacked the disorders of monasticism and
superstition. He edited various classics,
the first edition of the Greek Testament
from MSS. (with Latin translation),
etc., but his best kno^^^l books are the
"Praise of Folly," and his "Colloquies."
He died in Basel, in 1536.
ERCELDOUNE, THOMAS OF (called
the Rhymer, and Learmont), a Scotch
poet and seer, who flourished probably
between 1220 and 1297, and wrote a
poem called "Sir Tristrem." He occupies
a very conspicuous position in the annals
of Anglo-Saxon literature.
ERCKMANN, EMILE (erk'man), a
French novelist; born in Pfalzburg, in
1822; studied law, but early developed
a taste for literature. In 1847 he formed
a literary partnership with Alexandre
Chatrian (born Dec. 18, 1826; died Sept.
5, 1890), and later with him published
successfully the dramas "The Polish
Jew" and "Friend Fritz." But at the
height of their financial success the part-
nership was dissolved through a quarrel.
After the separation Erckmann con-
tinued to write indefatigably, but his
writings were no longer in demand,
owing to the lack of advertisment which
Chatrian had furnished. He died in Lune-
ville, March 14, 1899.
EREBUS. MOUNT, an active volcano
on Victoria Land, in lat. 78° 10' S., rising
12,367 feet above the sea. It was discov-
ered in 1841 by Ross, who named it after
one of his vessels. Captain R. F. Scott's
Antarctic expedition wintered in the
vicinity (1901-1904) and Sir E. Shackle-
ton's party made the ascent in 1908.
ERECHTHEUS (e-rek'thus) , or
ERICHTHONIUS (e-rik-th5'ni-us), an
Attic hero, said to have been the son of
Hephaestus and Atthis, daughter of
Cranaus, the son-in-law and successor of
Cecrops. He was brought up by Athena,
who placed him in a chest, which was in-
trusted to Agraulos, Pandrosos, and
Herse, the daughters of Cecrops, with the
strict charge that it was not to be
opened. Unable to restrain their curi-
osity, they opened the chest, and discov-
ering a child entwined with serpents,
were seized with madness, and threw
themselves down the most precipitous
part of the Acropolis. Afterward Erech-
theus was the chief means of establishing
the worship of Athena in Attica. The
Erechtheum was erected in his own
honor. This original Erechtheum was
burned by the Persians, but a new and
magnificent Ionic temple was raised on
the same site.
ERETRIA (-re'tri-a), an ancient
Ionic trading and colonizing town on the
S. W. coast of Euboea, which was de-
stroyed by the Persians in 490 B. C, and
rebuilt by the Athenians.
ERFURT (ei-'fort), an important
town in the Prussian province of Saxony,
ERIC
on the river Gera, formerly a fortress
with two citadels, now given up as such.
It has a fine cathedral dating from the
13th century and several handsome
Gothic churches. The university, founded
in 1378 and suppressed in 1816, was long
an important institution. There are still
a Royal Academy of Science and a
Royal Library with 60,000 volumes
The monastery (now an orphanage) was
the residence of Luther from 1501 to
1508. Prior to the World War the indus-
tries were varied, including clothing, ma-
chinery, leather, shoes, ironmongery,
chemicals, etc. The horticulture of the
environs enjoyed a high reputation,
plants and seed being produced in great
quantities. Pop. in 1919, 129,646.
ERIC, the name of several Danish
and Swedish kings. ERIC VIL, King of
Denmark; born in 1382, the son of Duke
Wratislaw of Pomerania, was selected as
her successor by Queen Margai-et of Den-
mark, and in 1412 mounted the throne of
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, united
by the treaty of Calmar. Cruel and
cowardly in character, he lost Sweden in
1437 through a revolt of the peasants of
Dalecarlia, and in 1439 was deposed also
in Denmark. He died in Rugenwald in
1459. Eric IX., the Saint, became King
of Sweden in 1155, did much to extend
Christianity in his dominions, and to
improve the laws, and fell in battle with
the Danes in 1160. Eric XIV., the last
of the name who reigned in Sweden, suc-
ceeded in 1560 to the throne of his father,
the great Gustavus Vasa, and at once
began to exhibit the folly that disgraced
his reign. His flighty matrimonial
schemes reached even Elizabeth of Eng-
land, till at length (1567) his roving
fancy found rest in the love of a Swedish
peasant-girl, who acquired an influence
over him which was ascribed by the
superstitious to witchcraft. His capri-
cious cruelties and the disastrous wars
alienated his subjects, who threw off
their allegiance in 1568, and elected his
brother John to the throne. In 1577 he
ended his miserable life by a cup of
poison. His story has been worked into
dramatic form by Swedish poets; in Ger-
man by Kruse in his tragedy, "King
Erich" (1871).
ERICA (-rlTca), the heath, a large
genus of branched rigid shrubs, type of
the natural order Ericacese, most of
which are natives of south Africa, a few
being found in Europe and Asia. The
leaves are narrow and rigid, the flowers
are globose or tubular, and four-lobed.
Five species are found in Great Britain.
ERICSSON. JOHN, an American in-
ventor; born in Langbanshyttan. Sweden,
40 ERIE
July 31, 1803; entered the Swedish army
in 1820; was promoted captain; resigned
in 1827. He soon became known as an
inventor. In 1828 he made the first appli-
cation to navigation of the principle of
condensing steam and returning the
water to the boiler; later he brought out
a self-acting gun-lock by means of which
naval cannon could be automatically dis-
charged at any elevation without regard
to the rolling of the ship. In 1833 he de-
signed a caloric engine; and in 1836 in-
vented the screw propeller, which revolu-
tionized navigation. Ericsson came to the
United States in 1839 and two years
later built the screw-propelling warship
"Princeton" for the government. This
vessel was the pioneer of modern naval
construction and the foundation of the
steam marine of the world. The achieve-
ment, however, which made him famous
in the United States was the construction
in 1861 of the ironclad "Monitor," which
arrived in Hampton Roads just in time
to defeat, on March 9, 1862, the Confed-
erate ironclad "Merrimac." A fleet of
monitors was soon built and did impor-
tant service during the remainder of the
war. Ericsson died in New York City,
March 8, 1889. After his remains had
been paid marked honor, they were sent
back to Sweden on the new cruiser
"Baltimore," and interred with imposing
ceremonies.
ERIDANUS (e-rid'a-nus) , in Greek
legend, the name of the river Po. In
astronomy, one of the 15 ancient S. con-
stellations. It winds like a river through
the sky from the star of the first mag-
nitude, Achernes, in the constellation
Phoenix, past the feet of Cetus, to the
star Rigel in Orion.
ERIE, city, port of entry, and county-
seat of Erie co., Pa., on Lake Erie, and
on the Lake Shore, the Pennsylvania,
the Erie, and several other railroads;
85 miles S. W. of Buffalo; 100 miles
N. E. of Cleveland. Erie is on a bluff,
having a grand view of the lake, is laid
out with broad streets at right angles
with each other, and has several large
and attractive parks. It is lighted with
gas and electricity, and has a bountiful
supply of water from the lake. The
peculiarly advantageous location of
Erie has given it high rank as a ship-
ping and manufacturing point. It has
the largest land-locked harbor on Lake
Erie. The harbor has been greatly im-
proved. Presque Isle, lying directly in
front of the city, furnishes means of
ample protection; three lighthouses
stand at the entrance to the harbor, and
substantial wharves, where merchandise
is transferred directly from vessels to
cars, extend along the entire front. The
EBIE CANAL
41
ERIVAN
principal industries are manufactures of
iron, steam engines, machinery, car-
wheels, car-work, stoves, engines and
boilers, chemicals, blast furnaces, auto-
mobiles, flour and grist mill products,
brick, leather, organ, pump, furniture,
and various kinds of woodwork factories,
and petroleum refineries. The leading
articles of shipment are lumber, bitu-
minous and semi-bituminous coal, iron
ore, petroleum, and manufactured prod-
ucts, and these are conveyed by rail-
roads, steamboats, and sailing vessels
that ply regularly between Erie and
other ports on the great lakes. Among
the notable buildings are the City Hall,
Union Depot, Government Building (in-
cludes PostofRce, Custom House, and
other departments). State Soldiers' and
Sailors* Home on Garrison Hill, Hamot
Hospital, St. Vincent Hospital, Protes-
tant Home for the Friendless, United
States Marine Hospital, and Central
School. Near the city is a memorial in
the form of a block house, erected by
the State, in honor of Anthony Wayne.
The city has excellent public schools, a
public library, daily and weekly news-
papers, 3 National and several sav-
ings banks. Erie occupies the site of a
French fort, called Fort de la Presque,
built in 1753, was laid out as a
town in 1795; had a portion incorpo-
rated as a borough in 1805; and the
whole was given a city charter in 1851.
It was the headquarters of Commodore
Perry in the War of 1812; the fleet with
which he defeated the British in the
battle of Put-in-Bay was built and
equipped here. Natural gas was dis-
covered in 1889. Pop. (1910) 66,525;
(1920) 93,372.
ERIE CANAL, the largest artificial
waterway in the United States, serving
to connect the great lakes with the sea.
It begins at Buffalo on Lake Erie, and
extends to the Hudson at Albany. It is
387 miles long; has in all 72 locks; a
surface width of 70 feet, bottom width
of 42 feet, and depth of 7 feet. It is
carried over several large streams on
stone aqueducts and was opened in 1825.
See New York State Barge Canal.
ERIE, LAKE, one of the great chain
of North American lakes, between Lakes
Huron and Ontario, about 265 miles
long, 63% miles broad at its center,
from 200 to 270 feet deep at the deepest
part; area, 9,600 square miles. The
whole of its S. shore is within the terri-
tory of the United States, and its N.
within that of Canada. It receives the
waters of the upper lakes by Detroit
river at its S. W. extremity, and dis-
charges its waters into Lake Ontario by
the Niagara river at its N. E. end. The
Welland Canal enables vessels to pass
from it to Lake Ontario. It is shallow
compared with the other lakes of the
series, and is subject to violent storms.
The principal harbors are those on the
United States side — Buffalo, Erie, Cleve-
land, etc.
ERIE, LAKE, BATTLE OF. In the
War of 1812, between the United States
and Great Britain, each party tried to
gain possession of Lakes Erie and On-
tario as a theater for warlike opera-
tions. The chief command of the naval
force on Lake Ontario was held by Com-
modore Chauncey, and that on Lake
Erie by Master-Commandant Oliver
Hazard Perry, of Rhode Island, then
only 27 years old. Perry fitted out a
squadron of seven vessels at Erie, and
succeeded in running the British block-
ade early in August, 1813. On Sept. 10
following he engaged in a fight in Put-
in-Bay, near the W. extremity of the
lake, with the British squadron of 6 ves-
sels, mounting 63 guns. A fierce battle
was waged for several hours, in the
early part of which Perry's flagship, the
"Lawrence," was completely disabled
and struck her flag. He immediately
shifted his flag to the "Niagara," and
continued in action, finally defeating the
British and establishing American su-
premacy on the lakes.
ERIGENA, JOANNES SCOTXJS (e-rij'
e-na), an eminent scholar and meta-
physician; probably born in Ireland
about 800-810. He spent a great part
of his life at the court of Charles the
Bald of France, and was placed at the
head of the school of the palace. The
king further imposed on him the double
task of translating into Latin the Greek
works of the pseudo Dionysius the Are-
opagite, and of composing a treatise
against Godeschalc on "Predestination
and Free-will." This treatise, and an-
other, "Of the Division of Nature," con-
tained many views in opposition to the
teachings of the Church. They were
condemned by the councils of Valencia
in 855 and of Langi-es in 859, and Pope
Nicholas I. demanded the immediate dis-
grace of the culprit. He died in France
about 875.
ERIN, an old name for Ireland. Now
used only in poetry.
ERINYES. The Furies, q. v.
ERIVAN, a strongly fortified city of
Armenia, and the capital of the former
Russian government of Transcaucasia,
3,000 feet above sea-level, and 170 miles
S. W. of Tiflis. The province of the
same name has an area of about 10,700
square miles, formerly bordering on
ERLANGEN"
42
ERNST
Persia and Asiatic Turkey. The popu-
lation of the city, before the war, was
about 33,000, and that of the province
about 970,000, being about equally di-
vided between Mohammedans and Chris-
tian Armenians. During the Russian
campaigns against Asiatic Turkey, in
the World War, Erivan was one of the
bases of the Russian forces. In 1920
Erivan became the economic center of
the new Armenian Republic, here being
established the central wholesale supply
depot of the co-operative societies which
were exclusively supplying the people
with food stuffs.
ERLANGEN, a city of Bavaria, about
fifteen miles N. N. W. of Nuremberg, on
the Regnitz. Important manufacturing
plants are located here, principally turn-
ing out woolen and cotton goods, glass-
ware, gloves, and beer. The city was
Prussian from 1791 until 1810, when it
became Bavarian. It is noted as the
location of the Friedrich-Alexander Uni-
versity, which, before the World War,
had an average student body of 1,350
The volumes in the local library num-
ber a quarter of a million. Pop. about
25,000.
ERLANGEN, UNIVERSITY OF, an
institution for higher education, situated
in the town of the same name in Ba-
varia. Founded in 1743 by Frederick,
malgrave of Bayreuth, its main building
was formerly the palace of the mar-
graves in Erlangen. It has four facul-
ties : philosophy, law, medicine, and Prot-
estant theology. Many institutions of
learning are connected with the univer-
sity, among these being extensive clini-
cal and anatomical laboratories. The
library contains over 200,000 volumes.
ERMINE, in zoology, the ermine
weasel, a small mammal. The body in
summer is reddish-brown above and
white beneath, and in winter is wholly
white, except the extremity of the tail,
which all the year round is black. It is
found in the arctic and temperate parts
of Europe, becoming more abundant as
one travels N. It occurs also in the cor-
responding parts of North America,
ranging as far S. as the middle of the
United States. It frequents stony places
and thickets, and is active, fierce and
blood-thirsty. It is called also the stoat.
It is obtained from Russia in Europe,
Norway, Siberia, Lapland, and also,
though to a less extent than formerly,
in North America. The word is used
figuratively to designate the office, posi-
tion, or dignity of a judge (from his
state robe being ornamented or bordered
with ermine). In heraldry it designates
one of the furs, represented by black
spots of a particular shape on a white
ground.
ERMLAND, or ERMELAND, a dio-
cese of East Prussia, in the district of
Konigsberg, with the episcopal seat at
Braunsberg. It was formerly under th©
administrative control of Poland, but
after the partition of that kingdom, in
1772, was assigned to Prussia.
ERNE, one of the "bare-legged" eagles.
The genus includes some seven species,
represented apparently in all parts of
the world except South America. The
common erne or white-tailed sea-eagle
is widely distributed in northern Europe
and Asia. It occurs in Great Britain,
but is rare. Another notable species is
the white-headed or bald eagle, the em-
blem of the United States. This erne
is common in North America, both by
the coasts and by inland lakes, and also
occurs in northern Europe. The gen-
eral color is brown, but the head and
neck of the adults are milky-white, and
the same is true of the rounded tail.
The size is slightly less than that of the
British species. The white-bellied sea-
eagle, found round the Australian coasts,
and from Ceylon to Cochin-China, and
the Asiatic erne, are other important
species.
ERNE, LOUGH, a lake in Ireland,
county Fermanagh, consisting of a N.
or lower, and a S. or upper lake (with
the town of Enniskillen between), con-
nected by a narrow, winding channel,
and properly forming only expansions
of the river Erne. Its entire length is
about 40 miles; average breadth 6 miles.
It contains numerous islands, and is well
stocked with fish.
ERNEST AUGUSTUS, King of Han-
over and Duke of Cumberland, the fifth
son of George III.; born in 1771. _ He
became a field-marshal in the British
army, and on the death of William IV.
in 1837, ascended the throne of Hanover,
in consequence of the succession to the
sovereignty of that country being lim-
ited to male heirs. He was succeeded by
his son George V., the last of the Hano-
verian kings. He died in 1851.
ERNST, OSWALD HERBERT, an
American soldier, born near Cincinnati
in 1842. He attended Harvard College
for two years and graduated from the
United States Military Academy in
1864. In the same year he was appointed
1st lieutenant of engineers. He rose
through the various grades, in 1898 be-
coming a brigadier-general. With this
rank he served in the volunteers during
the Spanish-American War. He was
promoted to be major-general in 1916.
EROS
His active service included several cam-
paigns in the Civil War, where he served
as assistant chief engineer with the
Army of Tennessee. He was instructor
in practical military engineering at
West Point from 1871 to 1878, and from
that year until 1886 he was engineer in
charge of Western river improvements.
For 3 years following he had charge of
the harbor improvements on the Texas
coast, where he began the great work
which resulted in the deepening of the
channel at the entrance to Galveston
harbor. He served on various boards
from 1880 to 1906. From 1893 to 1898
he was superintendent of the United
States Military Academy. He was a
member of the Isthmian Canal Commis-
sion from 1899 to 1901, and again in
1905 and 1906. From 1903 to 1906 he
was president of the Mississippi River
Commission. He retired from active
service in 1906. He wrote "Manual of
Practical Military Engineering" and
other works on engineering subjects.
EBOS, the Greek equivalent of the
Latin Cupid, the god of love.
ERSKINE, JOHN, an American edu-
. cator, born in New York City in 1879.
. He graduated from Columbia University
in 1900 and was in turn instructor of
English, assistant professor, and asso-
ciate professor of English at Amherst,
serving until 1909, when he became
adjunct professor of English at Colum-
bia University. He was appointed full
professor in 1916. He wrote several
volumes of poems and was a frequent
contributor to magazines on literary
subjects. He was coeditor of the Cam-
bridge History of American Literature,
1917-1919. In 1918-1919 he was chair-
man of the Army Education Commission
of the American Expeditionary Forces,
and was educational director of the
American Expeditionary Forces Univer-
sity at Beaune, France, in 1919.
ERSKINE, THOMAS, a Scotch baron;
born in Edinburgh, Jan. 21, 1750; be-
came a noted forensic orator and jurist,
attaining most of his renown as a
pleader in support of the accusations of
corruption made against Lord Sand-
wich; later he added to his success by
his defense of Stockdale, Hardy, Thomas
Paine, Home Tooke, and others. He
was a member of the House of Commons
in 1790-1806. About the latter date he
was created Baron Erskine of Restor-
mel, on becoming lord-chancellor. He
died near Edinburgh, Nov. 17, 1823.
ERVINE, ST. JOHN GREER, an
Irish dramatist and novelist. He was
born at Belfast in 1883 and first came
into notice in connection with the Abbey
43 ERZERUM
Theater, Dublin, which in 1913 produced
his one-act play, "The Magnanimous
Lover," written by him in 1907. In 1910
he wrote a four-act play, "Mixed Mar-
riage," produced by the Abbey Theater
in 1911. Other of his plays are "John
Ferguson," played with gi-eat success in
New York in 1919, and "Jane Clegg,"
played in New York in 1920. His novels
include: "Mrs. Martin's Man," "Alice
and a Family," "Changing Winds," and
"The Foolish Lovers." He was trooper
in the Household Battalion in the
World War; after serving as 2d lieu-
tenant, Dublin Fusiliers, was wounded,
May, 1918, and invalided home. He
wrote a political study, "Sir Edward
Carson and the Ulster Movement," and
he lectured in the United States in 1920.
ERYSIPELAS, a peculiar inflamma-
tion of the skin, spreading with great
rapidity; the parts affected are of a
deep red color, with a diffused swelling
of the underlying cutaneous tissue and
cellular membrane, and an indisposition
to take on healthy action. Erysipelas is
divided into: (1) Simple, where the skin
only is affected; (2) Phlegmonous, where
the cutaneous and areolar tissues are
both attacked at the same time, going on
to vesication, then yellowness, and death
of the skin; death of the areolar tissue
may follow, constituting malignant or
gangrenous erysipelas; (3) (Edematous,
or sub-cutaneous, of a yellowish, dark
brown, or red color, occurring about the
eyelids, scrotum, or legs, usually in
broken-down dropsical constitutions. The
first is superficial and sthenic, the other
forms more deep-seated and asthenic.
Some physicians speak highly of poul-
tices of Phytolacca leaves, while others
recommend topical applications of some
form of iron in tincture. The constitu-
tional treatment is mainly restorative.
ERYX, an ancient city and a mountain
in the W. of Sicily, about 2 miles from
the sea-coast. The mountain, now
Monte San Giuliano, rises direct from
the plain to a height of 2,184 feet. On
the summit anciently stood a celebrated
temple of Venus. All traces of the
ancient town of Eryx have now disap-
peared, and its site is occupied by the
modern town of San Giuliano.
ERZERUM (erz-rom'), an important
town in the Armenian Republic, in lat.
39° 55' N. and Ion. 41° 20' E., not far
from the Kara-Su, or W. source of the
Euphrates. It is situated on a high but
tolerably well cultivated plain, 6,200
feet above the level of the sea, sur-
rounded by mountains. The climate is
cold in winter, but hot and dry in sum-
mer. In November, 1901, an earthquake
EBZGEBIBGE
44
ESCAPEMENT
destroyed over 1,000 houses, with a small
loss of life. During the World War
important operations were carried on
around the city. The Russians captured
it in February, 1916, following its evacu-
ation by the Turkish garrison. Pop.
variously estimated from 50,000 to 100,-
000.
ERZGEBIRGE (erts'ge-ber-ge) , or
ORE MOUNTAINS, a chain of European
mountains forming a natural boundary
between Saxony and Bohemia, nearly
120 miles in length and 25 miles broad.
The highest summits, which are on the
side of Saxony, rise to 3,800 or 3,900
feet. The mountains are rich in silver,
iron, copper, lead, cobalt, arsenic, etc.
ERZINGAN, a city of Armenia, for-
merly capital of a sandjak, in the vilayet
of Erzerum, Asiatic Turkey, 86 miles
S. E. of Erzerum, a strongly fortified
town, situated at an altitude of 3,900
feet, and about a mile from the right
bank of the Euphrates, the center of a
very fertile plain, where wheat, fruit.
Genesis. He was the progenitor of the
Edmonites, who dwelt on Mount Seir.
ESCALATOR, an elevator in the form
of a moving stairway. It is the most
efficient machine for handling people in
large numbers when the distance to be
traveled is not excessive. The passen-
gers travel on the moving treads and a
single large-size escalator will deliver
more than 10,000 persons per hour. Its
use is principally for department stores,
railroad and subway stations, theaters,
and for large manufacturing plants
where great numbers of employees must
be transported quickly between the en-
trance to the building and the upper
floors. They are made reversible for
operation in opposite directions during
different periods of the day.
ESCANABA, a city and county-seat
of Delta CO., Mich., on the N. end of
Green Bay, at the mouth of the Esca-
naba river, and on the Chicago and
Northwestern railroad ; 52 miles N. E. of
Marinette. It is the grain and vegetable
ESCALATOR — CLEAT TYPE
wines, and cotton are produced in large
quantities. Iron and sulphur springs
are also abundant in the vicinity. It
was the object of a special campaign by
the Russian Caucasian Army, which re-
sulted in its capture by the Russians on
July 25, 1916. Since the war it has
become part of the territory of the new
Armenian state. Pop. about 18,000, half
being Mohammedans and half Christian
Armenians.
ESATT, the eldest son of Isaac, and
twin brother of Jacob. His name (which
signifies rough, hairy) was due to his
singular appearance at birth, being
"red, and all over like an hairy gar-
ment." His story is told in the book of
raising and lumbering center of the
county and an important iron-shipping
point. It has passenger and freight
steamer connections with all the leading
ports on the Great Lakes, public high
school, St. Joseph's high school, public
library, daily and weekly newspapers,
and a National bank. Pop. (1910)
13,194; (1920) 13,103.
ESCAPEMENT, a device intervening
between the power and the time-meas-
urer in a clock or watch, to convert a
continuous rotary into an oscillating
isochronous movement. It is acted on
by each. Clocks and watches are gener-
ally named according to the form of
their escapement; as, chronometer,
ESCHATOLOGY
46
ESK
crown wheel, cylinder, deadbeat, de-
tached, duplex, horizontal, and lever
escapement, etc.
ESCHATOLOGY (es-ka-), in theol-
ogy, the "doctrine respecting the last
things," which treats of the millennium,
the second advent of Christ, the resur-
rection, judgment, conflagration of the
world, and the final state of the dead.
ESCHENBACH, WOLFRAM VON
(esh'en-biich), a German mediaeval poet;
born of a noble family in Eschenbach,
near Ansbach, Bavaria, in the second
half of the 12th century. He was one
of the most prominent minstrels at the
was begun in 1563 and finished in 1584,
and was intended to serve as a palace,
mausoleum, and monastery. It has a
splendid chapel with three naves 320
feet long and 320 in height to the top of
the cupola. The pantheon, or royal
tomb, is a magnificently decorated octa-
gon chamber 36 feet in diameter by 38
feet in height, in the eight sides of which
are numerous black marble sarcophagi.
Its library, previous to the sack by the
French in 1808, contained 30,000 printed
and 4,300 MS. volumes, mainly treasures
of Arabic literature. In 1872 the escurial
was struck by lightning and partially
burned.
ESCALATOR — STEP TYPE
court of Hermann, Landgraf of Thurin-
gia ; and his epics rank among the great-
est German imaginative works. Besides
several love songs he wrote "Parcival,"
"Wilhelm von Orange," and "Titurel."
He died between 1218 and 1225.
ESCHWEILER, city of Prussia,
situated on the Inde, eight miles N. E.
of Aix-la-Chapelle, in the Rhine prov-
ince. It is the center of a rich wine-
producing region. Following the armi-
stice which concluded the World War,
it became part of the territory occupied
by the Allied forces as a guarantee of
the fulfillment of the provisions of the
Treaty of Peace.
ESCXJRIAL (es-kii'ri-al), a famous
monastery of New Castle, Spain, in the
province of Madrid. This solitary pile
of granite has been called the eighth
wonder of the world, and at the time of
its erection surpassed every other build-
ing of the kind in size and magnificence.
It owes its origin, it is said, to an in-
spired vow made by Philip II. during
the battle of St. Quentin, who promised
St. Lorenzo that, should victory be
granted to him, he would dedicate a
monastery to the saint. The escurial
Vol. IV — Cyo — D
ESDRAELON, PLAIN OF (ez-dra-
e'lon), a plain extending across Pales-
tine from the Mediterranean to the Jor-
dan, and drained by the river Kishon.
Among its subsidiai'y valleys are those
of Engannin, Taanach. and Megiddo.
This plain is celebrated for many im-
portant events in Old Testament history.
ESDRAS, BOOKS OF, two apocry-
phal books, which in the Vulgate and
other editions are incoi-porated with the
canonical books of Scripture. In the
Vulgate the canonical books of Ezra and
Nehemiah are called the first ana sec-
ond, and the apocryphal books the third
and fourth books of Esdras. The Geneva
Bible (1560) first adopted the present
nomenclature, calling the two apocry-
phal books first and second Esdras. The
subject of the first book of Esdras is the
same as that of Ezra and Nehemiah, and
in general it appears to be copied from
the canonical Scriptures. The second
book of Esdras is supposed to have been
either of much later date, or to have
been interpolated by Christian writers.
ESK (Celtic for water), the name
of two small rivers in England, one in
Cumberland and one in Yorkshire; and
ESKILSTUNA
46
ESKIMO
of several in Scotland, the chief being
the Esk in Dumfriesshire; the North Esk
and South Esk in Forfarshire; and the
North Esk and South Esk in Edinburgh-
shire.
ESKILSTUNA, a city of Sweden,
situated on the Eskilstuna river, about
60 miles W. of Stockholm. It is noted
for its large steel manufacturing plants,
in which are produced fine cutlery and
small arms. A large gun factory is
located on an island in the river. Pop.
about 30,000.
ESKIMO, the name of the inhabit-
ants of the N. coast of the American
continent down to lat, 60° N. on the W.,
and 55° on the E., and of the Arctic
Islands, Greenland, and about 400 miles
of the nearest Asiatic coast. They prefer
the vicinity of the seashore. Their num-
ber scarcely amounts to 40,000. Never-
theless they are scattered as the sole
native occupants of regions stretching
from E. to W. as far as 3,200 miles in
a straight line.
Race. — They used to be classed among
nations of the Mongolian stock; but now
they are considered as akin to the Amer-
ican Indians. Their height nearly equals
the average of the N. W. Indians. They
appear comparatively taller sitting than
standing. Their hands and feet are
small, their faces oval, but rather broad
in the lower part; their skin is only
slightly brown; they have coarse black
hair and very little beard. The skull is
high.
Habits. — The Eskimos get their sub-
sistence mostly from hunting by sea,
using for this purpose skin boats where
the sea is open, and dog sledges on the
ice. From the skin, blubber, and flesh
of the seal and the cetaceous animals,
they procure clothes, fuel, light, and
food. Their most interesting as well as
important invention for hunting is the
well-known small skin boat for one man,
called a kayak. It is formed of a frame-
work covered with skin, and, together
with his waterproof jacket, it completely
protects the man against the waves, so
that he is able to rise unhurt by means
of his paddle, even should he capsize. A
Greenlander's kayak is almost 18 feet
long and 2 feet broad, and can carry
200 pounds besides the man. The spe-
cial weapon of the kayak is the large
harpoon, connected by a line with an
inflated bladder. The hunter throws it
when but 25 feet from the seal, and at
once drops the bladder overboard, thus
retarding the speed of the wounded ani-
mal, which runs off with it till finally
killed by a lance-thrust. Their winter
dwellings vary with regard to the mate-
rials of which they are built, as well as
in their form. In the farthest W. they
are constructed mostly of planks, cov-
ered only with a layer of tui-f or sod;
in Greenland the walls consist of stones
and sod; in the central regions the
houses are formed merely out of snow.
In Alaska the interior is a square room,
surrounded by the sleeping places, with
the entrance on one side, while a hearth
with wood as fuel occupies the middle
of the floor. In Greenland the room is
heated only by lamps, and the sleeping
places or family stalls are arranged in
a row occupying one of its sides. The
number of inhabitants at an Eskimo
station is generally under 40.
Dress. — The dress of the Eskimos is
almost the same for the women as for
the men, consisting of trousers or
breeches and a tunic or coat fitting close
to the body, made of skins, and covering
also the head by a prolongation that
forms the hood. For women with chil-
dren to carry, this hood is widened so
as to make it an excellent cradle, the
amaut.
Language. — The language is charac-
terized by the power of expressing in
one word a whole sentence in which are
embodied a number of ideas which in
other languages require separate words.
The Greenland dictionary contains 1,370
radicals and about 200 affixes. A radi-
cal may be made the foundation of thou-
sands of derivatives, and a word can be
composed which expresses with perfect
distinctness what in our civilized lan-
guages might require 20 words. In
Greenland and Labrador the mission-
aries have adapted the Roman letters
for reducing the native language to
writing.
Sociology. — It is doubtful whether an
organization like that of the Indian
"families" has been discovered among
the Eskimos. But a division into tribes,
each with their separate territories, ac-
tually exists. The tribe again is divided
into groups constituting the inhabit-
ants of the different wintering places.
Finally, in the same station, the inhabit-
ants of the same house are closely
united with regard to common house-
keeping. In this, and perhaps similar
ways, their general communism in liv-
ing, characteristic of their stage of cul-
ture, is governed by rules for partner-
ship in householding, for distribution of
the daily game during the winter, and
for the possessions of the individual, the
family, the housemates, and the place-
fellows. One of the oldest and most
respectable men, called in Greenland itok,
in Labrador angajorkak, is obeyed as
chief of a house or wintering place,
though his authority, perhaps, may rest
on tacit agreement only.
ESMOND
47
ESSAD TOPTANI
Religion. — The inhabitants of Danish
West Greenland, numbering about 10,000,
the greater part of the Labradorians,
and the southern Alaska Eskimos are
Christianized. As for the rest, the re-
ligion of the Eskimos is what is generally
designated as Shamanism.
The name Eskimo is said to be formed
by corruption out of an Indian word sig-
nifying "eaters of raw meat." They
call themselves Inuit, in Greenland
partly Kaladlit. Their origin generally
has been derived from Asia, but now
they are believed by some to have come
from the interior of America. The
Eskimos may be divided into the follow-
ing groups: (1) The Western Eskimos,
inhabiting the Alaska territory and the
Asiatic side of Bering Strait; (2) the
Mackenzie Eskimos, or Tchiglits, from
Barter Island to Cape Bathurst; (3) the
inhabitants of the central regions, in-
cluding the Arctic Archipelago; (4) the
Labradorians; (5) the Greenlanders. A
side branch inhabits the Aleutian
Islands.
ESMOND. HENRY V., an Eng-
lish actor and playwright, whose real
name was Jack, born at Hampton Court,
England, in 1869. He was educated pri-
vately and went on the stage in 1885.
Since 1896, however, he turned to the
writing of plays, many of which were
successful. They include "One Sum-
mer's Day" (1897) ; "The Wilderness"
(1901); "When We Were Twenty-One"
(1901); "Under the Greenwood Tree"
(1907) ; "The Dangerous Age" (1914) ;
and others. Many of his plays were
produced with great success in the
United States.
ESPARTO, a plant growing in
Spain, Algeria, Tripoli, Tunis, and
northern Africa, long applied to the
manufacture of cordage, matting, etc.,
and now extensively used for paper-
making. This plant is a species of gi'ass
2 to 4 feet high, covering large tracts in
its native regions, and also cultivated,
especially in Spain.
ESPIRITO SANTO, a state of Bra-
zil, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on
the E. It has an area of 17,310 square
miles. The coast region is for the most
part swampy, but there are cliffs in the
S. The interior is mountainous, with
an elevation reaching 7,000 feet. The
chief river is the Rio Doce, which divides
the state into two parts. The soil is
well adapted for cultivation. The chief
products are sugar cane and coffee.
There are also considerable quantities
of cotton and rice. The principal export
is coffee. Rare woods and di-ugs are
obtained from the forests. Fishing is
an important occupation of the people.
There is no mining, but there are valu-
able deposits of marble and lime. The
state has about 50 miles of railway.
Pop. (1917) 482,308. The capital is
Victoria.
ESQUIMALT (tski-mo), a seaport
and harbor of British Columbia, on the
S. E. coast of Vancouver Island, and on
the Strait of San Juan de Fuca; 4 miles
from Victoria. The harbor is extensive
and capable of receiving vessels of the
greatest size, and is the British naval
station for this part of the Pacific coast.
It has a navy yard, marine hospital, a
large dry dock built by the Dominion
Government in 1888, and a meteorological
station. In 1894 the British Government
constructed elaborate defenses at Esqui-
malt. In 1908 the Canadian Govern^
ment took over the military charge of
forts, etc. The harbors of both Esqui-
malt and Victoria are kept thoroughly
mined and wired, and constitute one of
the best defended naval stations in the
world. Pop. about 3,000.
ESQUIRE, originally, a shield-bearer
or armor-bearer, an attendant on a
knight ; hence, in modern times a title
of dignity next in degree below a knight.
In England this title is given properly
to the younger sons of noblemen, to offi-
cers of the king's courts and oi the
household, to counsellors at law, justices
of the peace while in commission, sher-
iffs, gentlemen who have held commis-
sions in the army and navy, etc. Both
there and in the United States in the
addresses of letters esquire may be put
as a complimentary adjunct to almost
any person's name. In heraldry the
helmet of an esquire is represented side-
ways with the visor closed.
ESSAD TOPTANI. PASHA, an Al-
banian soldier and military leader, born
near Durazzo, about 1863. He served
in the Turkish army and rose to the
command of the gendarmerie of Con-
stantinople. He fought in the war
against Greece in 1897, and for his serv-
ices was given the title Pasha. He
killed the agent who had been ordered by
the Sultan Abdul Hamid to murder his
brother, Ghani Toptani, but his influence
was so great that Abdul Hamid feared
to punish him. Essad was instead trans-
ferred to Janina, where he rose to the
rank of general. He joined the Young
Turk movement in 1908 and was among
the leaders who opposed Abdul Hamid.
During the Balkan War he defended
Scutari against the Montenegrins, and
when the Great Powers declared for the
self-government of Albania, he declared
for the independence of that country. In
ESSEN 48
1913 he was a member of the provisional
Albanian Government, and in 1914 was
appointed Minister of War and of the
Interior. He was assassinated in Paris
in 1920.
ESSEN, a town of Rhenish Prussia,
18 miles N. E. of Diisseldorf, founded
in the 9th century, and adorned with
a fine church dating from 873. It in-
creased with great rapidity, and is
celebrated for the steel and iron works
of the Krupps, the most extensive in
Europe. This great establishment was
started in 1827, w'th only two workmen.
During the World War Essen was one of
the most important of the German cities.
At the Krupp works were produced vast
quantities of armament and munitions.
Attempts, some very successful, were
made by Allied aviators to damage and
destroy the works. Following peace, the
works were devoted to the manufacture
of various steel products. In the suburbs
are the "colonies" — cottages, churches,
schools, stores, libraries, places of amuse-
ment, homes for the superannuated and
disabled workmen, etc., established by
the Krupps for their workmen. Pop.
about 400,000.
ESSENCE, in philosophy, originally
the same as substance. Later, sub-
stance came to be used for the undeter-
mined substratum of a thing, essence
for the qualities expressed in the defini-
tion of a thing; or, as Locke put it, "Es-
sence may be taken for the very being
of a thing, whereby it is what it is."
In chemistry, and in popular parlance,
essences are solutions of the essential
oils in alcohol. The term has, however,
received a wider significance, and is ap-
plied to any liquid possessing the prop-
erties of the substance of which it pro-
fesses to be the essence. Thus essences
of coffee, beef, and rennet contain in a
concentrated form the virtues of coffee,
beef, and rennet.
ESSENES (es-senz'), or ESSiEANS,
a sect among the Jews, the origin of
which is unknown, as well as the etymol-
ogy of their name. It appears to have
sprung up in the course of the century
preceding the Christian era, and disap-
peared on the dispersion of the Jews
after the siege of Jerusalem. They were
remarkable for their strictness and ab-
stinence, and had a rule of life analogous
to that of a monastic order.
ESSENTIAL OILS, volatile oils usually
drawn from aromatic plants by subject-
ing them to distillation with waters, such
as the oils of lavender, cloves, pepper-
mint, etc.
ESSEQUIBO (es-se-ke'bo) , a river of
British Guiana, which flows into the At-
ESSLINGEN
lantic by an estuary 20 miles in width
after a course of about 450 miles. The
district or division of Essequibo is well
cultivated and extremely fertile, produc-
ing coffee, cotton, cocoa, and sugar. Pop.
36,000.
ESSEX, a maritime county of Eng-
land, with an area of 1,530.5 squar.3
miles, and a coast line of 85 miles. The
surface of the coast is low and marshy;
but from the center to the north is un-
dulating and well wooded. There is a
considerable amount of good agricultu-
ral land, and wheat and barley are
largely grown. Stock raising is also im-
portant. Its manufactures include chem-
icals, railroad machinery, agricultural
implements, brewing, fishing, and oyster
fishing. Pop. about 1,400,000.
ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX,
EARL OF, an English soldier; born in
1591. When 11 years old he was re-
stored by James I. to the rank and titles
held by his father, the 2d earl, and be-
came a companion of the young Prince
of Wales, and when 15 years of age was
married to Frances Howard, daughter
of the Earl of Suffolk, from whom he
was divorced in 1613. He served in the
army of the elector palatine in Holland
1620-1623, was vice-admiral of an un-
successful naval expedition against Ca-
diz in 1625, and was lieutenant-general
of an army sent by King Charles against
the Scotch Covenanters in 1639. Espous-
ing the cause of the Parliament against
the king, he was appointed to the com-
mand of the parliamentary army at the
beginning of the civil war, was victorious
over Charles at Edgehill in 1642, cap-
tured Reading in 1643, and relieved
Gloucester, but lost the greater part of
his army in 1644. He urged the im-
peachment of Cromwell before the House
of Lords in 1645, and had to resign his
commission. An annuity of £10,000 was
settled on him for life. He died in 1646.
ESSLING, a village in Lower Austria
on the Danube, 6 miles below Vienna,
near which a battle was fought May 21-
22, 1809, between the French and Aus-
trians, in which the former were vic-
torious. Marshal Lannes was killed in
this battle. Marshal Massena receiving
the title of the Prince of Essling.
ESSLINGEN, a city of Wiirttemberg,
situated on the Neckar, seven miles E. S.
E. of Stuttgart. The largest machine
shops of Wiirttemberg are located here,
employing, before the World War, about
2,200 men. It also manufactures gold
and silver ware, cotton goods, and is the
center of a region producing the famous
Neckar wine. Pop. about 32,000.
ESTABLISHED CHURCH
49
ESTERHAZY
ESTABLISHED CHURCH, a Church
having a form of doctrine and govern-
ment established by law in any country
for the teaching of Christianity within
its boundaries, and usually endowed by
the state. The upholders of the estab-
lishment theory maintain that it is the
duty of a state to provide for the re-
ligious instruction of the people. On the
other hand it is argued that the state has
no right to endow or support any partic-
ular sect or denomination, unless they
assume that the denomination alone is
possessed of religious truth and worth.
ESTAING (es-tanO , CHARLES HEC-
TOR, COMTE D', a French army and
navy officer; born in 1729. He entered the
French army as colonel of infantry; was
promoted Brigadier-General in 1757; ac-
companied the expedition of Comte de
Lally to the East Indies, and was cap-
tured at the siege of Madras, 1759. He
was released on parole, and without
awaiting exchange took command of sev-
eral men-of-war, and greatly harassed
the English in various parts of the East.
On his return to France in 1760, he
accidentally fell into the hands of the
English, and was imprisoned in Ports-
mouth. In 1763 he was appointed Lieu-
tenant-General, and in 1777 vice-admiral
in the French navy. In 1778, in accord-
ance with the treaty between France and
the United States, France fitted out^ a
fleet of 12 ships of the line and 4 frig-
ates to aid the latter in the struggle
against Great Britain, and Estaing was
placed in command. He sailed April 13,
reached Delaware Bay in July, and then
proceeded to New York, expecting to en-
counter the British fleet on the way. He
captured some prizes off the coast of
New Jersey, agreed to assist in a land
and sea attack on Newport to expel the
British from Rhode Island, but was un-
able to carry out his plans. Subsequent-
ly he captured St. Vincent and Grenada,
West Indies, and in 1779 co-operated
with General Lincoln in an ineffectual
attempt to capture Savannah, Ga. He
returned to France in 1780; commanded
the allied fleets of France and Spain in
1783; was elected to the assembly of
nobles in 1787 ; appointed to the command
of the national guard in 1789; chosen
admiral of the navy in 1792; testified in
favor of Marie Antoinette at her trial
in 1793; and was condemned as a royal-
ist and guillotined in 1794.
ESTATE, a term ordinarily applied to
designate landed property. The applica-
tion has its origin in the feudal system,
under which land was not conceived as
being capable of absolute ownership but
as the property of the Crown, of which
subjects were the tenants. The interest
of a particular tenant in a piece of land
was thus known as his status or estate
in reference to it, and this interest was
considered to be limited, partly by the
nature of land itself, and partly by the
reversionary interest of the Crown. The
term had not at first the wide application
which modern usage has given to it. It
was in the beginning employed as appli-
cable only to lands held on a freehold
basis, and did not, as later, include land
held in subordination to other superior
titles. The term has gradually come to
have a general application to landed
property held under varying conditions,
such as that subject to creditors' rights,
the interest of mortgages and leaseholds.
Estates of freehold under our legal sys-
tem include estates held under the three
forms of freehold tenure, known as fee
simple, fee tail and life estates. Estates
not of freehold are in their nature really
tenancies.
ESTE (es'ta) , a town in the province
of Padua, Italy, 17 miles S. W. of Padua ;
the ancient Adeste. Pop. about 6,000.
Also one of the most ancient and illus-
trious families of Italy. In the 11th cen-
tury the house of Este became connected
by marriage with the German Welfs or
Guelphs, and founded the German branch
of the house of Este, the dukes of Bruns-
wick and Hanover. The sovereigns of
Ferrara and Modena were of this family,
several of them being famous as patrons
of letters. The lives of Boiardo, Ariosto,
and Tasso were closely connected with
members of this house. The last male
representative of the Estes died in 1803.
His daughter married a son of Emperor
Francis I., who founded the Austrian
branch of the house of Este, of which the
male line became extinct in 1875.
ESTERHAZY (es'ter-ha-ze) , a family
of Hungarian magnates, whose authentic
genealogy goes back to the first half of
the 13th century. They were zealous
partisans of the house of Hapsburg, to
whom, during the reigns of Frederick II.
and Leopold I., they lent a powerful
support. Among the more prominent
members of the family are: Paul IV.,
Prince Esterhazy, a general and liter-
ary savant, 1635-1713. His grandson,
Nicholas Joseph, a great patron of arts
and music, founder of the school in
which Haydn and Pleyel, among others,
were formed, 1714-1790. Nicholas,
Prince Esterhazy, distinguished as a
field marshal and foreign ambassador,
1765-1833. Prince Paul Anthony, a
distinguished and able diplomatist; bom
1786; was successively Austrian ambas-
sador at Dresden, Rome, and Britain; a
supporter of the National Hungarian
movement. He died in 1866.
ESTERS
60
ETCHING
ESTERS, ethereal salts formed by the
reaction between an acid and an alcohol.
For instance
C2H.OH 4- HCl
Alcohol Hydrochloric Acid
C^H.Cl + H.O
Ethyl Chloride Water
Ethyl Chloride is the hydrochloric acid
ester of ethyl alcohol. The change from
an alcohol to an ester is never complete,
because the reaction is reversible; that
is to say, esters are decomposed by
water, giving acid and alcohol. When
an alcohol and an acid are mixed, there-
fore, the reaction illustrated above pro-
ceeds to a certain point until a balance,
or equilibrium, is reached, the final prod-
uct being a mixture of alcohol, acid,
ester, and water. If, however, the water
produced is removed, and so prevented
from decomposing the ester, the reaction
is far more nearly complete, and it is a
common practice to employ, a dehydrat-
ing agent, such as sulphuric acid, which
combines with the water as fast as it is
formed.
Esters are usually pleasant-smelling,
colorless liquids, and the odor of flowers
and fruits is frequently due to their
presence. Many artificial flavorings, es-
sences, and perfumes consist of esters.
Some of the best known are methyl
salicylate (oil of winter green) amyl
acetate (banana or pear oil) methyl
butyrate (pineapple oil) and isoamyl
isovalerate (apple oil).
ESTHER (es'ter), a Jewess who be-
came the queen of Ahasuerus, King of
Persia, and whose story is told in the
book of the Old Testament called by her
name. This book is supposed by some
to be the composition of Mordecai him-
self, the uncle of the heroine. The feast
of Purim, which commemorates the
events narrated, is still observed by the
Jews during the month Adar.
ESTHONIA, a former maritime gov-
ernment of Russia, bounded by the Gulf
of Finland, the Baltic and the former
governments of Livonia and Petrograd.
It includes sevei'al islands, of which the
most important are Dagoe and Oesel ;
area, 23,160 square miles. It has
for the most part a flat or undulating
surface. The whole of the N. side, how-
ever, rises considerably above the sea,
and presents to it ranges of cliff's. The
Narva, which merely bounds Esthonia
on the E., is the only river of any im-
portance; but minor streams, as well as
small lakes, are very numerous. About
a fourth of the surface is covered with
forests of pine, birch, and alder. The
crops include a little wheat, much barley
and oats, and some flax, hops, and tobac-
co. Cattle are reared, and active fish-
eries are carried on. The peasantry are
almost all of Finnish origin, and speak a
Finnish dialect. In the 10th and 12th
centuries it belonged to Denmark; it was
afterward annexed by Sweden, and in
1710 was seized by Russia. Reval is the
capital. Pop. (1919) 1,744,000. On Feb.
24, 1918, the National Council of Esthonia
declared for an independent state, which
was recognized de facto by Great Brit-
ain. After the conclusion of the World
War (1914-1918) the government of Es-
thonia was established.
ESTRADA, a town of Spain, in the
province of Pontevedra. It is on the
Rio Ulla. It is the center of an exten-
sive farming and stock-raising region,
and has manufactures of woolen and
linen goods. Pop. about 30,000.
ESTRADA CABRERA, MANUEL, a
president of Guatemala, born in Guate-
mala in 1857. He studied law and be-
came a justice of the Supreme Court. In
1892 he was appointed Secretary of
State. He became acting president in
1898, following the assassination of Pres-
ident Barrios, and was successively re-
elected, becoming actual dictator of the
country. He did much in improving con-
ditions in Guatemala, especially along
agricultural and industrial lines. He
was compelled to abdicate the presi-
dency in 1920.
ESTREMADURA (es-tra-ma-do'ra),
a W. division of Spaiu, consisting of the
provinces of Badajoz and Caceres. It is
fertile, but not cultivated to its full ex-
tent. The Tagus and Guadiana inter-
sect it E. to W. Immense flocks of
sheep graze on the rich plains. The area
is about 16,100 square miles. Pop.
882,000.
ESTREMADURA, a maritime prov-
ince of Portugal, divided by the Tagus
into two nearly equal parts, of which the
N. is the more mountainous. Wines and
olives are the principal produce. The
principal city is Lisbon. Area, 6,937
square miles. Pop. about 1,250,000.
ESTUARY, the wide mouth of a river
opening out so as to form an arm of the
sea.
ETAWAH (e-ta'wa), a town in Hin-
dustan, Northwest provinces; capital of
the district of the same name on the left
bank of the Jumna, picturesquely situ-
ated among ravines, and richly planted
with trees. It has some good buildings
and a considerable trade.
ETCHING, the art of producing de-
signs on a plate of steel or copper by
means of lines drawn with an etching
needle. See Engraving.
ETEOCLES
ETEOCLES (e-te'6-klez), and POLY-
NICES (pol-i-ni'sez), two heroes of
ancient Greek legend, sons of OEdipus,
King of Thebes. After their father's
banishment from Thebes, Eteocles
usurped the throne to the exclusion of
his brother, an act which led to an ex-
pedition of Polynices and others against
Thebes. The two brothers fell by each
other's hand. See Antigone.
ETHELBERT, King of Kent; born
about 560. He succeeded his father,
Hermenric, and reduced all the Anglo-
Saxon states, except Northumberland, to
the condition of his dependents. Ethel-
bert married Bertha, the daughter of
Caribert, King of Paris, and a Christian
princess, an event which led indirectly to
the introduction of Christianity into
England by St. Augustine. Ethelbert
was the first Anglo-Saxon king to draw
up a code of laws. He died 616.
ETHELBERT, King of England, son
of Ethelwulf, succeeded to the govern-
ment of the E. side of the kingdom in 857,
and in 860, on the death of his brother,
Ethelbald, became sole king. His reign
was much disturbed by the inroads of the
Danes. He died in 866.
ETHELBED I., King of England, son
of Ethelwnlf, succeeded his brother
Ethelbert in 866. The Danes became so
formidable in his reign as to threaten
the conquest of the whole kingdom.
Ethelred died in consequence of a wound
received in an action with the Danes in
871, and was succeeded by his brother
Alfred.
ETHELRED II., King of England,
son of Edgar; born 968; succeeded his
brother, Edward the Martyr, in 978, and,
for his want of vigor and capacity, was
surnamed the Unready. In his reign be-
gan the practice of buying off the Danes
by presents of money. After repeated
payments of tribute he effected, in 1002,
a massacre of the Danes; but this led to
Sweyn gathering a large force together
and carrying fire and sword through the
country. They were again bribed to de-
part; but, upon a new invasion, Sweyn
obliged the nobles to swear allegiance to
him as King of England; while Ethelred,
in 1013, fled to Normandy. On the death
of Sweyn he was invited to resume the
government, and died in London in the
midst of his struggle with Canute
(1016).
ETHELWULFE, King of Etigland,
succeeded his father, Egbert, about 837.
His reign was in great measure occupied
in repelling Danish incursions; but he
is best remembered for his donation to
the clergy, which is often quoted as the
51 ETHICAL CULTURE SOCIETY
origin of the system of tithes. He died
857.
ETHENDUN, BATTLE OF, the vic-
tory which Alfred the Great gained over
the Danes (878), and which led to the
treaty with Guthrum, the Danish King
of East England. The locality is doubt-
ful.
ETHER, or ^THER, a medium filling
all space. The ether seems to be of
the nature of an elastic solid, and, in
order to account for the immense rapid-
ity of its vibrations when radiation passes
through it, its rigidity must be exces-
sively large compared with its density.
It may be asked, how, if this be so, the
earth can move through the ether at the
rate of nearly a million miles per day.
But, if we consider that shoemaker's
wax is so brittle a solid that it splinters
under the blow of a hammer and that it
yet flows slowly like a liquid into the
crevices of a vessel in which it is placed,
and that bullets sink slowly down
through it, and corks float slowly up
through it, the motion of the earth
through the ether does not seem so in-
comprehensible. From magneto-optic
phenomena it seems certain that some-
thing of the nature of molecular rotation
is going on in the ether.
ETHERS, compounds conti^ining two
alkyl groups, which may be identical or
different, united to an oxygen atom. For
instance, methyl ether has the formula
CHs.O.CHi, and consists of the two iden-
tical methyl groups, CHj, united to the
oxygen atom. Methyl ethyl ether has
the formula CH3.O.C2H5, the alkyl groups
in this case being different. Methyl ether
is a gas, but all other ethers are mobile,
volatile, inflammable liquids. The best
known is ethyl ether, C2H0.O.C2H5, some-
times known as sulphuric ether, and this
is the ether used in surgery as an anaes-
thetic. It is prepared from alcohol, by
heating with sulphuric acid, ethyl hy-
drogen sulphate being first produced, this
compound reacting with more alcohol to
yield ether and sulphuric acid. Sul-
phuric ether is a colorless liquid, boiling
at 35" C, and having a specific gravity
of 0.720. It is highly inflammable, and
its vapor forms an explosive mixture
with air. Its odor to some is pleasant,
but to those on whom it has been used as
an anagsthetic it is apt, afterward, to
produce nausea. Large quantities of it
are used in the manufacture of smokeless
powder and as a solvent for fats, resins,
alkaloids, etc,
ETHICAL CULTURE SOCIETY, an
organization founded in New York in
1876 by Dr. Felix Adler for the purpose
of associating together those who be-
ETHICS
52
ETHIOPIA
cause of antagonism to traditional creeds
and ceremonies had drifted away from
organized churches and synagogues. His
purpose was to promote the moral devel-
opment of society and the individual by
emphasis upon the humanitarian im-
pulses of men and women and by holding
up a high moral standard of conduct.
Meetings of the society were held on
Sundays and an address on some social
or economic question was made. The
moral aspect of the problem was stressed.
The importance which the society placed
on education led them to establish the
New York Ethical Culture School. This
school, providing elementary and second-
ary instruction, was among the first to
assign to manual training an important
role in the elementary education. In 1882
a similar society for ethical culture was
formed in Chicago, and three years later
an organization was effected in Phila-
delphia. By 1915 they numbered in
membership 2,500, being confined mostly
to the large cities. Societies have also
been formed in England and Germany.
ETHICS, that branch of moral philos-
osophy which is concerned with human
character and conduct. It deals with
man as a source of action and is closely
related to psychology and sociology. It
seeks to determine the principles by
which conduct is to be regulated, having
to do not merely with what is, but with
what ought to be. Modern ethics has
frequently a distinctly legal or theolo-
gical stamp, being presented as a system
of duties prescribed by God, or by con-
science. Underlying this notion is the
conception of certain kinds of conduct,
or certain types of character, as better
than others or preferable to them. The
doctrine that pleasure is the highest
good was held by predecessors and con-
temporaries of Aristotle, and was after-
ward formulated by Epicurus (q. v.)
into an ethical theory. Contrasted with
this is Universalistic Hedonism or Utili-
tarianism, which owes its development to
modern, and especially to English writers,
and holds that the chief good is the hap-
piness or pleasure of the community, or
of mankind, or even of sentient crea-
tures. The founder of modern utilita-
rianism was David Hume (g. v.). The
utilitarianism of Paley {q. v.) was
founded on the belief that the happiness
of mankind was the ethical end pre-
scribed by God; that of Bentham {q. v.)
resulted from looking at action from the
point of view of the community and its
interests rather than from that of the
interests of the individual. Applied only
to the method of utilitarianism in Her-
bert Spencer's (q. v.) hands, the evolu-
tion theory has been used by other wri-
ters to show the inadequacy of the utili-
tarian principle.
The controversies, especially of Eng-
lish ethics, have been largely occupied
with the debate on the question between
the^ empirical and intuitive schools of
ethics. The intuitive school lays stress
on the immediateness and universality
of the moral judgment passed by each
man's conscience. A doctrine of the
Moral Sense, as a feeling or perception
by which action or motives are morally
distinguished apart from their conse-
quences, was developed by Shaftesbury
(q. V.) and Hutcheson (q. v.); and
W. A. Butler formulated the doctrinp
that conscience is the supreme authority
as to what is right or wrong.
The introduction of Christianity
brought a new element into ethical spec-
ulation; among Christians ethics was
intimately associated with theology, and
morality was regarded as based on and
regulated by a definite code contained
in the sacred writings. Most modern
ethical systems consider the subject as
apart from theology and as based on in-
dependent philosophical principles; they
fall into one of two great classes, the
utilitarian and the rationalistic systems.
The first of the modern school in Eng-
land was Hobbes (1588-1679). Among
subsequent names are those of Cud-
worth, Locke, Clarke, Shaftesbury, But-
ler, Hutcheson, Hume, Adam Smith, Reid,
Paley, Whewell, Bentham, and Johji
Stuart Mill.
ETHIOPIA, or .ETHIOPIA, in ancient
geography is the country lying to the
south of Egypt, and comprehending the
modern Nubia, Kordofan, Abyssinia, and
other adjacent districts; but its limits
were not clearly defined. It was vaguely
spoken of in Greek and Roman accounts
as the land of the Ichthyophagi or fish-
eaters, the Macrobii or long-livers, the
Troglodytes or dwellers in caves, and of
the Pygmies or dwarf races. In ancient
times its history was closely connected
with that of Egypt, and about the 8th
century b. C. it imposed a dynasty on
Lower Egypt, and acquired a predomi-
nant influence in the valley of the Nile.
In sacred history Ethiopia is repeatedly
mentioned as a powerful military king-
dom (see particularly Isaiah xx: 5). In
the 6th century B. C. the Persian Cam-
byses invaded Ethiopia; but the country
maintained its independence till it be-
came tributary to the Romans in the
reign of Augustus. Subsequently Ethi-
opia came to be the designation of the
country now known as Abyssinia, 'and
the Abyssinian monarchs still call them-
selves rulers of Ethiopia.
Language. — The Ethiopian language,
©Keystone View Company
THE KING ON THE WAY TO OPEN PARLIAMENT
AN ESKIMO. THE HARPOONS HE USES HAVE DETACHABLE HEADS
A FOREST OF DOUGLAS FIR IN OREGON
ETHNOGBAPHY 53
or more accurately the Geez language,
is the old official and ecclesiastical lan-
guage of Abyssinia, introduced into that
kingdom by settlers from south Arabia.
In the 14th century is was supplanted as
the language of the Christian Church of
Abyssinia by the Amharic. It is a Se-
mitic language resembling Aramaic and
Hebrew as well as Arabic. It has a
Christian literature of some importance.
The principal work is a translation of
the Bible, including the Old and New
Testaments and Apocrypha, to which are
appended some non-canonical writings,
such as the "Shepherd of Hermas" and
the "Book of Enoch." The language is
to some extent represented by the mod-
ern dialects of Tigre, and by that spoken
by some nomadic tribes of the Sultan.
ETHNOGRAPHY, the systematic de-
scription and classification of races. In
recent years there has been but little
distinction made between ethnology and
ethnography, the general tendency being
to name the science ethnology. It is a
part of anthropology, and includes the
studies of living non-historical peoples
with a view to their classification. The
studies of language and anatomy are not
included in the science of ethnography.
Under this heading are treated the loca-
tion, movements or history of the tribe;
next, its state of culture, its art, its dress
and manufactures, etc. The political,
social, and religious ideas should be in-
cluded in the ethnology of a nation, as
also some mention of the place it occu-
pies in relation to other peoples, and its
contributions to the general culture of
mankind.
ETHNOLOGY, the science which
treats of various races of mankind and
their origin. With anthropology, phi-
lology, psychology, and sociology it helps
to cover the complete study of man.
Ethnologists rely, in their different
schemes of classification, on what are
called ethnical criteria. These criteria
are partly internal, the skeleton in gen-
eral, and particularly the cranium; part-
ly external, color of skin, color and
texture of hair, and such other deter-
mining elements, whether physical or
mental, as may be studied on the living
subject. Of mental or intellectual cri-
teria immeasurably the most important
is language. Different phonetic systems
often involve different anatomical struc-
ture of the vocal organs.
The most eminent naturalists mainly
agree in classifying the whole human
family in three, four, or at most five fun-
damental divisions; but the term funda-
mental is to be understood in a relative
sense, for all races are necessarily re-
garded as belonging to a common prime-
ETHNOLOGY
val stock, constituting a single species
though not sprung from a single human
pair. Rather has the growth been the
slow evolution of a whole anthropoid
group spread over a more or less exten-
sive geographical area, in a warm or
genial climate, where the disappearance
of an original hairy coat would be a re-
lief. The difficulty of determining the
exact number of these types is due to
the fact, pointed out by Blumenbach,
that none of them are found in what may
be called ideal perfection, but that all
tend to merge by imperceptible degrees
in each other. They are the black,
frizzly-haired Ethiopic (negro) ; the yel-
low lank-haired Mongolic; the white,
smooth-haired Caucasic; the coppery,
lank and long-haired American, and the
brown, straight-haired Malayo Poly-
nesian. The last is commonly rejected
as evidently the outcome of a compara-
tively recent mixture in which the Mon-
golic elements predominate. Most au-
thorities regard also the American as a
remote branch of the same group; this
view seems justified by the striking Mon-
golic features occurring in every part
of the New World, as among the Utahs
of the Western States and the
Botocudos of eastern Brazil. The char-
i^cter of hair and color of skin has been
used by Huxley as the basis of his
classification, which divides mankind
into Ulotrichi, crisp or woolly-haired
people with yellow or black skin, com-
prising Negroes, Bushmen, and Malays;
and Leiotrichi, smooth-haired peo-
ple, sub-divided into Australoid, Mongo-
loid, Xanthochroic (fair whites), and
Melanachroic (dark whites) groups.
Peschel's classification, based on a num-
ber of different particulars, such as the
shape of the skull, the color of the skin,
the nature and color of the hair, the
shape of the features, etc., is as Austra-
lians, Papuans, the Mongoloid nations,
the Dravidians (aborigines of India),
Hottentots, and Bushmen, Negroes, and
the Mediterrean nations.
The Ethiopic group falls naturally
into a Western or African and an East-
ern or Oceanic division. The Western
occupies all Africa from the Sahara S.
and comprise a N. or Sudanese branch
(African Negroes proper), and a S. or
Bantu branch (more or less mixed Negro
and Negroid populations). The Oceanic
division of the Ethiopic group comprises
four branches: (1) the Papuans of the
Eastern Archipelago and New Guinea;
(2) the closely allied Melanesians of the
Solomon, New Hebrides, New Caledonia,
Loyalty, and Fiji Archipelagoes; (3) the
now extinct Tasmanians, and (4) the
Australians, the most divergent of all
Negro or Negroid peoples.
ETHYL
54
ETNA
The Mongolic group occupies the
greater part of the Eastern hemisphere
and till the discovery of America was in
exclusive possession of the New World.
Its chief branches are (1) the Mongolo-
Tartars of central and north Asia, Asia
Minor, parts of Russia and the Balkan
Peninsula; (2) the Tibeto-Indo-Chinese
of Tibet, China proper, Japan, and Indo-
China; (3) the Finno-Ugrians of Fin-
land, Lapland, Esthonia, Middle Volga,
Ural Mountains, north Siberia, Hun-
gary; (4) the Malayo-Polynesians of the
Malay Peninsula, the greater and lesser
Sunda Islands, Madagascar, the Philip-
pines, Formosa, and eastern Polynesia;
(5) the American Indians, comprising
all the aborigines of the New World, ex-
cept the Eskimo, who with the Ainos of
Yesso, form aberrant members of the
Mongolic group.
The Caucasic group, called also Medi-
terranean because its original domain is
western Asia, Europe and north Africa
— i. e., the lands encircling the Mediter-
ranean Basin — has in recent times
spread over the whole of the New World,
south Africa, and Australasia. The
chief branches are: (1) Aryans of
India, Iran, Armenia, Asia Minor, and
great part of Europe, with sub-branches;
(2) Semites of Mesopotamia, Syria,
Arabia, and north Africa, with sub-
branches; (3) Hamites of north and east
Africa; (4) the Caucasians proper; (5)
the Basques of the western Pyrenees.
are the cathedral, an ancient Romaiv-
esque structure; the town house, court
house, exchange, communal college, min-
ing school, gallery of arts, library, and
museum. The town stands in the center
of one of the most valuable mineral fields
of France; and in addition to the exten-
sive collieries, blast furnaces and other
ironworks in the vicinity, has manufac-
tures of ribbons, silks, cutlery, firearms,
etc. Pop. about 150,000.
ETIOLATION, or BLANCHING, of
plants is a state produced by the absence
of light, by which the green color is pre-
vented from appearing. It is effected
artificially, as in the case of celery, by
raising up the earth about the stalks of
the plants; by tying the leaves together
to keep the inner ones from the light;
by covering with pots, boxes, or the like,
or by setting in a dark place. The green
color of etiolated plants may be restored
by exposure to light.
ETIVE (et'iv) , LOCH, an inlet of the
sea on the W. coast of Scotland, county
Argyle, nearly 20 miles long, of very un-
equal breadth, but at the broadest part
about 1^/^ miles. The scenery of its
shores is very beautiful. About three
miles from the sea, at Connel Ferry, a
ridge of sunken rocks crossing it causes
a turbulent rapid, which at half-tide
forms a sort of waterfall.
ETNA, or ^TNA, MOUNT, the
greatest volcano in Europe, a mountain
MT. ETNA, SICILY
ETHYL, the radicle CH^ or CH^—
CH;, not known in the free state, but
existing in a large number of organic
compounds, such as alcohol, ether, etc.
The name was given by Frankland to the
compound CiHio, but this is now known
as butane.
ETIENNE, ST., a tovt^i of southern
France, in the department of the Loire,
on the Furens, 32 miles S. W. of Lyons,
The principal buildings and institutions
in the province of Catania, Sicily;
height, 10,874 feet. It rises immediately
from the sea, has a circumference of
more than 100 miles, and dominates the
whole N. E. of Sicily, having a number
of towns and villages on its lower slopes.
The top is covered with perpetual snow;
midway down is the woody or forest re-
gion ; at the foot is a region of orchards,
vineyards, olive groves, etc. A more or
less distinct margin of cliff separates the
ETNA 65
mountain proper from the surrounding
plain; and the whole mass seems formed
of a series of superimposed mountains,
the terminal volcano being surrounded
by a number of cones, all of volcanic ori-
gin, and nearly 100 of which are of con-
siderable size.
The eruptions of Etna have been nu-
merous, and many of them destructive.
That of 1169 overwhelmed Catania and
buried 15,000 persons in the ruins. In
1669 the lava spread over the country
for 40 days, and 10,000 persons are es-
timated to have perished. In 1693 there
was an earthquake during the eruption,
when 60,000 lives were lost. Among more
recent eruptions are those of 1852, 1865,
1874, 1879, 1886, 1892, 1909, and 1911.
ETNA, a borough in Pennsylvania, in
Allegheny co. It is opposite Pittsburgh
and on the Baltimore and Ohio and the
Pennsylvania railroads. It is an im-
portant industrial center and has manu-
factures of furnaces, steel mills, pipe
works, and other manufactures. Pop.
(1910) 5,830; (1920) 6,341.
ETON COLLEGE, the largest and most
famous of the old public schools of Eng-
land. Founded by Henry VI. in 1440,
who connected it with his foundation of
King's College, Cambridge. This rela-
tionship in a modified form still obtains
at the present time. Having but a small
endowment at its foundation, the college
has since become very wealthy by nu-
merous benefactions, and the rise of
property values. The college consists of
a provost and ten fellows, a headmaster
of the school, and seventy scholars. The
main body of students, however, are
the thousand scholars in attendance on
the school. Old limitations with refer-
ence to qualifications for entrance have
been discarded, and the school admits all
boys who are British subjects, within
certain ages, and with definite scholastic
attainments. Until 1860 the course of
study was exclusively classical; since
that time other subjects have been added.
Many of the buildings erected in the 15th
century are still used, but as they were
unable to accommodate the number of
students who entered in the succeeding
years, they have been enlarged and new
structures erected. A splendid range of
buildings was opened in 1908 by King
Edward VII.
Many of the ancient customs have been
retained by the modern school. The
chief celebration of the school occurs on
June 4th, King George III. birthday, on
which occasion a procession of boats on
the Thames takes place. Eton holds a
high place in the sport of rowing, many
of its graduates becoming the stars of
the crew at Cambridge.
ETRUKIA
ETRURIA, the name anciently given
to that part of Italy which corresponded
partly with the modern Tuscany, and
was bounded by the Mediterranean, the
Apennines, the river Magra, and the
Tiber. The name of Tusci or Etrusci
was used by the Romans to designate the
race of people anciently inhabiting it,
but the name by which they called them-
selves was Rasena. These Rasena en-
tered Italy at a very early period from
the N. Etruria proper was in a flourish-
ing condition before the foundation of
Rome 753 B. c. It was known very early
as a confederation of 12 great cities, each
of which formed a republic of itself.
Among the chief were Veil, Clusium, Vol-
sinnii, Arretium, Cortona, Falerii, and
Fassulae. The chiefs of these republics
were styled lucumones, and united the
offices of priest and general. They were
elected for life. After a long struggle
with Rome the Etruscan power was com-
pletely broken by the Romans in a series
of victories, from the fall of Veil in 396
B. C. to the battle at the Vadimonian
Lake (283 B. c).
The Etruscans had attained a high
state of civilization. They carried on a
flourishing commerce, and at one time
were powerful at sea. They were less
warlike than most of the nations around
them, and had the custom of hiring mer-
cenaries for their armies. Of the Etrus-
can language little is known, though
more than 3,000 inscriptions have been
preserved. It was written in characters
essentially the same as the ancient Greek.
The Etruscans were specially distin-
guished by their religious institutions
and ceremonies. Their gods were of two
orders, the first nameless, mysterious
deities, exercising a controlling influence
in the background on the lower order of
gods, who manage the affairs of the
world. At the head of these is a deity
resembling the Roman Jupiter (in Etrus-
can Tinia). But it is characteristic of
the Etruscan religion that there is also
a Vejovis or evil Jupiter. The Etruscan
name of Venus was Turan, of Vulcan
Sethlaus, of Bacchus Phuphlans, of Mer-
cury Turms.
Etruscan art was in the main bor-
rowed from Greece. For articles in terra
cotta, a material which they used mainly
for ornamental tiles, sarcophagi, and
statues, the Etruscans were especially
celebrated. In the manufacture of pot-
tery, they had made great advances; but
the most of the painted vases popularly
known as Etruscan are undoubtedly pro-
ductions of Greek workmen. The skiTl
of the Etruscans in works of metal is at-
tested by ancient writers, and also by
numerous extant specimens, such as
necklaces, ear-rings, bracelets, etc. The
ETRURIA
56
EUCHER
Etruscans showed great constructive and
engineering skill. They were acquainted
with the principle of the arch, and the
massive ruins of the walls of their an-
cient cities still testify to the solidity of
their constructions. Various arts and
inventions were derived by the Romans
from the Etruscans.
ETRURIA, KINGDOM OF, in Italy,
founded by Napoleon I. in 1801. Its
capital was Florence. In 1807 Napoleon
incorporated it with the French empire.
ETTRICK, a district of Scotland, in
Selkirk, through which the Ettrick water
runs. It is now a sheep pasture denuded
of wood, but anciently formed part of
Ettrick Forest, which included the whole
county as well as parts of Peebles and
Edinburghshire. The "Ettrick Shep-
herd," James Hogg, was a native of this
district.
ETTY, WILLIAM, an English
painter: born in 1787. He studied at the
Royal Academy. He worked long with-
out much recognition, but at length in
1820 he won public notice by his "Coral
Finders." In 1828 he was elected an
academician. Among his works are a
series of three pictures (1827-1831) il-
lustrating the "Deliverance of Bethulia
by Judith," "Benaiah one of David's
Mighty Men," ''Women Interceding for
the Vanquished." All are now in the
National Gallery of Scotland. Others
of note are "The Judgment of Paris,"
"The Rape of Proserpine," "Youth at the
Prow," and "Pleasure at the Helm." He
died in 1849.
ETYMOLOGY, a term applied to that
part of grammar which treats of the
various inflections and modifications of
words and shows how they are formed
from simple roots; and to that branch
of philology which traces the history of
v/ords from their origin to their latest
form and meaning. Etymology in this
latter sense, or the investigation of the
origin and grovd;h of words, is among
the oldest of studies. It was not till
modern times, and particularly since the
study of Sanskrit, that etymology has
been scientifically studied. Languages
then began to be properly classed in
groups and families, and words were
studied by a comparison of their growth
and relationship in different languages.
It was recognized that the development
of language is not an arbitrary or acci-
dental matter, but proceeds according to
general laws. The result was a great
advance in etymological knowledge and
the formation of a new science of phi-
lology.
EITBCEA (u-be'a), formerly called
Negropont, a Greek island, the second
largest island of the ^gean Sea. It is
90 miles long, 30 in greatest breadth, re-
duced at one point to 4 miles. It is sep-
arated from the mainland of Greece by
the narrow channels of Egripo and Ta-
lanta. It is connected with the Boeotian
shore by a bridge. There are several
mountain peaks over 2,000 feet, and one
over 7,000 feet. The island is well-
wooded and remarkably fertile. Wine is
a staple product, and cotton, wool, pitch,
and turpentine are exported. The chief
towns are Chalcis and Karyst. The is-
land was anciently divided among seven
independent cities, the most important
of which were Chalcis and Eretria, and
its history is for the most part identi-
cal with that of those two cities. With
some small islands it forms a modern
nomarchy, with a population of about
100,000.
EUCALYPTUS, a genus of trees,
mostly natives of Australia, and remark-
able for their gigantic size, some of
them attaining the height of 480 or 500
feet. In the Australian colonies they are
known by the name of gum trees, from
the gum which exudes from their
trunks; and some of them have also such
names as "stringy bark," "iron bark,"
etc. The wood is excellent for shipbuild-
ing and such purposes.
EUCHARIST (u'ka-rist), a name for
the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, in
reference to the blessing: and thanks-
giving which accompany it.
EUCHER (u'ker), the most generally
played parlor game after whist in the
United States. The pack of cards con-
sists of 32, being an ordinary "deck,"
minus the deuce, trey, four, five, and
six spots of each suit. The game is usu-
ally played by two, three, or four per-
sons, the most interesting party being
four, two playing on each side as part-
ners. When choice of partners and first
dealer shall have been decided (as at
whist, or in any other mode agreed on),
five cards are dealt, usually two at once,
then three, or the contrary. In throw-
ing around for partners and dealers the
holder of the best cards deals. The
cards rank in value as follows: The best
eucher card is the knave of trumps;
the second best is the knave of the suit
of the same color as the trump. The
former card is called the "right bower,"
the latter the "left bower." After the
right and left bowers the cards rank as
at whist, the knaves of the color not
turned as trumps falling into their regu-
lar place as at whist. The object of the
game is to take tricks. The score is five
points, unless otherwise agreed. The
non-dealer may "pass," or "order up"
the trump. Should he nass. then the
EUCLID
67
EUGENICS
idealer may take up the trump and dis-
card. In that case the dealer must make
three tricks or be "euchered," which
counts two points for the adversary, but
if he makes the three tricks (or four),
he counts one point. Should he make all
five tricks, it is termed "a march," and
counts him two on the score. The non-
dealer has the first lead, after which he
who takes the trick leads. Should the
non-dealer "order up" the trump he
must make three tricks or be "euchered,"
which counts two for his opponent; if he
win three tricks (or four), having or-
dered up the trump, he scores one point.
Should he make "a march," he scores
two. If both players pass (the dealer
turning down the trump), and then both
decline to make a trump, there must be
a new deal. Either party naming a new
suit for trump must make the three
tricks or be "euchered."
EUCLID, a celebrated mathematician,
who collected all the fundamental prin-
ciples of pure mathematics, which had
been delivered down by Thales, Pythag-
oras, Eudoxus, and other mathemati-
cians before him, which he digested into
regularity and order, with many others
of his own, on which account he is said
to have been the first who reduced arith-
metic and geometry into the form of a
Bcience. He lived about 277 B. C, and
taught mathematics in Alexandria.
EUDOXIANS, followers of Eudoxius,
who from A. D. 347 was Bishop of An-
tioch, in Syria, and from 360 to his death
in 370 Bishop and Patriarch of Con-
stantinople. He was successively ^ an
Arian, a Semi-Arian and an Aetian.
Respecting the Trinity, he believed the
Will of the Son to be differently affected
from that of the Father.
EUGENE, a city of Oregon, the
county-seat of Lane co. It is on the
Southern Pacific, the Oregon Electric,
and the Portland, Eugene and Eastern
railroads. It is the center of an extensive
agricultural region, and the lumbering
industry is also important. Its industrial
establishments include canneries, flour
mills, woolen mills, machine shops, etc.
It is the seat of the University of
Oregon and the Eugene Bible University.
It has a public library and other public
buildings. Pop. (1910) 9,009; (1920)
10,593.
EUGENE (ii-jen'), or FBANCOIS
EUGENE, Prince of Savoy, fifth son of
Eugene Maurice, Duke of Savoy-Cari-
gnan, and Olympia Mancini, a niece of
Cardinal Mazarin; born in Paris, Oct.
18, 1663. Offended with Louis XIV. he
entered the Austrian service in 1683,
serving his first campaign as a volunteer
against the Turks. Here he distinguished
himself so much that he received a regi-
ment of dragoons. Later, at the sieges
of Belgrade and Mayence, he increased
his reputation, and on the outbreak of
the war between France and Austria he
received the command of the imperial
forces sent to Piedmont to act in con-
junction with the troops of the Duke of
Savoy. At the end of the war he was
sent as commander-in-chief to Hungary,
where he defeated the Turks at the
battle of Zenta (Sept. 11, 1697).
The Spanish war of succession brought
Eugene again into the field. In northern
Italy he outmaneuvered Catinat and
Villeroi, defeating the latter at Cremona
(1702). In 1703 he commanded the im-
perial army in Germany, and in co-opera-
tion with Marlborough frustrated the
plans of France and her allies. In the
battle of Hochstadt or Blenheim, Eugene
and Marlborough defeated the French
and Bavarians under Marshal Tallard,
Aug. 13, 1704. Next year Eugene, re-
turning to Italy, forced the French to
raise the siege of Turin, and in one
month drove them out of Italy. During
the following years he fought on the
Rhine, took Lille, and, in conjunction
with Marlborough, defeated the French
at Oudenarde (1708), and Malplaquet
(1709), where he himself was danger-
ously wounded. After the recall of Marl-
borough, which Eugene opposed in per-
son at London, without success, and the
defection of England from the alliance
against France, his farther progress was
in a gi'eat measure checked. In the war
with Turkey, in 1716, Eugene defeated
two superior armies at Peterwardein and
Temesvar, and, in 1717, took Belgrade,
after having gained a decisive victory
over a third army that came to its
relief
During 15 years of peace which fol-
lowed, Eugene served Austria as faith-
fully in the cabinet as he had done in
the field. He was one of the great gen-
erals of modern times. He died in
Vienna, April 21, 1736.
EUGENIA (so named in honor of
Prince Eugene), a genus of dicotyledon-
ous polypetalous plants of the natural
order Myrtacese, nearly related to the
myrtle. It contains numerous species,
some of which produce delicious fruits.
The allspice or pimento is the berry of
the E. Pimenta. E. acris is the wild clove.
EUGENIC ACID, or EUGENOL, an
acid derived from cloves, and conferring
on them their essential properties.
EUGENICS, a term introduced by
Francis Galton in 1883 and defined by
him as follows: "Eugenics is the study
of agencies under social control which
EUGENICS 58
may improve or impair the racial qual-
ities of future generations either physi-
cally or mentally." It is based upon
genetics or the study of heredity, a
science open to experimental methods,
in which great advance in knowledge has
been attained; eugenics seeks to apply
this knowledge to the improvement of the
human stock by selection in mating. The
study of genetics has shown that the
qualities which influence heredity are
contained in the chromatin of the nucleus
of the male and female germ cell; that
in fertilization there is intermingling of
the chromatin, and the ovum from which
the development of the embryo proceeds
contains the qualities of both parents.
The substances contained in chromatin
and which influence development are
called determinants and in certain direc-
tions their influence is predictable. There
are certain unit characters such as color
and form of hair in animals, color in
flowers, etc., which are transmitted to the
off"spring with certainty, appearing in
the first generation, when they are
termed dominant or in the second genera-
tion when they are termed recessive.
White and black guinea pigs when mated
produce black offspring, the black being
dominant, and in the second generation
one in every four of the offspring will be
white, the white color being recessive.
This is known as Mendelian inheritance,
and was described by Mendel in 1865,
whose work remained unknown until
1906, when the law and the former pub-
lication of Mendel were rediscovered.
There are similar unit characters in man
which are transmitted with equal cer-
tainty and if it were desirable to produce
a race marked by excessive fingers (poly-
dactylism) or webbed fingers (syndac-
tylism) it would be possible by selective
mating to do so. There are also certain
unit characters which are linked with
sex, appearing in males and transmitted
by females who do not have the condition
which is recessive. Thus hssmophilia, or
tendency to bleeding, affects males only,
but is transmitted by females. In addi-
tion to this Mendelian inheritance in
which there is no blending of chai-acter,
there is another form in which char-
acters such as general body size, stature,
skin color, are blended in the offspring.
Great results have been attained in the
breeding of domestic animals, strains
being developed marked by certain qual-
ities which are desirable, such as milk
production, fat formation, wool produc-
tion, etc. All these animals are bred
•under strictly artifical conditions, and it
is not probable that the qualities arrived
at would be advantageous for animals in
a natural state. It has also been ascer-
tained that only the qualities resident in
EUGENICS
the germ affect heredity and that qual-
ities which are acquired and due to en-
vironment are not inherited. While this
is true, environmental conditions are
probably of equal importance for the im-
provement of a race, with the character
of the germ plasm, for a good environ-
ment may render possible the develop-
ment of qualities which in another en-
vironment might be suppressed. The most
important qualities which affect man in
his social relations are the mental, such
as general mental ability, temperament,
memory, musical, literary, artistic and
mathematical ability, and these are un-
doubtedly subject to inheritance, but to
an unknown extent. With regard to the
inheritance of disease there is a surer
foundation. There is no inheritance
of the infectious diseases, though there
may be infection of the male or
female germ cell or infection of the
foetus by the mother before birth, re-
sulting in congenital disease. Or dis-
ease of the parents may affect not the
germinal material of the germ cell, but
the general character of the cellular ma-
terial, resulting in a general imperfection
of offspring. Syphilis may affect the off-
spring in any of these ways and it
should constitute a bar against mating.
Great interest attaches to the inheritance
of such conditions as insanity, epilepsy,
and feeble-mindedness. These may be
due to conditions which are acquired and
are not inheritable, but when due to a
congenital imperfection of the nervous
material they are inheritable to a high
degree. These diseases are of such enor-
mous social importance in increasing the
number of defectives which burden a
state that mating among them should be
forbidden. Certain states have passed
laws requiring the sterilization of males
and females so affected, but it is difficult
to have such laws carried out, and they
are opposed to the moral sense of the
people. Segregation with separation of
the sexes is much more desirable, but in
asylums it is difficult or impossible to
have this so effectively done as to include
the milder forms of these diseases which
may be just as disadvantageous for
breeding. There are certain forms of
criminality which depend upon qualities
which may be transmitted, and breeding
from these should be prohibited, but the
interdiction should not include all those
who come under the ban of the law. A
fine population has arisen from the crim-
inals whom England formerly trans-
ported to her colonies. The desire to im-
prove the race is a laudable one, but
there is great uncertainty as to mea-
sures. The prevention of descent from
those with such defects of both mind
and body as are inheritable and disad-
EUGENIE
69
EUPEN
vantageous to the social environment, or
with such diseases as syphilis, is a
measure the advantage of which cannot
be disputed. One great difficulty is to as-
certain in what direction other than
health we should seek to improve the
race. The stratification of society is
based not upon the biological qualities of
the germ plasm, but upon environmental
conditions. Alarm has been felt that in
number of offspring the cultivated and
upper classes were at a great disadvan-
tage as compared with the lower. Cattell
has shown that a Harvard graduate has
three-fourths of a son, and a Vassar
graduate one-half of a daughter. Such
a declining birth rate is due to late
marriage and voluntary restriction of
offspring dictated by motives of love of
luxury, and fear, and these qualities are
not of advantage to a race. It is not
probable that in bodily strength and
mental ability we are superior to prim-
itive man and it has never been shown
that an upper class in society is better
biological material than a lower. Above
all in Eugenics there is need of more ex-
tended and certainly more exact knowl-
edge of heredity in man before any gen-
eral measures looking toward the im-
provement of the race can be undertaken
with expectation of success.
EUGENIE (e-zha-ne') (maiden name,
Marie de Guzman), ex-empress of the
French; bom in Granada, Spain, in
EMPRESS EUGENIE
J826. Her father, the Count de Montijo,
was of a noble Spanish family; her
mother was of Scotch extraction, maiden
name Kirkpatrick. On Jan. 29, 1853,
she became the wife of Napoleon III.
and Empress of the French. On March
16, 1856, a son was born of the marriage.
When the war broke out with Germany
she was appointed regent (July 27.
1870) during the absence of the em-
peror, but on Sept. 4 the revolution
forced her to flee from France. She went
to England, where she was joined by the
prince imperial and afterward by the
emperor. Camden House, Chislehurst,
became the residence of the imperial
exiles. On Jan. 9, 1873, the emperor
died, and six years later the prince im-
perial was slain while with the English
army in the Zulu war. In 1881 the
empress transferred her residence to
Farnborough in Hampshire. She died in
1920.
EUGENIUS, the name of four Popes.
EUGENius I., elected Sept. 8, 654, while
his predecessor, Martin I., was still liv-
ing; died in 657 without having exerted
any material influence on his times.
EuGENius II. held the see from 824-827.
EUGENIUS III., born in Pisa, was a dis-
ciple of St. Bernard of Clairvaux. He
was raised to the papacy at Farfa, in
1145, having been obliged to quit Rome
in consequence of the commotions caused
by Arnold of Brescia; through negotia-
tions by Frederick Barbarossa, he was
enabled to return in 1152, and died in
1153. EuGENlus IV., from Venice, orig-
inally called Gabriel Condolmero, was
raised to the papacy in 1431. In con-
sequence of his opposition to the council
of Basel he was deposed. He died in
1447.
EULENSPIEGEL (oi'len-spe-gl) ,
TILL, a name which has become associ-
ated in Germany with all sorts of wild,
whimsical frolics, and with many amus-
ing stories. Some such popular hei-o of
tradition and folklore seems to have
really existed in Germany, probably in
the first half of the 14th century, and
a collection of popular tales of a frol-
icsome character, originally written in
Low German, purpoi'ts to contain his
adventures. The earliest edition of such
is a Strassburg one of the year 1515 in
the British Museum. Better known,
however, is that of 1519, published also
at Strassburg by Thomas Miirner.
EUPATORIA, a city in the former
Russian province of Taurida, on the W.
coast of the Crimea, on an inlet of the
Black Sea forming a good harbor. It
has been one of the bases of operation
of the Anti-Bolshevik armies, first under
General Denikine, and later, in 1920,
under General Wrangel. Pop. about
30,000.
EUPEN, formerly a city of Prussia,
ten miles from Aix-la-Chapelle, and two
miles from the Belgian frontier, in the
EUPHORBUS 60
Rhine province. As a result of the
Peace Treaty of Versailles the city with
the district of which it was the capital
was transferred to Belgium. It is fa-
mous for its iron foundries, woolen and
cloth mills, and its breweries. Pop. about
13,500.
EUPHORBUS, the son of Panthous,
slain by Menelaus in the Trojan war.
EUPHRATES (-fra'tez), or EL
FRAT, a celebrated river of western
Asia, in Asiatic Turkey, having a double
source in two streams rising in the Anti-
Taurus range. Its total length is about
1,700 miles, and the area of its basin
260,000 square miles. It flows mainly in
a S. E. course through the great alluvial
plains of Babvlonia and Chaldsea till it
falls into the' Persian Gulf by several
mouths, of which only one in Persian
territory is navigable. About 100 miles
from its mouth it is joined by the Tigris,
when the united streams take the name
of Shatt-el-Arab.
EUPHUISM, an affected style of
speech which distinguished the conversa-
tion and writings of many of the wits of
the court of Queen Elizabeth. The
name and the style were derived from
the "Euphues, the Anatomy of Wit,"
(about 1580), of John Lyly, (about 1554-
1606).
EURASIANS (syncopated from Eu-
rop-Asians), a name sometimes given to
the "half-castes" of India, the offspring
of European fathers and Indian mothers.
They are particularly common in the
three presidential capitals — Calcutta,
Madras, and Bombay. They generally
receive a European education, and the
young men are often engaged in govern-
ment or mercantile offices. The girls,
in spite of their dark tint, are generally
very pretty and often marry Europeans.
EURE (er), a river of France, which
rises in the department of the Orne, and
falls into the Seine after a course of 124
miles, being navigable for about half
the distance. It gives its name to a de-
partment in the N. W. of France, form-
ing part of Normandy; area, 2,300
-quare miles. The surface consists of an
extensive plain, intersected by rivers,
chief of which is the Seine. Almost the
whole surface is profitably occupied, the
waste not amounting to one-thirtieth of
the whole. Apples, pears, plums, and
cherries form important crops, and a
little wine is produced. The mining and
manufacturing industries are extensive,
and the department has a considerable
trade in woolen cloth, linen and cotton
fabrics, carpets, leather, paper, glass,
and stoneware. Evreux is the capital.
Pop. about 330,000.
EURIPIDES
EURE-ET-LOIR (er a Iwar), a de-
partment in the N. W. of France, form-
ing part of the old provinces of Orlean-
nais and Ile-de-Fz-ance; area, 2,267
square miles. A ridge of no great height
divides the department into a N. and a
S. basin, traversed respectively by the
Eure and the Loire. The soil is ex-
tremely fertile, and there is scarcely any
waste land. A considerable portion is
occupied by orchards and vineyards, but
the greater part is devoted to cereal
crops. The department is essentially
agricultural, and has few manufactures.
The capital is Chartres. Pop. about
275,000.
EUREKA, a city and county-seat of
Humboldt co., Cal., on Humboldt bay,
and on the Northwestern and Pacific
railroad; 225 miles N. W. of San Fran-
cisco. It has a fine harbor, which has
been improved by the United States
government on the jetty plan. The city
is situated in the famous redwood region,
and has large lumber interests. Se-
quoia Park, a tract of 20 acres of virgin
redwood forest, is near the city. The
city has gas and electric lights, high
schools, daily and weekly newspapers.
Pop. (1910) 11,854; (1920) 12,923. See
Big Trees.
EUREKA COLLEGE, a coeducational
institution in Eureka, 111.; founded in
1855 under the auspices of the Christian
Church; reported at the close of 1919:
Professors and instructors, 23; students,
383; president, L. O. Lehmar.
EURIPIDES (-rip'i-dez) , a celebrated
Athenian tragedian; born in Salamis, in
480 B. c. (or 485). He studied under
Prodicus and Anaxagoras, and is said
to have begun to write tragedies at the
age of 18, although his first published
play, the "Peliades," appeared only in
455 B. c. He was not successful in gain-
ing the first prize till the year 441 B. C,
and he continued to exhibit till 408 B. C,
when he exhibited the "Orestes." The
violence of unscrupulous enemies, who
accused him of impiety and unbelief in
the gods, drove Euripides to take refuge
at the court of Archelaus, King of Mace-
donia, where he was held in the highest
honoi'. Euripides is a master of tragic
situations and pathos, and shows much
knowledge of human nature and skill in
grouping characters, but his works lack
the artistic completeness and the sub-
lime earnestness that characterize
^schylus and Sophocles. Euripides is
said to have composed 75, or according
to another authority 92 tragedies. Of
these 18 (or 19, including the "Rhesus")
are extant, viz.: "Alcestis," "Medea,'
"Hippolytus," "Hecuba," "Heracleidse,"
EUROPA
"Suppliants," "Ion," Hercules Furens,"
"Andromache," "Troades," "Electra,"
"Helena," "Iphigenia Among the Tauri,"
"Orestes," "Phoenissae," "Bacchae," "Iphi-
genia at Aulis," and "Cyclops."
EtrROPA (-ro-pa), in Greek mythol-
ogy, the daughter of Agenor, King of
the Phoenicians, and the sister of Cad-
mus. The fable relates that she was ab-
ducted by Jupiter, who for that occasion
had assumed the form of a bull, and
swam with his prize to the island of
Crete. Here Europe bore to him Minos,
Sarpedon, and Rhadamanthus.
EUROPE, the smallest of the great
continents, but the most important in the
history of civilization for the last 2,000
years. It forms a huge peninsula pro-
jecting from Asia, and is bounded on
the N. by the Arctic Ocean; on the W.
by the Atlantic Ocean; on the S. by the
Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and the
Caucasus range; on the E. by the Cas-
pian Sea, the Ural River, and the Ural
Mountains. The most northerly point on
the mainland is Cape Nordkyn, in Lap-
land, lat. 71°6'; the most southerly
points are Punta da Tarifa, lat. 36"
N., in the Strait of Gibraltar, and
Cape Matapan, lat. 36" 17', which
terminates Greece. The most west-
erly point is Cape Roca in Portugal,
in Ion. 9° 28' W., while Ekaterinburg is
in Ion. 60° 36' E. From Cape Matapan to
North Cape is a direct distance of 2,400
miles, from Cape St. Vincent to Ekate-
rinburg, N. E. by E., 3,400 miles; area
of the continent, about 3,800,000 square
miles. Great Britain and Ireland, Ice-
land, Nova Zembla, Corsica, Sardinia,
Sicily, Malta, Crete, the Ionian and the
Balearic Islands are the chief islands of
Europe. The shores are very much in-
dented, giving Europe an immense
length of coast line (estimated at
nearly 50,000 miles). The chief seas or
arms of the sea are: The White Sea
on the N. ; the North Sea or German
Ocean, on the W., from which branches
off the great gulf or inland sea known
as the Baltic; the English Channel, be-
tween England and France; the Medi-
teri'anean, communicating with the
Atlantic by the Strait of Gibraltar (at
one point only 19 miles wide); the
Adriatic and Archipelago, branching off
from the Mediterranean, and the Black
Sea, connected with the Archipelago
through the Hellespont, Sea of Mai*-
mora, and Bosporus.
Siirface. — The mountains form several
distinct groups or systems of very dif-
ferent geological dates, the loftiest
mountain nasses being in the S. central
region. Tne Scandinavian mountains in
the N. W., to which the great northern
Vol. IV — Cyc— E
61 EUROPE
peninsula owes its form, extend above
900 miles from the Polar Sea to the S.
point of Norway. The highest summits
are about 8,000 feet. The Alps, the high-
est mountains in Europe (unless Mount
Elbruz in the Caucasus is claimed as
European), extend from the Mediter-
ranean first in a northerly and then in
an easterly direction, and attain their
greatest elevation in Mont Blanc (15,-
781 feet), Monte Rosa, and other sum-
mits. Branching off from the Alps,
though not geologically connected with
them, are the Apennines, which run S.
E. through Italy, constituting the cen-
tral ridge of the peninsula. The high-
est summit is Monte Corno (9,541 feet).
Mount Vesuvius, the celebrated volcano
in the S. of the peninsula, is quite dis-
tinct from the Apennines. By south-
eastern extensions the Alps are con-
nected with the Balkan and the Despoto-
Dagh of the southeastern peninsula of
Europe. Among the mountains of south-
western Europe are several massive
chains, the loftiest summits being in the
Pyrenees, and in the Sierra Nevada in
the S. of the Iberian Peninsula. The
highest point in the former. La Mala-
detta or Mount Maudit, has an elevation
of 11,165 feet; Mulahacen, in the latter,
is 11,703 feet, and capped by perpetual
snow. West and N. W. of the Alps are
the Cevennes, Jura, and Vosges; N.
and N. E., the Harz, the Thiiringerwald
Mountains, the Fichtelgebirge, the
Erzgebirge and Bohmerwaldgebirge.
Farther to the E. the Carpathian chain
incloses the great plain of Hungary, at-
taining an elevation of 8,000 or 8,500
feet. The Ural Mountains between
Europe and Asia reach the height of
5,540 feet. Besides Vesuvius other two
volcanoes are Etna in Sicily, and Hecla
in Iceland. A great part of northern
and eastern Europe is level. The "great
plain" of north Europe occupies part of
France, western and northern Belgium,
Holland, the northern provinces of Ger-
many, and the greater part of Russia.
The other great plains of Europe are
the plain of Lombardy and the plain of
Hungary. Part of southern and south-
eastern Russia consists of steppes.
Rivers and Lakes. — The main Euro-
pean watershed runs in a winding direc-
tion .'rom S. Yf. to N. E., at its north-
eastern extremity being of very slight
elevation. From the Alps descend some
of the largest of the European rivers,
the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Po, while
the Danube, a still greater stream, rises
in the Black Forest N. of the Alps. The
Volga, which enters the Caspian Sea,
an inland sheet without outlet, is the
longest of European rivers, having a
direct length of nearly 1,700 miles, in-
EUBOPE
62
EUBOPE
eluding windings 2,400 miles. Into the
Mediterranean flow the Ebro, the Rhone,
and the Po; into the Black Sea, the
Danube, Dnieper, Dniester, and Don
(through the Sea of Azov) ; into the
Atlantic, the Guadalquivir, the Guadi-
ana, the Tagus, and Loire ; into the Eng-
lish Channel, the Seine; into the North
Sea, the Rhine, Elbe; into the Baltic,
the Oder, the Vistula, and the Duna;
into the Arctic Ocean, the Dwina. The
lakes of Europe may be divided into two
groups, the southern and northern. The
former run along both sides of the Alps,
and among them, on the N. side, are
the lakes of Geneva, Neuchatel, Thun,
Lucerne, Zxirich, and Constance; on the
S. side, Lago Maggiore, and the lakes
of Como, Lugano, Iseo, and Garda. The
northern lakes extend across Sweden
from W. to E., and on the E. side of the
Baltic a number of lakes, stretching in
the same direction across Finland on
the borders of Russia, mark the continu-
ation of the line of depression. It is in
Russia that the largest European lakes
are found — Lakes Ladoga and Onega.
Geology. — The geological features of
Europe are exceedingly varied. The
older formations prevail in the northern
part as compared with the southern half
and the middle region. N. of the lati-
tude of Edinburgh and Moscow there
is very little of the surface of more re-
cent origin than the strata of the Upper
Jura belonging to the Mesozoic period,
and there are vast tracts occupied either
by eruptive rocks or one or other of the
older sedimentary formations. Den-
mark and the portions of Germany ad-
joining belong to the Cretaceous period,
as does also a large part of Russia
between the Volga and the basin of the
Dnieper. Middle and eastern Germany
with Poland and the valley of the
Dnieper present on the surface Eocene
formations of the Tertiary period. Eu-
rope possesses abundant stores of those
minerals which are of most importance
to man, such as coal and iron, Great
Britain being particularly favored in
this respect. Coal and iron are aLo
obtained in France, Belgium and Ger-
many. The richest silver ores are in
Norway, Spain, the Erzgebirge, and the
Harz Mountains. Spain is also rich in
quicksilver. Copper ores are abundant
in the Ural Mountains, Thuringia, Corn-
wall, and Spain. Tin ores are found in
Cornwall, the Erzgebirge, and Brittany.
Climate. — Several circumstances con-
cur to give Europe a climate peculiarly
genial, such as its position almost wholly
within the temperate zone, and the great
extent of its maritime boundaries. Much
benefit is also derived from the fact
that its shores are exposed to the warm
marine currents and warm "winds from
the S. W., which prevent the formation
of ice on most of its northern shores.
The eastern portion has a less favorable
climate than the western. The extremes
of temperature are greater, the summer
being hotter and the winter colder, while
the lines of equal mean temperature de-
cline S. as we go E.
Vegetable Productions^ — With respect
to the vegetable kingdom" Europe may be
divided into four zones. The first, or
most northern, is that of fir and birch.
The birch reaches almost to North Cape ;
the fir ceases a degree farther S. The
cultivation of grain extends farther N.
than might be supposed. Barley ripens
even under the 70th parallel of N.
latitude; wheat ceases at 64° in Norway,
62° in Sweden. V/ithin this zone, the
southern limit of which extends from lat.
64° in Norway to lat. 62° in Russia,
agriculture has little importance, its in-
habitants being chiefly occupied with the
care of reindeer or cattle, and in fishing.
The next zone, which may be called that
of the oak and beech, and cereal produce,
extends from the limit above mentioned
to the 48th parallel. The Alps, though
beyond the limit, by reason of their ele-
vation belong to this zone, in the moister
parts of which cattle husbandry has been
brought to perfection. Next we find the
zone of the chestnut and vine, occupying
the space between the 48th parallel and
the mountain chains of southern Eu-
rope. Here the oak still flourishes, but
the pine species become rarer. Rye, which
characterizes the preceding zone on the
Continent, gives way to wheat, and in
the southern portion of it to maize also.
The fourth zone, comprehending the
southern peninsula, is that of the olive
and _ evergreen woods. The orange
flourishes in the southern portion of it,
and rice is cultivated in a few spots in
Italy and Spain.
Animals. — As regards animals the
reindeer and polar bears are peculiar to
the N. Bears and wolves still inhabit
the forests and mountains; but, in gen-
eral, cultivation and population have ex-
pelled wild animals.
Inhabitants. — Europe is occupied by
several different peoples or races, in
many parts now greatly intermingled.
The Celts once possessed the W. of
Europe from the Alps to the British
Islands, But the Celtic nationalities w ere
broken by the wave of Roman conquest,
and the succeeding invasions of the Ger-
manic tribes completed their political
ruin. At the present day the Celtic
language is spoken only in the Scotch
Highlands (Gaelic), in some '"arts of
Ireland (Irish), in Wales (Cymric), and
in Brittany (Armorican). Next to the
EUROPE
63
EUROPE
Celtic conies the Teutonic race, compre-
hending the Germanic and Scandinavian
branches. The former includes the Ger-
mans, the Dutch, and the English. The
Scandinavians are divided into Danes,
Swedes, and Norwegians. To the E., in
general, of the Teutonic race, though
sometimes mixed with it, come the
Slavonians, that is, the Russians, the
Poles, the Czechs or Bohemians, the Ser-
vians, Croatians, etc. In the S. and S.
E. of Europe are the Greek and Latin
peoples, the latter comprising the Ital-
ians, French, Spanish, and Portuguese.
All the above peoples are regarded as
belonging to the Indo-European or
Aryan stock. To the Mongolian stock
belong the Turks, Finns, Lapps, and
Magyars or Hungarians, all immigrants
into Europe in comparatively recent
times. The Basques at the western ex-
tremity of the Pyrenees are a people
whose affinities have not yet been de-
termined. The total population of Eu-
rope is about 425,000,000.
Political Divisions. — The lines of divi-
sion of Europe were greatly changed and
in many cases obliterated by the World
War. As a result of the treaty follow-
ing the conclusion of the war, new na-
tions were established. This included
Jugoslavia, Czecho-Slovakia, Poland,
Latvia, Esthonia, Lithuania, and others.
Germany lost, in addition to 5,600 square
miles of territory, with nearly 2,000,000
inhabitants, by the recession to France
of the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine,
control of the great Saar Valley coal
fields, to compensate in part for the coal
mines of northern France destroyed or
crippled during the war. Within 15
years from the coming into effect of the
Peace Treaty, the inhabitants of this
basin are to determine by plebiscite
whether they shall remain under +he
control of the League of Nations, be-
coming a part of France, or revert to
Germany. Germany was also compelled
to surrender to Poland the vast area
with a population of 6,000,000, and, in
order to provide Poland with an outlet
to the sea, Germany was compelled to
relinquish the Baltic seaport of Danzig
which became the free city of Danzig
under the protection of the League of
Nations. The Memel district, northeast
of East Prussia, was given in charge of
the Allied and Associated Powers, pend-
ing the final settlement of their sov-
ereignty.
In addition to the Saar Basin, the
Peace Treaty designated these areas for
plebiscite to determine their eventual
ownership. Two of these were in East
Prussia, one in northern Schleswig,
southern Schleswig, Holstein, and Upper
Silesia. Plebiscites were held in all
these prior to 1921, except Upper Si-
lesia. Holstein and southern Schleswig
elected to be reincorporated into the Ger-
man Republic. North Schleswig voted
to return to Denmark, and East Pi'ussia
preferred German as against Polish
absorption.
By the Treaty of St. Germain, signed
Sept. 10, 1919, the monarchy of Austria-
Hungary ceased to exist. Its place was
taken by the republics of Austria, Hun-
gary, and Czecho-Slovakia, while large
areas of its former territory passed into
the hands of Italy, Rumania, and Jugo-
slavia. For further details see the
articles on these countries. By the
Treaty of Neuilly signed on Nov.
27, 1919, Bulgaria suffered a loss of
territory. Bulgarian Thrace was given
to Greece. To Jugoslavia was surren-
dered a strip of territory including the
town of Strumitsa and two small por-
tions of territory belonging to the west-
ern Bulgarian front. The total area of
territory lost was about 2,000 square
miles.
Turkey, by the Treaty of Sevres, be-
came in Europe scarcely more than a
name. Its European territory included
only a small tract of land west of Con-
stantinople, and the city itself. The
Dardanelles, the Bosporus, and the shores
of the Sea of Marmora were placed
under the control of the Interallied Com-
mission. Turkish Thrace was awarded
to Greece. Twelve islands formerly be-
longing to Turkey, known as the Spo-
rades, were awarded to Italy, who, on the
same day, ceded all the group with the
exception of Rhodes, to Greece.
The Russian empire, as the result of
the revolution, was deprived of a great
area of territory from which new states
were formed. These included the repub-
lics of Finland, the Baltic states of Es-
thonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and a
large territory which went to help form
the republic of Poland. Montenegro
ceased to exist as an independent power
and became a part of the kingdom of
Jugoslavia. Albania had declared its
independence in 1917, but its boundaries
had not been established at the begin-
ning of 1921.
Italy gained, as a result of the war,
the so-called "unredeemed provinces,"
including the Trentino region, Gorizia,
and the Istrian peninsula, together with
the great seaport of Trieste. The esti-
mated area of this territory is between
15,000 and 18,000 square miles, with
nearly 2,000,000 inhabitants. Italy also
gained the administration of the island
of Rhodes and several other small
islands.
Greece made great territorial gains.
In addition to the acquisition of Thrace
EUBOPB
64
EUSTATIUS, ST.
ana many islands in the ^gean Sea,
she also assumed administration of the
Smyrna district in Asia Minor, with a
proviso that a plebiscite at the end of
five years shall determine w^hether or not
it shall remain permanently in the hands
of Greece.
Rumania profited greatly in terri-
tory. She was awarded the province of
Bessarabia, formerly a part of Russia,
the former Austrian crownland of Buko-
wina, together with Transylvania, a part
of Banat, and other provinces from Hun-
gary. By this acquisition Rumania be-
came the largest country of the Balkan
states, with an area equal to the com-
bined areas of Czecho-Slovakia, Hungary,
and Austria, with a population, in 1919,
of 12,500,000.
Ukraine, formerly one of the richest
provinces of Russia, declared itself an
independent republiCo Its boundaries
are vague. It is claimed to have an area
of about 200,000 square miles, with a
population of 30,000,000. Its independ-
ence had not been acknowledged at the
beginning of 1921.
History.- — Europe was probably first
peopled from Asia, but at what date we
know not. The first authentic history
begins in Greece at about 776 B. C.
Greek civilization was at its most flour-
ishing period about 430 B. C. After
Greece came Rome, which, by the
early part of the Christian era, had
conquered Spain, Greece, Gaul, Helvetia,
Germany between the Danube and the
Alps, Illyria, Dacia, etc.
With the decline of the Roman empire
a great change in the political constitu-
tion of Europe was produced by the
universal migration of the northern na-
tions. The Ostrogoths and Lombards
settled in Italy, the Franks in France,
the Visigoths in Spain, and the Anglo-
Saxons in South Britain, reducing the
inhabitants to subjection, or becoming
incorporated with them. Under Char-
lemagne (771-814) a great Germanic
empire was established, so extensive that
the kingdoms of France, Germany, Italy,
Burgundy, Lorraine, and Navarre were
afterward formed out of it. About this
time the northern and eastern nations
of Europe began to exert an influence
in the affairs of Europe. The Slavs, or
Slavonians, founded kingdoms in Bo-
hemia, Poland, Russia, and the N. of
Germany; the Magyars appeared in
Hungary, and the Normans agitated all
Europe, founding kingdoms and princi-
palities in England, France, Sicily, and
the East. The Crusades and the growth
of the Ottoman power are among the
principal events which influenced Eu-
rope from the 12th to the 15th century.
The conquest of Constantinople by the
Turks (1453), by driving the learned
Greeks from this city, gave a new im-
pulse to letters in western Europe, which
was carried onward by the invention of
printing, and the Reformation. The dis-
covery of America was followed by the
temporary preponderance of Spain in
Europe, and next of France. Subse-
quently Prussia and Russia gradually
increased in territory and strength. The
French Revolution (1'789) and the Na-
poleonic wars had a profound effect on
Europe, the dissolution of the old Ger-
man empire being one of the results.
Since then the most important events in
European history have been the estab-
lishment of the independence of Greece;
the disappearance of Poland as a sepa-
rate state; the unification of Italy under
Victor Emmanuel; the Franco-German
war, resulting in the consolidation of
Germany into an empire under the
leadership of Prussia; the partial dis-
memberment of the Turkish empire, in-
cluding the loss of Crete; the loss by
Spain of her colonies in 1898; the ab-
sorption by England of the Transvaal
Republic and the Orange Free State in
Africa in 1900. The political history of
Europe from the beginning of the 20th
century led directly to the World War.
The seizure of Bosnia and Herzegovina
by Austria in 1908, the Balkan Wars
in 1912-1913, and the ever increasing
militarism of Germany culminated in the
great world struggle which began in
August, 1914.
EURYALE, a genus of plants of the
water-lily order, growing in India and
China, where the floury seeds of some
species are used as food.
EITRYDICE (u-rid'i-se) , in Greek
mjrthology, the wife of Orpheus (q. v.).
EUSEBIUS, a Greek writer, the
father of ecclesiastical history; born in
Palestine about A. D. 265. About 315 he
was appointed Bishop of Csesarea. He
became an advocate of the Arians and
condemned the doctrines of Athanasius.
His ecclesiastical history extends from
the birth of Christ to 324. Among his
other extant work is a life of Constan-
tine the Great. He died about 340.
EUSTACHIAN TUBE (iis-ta'shun),
in anatomy, a canal leading from the
pharynx to the tympanum of the ear.
See Ear.
EUSTATIUS, ST., a Dutch island in
the West Indies, one of the Leeward
Islands, 11 miles N. W. of St. Christo-
pher's, pyramidal in form; area 8 square
miles. Sugar, cotton, and maize are
raised; but the principal production is
tobacco. The climate is healthy, but
EUTAW SPRINGS
65
EVANS
earthquakes are frequent. Pop. about
1,300.
EUTAW SPRINGS, a small tributary
of the Santee river in Clarendon co.,
S. C. It is noted for the battle fought
on its banks in 1781, between about
2,000 Americans under General Greene,
and about 2,300 British under Colonel
Stuart. The latter were defeated and
driven from their camp but returned
and Greene was compelled to retire. In
the night, however, the British retreated
toward Charleston, leaving 138 killed
and wounded and about 500 prisoners.
The Americans lost about 550 in killed,
wounded and missing.
EUTERPE (-ter'pe), one of the
Muses, considered as presiding over Ijrric
poetry, the invention of the flute being
ascribed to her. She is usually repre-
sented as a virgin crowned with flowers,
having a flute in her hand. In botany,
a genus of palms, natives of South Amer-
ica, sometimes nearly 100 feet in height.
EUTHANASIA, a term employed to
describe painless methods of inducing
death. The subject is chiefly of interest
in respect to the close of illnesses in
which the death agony is likely to be
prolonged, and methods of easing pain
in such cases by narcotics and similar
means are regarded as admissible. The
actual hastening of death in an appar-
ently incurable illness is, however, a
graver matter, and the weight of ethics,
law and religion is strongly against such
action, which is regarded as tantamount
to actual slaying. The adage that while
there is life there is hope expresses the
fundamental principle opposed to eu-
thanasia, and the cases are numerous of
ultimate recovery on the part of a pa-
tient who has been doomed by expert
opinion.
EUTROPIUS. FLAVIUS, a Latin
historian, who flourished about A. D. 360.
His abridgement of the history of Rome
is written in a perspicuous style.
EVANGELICAL, a term often used to
qualify certain theological views, es-
pecially strict views on the question of
the atonement, justification by faith, the
inspiration and authority of the Scrip-
tures, and allied doctrines. In England
the so-called Low Church party is evan-
gelical in its views. In a more general
sense the word implies a peculiar fer-
vency and earnestness in insisting on
such doctrines as regeneration, i-edemp-
tion, etc. The "Evangelical Chui-ch" is
the official title of the Established
Church of Prussia, formed in 1817 by
the union of Lutherans and Calvinists.
EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, an as-
sociation of members of different sections
of the Christian Church, organized in
London in 1846, to lend its influence in
favor of evangelical doctrines (see Evan-
gelical) , religious union and liberty, and
against superstition and unbelief. The
alliance has branches throughout the
world.
EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION, a
body of American Christians, chiefly of
German descent, established about the
beginning of the 19th century. In forni
of government and mode of worship it
generally agrees with the Methodist
Episcopal Church.
EVANGELICAL UNION, the name of
a religious sect, also familiarly known
as the Morisonians, from the Rev. James
Morison, its originator. It took rise in
Scotland in 1840, and three years after-
% ard organized itself as a separate
Christian denomination. The Morison-
ians maintain the universality of the
atonement, combining with this the doc-
trine of eternal personal and uncondi-
tional election, and denying that anyone
will be condemned for Adam's fall.
EVANGELIST, a writer of the his-
tory or doctrines, precepts, actions, life,
and death of Christ; in particular, the
"four evangelists," Matthew, Mark,
Luke, and John.
EVANS. SIR ARTHUR JOHN, an
English archaeologist, born in Nash
Mills, Herts, in 1851. He was educated
at Oxford and in Germany. He spent
10 years in travel in eastern Europe,
especially in the Balkans. From 1884
to 1908 he was keeper of the Ashmolean
Museum at Oxford. In 1893 he under-
took investigations in Crete, and these
resulted in the discovery of remarkable
archaeological remains, which gave a new
aspect to the history of prehistoric Eu-
rope. He wrote "Cretan Pictographs
and Prae-Phoenician Script" (1896);
"Scripta Minoa" (1909). He was
knighted in 1911.
EVANS, AUGUSTA JANE (WIL-
SON), an American novelist; born in
Columbus, Ga., May 8, 1835. Her writ-
ings include: "Inez, a Tale of the Alamo"
(1856) ; "Beulah," the most popular of
her novels (1859); "St. Elmo" (1866);
"At the Mercv of Tiberius" (1887) ; "A
Speckled Bird" (1902) ; "Devota" (1907).
She died in 1909.
EVANS. ROBLEY DUNGLISON. an
American naval oflicer; born in Floyd
CO., Va. ; was graduated at the United
States Naval Academy in 1863; pro-
moted ensign, Oct. 1. 1863; lieutenant,
July 25, 1866; lieutenant-commander,
March 12, 1868; commander, in July,
1878; captain, June 27, 1893; and rear-
EVANS
66
EVAPOKATION
admiral in 1901. During the Civil War
he took part in the attack on Fort Fisher,
Jan. 15, 1865, and in the land engage-
ment was wounded four times. In 1891
he was in command of the "Yorktown"
at Valparaiso, Chile, during the strained
relations between the United States and
that country. He commanded the "Iowa"
in the action of July 3, 1898, off Santi-
ago de Cuba, which resulted in the de-
struction of the Spanish fleet. He was
promoted rear-admiral in 1901 and com-
manded the Asiatic fleet, 1902; flagship
"Kentucky." He was in command of
Atlantic fleet, 1905-1907; touring the
world in the latter year. He retired
Aug. 18, 1908. Publications : "A Sailor's
Log" (1901); "An Admiral's Log"
(1910). He died in 1912.
EVANS, SIB SAMUEL THOMAS, a
Welsh lawyer. He was born in 1859 at
Skewen, Neath, and was educated in the
board schools. He studied law, was ad-
mitted to the bar, and entering politics,
was elected to represent Glamorganshire
(Mid. Div.) in 1890, continuing to sit in
the House of Commons from that con-
stituency till 1910. He became a King's
Counsel in 1901, Recorder of Swansea
1906, Solicitor-General 1908, and a Privy
Counsellor in 1910, becoming in this last
year also President of the Probate, Di-
vorce, and Admiralty Courts. He was a
Justice of the Peace of Glamorganshire,
Pembrokeshire and Beaconshire; Hon.
Freeman of the County Borough of
Swansea, and of the Borough of Neath.
He died in 1918.
EVANS, THOMAS WILLIAMS, an
American dentist; born in Philadelphia,
Pa., Dec. 23, 1823 ; studied dentistry and
practiced in Maryland and later in Lan-
caster, Pa.; made a specialty of saving
teeth by filling. In seeking a substitute
for gold foil he mixed rubber and sul-
phur, which make a black substance in-
stead of a white one. Because of the un-
favorable color he laid the substance
aside and gave it no more thought, till
his mixture was used by others for pro-
ducing commercial gutta-percha, which
he declared he had discovered. In 1848
he went by invitation to Paris as the
most skillful American dentist, to attend
to the teeth of President Louis Napo-
leon. During his career in Paris he ac-
cumulated a very large fortune. He also
won an international reputation as an
» expert in military sanitation and was
one of the founders of the Red Cross
Society. His home was the refuge of
the Empress Eugenie from the mob on
the night of Sept. 4, 1870. Dressed in
his wife's clothes, she was taken by him
to the Normandy coast, where he secured
her escape to England. He died in
Paris, Nov. 14, 1896. Dr. Evans be-
queathed all of his fortune, estimated at
from $8,000,000 to $12,000,000, excepting
$250,000, to establish a museum and in-
stitute in Philadelphia.
EVANSTON, a city in Cook co., 111.;
on Lake Michigan and on the Chicago
and Northwestern and the Chicago, Mil-
waukee and St. Paul railroads; 12 miles
N. of Chicago. It includes the villages
of Rogers Park and South Evanston;
is delightfully laid out; and has gas and
electric light plants; electric and ele-
vated railroads to Chicago; Holly sys-
tem of waterworks, weekly newspapers,
National bank. It is the seat of North-
western University (M. E.) founded in
1851, largely endowed and of high re-
pute, with a library and a museum. It
is the seat also of the Garrett Biblical
Institute, Winchell Academy, and of the
Evanston College for Women, founded in
1871. The Dearbon Observatory was
transferred here from Chicago in 1888,
and dedicated the following year as a de-
partment of Northwestern University.
Pop. (1910) 24,978; (1920) 37,215.
EVANSVILLE, a city port of entry,
and the county-seat of Vanderburg co.,
Ind., on the Ohio river, and the Evans-
ville and Terre Haute, the Louisville,
Evansville and St. Louis, the Louisville
and Nashville, and several other rail-
roads: 185 miles W. of Louisville. It is
on a high bank at a bend in the river
midway between the falls and the junc-
tion with the Mississippi; is the trade
center of a rich agricultural and coal
region ; and has the finest wharf and city
front on the Ohio or Mississippi river.
It has excellent shipping facilities, with
10 packet lines, iron and brass foundries,
harness and saddlery, steam engine and
boiler, furniture, boot and shoe, pottery,
metal goods, tobacco, and chemical
plants. The city contains the Evansville
Insane, St. Mary's, and United States
Marine Hospitals, County Infirmary,
Evans Hall, United States Government
Building, public day school for the deaf,
a business college, public library, high
school, daily and weekly newspapers, 3
National and several private banks, and
an assessed property valuation of over
$25,000,000. Pop. (1910) 69,647; (1920)
85,264.
EVAPOEATION, the conversion of a
liquid or solid by heat into vapor or
steam, which becomes dissipated in the
atmosphere in the manner of an elastic
fluid. The process of evaporation is con-
stantly going on at the surface of the
earth, but principally at the surface of
the sea, of lakes, rivers, and pools. The
vapor thus formed, being specifically
EVABTS 67
lighter than atmospheric air, rises to
considerable heights above the earth's
surface; and afterward, by a partial
condensation, forms clouds, and finally
descends in rain.
EVABTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL,
an American lawyer; born in Boston,
Mass., Feb. 6, 1818; was graduated at
Yale College in 1837 and studied at the
Harvard Law School. In 1841 he began
the practice of law in New York City;
in 1849-1853 was assistant district attor-
ney; and in 1868 was the principal coun-
sel for President Johnson in his im-
peachment trial. In 1868-1869 he was
Attorney-General of the United States;
in 1877 principal counsel for the Repub-
lican party before the Electoral Commis-
sion on the Hayes-Tilden election re-
turns; in 1877-1881 United States Secre-
tary of State; and in 1885-1891 United
States Senator from New York. He also
represented the United States in the
Alabama-claims case, and was the prin-
cipal counsel for Henry Ward Beecher
in his defense against the charges pre-
ferred by Theodore Tilton, He was fa-
mous as an orator. He died in New
York, Feb. 2, 1901.
EVDOKION. ABCHBISHOP (MES-
CHEBSKY), head of the Russian Or-
thodox Church in North America. He
was born in the state of Vladimir, Russia,
in 1869, and was educated in Moscow
Theological Academy. In 1894 he be-
came professor at the Theological Sem-
inary of Novgorod, and in 1896 profes-
sor and inspector of the Moscow Theo-
logical Academy. In 1896 he became
archimandrite, and in 1898 Master of
Theology. He continued teaching in his
professorial capacity for a number of
years when in 1903 he was ordained
bishop and appointed rector of the Mos-
cow Theological Academy. He became
bishop of Kashira, state of Tula, 1909,
and in 1914 was named to his present
position. He has written a book: ''St.
John the Divine."
EVE. See Adam and Eve.
EVELETH, a city of Minnesota, in
St. Louis CO. It is on the Duluth, Mis-
sabe, and Northern, and the Duluth and
Iron Range railroads. It is the center
of an important iron-mining region and
has also industries of lumbering and
dairying. There is a public library,
parks, and other important public build-
ings. Pop. (1910) 7,036; (1920) 7,025.
EVELYN. JOHN, an English writer;
born in Wotton, Surrey, Oct. 31, 1620.
After completing his course at Oxford,
he studied law at the Middle Temple. In
1659 he took the royal side in the civil
war. He published works, including
EVENING SCHOOLS
"Sculptura, or the History and Art of
Chalcography"; "Sylva, or a Discourse
of Forest Trees"; treatises on gardening,
architecture, etc. But his most impor-
tant work is his memoirs, which are
interesting contributions to the history
of the time. He died in Wotton, Feb. 27,
1706.
EVENING SCHOOLS, schools which
endeavor to educate those who for vari-
ous reasons cannot attend schools con-
ducted in the daytime. For the most
pai-t they are attended by people who
earn their livelihood by v/orking through
the day and who desire to better their
positions. They provide instruction in
the primary grades, in vocational train-
ing, and in the liberal arts. Those who
desire the primary work are chiefly older
children and adults who have grown up
illiterate. The largest number of stu-
dents attending evening schools in the
United States are those who wish to
place themselves above the position of
unskilled laborers by learning a trade.
The introduction of courses in liberal
education is comparatively an innova-
tion. In 1834 New York City estab-
lished the first evening school and for
a time it prospered, but as only primary
instruction was given the number of
students remained between ten and
twenty thousand. When, however, even-
ing high schools giving instruction in
commercial and technical work were
opened, the number of students greatly
increased. The Cooper Union of New
York, a private institution, is one of the
most famous of those offering secondary
and vocational education by evening high
schools. Massachusetts now leads the
States in the Union in the number of
evening schools and in average attend-
ance of students. Of the 204 cities which
in 1913 had evening schools, 41 were
located in Massachusetts cities. This
has largely been the result of a law
passed by the State in 1911, which made
provision for the extension of the work
in night schools as a part of the move-
ment for vocational education. Many
private institutions similar to the Cooper
Union in New York have opened night
schools. The Maryland Institute of Bal-
timore and the larger branches of the
Young Men's Christian Association are
conspicuous in the efforts to provide
education for those who must earn their
living by day labor.
In Germany the evening schools were
started as early as the 18th century,
but not until 1844 did they receive state
or municipal aid. By 1914 Germany had
established the most complete and effec-
tive system of evening schools, and at-
tendance on them was made compulsory
for certain classes of ceoole. As a re-
EVENING- STAB
68
EVIDENCE
suit nearly 600,000 Germans attended
night school during 1914. The number
attending in the United States did not
exceed 150,000. England surpassed even
this record in evening school attendance,
nearly 700,000 being given instmiction
in 1914. The courses in England are
more varied than elsewhere, and in most,
cases lead to degrees, a most unusual
affair in the States. The municipal gov-
ernments have made the evening schools
centers of the social activities of the
young people of the city, and much at-
tention is paid to physical education.
EVENING STAR, the name given to
any one of the planets that may be seen
at certain seasons just above the horizon
early in the evening; especially applied
to the planet Venus on account of its
brightness and beauty. Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn are the other evening stars.
EVEREST, MOUNT, the highest
known mountain in the world, situated
in the Himalayas, in Nepal. It is 29,140
feet high, and was named in honor of
Sir George Everest, a noted English sur-
veyor and civil engineer.
EVERETT, a city in Middlesex co.,
Mass., on the Boston and Maine railroad ;
three miles N. of Boston. It was part
of Maiden until 1870 and was incorpo-
rated as a city in 1893. It has electric
railway connections with Boston and
neighboring cities, and iron, steel, and
woolen mills, and varnish and chemical
works. It contains several public schools,
high school, Whidden Hospital, Shute
and Parlin Libraries, the Home School,
weekly newspapers, savings banks, etc.
Pop. (1910) 33,484; (1920) 40,120.
EVERETT, a city of Washington, the
county-seat of Snohomish co. It is a
port of entry and is at the mouth of the
Snohomish river, on Puget Sound, and
on the Great Northern, the Northern
Pacific, and the Chicago, Milwaukee, and
St. Paul railroads. It is also on several
lines 01 freight and passenger steam-
boats. It is the center of an important
lumbering, gardening, and mining com-
munity. There is an excellent harbor
with facilities for docking vessels of
large tonnage. The city has an impor-
tant trade in lumber. Other industries
include ship yards, paper and flour mills,
iron works, and chemical works. It is
the seat of the Pacific College and has a
public library, hospitals, and the United
States customs and assayer's offices.
Pop. (1910) 24,814; (1920) 27,644.
EVERETT, CHARLES CARROLL,
clergyman; born in Brunswick, Me., June
19, 1829; was graduated at Bowdoin
College; and studied at the University
of Berlin. He returned to Bowdoin Col-
lege, where he was tutor for two years,
librarian for five, and Professor of Mod-
ern Languages in 1855-1857. He was
ordained pastor of the Independent Con-
gregational Church in 1859; resigned in
1869 to become Professor of Theology in
Harvard Divinity School; and was dean
of the school from 1879 till his death.
Among his published works are "The
Science of Thought" (1869) ; "Religion
Before Christianity" (1883) ; "Ethics
for Young People" (1891); and "The
Gospel of Paul" (1893). He died in
Cambridge, Mass., Oct. 17, 1900.
EVERETT, EDWARD, an American
statesman; born in Dorchester, Mass.,
April 11, 1794. After traveling for some
years in Germany and England he re-
turned to America in 1819 to occupy the
chair of Greek Literature at Harvard.
He became editor of the "North Amer-
ican Review," and entering the political
world became successively member of
Congress, governor of Massachusetts,
and minister plenipotentiary to England
(1840). In 1845 he was appointed presi-
dent of Harvard College, and in 1852
Secretary of State. Shortly after he re-
tired to private life. He died in Boston,
Jan. 15, 1865.
EVERGLADES, a low marshy tract of
country in southern Florida, inundated
with water and interspersed with patches
or portions covered with high grass and
trees. In recent years extensive drainage
systems were established and about 1.-
000,000 acres of land have been reclaimed
(1920). Owing to the richness of the
soil of this territory the land is eagerly
sought for farming purposes and it is
expected that in a few years the remain-
ing 2,700,000 acres will be reclaimed for
agriculture.
EVERGREEN, a plant that retains
its verdure through all the seasons, as
the fir, the holly, the laurel, the cedar,
the cypress, the juniper, the holm-oak,
and many others.
EVIDENCE, that which makes evi-
dent, which enables the mind to see truth.
It may be intuitive, i. e., resting on the
direct testimony of consciousness, of per-
ception or memory, or on fundamental
principles of the human intellect; or
it may be demonstrative, i. e., in a strict
sense, proofs which establish with cer-
tainty as in mathematical science cer-
tain conclusions; or it may be probable,
under which class are ranked moral evi-
dence, legal evidence, and generally every
kind of evidence which, though it may be
sufficient to satisfy the mind, is not an
absolutely certain and incontrovertible
demonstration.
In jurisprudence evidence is classified
EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY 69
into that which is direct and positive,
and that which is presumptive and cir-
cumstantial. The former is that which is
proved by some writing containing a
positive statement of the facts and bind-
ing the party whom it affects; or that
v/hich is proved by some witness, who
has, and avers himself to have, positive
knowledge thereof by means of his
senses. Whenever the fact is not so
directly and positively established, but is
deduced from other facts in evidence, it
is presumptive and circumstantial only.
The following are the leading rules re-
garding evidence in a court of law:
(1) The point in issue is to be proved
by the party who asserts the affirmative.
But where one person charges another
with a culpable omission this rule will
not apply, the person who makes the
charge being bound to prove it. (2) The
best evidence must be given of which
the nature of the thing is capable. (3)
Hearsay evidence of a fact is not admis-
sible. The principal exceptions to this
rule are: Death-bed declarations, evi-
dence in questions of pedigree, public
right, custom boundaries, declarations
against interest, declarations which ac-
company the facts or are part of the
res gestse (things done), etc. (4) Insane
persons and idiots are incompetent to be
witnesses. But persons temporarily in-
sane are in their lucid intervals received
as witnesses. Children are admissible as
witnesses as soon as they have a com-
petent share of understanding and know
and feel the nature of an oath and the
obligation to speak the truth.
EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY
may be divided broadly into two great
classes, viz., external evidences, or the
body of historical testimonies to the
Christian revelation; and internal evi-
dences, or arguments drawn from the
nature of Christianity itself as exhibited
in its teachings and effects, in favor of
its divine origin.
In the 16th and 17th centuries the in-
fluences of the Renaissance and the
Reformation gave rise to a spirit of in-
quiry and criticism which developed
English deism as represented by Herbei't
and Hobbes in the 17th century, and
Collins and Bolingbroke in the 18th. The
general position of English deism was
the acceptance of the belief in the exis-
tence of God, and the profession of
natural religion along with opposition to
the mysteries and special claims of
Christianity. It was in confutation of
this position that the great English
works on the evidences of Christianity
of Butler, Berkeley, and Cudworth were
written. In France the new spirit of
inquiry was represented by Diderot,
EVOLUTION
D'Holbach, and the encyclopaedists, whc
assailed Christianity mainly on the
ground that it was founded on imposture
and superstition, and maintained by
sacerdotal trickery and hypocrisy. No
reply of any great value was produced
in the French Church, though in the pre-
vious age Pascal in his "Thoughts" had
brought together some of the profound-
est considerations yet offered in favor
of revealed religion. The 19th century
was distinguished by the strongly ration-
alistic spirit of its criticism. The works
of such writers as Strauss, Bauer and
Feuerbach, attempting to eliminate the
supernatural and mysterious in the origin
of Christianity, were answered by the
works of Neander, Ebrard, and Ullmann
on the other side. The historical method
of investigation, represented alike by the
Hegelian school and the Positivists in
philosophy, and by the Evolutionists in
science, is the basis of the chief attacks
of the present time against the super-
natural character of Christianity, the
tendency of all being to hold that, while
Christianity is the highest and most per-
fect development to which the religious
spirit has yet attained, it differs simply
in degree of development from any other
religion. Notable among later apologists
of Christianity have been Paley (Natural
Theology), Chalmers (Natural Theol-
ogy), Mansel, Liddon, and others, lec-
turers of the Bampton Foundation; in
Germany Luthardt, Ewald, Baumstark,
and others.
EVOLUTION, the act of unrolling or
unfolding. The word is used as a term in
science and philosophy to indicate the
development of an organism toward
greater differentiation of organs and
functions, and a more complex and high-
er state of being. Some regard Herbert
Spencer {q. v?) as the author of the
Doctrine of Evolution, others Charles
Darwin (q. v.)
In astronomy, the nebular hypothesis,
which regards the planetary bodies as
evolved from nebular or gaseous matter,
is an example of evolution; in geology
the old view, which considered the ani-
mal and vegetable life of each geological
period as a new and separate organic
creation, has given place to the evolu-
tionary theory of a process of develop-
ment from earlier types to those of the
later periods. But the evolution of the
more complex from the simple organisms
probably never exhibits a linear series
of advances. Evolution is a law, the
operation of which is traceable through-
out every department of nature; it is
equally well illustrated from the history
of philosophy or the arts, or from the
historical development of society. Evola-
EVOLUTION"
tion has been most discussed (in connec-
tion with the evolutionary theory of the
Origin of Species), as it affirms that all
forms of life in both the animal and
vegetable kingdoms have been developed
by modifications of parts from one low-
form of life consisting of a minute cell.
The steps by which this process has
been accomplished, and the causes that
have been mainly at work in it, form
a department of research to which many
notable scientists — Lamarck, St. Hilaire,
Goethe, Schelling, Haeckel, Spencer, Dar-
win, Wallace, and others have contrib-
uted. John Fiske, in his doctrine of
evolution, brings out vividly before us
the ever-present God, destroying the con-
ception of the world as a mere cosmic
machine.
The origin of all mammals from one
common parent form upward to man is
an established fact. Man's evolution can
be traced upward from a fish in 12 steps
or stages. This fish ancestor of ours be-
longed to the order of the Selachii, the
best existing species of which is the
shark. In another direction this primitive
fish gave rise to the higher forms of
vertebrate amphibious animals leading
up to man. The next higher class of
vertebrates, leading toward man, are the
batrachians or amphibians. The axolotl
of Mexico, a fish-like animal with a long
tail, belongs to this class. It has both
gills and lungs, and can either respire
water through the gills or air through
the lungs. Similar are the numerous
kinds of salamanders. An experiment
was made of keeping the axolotl perma-
nently out of the water. It lost its gills
and became permanently mature and ac-
customed to its environment. Resembling
these are the various kinds of toads and
frogs, after which animals come the pro-
tanmians (lizard-like reptiles). These,
losing their gills and breathing only
through lungs, were a step farther re-
moved from fishes. In the formation of
the group of Stegocephala, from which
man descended, a distinct advance occurs.
I partition wall forms within the simple
ventricle of the heart, dividing it into
right and left ventricles. Progress is also
noticed in the development of the brain,
the skeleton, and the muscular system.
The period at which the important ad-
vances occurred which laid the founda-
tions for the mammal class, to which
man belongs, was probably the Triassic.
Out of that epoch came the monotremate
mammal, of which the modern duck-bill
or Platypus of Australia is a remnant.
The next step higher in development was
that of the marsupials, or animals whose
females carry their young in pouches.
From a branch of such pouched animals,
the parent form of the higher or Pla-
70 EWELL
cental mammals, of which man is an
extremely specialized type, afterward
sprang. Hence we reckon a whole series
of pouched animals among the ancestors
of the human race. The Placental mam-
mals mark another distinct advance in
evolution. To this group belong the
carnivora, of which the lion, the tiger,
the dog family and the bear family, are
members. A special stage is that of the
semi-apes, and probably our ancestor
among the semi-apes resembled the exist-
ing lemurs, and like these, led a quiet life
climbing trees. Immediately following
are the true apes. Beyond a doubt, of
all animals, the apes are the most nearly
allied to man. A thousand million of
years may have been consumed in this
evolution of man.
EVOBA, a city of Portugal, capital of
the province of Alemtejo, 75 miles E. by
S. of Lisbon. It is the center of a con-
siderable steel, cotton, and woolen indus-
try, but is most famous for its archaeo-
logical museum, one of the best in the
country. It contains a church library
with 25,000 volumes. Pop. about 18,000.
EVBEUX, a city of France, capital of
the department of Eure, in Normandy,
situated on the Iton, 67 miles W. N. W.
from Paris. A considerable industry in
linens, shoes, and gasoline engines is
carried on, while the town is the center
of an important grain trade. It was
the center of heavy fighting during the
World War, especially during the in-
tensive operations incidental to the great
Allied offensive, known as the Battle of
Normandy.
EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AIT-
GUST VON (aValt) , a German Orienta-
list and Biblical critic; born in Gottin-
gen, Nov. 16, 1803. After studying at
the university there, in 1827 he became
extraordinary, in 1831 ordinary Profes-
sor of Theology, and in 1835 Professor
of Oriental Languages. In 1837 he lost
his chair at Gottingen on account of his
protest against the king's abrogation
of the liberal constitution, became Pro-
fessor of Theology at Tubingen, but in
1848 returned to his old chair at Gottin-
gen. When Hanover was annexed by
Prussia in 1866 he became a zealous
defender of the rights of the ex-king.
Among his chief works are the follow-
ing: "Complete Course of the Hebrew
Language"; "The Poetical Books of the
Old Testament"; "History of the People
of Israel"; "Antiquities of the People
of Israel." The history is considered his
greatest work. He died in Gottingen,
May 5, 1875.
EWELL, RICHARD STODDERT,
military officer; born in Georgetown, D.
EWING
C, Feb. 8, 1817; was graduated at the
United States Military Academy in
1840; served in the cavalry on the fron-
tier, and during the Mexican War with
Scott from Vera Cruz to the City of
Mexico; and was promoted captain for
gallantry and meritorious conduct at
Contreras and Churubusco. At the out-
break of the Civil War he resigned his
commission in the National army; joined
the Confederates; and Avas actively en-
gaged throughout the war. Pie took
part in the Maryland campaign and in
the battles of Bull Run, Gettysburg, and
the Wilderness, and attained the rank of
Lieutenant-General. After the war he
retired to private life. He died in
Springfield, Tenn., Jan. 25, 1872.
EWING, JULIANA HORATIA
GATTY, an English story-writer and
poet; born in Ecclesfield, Yorkshire, in
1841. Her stories for children became
very popular and included "Daddy Dar-
win's Dovecote"; "Dandelion Clocks and
Other Tales"; "A Flat-iron for a Far-
thing"; "A Great Emergency and Other
Tales"; and "Jackanapes." She died in
Bath, England, May 13, 1885.
EWING, THOMAS, an American
statesman; born near West Liberty, Va.,
Dec. 28, 1789 ; was graduated at the Ohio
University in Athens in 1815; admitted
to the bar in 1816; and practiced law
for 15 years. He was a United States
Senator from Ohio in 1831-1837 and
1850-1851; Secretary of the Treasury
under President Harrison in 1841; and
Secretary of the Interior under Presi-
dent Taylor in 1849. In the United
States Supreme Court he ranked among
the foremost lawyers of the nation. He
died in Lancaster, O., Oct. 26, 1871.
EXCAVATOR, an apparatus used in
making docks, railway cuttings, canals,
etc. Excavators are made of two kinds,
each adapted for different kinds of work,
though in some cases they work to-
gether very effectively. In making a
long "gullet" or cutting, the first to come
into operation has the appearance and
all the functions of the ordinary steam-
crane, such as is used for loading rail-
way trucks, with the exception that it
is mounted on wheels to move on rails,
and that, instead of the hook on the end
©f the chain, there is a large and strong
iplate-iron bucket or "scoop," with a very
heavy handle or lever to which a second
chain is fastened. The lever is heavy
enough to counterbalance the scoop when
filled with clay. The machine begins by
lowering the scoop, and the two chains
are made to push it into the bank until
it is full. The suspension chain then
lifts the scoop over the wagon, while the
71 EXCHANGE
chain on the handle lifting it up empties
it. The machine now swings round on
its center to renew the operation. The
largest size can excavate two cubic
yards per minute. As the excavator ad-
vances over its rails, those behind are
brought to the front. The cutting is
made as wide as the arm or *'jib" will
reach on both sides of it, which leaves
sufficient room for the men to work
round it freely, and for wagons to pass.
When the cutting has been made the
requisite distance forward, the second
class of excavator is brought forward
to make the cutting wider. The original
conception of this is clearly derived from
the dredging machine, which has long
been in u.se in deepening harbors and the
mouths of rivers. Its sides are made
sloping to an angle of 45°, and on the
top of the bank a temporary line of rails
is laid a few feet from the edge. The
machine is placed on the rails at the
end of the cutting; the jib is lowered
until the row of buckets it carries can
cut into the clay; these scrape up the
bank, reaching the top of it full of soil;
they next pass over the machine, and
are emptied into the wagons beyond it.
The excavator and wagons move for-
ward simultaneously, the latter receiv-
ing, in the case of some excavators, a
continuous stream of clay equal to about
four cubic yards or two wagon loads
per minute.
All the movements of excavators are
effected by the power of the engine, and
two men manage each machine.
EXCHANGE, the act of exchanging,
or giving one thing for another; or that
which is so given. In commerce, a place
where merchants, brokers, etc., meet to
transact business; generally contracted
into 'Change. The institution of ex-
changes dates from the 16th century.
They originated in the important trading
cities of Italy, Germany, and the Nether-
lands, from which last-named country
they were introduced into England. In
some exchanges only a special class of
business is transacted. Thus there ai-e
stock exchanges, corn exchanges, coal
exchanges, cotton exchanges, etc. For
bill of exchange, see Bill.
Course of exchanpre, the current price
of a bill of exchange at any one place
as compared with what it is at another.
If for $500 at one place exactly $500
at the other must be paid, then the
course of exchange between the two
places is at par; if more must be paid
at the second place, then it is above par
at the other ; if less, it is below it. Arbi-
tration of exchange, the operation of
converting the currency of any country
into that of a second one by means of
EXCHEQUER
72
EXCRETION
other currencies intervening between the
two. In arithmetic, a rule for ascertain-
ing how much of the money of one coun-
try is equivalent in value to a given
amount of that of another. In law, a
mutual grant of equal interests, in con-
sideration the one for the other.
Theory of exchange, a hypothesis with
regard to radiant heat, devised by Pre-
vost of Geneva, and since generally ac-
cepted. All bodies radiate heat. If two
of different temperatures be placed near
each other, each will radiate heat to the
other, but the one higher in temperature
will receive less than it emits. Finally,
both will be of the same temperature,
each receiving from the other precisely
as much heat as it sends it in return.
This scale is called the mobile equilibrium
of temperature.
EXCHEQUER, in Great Britain, the
department which deals with the moneys
received and paid on behalf of the public
services of the country. The public rev-
enues are paid into the Bank of England
(or of Ireland) to account of the ex-
chequer, and these receipts as well as
the necessary payments for the public
service are under the supervision of an
important official called the controller
and auditor-general, the payments being
granted by him on receipt of the proper
orders proceeding through the treasury.
The public accounts are also audited in
his department.
EXCOMMUNICATIOlsr, a word de-
noting exclusion, whether temporary or
permanent, from fellowship in religious
rites, involving also, where participation
in such rites is required in the civil order,
privation of the rights of citizenship. It
is not peculiar to the Biblical religions,
but is found in most of the sytematized
cults, whatever their origin. The clear-
est analogy, however, to the Christian
discipline of excommunication is that
furnished by the Rabbinical code. The
offender first received a public admoni-
tion, and seven days later, if he did not
make satisfaction, the lesser excommuni-
cation, Niddui, was pronounced against
him, whereby he was isolated during 30
days from contact with all save his wife
and children, being obliged to keep at
least four cubits' distance from all
others; and though the sentence did not
technically include expulsion from the
synagogue, yet this provision practically
enforced it. At the expiration of 30 days,
a second term of like duration was en-
joined in case of continued impenitence;
and the contumacious were then visited
with the greater excommunication of
Cherem, which excluded both from the
synagogue and from all social intercourse,
and the offender was treated as a leper.
These two grades of excommunication
were the only ones anciently in use; but
the later rabbins added a third and se-
verer one, styled Shammatha or Anathe-
ma Maranatha, which was lifelong, at-
tended with solemn imprecations, and
sometimes entailing forfeiture of goods.
The Christian system of excommuni-
cation is based doctrinally on the precept
of Christ (Matt, xviii: 15-18) and on
the precepts and practice of St. Paul. It
was primarily, as the word denotes, ex-
clusion from communion in the eucharist
and the agape, or love-feast, including
also suspension from office in the case of
clerical offenders; and it was distin-
guished as major and minor, each having
various degrees of severity.
The most notable exercise of the power
of excommunication in the modern Angli-
can Church was when Bishop Gray, as
Metropolitan of Cape Town, deprived
and excommunicated Bishop Colenso of
Natal in 1863, which sentence, approved
by the Convocations of Canterbury and
York, the General Convention of the
American Episcopal Church, the Epis-
copal Synod of Scotland, and the Pro-
vincial Council of Canada, was reversed
by the Judicial Committee of Privy-
Council in 1865.
In the Established and other Presby-
terian Churches of Scotland, the lesser
excommunication, involving deprivation
of all "sealing ordinances," can be pro-
nounced by the kirk session.
Islam forms an exception to the almost
universal incidence of the practice of
excommunication. Under the Moslem
code every religious offense carries with
it a temporal penalty, such as fines,
scourging, stoning, or other mode of
death, and only in this last manner can
an offender be cut off from the congrega-
tion.
EXCRETION, the process in animal
and plant physiology which separates
from the essential substance or animal
body waste matter of no further use in
nutrition. The organs so employed par-
take of the characters of strainers,
which retain substances soluble in the
blood necessary to health and extrude
the harmful. The primary excretory
organs in vertebrates are the kidneys.
The function of these is to separate
from the blood the waste materials pro-
duced by the decomposition of nitrog-
enous substances and expel them from
the body. The lungs and the skin likewise
perform some of the duties of excretory
organs. In its simplest form the excre-
tory organ is found in the Protozoa, in
which the contractile vacuole by means
EXECUTION
78
EXETEB COLLEOE
of delicate infusoria drains the waste
material and then discharges the
contents.
EXECUTION, the carrying out of a
death sentence by court order. Such
cruel methods, as burning at the stake,
starving, drowning, poisoning, bleeding
to death, breaking on the wheel, etc., are
no longer employed as modes of punish-
ment in the progessive countries. In
Belgium, Holland, Norway, Portugal
Rumania, Finland, Argentine, Brazil,
Venezuela, Guatemala, and Ecuador life
imprisonment is the heaviest punish-
ment inflicted and no person is ever put to
death. In England and Spain, hanging is
the common form of execution. In France,
a death sentence is usually carried out by
the use of the guillotine for decapitation.
In Italy the death penalty is not inflicted
in any case. In modern times the tend-
ency has been toward the employment
©f the least cruel methods of execution.
Capital punishment is retained in 36
States of our Union. The usual method
©f execution is either by hanging or
electrocution. The Federal Government
may punish high treason by death pen-
alty. In most States death penalty is
inflicted only for murder, in some others
also for arson and rape. Ai'izona, Kan-
sas, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Mis-
sissippi, North Dakota, South Dakota.
Oregon, Rhode Island, Washington, and
Wisconsin do not inflict any death penalty.
EXECUTION, MILITARY, a techni-
cal term, signifying the carrying out of
the decision of any military court, not
necessarily a death sentence. Military
laws and their execution, or administra-
tion, are quite separate and distinct from
the civil laws of the same territory, the
former having as their special object the
maintenance of military organization
and discipline. The offenses covered are,
therefore, of a peculiar nature, such as
desertion, absence without leave, disobe-
dience, or refusal to obey orders, neglect
of duty, and, among oflficers, "conduct
unbecoming that of a ^ntleman." Those
subject to the jurisdiction of military law
are, first of all, officers and soldiers on
the active list, in the pay of the Govern-
ment, whether of the regular army or the
militia; retired officers and soldiers; dis-
charged officers or soldiers who have de-
frauded the Government; and general
prisoners. In time of war certain ci-
vilians may be included, such as those
suspected of being spies in the pay of the
enemy, and camp followers. Punish-
ments range from imprisonment, dishon-
orable dismissal or discharge, to death.
Before the decree of a military court
may be executed it must first be what is
termed confirmed. In the British army
this confirmation is done by a special
officer representing the King, but in the
United States army the highest com-
manding officer of the department is com-
petent to confirm a sentence in ordinary
cases. Where a court sentences an offi-
cer to dismissal from the service, hov/-
ever, the confirmation must be signed by
the President of the United States him-
self, and this rule applies also to death
sentences, except in very special cases.
EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT, that
branch of government whose duty it is
to enforce or execute the law. According
to the accepted canon of political science,
there are three departments of govern-
ment : the legislative or law-making body,
the judicial branch, which interprets the
law, and the executive. In the Federal
Government of the United States the
President is the chief executive, assisted
by the various heads of departments. In
the State governments the governor
heads the executive department. The
heads of the executive departments, that
is, the secretaries of State, War, Navy,
Treasury, Interior, Commerce, Agricul-
ture, and Labor, with the Attorney-Gen-
eral and Postmaster-General, constitute
the President's advisers or Cabinet. This
was not provided for in the Constitution,
which vests the entire executive power in
the President's hands, but the Cabinet
has grown up as a matter of necessity.
EXETER, a city, river-port, and par-
liamentary and municipal borough of
England, in the county of Devon, on the
left bank of the Exe, 10 miles N. W. from
its outlet in the English Channel. It is
pleasantly situated on the summit and
slopes of an acclivity rising from the
river, and has handsome squares, ter-
races, and streets. Among the objects of
interest are the cathedral (founded
1112), the remains of the castle of
Rougemont, the Guildhall, the Albert
Memorial Museum, St. Michael's Church,
etc. Exeter has iron foundries, manu-
factories of agricultural implements,
paper mills, etc., and Honiton lace is also
made. By means of a canal vessels of
300 tons can reach the city. The largest
vessels remain at Exmouth. Exeter is a
place of remote antiquity, having been a
British settlement long prior to the in-
vasion of the Romans. Pop. about 50,000.
EXETER COLLEGE, one of the col-
leges at Oxford University, England.
Founded by Stapeldon, Bishop of Exeter^
in 1314. It consists of a rector, 12 fel-
lowships, and more than twenty scholar-
ships. Eight of the latter, in accordance
with the will of the founder, are reserved
for those born or educated in the diocese
of Exeter. The buildings have been ex-
EXFOLIATION
74
EXHIBITIONS, INDUSTRIAL
tensively restored, most of them dating"
from the 17th and 18th centuries. The
chapel was built in 1857-1858 by Sir Gil-
bert Scott. A beautiful secluded garden
adds to the attractiveness of the build-
ings.
EXFOLIATION, in surgery, the pro-
cess by which a thin layer or scale of
dead bone separates from the sound
part.
EXHIBITION, a benefaction settled
for the maintenance of undergraduates
in the universities of England, the Brit-
ish colonies, and America. In Scotland
such scholarships are called bursaries.
EXHIBITIONS, INDUSTRIAL.
Modern industrial exhibitions differ
from the festivals and fairs of ancient
times, of which they are a development,
chiefly in the fact that they do not aim
at immediate and retail sales, but rather
for the purpose of showing the progress
of industry and of general advertise-
ment. The fair in its manifold aspects
of athletic spectacle, and commercial
and artistic concourse, is almost as old
as civilization itself. The Olympic fes-
tivals in Greece brought together mer-
chants who exhibited their wares. The
great fair of Tailtenn in Ireland was
likewise an athletic and commercial fes-
tival, the oldest known in northern
Europe. Fairs of this multiple charac-
ter were known in Egypt and Persia,
and seem to have arisen on occasions
that brought large numbers of people
together, permitting merchants to make
exhibition of their wares. Following the
usual pathway of civilization, they
passed from Greece to Italy and the other
countries of Europe, and Charlem.agne
appears to have favored the establish-
ment of such a fair in the 9th century
in his capital of Aix-la-Chapelle. The
most considerable of these fairs in
Europe are those of Leipzig in Germany
and Nizhni Novgorod in Russia, both of
them of respectable antiquity. On a
smaller scale similar gatherings have
long existed in other countries, but the
great expansion of modern industry has
resulted in an immense development of
the idea, and the industrial exhibition, as
it is conceived of to-day, greatly differs
from its predecessors in its duration,
magnitude, and setting. These exhibi-
tions now often partake of a national
character and are held in the capital or
a chief city of the country. Napoleon
inaugurated an exhibition in Paris in
1802 which won so much success that
similar exhibitions came to be held every
three years. Similar exhibitions began
to be held in Dublin under the auspices
of the Royal Dublin Society, beginning
with 1829. The idea had an early vogue
in the United States and the American
Institute of New York, founded in 1828,
initiated a series of industrial exhibi-
tions. The St. Louis Exposition, which
was first opened in 1883, was modeled
on the expositions which had by that date
attained a great vogue in France. Side
by side with the utilitarian aspect an
artistic setting was aimed at and the
arts as well as commerce and industry
were sought to be represented. These
exhibitions then came to be a feature in
the commemoration of important events
or to serve as a close to some large un-
dertaking finally accomplished. Thus
the World's Industrial Cotton Culturist
Exposition, held in New Orlaens, La.,
1883-1884, was followed by the Califor-
nia Mid-Winter Exposition, held in San
Francisco in 1894. Following these
were the Cotton States and Industrial
Exposition, held in Atlanta, Ga., 1895;
the Tennessee Centennial Exposition,
held in Nashville, Tenn., 1897; the
Trans-Mississippi Exposition, held in
Omaha, Neb., 1898; the Pan-American
Exposition, held in Buffalo, N. Y., in
1901; the South Carolina Interstate and
West Indies Exposition, held in Charles-
ton, S. C, in 1902; the Lewis and Clark
Centennial American Pacific Exposition
and Oriental Fair, held in Portland,
Ore., 1905; the Jamestown Tercentennial
Exposition, held in Hampton Roads, Va,,
1907; and the Alaska- Yukon Pacific Ex-
position, held in Seattle, Wash., in 1909.
The first exhibitions that partook on
their scale the character of the great in-
ternational expositions of recent years
were the Society of Arts exhibition, held
in London in 1851, and the Paris Inter-
national Exposition of 1855. The Lon-
don exhibition was visited by 6,039,195
people; there were 13,938 exhibitors;
and the receipts amounted to $2,444,718,
as against $lj600,000 expenditure. The
Paris Exposition was a much more elab-
orate affair. It was held in the Champs
Elysees in a vast Palais de I'Industrie,
827 feet long by 354 feet wide, designed
and solidly built as a home for similar
future exhibitions. Round this perma-
nent building were grouped other halls
devoted to separate arts and industries.
It was the greatest and most artistic
exposition held up to that date in any
country, and almost 5,000,000 people
visited it, while the expenditure amount-
ed to something like $5,000,000. The
next great international exhibition held
in London in 1862 left as a perma-
nent memorial the great iron and glass
building known as the Crystal Palace.
The exhibitors numbered 28,653; the
visitors 6,211,103; and the expenditure
amounted to roughly $5,000,000. All
EXHIBITIONS, rNDUSTRIAL 75
EXODUS
these exhibitions were again surpassed
by that held in the Champs de Mars,
Paris, in 1867. The site in this case oc-
cupied 171 acres, in the center of which
was erected a central palace, rectangu-
lar with circular ends, 1,608 feet in
length and 1,247 feet in width, with a
great central dome, and provided with
gardens and galleries. Concentric gal-
leries housed the industries of the vari-
ous countries, with avenues radiating
from the central garden. Grouped
round the central palace were nearly a
hundred structures devoted to industries
and arts. The exhibitors numbered
50,226; the expenditure totaled $5,883,-
400; the receipts approached $3,000,000
exclusive of subsidies made by the
city and the nation. Nearly 10,000,000
people visited the Exposition, and these
included visitors from every country
on earth. During the early part
of the second half of the 19th century
industrial exhibitions, having an inter-
national character, became the rule and
these were held in many cities of Europe
and America and other countries, includ-
ing Constantinople, Dublin, Oporto,
Havre, Amsterdam, Stockholm, Mel-
bourne, Sydney, Moscow, and St. Louis.
Under the auspices of the Austrian gov-
ernment an important international expo-
sition was held in Vienna in 1873, the vis-
itors to which numbered 7,254,687. The
first Centennial anniversary of the Dec-
laration of Independence was commemo-
rated by the International Centennial
Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876. The
fourth centennial anniversary of the dis-
covery of Ainerica was signalized by the
World's Fair in Chicago in 1893, and
this was followed by the California Mid-
Winter Exhibition held in 1894 at San
Francisco. The Paris Exposition of
1900 touched the high-water mark. The
site took in an area of 336 acres in the
heart of Paris on both banks of the
Seine. The erection of the various build-
ings cost $27,000,000, and several of
them were of a permanent character and
of great beauty. The exhibition lasted
from April 14 to Nov. 11, and was
visited by over 50,000,000 people, of
whom in one day, Sept. 6, 600,528 are
estimated to have passed through the
gates. There were 79,712 exhibitors,
31,946 of them French. Edifices were
erected by various nations, and the
whole represented a wonderful assem-
blage of the products of the various in-
dustries and arts throughout the world.
In 1915 an international exhibition was
held in San Francisco, Cal., to celebrate
the opening of the Panama Canal. On
the day the exhibition was opened its cost
is said to have totaled over $50,000,000.
The exhibition covered a site of 635
acres, and the construction tocJc nearly
four years, beginning in October, 1911.
There were eight large central palaces,
while avenues and courts divided build-
ings of lesser dimensions from each
other. Thirty-six foreign nations took
part and some of them erected pavilions.
The international industrial exhibition
has thus come to play a great part in
the life and business of the modern
world, and is showing itself capable of
continual development, so that wonder-
ful as these exhibitions have been in the
past, it is evident that they are going to
assume still more striking forms in the
future.
EXMOUTH, a seaport and market-
town of Devonshire, England. It is an
attractive summer resort and has a good
beach and handsome promenades. Its
elevation is high and it is noted for its
mild climate. The chief industries are
lace-making and fishing. Pop. about
15,000.
EXMOUTH, EDWARD PELLEW,
VISCOUNT, a British naval officer; born
in 1757. He went to sea at the age of
13, seized as midshipman in the
"Blonde" frigate during the American
war, and greatly distinguished himself
at Lake Champlam. In 1782 he was made
a post-captain for a brilliant action in
the "Pelican," and on the outbreak of
the war of 1793 was appointed to the
command of the frigate "La Nymphe."
From this time till the peace in 1802 he
was employed in active service. In 1804,
on the resumption of hostilities, he com-
manded the East India station, in the
"Culloden," till 1809, when he had at-
tained the rank of vice-admiral. In 1814
he was made Baron Exmouth with a
pension of £2,000 per annum. In 1816
he proceeded to Algiers in command of
the combined fleet of 25 English and
Dutch ships to enforce the terms of a
treaty regarding the abolition of Chris-
tian slavery which the dey had violated.
He bombarded the city and inflicted such
immense damage that the dey consented
to every demand. Three thousand
Christian slaves were by this exploit re-
stored to liberty. Lord Exmouth was
raised to the dignity of a viscount for
this service. In 1821 he retired to pri-
vate life, and he died Jan. 23, 1833.
EXODUS, the name given in the
Septuagint to the second book of the
Pentateuch, because it describes the de-
parture of the Israelites from Egypt.
The content? of the book are partly his-
torical, describing the departure of the
Israelites from Egypt, and partly legis-
lative, describing the promulgation of
the Sinaitic law.
EXOPHTHALMIC GOITER
76
EXPLOSIVES
EXOPHTHALMIC GOITER, enlarge-
ment with turgescence of the thyroid
gland, accompanied by protrusion of the
eyeballs, breathlessness, palpitation, and
anaemia. Also called Basedow's or
Graves' disease.
EXPANSION, in physics, is the en-
largement or increase in the bulk of
bodies, in consequence of a change in
their temperature. This is one of the
most general effects of heat, being com-
mon to all bodies whatever, whether solid
or fluid. The expansion of fluids varies
, considerably, but, in general, the denser
the fluid, the less the expansion; and,
commonly, the greater the heat, the
greater the expansion; but this is not
universal, for there are cases in which
expansion is produced, not by an in-
crease, but by a diminution of tempera-
ture. Water, in cooling, ceases to con-
tract at 42° F. ; and at about 39", just
before it reaches the freezing point
(32°), it begins to expand again, and
more and more rapidly as the freezing
point is reached. This expansion is
about one-eleventh of its hulk, and ac-
counts for the bursting of pipes, etc.,
when water is freezing in them.
EXPATRIATION, the act or state of
banishment from one's native country;
also the voluntary renunciation of the
rights and liabilities of citizenship in one
country to become the citizen or subject
of another. In the early part of the 19th
century, the United States was almost
the only nation that claimed for indi-
viduals the right of expatriation with-
out the consent of the government of
which they were citizens or subjects.
The European nations, as a rule, main-
tained that the permission of the sover-
eign was necessary; and the enforcement
by England of this claim was one of the
causes of the War of 1812. It must be
said, however, that notwithstanding the
position of the United States in regard
to citizens or subjects of foreign powers,
the right of voluntary renunciation of
allegiance to the United States by one
of our citizens was unsettled, so far as
legislation was concerned, till the act
of Congress of July 27, 1868, asserted
that expatriation "is a natural and in-
herent right of all people," but the ac-
tion of the Department of State had
previously seemed practically to admit
the right. As far as foreign States are
concerned, however, the United States
has steadily maintained its original posi-
tion. The first formal recognition of its
claims was secured in an expatriation
treaty with the North German Confed-
eration, signed Feb. 22, 1868. England
first recognized the right of voluntary
expatriation by act of Parliament in
1870, and immediately concluded an ex-
patriation treaty with the United States.
All the leading nations of Europe now
recognize the right, including besides
those just mentioned, France, Austria,
Russia, Italy, and Spain.
EXPECTORANTS, in pharmacy, med-
icines which favor the discharge of mu-
cus from the windpipe and air-passage3
of the lungs,
EXPLOSIVES are substances which,
by sudden decomposition or chemical ac-
tion, produce large volumes of heated
gas. The decomposition can be brought
about by heat, by a blow or by other
means. All explosives in actual use are
those in which the chemical action is one
of oxidation, the oxygen being supplied
either by a nitrate or chlorate, nitric
acid or an NO2 group. The ease with
which an explosion can be brought about
depends very largely on the physical
condition of the explosive. For instance,
gunpowder varies widely in its effects,
according to the size of the particles
composing the mixture. While the force
of all explosives is increased by inclos-
ing them in a small space, confinement
is not necessary in the ease qf_ those
compounds in which decomposition is
very rapid, as, for instance, mercury
fulminate.
JDftMPIN
(CA(?-n?!P6e I
M///}//>//A
EXPLOSIVES
A. Blasting charge
B. Cross section of primer
In an article of this length it wouW
be impossible to deal, even briefly, with
all substances of an explosive nature, but
as far as possible, representative types
of all the well-known groups will be
described.
1. Explosive mixtures, as distinct
from explosive compounds, consist of two
or more substances, at least one of
which is a combustible, and at least one
EXPLOSIVES
77
EXPLOSIVES
of which is a supporter of combustion.
The ingredients of these mixtures are
frequently not themselves explosives, but
may be ordinary combustibles such as
carbon, or sulphur, and stable salts such
as chlorate or nitrate of potash. In the
explosive powder, however, these other-
wise harmless substances are incorpo-
rated so thoroughly, and are in such a
fine state of division, that combustion
can be induced almost instantaneously
throughout the mass, with a consequent
rapid evolution of hot gases, thus pro-
ducing the phenomenon known as an ex-
plosion. The best known member of this
class is gunpowder, now almost obsolete
TANKS
at all or only a very small percentage.
As substitutes for saltpeter, nitrates of
sodium, barium, and ammonia have been
employed, the latter extensively in the
manufacture of "safety explosives" for
use in mines.
Ammottal consists of a mixture of
ammonium nitrate, aluminum and char-
coal. Mixtures containing chlorates and
perchlorates in place of nitrates have
been manufactured and used to a con-
siderable extent, but, owing to their un-
stable character, have never very largely
replaced the nitrate mixtures.
2. Explosive compounds are those sub-
stances which are of such a nature as to
NITI?ATlON
HOUSE
EXPLOSIVES — DIAGRAM OF GUN-COTTON FACTORY
Key :
A. Sulphuric acid E. Mixed acids I. Endless belts
B. Sulphuric acid P. Oleum J. Steam trays
C. Nitric acid G. Water K. Nitration pans
D. Strong waste acid H. Teasing machine L. Beater
M. Sand trays N. Poacher
for military purposes, but still largely
used for sporting purposes, in mining,
for fuses and for minor military pur-
poses. It consists of a mixture of
nitrate of potash (saltpeter), sulphur,
and charcoal, the proportions varying
somewhat, but being approximately
fifteen parts of potassium nitrate to two
parts of sulphur and three parts of char-
coal. Great care is taken in selecting
the sulphur, while the charcoal is pre-
pared in special retorts, and the process
of manufacture is one requiring much
skilled supervision. Many modifications
of gunpowder have been made from
time to time. In place of charcoal, such
materials as coal, coke, peat, sawdust,
bran, sugar, starch and many others
have been used, while powders have been
produced containing either no sulphur
Vol. IV — Cyc — P
be themselves explosive. Instead of a
chemical reaction taking place between
two separate substances, the reaction oc-
curs within the molecule of a single sub-
stance. As a consequence explosive com-
pounds are more powerful in their action
than mixtures, and modem explosives
used in warfare all belong to this class.
For the most part they are produced by
the nitration of organic compounds and
the best known and most widely used is
trivHrotoluenc , commonly called T.N.T.
This is manufactured by the nitration
of toluene in successive stages, mono-
nitrotoluene being first produced, then
dinitrotoluene, and finally, trinitro-
toluene. It occurs as yellow crystals,
which darken on exposure to light, but
is frequently used as a fused mass.
When held in a flame, it does not explode,
EXPLOSIVES
78
EXPRESS
but burns with a smoky flame. It can,
however, be detonated by means of ful-
minate of mercury. It is safe to handle
and remarkably stable, and while slight-
ly less powerful than picric acid it has
the advantage that it does not attack
metals or form unstable compounds with
them.
Picric acid, or trinitrophenol, occurs
as bright yellow crystals, but is usually
fused when used as an explosive (v.
Lyddite). Picric acid does not explode
easily by direct percussion, but it can
be readily detonated by mercury ful-
minate.
Nitroglycerin is prepared by nitrating
glycerine in the presence of sulphuric
acid. It is a heavy, oily liquid, having a
specific gravity of 1.60. Owing to the
Smokeless powders are mixtures of
nitrocellulose or nitrocellulose nitro-
glycerin, with other ingredients added as
stabilizers, "deadeners," or "coolers."
The explosive is dissolved (usually in
acetone or a mixture of ether and al-
cohol), the mixture is rolled into sheets,
the solvent evaporated, and the powders
finally dried at a temperature of about
40° C. Cordite belongs to this class, and
consists of a mixture of nitroglycerin
and guncotton, with a small amount of
vaseline, gelatinized by means of ace-
tone, and dried.
Percussion caps are filled with explos-
ive compositions, of which the chief con-
stituent is mercury fulminate (Hg
(CN0)2). When used alone, however,
this substance is too rapid in its action
WAsrt
ACIO
E6G
/wash \ /wash \
FlLTEl^ FILTEI?
EXPLOSIVES — DIAGRAM OP MANUFACTURE OF TRINITROTOLUENE (T.N.T.)
great danger of premature explosion
during transportation, nitroglycerin is
no longer used as such. It forms, how-
ever, an important constituent of d/yyui-
mite, which consists of nitroglycerin,
absorbed on a base, which may be inert,
combustible or explosive. The absorb-
ents chiefly used are kieselguhr, mag-
nesia, charcoal, and wood pulp. Ex-
plosive bases are usually nitrates of
potassium, sodium, or ammonium or or-
ganic nitro derivatives.
Guncotton, or trinitrocellulose, is
manufactured by nitrating cotton with a
mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids.
It is a grayish-white solid, odorless and
tasteless, and, when properly prepared,
is a safe and permanent explosive.
and it is, therefore, mixed with such
materials as potassium chlorate, sul-
phur, antimony sulphide, and powdered
glass.
Other explosive compounds have been
prepared by nitrating starch, sugar, dex-
trin, gelatin, resin, and even coal, but
these are of minor importance.
EXPRESS, in the United States, a
system organized for the speedy trans-
mission of parcels or merchandise of any
kind, and their safe delivery in good con-
dition. It originated in the trip made
from Boston to New York by William
Frederick Harnden (1813-1845), the first
"express-package carrier," March 4, 1839.
The project recommending itself to busi-
EXPRESSED OILS 79
ness men, competing companies sprang
up rapidly, and express lines were estab-
lished in all directions. Adams & Co.'s
California express was started in 1849;
Wells, Fargo & Co.'s in 1852; the Amer-
ican-European Co. was created in 1855.
As railways extended, the early "pony
express" disappeared, and individual
companies now have contracts with the
several railway companies, their business
over these routes being held to be en-
titled to protection of the courts
against any efforts to dispossess them.
Express companies developed greatly
in the 19th and 20th centuries. From
EXTERRITORIALITY
them from mineral and essential oils,
which last are, for the most part, ob-
tained by distillation.
EXTENSION, UNIVERSITY. See
University Extension.
EXTERRITORIALITY, a term used
in international law for those privileges
granted to foreigners by states exempt-
ing them from being subject to the laws
of that state while they are within its
boundaries. There are three recognized
cases in international law: (1) The per-
sons and property of ambassadors or
ministers and their suite. In certain non-
DENITRATING
HOUSE
^^77P777!7f7VT?^777i
EXPLOSIVES — DIAGRAM OF NITRO-GLYCERINE FACTORY
Key :
1. G, glycerine store ; MA, mixed acid store ;
HNOs, nitric acid ; H2SO4, sulphuric acid.
2. C, cascade ; F, furnace.
3. F, fume shaft ; CB, collecting bottles ; D,
denitrator ; C, cooler; E, acid egg: ST, settling
tank.
4. NA, nitrating acids ; DA, displacing acids ;
C, compressor ; E, acid egg.
1918 to 1920 the companies in the United
States, in common with the railroads,
were under Government control. They
were restored to the parent companies
on March 1, 1920. Express companies
issue various forms of money orders for
both foreign and domestic use.
EXPRESSED OILS, in chemistry,
those oils which are obtainable from
bodies only by pressing, to distinguish
5. W, water tank ; G, glycerine tank ; NS,
nitrator separator ; PWT. pre-wash tank ; L,
labyrinth ; DT, drowning tank.
6. WT, washing tank; L, labyrinth; F, filter;
S, scales.
7. WWST, wash water settling tank: L, laby-
rinth.
Christian nations this has been extended
to include consuls. (2) The persons
and property of visiting sovereigns. (3)
Public ships in foreign waters. The priv-
ilege of being exempt from the laws of
non-Christian states has been obtained
by the Western powers for all of their
subjects residing in such countries as
Turkey, China, etc. These provisions
guaranteeing exterritoriality to Chris-
EXTRACT 80
tian subjects of foreign nations were in-
corporated in the case of Turkey and
the nations of the Far East into definite
treaties. Likewise the privileges and im-
munities granted by the Italian govern-
ment to the Pope come under cases of
exterritoriality. In the "Alabama" case
the arbitrators at Geneva ruled that the
immunity granted to vessels of a foreign
nation could not be called a right which
belonged to them, but only a courtesy and
hence did not relieve the neutral state
in whose harbor they were from the re-
sponsibility of preserving that neutrality.
EXTRACT, a term to denote all that
can be dissolved out of a substance by a
specified menstruum, such as water, alco-
hol, ether, etc. Extracts must be capable
of being redissolved, so as to form a solu-
tion like that from which they were
derived. Extracts are used in cookery,
medicine, and the manufacture of per-
fumery. Extract of meat is a soft, yel-
lowish-brown, solid, or very thick syrup,
which is employed as a portable soup.
EXTRADITION, the act by which a
person accused of a crime is given up
by the government in whose territories
he has taken refuge to the government
of which he is a subject. Conventions
have been entered into by Great Britain
with almost all civilized countries for the
apprehension and extradition of persons
charged with particular offenses, espe-
cially those of the most heineous stamp,
such as murderj robbery, embezzlement,
arson, rape, piracy, obtaining money
under false pretenses, unlawful destruc-
tion and obstruction of railroads, pi'O-
curing abortion, etc. The Extradition
Act of 1870 makes special provision that
no criminal shall be surrendered for a
political offense, and that the criminal
shall not be tried for any but the crime
for which he was demanded.
EXTRADOS (-tra'dos), the external
outline or curve of an arch.
EXTRAVAGANZA, in music, the
drama, etc., a species of composition de-
signed to produce effect by its wild ir-
regularity and incoherence; differing
from a burlesque in being an original
composition and not a mere travesty.
EXTRAVASATION, an escape of
some fluid, as blood or urine, from the
vessel containing it. Blood extravasation,
in contusions and other accidents, is
when blood-vessels are ruptured by the
injury, and the blood finds its way into
the neighboring tissues. In some acci-
dents to the urethra and bladder extra-
vasation of urine is a very serious occur-
rence.
EXTREME UNCTION, since the 12th
century, one of the seven sacraments of
EYCK
the Catholic Church. It is performed in
cases of mortal disease by anointing in
the form of a cross, the eyes, ears, nose,
mouth.
EXTJMAS, a group of islands of the
British West Indies, forming a part of
the Bahamas. The chief islands are
Great Exuma, Little Exuma, and the
Exuma Keys, with a total area of 150
square miles. Little Exuma has an ex-
cellent harbor. The inhabitants are em-
ployed chiefly in agriculture, and the
making of salt. Pop. about 4,000.
EYCK, HUBERT VAN (ik), a noted
Flemish painter; born in Maaseyck, near
Liege, Belgium, in 1366. It has been
claimed that he and his brother Jan
were the inventors of oil painting. For
transparent and brilliant coloring and
minute finish their works have never
been surpassed. Their masterpieces are
for the most part in Ghent, Bruges, Ant-
werp, Berlin, Munich, and Paris. The
only painting that can now certainly be
assigned to Hubert is the altar-piece with
folding doors, "The Adoration of the
Lamb," begun by him and finished by
Jan, and afterward presented to the
Cathedral of St. Bavon, Ghent, where
only the two central divisions now re-
main, the wings being in the Gallery at
Berlin, with the exception of those repre-
senting Adam and Eve, which are in the
Brussels Museum. Hubert died in Ghent,
Flanders, Sept. 18, 1426.
EYCK, JAN VAN, a Flemish painter,
brother of Hubert; born in Maaseyck,
about 1386. He was court painter of
Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and
practiced his art chiefly at Bruges. In
the National Gallery, London, there are
three pictures of Jan van Eyck. These
are portraits of Jean Arnolfini and
Jeanne de Chenany, his wife — signed
and dated 1434; the portrait of a man
in a cloak and fur collar, with a red
handkerchief twisted round the head as
a turban — painted Oct. 21, 1433; and the
portrait of a man with a dark-red dress
and a green head-covering — signed and
dated Oct. 10, 1432. In the Louvre is his
exquisitely finished little picture of
"Chancellor Rollin kneeling before the
Virgin." Jan died in Bruges, July 9, 1440,
and lies buried in St. Donatus Church.
EYCK, MARGA-RET VAN, a Flemish
painter, sister of Hubert and Jan van
Eyck. A "Virgin and Child," in the
National Gallery, London, formerly as-
signed to her, is attributed to an un-
known painter of the Early Flemish
school. She is believed to have executed
the miniatures in the missal of the Duke
of Bedford. She died before 1431.
EYE
81
EYE
EYE, the organ of sight. The principle
on which the human eye is constructed
is that of the camera obscura, a dark
chamber with a small opening for the
admission of light, a quantity of black
matter for the absorption of superabun-
dant rays, and a nervous expansion on
that wall which receives the rays of
light. For protection it is deeply sunk
EYE — CROSS-SECTION OF HUMAN EYE
A. Optic nerve
B. Retina
C. Choroid
D. Sclera
E. Vitreous humor
F. Lens
G. Aqueous humor
H. Cornea
I. Iris
J. Fovea centralis
K. Arteria centrall
retinae
L. Orbital fat
M. Levator palpebrae
superioris muscle
N. Rectus superior
muscle
O. Rectus Inferior
P. Eyelids
Q. Eyelashes
in a fatty cushion within a bone cavity.
The human eye is nearly globular, but
the anterior part formed by the cornea
is part of a smaller sphere, and slightly
protuberant, in the proportion of 20 to
19. In the globe itself the chief consti-
tuents are: (1) The retina, the expan-
sion of the optic nerve; (2) the trans-
parent refracting media (the vitreous
body or humor, the crystalline lens, the
aqueous humor, the iris, and the pupil) ;
(3) the tunica sclerotica, forming a dense
tunic inclosing the first two. It is opaque
except in front, where it becomes (4)
the cornea, perfectly transparent, to
allow the light to enter (5) the choroid
membrane, lying between the retina and
sclerotica, and containing a layer of dark
pigment. The vitreous humor is imme-
diately within the cup formed by the
retina, and gives the support ^ inside
which the sclerotica does outside; it
forms four-fifths of the whole globe, and
its perfect fluidity allows for the expan-
sion and contraction of the pupil and of
the lens itself to or from the cornea. The
crystalline lens is divided into three equal
parts by three lines, which radiate from
the center to one-third of the surface;
each one of these layers consists of hun-
dreds of concentric layers, connected by
finely serrated edges. This beautiful
dove-tailing of fibers is not peculiar to
man; the best example is the lens of the
common codfish.
The eyes of the vertebrata are essen-
tially like those of man. The eyes of
insects are of two kinds: compound eyes
and simple eyes or stemmata. The com-
pound eyes are immovable. They consist
of vastly numerous lenses; thus in the
dragon-fly there are 12,000. Spiders
have compound eyes; the higher members
of the class have ocelli; many of the
lower parasitic species are blind. The
eyes of Crustacea vary greatly, from a
sessile median eye-speck to two distinct
eyes placed on movable peduncles. The
centipedes have many simple eyes; in
lulus these are so near as almost to make
two compound eyes. Of mollusks, the
cephalopoda have large eyes, the gaster-
opoda possess them, as do the pectens
among the conchifera, though in most
other genera of the class, and in brachi-
opoda, they seem wanting. The animals
of lower organization are destitute of
eyes.
hi Architecture. — (1) The circular
aperture in the top of a dome or cupola.
(2) The circle in the center of a volute
scroll. (3) A circular or oval window.
In Nautical Parlance. (1) A circular
loop in a shroud or rope. A worked circle
or grommet in a hank, rope, or sail. (2)
The loop of a block-strap. (3) The hole
in the shank of an anchor to receive the
EYE — CROSS-SECTION OF HUMAN EYE
A. Lachrymal gland C. Nasal sac
B. Lachrymal canal D. Nasal duct
ring. The foremost part of the bows of
a vessel, on which formerly eyes used to
be painted. The term is also applied to
the hawse-holes. The strands of a rope's
end opened and divided into two parts
and laid over each other, marled, par-
celed, and sewed together, and so form-
ing an eye, is called a Flemish eye.
EYE STRAIN
EYE STRAIlSr, the condition oc-
casioned as a result of using the eyes
where the light is bad or the conditions
unfavorable. The adverse condition is
often produced as a result of imperfect
balance of the ocular muscles, and the
results are sometimes serious. There
is always a waste of nerve force and
there is often headache; but where
the condition is prolonged, convulsions,
chorea, hysteria, and dementia may be
among the consequences. The malady
may be remedied by the use of proper
glasses, and on the other hand it may be
aggravated by the use of improper
glasses. Where the painful condition is
the result of constitutional defects, a
normal condition mg.y be brought about
by surgical operation.
EYLAU (i'lou), a town of 3,600 in-
habitants, 23 miles S. of Konigsberg by
rail. Here Napoleon encountered the
allies — Russians and Prussians — under
Bennigsen, Feb. 8, 1807. Darkness came
on while the contest was still undecided;
but as Napoleon had a considerable force
of fresh troops close at hand, the allies
retired during the night on Konigsberg.
Their loss is estimated at about 20,000;
that of the French is set down at 10,000,
but must have been considerably greater.
The place is called Preussisch-Eylau, to
distinguish it from Deutsch-Eylau, a
town of about .5,000 inhabitants, 89
miles N. E. of Bromberg.
EYRA (T'ra), in Scandinavian mythol-
ogy, the physician of gods.
EYSE, EDWARD JOHN (ar), an
Australian explorer and colonial gover-
nor; born in August, 1815. He emi-
grated to Australia at the age of 17. In
1840 he failed in an attempt to explore
the region between South and Western
Australia, though he discovered Lake
Torrens. He accomplished the task in
1841. In 1846 he became lieutenant-gov-
ernor of New Zealand, and in 1854 of St.
Vincent in the West Indies. In 1864 he
was appointed governor of Jamaica,
where in 1865 negro disturbances broke
out. The outbreak was suppressed with
rigid severity. A commission sent to in-
quire, found that Eyre had acted unjust-
ly in one case and he was recalled. On his
return he was pi'osecuted by a committee
of whom John Stuart Mill was the most
prominent; Thomas Carlyle, Charles
82 EZRA, BOOK OF
Kingsley, and Sir R. Murchison pro-
moted the Eyre defense fund. The pros-
ecutions could not, however, be sustained;
and eventually in 1872 the government
refunded to Eyre the costs of his defense.
He died Dec. 1, 1901.
EYRE, LAKE, a salt lake of South
Australia, lying due N. of Spencer Gulf >
at a depression of 38 feet, and with an
area of 3,706 square miles. Except in
the season of rains, this lake is generally
a mere salt marsh. It was discovered in
1840 by Eyre.
EZEKIEL, one of the greater prophets,
to whom is attributed one of the larger
prophetic books of the Old Testament,
the visions and utterances which it con-
tains being expressly attributed, in the
work itself, to Ezekiel. He was the son
of Buzi, a priest (i: 3). He was carried
captive, in the time of Jehoiachin, 595
B. c, about 11 years before the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem under Zedekiah (xl:
1). There is no direct quotation from
Ezekiel in the New Testament, but there
are a few allusions to his utterances,
especially in the Book of Revelations.
The genuineness and authenticity of the
prophecies of Ezekiel have not been seri-
ously impugned either in the Jewish or
Christian Church.
EZRA, BOOK OF, an Old Testament
book. The name Ezra is by most persons
held to denote that he was the author of
the book. It may, however, signify no
more than that the doings of Ezra are
the main theme of the book, which is
certainly the case. The illustrious per-
sonage so designated was a priest de-
scended from Phinehas, the son of Aaron.
His immediate father was Seraiah. He
was a ready scribe in the law of Moses.
An exile in Persia, he so commended
himself to the then reigning monarch
(apparently Artaxerxes Longimanus),
as to obtain from him a commission to
lead the second expedition of Jews back
to their own land. The enterprise be-
gan about 458 B. C. Subsequently we
find him again at Jerusalem, exercising
only priestly functions under Nehemiah.
Where he died is uncertain. The period
which the book spans is about 80 years,
viz., from the first of Cyrus, 536 B. C,
to the eighth of Artaxerxes Longimanus,
456 B. c. Both Jews and Christians
consider the work part of the Scripture
canon.
F
F, f, the sixth letter, and fourth conso-
nant of the English langxiage, is a labial
or labiodental articulation, being formed
by the emission of breath between the
lower lip and the upper teeth. It is a
surd spirant, the corresponding sonant
spirant being V (g. v.). In Anglo-Saxon
it was pronounced as v, and it still re-
tains that sound in of. It takes its form
from the Greek digarama, which had a
very similar power. An original f has
frequently become v in English words, as
vat for fat, vetch for fetch, vixen for
fixen. It has also disappeared from many
words, as in head (O. Eng. heved) , lord
(0. Eng. hlaford), hawk (O. Eng.
hafoc), woman (0. Eng. wifman), etc.,
and in others it has been dropped, as
hasty (0. Fr. hastif), jolly (O. Eng.
jolif), testy (O. Eng. testif), etc. An f
sound is now used in trough, enough, and
rough, to represent an original g:uttural.
In the plurals of nouns of pure English
origin ending in -f or -If, with a preced-
ing long vowel (except oo), the f is
(1) For the note called parhypate in
the Greater Perfect system of the
Greeks. The letter name of Frite in the
upper tetrachord.
(2) The first note of the Eolian mode,
or church scale, commencing four notes
above the hypo-Eolian.
(3) The note called Fa ut in the hexa-
chord system. The fourth note in the
scale of C.
(4) The keynote of the major scale
requiring one flat in the signature; and
the keynote of the minor scale related
to A flat.
(5) For the note Fah in the Tonic Sol-
fa notation.
4. In Bibical criticism: F for the
Codex Augiensis; f (small letter), for
the Cursive MSS.
5. In physics: For Fahrenheit, denot-
ing that the degree of temperature is
according to that scale, as 60° F.
6. In old law : F was branded on felons
who were admitted to benefit of clergy.
7. In heraldry: For the Fesse-point,
changed into v. In Romance words the f .the central point of the escutcheon
remains unchanged, and the plural is
formed by adding s. Words ending in
-ff or -rf, also form the plural by the
addition of s. In Russian the letter f is
uniformly used to represent the sound of
th, as Feodor for Theodore.
F as an initial is used:
1. In music: For forte, to mark that
a passage is to be played or sung loudly;
ff=fortissimo, when it is to be played or
sung very loudly.
2. In distinctions: For Fellow, as F.
R. S. = Fellow of the Royal Society.
3. In medicine: For the Latin word
Fmt = let it be made.
F as a symbol is used:
1. In numerals: For 40, and with a
dash over it (F) =40,000.
2. In chemistry: For the non-metallic
element, fluorine, and for fluoride — e. g.,
F = fluorine, KF = potassium fluoride.
Sometimes F written with a stroke above
is used for formic acid.
3. In music:
FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM, an
English hymn-writer; born in Calverley,
England, June 28, 1814. He was long in
the Anglican priesthood, and wrote
hymns of singular sweetness and spiritu-
ality; going over at last to Rome. Among
his most familiar hymns are: "Hark,
Hark, My Soul"; "O Paradise! 0 Para-
dise!"; "There's a Wideness in God's
Mercy"; "Sweet Saviour Bless Us Ere
We Go"; etc. He died in the Oratory,
Brompton, Sept. 26, 1863.
FABER, WILLIAM FREDERIC, an
American Protestant Episcopal bishop,
born in Buffalo, N. Y., in 1860. He
graduated from the University of Roches-
ter in 1880 and from the Albany Theo-
logical Seminary in 1883. In the same
year he was ordained to the Presbyterian
ministry, and until 1892 was pastor of
the First Church of Westfield, N. Y. In
the latter year he entered the Protestant
Episcopal Chui'ch and served as rector
83
FABIAN SOCIETY
84
FABBE
111 churches in New York and Michigan.
He was consecrated coadjutor-bishop of
the Diocese of Montana in 1914, and be-
came bishop in 1916. He wrote "The
Church for the Times" (1891) ; "Henry
VIII. and the Reformation in Relation
to the Church of England" (1897) ; and
^vas a frequent contributor to maga-
zines on religious subjects.
FABIAN SOCIETY, an organization
in England, with headquarters in Lon-
don, whose members are interested in
the reorganization of society on a social-
istic basis. In 1883 an American, Thomas
Davidson, who was temporarily residing
in London, made a practice of confer-
ences, at which questions of social re-
form were discussed. From these in-
formal meetings sprang the Fabian
Society, so named after the Roman Gen-
eral Fabius, who by his tactics of delay
saved Rome from invasion and capture.
By this name it was indicated that the
members of the society were in favor
of evolutionary means to accomplish
their ends, rather than revolutionary, or
violent means. The leading figures in the
activities of the Fabian Society have
been the two Webbs; Mr. and Mrs. Sid-
ney Webb, two brilliant writers on eco-
nomics, who have done more than any
others to shape the politics of the Fabian
Society. Other prominent members have
been Bernard Shaw, H. G. Wells and
Mrs. Annie Besant. The Fabian Society
has stood for state socialism, and has
published a number of volumes of essays
by its members, advocating the gradual
extension of government functions in
public utilities and industry. Since the
war, however, this principle of reform
has grown into disfavor, especially
among the labor organizations, which
have had a tendency toward syndicalism,
or modifications of that theory, which
implies the management of industry by
labor organizations. The Fabian Society,
also, has shown a broader interest in
other plans for collectivist reorganiza-
tion, especially in the direction of con-
sumers* co-operation.
FABIUS, the name of one of the oldest
and most famous families of Rome, every
member of which was massacred at
Cremera, 478 B. c, except QuiNTUS Fa-
Bius ViBULANUS, who became one of the
decemvirate. After him are mentioned
Fabius Ambustus, dictator, 3.50 b. c
Fabius Rullianus, to whose name Maxi-
MUS was added, twi^e dictator, conqueror
of the Samnites and Etruscans, 323-280
B. c. Fabius Gurges, son of the preced-
ing, consul of Rome. Fabius Pictor, the
first writer of Roman history, 3d cen-
tury, b. c. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus,
considered the greatest of his family,
surmamed "Cunctator," "the Delayer,"
on account of his system of warfare.
He died in 203 B. c. Fabius Maximus
QuiNTUS, son and next in office to the
preceding, afterward consul. Fabius
Maximus ^milianus, distinguished in
the war of Persia and in Spain, consul
147 b. c. Fabius Maximus Servilianus,
pro-consul for Spain, censor 126 B. c.
Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus, consul
122 E. c.
FABLE, any fictitious narrative ;
more particularly a kind of literary con -
position, either prose or verse, in which
a short fictitious story is made to convey
practical rules of prudence or wisdom.
The fable consists properly of two parts
— the symbolical representation, and the
application of the moral of the tale.
Among the most celebrated fables of the
East, where this species of composition
seems to have originated, are the Indian
fables of Pilpay, or Bilpai, and the more
eager Arabic collection of Lokman, who
is said to have lived in the time of King
David, Among the Greeks, the fables of
.^sop were well known, but many of
those that were current in Greece under
his name are identical . with those of the
East. In Latin, Phaedrus has left about
90 fables of considerable merit in imita-
tion of .^sop; but the well-known fable
of "the town-mouse and the country-
mouse," related by Horace, is the best in
that language. During the Middle Ages
the fable was not entirely neglected;
"Reynard the Fox," a famous mediasval
epic, may be considered as a sort of ex-
tended satirical fable. Among the most
distinguished of the later fable-writers
are Gellert, Gleim, and Lessing of Ger-
many, and Gay of England, but pre-emi-
nent among all the modern fabulists, for
his delicate sarcasm and his lively wit,
is the French La Fontaine.
FABB,E, JEAN HENRI, a French en-
tomologist and writer; born at Saint-
Leons, Avignon, in 1823. For several
years he taught in the Lycee of Avignon
and afterward served as Professor of
Physics at the College of Ajaccio. He
retired from teaching, however, to devote
himself entirely to the study of entomol-
ogy and from 1879 to 1907 he devoted
himself to writing the great work in ten
volumes, entitled "Souvenirs entomolo-
giques." This was crowned by the Insti-
tute. The greater part has been trans-
lated into English. He wrote "The Life
of the Insects" (1910) and many other
v.'^orks. He was a corresponding member
of the Institute and Chevalier of the
Legion of Honor. Among his works
translated into English are "Insect Life"
(1901) ; "The Life and Love of the In^
FABEICIUS
sect" (1911) ; "Social Life in the Insect
World" (1913); "The Life of the Spi-
der"; and "The Life of the Fly" (1913).
FABRICIUS, CAITTS, surnamed Lu-
cinus, a Roman general who was twice
consul and gained several victories over
the Samnites and Lucanians. He was
famed for his integrity and contempt of
riches. This was shown during his em-
bassy to Pyrrhus in 280 B. c, when he
firmly withstood all the attempts of
Pyrrhus to buy his service. When con-
sul, he discovered to Pyrrhus a plot
formed to poison him by his physician;
and in gratitude Pyrrhus released the
Roman prisoners without ransom. Fabri-
cius was afterward censor, and endeav-
ored to check the growing passion for
luxury. He lived a simple life and died
poor.
FACADE (fa-sadO, the face or front
of any building of importance. It may
he applied to any side of a large quad-
rangular building embellished with suf-
ficiently striking architectural features,
but it is usually confined to the principal
front, in which the chief entrance is most
frequently, if not always, situated.
FACIAL NEBVE, a nerve of the sev-
enth pair of cranial nerves, a motor
nerve which supplies the muscles of ex-
pression on either side of the face. Par-
alysis of this nerve produces facial
paralysis.
FACTOR, an agent or substitute, es-
pecially a steward or agent of an estate,
appointed by a landowner to manage the
estate, collect rents, let lands, etc.; also
an agent employed by merchants to
transact business for them in other
places, as to buy and sell, to negotiate
bills of exchange, etc. He differs from
a broker in that he is intrusted with the
possession and disposal of the goods,
property, etc., and may buy and sell in
his own name.
One of several circumstances, elements,
or influences on which a certain result
depends, and which have to be taken into
consideration in estimating the probable
results of any events.
In algebra, a name given to any quan-
tity which constitutes an algebraical ex-
pression : thus a + b and a — b are fac-
tors of the product a' — b'.
In arithmetic, the multiplier and the
multiplicand; the numbers from the mul-
tiplication of which the product results.
Prime factors in mathematics, the
prime factors of a quantity are those fac-
tors which cannot be exactly divided by
any other quantity except 1. Every num-
ber has 1 for a prime factor. The prime
factors of 12 are 1, 2, 2, and 3.
85 FACTORIES
FACTORIES AND THE FACTORY
SYSTEM, the basis of modern industry.
The change from the old handicrafts
system of manufacturing, in which prac-
tically all the needs of life were manu-
factured by individual men in their own
homes, to the present factory system,
where commodities are manufactured in
great quantities by a large number of
people co-operatively, was primarily
caused by the invention of steam-driven
machinery. Factory production may be
said to have begun with the invention,
by James Hargreaves, of the spinning
jinny, a machine which obviously could
not be operated by one person. The in-
vention of the jinny, spinning vast
quantities of yam, naturally stimulated
the efforts which resulted in the inven-
tion of machinery for weaving. These
machines were put up in one large build-
ing, and gradually the entire process of
manufacturing cloth by machinery was
carried on in the one factory. Further
inventions carried the system into the
production of other commodities, and so
gradually changed the whole basis of in-
dustry, the hand tools being gradually
scrapped and the workers becoming the
attendants of the machines instead.
The speed resulting from the use of
machinery was merely one of the big
gains achieved through the new system.
There was also the great economy re-
sulting from organization. Under the
handicrafts system one man carded the
cotton, another spun it, and a third wove
it, and between each process there was
the delay necessitated by the removal of
the material from one house to another.
Each of these transfers of material, in
fact, amounted to a separate commercial
transaction, since the one handicrafts-
man purchased it from the other, until
the weaver finally sold the finished cloth
to the merchant. In the factory the ma-
terial passed quickly from one machine
to another, in a continuoi>s stream.
This economy of labor and time has
progressed equally with the invention of
new machinery. 'Each process involved
in the manufacture of any commodity
represents a separate operation. Each
workman, with the aid of machinery, is
continuously employed on the one proc-
ess, without having to pass from the
one to the other. This in itself makes
for speed, and also eliminates the skill
needed in the entire manufacture of one
article by one operator. This economy
of organization has probably been
brought to its highest degree of efficiency
in this country, in the production of
automobiles, as in the Ford factories of
Detroit, and the manufacture of watches,
as in the case of the cheap IngersoU
watches. Here the vast scale on which
FACTOBIES
86
FACTORY INSPECTION
production is carried on is another ele-
ment of economy, since the minutest
operation becomes the work of an entire
department of the plant by itself. An-
other illustration of the efficiency of the
factory system is seen in the killing and
dressing of meats by the large packing
houses of this country. Where the kill-
ing was formerly done by the independ-
ent small butcher, one man could kill
and dress only a very few pigs or beeves
in one day. Under the factory system
thousands are killed and dressed by a
correspondingly small number of men,
3ach motion involved being performed
ivith lightning speed by one man.
It was in England and Scotland,
ivhere machinery was first applied to
manufacturing, that factories were first
established. But the system followed
very soon after in this country, es-
pecially in New England, where the
many small streams and the rivers fur-
nished hydraulic power for the machin-
ery. The first factory in which the en-
tire series of processes involved in mak-
ing finished cotton cloth out of the raw
material were carried on under one roof
was put into operation in Waltham,
Mass., in 1814. Similar textile mills
were soon established all over New Eng-
land and, after the Civil War, were in-
troduced in the South, with Northern
capital.
The chief result of the factory system
of industry has been the tremendous
cheapening of the cost of production.
As an instance, in the days of handi-
crafts industry, in England, woolen
goods were cheaper than cotton, because
wool was a home product and cotton
must be imported from abroad. So little
was the amount of goods which could
be produced under this system that the
scarcity of wool as compared to cotton
had no influence in raising the cost.
The cheapening of the cost of pro-
duction as a social gain, however, has
been more than offset by the evils which
the factory system has worked on the
Vv^orking classes. First of all, the large
majority of skilled artisans were
thrown out of employment. Unskilled
la^or was found quite as suitable as
''killed, and, furthermore, in the manu-
facture of a given commodity much
greater quantities could be produced by
one-tenth as many workers, the machin-
ery doing most of the actual work. Then
it was found that women and children
could serve quite as well as men in at-
tending the machinery, and large num-
bers of men were left out of employment.
Added to this, the workers could now
only find employment under the roofs
of the masters, who owned the machines
and the factories, and so they came un-
der their personal autocratic control.
With this came a gradual reduction of
wages, also brought about by the keen
competition for work among the workers
themselves, a natural result from the
fact that only a portion of them were
needed to work in the factories. Thus
there was a tendency to lower wages
to a point where they could only sustain
the lives of the cheapest workers, the
women and children, and the hours of
labor were extended to the limits of
human endurance.
These inhuman tendencies were first
checked by legislation, known as the fa-
mous Factory Acts, which first of all
shortened the hours of labor (see Eight-
Hour Day). Afterward, both in Eng-
land and this country, came legislation
indicating minimum wages for women
and children, and, in rarer instances, for
men as well.
Another, and even stronger, check on
the evils of factory labor has been the
gradual growth in power of labor or-
ganizations. The organized workers,
through their economic organizations,
have brought such pressure to bear on
the manufacturers that gradually condi-
tions have been improved.
FACTORY INSPECTION, the need of
special factory legislation was first
brought about by the fact that machin-
ery, by reducing the need of labor, and
throwing an increasing number of work'
ers out of employment, created compe-
tition among the workers themselves
(see Factories and Factory System).
This created a continuous tendency to-
ward reduced wages, long hours of em-
ployment and a disregard for sanitary
conditions. Still more important, the
elimination of the need of skilled work-
ers brought women and children into the
factories in competition with men.
It was one thing to pass legislation
correcting these evils; it was quite an-
other matter to enforce it. Thus, fol-
lowing all this labor legislation came the
need of competent inspectors to see that
the laws were being enforced. Grad-
ually it has been realized that factory
inspection had even a bigger function
than that. The competent inspectors
were those who not only saw that the
letters of the laws were being enforced,
but who could intelligently observe the
results of their enforcements. Where
certain legislation fails to correct the
abuses it has set out to cure, the fact
should first be made known through the
reports of the inspectors. It is also the
function of a competent inspector to
indicate the cause of such failures, and
recommend new laws which will correct
the faults.
FACULTY 87
After the first Factory Acts were
passed in England, in 1802, the local
judges appointed visitors. In 1833. the
need of experts being felt, four special
inspectors were appointed, their number
being increased to nine in 1842. These
have since been increased to hundreds,
directed from the Home Office.
In the United States factory inspec-
tion, naturally, is carried on by the
separate States, each of which has
passed its own set of labor laws. Prac-
tically every State of the Union now
carries on some form of factory inspec-
tion. Usually this is directed by a spe-
cial department of labor, but in Massa-
chusetts this function is under the juris-
diction of the police. In other States
independent bureaus carry on factory
inspection. Every year sees legislation
passed to enlarge the jurisdiction of the
factory inspection staflFs. In 1919 Con-
necticut, New York, Missouri, and West
Virginia enlarged their forces of inspec-
tors. New Jersey, Washington, and
North Dakota established special mine
inspection bureaus. California empow-
ered its industrial Welfare Commission
to issue subpoenas and administer oaths,
while Minnesota authorized its inspec-
tors to enter the offices as well as the
workrooms of the establishments they
inspected.
FACULTY, the power or ability of do-
ing anything; capacity for any natural
action or function; ease or dexterity in
performance, possessed naturally or ac-
quired by practice ; one of the powers of
the mind or intellect, enabling it to re-
ceive or retain perceptions; as, the
faculty of imaging, remembering, etc.
In ecclesiastical law, a privilege or
license granted to any person by favor,
and not as a right to do any act which
by law he may not do. In mental philoso-
phy, a natural and active power of
the human mind, as distinguished from
a passive one, the latter approximately
called capacity or receptivity. In the
Roman Catholic Church, permission
granted by an ecclesiastical superior to
a duly qualified subject to hear confes-
sions. Such permission only extends to
the district over which the superior has
jurisdiction. Thus, faculties are granted
by bishops to the priests of their dio-
ceses, and by the heads of religious
houses to such of their subjects as they
judge qualified to hear the confessions
of the community.
In the United States, the term faculty
indicates the body of persons who are
intrusted with the government and in-
struction of a university or college as a
whole, comprising the president, profes
sors. and tutors. It is also used for the
FAIDHEBBE
body of masters and professors of each
of the several departments of instruction
m a university; as, the law faculty, etc.
F.aJCES, the excrementitious contents
of the bowels, the refuse of the food and
aliment, and sometimes called alvine dis-
charges, or the dejecta; also, sediments;
dregs; lees; settlings after distillation
and infusion.
PAENZA (fa-aint'sa), a city of Italy,
20 miles from Ravenna. It was once
well known for its manufacture of col-
ored and glazed earthenware called
Faience {q. v.). Its chief industries are
now the making of paper, silk twist,
and fabrics. Faenza, the ancient Fa-
ventia, was at one period a town of the
Boii, but afterward a municipium under
the Romans, and was annexed to the
States of the Church in the 15th century
by Pope Alexander VI., in which condi-
tion it remained till 1860, when, with the
Emelian provinces, it was annexed to the
Kingdom of Italy. Pop. (1901) 22,239.
FAEROE ISLANDS. See FAROE IS-
LANDS.
FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL,
a German natural philosopher; born in
Danzig, Prussia, May 14, 1686. He was
a maker of scientific instruments, and in
1720 introduced the use of mercury in-
stead of spirits of wine in the construc-
tion of the Thermometer {q. v.).
JFAIJQHERBE (fa-darb), LOUIS
LEON CESAR, a French military officer;
bom in Lille, France, June 3, 1818. His
apprenticeship as a soldier was passed
in Algiers and Guadaloupe. He went to
Senegal in 1852; became two years later
governor of the colony, and extended the
colony by the subjugation of the Mooi-ish
Trarza in 1858, and of the country of
Cayor in 1861. Faidherbe was sum-
moned to France in December, 1870, and
given command of the Army of the
North. After successfully withstanding
Manteuffel's attack near the Hallue
river, Dec. 23, he was severely beaten
near St. Quentin, Jan. 19, 1871. After
the conclusion of peace, he was dis-
patched by the French government to
Upper Egypt to study the monuments
and inscriptions. He became a member
of the National Assembly in 1879. Faid-
herbe published books on the language,
geography, and archeology of northern
Africa, chief among which are two col-
lections of "Numidian Inscriptions"
(1870-1872); "Anthropology of Algiers"
(1874) ; "Phoenician Epigraphy" (1873) ;
"The French Soudan" (1884) ; a work
on Senegal (1889). His "Campaign of
the Army of the North" appeared at
Paris in 1871. He died in Paris, Sept.
29, 1889.
rATKNCE 88
FAIENCE, a fine kind of pottery origi-
nally made in imitation of majolica. The
different kinds of faience are produced
by the use of common or of fire-clay;
the admixture of sand with the clay, as
in Persian ware; the use of a trans-
parent or of a colored glaze; of an
opaque or translucent enamel, or by a
combination of these processes on the
same piece.
FAILSWORTH, a city of Lancashire,
England. It is on the Lancashire and
Yorkshire railway. It has important
manufactures of cotton. Pop. about
17,000.
FAIOUM. or FAYOUM. See Fayum.
FAIRBAIRN, SIB WILLIAM, a
Scotch civil engineer; born in Kelso,
Scotland, Feb. 19, 1789; entered business
in Manchester, England, in 1817. He
constructed the first iron ship in Eng-
land and afterward his firm built over
100 iron vessels. He was associated
with Robert Stephenson in designing
and building the great tubular bridge
over Menai Strait. He was the author
of "Iron, Its History and Manufacture";
"Iron Shipbuilding"; "Useful Informa-
tion for Engineers"; "An Experimental
Inquiry Into the Strength, Elasticity,
Ductility, and Other Properties of
Steel" (1869); etc. He died Aug. 18,
1874.
FAIRBANKS, a city of Alaska on the
Tanana river. It is the chief city of the
territory and is the site of the Fourth
Judicial District and of government
activities in the interior of Alaska. It
is the center of the important Fair-
banks gold-mining district. It is a well-
built city and has schools, churches,
hospitals, and wireless and telephone con-
nection with the outer world. It is the
shipping point for miners' supplies. It
has all the characteristics of an impor-
tant city. The principal section of the
new Alaskan railroad is the one from
Chitina to Fairbanks, 313 miles. See
Alaska.
FAIRBANKS, ARTHUR, an Ameri-
can art director, born in Hanover, N. H.,
in 1864. He graduated from Dartmouth
College in 1886 and attended the Yale
Divinity School and the Union Theo-
logical Seminary. He also studied in
Germany. He was on the faculty of
Dartmouth College and Yale and Cornell
Universities until 1900, when he became
professor of Greek literature and archae-
ology at the University of Iowa. In
1906, he was appointed professor of
Greek and Greek archaeology in the Uni-
versity of Michigan. He was in the
following year appointed director of the
Boston Museum of Fine Arts. He was
FAIRFAX
a member of many classical and learned
societies. He wrote "Introduction to
Sociology" (1896) ; "The Mythology of
Greece and Rome" (1907) ; "Handbook
of Greek Religion" (1910) ; "Greek Gods
and Heroes" (1915).
FAIRBANKS, DOUGLAS, an Ameri-
can actor, born in Denver, Colo., in 1883.
He was educated at the Jarvis Military
Academy in Denver, and at the Colorado
School of Mines. He made his first ap-
pearance on the stage in New York in
1901 and afterward appeared as a star
in several successful plays. His chief
success, however, was won as a moving-
picture actor, in which he attained great
prominence, both in the United States
and other countries.
FAIRBURY a city, of Nebraska, the
county-seat of Jefferson co. It is on
the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific, the
Burlington, and the St. Joseph and Grand
Island railroads, and on the Little Blue
river. It has important manufactures
and is the center of an important fruit-
growing region. There are a library;
postoffice, and other public buildings.
Pop. (1910) 5,294; (1920) 5,454.
FAIRCHILD, CHARLES STEBBINS,
an American public official, born at
Cazenovia, N. Y., in 1842. He graduated
from Harvard University in 1863, and
after studying law was admitted' to the
bar in 1865. He was deputy attorney-
general of New York in 1874, and at-
torney-general in 1876-1877. In 1885 he
was assistant secretary of the Treasury
in President Cleveland's Cabinet, and be-
came Secretary of the Treasury in 1887.
He was an officer and director in many
important financial institutions.
FAIRFAX, THOMAS, LORD, a Brit-
ish military officer; born in Denton, Eng-
land, Jan. 17, 1611. He was the eldest
son of Ferdinand, Lord Fairfax. On the
first breaking out of the civil discon-
tents, following the example of his
father, Fairfax embraced the popular
side, and ranged himself as one of the
firmest opponents of the royal party in
Church and state. On the commence-
ment of hostilities, he was commissioned
by the Parliament to act as general of
the horse under his father, who was
made commander in the north. After
the passing of the "Self-denying ordi-
nance," Fairfax was appointed general,
conjointly with Cromwell. He and Skip-
ton commanded the main body of the
Parliamentary army at the battle ^^ of
Naseby; after which he marched with a
powerful division to the W. counties;
and, having reduced Exeter and other
important towns, proceeded to lay siege
to Oxford. His conduct on all occasions..
FAIBFAX
89
FAIBY
was inarked by the highest sense of
honor and humanity. During the Com-
monwealth Cromwell treated him with
contempt. After Cromwell's death, when
it became evident that the restoration of
the monarchy was the general wish, he
came forward to co-operate in bringing
about that event. It was through his in-
fluence mainly that the Irish brigade for-
sook Lambert and joined Monk's army.
Fairfax then seized York on the royal
behalf; was made a member of the heal-
ing Parliament; and was nominated
head of the committee appointed to wait
upon Charles II. at The Hague and in-
vite him to the throne of England. On
the Restoration he withdrew altogether
from active life. He wrote "Short
Memorials" of his life, etc. He died
near York, England, Nov. 12, 1671.
FAIRFAX, THCMAS, 6th Baron of
Cameron; born in England in 1691; was
educated at Oxford and was a con-
tributor to Addison's "Spectator." Dis-
appointed in England, he came to
America and settled on a vast landed
estate in Virginia which he had inherited
from his mother, a daughter of Lord Cul-
peper. It was there, at Greenway Court,
that Washington first met him. Between
the two there sprang up a warm friend-
ship, and when, years later, he learned
that Washington had captured Corn-
wallis, he was overcome with emotion,
and called to his body-servant to carry
him to his bed, "for I am sure," he said,
"it is time for me to die." He died at
his lodge, Greenway Court, in Frederick
CO., Va., Dec. 12, 1782.
The 11th Lord Fairfax and Baron of
Cameron who succeeded his brother to
the baronetcy in 1869, and who died in
Northampton, Md., Sept. 28, 1900, like
his American predecessors, made no
claim to the title.
FAIRFIELD, a town and port of entry
in Fairfield co., Conn., on Long Island
Sound, and on the New York, New
Haven and Hartford railroad; 52 miles
N. E. of New York. It contains the
Pequot and Memorial libraries, National
and savings banks, a stone powder house
and four other buildings constructed dur-
ing the Revolutionary period. It was
founded in 1639. In 1779 it was burned
by Governor Tryon. Pop. (1910) 6,134;
(1920) 11,47.5.
FAIRFIELD, a city of Iowa, the
county-seat of JeflFerson co. It is on the
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, and
the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific
railroads. Its industi'ies include the
manufacture of agricultural implements,
wagons, pumps, washing machines,
gloves, brooms, etc. It is the seat of
Parsons College, and has a court house,
county jail, hospital, public library, and
other public buildings. Pop. (1910)
4,970; (1920) 5,948.
FAIR HAVEN, a town in Bristol co.,
Mass.; on Buzzards Bay, at the mouth
of the Acushnet river, and on the New
York, New Haven and Hartford rail-
road; 60 miles S. of Boston and opposite
New Bedford, with which it is connected
by bridges. Here are the Millicent Pub-
lic Library, several banks, churches, and
a newspaper. It has manufactories of
glass, castings, nails, and tacks. The
British were here repulsed by Maj.
Israel Fearing on Sept. 7, 1778. Pop.
(1910) 5,122; (1920) 7,291.
FAIR ISLE, a small island in the
North Atlantic, lying between the Shet-
land and Orkney Isles, 22 miles from
Sumburgh Head. It is 4 miles long by
a breadth of IVi. Here (1588) the Duke
of Medina, admiral of the Spanish Ar-
mada, was shipwrecked.
FAIRMONT, a city of West Virginia,
the county-seat of Marion co. It is situ-
ated on both sides of the Monongahela
river, and is on the New York Central,
the Monongahela Valley, and the Balti-
more and Ohio railroads. The river is
spanned by a steel bridge. Its industries
include coal mining, and the manufac-
ture of flour, lumber, iron, glass, cigars,
etc. It is the seat of the State normal
school, and has a hospital, training
school for nurses, excellent school build-
ings, and the State miners' hospital.
Pop. (1910) 9,711; (1920) 17,851.
FATRMOUNT COLLEGE, an institu-
tion for higher education at Wichita,
Kan., founded in 1892 as a preparatory
school. It took its present form and
name in 1896. In the autumn of 1919
there were 252 students and 19 instruc-
tors. President, W. H. Rollins, D.D.
FAIRY, a fay; an imaginary being
or spirit, supposed to assume a human
form, dance in meadows, steal infants,
and play a variety of pranks; an en-
chantress. In the traditional mythology
of the nations of western Europe, fairies
(the elves of the Anglo-Saxons) were
generally believed to be a kind of inter-
mediate beings, partaking both of the
nature of men and spirits, having mate-
rial bodies, and yet possessed of the
power of making themselves invisible.
They were remarkably small in stature,
with fair complexions, and generally
clothed in green. Their haunts were be-
lieved to be groves, verdant meadows, and
the slopes of hills ; and their great diver-
sion, dancing hand-in-hand in a circle.
The traces of their tiny feet were sup-
FAIBY RINGS
90
FALCON"
posed to remain visible on the grass long
afterward, and were called Fairy Rings
or Circles (q. v.). They were regarded
as being sometimes benevolent and some-
times mischievous. Croker in his "Fairy
Legends and Traditions of the South of
Ireland," describes them as being "a
few inches high, airy, and almost trans-
parent in body; so delicate in their form
that a dewdrop, when they chance to
dance upon it, trembles, indeed, but
never breaks." They are supposed to
live in large societies, governed by a
queen; and the peasantry never speak
of them but with caution and respect, as
the good people and friends, believing
them to be present and to hear what is
said. The fairy superstition belongs to
modern Europe. The pure fairy tales
first became popular in the latter part of
the 17th century, and the Italians ap-
pear to have been the first to take the
lead. They afterward became very pop-
ular in France; and, at the present, they
are more extensive and popular in Ger-
many than in any other country.
FAIRY RINGS, or CIRCLES, rings
occasionally observed in pastures, and
usually attributed by the peasantry of
western Europe to the dancing of the
fairies. They are now known to be oc-
casioned by the growth of certain kinds
of fungi, which, proceeding outward
from a center, render the soil for a time
unfitted for the nourishment of grass.
FAITH, that assent or credence which
we give to the declaration or promise of
another, on the authority of the person
who makes it. Faith is the means by
which we obtain a knowledge of things
which do not come under our own obser-
vation— things not seen; and in this way
faith is distinguished from sight. Faith
is also distinct from reason, in so far as
it deals with matters which we cannot
comprehend by our reason; but, at the
same time, while we exercise faith, we
must also exercise reason; for it is im-
possible to exercise an acceptable faith
without reason for so exercising it. The
term faith is used in theology for the
assent of the mind to the truth of what
has been revealed to us in the Holy
Scriptures.
In mythology. Fides was deified by the
Romans, and had a temple dedicated to
her as early as the time of Numa Pom-
pilius. She is at times represented with
a basket of fruit in one hand and ears of
corn in the other; but her usual symbol
is two hands clasped together.
FAKIR, a Mohammedan religious
mendicant. Among Anglo-Indians, and
even among the Hindus, it is often used
for a native mendicant of any faith; but
specifically it is one of the Mohammedan
religion ; a Hindu mendicant being better
called a Gosavee. Mohammendan fakirs
in the East either live in communities or
are solitary. The latter wander from
place to place, are of filthy habits, and
are regarded by the unthinking Moham-
medan multitude as men of great
sanctity.
In the United States, fakir is a slang
name gfven to one of the numerous street
merchants and mountebanks.
FALAISE (f a-lais') , a town of France,
department of Calvados, 15 miles from
Caen. The castle, which stands on a
precipice, and in which William the
Conqueror was born in 1024, is in ruins,
with the exception of a tower.
FALCON, FAUCON, FAUCOUN, or
FAULCON (fa'kn), one of the Fal-
coninse, a sub-family of the FalcX)NID.(B.
The beak is short, toothed, curved from
the base with one or two strong indenta-
tions on the margin on each side; wings
SAKER FALCON
very long. The best-known species is
the peregrine falcon. It has always been
held in the greatest esteem for hawking.
It is of a bluish-gray color, narrowly
FALCONET 91
barred with black. Technically in fal-
conry the female alone is termed a fal-
con, the male, which is smaller and less
courageous, being known as a terse! or
tiercel.
FALCONET, a little falcon; a name
applied to a genus of tiny falcons, be-
longing to the sub-family Falconinse,
peculiar to the East Indies. One, Micro-
Merax cserulescens, is found in the Him-
alayas and Burmese countries. Not one
tf these little hawks is seven inches in
length; they are said to be used by na-
tive chiefs for hawking insects and but-
ton quails, being thrown from the hand
like a ball. They sit solitary on high
trees, and, according to native accounts,
feed on small birds and insects. The
word was also formerly applied to a
small piece of ordnance, having an out-
side diameter at the bore of 4% inches,
length 6 feet, weight 400 pounds, and
carrying a shot of about 2 inches dia-
meter, and 1^/4 to 2 pounds in weight.
FALIERO, or FALIERI, MARINO
(fal-e-air'o, or e), a Venetian noble;
born about 1274, who succeeded Andrew
Dandolo as Doge of Venice, in 1354. He
had previously commanded the troops of
the republic at the siege of Zara, in Dal-
matia, where he gained a brilliant victory
over the King of Hungary; and was aft-
erward ambassador to Genoa and Rome.
When he succeeded to the office of doge,
he was 76 years of age, and had a young
and beautiful wife. Jealous of Michael
Steno, he quarreled with and was in-
sulted by him at a masquerade; but
Steno being sentenced to no more than a
month's imprisonment for his offense,
Faliero, burning with revenge, entered
into a conspiracy with the plebeians to
overturn the government and massacre
the patricians. On the night before it
was to be carried into effect, the plot was
discovered, and Faliero was beheaded
April 17, 1355.
FALISCI, a people of Etruria, said to
have been originally a Macedonian
colony. When they were besieged by the
Roman general Camillus, a schoolmaster
went out at the gates of the city with
his pupils, and offered to betray them into
the hands of the enemy, that, by such a
possession, he might easily oblige the
place to surrender. Camillus heard the
proposal with indignation, and ordered
the man to be stripped naked, and
whipped back to the town by the very
pupils whom his perfidy would have be-
trayed. This instance of magnanimity
operated upon the people so powerfully,
that they surrendered to the Romans.
FALK, PAUL LUDWIG ADALBERT,
a noted German statesman; born in
FALSIR
Metschkau, Germany, Aug. 10, 1827; was
graduated at the Medical Department of
the University of Breslau; elected as a
Liberal to the Prussian Diet in 1858.
When the states of the German Empire
were consolidated he was appointed to
codify the laws of the confederation. In
February, 1871, he became Prussian
Minister to the Federal Council. Later
he was appointed Minister of Education
and Worship. In January, 1873, he pre-
sented to the Prussian Chamber the
scheme of ecclesiastical legislation known
as the "May Laws." These laws v/ere
administered with such severity and
particularly where they affected the
various religious bodies, that a bitter re-
ligious conflict ensued. He resigned from
the ministry July 14, 1879; and was
president of the Provincial Court of
Westphalia from 1882 till his death, in
Hamm, Germany, July 7, 1900.
FALKENHAYN, ERICH G. A. S.
VON, a German general, born in 1861.
He graduated from the war academy in
1880 and was for three years military
instructor in China. He was major of
the German brigade of occupation in
eastern Asia and was on the staff of
Count von Waldersee during the opera-
tions of the German contingent at the
time of the Boxer uprisings, in 1900. In
1912 he was Prussian Minister of War,
and as such was a strong supporter of
Lieutenant Forstner, against whom pub-
lic opinion had been deeply aroused on
account of his attack on a lame civilian
in Zabern, the notorious "Zabem affair."
In October, 1914, he replaced Von Moltke
as Chief of the German General Staff,
the latter having been relieved of his
duties because of a disagreement over
the tactics of the armies in France with
the Emperor. General Falkenhayn was
in command of the German-Austrian
forces which invaded Rumania in 1916
by way of the passes in the Carpathians,
effecting a junction with Von Mackensen
in the south, on the banks of the Danube.
FALKIRK, a parliamentary and mu-
nicipal burgh and market-town of Stir-
lingshire in Scotland. It is on the North
British railway and is connected with the
east and west coasts by the Forth and
Clyde canal. Its seaport is Grangemouth,
on the Firth of Forth, about three miles
distant. The city has several notable
buildings, including a town hall, free
library, and a hospital. It is the center
of the Scotch iron foundry trade. In the
neighborhood are important coal mines
and large distilleries. The town was
founded in the 11th century, and in 1298
it was the scene of an important battle
between the English under Edward I.
and the Scotch under William Wallace,
FALKLAND ISLANDS
in which the latter were defeated. Pop.
(1911) 33,574; (1918) (est.) 35,251.
FALKLAND ISLANDS, two large is-
lands, with a number of smaller ones
surrounding them, in the South Atlantic
Ocean. These islands were discovered by-
Davis in 1592, and came into the posses-
sion of the British in 1771. Their appro-
priation has been at times disputed; but
since 1833 the British have held unin-
terrupted occupancy of them. Capital,
Stanley; area, 6,500 square miles; pop.
about 3,000.
FALKLAND ISLANDS, BATTLE OF,
a naval engagement fought Dec. 8, 1914,
between a British squadron led by Rear-
Admiral Sir Frederick Sturdee and the
German Far East squadron under Ad-
miral Von Spee. On Nov. 1 of the same
year the German squadron had met the
92 TALKNKR
in number, and there were few German
survivors from the foundered vessels.
"Niirnberg" was speedily overtaken and
sunk, but the "Dresden" roamed the seas
for months and was finally sunk off Juan
Fernandez on March 14, 1915. In the
squadron of Rear-Admiral Sturdee were
two battle cruisers, the "Invincible" and
the "Inflexible," armed with 12-inch guns
and capable of a speed of 28 knots, and
three armored cruisers, the "Carnarvon,"
"Kent" and "Cornwall." These were sup-
plemented by the "Glasgow," which had
been in the previous engagement. The
Germans had been brought to battle by
a ruse. They had come expecting to find
a single British warship, and were sud-
denly confronted by Sturdee's powerful
squadron steaming out of a land-locked
harbor. The ice-cold water is given
among the causes that prevented the res-
t<iABEL ^
I'
IN PURSUIT
g OP THANSPOIirS
.SECOND PHASE
M. A.M.
^/^ (y SUNK
t^ 4..PM
eSCAPEB ^^
^^ ^ 3 SUNB
•5 'f SUNK 7.i7PJi.
SUNK 6*^M
9 P.M.
BRITISH SQUf>DRON (outune)
I. INVINCIBLE 4-. GLA560W /• BRISTOL
2. INFLEXIBLE 5 KENT fl. MAC£OONI»
3.CfiRNARV0N 6.C0RNWALL S CftNOPUS
GERMAN SipiJADtiON(BLACtO
I. SCHARNHORSr
Z-NURNBERO *: DRESDEN
3-6NEISENAIJ SL^IPIIQ
BATTLE OF FALKLAND ISLANDS, DEC. 8, 1914
British squadron under Admiral Cradock
off the coast of Chile and had sunk the
•Good Hope" and the "Monmouth," the
"Glasgow" and the transport "Otranto"
averting destruction by flight. It was as
a consequence of this disaster that a pow-
erful squadron was sent out by the
British to search for Admiral Von Spee's
fleet. On Dec. 9 the two squadrons came
in sight of each other. On the German
side were the cruisers "Gneisenau" and
"S harnhorst," and the light cruisers
"Niirnberg," "Leipzig" and "Dresden."
These vessels mounted 16 8.2-inch, 12 5.9-
inch, 32 4.1-inch, 40 3.4-inch, and 12 2.1-
inch guns. The contest was a brief one.
Following it the British Admiralty an-
nounced that the "Scharnhorst," flying
the flag of Admiral Count Von Spee, the
"Gneisenau" and the "Leipzig" had been
sunk. The "Dresden" and the "Niirn-
berg" made off during the action and
were pursued. Two colliers were cap-
tured. The British casualties were few
cue of survivors, just as the victors in
the battle off the coast of Chile had
been prevented by the heavy seas to save
the defeated crews. It is stated also that
many while in the water were attacked
by the albatrosses which picked at their
eyes. As a result of the struggle with
the vultures the weakened members of
the crew slipped off the debris and
were lost.
FALKNEB, BOLAND POST, an
American statistician; born in Bridge-
port, Conn., April 14, 1866; was gradu-
ated at the University of Pennsylvania
in 1885; studied economics at Berlin,
Leipzig, and Halle-on-Saale, Germany;
was instructor in accounting and statis-
tics in the University of Pennsylvania
in 1888-1891, and Professor of Statistics
in 1891-1900. He served also as statis-
tician of the United States Senate Com-
mittee of Finance in 1891; as secretary
of the United States Delegation to the
EALL
93
falli£bes
International Monetary Conference; and
as secretary of the conference in 1892.
He was a member of the American
Economic Association, the American Sta-
tistical Association, and the American
Academy of Political and Social Science;
author of numerous essays on crimi-
nology, sociology, etc.; chief of the di-
vision of documents in the Library of
Congress, and editor of "Annals" of the
American Academy of Political and
Social Science (1890-1900). Commission-
er of education, Porto Rico (1904-1907),
Statistician U. S. Immigrant Commission
(1908-1911), Assistant Director of Cen-
sus (1911-1912).
FALL, ALBERT BACON, a United
States senator from New Mexico, born
in Frankfort, Ky., in 1861. He was edu-
cated in the country schools. After read-
ing law, he was admitted to the bar and
began practice in 1889, continuing until
1904. He worked as a miner and became
interested in mines, lumber, lands, and
railroads, acquiring large interests in
farming, stock raising, and mining. He
served as a member of the New Mexico
Legislature and as associate justice of
the Supreme Court of New Mexico. He
was elected to the United States Senate
in 1912 and was again elected in 1913 for
the term of 1913-1919. He was re-elected
in 1919. In the Senate he gave special
attention to the relations of the United
States and Mexico, and in 1918-1920 he
conducted a series of investigations re-
lating to Mexico and the border States,
Arizona and New Mexico. He became
Secretary of the Interior on March
4, 1921.
_ FALL. THE, a term used of the first
sin of Adam, and hence often called "the
fall of Adam," with which "original sin"
his posterity are held to have had mys-
teriously to do; on which account we
often meet with the term "the fall of
man." The verb "to fall" is often used
in a generic sense in Scripture for a
lapse into sin (Ezek. xliv: 12, Rom. xiv:
13, ICor. x: 12, Rev. ii : 5. The sub-
stantive is not used equivocally in the
same sense. "The Fall" is therefore a
theological rather than a scriptural term.
According to the Biblical narration, God
created man in His own image (Gen. i:
27), like the rest of creation "very good"
(i: 31). In the midst of the garden of
Eden, in which the first parents of our
race were placed, was the Tree of the
Knowledge of Good and Evil. This they
were forbidden to eat on pain of death,
all other trees being f I'eely granted them
for food (ii: 16-17). Beguiled by the
serpent. Eve first yielded, and then, at
her persuasion, Adam ate the forbidden
fruit (Gen. iii: 1-6): after this they
Vol. IV— Cyc— G
feared to continue communion with God
(8-10), had sentence pronounced against
them (16-19), and were expelled from
the blissful garden (24). In the New
Testament it is indirectly hinted that
the devil used the serpent as a mouth-
piece, whence he is called "that old ser-
pent . . . which deceiveth the whole
world" (Rev. xii: 9), and "the dragon
that old serpent" (xx: 2), and is said by
our Lord to have been "a murderer from
the beginning" (John viii: 44).
FALLIERES, ARMAND, 8th Presi-
dent X)f the French Republic. He was
born at Mezin, Lot-et-Garonne, in 1841,
and after his preliminary education took
up the study of law. His first promi-
nent public position was as mayor of
ARMAND FALLlfcRES
Nerac, following on which he was in
1876 elected as member of the Chamber
of Deputies, where he sat with the re-
publicans. His career in the chamber
showed him to be possessed of much solid
talent, and in 1880 he was appointed to
act as Undersecretary in the Ministry
of the Interior, holding that position dur-
ing the Ferry administration till the
baginning of 1882. After an interval
he became, toward the end of the same
year, head of the department under Du-
clerc, becoming in 1883 Minister of Pub-
lic Instruction in the Ferry administra-
tion. When in 1887 Rouvier succeeded,
he became Minister of the Interior, and
was later (1887-1889) Minister of Jus-
tice and Public Instruction under Tirard,
holding that position later under Frey-
cinet, who was head of the administra-
tion from 1890 to 1892. In 1890 Fal.
FALLING STABS
94
FALL RIVER
lieres entered the Senate and gained
much distinction in that chamber. In
1899 he was elected President of the
Chamber, being re-elected eight times in
succession. In the elections of 1906 he
was put forward by the Socialists and
Republicans as their candidate for Pres-
ident to succeed Loubet, easily winning
over Doumer, who had the support of
the Conservative elements. In January
of the same year he was elected by the
National Assembly by 449 votes to 371,
a&suming office as President in Febru-
ary. He held the office till succeeded by
M. Poincare in 1913. As President he
gave support to the same principles and
tendencies that had secured his adhesion
during his public life, favoring the radi-
cal elements, and opposing the royalists
and conservatives. The first year of his
presidency was signalized by much pub-
lic excitement, due to the resistance of
religious associations to conform their
organization to certain rules issued by
the Government, which as a result com-
pelled the evacuation of many churches,
convents, and monasteries. In 1909 Fal-
lieres, in conjunction with the Cabinet,
formed a separate Ministry of Labor.
FALLING STARS. See METEOR.
FALLOPIAN TUBES, two ducts or
canals floating in the abdomen, and ex-
tending from the upper angles of the
womb to the pelvis. They were popu-
larly but incorrectly believed to have
been discovered by Fallopius.
FALLOW DEER (Dama vulgaris), an
animal of the deer kind, well known from
being preserved in a semi-domesticated
state in many English parks. The color
of the wild animal, both buck and doe,
is a rich yellowish brown in summer,
spotted with white all over. In winter
the tints are more somber and grayish.
Domestic varieties vary greatly both in
the distinctness of the spotting and the
general coloration. The antlers are pal-
mated in the upper parts, in the region
of the sui'-royals, the digitations or ter-
minal points being developed along the
convex posterior margin of the palmated
surface. Till six years of age the buck
receives a distinct name each year from
sportsmen — viz., fawn, pricket, sorrel,
soare, buck of the first head, and buck
complete; the antlers not being devel-
oped at all in the fawn, being simple
snags in the pricket, with two front
branches in the sorrel, with slight pal-
mation of the extremity of the beam in
the soare, and the whole antler larger
and larger until the sixth year. It is a
native of northern Europe.
FALLOWS, SAMUEL, an American
clergyman; born in Pendleton, Lanca-
shire, England, Dec. 13, 1835; was gradu-
ated at the University of Wisconsin in
1859; vice-president of Galesville Uni-
versity in 1859-1861; minister of the
Methodist Episcopal Church in 1859-
1875, and later of the Reformed Episco-
pal Church. He served with distinction
in the Civil War. Subsequently he
preached at Milwaukee; was State Su-
perintendent of Public Instruction in
Wisconsin in 1871-1874; regent of the
University of Wisconsin in 1866-1874;
and president of Wesleyan University in
1874-1875. He became rector of St.
Paul's Reformed Episcopal Church in
Chicago in 1875, and bishop in 1876;
was president of the Illinois State Re-
formatory; chairman-general of the Edu-
cational Committee of the World's Con-
gresses; chancellor of the University
Association. Chaplain-in-chief of G. A.
R., 1907-1908. Patriotic instructor to
the same, 1908-1909. Commander for
Illinois of the Loyal Legion (1907). De-
partment commander for Illinois of the
G. A. R. (1914-1915). Author, "Life of
Samuel Adams," "Students' Biblical Dic-
tionary," "Past Noon," "Splendid Deeds,"
"Popular and Critical Biblical Encyclo-
pedia" (1901); "Health and Happiness"
(1908).
FALL RIVER, a city and port of
entry of Bristol co., Mass., at the mouth
of the Taunton river, where it empties
into Mount Hope Bay, and on the New
York, New Haven and Hartford rail-
road; 49 miles S. of Boston. It is con-
nected with New York City by steamers,
and has a fine harbor capable of admit-
ting the largest vessels. The stream
called Fall River is the outlet of Wa-
tuppa lake, and has a fall of 129 feet in
less than half a mile, affording excellent
water power.
Public Interests. — The city is built on
high ground and covers an area of 42
square miles. The streets are well laid
out and contain many handsome build-
ings, largely of granite, found in the
vicinity. It is lighted by gas and elec-
tricity; has a waterworks system owned
by the city, supplying 18,000,000 gallons
daily from Lake Watuppa. Its educa-
tional institutions include the Durfee
public high school, the Academy La Ste.
Union des Sacres Coeurs, Notre Dame
College, Fall River Conservatory of
Music, and a civil service school. There
are also a public library, several cir-
culating libraries, a State armory, and
50 churches, daily and weekly news-
papers, and electric street railways con-
necting with neighboring towns.
Business Interests. — Fall River is the
largest cotton-milling city in the United
States. The city has cotton goods estab-
FALLS
95
FAMILY
fishments employing 40,000 persons and
over $40,000,000 capital. Other impor-
tant manufactures are machines and
machinery, food preparations, clothing,
woolen goods, metals and metallic goods,
drugs and medicines, paints and dyes,
cordage and twine, and clocks, watches,
and jewelry, boots and shoes, brass prod-
ucts, rubber, sash, etc. In 1919 there
were 4 National banks. The exchanges
at the United States clearing-house dur-
ing the year ending Sept. 30, 1919,
aggregated $108,228,000.
Histot'y. — The city was originally a
part of Freetown, but was incorporated
separately in 1803. Later it was called
Troy, but its first name was restored in
1834. The city charter was granted in
1854 and in 1862 Fall River in Newport
CO., R. I., was annexed. Pop. (1910)
119,295; (1920) 120,485.
FALLS, DE WITT CLINTON, an
American artist, soldier and writer, born
in New York City in 1864. He was
educated in private schools. He served
during the Spanish-American War and
on the Mexican border. In 1917 he was
appointed colonel of the 7th Infantry of
the New York Guard. In the following
year he became major in the United
States Army and was assigned inspector
of the General Staff. He was promoted
to be colonel and was honorably dis-
charged in 1919. Prior to his discharge
from the American Army he acted as
observer in the Russian Army during
the Russo-Japanese War. During the
World War he engaged in special duty
at the American Embassy in London.
He was a member of many patriotic
societies. He wrote "A. B. C. of Golf"
(1897); "The Journey Book" (1910);
"Mobilization of the Armies of Belgium
and England" (1914) ; "Army and
Navy Information Book" (1917). He
was the illustrator of a number of
books.
FALMOUTH, a town in Barnstable
CO., Mass.; on Buzzards Bay, Vineyard
Sound, and on the New York, New
Haven and Hartford railroad, at the
extreme W. end of Cape Cod; 50 miles
S. E. of Boston. It is the center of an
agricultural and cranberry region. It
is best known as containing the Woods
Hole (g. v.) Station of the United
States Fish Commission.
FALMOUTH, a seaport town of Eng-
land, Cornwall county, at the mouth of
the Fal river, 11 miles from Truro. It
has a good harbor, and a fine and
spacious roadstead. There are two
castles on the coast, one of which, Pen-
dennis, commands the entrance of the
harbor; and the other, on the opposite
side, is St. Mawes Castle. The town is
chiefly important as a station of the
boats carrying foreign mails. The
scenery of the Fal, from Truro to Fal-
mouth, is of great beauty. Pop. about
12,000.
FALSE DEMETRIUS, THE. See
Demetrius.
FALSTER, one of the Danish islands
in the Baltic, separated by narrow
straits from Zealand on the N., Moen on
the N. E., and Laaland on the W.;
length, N. to S., 27 miles; breadth, vary-
ing from 3 to 14 miles; area, 194 square
miles; surface, almost entirely flat. Fal-
ster is the pleasantest of all the Danish
islands, is well watered, richly wooded,
and so prolific in fruit that it has been
called the "orchard of Denmark." Pro-
ducts, corn, hemp, hops, cattle, honey,
wax, etc. Some shipbuilding is carried
on. Capital, Nykjobing. Pop. about
40,000.
FAMAGUSTA (fa-ma-goos'ta) , a sea-
port town of the island of Cyprus, 40
miles E. of Nicosia. Famagusta is built
on the ruins of the ancient Arsinoe, and
during the Venetian regime it was one
of the richest and most populous towns
in the Levant. It is now almost in ruins,
with its once fine harbor almost choked
up with sand, having declined since its
conquest by the Turks in 1571. About
5 miles N. E. are the ruins of Constan-
tia, occupying the site of the ancient
Salamis, now called Eski, or Old Fama-
gusta. Guy de Lusignan was here
crowned King of Cyprus in 1191.
FAMILY, a household, including
parents, children, and servants; the col-
lective body of persons who reside under
one roof, and under one head, or
manager; those who descend from one
common ancestor; a tribe or race;
kindred; as, the human family; lineage;
line of ancestors. Among the Romans,
familia was applied to all persons in the
power of a ixtterfamilias — as his sons,
daughters, grandchildren and slaves;
but it was also used in a wider sense,
including all objects of property, even
inanimate. The family is the corner-
stone of the social edifice. Hence, it has
been taken as a model for forming other
associations — political, civil, or religi-
ous. Among the early Hebrews, and in
Eastern countries, the patriarchal form
of government is only an extension of
the family relationship. The Greeks re-
garded the family as a type of the state;
and among the Romans the natural
power of a father was taken as the
basis of the whole social and political
organization of the people. The family
life is based upon the wants and necessi-
FAMINE
96
FANEUIL
ties of our nature, and is essentially
fitted to develop and foster those habits
and affections on which the happiness
and welfare of mankind depend. It can,
however, exist in a state of purity only
where monogamy prevails.
In botany, a synonym for Order
(q. v.). In zoology, the group above the
genus. An order of animals should be
divided into families according to the
form of species, but, in fact, the great-
est confusion reigns in the classification
of the animal kingdom.
FAMINE, a scarcity of food over
large areas, resulting in suffering or
death by starvation and disease to mul-
titudes. Short crops are caused by
drought, excess of rainfall, severe and
untimely frosts, the ravages of insects
and vermin, the devastation of war,
wholesale destruction of forests, dis-
eases of plants, etc.
The Greek republics enacted very
strenuous laws regarding the trade in
grain; and the Romans, even at the
time of their greatest prosperity, were
so dependent on Egypt and Sicily for
their breadstuffs, that even a brief delay
in the aiTcival of the ships caused local
famines. In the Middle Ages famines
were of frequent occurrence and were
often accompanied by frightful social
phenomena. The famine of 1125 dimin-
ished the population of Germany one-
half. All through the Middle Ages pub-
lic opinion upheld the city authorities in
driving out of the gates the neediest
inhabitants and letting them perish.
In a famine which devastated Hungary
in 1505 parents who killed and ate their
children were not punished. As late as
the middle of the 17th century famines
were a common affliction in Europe and
even in the 18th century they still oc-
curred. The last time a period of bad
hai-vests was designated as a famine in
Germany was in 1817.
During and in the year following the
"World War (1914-1918), there were
many deaths from famine in Europe, but
it is inconceivable at the present time
that a general famine should devastate
western or central Europe or the
Americas. In India and other parts of
Asia the situation is diffei-ent. In India,
where there are eight months of dry
weather and the crops depend on the
rainfall of four months and subsequent
irrigation, if there is any lack in the
monsoon, famine is almost sure to fol-
low. Under the I'ule of the English, too,
the population has greatly increased,
and, while the majority of people live
from hand to mouth in ordinary times,
the slightest failure in the rice crop
causes the famine point to be immedi-
ately reached. The recent famine in
India cost the government in 1900-1901
$28,235,000. Apart from this $13,700,-
000 was advanced to native states for
famine relief and $4,735,000 for special
agricultural advances. In 1870-1872
Persia lost 1,500,000 inhabitants, a
quarter of the whole population. In the
N. provinces or China, Shensi, Shansi,
and Honan, with a population of 56,-
000,000, during the years following 1877
it was reckoned that between 4,000,000
and 6,000,000 people perished. In the
famine of 1891-1892 in Russia it was
estimated that in 18 provinces 27,000,-
000 inhabitants were affected.
In the summer of 1920, a famine in
China caused thousands of deaths.
FANATIC, a person affected by ex-
cessive zeal and enthusiasm, especially
on religious subjects; one laboring under
wild and extravagant notions of reli-
gion; an enthusiast; a visionary.
In ancient Rome the term was applied
to such as passed their time in temples,
and who, pretending to be inspired by
the divinity, would burst into wild and
frantic gestures, utter pretended pro-
phecies, cut themselves with knives, etc.
Hence, the term has in modern times
come to be applied to such as manifest
a religious enthusiasm, uncontrolled by
reason or experience. Fanaticism is
sometimes applied in a wider sense to
any excessive prepossession of the mind
by ideas of any kind. It has prevailed
under different forms in all ages of the
world; and one of its most remarkable
and dangerous features is the tendency
that it has to spread over large masses
of a people. The very earnestness of the
fanatic serves to carry conviction to the
minds of others. Among persons of this
class were Madame Guyon, Joanna
Southcott, and numerous others.
FAN CORAL, in zoology, the name of
the genus Rhipidogorgia, belonging to
the family Gorgonidae.
FANDANGO, a lively Spanish dance
in triple time, derived from the Moors.
It is danced by two persons, male and fe-
male, and accompanied by the sounds of
the guitar. The dancers have castanets
which they beat in time to the measure,
though sometimes the male dancer beats
a tambourine. Also the accompaniment
of this dance.
FANEUIL, PETER, an American
merchant; born in New Rochelle, N. Y.,
in 1700; settled in Boston, Mass., where
he became a successful merchant. In
1740 he built a market house at his per-
sonal expense as a gift to the town.
During the Revolutionary War thi*
building was often used as a meeting-
FANEUIL HALL
place by the patriots. Owing to the
many stirring debates that occurred
here, the hall received the name of "the
Cradle of American Liberty." Faneuil
died in Boston, Mass., March 3, 1743.
See Faneuil Hall.
FANEUIL HALL, a public hall in
Boston, presented to the town by Peter
Faneuil, in 1740. In 1761 it was de-
stroyed by fire. In 1763 it was rebuilt by
the town; and, in 1775, during the Brit-
ish occupation of Boston, it was used
for a theater. It is an edifice about 80
feet square ; the hall contains some fine
paintings; and the basement is still used
as a market. See Faneuil, Peter.
FANNING ISLANDS, a group of is-
lands in the Pacific Ocean, lying be-
tween longitude 157° and 163° West.
The group has an area of about 260
square miles. The chief islands are
Christmas, Fanning, Jarvis, Washing-
ton, and Palmyra. They have been the
property of Great Britain since 1888.
Pop. about 200.
FANO (ancient Fanum Fortunae, from
a temple dedicated to the goddess For-
tuna) ; a well-built town and seaport of
central Italy, province of Urbino, 7
miles S. E. of Pesaro, and 29 N. W. by
W. of Ancona. Manufactures silk stuffs,
twists, etc. Pop. about 12,000.
FANTAIL, in zoology, a genus of
Australian birds (Rhipidnra) belonging
to the family Muscicapidse. They derive
their name from the fan-like shape of
their tails. Also a variety of the domes-
tic pigeon. In gas lighting a form of gas
burner, in which the burning jet has
an arched form. In carpentry, a kind of
joint.
Fantail warbler; in ornithology, Cis-
ticola eursitans, a very tiny bird, some-
what like a diminutive lark. It is a na-
tive of southern Europe, Africa, India,
and China.
FANTASIA, in music, a species of
composition in which the author confines
himself to no particular form or theme,
but ranges as his fancy leads amid vari-
ous airs and movements.
FANTIS, a negro people on the Gold
Coast of Africa. They were once the
most numerous and powerful people on
the Gold Coast. In 1873 they were at-
tacked by the Ashantees who after a
considerable struggle were conquered by
British forces. Ashantee became a Brit-
ish protectorate in 1896, and was an-
nexed in 1901.
FARAD (from Michael Faraday, the
great electrician) , the standard electrical
unit, which is measured by the capacity
of a condenser, that with an electromo-
97 FARADAY
tive force of one volt is able to overcome
a resistance equivalent to one ohm in one
second, or in other words, the resistance
offered by a cylindrical copper wire 250
feet long, 1-20 inch in diameter, the ohm
being the magneto-electric unit.
FARADAY, MICHAEL, an English
scientist; born in Newington Butts, Eng-
land, Sept. 22, 1791. He received little
or no education and was apprenticed to
the trade of a bookbinder. During his
term of apprenticeship, a few scientific
woi-ks fell into his hands, and he devoted
himself to the study of, and experi-
ments in, electricity. Having attended
the lectures given in 1812 by Sir Hum-
phry Davy, and taken notes thereon, he
sent them to that great philosopher, and
besought some scientific occupation. The
reply was prompt and favorable. In 1813
Faraday was appointed chemical assist-
ant, under Sir Humphry, at the Royal
Institution. After a continental tour in
company with his patron, Faraday, still
pursuing his scientific investigations, dis-
covered, in 1820, the chlorides of carbon,
and, in the following year, the mutual
rotation of a magnetic pole and an
electric current. These discoveries led to
the condensation of gases in 1823. In
1829 he labored on the production of
optical glass; but though unsuccessful in
his immediate object, his experiments
produced the heavy glass which after-
ward proved of great assistance to him
in his magnetical investigations. In 1831
the series of "Experimental Researches
in Electricity," published in the "Philo-
sophical Transactions," began with the
development of the induction of electric
currents, and the evolution of electricity
from magnetism. Three years later Fara-
day established the principle of definite
electrolytic action, and in 1846 received
at the same time the Royal and the Rum-
ford medals for his discoveries of dia-
magnetism, and of the influence of mag-
netism upon light respectively. In 1847
he discovered the magnetic character of
oxygen, and, also, the magnetic relations
of flame and gases. His papers, includ-
ing other contributions to the store of
modern science, are too numerous to
mention in detail. In 1833 Faraday was
appointed Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Institution, London, which chair
he continued to hold until his death. In
1835 he received from government a pen-
sion of .$1,500 per annum in recognition
of his eminent scientific merits. In 1836
he was appointed a member of the senate
of London University. From 1829 to
1842 he was chemical lecturer at the
Royal Academy. In 1823 Faraday was
elected corresponding member of the
French Academy, in 1825 he was chosen
FAR EASTERN QUESTION
98
FARIBAULT
a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in
1832 made a D. C. L. of Oxford Uni-
versity. He was, besides, a knight of
several of the European orders, and a
member of the chief learned and scien-
tific societies in Europe and the United
States. He died in Hampton Court, Aug.
25, 1867.
FAB EASTERN QUESTION, that
problem of international politics which
has to do with the maintenance of the
equilibrium of the various national
spheres of influence in the Far East,
especially in China. China, and formerly
Japan, have been nations whose com-
mercial importance has been out of all
proportion to their political and military
power. The consequence has been that
there has been a keen rivalry among the
Western nations for commercial influence
in the Orient, resulting in a pressure of
special privileges which the military im-
potence of China made her unable to
resist. Until the World War this
rivalry for trade privileges existed be-
tween Great Britain, France, Russia,
Gerrnany, and the United States. A
partial solution to the problem thus
raised was found in an agreement
whereby the Orient was divided into
"spheres of influence," the territory in-
volved being apportioned out among the
rivals, each to have a dominant interest
in its own sphere. The exception has
been the United States, whose Govern-
ment has stood for an equal opportunity
in the markets of China for all.
These spheres of influence were recog-
nized as follows: the Yang-tse Valley
and Tibet for Great Britain; Mongolia
and Manchuria for Russia; Indo-China
for France, and Kiauchau and the Shan-
tung Peninsula for Germany. Since her
emergence into the concert of nations as
a military and naval power to be reck-
oned with, Japan has also been granted
recognition, and has had Korea assigned
to her as her sphere of influence.
These influences progressed rapidly,
to the point where they amounted to at
least partial military occupation, as in
the case of Kiauchau by Germany, Korea
by Japan, Manchuria by Russia, and
Hong-Kong by Great Britain. Inevitably
the final result would have been the com-
plete partitioning of China among the
rivals, had it not been for the consistent
opposition of the United States to such
a conclusion.
As first enunciated by Anson Bur-
lingame, in 1868, the United States was
unalterably opposed to any further
undermining of the "right of eminent
domain" by China herself. This policy
was further elaborated into the "open
door"' policy by John Hay, after the
Boxer troubles, in 1900, which the rival
nations made the pretext of a military
occupation of the Chinese capital itself.
During 1912-1914 President Wilson still
further voiced this policy by declaring
that the Powers involved must keep
"hands off" China, and respect her na-
tional entity.
Since the World War the superficial
aspect of the problem has been somewhat
changed by the elimination of Germany
and Russia as factors. Kiauchau and
the Shantung Peninsula, the German
"sphere," were occupied by Japan, as one
of the allies opposing Germany, with
the declared intention of returning these
territories to the Chinese administration.
This promise Japan had not, in 1920, ful-
filled. The Russian Soviet Government,
in _ September, 1920, voluntarily relin-
quished the Russian treaty rights in
China.
FARGO, a city and county-seat of
Cass CO., N. D. ; on the Red river, and
on the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul,
the Northern Pacific, and the Great
Northern railroads; opposite Moorhead,
Minn, Here are a United States land
ofl[ice, Fargo College (Cong.), the State
Agricultural and Mechanical College,
high school, court house, waterworks,
street railroad and electric light plants,
several banks, hospitals, parks, and a
number of daily and weekly newspapers.
It has the car shops of the Northern
Pacific railroad, flour, planing and paper
mills, large grain elevators, knitting
mills, bottling works, and large brick
yards. Pop. (1910) 14,331; (1920)
21,961.
FARGO COLLEGE, a coeducational in-
stitution in Fargo, N. D. ; founded in
1888 under the auspices of the Congre-
gational Church; reported at the close
of 1919 : Professors and instructors,
32; students, 602. President, W. H.
Howard,
FARGO, WILLIAM GEORGE, an
American capitalist; born in Pompey, N.
Y., May 20, 1818; became Buffalo agent
of the Pomeroy Express Company in
1843; established the first express com-
pany W. of Buffalo, in 1844; and, in
1868, became president of the gi'eat cor-
poration controlling the whole West, the
Wells Fargo Express Company, He died
in Buffalo, N. Y., Aug. 3, 1881.
FARIBAULT, a city and county-seat
of Rice CO., Minn.; at the confluence of
the Cannon and Straight rivers, and on
the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago,
Rock Island and Pacific and the Chicago,
Milwaukee and St. Paul railroads; 53
miles S. of St. Paul. Here are a court
house, city hall, public library, the Shat-
FARLEY
99
PARM MANAGEMENT
tuck Military School, the Seabury Divin-
ity School, the State Schools for the
Deaf, Blind, and Imbeciles, Bethlehem
Academy for Girls, St. Mary's School
for Girls, gas and electric lights and
weekly and monthly periodicals. It has
manufactories of pianos, carriages, fur-
niture, boiler works, foundry products,
rattan goods, and gasoline engines, and
canning establishments, flour, planing
and woolen mills. Pop. (1910) 9,001;
(1920) 11,089.
FARLEY, JOHN MURPHY, CARDI-
NAL, an American prelate. He was
born at Newton Hamilton, Armagh, Ire-
land, in 1842, and received his prelim-
inary education in his native place. Com-
ing to the United States in early youth
he became a student at St. John's Col-
lege, Fordham, and at St. Joseph's Sem-
CABDINAL FARLEY
inary, Troy, and then was transferred to
the American College at Rome. He was
ordained priest in Rome in 1870 and took
charge of a parish in Staten Island for
two years. After acting as secretary to
Cardinal McCloskey he was chosen rector
of the American College at Rome, but
was retained in New York and given the
appointment of private chamberlain. In
1891 he became vicar-general of the arch-
diocese of New York, and in 1895 pro-
thonotary apostolic. He was then made
assistant bishop, and in 1902 succeeded
as archbishop of New York. In 1911 he
journeyed to Rome to be made cardinal
and on his return to New York was given
a great popular ovation. During the
later as during the early years of his
archiepiscopate he showed great energy
in furthering the erection of churches,
schools, orphanages, hospitals, and other
institutions in the popular archdiocese.
He died at Mamaroneck, N. Y., Sept. 17,
1918. He was an eloquent preacher and
was a contributor to several magazines.
He was author of a "Life of Cardinal
McCloskey."
FARM, a tract or piece of land culti-
vated by a single person, whether
owner or tenant; also a district farmed
out for the collection of revenue; or the
right or permission to sell certain arti-
cles subject to duties. Also a term
formerly used in Cornish mining for the
lord's fee, which is taken for liberty to
work tin-bounds.
FARM MANAGEMENT, the problem
of economics in agricultural production,
with the object of introducing therein
the same business efficiency which has
brought American manufacturing to its
present high degree of perfection. While
the basis of manufacturing industry has
been radically changed by the use of ma-
chinery and factory organization, thus
becoming the subject of executive man-
agement, agricultural production has not
undergone any such basic changes.
Farming is still a one-man enterprise
and is still largely carried on in the same
way in which it was carried on when
the handicrafts system of manufacturing
obtained. It has been only partially
affected by machinery, and that in only
certain phases, as in the production of
the grain crops, which are now harvested
by machinery. Farming, therefore, still
remains very much a home industry.
The rapid growth of the urban popu-
lation, and its demands for farm-grown
products, have made improved methods in
agricultural production a national prob-
lem. For this reason the Federal Depart-
ment of Agriculture and the various
State agricultural departments have
made efficiency in agricultural production
one of their chief aims.
Minnesota, through its agricultural ex-
periment station, in 1902, was the first
State to raise the problem of farm
management to the dignity of a special
scientific study. Shortly after this sub-
ject also received the serious considera-
tion of the Federal Department of Agri-
culture. Now it has been taken up by
most of the other States, and every effort
is made, through literature and practical
demonstrations, to propagate among the
farmers a knowledge of the results ob-
tained from the experiments made by the
demonstration farms established in all
parts of the country.
FARMEB
100
EABMINa
Farm management involves many
phases of practical farming; the proper
rotation of crops, the comparative value
of fertilizers; co-operative organization
for the purpose of purchasing seeds and
fertilizers, and for the sale of crops at
a minimum of loss to profiteering middle-
men, and, by no means least, a proper
system of bookkeeping, whereby the in-
dividual farmer may know his profits
and losses on his various transactions,
so that the source of loss may be elim-
inated. All means to making farming
profitable to farmers are considered a
legitimate part of the general subject
of farm management. The economy of
gasoline-driven vehicles for carrying pro-
duce to market, or of dynamite in dig-
ging ditches for drainage, are fair illus-
trations of phases which are shown by
actual demonstration. The main object is
to eliminate waste and to introduce a
scientific efficiency in every department
of agricultural production. A fuller dis-
cussion of this subject will be found in
"What is Farm Management?" Bulletin
No. 259, issued by the Bureau of Plant
Industry, Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.
FARMER, one who farms or contracts
to collect taxes, imposts, duties, etc., for
a certain payment per cent.; also one
who farms or cultivates ground; an agri-
culturist; a husbandman.
FARMER - LABOR PARTY. — See
United States. Political Happenings.
FARMERS' ALLIANCE, a general
term for an American association of
agriculturists which was founded in 1873,
originally in Texas, where it was organ-
ized for the purpose of co-operation
against cattle thieves. In 1887 its mem-
bers had increased to over 100,000, its
scope was greatly extended, and it con-
solidated with the Farmers* Union of
Louisiana, becoming incorporated under
the laws of the District of Columbia, as
the National Farmers' Alliance and Co-
operative Union. In 1880 the National
Agricultural Wheel was organized in
Arkansas, and branches were formed in
other States. These two organizations
were consolidated at St. Louis, Mo., Oct.
1, 1889, under the name of the National
Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union,
with a membership then estimated at
from 1,600,000 to 2,500,000. This so-
ciety is in active operation in all the
Southern and Western States (except
Ohio and Wyoming), and in New York,
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Another
organization, called the National Farm-
ers' Alliance, was formed in Chicago in
1880. In 1892, fusing with others as the
People's party, it nominate J J. B. Weaver
for President and cast 1,041,021 votes.
The Southern branch seceded and went
out of politics. The Farmers' National
Alliance held a convention in 1914, when
it claimed a membership of over 3,000,-
000. The Alliance advocated Federal
assistance for inland commerce, a liter-
acy test for immigrants, and a poll tax
upon them.
FARMERS' INSTITUTE, an assembly
of the farmers held to further their
knowledge of agriculture or for their
entertainment. The institute is derived
from the earlier farmers' meetings which
were held under the auspices of local
agricultural societies.
When the Morrill Act of 1862, grant-
ing Federal aid to State universities,
was passed, these meetings were patron-
ized by the State and became distinc-
tively educational in their character.
Custom differs in the various States as
to the length of the meetings; some are
held for only half a day, while other
institutes last for several days. Usually
they are held in the winter season, so as
to afford the farmers full opportunity to
attend. The State agricultural college
commonly directs the activities of the
institutes, and with the help of the local
committee prepares their programs.
These usually consist of addresses by
specialists on some subject of interest to
farmers, and is followed by questions
and discussions from the body of the
meetings. The United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture has prepared valu-
able lantern slides for exhibition at these
institutes, showing how to increase pro-
duction on the farms and how best to
combat plant diseases. Very frequently
social features are introduced in the in-
stitute programs. It is estimated that
more than four million persons a year
attend these meetings, and their influ-
ence in improving agricultural methods
has been incalculable.
FARMING, the business or manage-
ment of a farm, comprising the entire
circumstances and control of it. Once
regarded as a profession easy to be un-
derstood, and requiring but little prep-
aration for its successful practice, it has
come to be viewed in a different and a
wiser manner. It has been justly said
that no pursuit requires more talent, per-
severance, and careful observation than
the cultivation of the earth ; that, so far
from its being an empirical business, it
is, in fact, one that several other sciences
illustrate and assist; one whose profes-
sors cannot too often examine the prac-
tice of other cultivators; and hence, since
it has been found that the labors of the
chemist, the botanist, the mechanist, and
FABNHAM
101
FABOE ISLANDS
the geologist, are all^ available in the
service of the farmer, it has followed, as
a natural consequence, that the farmers
of our age are rapidly becoming a more
scientific, more educated, and far more
enlightened class than those of any pre-
vious generation. See Agriculture.
FARNAM, HENRY WALCOTT, an
American economist, born in New Haven,
Conn., in 1853. He graduated from Yale
in 1874 and took post-graduate studies
at Berlin and other German universities.
From 1878 to 1880 he was tutor and fi'om
1880 to 1918 professor of economics in
Yale University. In the latter year he
was appointed professor emeritus. From
1892 to 1911 he was one of the editors of
the "Yale Review," and of the "Economic
Review" in 1911-1912. He served as chair-
man of the New Haven Civil Service
Board and as president of the Connecti-
cut Civil Service Reform Association.
He was the author of a number of books
on economic subjects, several of them
written in the German language. He was
a member of many economic societies.
FARNBOROUGH, a town in Hamp-
shire, England. It is on the Blackwater,
near the Basingstoke canal. Its most
important industry is the raising of
strawberries. It was long noted as the
seat of Farnborough Hill, which was the
residence of the former Empress Eugenie
until her death in 1920. The main depot
of the British Royal Aircraft factory was
at Farnborough during the World War.
Pop. about 15,000.
FARNESE, the patronymic of an il-
lustrious and princely Italian house,
which arose about the middle of the 13th
century. Of its principal members were
the following:
Farnese, Alessandro, Cardinal, raised
to the tiara under the title of Pope Paul
III., in 1534, who created his natural son,
PiETRO, Duke of Parma and Piacenza.
Farnese, Alessandro, great-grandson
of the preceding; was born 1546. He
early entered upon the profession of
arms, and distinguished himself at the
battle of Lepanto (1571) under his uncle,
the famous Don John of Austria. Philip
II. afterv>rard appointed him governor of
the Netherlands, where he waged war
against the Prince of Orange. He was
subsequently made commander-in-chief
of the army sent to the assistance of the
French Catholics, and compelled Henry
IV. to raise the siege of Paris ; but, being
ill-supported by the League, he was
eventually obliged to succumb to his
great adversary and died soon after in
Arras, in 1592. The line continued until
1731, when it became extinct in the per-
son of Antonio Farnese, the prince of
his house.
FARNSWORTH, CHARLES STEW-
ART, an American soldier, bom in
Lycoming county. Pa., in 1862, He
graduated from the United States Mili-
tary Academy in 1887. In the same year
he was appointed 2d lieutenant and rose
through the grades, becoming colonel in
1917. In the same year he was ap-
pointed brigadier-general of the Na-
tional Army, and in the followiiie;
year was made major-general. He com-
manded the 37th Division of the Ameri-
can Expeditionary Force from May 22,
1918, to April 5, 1919, taking part in
the St. Mihiel offensive and in the offen-
sives of the Argonne-Meuse and in Bel-
gium. In 1919 he was commander of
Camp Bowie, Tex., and in the same year
was commander of the Infantry School
at Camp Benning, Ga.
FARNWORTH, a town of Lancashire,
England, on the Manchester and Bolton
Railway. It has important manufac-
tures of cotton, brick, tile, and iron.
Within its limits are several mediaeval
buildings. Pop. about 35,000.
FARO, a game of cards, in which the
player plaj's against the bank, which is
kept bjr the proprietor of the table. It
was introduced into France by the Vene-
tian ambassador in 1674, in a form like
bassette ; but so many nobles were ruined
by this game that Louis XIV. made a
law against it. To elude this law it was
called pour et centre, which gave rise to
new prohibitions, to evade which the
name Pharaoh was adopted. The game
essentially consists in betting on which
of two piles, into which the cards are
alternately dealt, a certain card will fall.
It is played with a "lay-out" of 13 cards,
ranging from ace to king, inclusive, and
a pack of 52 cards dealt from a box,
one at a time, in two piles, alternately,
as above said. There are various per-
centages, accruing to the dealer, the
principal one being known as a split,
which occurs when two cards of the same
denomination follow in succession from
the box, in which case the dealer takes
haif the sum bet by the player. When
but two or three cards remain to be
dealt, the player who succeeds in naming
the order in which they will appear (or
"calls the turn," as the gambler hath
it) receives from two to four to one, ac-
cording to the denomination of the cards,
the amount being determined by the doc-
trine of chances.
FAROE ISLANDS, a group of 22 is-
lands belonging to Denmark, in the
Northern Ocean, between lat. 61° 15'
and 62° 21' N., and Ion. 6° and 8'^ E.;
FAKRAGUT
102
PABBAND
about 185 miles N. W. of the Shetland
Isles, and 320 S. E. of Iceland; area
530 square miles; pop. (1901) 15,230.
The principal island, Stromoe, in the
center, is 27 miles long by about 7 broad ;
the chief of the others are Osteroe, Vaa-
goe, Bordoe, Sandoe, and Suderoe. Only
17 of the islands are inhabited. Each
of these islands is a lofty mountain ris-
ing out of the waves, and divided from
the others by deep and rapid currents.
The highest point, Skoelling, in Stromoe,
has an altitude of 2,240 feet. Some of
the group are deeply indented v?ith deep
and secure harbors; all are steep and
most of them present, seaward, a suc-
cession of sheer precipices. Soil, thin,
but tolerably fertile: barley is almost
the only cereal grown. Products, hay in
large quantities, salted mutton, tallow,
feathers, eiderdown, etc. Manufactures,
coarse woolen stuffs, and stockings. Vast
quantities of sea-fowl haunt the rocks,
the taking of which for the sake of their
feathers affords a perilous employment
to the inhabitants. Capital, Thorshavn,
at the S. E. end of Stromoe. These is-
lands are under the jurisdiction of a
Danish governor, and have belonged to
Denmark since the union of that king-
dom with Norway in the 14th century.
FARRAGUT, DAVID GLASCOE, an
American naval officer; born in Camp-
bell's Station, Tenn., July 5, 1801. He
was appointed, without previous train-
ADMIRAL FARRAGUT
ing, a midshipman as early as 1810.
Under Commodore Porter he was en-
gaged in the "Essex" in her cruise
against the British in 1812-1814, and
after her capture he served on board the
line-of-battle ship "Independence." Pass-
ing for a lieutenant, he was ordered to
the West India station, and was ap-
pointed, in 1847, to the command of the
"Saratoga" in which ship he took part in
the naval operations during the Mexican
War. When the Civil War broke out
Farragut received the command of the
Gulf squadron which was to co-operate
with General Butler in the reduction of
New Orleans, and engaged and passed
the two strong forts of the Mississippi
in April, 1862, which brought about the
surrender of that city on the 28th of the
same month. Natchez was taken in May,
and Farragut's fleet ascended as far as
Vicksburg, which place he bombarded till
the fall of water compelled him to re-
turn to New Orleans. In 1862 he was
the first officer to receive the rank of ad-
miral in the United States navy; and in
March, 1863, he passed the batteries of
Port Hudson, and was in a few days
again before Vicksburg, co-operating
with General Grant in the reduction of
that important stronghold. Having been
ordered to attempt the capture of Mobile,
he took the forts commanding the mouth
of that harbor in August, 1864, with the
loss, however, of one of his ironclads,
the "Tecumseh," and its crew, by the ex-
plosion of a torpedo, and met with a re-
pulse in an attack on Wilmington, Dec.
24-25. The place was, however, taken
Jan. 15, 1865, and Mobile surrendered
April 12, following. Admiral Farragut
served in the United States navy for 60
years. In 1865 Farragut was appointed
to the command of an American squad-
ron dispatched on a cruise in European
waters, from which he returned in 1868.
He died in Portsmouth, N. H., Aug. 14,
1870.
FARRAND, LIVINGSTON, an Amer-
ican educator, born in Newark, N. J., in
1867. He graduated from Princeton
University in 1888, and from the College
of Physicians and Surgeons in 1891. He
carried on post-graduate studies in Cam-
bridge, England, and in Berlin. He was
on the faculty of Columbia University
as professor of psychology and anthro-
pology, from 1893 to 1914. In the latter
year he was appointed president of the
University of Colorado, serving until
March 1, 1919, when he became chair-
man of the Central Committee of the
American Red Cross. He was director
of tuberculosis work in France for the
International Health Board in 1917-1918.
He was a member of many American so-
cieties and was the author of "Basis of
American History" (1904). He con-
tributed to psychological and anthropo-
logical publications.
FARRAND, MAX, an American edu-
cator, born in Newark, N. J., in 1869.
FABBAB
103
FASCIA
He graduated from Princeton Univei--
sity in 1892 and took post-graduate
studies at that University and in Ger-
many. From 1896 to 1901 he was in-
structor and professor of history of
Weeleyan University, and from 1901 to
1908 he was professor and head of the
department of history at Leland Stan-
ford University. He was acting pro-
fessor of Cornell in 1905-1906, and from
1908 was professor of Yale. In 1919-
1920 he acted as general director of the
Commonwealth Fund of New York City.
He wrote "Legislation of Congress for
the Government of the Organized Terri-
tories of the United States" (1896)
"Framing of the Constitution" (1913)
"Development of the United States'
(1918); "Fathers of the Constitution"
(1920). He was a frequent contributor
CO historical magazines.
FARRAR, FREDERICK WILLIAM,
an English clergyman, dean of Canter-
bury; born in Bombay, India, Aug. 7,
1831. He was educated at University
of London and Trinity College, Cam-
bridge. He was ordained a deacon in
1854 and priest in 1857. He was assist-
ant master at Harrow and head master
at Marlborough College. He v/as made
archdeacon of Westminster in 1883;
and chaplain to the queen. He
wrote these novels: "Eric, etc." (1858);
"Julian Home" (1859); "St. Winifred's,
etc." (1863). Of his religious and theo-
logical writings the most notable are:
"The Witness of History to Christ"
(1871); "The Life of Christ" (1874);
"Life and Works of St. Paul" (1879) ;
"The Early Days of Christianity"
(1882); "Eternal Hope," "The Life of
Lives" (1899), etc. He was author also
of works on language, as "The Origin
of Language" (I860) ; "Families of
Speech" (1870) ; "Language and Lan-
guages" (1878) ; and handbooks on
Greek grammar. He died in London,
March 22, 1903.
FARS, or FARSISTAlSr (anciently
Persis), a province of Persia, bordering
on the Persian Gulf; rises from the
steep coast in a succession of broad ter-
races. Area, about 53,500 square miles;
the population, the exact number of
which is not known, is very sparse. The
coast zone or "hot country," the pro-
ductiveness of which is greatly depend-
ent on the rainfall, is backed by the
"land of the passes," behind which
comes the "cold country"; the interior
belongs to the Iranian plateau. The
mountain chains, lying parallel to the
coast, embrace numerous fertile valleys,
rich in pasturage and vines and fruit
trees. Among the mountains are sev-
eral lakes, the largest Lake Bakhtegan.
The rivers are small. The climate
varies with the different districts. The
principal products of the province are
fruits, dates, tobacco, cotton, silk, and
excellent wine. The capital of Fars is
Shiraz, pop. 25,000 to 30,000. The port,
Bushire, on the Persian Gulf.
FARSAN ISLANDS, a group of is-
lands in the Red Sea, about 35 miles
off the W. coast of Yemen. They in-
clude the two larger islands of Farsan
Seghir, 18 miles in length, and Farsan-
el-Kebir, 25 miles in length. The islands
are important chiefly for the pearl and
coral fisheries. Dates and other fruit
are also grown there. Prior to the
Woi'ld War Germany maintained a coal-
ing station on one of these islands.
FARUKHABAD, a city of the North-
west provinces of India; near the
Ganges; 83 miles N. W. of Cawnpur.
It is a clean and healthy place, with a
considerable trade, and a population
(1901) of 67,338. The district of
Farukhabad belongs to the alluvial
plain of the Doab, the soil being for the
most part high-lying, sandy, and infer-
tile; area, 1,719 square miles; pop. about
1,000,000. The most important crops
are potatoes, indigo, and sugar-cane.
The capital is Fatehgarh. The ruins of
Kanauj, the capital of a powerful Hindu
kingdom, still exist within the district.
FASANO, a city in southern Italy. It
is near the site of the ancient Roman
city of Egnatia. It contains a city hall,
which was the former palace of the
Knights of St. John. Pop. about 20,000.
FASCES, the most ancient insignia of
the Roman magistrates, consisting of
bundles of elm or birch rods, in the
center of which was an ax. The custom
was borrowed from the Etruscans.
After the banishment of Tarquinius
Superbns, the fasces wei'e carried before
the consuls by men called lictors; but
this honor was granted to the consul-
major only. The consul and pro-consul
had 12 lictors, each of whom carried a
fasces; the dictator had 24, and when
in Rome the ax was carried before him.
The prjetors of the towns had only 2
fasces; those of the provinces and the
army 6. Under the empire the consuls,
who were merely civil magistrates, had
12 fasces, while the pro-prastors and
pro-consuls were allowed 6, and this
lasted till the fall of Rome.
FASCIA, a bandage employed in
various ways, as: (1) A diadem,
formerly worn round the head as an
emblem of royalty, the color being
Y.-hite; that worn by women was purple.
I'ASCIME
104
FASTING
(2) Formerly as a support to the
breast by women.
(3) Formerly as a bandage round the
legs, especially of women, from the
ankle to the knee, serving as a protec-
tion or a support to the legs of the
wearer, a practice that was adopted in
Europe in the Middle Ages.
(4) As a bandage for enswathing the
bodies of infants, as practiced by the
modern peasants of Italy.
In anatomy, a thin, tendon-like cover-
ing surrounding the muscles of the
linibs, and binding them in their places;
a tendinous expansion or aponeurosis.
The fasciae are named from (1) the
position, as the anal and lumbar fasciae;
(2) from some peculiar function, as the
cremasteric; or (3) from some pecu-
liarity, as the cribriform fascia. In
architecture, a flat architectural mem-
ber in an entablature or elsewhere; a
band or broad fillet. The architrave in
the more elegant orders of architecture
is divided into three bands, which are
called fasciae; the lowest being called the
first fascia, the middle one the second,
and the upper one the third. When
there are only two fasciae, they are
called the upper and the lower. The
term is also applied to the board or
strip over a shop front, on which the
name, etc., of the owner or occupier is
written. In astronomy, formerly the
belt of a planet. In entomology, a
broad, transverse band. In surgery, a
bandage, roller, or ligature.
FASCINE, in fortification, a cylindri-
cal bundle of faggots or brushwood used
in revetments of earthworks. When the
limbs are stouter and longer than usual,
it is called a saucisse or saucisson. In
civil engineering fascines are used in
making sea and river walls to protect
shores subject to washing; or to collect
sand, silt, and mud to raise the bottom
and gradually form an island, either as
a breakwater against inroads, or for
purposes of cultivation, as in Holland.
FAST, total or partial abstinence from
or deprivation of food; an omission to
take food. Also a time set apart to ex-
press national grief for some calamity,
or to deprecate an impending evil.
Ethnic Fasts. — The old Egyptians, the
Assyrians (Jonah iii : 5), the Greeks,
Romans, and other ancient nations had
most of them stated or occasional fasts,
as have the modern Mohammedans, Hin-
dus, etc.
Jewish Fasts. — The Day of Atonement
was the only fasting day enjoined by the
law of Moses, but the Mishna speaks of
four others, respectively commemorating
the storming of Jerusalem by Nebuchad-
nezzar, the burning of the Temple by
Titus, the sack of Jerusalem by Nebu-
chadnezzar, and the receiving by Ezekiel
and the other captives of the news of the
destruction of Jerusalem. There were
also fasts proclaimed by royal or other
authority on special occasions (I Kings
xxi: 9-12; II Chron. xx: 3; Ezra viii: 2).
For the spiritual and unspiritual way of
keeping a fast, see Isaiah Iviii : 3.
Christian Fasts. — No stated fasts are
enjoined in the New Testament; they
arose subsequently, the Lent fast taking
the lead (see Lent). In the 3d century
the Latins fasted on the seventh day.
In A. D. 813 the Council of Mentz in its
34th canon ordered a fast the first week
in March, the second week in June, the
third week in September, and the last
full week preceding Christmas eve. In
the Episcopalian and Roman Catholic
Churches the principal fasts of the year
are Lent, the Ember days, All-Saints,
the Immaculate Conception, Rogation
days, and the eves or vigils before cer-
tain festivals; as before Christmas day.
Some of these fasts are common to both
Churches.
Modern Fasts. — Several times in the
course of political events have different
Christian governments proclaimed days
of fasting and prayer. As a notable
antitype of this custom may be mentioned
the American National Thanksgiving, in
which feasting and not fasting is the
salient feature. See also Fasting.
FASTI. Numa Pompilius (715 B, c. to
673 B. c), instituted the custom of mark-
ing monthly records of the feasts, games,
etc., observed at Rome, on tables of stone.
These, preserved by the priests, became
the calendar by which the course of pub-
lic business and of justice was regulated.
C. Flavius copied these fasti, 306 B. c,
and exhibited them in the Forum; and
they subsequently became a kind of
abridged annals, recording the names of
public magistrates and the most impor-
tant political events.
FASTING, in ordinary language, the
act or state of abstaining partially or
entirely from food. In medicine, loss of
appetite without any other apparent af
fection of the stomach; so that the sys
tern can sustain almost total abstinence
ior a long time without fainting. For a
number of years a lively discussion has
been carried on as to the length of time
a human being could exist while volun-
tarily fasting. Dr. Tanner, in New York
City, fasted for 40 days without any ill-
effects, and his fast found several imita-
tors. Nothing of scientific value resulted
from the experiment. Terence McSwiney,
Lord-Mayor of Cork, Ireland, refused
FAT
105
FATHEBS, THE
food while in prison, and died on the
63d day of his fast, in October, 1920.
Other Irish prisoners carried on a food
strike for over fifty days and several of
them died. See Ireland.
Amo7ig the Ethnic Nations. — Its chief
object was to produce religious exalta-
tion, with visions, dreams, and imagined
intercourse with superior beings. Fast-
ing exists for this purpose among the
North American Indians and many other
tribes. Dreams, visions, etc., thus pro-
duced are not supernatural, but morbid.
Amoyig the Jews. — It was practiced in
seasons of affliction, nature having in a
manner prescribed this by taking hunger
away during keen sorrow (I Sam. xxxi:
13; Esther iv.) ; to chasten or humble the
soul (Psalm XXXV : 13; Ixix: 10).
Among Christians. — Jesus miracu-
lously fasted 40 days and nights (Matt,
iv; 2; Luke iv: 2), as Moses and Elijah
had done previously (Exod. xxxiv: 28;
I Kings xix : 8) , and as several Roman
saints claim to have done since. The
practice is not, however, formally en-
joined in the New Testament, though our
Lord indirectly sanctioned it (Matt, vi.:
16-18), as did St. Paul (I Cor. vii: 5).
The apostles and the Church of which
they constituted a part practiced it on
specially solemn occasions (Acts xiii : 2 ;
xiv: 23). In the Roman and Greek obedi-
ence, communion must be received fast-
ing, except when administered by way of
viaticum.
FAT, in anatomy, an animal substance
of a more or less oily character deposited
in vesicles in adipose tissue. It forms a
considerable layer under the skin, is col-
lected in large quantity around certain
organs, as, for instance, the kidneys, fills
up furrows on the surface of the heart,
surrounds joints, and exists in large
quantity in the marrow of bones. It
gives to the surface of the human
frame its smooth, rounded contour. In
chemistry, fats are glycerides of acids
belonging to the fatty or acetic series
and of acids belonging to the acrylic se-
ries, being the ethers of the triatomic
alcohol glycerine. They are insoluble in
water, but soluble in ether. They vary in
consistence from a thin oil (olive oil) to
a hard, greasy substance (suet). When
fats are boiled with any caustic alkali
they are decomposed, and yield an alka-
line salt of the fatty acid (see Soap),
and Glycerine {q. v.). In printing, copy
which affords light work, as blank or
short pages or lines. The fat is in the
fire: All is confusion, or all has failed.
FATALISM, the doctrine that all
things are ordered for men by the arbi-
trary decrees of God or the fixed laws of
nature. In theology, it has given birth
to theories of predestination, and in
moral science to such systems as those
of Spinoza and Hegel, and more recently
to the philosophy of Herbert Spencer. It
is carried out to its most pitilessly logical
extreme among the Mohammedans, where
everything that can happen is "kismet,"
i. e., fated, or decreed by fate.
FATA MORGANA, a remarkable
aerial phenomenon observed from the
harbor of Messina and adjacent places,
and supposed by the Sicilians to be the
work of the fairy Morgana. Objects are
reflected sometimes on the surface of the
sea, and sometimes on a kind of aerial
screen to 30 feet above it.
FATES, the Parcas, or Destinies; the
goddesses supposed to preside over the
birth, life, and fortunes of men. They
were three in number; Clotho held the
spindle, Lachesis drew out the thread of
man's destiny, and Atropos cut it off.
FATHERS, THE, a name applied to
the early writers of the Christian Church
— those writers who have given us ac-
counts of the traditions, practices, etc.,
that prevailed in the early Church. The
term is mostly confined to those who lived
during the first six centuries of the
Christian era, and no writer is dignified
with the title of father who wrote later
than the 12th century. They are fre-
quently divided into the Greek and Latin
fathers; and those who flourished before
the Council of Nice, in 325, are called the
ante-Nicene fathers. The chief fathers
of the first six centuries were as follows:
In the 1st century flourished Clement,
Bishop of Rome, and Ignatius, Bishop of
Antioch; in the 2d century we have Poly-
carp, Bishop of Smyrna, Justin Martyr,
Hermias, Dionysius of Corinth, Hege-
sippus, Tatian, Athenagoras, Thcophilus,
Bishop of Antioch, Irenaeas, Bishop of
Lyons, Clement of Alexandria, and Ter-
tullian; in the 3d century, Minucius
Felix, Hippolytus, Origen, Cyprian, Dio-
nysius, Bishop of Alexandria, Gregory
(Thaumaturgus) ; in the 4th century,
Arnobius, Lactantius, Eusebius, Julius
Firmicus, Maternus, Hilary, Bishop of
Poitiers, Athanasius, Basil, Ephraim the
Syrian, Cyril of Jerusalem, Gregory of
Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa, Ambrose,
Archbishop of Milan, Epiphanus, Bishop
of Salamis, Chrysostom, Bishop of Con-
stantinople, Ruffin, Presbyter of Aqui-
leia; in the 5th century, Jerome, Theo-
dorus. Bishop of Mopsuestia, Augustine,
Cyril of Alexandria, Vincent of Lerins,
Isidore of Pelusium, Theodoret, Bishop
of Cyrus in Syria, Leo I., surnamed the
Great, Virgilius, Bishop of Thapsus; in
the 6th century, Pi'ocopius of Gaza, Are-
tas, Gregory, Bishop of Tours, and Greg-
FATIMIDES
106
FAURE
6ry I., surnamed the Great, Bishop of
Rome. The last of the fathers is Ber-
nard of Clairvaux, who died about the
middle of the 12th century.
Learned men and theologians differ
very much in opinion as to the value that
is to be attached to the writings of the
fathers. By some they are looked on as
nearly of equal authority with the sacred
Scriptures themselves, and as the most
excellent guides in the paths of piety
and virtue. Others regard them as un-
worthy of the least attention. The right
we believe lies between these two ex-
tremes; and while the Roman Catholics
exalt too highly the opinions of the
fathers, yet by Protestants generally
they are too much disregarded. Their
writings contain many sublime senti-
ments, judicious thoughts, and things
naturally adapted to form a religious
temper, and to excite pious and virtuous
affections; on the other hand, they abound
still more with precepts of an excessive
and unreasonable austerity, with stoical
and academical dictates, with vague and
indeterminate notions, and, what is still
worse, with decisions absolutely false
and in manifest opposition to the char-
acter and commands of Christ. Of the
character and doctrines of the primitive
Church they are competent witnesses,
and, living within a comparatively short
period of the apostles, there are many
things which they relate regarding apos-
tolic times, which had come down to them
by tradition, and which are therefore not
to be altogether rejected.
FATIMIDES, or FATIMITES (named
from Fatima, the daughter of Mohammed
and wife of Ali, from whom the founder
of the dynasty described in the definition
professed to have sprung), a race of
Mohammedan kings, whose founder, Abu
Obeidallah (El Madhi),was born in A. D.
882, and began to reign in 910, making
Mahadi, the ancient Aphrodisium, about
100 miles S. of Tunis, his capital. The
place was called from the name Mahadi,
or Director of the Faithful, which he
had assumed. The dynasty there founded
continued to reign till 1171, and produced
in all 14 kings.
FAUCIT, HELEN (LADY MARTIN),
an English actress; born in London,
England, Oct. 11, 1819. She made her
professional debut as Julia in the
"Hunchback" at Covent Garden in Janu-
ary, 1836. She was at once successful,
took a leading part in Macready's Shake-
spearean revivals, in the first represen-
tation of Lytton's plays, and in Brown-
ing's "Blot in the Scutcheon" and
"Strafford." As an interpreter of Shake-
speare's heroines, Juliet, Rosalind. Por-
tia, Beatrice, Imogen, Cordelia, and
Lady Macbeth, she stood first among the
actresses of her time. After her mar-
riage to Theodore Martin, in 1851, she
left the stage. In 1885 she published a
volume of delightful studies, entitled
"On Some of Shakespeare's Female
Characters." She died in Wales, Oct. 31,
1898.
FATLT, in mining and geology, the
sudden interruption of the continuity of
strata till then on the same plane, this
being accompanied by a crack or fissure
varying in width from a mere line to
several feet, generally filled with broken
stones, clay, or similar material. There
are faults in some sections, of which the
horizontal extent is 30 miles or more, the
vertical displacement varying from 600
to 3,000 feet, and the width of the fissures
filled up ranging from 10 to 50 feet. In
hunting, a check, the losing of the scent,
In tennis, an improper service. At fault,
at a loss; in a difficulty; puzzled; em-
barrassed.
FAUN, in Roman mythology, a Latin
rural deity who presided over woods and
wilds, and whose attributes bear a strong
analogy to those of the Grecian Pan. He
was an object of peculiar adoration of
the shepherd and husbandman, and at a
later period he is said to have peopled
the earth with a host of imaginary beings
identical with himself. They are repre-
sented as men with the tail and hind
legs of a goat, pointed ears, and project-
ing horns.
FAUNCE, WILLIAM HERBERT
PERRY, an American educator; born in
Worcester, Mass., Jan. 15, 1859; was
graduated at Brown University in 1880,
and at the Newton Theological Seminary
in 1884; held pastorates in Spring-
field, Mass., and New York City; was
long a trustee of Brown and Rochester
Universities: lecturer at the University
of Chicago and at Yale. He was made
president of Brown University in June,
1899. He wrote "The Educational Ideals
in the Ministry" (1908); "What Does
Christianity Mean?" (1912); "Social
Aspects of Foreign Missions" (1914);
"Religion and War" (1918). He has fre-
quently contributed to various periodicals.
FAURE, FRANCOIS FELIX, Presi-
dent of the Frencli Republic; born in
Paris, Jan. 30, 1841; was for a time a
tanner in Touraine, but became _ a
wealthy shipowner in Havre. During
the Franco-Prussian war he commanded
a body of volunteers, and gained the rib
bon of the Legion of Honor. He enterea
the Assembly in 1881: served as colonial
and commercial minister in the Cabinets
FAUST
107
FAVRE
of Gambetta, Jules Favre, and Tirard,
and as Minister of Marine in that of
Dupuy. A moderate republican, he was
elected president of the republic on the
resignation of Casimir-Perier in 1895.
He died in Paris, France, Feb. 16, 1899.
FAUST, or FUST, JOHANN, one of
the three artists to whom the invention
of printing has been ascribed, was the
son of a goldsmith at Mentz, Germany.
The other two were Gutenberg and
Schoffer; to the former of whom the in-
vention of printing with wooden blocks
has been attributed; and to the latter,
who married the daughter of Faust, is
allowed the honor of having invented
punches and matrices, by means of
which this grand art was carried to per-
fection. It is believed that he died of
the plague in 1466.
FAUST, or FAUSTUS, DR. JOHANN,
a famous magician, about whose name
and existence so many obscure legends
have grown, lived in the beginning of
the 16th century, and was probably born
at Knittlingen, in Suabia. After re-
ceiving his education at Wittenberg, he
went to Ingolstadt, where he studied
medicine, astrology, and magic, and oc-
cupied himself in alchemical experi-
ments. Faust was a man of great scien-
tific acquirements; and, according to
legendary tradition, he made use of his
powers to inspire his countrymen with
a firm belief that he had dealings with
the devil. The story of Dr. Faustus
furnished the subject of a remarkable
dramatic poem by Christopher Marlowe,
and has been immortalized by the genius
of Goethe. Gounod's well-known opera
is also founded on this character.
FAUSTINA, mother and daughter,
wives of two of the noblest among the
Roman emperors. The elder, Annia Ga-
leria, usually spoken of as Faustina
Senior, was the wife of Antoninus Pius,
and died 141 a. D. ; the younger, known
as Faustina Junior, was married to his
successor, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,
and died at a village near Mount Tau-
rus in 175 A. D. Both, but particularly
the younger, were notorious for the prof-
ligacy of their lives, yet after their
deaths their memories were marked with
signal honors by their forgiving hus-
bands, Institutions for the relief of poor
girls were founded by both emperors,
and were called "jmellse alimentarise
Faustinse" (The Daughters of the Fos-
tering Faustina).
FAUX. See Fawkes.
FAVERSHAM, WILLIAM, an actor,
born in England in 1868. He was edu-
cated at Hillmartin College. His first
appearance on the stage was made in
1887. In the following year he came to
the United States. He acted as support
for Mrs. Fiske for 2 years and for the 6
years following was leading man at the
Empire Theater. He played many impor-
tant roles, and was recognized as one
WILLIAM FAVERSHAM
of the leading actors on the American
and English stage. In 1902 he married
Julie Opp, also well known on the
American stage.
FAVBE, JULES CLAUDE GABRIEL,
a French advocate, author, and orator;
born in Lyons, France, March 21, 1809.
He was prosecuting his studies for the
bar at the outbreak of the revolution of
July, 1830, in which he took an active
part. He soon afterward commenced
practice and won a reputation for his
independence and radicalism. After the
revolution of February, 1848, Favre be-
came secretary-general of the Ministry
of the Interior. He acted for some time
as Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs,
and opposed the expedition to Rome of
December, 1848. Favre became the
strenuous opponent of Louis Napoleon
after the latter's election to the .presi-
dency. Favre's defense of Orsini in
1858 created a great sensation. In the
same year he became a member of the
legislative bo(!y ; after which time he dis-
tinguished himself by his speeches in
FAWCETT
108
FAYOLLE
favor of complete liberty of the press,
against the war with Austria of 1859,
and, in 1864, by an attack on the policy
of the imperial government in the Mexi-
can War. He became vice-president of
the provisional government of national
defense, and minister of foreign affairs
in September, 1870; signed the definitive
treaty of peace v?ith Prussia, May 10,
1871, and resigned his post two months
later. He was elected to the French
Academy in 1867. He died in Versailles,
France, Jan, 19, 1880,
FAWCETT, HENRY, an English
political economist; bom in Salisbury,
England, Aug. 26, 1833. An accident
which deprived him of sight early in
life did not prevent his attainment of
d'stinction as postmaster-general under
Gladstone, and as a writer of force in
"Manual of Political Economy" (6th ed.
1883) ; "The Economic Position of the
British Laborer" (1865); "Pauperism:
Its Causes and Remedies" (1871) ; and
"Free Trade and Protection." He died in
Cambridge, Nov. 6, 1884.
FAWCETT, M. EDWABD, an Amer-
ican Protestant Episcopal bishop, born
in New Hartford, la., in 1865. He grad-
uated from Upper Iowa University in
1886, afterward studying at the Garrett
Biblical Institute. He was ordained a
priest in 1897 and was rector of churches
in Elgin and Chicago, 111., until 1903,
when he was appointed 3d bishop of
Quincy, 111. In 1917 he was captain and
chaplain of the 5th Illinois Iniantry and
was also a divisional chaplain of the
33d Division.
FAWKES, FAUX, or VAUX, GUY,
an English conspirator; born in York,
England, in 1570. He enlisted in the
Spanish army in the Netherlands, where
he was found by Winter, one of the anti-
Protestant conspirators, and with him
returned to England, in 1604, after
agreeing to assist in the Gunpowder
Plot. He passed under the name of
Johnson, as servant to Thomas Percy,
another conspirator, and was placed to
lodge in the house next to the Parliament
House. After collecting the necessary
combustibles, Fawkes worked his way
into the coal cellar under the House of
Lords, and after storing it with gun-
powder, etc., was appointed to the dan-
gerous duty of firing the mine. The gov-
ernm.ent having had timely information
of the detestable plot, the House of
Lords and its cellar was searched, and
Fawkes found secreted amid some casks
of gunpowder, Nov. 5, 1605. He was at
once arrested, soon after tried, and Jan.
31, 1606, suffered death at Westminster
with several of the other conspirators.
FAY, ANDREAS (f i or fay) , a Hun-
garian author; born in Kohany, Zemplin,
Hungary, May 30, 1786. Till the ap-
pearance of Kossuth on the scene (1840)
he was the foremost leader at Pest of
the Opposition party. His volume of
poems, "New Garland" (1818) estab-
lished his fame as a poet, but his ad-
mirable prose "Fables" (1820) attained
a far wider popularity. Among his dra-
matic works are the tragedy, "The Two
Bathorys" (1827) ; and several comedies.
His social novel, "The House of the Bel-
tekys" (1832), and a number of short
stories, entitle him to a place among the
great masters of Hungarian prose. He
died in Pest, July 26, 1864.
FAYETTEVILLE, a city and county-
seat of Washington co.. Ark.; on the St.
Louis and San Francisco and the Kansas
City and Memphis railroads; in the
Ozark Mountains, surrounded by beauti-
ful scenery; is a well-known summer
resort and is called the Athens of Ar-
kansas. Fayetteville is a fruit center for
northwestern Arkansas, It is the seat
of the Arkansas Industrial University.
Here are a foundry, flour mills, large
wagon factory, fruit evaporating estab-
lishment, etc. Pop. (1910) 4,471; (1920)
5,362.
FAYETTEVILLE, a city and county-
seat of Cumberland co., N. C; on Cape
Fear river, and on the Aberdeen and
Rockfish and the Atlantic Coast Line
railroads; 80 miles N. Wo of Wilmington,
It contains a high school, military acad-
emy, a State Colored Normal School, a
bank, and several newspapers. It has
manufactories of edge tools, carriages,
wooden ware, flour, turpentine, cotton,
etc. On April 22, 1861, the Confederates
seized the United States arsenal at this
point. General Sherman occupied the
town March 11-14, 1865, and destroyed
the arsenaL Pop. (1910) 7,045; (1920)
8,877.
FAYOLLE, MARIE EMILE, a French
soldier, born in 1852. He was educated
at the Superior School of War, and for
several years served as instructor at that
institution. He was promoted to be lieu-
tenant-colonel in 1903 and general in
1910. In 1914 he commanded the artil-
lery brigade of Vincennes and in the
same year was commander of the 70th
Division Infantry. In the following year
he commanded the 33d Army Corps and
was made commander of the 6th French
Army in 1916. In December, 1919, he
commanded the French forces in Italy.
General Fayolle took part in the first
French offensive of Lorraine, where he
greatly distinguished himself by ener-
getic action which held up the German
FAYUM
109
FEATHER
advance. His next important service was
in the battles of Arras, during the at-
tempts of the German armies to reach
the coast. He showed great skill in an-
ticipating the movements of the enemy.
His name, however, is chiefly connected
with the Battle of the Somme where he
commanded the 4th Army in 1915. In
1918 he was given command of a group
of armies, including a portion of the
GENERAL FAYOLLE
American Expeditionary Forces. He was
remarkably efficient in withstanding the
movement of the Germans at Amiens
toward Paris. During the final German
retreat he did effective service at Be-
thune, Chateau-Thierry, and Montdidier.
In 1920 he visited the United States as
a representative of General Foch at the
Convention of the American Legion.
FAYUM, FAYOUM, or FAIOUM
(fa-yoom') , a famous valley and province
of central Egypt, anciently the name of
Arsinoe, and stretching out into the
desert, which almost entirely surrounds
it. In extent, its length may be taken at
40 miles by a width of 30. It is the
most fertile of the Egyptian provinces
and produces dhurra, rye, barley, flax,
cotton, sugar, grapes, olives, figs, etc.
Near the capital (Medinet-el-Fayum)
large quantities of roses are cultivated,
Vol. IV— Cyc— H
and are converted into rose water which
is highly esteemed. The land capable
of cultivation in Fayum is about 493
square miles. Manufactures woolen,
linen, and cotton goods. In ancient tim.es,
the Fayum contained the artificial lake
MOERIS (q. V.) and a famous labyrinth.
FEALTY, loyalty; faithful adherence;
true service or duty to a superior lord,
especially in feudal times.
Fealty, suit of court, and rent, are
duties and services usually issuing and
arising ratio7ie tenurx, being the condi-
tions upon which the ancient lords
granted out their lands to their feuda-
tories; whereby it was stipulated that
they and their heirs should take the oath
of fealty or fidelity to their lord, which
was the feudal hond (comTnvne cinculum)
between lord and tenant ; that they should
do suit, or duly attend and foiiow the
lord's courts, and there from tinif; to time
give their assistance, by serving on
juries either to decide the property of
their neighbors in the court baron, or
correct their misdemeanors in the court
leet; and lastly, that they should yield
to the lord certain annual stated returns,
in military attendance, in provisions, in
arms, in matters of ornament or pleas-
ure, in rustic employments (prasdial
labors), or (which is instar omnium), in
money, which will provide all the rest;
all which ai'e comprised under the one
general name of reditus, return or rent.
FEATHER, a plume or quill, one of
the dermal growths, multitudes of which
constitute the covering of a bird. A
feather is homologous with a hair from
the skin of a mammal, and some of the
inferior birds have imperfect feathers
suggestive of hairs only. A feather con-
sists (a) of a central shaft, which is
tubular at the base. This is inserted in
the skin like a plant in the earth, living
and growing, (b) Of a web on either
side, that on one side being often devel-
oped more than on the other. This web
is composed of a series of regularly
arranged fibers, called barbs. In some
cases, of a small supplementary shaft
with barbs, called the plumule — ?. e., the
little plume. Feathers are of two kinds,
quills on the wings and tail, and plumes
generally diffused. The primary feathers
rise from the bone corresponding to the
hand in mammals; the secondary feath-
ers from the distal end of the forearm;
and the tertiary feathers from the proxi-
mal end of the forearm. The feathers
are renewed once or twice a year; the
bird is languid during the process, but,
when fresh plumage is obtained, renews
its youth in vigor as well as in beauty.
The beard and quill of feathers have
essentially the same composition, about
FEBEIFUGE
110
EDEBALIST
52.5 per cent carbon, 7.2 hydrogen, 17.9
nitrogen, and 22.4 oxygen and sulphur.
Feathers owe their permanent color to
peculiar pigments, of which the red,
green, lilac, and yellow are soluble in
alcohol and ether. Black feathers con-
tain a pigment insoluble in alcohol and
ether, but soluble in ammonia.
FEBRIFUGE, a medicine tending to
cure, or alleviate fever. As fevers are
cured by several classes of medicines,
the list of febrifuges would be very nu-
merous, embracing articles from the min-
eral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms,
and comprehending tonics, stimulants,
emetics, diaphoretics, purgatives and
diuretics.
FEBRUARY, the name of the second
month of the year. It contains in ordi-
nary years, 28 days, and in bissextilis, or
leap year, 29. By the calendar of Julius
Cassar, February had 29 days except in
bissextile, or leap year, when it had
30. But Augustus took a day from it,
and added it to his own month, August,
that it might not have a less number of
days than July, dedicated to Julius
Caesar. Previously August had been
called Sextilis, and consisted of 30 days
only.
FECHTER, CHARLES ALBERT, a
French actor; born in London, England,
Oct. 23, 1824; made his first public ap-
pearance in 1840 at the Salle Moliere, in
Paris, after which he went to Florence,
Italy, with a dramatic company as lead-
ing juvenile. Subsequentlv he appeared
as Seide in Voltaire's "Mahomet," in
1844; as Valere in Moliere's great
comedy; and as Armand Duval in "La
Dame aux Camelias." In 1860 he went
to London, where he presented "The
Corsican Brothers," "Don Cesar de
Bazan," and "Hamlet." In 1870 he came
to the United States and played to
orowded houses, especially in "The Count
of Monte Cristo." He died in Quaker-
town, Pa., Aug. 4, 1879.
FEDERACY. See FEDERAL STATES.
FEDERAL COUNCIL OF THE
CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN AMERI-
CA, a body which grew out of attempts
to unite the general activities of the
several Protestant denominations. Pre-
vious work in avoiding duplication of
effort had been accomplished by the
Evangelical Alliance, the National Fed-
eration of Churches, and the Christian
Workers. In 1905 a commission from
30 denominations met in New York City
and drew up the Constitution for the
Federal Council of Churches of Christ in
America. This was an organization
founded by the churches themselves and
was not a voluntary or individual asso-
ciation as its predecessors in this field
had been. Its purpose is to unite the
churches for service and it has no power
nor intention to unite them in theology
or to interfere in any way with the com-
plete independence of each denomination.
It meets every four years, the first meet-
ing being held in Philadelphia in 1908.
One of its most important commissions
is that on "Church and Social Service"
which has reported with a statement of
the attitude of the Christian Churches on
the labor problem. It advocated collective
bargaining, reasonable hours of labor
and aligned the Churches definitely with
the forces of social progress. Among the
other commissions of the Council are
those on Foreign Missions, Home Mi"=^-
sions. Religious Education, Peace and
Arbitration, and the Church and Country
Life. Investigations are held by these
commissions and a large amount of sta-
tistical data is at hand which affords a
scientific as well as a religious basis for
the discussions.
FEDERALS, the name given to those
who during the Civil War in the United
States fought to maintain the Union of
the Federated States, in opposition to the
Confederates.
FEDERAL STATES, states united by
a federation or treaty which, binding
them sufficiently for mutual defense and
the settlement of questions bearing
on the welfare of the whole, yet leaves
each state free within certain limits to
govern itself. Switzerland and the United
States are examples of this political con-
stitution. Such a union or confederation
is sometimes known as a federacy. The
term federation indicates centralization
in government while confederation is
used where state sovereignty is stronger.
FEDERALIST, the name of an early
political party in the United States.
After the acknowledgment of the inde-
pendence of the 13 colonies by the mother
country, the first task that confronted
the successful revolutionists was the
erection of a government and the formu-
lation of a constitution. When the delib-
erative body on whom devolved this duty
met, it was discovered that there were
various sentiments entertained by its
members, these differences of opinion
aligning themselves on opposite sides of
the great question of organic union. One
faction favored the erection of a nation
with more or less absence of independ-
ence of its constituent members, while
the other urged a federation of sovereign
states, each one of which should retain its
autonomy, and not be amenable to the
general government any further than it
by actual cession gave that government
authority. Those favoring a strong or na-
FEDOR
111
FEISI
tional organic union were called Federal-
ists, and numbered in their ranks such
men as George Washington, Alexander
Hamilton, and others, while those favor-
ing the sovereignty of the States were
called Republicans, among them being
Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and
others equally distinguished. The Repub-
licans in this contest were victorious.
Later in the history of the country the
Federalists became known as Whigs,
while the Republicans were called Demo-
crats.
FEDOR. See Feodor.
FEE, a reward, compensation, or re-
turn for services rendered. It is espe-
cially applied to the money paid to pro-
fessional men for their services; as, a
lawyer's fees, marriage fees, etc.
In feudal law, fee applied to all lands
and tenements which were held by any
acknowledgment of superiority to a high-
er lord; land held by the benefit of an-
other, and in name whereof the grantee
owed services or paid rent, or both, to
a superior lord.
In American and English law, a free-
hold estate of inheritance, descendable to
heirs general, and liable to alienation at
the pleasure of the proprietor. (1) A
tenant in fee-simple (also called fee-
absolute) is one who has lands, tene-
ments, or hereditaments, to hold to him
and his heirs forever; generally abso-
lutely and simply; without mentioning
what heirs, but referring that to his own
pleasure or to the disposition of the law.
This is property in its highest degree.
(2) Limited fees, or such estates of in-
heritance as are clogged with conditions,
are of two sorts: qualified, or base fees;
and fees conditional, so called at the com-
mon law; and afterward fees-tail, in con-
sequence of the statute de donis (con-
cerning gifts).
(a) A base, or qualified, fee is such a
one as has a qualification subjoined
thereto, and which must be determined
whenever the qualification annexed to it
is at an end.
(6) A conditional fee, at the common
law, was a fee restrained to some par-
ticular heirs, exclusive of others; as to
the heirs of a man's body, by which only
his lineal descendants were admitted in
exclusion of collateral heirs; or to the
heirs male of his body, in exclusion both
of collaterals, and lineal females also.
FEEBLE-MINDED, THE, a defective
class of children for whom educational
advantages are provided by special
State institutions. Several State insti-
tutions are for the feeble-minded irre-
spective of age or sex; some are for
vomen or for children only; and one,
Washington, is for defective youth gen-
erally. There are also a number of
private schools for this class of youth.
FEEJEE ISLANDS. See FIJI IS-
LANDS.
FEELING, the tensation or impression
produced in the mind when a material
body is touched by any part of the body ;
a physical sensation of any kind due to
any one of the senses; as, a feeling of
warmth, or of cold; also a mental sen-
sation or emotion; mental state; sensi-
tiveness.
Classifying them by their functions,
they may be divided into centrally
initiated feelings called emotions, and
peripherally initiated feelings called sen-
sations. These last again are subdivided
into epiperipheral sensations, being those
which arise on the exterior surface of
the body, and endoperipheral sensations,
those which arise in its interior. The
proximate components of mind are of
two broadly contrasted kinds, feelings
and the relations between them. Quan-
tity of feeling is of two kinds, that
which arises from intense excitation of
a few nerves, and that which springs
from slight excitation of many nerves.
Feeling and sensibility, taken as
moral properties, are awakened as much
by the operations of the mind within it-
self as by external objects. Suscepti-
bility designates that property of the
body or the mind which consists in
being ready to take an affection from
external objects, hence we speak of a
person's susceptibility to take cold, or
his susceptibility to be affected with
grief, joy, or any other passion.
FEHLING'S SOLUTION, a solution
used to determine the amount of glucose
in a solution. It is prepared by dis-
solving in 200 cubic centimeters of dis-
tilled water, 34.64 grammes of pure
crystallized cupric sulphate, previously
powdered and pressed between blotting
paper, and mixing it with 174 grammes
of Rochelle salt dissolved in 400 cubic
centimeters of a solution of pure caustic
soda. The liquid must be kept in bottles
protected from the light, and from ab-
sorption of CO: from the air.
FEHMARN, or FEMERN (fa'mern),
an island lying in the Baltic; taken from
Denmark "in 1864 and now part of
Schleswig-Holstein, Prussia. Area, 70
square miles; surface, level; soil, fertile,
producing corn. Cattle are abundant.
The inhabitants are mostly engaged in
fishing and coastwise navigation.
FEISI. ABtTL-FEIS IBN MUBARAK
(fa-e-se), a celebrated Indo-Persian poet
and scholar; born in Agra, India, in
FELDSPAR
112
FELLOWS
1547. He surpassed all his contempo-
raries in philological, philosophical, his-
torical, and medical knowledge, and
about 1572 was crowned "king of
poesy" in the court of the Emperor
Akbar. Of his poems the most note-
worthy are his lyrics. Their exalted
pantheism brought on him the enmity
of the orthodox Muslim clergy. He
wrote also many double-rhymed poems;
and a Persian imitation of the famous
Indian epic ''Nala and Damajanti," de-
signed to form the third member of an
epic cycle. His scientific treatises were
numerous. He died in 1595.
FELDSPAR. See Felspar.
FELID^, or FELINJE, the cat tribe,
a family of carnivorous quadrupeds, in-
cluding the domestic cat, lions, tigers,
panthers, leopards, and lynxes. In these
animals tht destructive organs reach the
highest perfection. The head is short
and almost rounded m its form. The
principal instruments of their destruc-
tive energy are the teeth and claws.
They have six small incisors in each
jaw, the exterior ones larger than
the rest; two canine teeth in each jaw,
eight praemolars in the upper jaw, and
four in the lower, and generally four
ilesh teeth, or true molars, in the upper
jaw, and two in the lower, veiy large,
sharp-edged, and terminated by two or
three points. In addition to this the
tongue is covered with small recurved
prickles by which they can clean from
the bones of their prey every particle of
flesh.
There are no quadrupeds in which the
muscles of the jaws and limbs are more
fully developed. The skeleton presents
a light but well-built mechanism; the
bones, though slender, are extremely
compact; the trunk, having to contain
the simple digestive apparatus requisite
for the assimilation of highly organized
animal food, is comparatively slender,
and flattened at the sides. The mus-
cular forces are thus enabled to carry
the light body along by extensive
bounds, and thus it is that the larger
felines generally make their attack.
The five toes of the fore-feet and the
four toes of the hind-feet of cats are
armed with very strong, hooked, sub-
compressed, sharp claws. The lower
surface of the foot is furnished with
thick ball-like pads of the epidermis, on
which the animal walks; this gives them
the noiseless tread peculiar to this
family.
FELIX, CLAUDIUS, or ANTONIUS,
a Roman procurator of Judea, before
v/hom Paul so "reasoned of righteous-
ness, temperance, and judgment to
come," that he trembled, saying, "Go
thy way for this time; when I have a
convenient season I will call for thee."
Felix rose from slavery, having been
manumitted by Claudius Caesar. His
rule in Judea, notwithstanding its se-
verity or rather in consequence of it,
was marked by constant disorders and
disaffection; and but for the interest of
his brother (the notorious freedman
Pallas) with Nero, the charges carried
up against him to Rome would have
been his ruin.
FELIX I., Bishop of Rome. He suc-
ceeded Dionysius, 269, and suffered
martyrdom in the persecution of Aure-
lian.
FELIX II., Pope. He occupied the
pontifical see during the banishment of
Liberiu-^, 355. In reply to a proposition
for the recall of Liberius, it was pro-
posed by the Emperor Constantius that
Liberius and Felix should reign con-
jointly, but the people exclaimed, "One
God, one Christ, and one bishop!" Felix
was exiled in 358, but became Pope
again the same year, and died in 359.
FELIX III., Pope; he succeeded
Simplicius in 483. He had a holy dis-
pute with the Emperor Zeno, in behalf
of the Western Church, and died in
492.
FELIX IV., Pope; a native of Be-
nevento; he ascended the chair after
John I., 526. He governed the Church
with zeal and piety, and died in 530.
He introduced extreme unction.
FELIX v., antipope; the same as
Amadeus VIII., Count of Savoy. See
Amadeus.
FELLAHS, the people in Egypt who
live in villages and cultivate the soil.
They form three-fourths of the popula-
tion ; are the most ancient race in that
country, and are generally believed to be
the de'scendants of the old Egyptians,
their physiognomy resembling that which
is found on the ancient sculptures.
FELLOWS, GEORGE EMORY, an
American educator; born in Beaver Dam,
Wis., in 1858. He graduated from Law-
rence University in 1879 and studied in
Germany and in Edinburgh University.
For 10 years he taught in the high schools
of Appleton, Wis., and other cities. In
1891 he was appointed professor of Euro-
pean history of Indiana University, and
from 1895 to 1902 was assistant professor
of history at the University of Chicago.
In 1902 he was appointed professor of
the University of Maine, serving until
1911, when he resigned to become presi-
dent of James Millikin University. In
FELLOWSHIP
113
FEMGERICHTE
1915 he was appointed head of the de-
partment of history at the University of
Utah. He was a member of many learned
societies, and was the author of "Out-
lines of the 16th Century" (1895) and
"Recent European History" (1902).
FELLOWSHIP, -c: foundation in an
English university entitling the holder,
who is called a fellow, to participate in
the revenues of a certain college, and
also conferring a right to rooms in the
college, and certain other privileges, as
to meals, etc. The annual pecuniary
value of fellowship varies, and till of late
years it was tenable for life or till
marriage. American colleges frequently
have fellowships for their graduates, but
the conditions of occupancy are not the
same.
The pecuniary value of a fellowship
in an American college varies from $250
to $800 per annum.
FELSITE, a name given to the dense
volcanic or dike rocks found in the Appa-
lachians, in the Rocky Mountains, and
elsewhere. The name is applied more
particularly to dense igneous rocks
whose structure can only be accurately
determined by the use of the microscope.
A felsite containing crystals of recogniz-
able minerals is known as a felsite por-
phyry.
FELSPAR, or FELDSPAR, a genus
of minerals rather than a single mineral.
Formerly there were included under it
five species — viz.: (1) Adularia or moon-
stone, (2) commo:., (3) compact, (4)
glassy, and (5) Labrador felspar.
FELSPAR GROUP, in mineralogy, a
gr'>up of unisilicates ; its composition
having the protoxide bases lime, soda,
potash, and, in one species, baryta, the
sesquioxide only alumina; ratio between
the two 1.3. Dana includes under it the
species Anorthite (Lime felspar), Labra-
dorite (Lime-soda felspar), Hyalophane
(Baryta-potash felspar), Andesite and
Oligoclase (Soda-lime felspar), Albite
(Soda-lime felspar), and Orthoclase
(Potash felspar).
Blue felspar, the same as lazulite;
common felspar, the same as orthoclase;
compact felspar, the same as felsite. It
is either compact massive oligoclase,
oligoclase felsite, or compact orthoclase,
orthoclase felsite, halleflinta. Glassy
felspar, the same as sanidine; Labra-
dor felspar, the same as labradorite;
lime felspar, the same as indianite, or
as labradorite; potash felspar, the same
as orthoclase. The name was used spe-
cially to distinguish it from albite (soda
felspar). Soda felspar, the same as
albite.
FELT, the material formed by uniting
and compressing fibers of wool, fur, and
other substances fit for the purpose, into
a compact body, by what is termed the
felting process. This consists in mixing
the fibers of the materials employed till
they become interlaced or matted to-
gether in the form of a soft, loose cloth
or sheet, which is done by the instru-
mentality of carding and doffing ma-
chines. The cloth is then wound on a
roller, and carried to the felting machine,
in which the fibers are combined and
interlaced still more closely by the action
of heat and pressure, till the loose sub-
stance is converted into a close, thick
material, possessed of great strength and
durability. Felt of a fine kind is used
for making hats (see Hat) ; and a coarser
description is used for table covers and
carpets.
FELTON, CORNELIUS CONWAY, an
American classical scholar; born in New-
bury, Mass., Nov. 6, 1807. In 1834 he
became Professor of Greek Literature at
Harvard; in 1860 its president. His
publications include many translations
from German, French, and Greek, of
which "The Clouds" and "The Birds" of
Aristophanes are the most distinguished;
also "Familiar Letters from Europe"
(1864) ; "Greece, Ancient and Modern"
(1867) ; "Selections from Modern Greek
Writers"; etc. He died in Chester, Pa.,
Feb. 26, 1862.
FEMGERICHTE. FEHMGERICHTE,
or VEHMGERICHTE (faim-ge-rik'ta) ,
the name of celebrated secret tribunals
which existed in Westphalia, and pos-
sessed immense power and influence in
the 14th and 15th centuries. They are
said by some to have been originated by
Charlemagne. The femgerichte first
came into notice after the deposition and
outlawry of the Emperor Henry the Lion,
when anarchy everywhere prevailed. In
such circumstances the secret ti'ibunals
took on themselves the protection of the
innocent and defenseless, and inspired
with salutary terror those whom nothing
else would keep in check. These tribunals
soon acquired great power, and spread
themselves over the whole of Germany,
though their principal seat still continued
to be Westphalia. The secrecy with which
they carried on their operations, and the
power they manifested in carrying out
their sentences, rendered them the terror
of all Germany. Their number is said
at one time to have amounted to 100,000.
Though originally established for the
preservation of right and justice, there
can be little doubt that they afterward
were frequently made use of to carry out
party feelings. The members were called
TEMGERICHTE
114
FEMINISM
the Wissende, or the knowing ones; and,
before being admitted, they must be of
blameless life, of the Christian religion,
and take a terrible oath. From among
the Wissende the Freischoffen (free jus-
tices) were elected, who were the asses-
sors of the court and executors of its sen-
tences. The president of the court was
called the Freigraf (free count). The
general superintendence of the whole of
the tribunals was in the hands of the
lord of the land, who, in Westphalia, was
the Archbishop of Cologne. The chief
superintendence, however, was in the
hands of the emperor, who was usually,
on his coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle, ad-
mitted a member of the society.
Their courts were either open or se-
cret; the former were held by day in the
open air, the latter by night in a forest,
or in concealed and subterranean places.
The process of trial, and the circum-
stances of judgment were different in
the two cases; the former decided in all
civil causes, the latter took cognizance of
such as had been unable to defend them-
selves sufficiently before the open courts,
as well as such as were accused of heresy,
sorcery, rape, theft, robbery, or murder.
The accusation was made by one of the
Freischoffen, who, without further proof,
declared, upon oath, that the accused had
been guilty of the crime. The accused
was then thrice summoned to appear
before the secret tribunal, and the cita-
tion was secretly affixed^ to the door of
his dwelling, or some neighboring place.
The citation mentioned that the accused
was to meet the Wissende at a certain
hour and place, and to be conducted by
them before the tribunal. Here by an
oath the accused might clear himself; but
the accuser might also oppose it with his
oath and the oaths of witnesses. If the
accused could not bring forward six wit-
nesses in his favor, the accuser might
strengthen his oath with 14 witnesses;
and sentence of acquittal did not neces-
sarily follow until the accused had sup-
ported his case with the oaths of 21 wit-
nesses. The judges were all armed, and
dressed in black gowns, with a cowl that
covered their faces like a mask. _ The
condemned, as well as those who did not
obey the summons, were then given over
to the Freischoffen. The first Frei-
schoffe who met him was bound to hang
him on a tree; and if he made any re-
sistance it was lawful to put him to
death in any other way. The punish-
ment, however, was rarely inflicted on
those who readily appeared, the judges
being satisfied with cautioning the of-
fender to redress the wrong he had been
grnty of.
At length a great outcry was raised
against these courts, and in 1461 various
princes and cities of Germany, as well as
the Swiss Confederates, united in a
league to resist the free judges, and to
require that the trial of accused persons
should take place in open day.
Their influence, however, was not en=
tirely destroyed until the public peaci
was established in Germany, and a>:;
amended form of trial and penal judica-
ture introduced.
FEMINISM, a term, supposed to have
originated in France in 1890, which in-
cludes all phases of the modern tendency
of women to assert their equality in the
social life with men; their right to enter
the professions on an equal basis with
men, equal suffrage for both sexes in
political matters, and a general recog-
nition of the rights of women to inter-
est themselves in pubic affairs.
The first manifestation of what has
been commonly called the "women's
rights" movement was the growing de-
mand xor equal suffrage, principally in
this country and in Great Britain. The
demand has been based on the democratic
ideals of both these nations, supported
by the contention that men formed a su-
perior political class who subjected
women, as an inferior class, to political
slavery. In Great Britain equal suffrage
for the sexes has been a national prob-
lem, on account of the centralized system
of the British Govei-nment. In this
country it had, until slightly previous to
1920, been a problem which each State
might solve as it saw fit. Thus in sev-
eral of the Western States, notably Kan-
sas and California, women were granted
the right to vote at a much earlier period
than it was granted them in other parts
of the country.
The growing agitation by women's or-
ganizations, however, stimulated public
interest in the question, and repeated
efforts were made to grant the right of
suffrage to women by means of an
amendment of the Federal Constitution.
The activity of women in war relief
work, during the participation of the
United States in the World War,
rousing universal admiration of their
efforts, undoubtedly was the chief cause
of the sentiment which carried th?
amendment through Congress in 1919
(passing the Senate June 7, 1919). In a
little over a year the necessary number
of State Legislatures had ratified the
measure, that of Connecticut being the
last to pass its approval, thus enabling
women all over the country to partici-
pate in the presidential elections in No-
vember, 1920.
In other phases of the general m.ove-
ment toward equality of men and women
FEMUR
115
FENIANS
the United States has been far in the
lead over Great Britain and the Conti-
nental countries, with the possible ex-
ception of the Scandinavian countries.
As far back as 1833 the coeducation of
men and women was introduced in Ober-
lin College, and gradually became a com-
mon feature of a large number of Ameri-
can institutions of learning. The right
of women to a place in the professions
has long been recognized in this country,
while in other countries women who ven-
tured into the gainful occupations would
be socially ostracized.
FEMUR, in vertebrate animals the
first bone of the leg or pelvic extremity,
situated between the os innominatum
and the tibia; in insects the third joint
of the leg; it is long and generally com-
pressed; also in architecture, the long,
flat, projecting face between each chan-
nel of a triglyph in the Doric order.
FENCING, the art of using skillfully,
in attack or self-defense, a sword, rapier,
or bayonet; but usually taken to mean
address in the use of the second of these
weapons. In the school of fence, the
foil is wielded.
The foil is a circular or quadrangular
rod or blade of pliable, highly tempered
steel, blunted and covered with leather
at the point, so as to prevent accidents
in its practice. Froni its nature, the foil
can only be employed in thrusting; and,
being edgeless, it can be handled without
liability to cutting wounds. Fencers wear
a strong wire mask upon their faces, as
a defense against accidental thrusts, etc.
Fencing was cultivated by the an-
cients; the Roman gladiators instructed
the soldiery of that period; but as their
weapons differed so materially from
those of the present day, and as they de-
fended themselves by shields and armor,
their methods were infinitely less com-
plicated and efficient than those of the
present day. During the period com-
prised within the Middle Ages, fencing
became greatly neglected, and this was
owing most likely to the fact that there
was a great improvement in the armor
worn by knights in battle; from which
circumstance battle axes and other pon-
derous weapons of offense were substi-
tuted for the sword.
When metal casing became somewhat,
if not altogether disused, fencing came
once more into vogue; and as all gentle-
men wore swords, and quarrels were fre-
quent, it was absolutely necessary that
all should have some knowledge of the
"fence." The peculiar state of society in
Italy made this even more needed than
in any other country, and it followed
that the Italians became the best fencers
in Europe. Spain next found the art
necessary, and soon France, in which
latter country it created such a favorable
impression that a school was established
for its prosecution.
In fencing there are three openings or
entrances — the inside, comprising the
whole breast from shoulder to shoulder;
the outside, which can be attacked by all
the thrusts made above the wrist on the
outside of the sword; and, finally, low
ports, which embrace the armpits to the
hips.
FENELON, FRANCOIS DE SALIG-
NAC DE LA MOTHE,'a French prelate;
born in the Chateau de F^nelon, province
of Perigord, France, Aug. 6, 1651, was
educated at Plessis College in Paris, and
at the seminary of St. Sulpice, where he
received holy orders in 1675. In 1678 he
was appointed head of an institution,
then newly organized in Paris, for the
reception of female converts to the Ro-
man Catholic faith. His success in the du-
ties here led to his appointment as head
of a mission to Saintonge for the con-
version of the Huguenots. In 1689
Louis XIV. intrusted to him the edu-
cation of his grandsons, the dukes of
Burgundy, Anjou, and Berri; and in
1694 he was created Archbishop of Cam-
bray. A theological dispute with Bos-
suet, his former instructor, terminated in
his condemnation by Pope Innocent XII.,
and his banishment to his diocese by
Louis XIV. He was the author of the
famous "Fables," "Dialogues of the
Dead," "The Education of Girls," "Tel-
emachus," "History of the Ancient Phi-
losophers," and numerous other works on
philosophy, theology, and belles-lettres.
He died in Cambray, France, Jan. 7.
1715.
FENIANS, an Irish secret society
npmed from an ancient military organi-
zation of Ireland that became extinct in
the 3d century. The Fenian society was
formed in the United States probably
in March, 1858, by the refugees who
crossed the Atlantic after the unsuccess-
ful outbreak of 1848, and had for its ob-
ject the expulsion of the British Govern-
ment, or even the Saxons from Ireland,
and the conversion of that island into an
independent republic. Its originator di-
vided it into district clubs called circles,
each with a president called a center; the
whole organization being ruled over by
a senate, over which a "head center" pre-
sided. Its members had to take an oath
before being intrusted with its secrets. In
January, 1864, they began to attract
notice in Ireland, and the next year some
of them were seized and imprisoned. Be-
tween 1865 and 1867 they made various
outbreaks. In 1866 they captured a
FENN
116
F£)BrS£Ar
British vessel, and made a raid into Can-
ada, but were defeated by the volunteers
and censured by President Johnson. In
1867 they unsuccessfully attempted an
attack on Chester Castle in England,
made other risings, and on Dec. 13 blew
in the wall of Clerkenwell prison, killing
and wounding a number of innocent
people living in adjacent houses. A
second Fenian raid into Canada took
place in 1870, but was repelled by the
militia. The basis for all the Fenian
operations was America, where, in 1865,
600 Fenian representatives held a con-
gress. First and last, many Fenians were
captured and imprisoned by the British
Government, most of whom were after a
time released. The organization seemed
to become dormant about 1874, and vari-
ous persons who had been connected with
it joined the "Invincibles," formed some
years later for the purpose of assassinat-
ing government officers or others obnoxi-
ous to its members or its chiefs, but not
much was known of this latter organiza-
tion until the murder of Lord Cavendish
called attention to them.
FENN, GEORGE MANVILLE, an
English story-writer; born in London,
Jan. 3, 1831. He graduated from jour-
nalism into fiction, gaining prominence
by -'Eli's Children" (1882), a tale of
clerical life; "The Golden Magnet"
(1884), a story for boys; "The Master of
the Ceremonies" (1886) ; "High Play"
(1898) ; "A Woman Worth Winning"
(1898) ; "Nic Revel" (1898) ; "The Sil-
ver Salvers" (1898) ; "The King of the
Bjach" (1899); etc. He died Aug. 27,
1909.
FENN, HARRY, an American artist;
born in Richmond, England, Sept. 14,
1838; removed to the United States in
1856 and later traveled extensively. He
achieved great success as an illustrator
of books, and v/as one of the founders
of the American Watercolor Society.
Some of his best work is contained in
"Picturesque America"; "Picturesque
Europe"; and "Picturesque Palestine."
He died in 1911.
FENNEC (Cards zerda) , a pretty
little fox-like animal about 10 inches
long, with a tail of about 5M inches.
The fur is of a whitish hue, the cheeks
large, and the snout sharp like that of a
fox. The fennec is found in the whole
of Africa.
FENNEL FLOWERS {Nigella damas-
cena) , named from the deeply-cut in-
volucre of the flower which resembles the
leaves of fennel. The name is also given
Nigella sativa, an annual of the Ranun-
eitlaceas. It has finely-cut leaves, with
white, or Meht blue open flowers. The
seeds are strongly aromatic, and are used
in India for putting with woolen goods
to keep away insects. In Palestine and
Egypt they are used for flavoring
curries.
FENOLLOSA, MARY McNEILL, an
American writer, using the pen name
"Sidney McCall", born in Mobile, Ala.
She was educated at the Irving Academy,
Mobile, Ala. In 1894 she married Er-
nest F. FenoUosa, who died in 1908. She
traveled extensively in Europe and
Japan, residing in the latter country for
about eight years. She devoted much
time to the study of Japanese life and
characters. She wrote many volumes of
verse and fiction, including ''Out of the
Nest"; "A Flight of Verses" (1899);
"The Dragon Painter" (1906); "The
Breath of the Gods" (1906) ; "Blossoms
from a Japanese Garden" (1915) ;
"Christopher Laird" (1919).
FEODOR I., IVANOVITCH (fa'6-
dor) , the last czar of the dynasty of
Ruric on the throne of Russia; bom May
11, 1557. He began his reign in 1584,
and being weak, both in body and mind,
assigned the government of his affairs to
Goudonoff", who seems to have managed
them with dexterity and vigor. In his
reign the peasants of Muscovy were con-
verted into serfs, and attached to the
land. Previously they had enjoyed per-
sonal liberty. The conquest of Siberia
was achieved by Goudonoff, and many
remarkable diplomatic relations with
foreign courts were effected. He died
Jan. 7, 1598.
FEODOR III., Czar of Russia, and
eldest brother of Peter the Great; born
June 8, 1656. He ascended the throne
when only 19 years of age, and evinced
a strength of will and determination of
character. His reign is rendered mem-
orable on account of his calling into his
presence the Muscovite nobles, who deso-
lated the country with bi'oils about their
claims of family precedence, and throw-
ing the rolls of the Razriad or "Ar-
rangement," into the fire. The genealogi-
cal records, which did not relate to claims
of precedence, were preserved and prop-
erly arranged, in accordance with his
will. He died in Moscow, April 27, 1682.
FERBER, EDNA, an American writer,
born in Kalamazoo, Mich., in 1887.
She was educated in the public and
high schools of Appleton, Wis., and
at the age of 17 began newspaper work,
which she continued in Milwaukee and
Chicago. She then devoted her attention
to short-story writing. Her character
sketches in magazines became widely
popular. Her books include "Dawn
O'Hara' (1911) ; "Buttered Side Down"
FERDINAND
117
FERDINAND
(1912) ; "Emma McChesney and Com-
pany" (1915); and "Cheerful— By Re-
quest" (1918).
FERDINAND, the namo of several
European monarchs, of whom the follow-
ing are the most noticeable:
EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA.
Ferdinand I., son of Francis; bom in
Vienna, Austria, April 19, 1793; as-
cended the imperial throne of Austria in
1835, and continued to pursue the policy
of his father, leaving the chief direction
of affairs in the hands of Metternich
(q. v.). In his reign, the republic of
Cracow was annihilated, and a portion
of it added to the empire. During the
Revolutionary war of 1848 he dismissed
Metternich, and made several conces-
sions which were found insufficient.
"Vienna revolted in May, and Ferdinand
at length retired to Olmiitz, and on Dec.
2, 1848, abdicated, having no children, in
favor_ of his nephew, Francis Joseph I.
He died in Prague, Austria, June 29,
1875.
emperors of GERMANY.
Ferdinand I., younger brother of
Charles V.; born in Alcala, Spain, March
10, 1503. He married, in 1521, Anna,
daughter of Ladislaus, King of Hungary
and Bohemia, became King of Bohemia
in 1527, and at the same time contended
with John Zapolya for the crown of
Hungary. The war lasted many years
and was terminated by an unsatisfac-
tory treaty. Ferdinand was elected King
of the Romans in 1531, took the title of
emperor on the abdication of his brother,
Charles V., and was recognized by the
electors in 1558. As the Pope, Paul IV.,
refused to acknowledge his title, it was
resolved that the Pope's consent should be
thenceforth dispensed with in the elec-
tion of the emperor. Ferdinand was a
moderate and just ruler, and especially
airned at reconciling the conflicting re-
ligious parties. He died in Vienna, July
25, 1564.
Ferdinand II., grandson of Ferdi-
nand I.; born in Gratz, Austria, July 9,
1578. He was crowned King of Bo-
hemia in 1617, King of Hungary in the
next year, and was elected emperor on
the death of his cousin Matthias in 1619.
His Bohemian subjects revolted and
chosefor their king Frederick V., elector
palatine, who reluctantly accepted the
crown, and lost it by his defeat at the
battle of Prague in 1620. Thus began
the famous Thirty Years' War, Catholics
and Protestants contending for the su-
premacy. The bigotry and intolerance
of Ferdinand led him, at the beginning
of the war, to take the most violent
measures against the Bohemian Protes-
tants, and 30,000 families quitted the
country. He died in Vienna, Feb. 15.
1637.
Ferdinand III., son of Ferdinand II.;
born in Gratz, Austria, July 11 (or 13),
1608, made King of Hungary in 1625, of
Bohemia in 1627, and succeeded his
father in 1637. Sweden and France,
being in alliance, gained several advan-
tages over the Imperialists, which ter-
minated with the peace of Westphalia
in 1648. He ^lied in Vienna, April 2,
1657.
KINGS OF NAPLES AND SICILY
Ferdinand I., King of Naples, son of
Alfonso I.; born about 1424; succeeded
his father in 1458. His false and cruel
character provoked a civil war, in which
John of Anjou took part with the barons,
and the king was aided by the Pope,
Sforza, Duke of Milan, and by Scander-
beg. The king defeated his rival in 1462,
and made peace; but breaking his word
war broke out again. Again the king
won, and established order by terror.
He ^ afterward joined with the Pope
against the Florentines; but Lorenzo de
Medici, by the bold step of a personal
visit to Naples, succeeded in detaching
him from that alliance, and negotiated a
treaty of peace. He was detested for his
debaucheries and cruelties; and at the
very time that Charles VIII. of France
was setting out on his celebrated expedi-
tion for the conquest of Naples, he died,
Jan. 25, 1494.
Ferdinand II., King of Naples, son of
Alfonso II. ; born July 26, 1469, succeeded
his father, when the latter abdicated in
1495. He died Oct. 7, 1496.
Ferdinand III., King of Naples, the
same as Ferdinand V., of Spain {q.v.).
Ferdinand IV., of Naples, and I. of
THE Two Sicilies; born in Naples, Italy,
Jan. 12, 1751. He ascended the throne
in 1759, and reigned in peace and se-
curity till the outbreak of the French
Revolution in 1792, when, after the death
of Louis XVI., he joined the coalition
engaged in the general war against
France (1793-1796). The victory gained
at Aboukir by Lord Nelson again brought
Ferdinand into a hostile attitude against
the French, who summarily drove him
from his kingdom, and inaugurated the
Parthenopean Republic in 1799. In the
same year, however, his troops regained
possession of the capital. In 1806 Fer-
dinand was again forced to abandon
Naples, the crown of which Napoleon I.
conferred first on his brother Joseph
Bonaparte, and afterward on his brother-
in-law MURAT (q. v.), Ferdinand, how-
ever, continuing to reign in Sicily under
English protection. In 1814 the Con-
gress of Vienna finally established Fer-
dinand as King of the Two Sicilies. Rev-
TERDINAND
118
FEBDINAND
olutionary movements, set afloat by the
secret Carbonari, compelled the estab-
lishment of a constitution against the
advice and interests of Austria, Russia,
and Prussia; the first named power
marched an army across the Po, defeated
the Neapolitan army, and occupied
Naples. Ferdinand who, refusing to
sanction the liberal declarations of his
subjects, had quitted his capital, was
then re-established, and ruled thencefor-
ward with absolute power. He died in
Naples, Jan. 4, 1825.
Ferdinand II. of the Two Sicilies
(surnamed Bomba, from his bombarding
Palermo and other cities during an in-
surrection), son of Francis I. of Naples,
by Isabella of Spain; born in Palermo,
Sicily, Jan. 10, 1810; succeeded his father
in 1830. His reign was marked by un-
bridled tyranny and frequent insurrec-
tion of the oppressed people. In 1848,
when half the thrones in Europe were
trembling in the balance, Sicily burst
out into open rebellion. Naples followed
suit and Ferdinand was compelled to
summon a parliament, and take oath to
adopt and maintain a constitution. After
succeeding in suppressing the Neapolitan
revolt, Ferdinand, in 1849, dissolved the
parliament, and violated his oath by an-
nulling the constitution. After succeed-
ing in subjugating Sicily, his tyranny
knew neither bounds nor sense of com-
mon decency. Even the most absolute of
European sovereigns condemned his rule
and grave remonstrances were addressed
to him at the Congress of Paris in 1856.
These proving unavailing, France and
England proceeded in the same year to
recall their ambassadors, and suspended
all diplomatic intercourse. He died in
Naples, May 22, 1859.
KINGS OF PORTUGAL
Ferdinand I.; born about 1345; suc-
ceeded his father Pedro I., in 1367. On
the death of Peter the Cruel, King of
Castile, he assumed the latter title, which
produced a war between him and Henry
of Transtamara, who ravaged Portugal,
and forced Ferdinand to make peace and
marry his daughter. This marriage he
afterward disowned, and entered into an
alliance with John of Gaunt, Duke of
Lancaster, who laid claim to the Cas-
tilian throne. This war proved very dis-
astrous to the Portuguese, and Ferdi-
nand was obliged to sue for peace. An-
other war was entered into in which he
was supported by the English, and was
for a time successful, but was at last
under the necessity of making peace. He
died in 1383.
Ferdinand, infant of Portugal, son of
John I.; passed into Africa, at the age
of 14, to attack the Moors, and laid siege
to Tangier. He was, however, made
prisoner by the Moors, and spent the
remainder of his life in captivity, dying
of chagrin, 1443.
kings OF SPAIN
Ferdinand I., King of Castile and
Leon, called the Great, second son of
Sancho III., King of Navarre; born
about 1000. By the death of Bermudo,
in 1037, he became King of Leon. He
then made war against the Moors, from
whom he took several cities, and pushed
his conquests as far as Portugal. He
next declared war against his brother,
Garcias III., King of Navarre, in which
that prince lost his kingdom and his life.
He died in Leon, Spain, Dec. 27, 1065.
Ferdinand XL, son of Alphonso VII.
King of Leon and Castile, gained great
advantages over the Portuguese, and
made their king, Alphonso Henriquez,
prisoner, whom he used with moderation.
In the reign of this prince the military
order of St. James was instituted, for
the purpose of defending the dominions
of the Christian powers against the
Saracens.
Ferdinand III., surnamed The Saint,
son of Alphonso IX.; born about 1200.
He obtained the crown of Castile by the
abdication of his mother, Berengaria, in
1217, and that of Leon by the death of
his father in 1230. He took many places
from the Moors; but while he was pro-
jecting an expedition against Morocco,
died. He_ was canonized by Pope Clement
X., and is regarded as the founder of
the University of Salamanca. He died
in Seville, Spain, May 30, 1252.
Ferdinand IV., son of Sancho IV.;
born in Seville, in 1285, succeeded to the
throne of Castile in 1295, at the age of
10 years, under the guardianship of his
mother, who governed the kingdom with
great prudence. In 1309 Gibraltar was
taken from the Moors by the Spaniards.
This prince, in a fit of anger, caused two
noblemen to be precipitated from a high
rock. Just before undergoing this fate,
they told him that he would appear be-
fore God in 30 hours from that time.
Their prediction was verified, and thence
he obtained the name of the "Sum-
moned." He died in 1312.
Ferdinand V., called The Catholic,
son of John II., King of Navarre and
Aragon; born in Soz, Spain, March 10,
1452. He married, in 1469, the Princess
Isabella of Castile, in whose right he
succeeded on the death of her brother,
Henry IV., to the throne of Castile. A
rival claimant, Joanna, was supported by
Alfonso, King of Portugal, who invaded
Leon, and was defeated by Ferdinand
at Toro, in 1476. Three years later
Ferdinand succeeded his father in the
FERDINAND
119
FERDINAND I.
kingdom of Aragon, thus reuniting the
two crowns of Castile and Aragon. He
applied himself to the reform of the
great abuses in the administration, and
in 1480, at the instigation of Torque-
mada, established the Inquisition at Se-
ville and, after courageous resistance on
the part of the people, at Saragossa also.
One of the greatest events of this reign
was the conquest of Granada. The war
with the Moors began in 1483; victory
after victory attended the arms of Fer-
dinand, and in 1492 the capital city was
taken after a siege of eight months. The
"two kings," as they called Ferdinand
and Isabella, made their entrance in
January, 1493. The dominion of the
Moors in Spain had lasted 800 years.
By a cruel edict of the same year,
1493, the Jews in Spain were commanded
to receive baptism, or quit the country
in four months. Multitudes of them,
counted at from 30,000 to 170,000, be-
came exiles, and the prisons were filled
with those who remained. It was at this
period that Columbus, with vessels fur-
nished by Ferdinand and Isabella, made
his memorable voyages and discovered
America, which the Pope Alexander VI.
assumed authority to give to those sov-
ereigns. The great Cardinal Ximenes
was then confessor to Isabella, and in
1495 was made Archbishop of Toledo.
In 1500, Gonsalvo was sent to make the
conquest of Naples, which, partly by the
sword and partly by the most unscru-
pulous perfidy, he effected. On the
death of Isabella, in 1504, the Kingd'^m
of Castile passed to Philip, son-in-law
of Ferdinand; but on Philip's death, two
years later, Ferdinand again assumed
the government. In 1507 Ximenes became
first minister, labored successfully for
the conversion of the Moors, and
achieved the conquest of Oran. The in-
famous League of Cambray was con-
cluded in 1508. Soon after Navarre was
conquered and united to Castile and
Aragon. Of Ferdinand's four daughters,
one was married to the Archduke Philip,
two in succession to Emanuel, King of
Portugal, and the fourth, Catharine,
first to Prince Arthur of England, and
afterward to his brother, Henry VIII.
Ferdinand died in Madrigalejo, Spain,
Jan, 23, 1516, and was interred in the
cathedral of Granada with Queen Isa-
bella.
Ferdinand VI., son of Philip V.; born
Sept. 23, 1713. He ascended the throne
in 1746, and during the 13 years of his
reign was one of the most just and hu-
mane monarchs who ever ruled the
Spanish destinies. He promoted the in-
ternal welfare of his country, reorgan-
ized the navy, encouraged manufactures.
and by his judicious political conduct
placed his elder brother on the throne of
Naples, and another under the ducal
canopy of Parma. The destruction of
Quito, Lima, and Lisbon, by earth-
quakes, occurred in this reign. He died
Aug. 10, 1759.
Ferdinand VII., son of Charles IV.:
born in San Ildefonso, Oct. 13, 1784-
succeeded his father in 1808. Upon the
entry of Napoleon's troops into Spain,
Ferdinand was taken prisoner and car-
ried to Valen^ay, where he and his fam-
ily remained till 1813, when he was
restored to his kingdom. After his res-
toration, he dissolved the Cortes, and
assumed the powers of an absolute
monarch. Like all the later Bourbons,
"adversity taught him nothing, and in
prosperity he forgot nothing." He re-
established the Inquisition and those very
liberals who had fought for the expulsion
of the French from Spanish soil, he per-
secuted with pitiless rancor. In 1820,
his people broke out into I'ebellion, and
re-established the Cortes. Ferdinand
was, however, by the aid of French
bayonets, restored to his crown, but not
to his former absolutism. Bequeathed the
crown to his daughter, Isabella, to the
exclusion of his brother, Don Carlos — an
act that led to a long and disastrous
civil war. He abolished the Salic law by
pragmatic sanction of 1830. He died in
Madrid, Sept. 19, 1833. See Carlos, Don,
Duke of Madrid.
FERDINAND I, former King of Bul-
garia. He was born in Vienna, in 1861,
the youngest son of Prince Augustus of
Saxe-Coburg and Princess Clementine of
Bourbon-Orleans, who was the daughter
of Louis Philippe. He was educated in
the schools of Germany and developed a
marked taste for natural history. He
made several trips, including one to
Brazil in 1879. He published his observa-
tions in botany. In 1886 he was offered
the throne of Bulgaria which at that
time was vacant. This he accepted and
on Aug. 14, 1887, was crowned Prince of
Bulgaria. He was not, however, recog-
nized by the Great Powers until 1896.
He married in 1893 Marie Louise of
Bourbon, the eldest daughter of Duke
Robert of Parma. Following her death,
he married in 1908, Eleanor, the daugh-
ter of a prince of the house of Reuss.
In the same year he took advantage of
the political difficulties of Turkey and
proclaimed the complete independence of
Bulgaria, assuming the title of King.
This title was recognized by Turkey and
the Great Powers in the following year.
Ferdinand took an active interest in the
formation of the Balkan League and in
the carrying on of the Balkan War of
FERDINAND
120
FEUGUSON
1912-1913. The victories of the Bul-
garian forces in this war increased his
prestige, but the collapse of Bulgaria in
the second phase of the war brought him
discredit both at home and abroad. In
spite of the fact that the Bulgarian
territory had been greatly enlarged as
a result of the Balkan War, Ferdinand,
who was a man of great ambition, v/as
deeply disappointed that larger territory
had not been secured. At the outbreak
of the World War both the Entente and
the Central Powers made strenuous
efforts to secure the support of Bulga-
ria. Ferdinand's sympathies were with
Germany, while it is believed that the
majority of the people, had they been
left free to choose, would have preferred
to join with the Allies. There is evidence
to indicate that Ferdinand, even before
the outbreak of actual hostilities, had
FERDINAND I., KING OF BULGARIA
arrived at a friendly understanding with
the Central Powers. In September, 1915,
ffter a period of neutrality, Ferdinand
finally decided to actively join against
the Allied Powers. On the final defeat
of Bulgaria in October-, 1918, Ferdinand
formally abdicated the crown in favor
of the Crown Prince, Boris. See Bul-
garia; World War.
FERDINAND, VICTOR ALBERT
MAINRAD, King of Rumania, born at
Sigmaringen, Prussia, in 1865, the
second son of Prince Leopold of Hohen-
zollern, and elder brother of King
Charles I. of Rumania. His father
and his elder brother renounced title
to the crown, and Ferdinand was
declared presumptive. He became Sen-
ator in 1889 and on March 18 of
the same year was vested with the
title of Prince of Rumania and declared
successor to the throne. He married on
Jan. 10, 1893, Marie Alexandra Victoria,
the eldest daughter of the Duke of Edin-
burgh. He succeeded his uncle on the
death of the latter on Oct. 11, 1914. In
spite of the German birth and relation-
ships, his influence was opposed, at the
outbreak of the World War, to the par-
ticipation of Rumania on the side of the
Central Powers. He was also opposed
during the first years of the war, to
active affiliation with the Entente na-
tions. In August, 1917, however, Ru-
mania finally cast aside her neutrality and
declared war against Austria-Hungary,
and from this time on King Fei'dinand's
efforts were devoted to the direction of
the Rumanian armies and to the welfare
of his people who suffered greatly by
the repeated Austrian and German in-
vasions. At the end of the war he had
firmly established himself in the admira-
tion and affection of his people.
FERDTJSI. See FiRDAUSl.
FERGHANA, a province, since 1876,
of Russian West Turkestan, formerly
the khanate of Khokand, lying among
the W. ranges of the Tian-Shan Moun-
tains; area, 28,222 square miles, four-
fifths of which are mountainous, the
Tchotkal Mountains being in the N.,
and the Ala-tau and the Trans-Ala-tau
chain in the S. The rest of the province
consists of the fertile irrigated plain of
the Syr Daria (Jaxartes), which trav-
erses Ferghana from N. E. to S. W.
The chief towns are Khokand (the for-
mer capital), Marghilan (the present
capital), Namangan, and Andijan.
FERGUS I., King of Scotland, the son
of Fergus, King of the Irish-Scots. He
was invited to Scotland to repel the
Picts, and for this was chosen king. He
was drowned in his passage to Ireland,
about 305 B. c.
FERGUS FALLS, a city and county-
seat of Otter Tail co., Minn.; on the
Red River of the North, and on the
Northern Pacific and the Great Northern
railroad; is in the heart of the park
section of the State, being surrounded
by prairie land and forests of pine and
hardwood. It contains the Norwegian
Lutheran College; high school, public
library, an Odd Fellows' Hall, Masonic
Temple, court house. Hospital for the
Insane, waterworks, electric lights,
several banks and newspapers. It has
large woolen and fk>ur mills. Pop. (1910)
6,887; (1920) 7,581.
FERGUSON, ELSIE (MRS. THOMAS
B. CLARKE), an American actress, born
in New York City in 1885. She made her
first appearance on the stage in "The
FERGUSON
121
FERN
Liberty Belles" (1901) and was at once
successful. She played in 1907 in Lon-
don, in "The Earl of Pawtucket." In
the following year she toured the United
States in several plays. This was fol-
lowed by other appearances as star and
leading woman. She became one of the
most popular of the American actresses.
She was also well-known in moving
pictures. In 1916 she married Thomas
Benedict Clarke, Jr.
FERGUSON, PATRICK, inventor of
the breech-loading rifle; born in 1744 in
Pitfour, Scotland. Entering the army
in 1759, he served in Germany and
Tobago. In 1776 he patented his rifle,
firing seven shots a minute, and sighted
for ranges of from 100 to 500 yards;
and with it he armed a corps of loyalists,
who helped at the battle of Brandy-
wine (1777) to defeat the American
army. Three years later, on Oct. 7,
1780, Major Ferguson fell, defending
King's Mountain, South Carolina, with
800 militia against 1,300 Americans.
This affair, which was not unlike that
of Majuba Hill, turned the tide of S.
warfare.
FERMENTATION, a change which oc-
curs in an organic substance, by which
it is decomposed.
Alcoholic fermentation was known to
the ancients, and is the change which
sugar undergoes under the influence of
yeast. Before fermentation takes place,
cane sugar is transformed into glucose,
thus Ci2H-On-fH20 = 2CeH,206. About
95 per cent, of the glucose is converted
into alcohol, C6HuO.=2C02+2C2H5-OH.
Of the other 5 per cent., about 1 part is
used by the growth of the yeast, the
other 4 parts are converted into succinic
acid, glycerin, carbonic acid, and free
hydrogen : a larger quantity of these
secondary products is formed if the
fermentation is slower, or is made with
more exhausted and impure yeast. Fer-
mentation takes place most readily at
about 24° to 30°. The saccharine liquid
becomes turbid, gives off COj, and be-
comes warmer than the air; when the
evolution of CO- ceases, the yeast or
ferment, torula cerevisise, separates
from the liquid which now contains
alcohol, glycerin, and succinic acid in the
place of the sugar. A small quantity of
acetic acid is always formed, probably
from the decomposition of the yeast.
Most of the natural saccharine juices, as
beet-root, potato, and grape juice, when
fermented, yield small quantities of alco-
hols, homologous with ethylic alcohol,
forming fusel oil, which contains propyl,
butyl and amyl alcohols, also a small
quantity of caprioic oenanthyl, and cap-
rylic alcohols.
Butyric fermentation is the convers'or.
of lactic acid, etc., into butyric acid, due
to the presence of Vibrio, according to
Pasteur. Lactic fermentation is the con-
version of sugar into lactic acid, said to
be due to the presence of Penicillium
glaucum. It takes place when 2 gallons
of milk are mixed with 6 pounds of raw
sugar, 12 pints of water, 8 ounces of
putrid cheese, and 4 pounds of zinc
white; the mixture is kept at a tempera-
ture of 30° for some weeks. If the fer-
m.entation is allovv'ed to go further, the
lactic acid, CH,-CH'OH-CO -OH, is con-
verted into butyric acid, CHs'CH-'CHa-
CO 'OH. Mucus fei'mentation is the con-
version of sugar into mannite, C.Hi Oc,.
gum, C12H20O10, and carbonic acid, COl>
under the influence of a peculiar fer-
ment. Tannous fermentation is the con-
version of tannin, in a solution of galls,
into gallic acid, C.tH..OiT+0,2 = 3C-Hc06
+ 6CO2+2H2O.
FERMO, a walled city of central Italy,
till 1860 capital of a delegation of same
name, forming part of the states of the
Church in the province of Ascoli, 3 miles
from the Adriatic, and 32 S. S. E. of An-
cona. Its harbor on the Adriatic, called
Porto di Fermo, is small, and but little
frequented. Fermo was founded by the
Sabines before Rome existed, v/as colon-
ized by the Romans toward the beginning
of the First Punic War, and was re-
peatedly sacked by the Goths and other
barbarians. In the 8th century the city
was transferred to the Holy See. Pop.
about 5,000.
FERMOY, a town in the county of
Cork, Ireland. It is situated on both
banks of the Blackwater. It is the site o^
a cathedral, archbishop's palace, tv»'o
convents, and a college. The chief in-
dustries are agricultural products and
grist mills. It is an important garrison
town with accommodations for 3,000
troops. Pop. about 12,00D.
FERN, in botany: (1) General: The
filical alliance, consisting of vascular
acrogens, with marginal or dorsal one-
celled spore cases, usually surrounded
by an elastic ring; spores of only one
kind. Ferns are leafy plants springing
from a rhizome, which creeps below or
on the surface of the ground or rises
into the air like the trunk of a tree.
This trunk does not taper, but is 0'
equal diameter at both ends. It is cov
ered by a hard, cellular, fibrous rind ;
its wood, when any is present, consist?;
of large, scalarif orm or dotted ducts ;
the vernation of the leaves is circinate.
their venation often dichotomous. Re-
productive oi'gans, consisting of spore
cases, arise from the veins on the lower
FERN ISLANDS
122
FERNIE
surface of the leaves or from their mar-
gins. The collection of seeds are called
sori.
FERN, or FARNE, ISLANDS, a group
of 17 rocky islets off the N. E. coast
of Northumberland cc, England. St.
Cuthbert aied here, and his stone coffin
is still pointed out. The "Forfarshire"
steamer was wrecked here in 1838, when
nine persons were saved by the heroism
of Grace Darling, the daughter of a
lighthouse keeper.
FERNALD. BERT M., a United States
Senator from Maine; born in West
Poland, Me., in 1858. He was educated
in the public schools and at Hebron
/icademy. He engaged in the packing
business, in which he became very suc-
cessful. He was a member of the State
House of Representatives, and was for
tv/o terms State Senator. In 1909 he
was elected Governor of Maine, and in
1916 was elected to the United States
Senate He was re-elected in 1918.
FERNALD, CHARLES HENRY, an
American zoologist; born in Mount
Desert, Me., March 16, 1838; was edu-
cated at the Maine Wesleyan Seminary;
was an acting ensign in the United
States navy during the Civil War; and
Professor of Natural History at the
Maine State College in 1871-1886. In
the latter year he was appointed Pro-
fessor of Zoology at the Massachusetts
Agricultural College. His publications
include "Tortricidae of North America";
"The Crambidse of North America";
"The Pterophoridge of North America";
"Pyralidae of North America," etc.
FERNALD, CHESTER BAILEY, an
American writer; born in Boston, Mass.,
March 18, 1869. He was a contributor
to magazines, and author of "The Cat
and the Cherub, and Other Stories"
(1896) ; "Chinatown Stories" (1899) ;
''Under the Jackstaff" (1903); "John
Kendry's Idea" (1907) ; "The White Um-
brella" (1919). He wrote a number of
plays; notable are: "The Pursuit of
Pamela" (1913), and "The Day Before
the Day" (1915).
FERNANDEZ, NAVARETTE, (fer-
nan'deth), surnamed El Mudo, or "the
Dumb," a Spanish painter; born in Lo-
grono, Spain, in 1526. He was a dis-
tinguished pupil of Titian, and became
painter to Philip II., for whom he
adorned the Escurial with some of its
finest picture?. Among his chief works
are a "Martyrdom of St. James," a
"Nativity of Christ," "St. Jerome in the
Desert," and his masterpiece, "Abraham
with the Three Angels." His brilliant
coloring earned for him the name of the
Spanish Titian. He died about 1579.
FERNANDO DE NORONHA, an is-
land in the South Atlantic Ocean, be-
longing to Brazil. It is 8 miles long, by
a mean breadth of 2 miles, and has a
rugged, mountainous, wooded surface.
It is used as a penal settlement for
Brazilian criminals.
FERNANDO PO, an island in the
Bight of Biafra, 20 miles from the west
African coast, and about 40 in length
by 20 in breadth. It is mountainous in
the interior, presenting a rich and va-
ried aspect of beauty and fertility. A
large portion of its surface is covered
with dense forests of valuable timber,
while the land gradually rises from the
steep and rocky coasts into two peaks
culminating upward of 10,000 feet above
sea-level. It is well watered, and the
sugar cane grows in spontaneous abun-
dance. Yams form the staple food of
the natives. Birds, some varieties of
animals, and fish are plentiful. The
climate is very unhealthy. The capital :'s
Sta. Isabel. This island was disco '-
ered in 1471 by the Portuguese, wl o
ceded it to Spain in 1778. The Spaniards
eventually abandoned it and the Brit-
ish, in 1824, selected it as a suitable
military depot and naval station. They,
in their turn, abandoned it in 1834. on
account of its insalubrity. The Span-
iards again took possession in 1844, and
called the island Puerto de Isabel. It
is now used by them as a penal settle-
ment, to which, in 1869, several Cuban
patriots were deported, as political
prisoners.
FERNEY, a village of France, in the
department of Ain, five miles N. W. of
Geneva. This place not merely owes its
celebrity, but even existence, to its hav-
ing been for a lengthened period the
residence of one of the greatest writers
of modern times. Voltaire purchased
this estate in 1768. Out of a paltry
village, consisting of a few miserable
cottages, he constructed a neat little
town, in which he established a colony
of industrious artisans, principally con-
sisting of watchmakers from Geneva.
Voltaire resided here, with little inter-
ruption, for more than 20 years. Dur-
ing the whole of this period Ferney was
to the literary and refined what Mecca
is to the Mohammedan world. Voltaire
quitted Ferney for the last time on Feb.
6, 1778.
FERNIE, a city of British Columbia,
Canada, in the Kootenay district. It is
near the Elk river, and on the Canadian
Pacific, the Great Northern, and the
Morrissey, Fernie, and Michel rail-
FERONIA
123
FERRIC OXIDE
ways. The city has several handsome
public buildings, including a custom
house, a postoffice, public schools, and
hospitals. It is the port of entry and
the provincial police headquarters for
East Kootenay. It is the center of an im-
portant hunting region. Its industries
include sawmills, railway-car shops,
breweries, brick works, etc. The Crow's
Nest Pass coal mines are in the neigh-
borhood. Pop. about 8,000.
FERONIA, in mythology, a Roman
goddess, commonly ranked among the
rural divinities, and worshiped with
great solemnity both by the Sabines and
the Latins, but more especially by the
former; in astronomy, an asteroid, the
72d found; discovered by Peters, on Jan.
9, 1862. Also a genus of Au^-antiaceas
(citronworts), the order to which the
orange belongs. The single species is the
wood apple or elephant apple (F. ele-
phantum). The fruit is gray with a
hard rind. It grows in India. Also an
insect of the Coleoptera, belonging to the
section Pentamera, and family Carabidse.
FERRARA (fair-rar'a), a fortified
city of central Italy, capital of province
of same name, and formerly an independ-
ent duchy under the rule of the House of
Este; situate in a low marshy plain, on
the left bank of the Volano, 5 miles S.
of the Po, 26 N. N. E. of Bologna. Under
the rule of its native princes Ferrara
was the seat of one of the most polished
and refined of the Italian courts. Fer-
rara contains a cathedral built in 1135,
a university and a fine public library (in
which are deposited the MSS. and other
relics of the poets Ariosto and Tasso),
and one of the finest theaters in Italy.
Its manufactures and trade are incon-
siderable. Ariosto resided in this city,
and here, in 1516, was published the first
edition of his immortal "Orlando"; and
here, too, in 1533, he breathed his last.
The house in which he lived is still care-
fully preserved. Ferrara, besides being
the birthplace, was also the place of im-
prisonment of the poet Tasso {q. v.).
Cardinal Bentivoglio was also a native
of Ferrara. From a small town Ferrara
became a walled city, A. d. 670. The
family of Este possessed it first as chief
magistrates, and afterward as heredi-
tary sovereigns, from about 1030 to 1597;
when, on the death of its last duke, and
the extinction of the male line of the
house, it was taken possession of by the
Pope. In 1796, the French entered
Ferrara, and made it the capital of the
department of Basso Po. In 1814, the
Church again recovered it, but in 1859
it became a part of the new Kingdom of
Italy. Pop. of commune about 90,000.
FERRERO, GUGLIELMO, an Italian
historian. He was born near Naples in
1872, studied law at Pisa and literatui'e
at Bologna, and collaborated with Lom-
broso in producing, "La donna delin-
quente." His first important work was
''II Mondo criminale italiano," written
in collaboration with Sighele and Bian-
chi. He had already commenced his
study of Roman history and between
1902 and 1908 produced his "Grandezza
e decadenza di Roma," which has since
been translated into the principal Eu-
ropean languages. The work shows much
original reflection and is boldly critical
of Latin and Greek authorities. During
1906, he lectured on Roman history at
Paris, and during 1907 and 1908 visited
South America and the United States,
lecturing at the Lowell Institute and else-
where. His principal work, in four
volumes, is knovra in English as the
"Greatness and Decline of Rome." His
other works include : "Characters and
Events of Roman History"; "Fra i due
mondi" (English translation: "Between
Two Worlds") ; ''Ancient Rome and Mod-
ern America: A Comparative Study of
Morals and Manners."
FERRET COL (fer'ra), a pass of the
Pennine Alps, in Switzerland, connecting
Orsieres, in the latter counti-y, with Cor-
mayeur, in Piedmont. Height 7,640 feet
above sea-level.
FERRIC OXIDE, FeiO,, peroxide of
iron, sesquioxide of iron, red oxide of
iron, rouge, colcothar. It occurs in na-
ture as red haematite, specular iron ore,
and is obtained by heating, FeSoj, fer-
rous sulphate in the preparation of sul-
phuric acid. It is a red powder, nearly
insoluble in acids; it is used as a pig-
ment, and to give an orange or purple
color to glass and porcelain, according
to temperature. Ferric oxide is not mag-
netic, and is unaltered by heat. It is
used to polish glass, and when finely
divided by jewelers under the name of
rouge. The hydrated sesquioxide is ob-
tained in a bulky brown precipitate by
precipitating ferric chloride by am-
monia; soda or potash must not be used,
as the oxide retains a large quantity of
these substances. The hydrate occurs
native as brown haematite. Hydrated
ferric oxide is soluble in acids form-
ing ferric salts; these solutions dissolve
excess of the oxide, which is afterward
precipitated as a basic salt. The hy-
drated oxide is used to remove H:S from
coal gas, and as a mor-lant in dyeing.
It is reduced by organic matter, but is
reoxidized in the air. Ferric oxide unites
with ferrous oxide to form magnetic
oxide of iron, Fe.Oj-FeO, or FeaOi.
FERROL
124
FESSENDEN
FERROL, a Spanish seaport in Ga-
licia, Spain; on a narrow arm of the sea,
11 miles by water and 33 by rail N. E.
of Corunna. A poor fishing town till 1752,
it now is one of the strongest fortified
places in the kingdom, and possesses one
of its three largest arsenals (with dock-
yards, naval workshops, etc.), while the
annual trade reaches about £500,000.
The harbor is safe and capacious, and
has a very narrow entrance, defended
by two forts. The town has manufac-
tures of naval stores, linen, cotton, and
leather, and exports corn, brandy, vine-
gar, and fish. In 1805 a French fleet was
defeated by the English off Ferrol. The
town was taken by the French in 1809
and 1823, and in 1872 had a republican
rising. Pop. about 30,000.
FERRY, FREDERICK CARLOS, an
American educator, born in Braintree,
Vt., in 1868. He graduated from Wil-
liams College in 1891 and took post-grad-
uate studies at Harvard and in Ger-
many. He was on the faculty of Wil-
liams College from 1891 to 1917, when
he was elected president and professor
of mathematics at Hamilton College. He
was a member of many educational so-
cieties and contributed articles, chiefly
on mathematical subjects, to scientific
publications.
FERRY, JULES FRANCOIS
CAMILLE, a French statesman; born in
Saint Die, France, April 5, 1832; was
admitted to the Paris bar in 1854, and
speedily identified himself with the oppo-
nents of the empire. In 1869 he was
elected to the National Assembly, where
he voted against the war with Prussia;
and during the siege of Paris by the Ger-
mans (1870-1871) he played a promi-
nent part as central mayor of the city.
He was minister to Athens in 1872-
1873, and in 1879 became minister of
public instruction, and began an agita-
tion against the Jesuits. Their expul-
sion was effected, and brought about the
dissolution of the ministry in Septem-
ber, 1880. M. Ferry then formed a cabi-
net, which remained in office till Novem-
ber, 1881. In February, 1883, he again
became premier, with a policy of "colo-
nial expansion," involving a war in
Madagascar and the invasion of Ton-
quin, where a disaster to the French
troops brought about his downfall in
March, 1885. In 1890 he was made
senator. He died in Paris, March 17,
1893.
FERSEN, AXEL, COUNT, a Swedish
militarv officer; born in Stockholm,
Sweden, in 1755; came to Am.erica on
the staff of Rochambeau; fought under
Lafayette and received from Washing-
ton the Order of the Society of the Cin-
cinnati. Later he went to France,
where he became a favorite at court,
and was the disguised coachman at the
flight of the royal family from Ver-
sailles during the Revolution. He re-
turned to Sweden, where he was received
with honor, and in 1801 was made grand
marshal of that country. On suspicion
of complicity in the death of Prince
Christian of Sweden, he was seized by
a mob while marshaling the funeral pro-
cession, and tortured to death, June 20,
1810.
FESCH (fesh), JOSEPH, Cardinal
Archbishop of Lyons, and half-brother
of Letitia Ramolino, mother of Napo-
leon I.; born in Ajaccio, Corsica, Jan.
3, 1763. He was educated in France for
the Church; in 1790 he was appointed
by his nephew. General Bonaparte, com-
missary-general of the army of Italy,
in which capacity he realized a princely
fortune. He afterward resumed his
clerical studies, and adopting the pro-
fession, was, in 1802, consecrated Arch-
bishop of Lyons. In the year afterward,
Fesch received a cardinal's hat, and was
sent to Rome as French ambassador. In
1804 he accompanied Pius VII. to Paris,
to assist at the emperor's coronation, and
in the following year was created Grand
Almoner of France. As president of the
Council of Paris, he energetically oppo-
sed his nephew on many occasions, and
especially espoused the cause of the un-
fortunate Pope. He finally fell into dis-
grace with the emperor, and retired to
Rome, where he died May 13, 1839.
FESS, SIMEON D., an American edu-
cator and congressman, born in Allen
CO., 0., in 1861. He was educated at the
Ohio Northern University and studied
law at the same institution. He was
professor of American history, head of
the College of Law, and vice-president
of the Ohio Northern University, from
1889 to 1902. From 1902 to 1907 he was
graduate student and lecturer of the
University of Chicago. In the latter
year he was appointed president of Anti-
och College, serving until 1917. In 1910
he was delegate and vice-president of the
Ohio Constitutional Convention. He was
elected to Congress in 1913 and again
in 1915. During this service he was
chairman of the committee on education,
and during the campaign of 1918 was
chairman of the Republican National
Congressional Campaign Committee. He
wrote "Outline of United States His-
tory" (1897) ; "American Political The-
ory" (1907) ; and "Civics in Ohio"
(1910).
FESSENDEN, WILLIAM PITT, an
American statesman; born in Boscawen,
FESTUBEBT
125
FEUDAL SYSTEM
N. H., Oct 16, 1806; was graduated at
Bowdoin College in 1823 and admitted
to the bar in 1827. He entered politics
and soon acquired a national reputation
as a lawyer and a Whig. He was elected
to the United States Senate in 1854, and
a week after he took his seat made a
speech against the Kansas-Nebraska
Bill, which placed him in the front rank
of senatorial orators. During the Civil
War he was conspicuous for his efforts
to sustain the national credit. He was
made Secretary of the Treasury in 1864,
and, having placed it on a firm basis, re-
signed in 1865 to return to his seat in
the Senate. He died in Portland, Me.,
Sept. 8, 1869.
FESTUBEBT, a small town in north-
ern France, three miles S. of Neuve Cha-
pelle, the center of intensive fighting be-
tween the British forces and the Ger-
mans in the early part of the World
War. From it was named the Battle
of Festubert, which was a forward
movement undertaken by the British
during May, 1915, with the object of
preventing the Germans from sending
re-enforcements to Lens, where the
French were being hard pressed. The
battle proper began on the morning of
May 9, 1915, the British offensive extend-
hig from Armentieres to La Bassee. The
attack lasted several days, but ended in
failure, demonstrating the superiority
of the Germans in heavy artillery at
that time.
FESTUS, PORCITJS, pro-Consul and
Governor of Judaea, before whom St.
Paul was accused by the Jews; but the
apostle appealing to the emperor, Festus
sent him to Rome. Also, a celebrated
Latin grammarian who lived between the
2d and 4th centuries.
FETICHISM, or FETICISM, the
worshiping of a fetich. The word fetich
is said to be derived from the Portuguese
word fetiso, bewitched, and was applied
originally to the objects worshiped by
the negroes of Africa. The term is ap-
plied to anything in nature or art to
which a magical power is ascribed, as
stones, carved images, etc. Fetichism is
the worship of material substances, and
prevails very extensively among barbar-
ous nations. Among them, tribes, fam-
ilies, and individuals have their I'espec-
tive fetiches; which are often objects
casually selected, as stones, weapons, ves-
sels, plants, etc., and the rude worshiper
does not hesitate to chastise, or even
throw away or destroy his fetich, if it
does not seem to gratify his desires.
FEUDAL SYSTEM, that constitu-
tional system which was introduced into
Europe by the N. nations after the fall
Vol. IV — Cyc— I
of the Roman power^ and which has left
important traces of its existence in most
European countries. The constitution
of feuds had its origin in the military
I- jlicy of the Goths, Huns, Vandals, and
other N. nations, who overran Europe
at the declension of the Roman empire.
The term feud is of very doubtful deri-
vation, but most probably it is formed
from the Teutonic fee or feh, wages or
pay for service, and odh, or od, property
or possession; a feud, then, being the
property or possession given as wages
for service. In order to secure their
newly acquired possessions, and at the
same time to reward their deserving fol-
lowers, the conquering generals were
wont to allot large districts, or parcels
of land, to the superior officers of the
army, and these were by them again
dealt out in smaller allotments or parcels,
to the inferior officers and soldiers.
According to this system, every re-
ceiver of land, or feudatory, was bound,
when called on, to serve his immediate
lord or superior, and to do all in his
power to defend him. Such lord or su-
perior was likewise subordinate to, and
under the command of, a higher su-
perior or lord; and so on upward to the
prince or general himself. The several
lords wei'e also reciprocally bound in
their respective gradations to protect
the possessions they had given. Thus
the connection between lord and vassal
was made to wear all the appearance of
a mutual interchange of benefits — of
bounty and protection on the one hand,
and of gratitude and service on the
other. In this way the feudal connec-
tion was established, and an army was
always at command, ready to fight in de-
fense of the whole or of any part of the
newly-acquired territory. Thus the feu-
dal constitution, or doctrine of tenure,
extended itself over all the W. world;
and the feudal laws drove out the Roman,
which had hitherto universally prevailed.
This system was adopted in most coun-
tries of Europe from the 9th to the end
of the 13th century; but it differed in
various particulars in the different coun-
tries. Though there can be no doubt
that feudal principles prevailed to a
considerable extent in the polity of the
Saxons in England, yet it was only when
that country was conquered by the Nor-
mans that it was regularly established.
A country, under the feudal law, was
divided into knights' fees, the tenant of
each of which appears to have been
obliged to keep the field at his own ex-
pense for 40 days, whenever his lord chose
to call on him. For smaller portions of
land, smaller periods of service were
due. Every great tenant exercised a
jurisdiction, civil and criminal, over his
FEUILLANTS
126
FEZZAN
immediate tenants, and held courtSv and
administered the laws within his lord-
ship, like a sovereign prince. The exis-
tence of manor-courts and other small
jurisdictions within the kingdom is one
of the features of the feudal system.
The land escheated to the lord when the
tenant left no heir, and it was forfeited
to him when he was found guilty either
of a breach of his oath of fealty or of
felony. There were also fines payable to
the lord on certain occasions, as well as
aids, reliefs, etc. The vassal had also to
attend the lord's courts, sometimes to
witness, and sometimes to take part in,
the administration of justice; in battle,
he was bound to lend his horse to his
lord if dismounted, to keep to his side
while fighting, and go into captivity as
a hostage for him when taken. It was
a breach of faith to divulge his (the
lord's) counsel, to conceal from him the
machinations of others, to injure his
person or fortune, or to violate the sanc-
tity of his roof.
FEUILLANTS (fu-e'yans), a re-
formed branch of the Cistercian order
of monks. It was founded by Jean de la
Barriere, abbot of the Cistercian monas-
tery of Feuillans near Toulouse, in 1577,
who, being opposed to the great laxity of
discipline that then prevailed, introduced
a much more austere mode of life. They
were declared independent by Sixtus V.
in 1589. They were afterward divided,
in 1630, into two congregationo by Pope
Urban VIII., who separated the French
from the Italian.
FEUILLET, OCTAVE (fe-ya'), a
French novelist; bom in St. L6, Aug. 11,
1821. "The Great Old Man" (1845) was
his first story; but the "Romance of a
Poor Young Man" (1858), which was
dramatized, first made him famous.
Among his numerous other novels are:
"The History of Sibylla" (1862), "Julia
de Trecoeur" (1872), "A Marriage in
High Life" (1875); "Story of a Parisi-
enne"; "La Morte" (1886). He was also
a successful playwright. He was elected
to the Academy in 1863. He died in
Paris, Dec. 29, 1890.
FEVER, a disease or rather a whole
group of diseases, one general, though
not universal, symptom of which is in-
creased heat of the skin, besides which
the pulse is frequent, and various func-
tions are disturbed. Fevers may be di-
vided into continued, periodic, and erup-
tive or exanthematous. Under the first
are ranked typhus, typhoid, and relap-
sing fevers; under the second, inter-
mittents and remittents; and under the
third variola, rubeola, and scarlatina.
Yellow fever belongs to the remittent
rather than the continued type; so also
does hectic fever. Puerperal fever
should be removed to the class of inflam-
mations.
FEZ, a city of Morocco, capital of the
province, as it formerly was of the king-
dom of the same name, and residence of
a kaid or governor. It is singularly and
beautifully situated in a funnel-shaped
valley, open only to the N. and N. E.,
the sloping sides of which are covered
with fields, gardens, orchards, and
orange groves, 95 miles from the Atlan-
tic, 225 N. E. of Morocco, and 80 miles
S. E. of Tangier. Fez contains about
100 mosques, the chief of which, called
El Carubin, is a fine structure, and
possesses a covered place for women
who may choose to participate in public
prayers — a circumstance unique in Mo-
hammedan places of worship. Public
baths are numerous and good. Twice a
year caravans go from Fez across the
desert to Timbuktu. This city has al-
ways been considered one of the chief
?eats of Moslem learning. Old Fez was
founded in 793 by Edris II., a descend-
ant of Mohammed, and continued the
capital of an independent kingdom till
1548, when it was, together with its
territory, conquered, and annexed to
Morocco. Fez has always been held so
sacred by the Arabs and others, that
when the pilgrimages to Mecca were
interrupted in the 10th century, the
Western Moslems journeyed to this city,
as the Eastern did to Mecca; and even
now none but the Faithful can enter
Fez without express permission from
the emperor. Pop. estimated at 100,090,
of which about three-fourths are Moors
and Arabs, and the remainder Berbers
and other cognate tribes, Jews, and
Negroes.
FEZZAN (ancient Phasania Regio, and
the country of the Garamantes), a coun-
try of central Africa, immediately S. of
Tripoli, to which pashalic it is tributary.
Its true boundaries are ill-defined, and
its area is uncertain. Fezzan is, as far
as has been ascertained, the largest
oasis, or cultivable tract in the great
African desert of Sahara, by which it
is surrounded on three sides. A great
portion of this region consists of an
extensive valley, bounded by an irregu-
lar circle of mountains on all sides ex-
cept the W., where it opens into the
desert. No streams (properly so called),
but Water is plentifully found at a
depth of from 10 to 12 feet below the
surface of the soil. A few small lakes,
incrusted with carbonate of soda, are
dotted here and there. The osti'ich and
antelope are commonly met with, while
to the ordinary domestic animals cam-
els may be added. In summer the tem-
FIALA
127
FICZE
perature is insupportably hot, and, on
the other hand, the cold of winter is
sufficiently severe to be acutely felt by
the natives Some wheat is raised, but
maize and barley form the staple gi-ains.
Dates, figs, legumes, and pomegranates
form an abundant source of food to the
denizens. Fezzan derives its chief im-
portance as being a depot for the great
caravan traffic between Egypt and Bar-
bary, and the countries to the E. and S.
of the Niger. Capital, Mourzouk. Fez-
zan after the Turkish-Italian War
(1911-1912) was by the Treaty of
Ouchy placed with Tripoli under the
dominion of Italy.
FIALA, ANTHONY, an American ex-
plorer; born in Jersey City Heights, in
1869. He was educated at Cooper
Union and at the National Academy of
Design in New York. After several
years spent in various employments, in-
cluding that of an art engraver, he be-
came war correspondent for the Brook-
lyn "Daily Eagle" in the Spanish-
American War, in which he took part
as a 1st lieutenant of the infantry. In
1901-1902 he was photographer for the
Baldwin-Ziegler Polar Expedition, and
from 1903 to 1905 commanded a second
expedition sent out under the same aus-
pices. He accompanied Colonel Theo-
dore Roosevelt on the latter's trip
through the Brazilian wilderness in
1913-1914, and made extensive explora-
tions in that region. He served as cap-
tain in the machine-gun troop on the
Mexican border in 1916-1917, and dur-
ing the World War served as major in
the National Army. He wrote "Fight-
ing the Polar Ice" (1906).
FIBER, or FIBRE, a filament, or
thread, the minute part of either animal
or vegetable substances. The scientific
use of fiber is described with regard to
the animal kingdom under muscle and
tissue; and with regard to the vegetable
kingdom, under vegetable tissue, wood,
and woody fiber. In its more popular
but perfectly accurate use, the word
includes the hair and wool of quadru-
peds, the threads of the cocoons of silk
worms, etc.; the fibers of the leaves of
plants and of their inner bark, the elon-
gated cells or hairs connected with the
seeds of plants, and the ordinary mate-
rials used in making cordage and textile
fabrics. Mineral substances are called
fibrous in structure even when it is im-
possible to detach the apparent fibers.
The only fibrous mineral which has been
used for textile fabrics is Amiantfms,
a variety of asbestos, but that only to
a very limited extent. The animal sub-
stances used are divided into two classes
1 — the first including hair and wool, and
the second the silk of cocoons. Nearly
all textile fabrics are made from the
first, and the wool of the sheep is the
most important division of the class.
The hair of the goat, alpaca, camel,
bison, and other animals is also used.
The hair of most animals is, however, in
general, too short to allow of its being
used for textile manufacture. The
vegetable kingdom yields the largest
number of useful fibers, which are ob-
tained from natural orders very differ-
ent from each other. The carogenous
or cryptogamous plants do not, how-
ever, afford any. From exogenous
plants, fibers are obtained from the
inner bark, as in the case of flax, hemp,
etc., and from the hairs of the fruit, as
in cotton. In endogenous plants the
fiber is sometimes obtained from the
fruit, as in the cocoanut fiber. The
spathe of some palms is also used.
Some of the slender palms called rat-
tans, and the bulrush, etc., are much
used, on account of their fibrous nature,
for wicker-work, chair-bottoms, and simi-
lar purposes.
The most valuable fibers obtained
from endogenous plants come from the
leaf or leaf-stalk. Among the useful
vegetable fibers those of flax, hemp, and
cotton have long held the first place.
The principal additions, of late years,
have been New Zealand flax, jute, Sunn
or Sunn hemp, coir. Pita flax, Abaca or
Manila hemp, Chinese grass, and some
others. One of the most important uses
of vegetable fiber is in the manufacture
of paper.
FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB, a
German philosopher; born in Rammen-
au in Upper Lusatia, May 19, 1762;
wrote his treatise, "Essay Toward a
Critique of All Revelation" (1792), as
a "letter of introduction" to Kant. He
was appointed Professor of Philosophy
in the University of Jena in 1794; and
the following year published his "Doc-
trine of Science," a fundamental depar-
ture from Kant. Of his philosophical
writings the most important are: "The
Doctrines of Science" (1794) ; "Founda-
tions of the Whole Doctrine of Science"
(1794) ; "Introduction to the Doctrine
of Science" (1798) ; "Svstem of Moral
Doctrine" (1798) ; "Man's Destiny"
(1800). He died in Berlin, Jan. 27,1814.
FICKE, ARTHUR DAVISON, an
American writer, born in Davenport,
la., in 1883. He graduated from Har-
vard University in 1904 and after study-
ing law was admitted to the bar in 1908.
He was the author of several volumes of
prose and poetrv, including "From the
Isles" (1907) ; "The Happy Princess"
(1907); "The Breaking of Bonds"
FICUS
128
FIELD
(1910) ; "Twelve Japanese Painters"
(1913); and "An April Elegy" (1917).
During the World War he was captain
of the Ordnance Department. He served
in France until July, 1919, rising to the
rank of lieutenant-colonel.
FICUS, in botany, a genus of
Moraceas; flowers unisexual, the males
and females mixed indisci-iminately on
the inner side of a concave fleshy recep-
tacle, the upper margin of which consti-
tutes a narrow aperture. Flowers sep-
arated from each other by soft, colorless,
bristle-like bracts or scales. The genus
is a very large one, about 600 species
being already known. They occur in all
the hotter parts of the world.
FIELD, CYRUS WEST, an Ameri-
can capitalist; born in Stockbridge,
Mass., Nov. 30, 1819; received a fair
CYRUS WEST FIELD
education; began the manufacture and
sale of paper in 1840, and soon became
wealthy. About 1845 he turned his at-
tention to ocean telegraphy. In 1854
the Newfoundland Legislature granted
him the right for 50 years to land cables
between the United States and Europe
on that island. He later organized the
New York, Newfoundland, and London
Telegraph Company, of which Peter
Cooper, Moses Taylor, Marshall O.
Roberts, and Chandler White were mem-
bers. In 1866, after many disappoint-
ments and failures, a cable was success-
fully stretched across the ocean (sed
Atlantic Telegraph). For his achieve-
ment Congress voted him a gold medal
and the thanks of the people. In 1867
the Grand Medal, the highest honor of
the Paris Exposition, was bestowed on
him. He died in New York City, July
12, 1892.
FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY, an Ameri-
can jurist; born in Haddam, Conn., Feb.
13, 1805; was admitted to the New York
bar in 1828; practiced till 1885, distin-
guishing himself especially by his labors
in the direction of a reform of the ju-
diciary system. In 1857 he was ap-
pointed by the State to prepare a politi-
cal, civil, and penal code, of which the
last was adopted by New York, and all
have been accepted by some other States.
In 1866, by a proposal brought before
the British Social Science Congress, he
procured the appointment of a committee
of jurists from the principal nations to
prepare the outlines of an international
code, which were presented in a report
to the same congress in 1873. This
movement resulted in the formation of
an association for the reform of the law
»f nations, and for the substitution of
arbiti'ation for war, of which Mr. Field
was the first president. He died in New
York City, April 13, 1894.
FIELD, EUGENE, an American
journalist; bom in St. Louis, Mo., Sept.
2, 1850. By his poems and tales in the
press he won a high reputation in the
West. His complete works comprise:
"Love Songs of Childhood," "A Little
Book of Western Verse," "A Second
Book of Verse," "The Holy Cross, and
Other Tales," "The Love Affairs of a
Bibliomaniac." He made, in collabora-
tion with his brother, Roswell Martin
Field, some good translations from
Horace — "Echoes from the Sabine
Farm." He died in Chicago, 111., Nov.
4, 1895.
rJIELD, HENRY MARTYN, an
American clergyman and scholar; born
in Stockbridge, Mass., April 3, 1822;
brother of Cyrus West and Stephen
Johnson Field; was graduated at Wil-
liams College, and was ordained to the
ministry in 1842. In 1854 he became
editor and proprietor of the New York
"Evangelist." He was a lifelong trav-
eler. Among his work are: "Summer
Pictures from Copenhagen to Venice"
(1859) ; "History of the Atlantic Tele-
graph" (1866) ; "From Egypt to Japan"
(1878); "On the Desert" (1883);
'Umong the Holy Hills" (1883); "Our
Western Archipelago"'; "The Barbary
Coast"; "Old Spain and New Spain";
"The Story of the Atlantic Cable." He
died in 1907.
FIELD
129
FIFESHIRE
FIELD, KATE, an American author
and lecturer; bom in St. Louis, Mo.,
about 1840. During several years she
was European correspondent of the New
York "Tribune" and other journals. She
founded "Kate Field's Washington"
(1889), in Washington, D. C. Among
her books are "Planchette's Diary"
(1868); "Ten Days in Spain" (1875);
"History of Bell's Telephone"; "Life of
Fechter," etc. She died in Honolulu,
Hawaii, May 19, 1896.
FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON, an
American jurist; born in Haddam, Conn.,
Nov. 4, 1816; brother of Cyrus West
Field; was graduated at Williams Col-
lege in 1837; studied law and was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1841 ; and removed to
San Francisco in 1849. He was elected
to the first legislature under the Cali-
fornia constitution, in the autumn of
1850; prepared a code of mining, civil
and criminal laws, which was generally
adopted in the Western States; became a
justice of the Supreme Court of Cali-
fornia in 1857; was appointed its chief-
justice in 1859; and in 1863 was ap-
pointed an associate justice of the Unit-
ed States Supreme Court, which office
he resigned in April, 1897. He died in
Washington, D. C, April 9, 1899.
FIELD ARTILLERY. See AR-
TILLERY.
FIELDING, HENRY, an English
novelist; born in Sharpham Park, Som-
ersetshire, April 22, 1707. After only
moderate success as a playwright and
lawyer he wrote "The Adventures of Jo-
seph Andrews" (1742), to burlesque
Richardson's "Pamela"; it grew in his
hands into a strong novel of a new type,
and his career and fame were deter-
mined. His masterpiece is "Tom Jones;
or the History of a Foundling" (1749).
His last novel, "Amelia" (1752). is char-
acteristic of his sentiments rather than
of his genius. He died in Lisbon, Oct.
8, 1754.
FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS, a
Canadian statesman. He was born at
Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1848, where he
was educated, and where he was for
20 years connected with the Halifax
"Morning Journal." Since 1882 he has
represented Halifax, first in the Pro-
vincial Legislature, becoming Prime Min-
ister in 1884 and resigning in 1896 to
become Minister of Finance in the Cabi-
net of Sir Wilfred Laurier. He repre-
sented Canada in London in 1902 and at
the negotiation of the Franco-Canadian
Commercial Treaty, Paris, 1907-1909. He
was a member of the commission on
Canada- West India trade, 1909-1910, and
helped to negotiate the Reciprocity
Agreement with the United States in
1911. Since 1917 has represented Shel-
burne and Queen's in the Dominion
Pai-liament.
FIELDS, ANNIE (ADAMS), an Amer-
ican poet and essayist, wife of James T.
Fields; born in Boston, Mass., in 1834;
became a leader in charity organization
and work. She published: "Under the
Olive," poems (1881) ; "Biography of
James T. Fields" (1884) ; "How to Help
the Poor" (1885); "The Singing Shep-
herd"; "Authors and Their Friends";
"A Shelf of Old Books" (1896) ; "Life
and Letters of Harriet Beecher Stowe"
(1897) ; "Charles Dudley Warner"
(1904). She died in 1915.
FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS, an Amer-
ican publisher and author ; born in Ports-
mouth, N. H., Dec. 31, 1817._ The vari-
ous publishing firms of which he was
partner, with Ticknor, Osgood, and
others, were of the first rank. He edited
the "Atlantic Monthly" in 1862-1870;
and was an acceptable lecturer on liter-
ary subjects and authors. He published:
"Poems" (1849); "Yesterdays with Au-
thors" (1872) ; "Hawthorne" (1875) ;
"In and Out of Doors with Dickens"
(1876); "Underbrush" (1881), essays;
"Ballads and Other Verses" (1881) ; and
(with Edwin P. Whipple) edited "The
Family Library of British Poetry"
(1878). He died in Boston, Mass., April
24, 1881.
FIERI FACIAS, a writ which lies for
him who has recovered in an action for
debt or damages to the sheriff, command-
ing him to levy on the goods and chattels
of the defendant the sum or debt recov-
ered. This writ lies as well against
privileged persons as common persons,
and against executors or administrators
with regard to the goods of the deceased.
It is commonly contracted to Fi. fa.
FIESCHI, JOSEPH (fe-es'ke), a
Corsican conspirator. Having conceived
a hatred for the French king, Louis
Philippe, in consequence of the depriva-
tion, by the prefect of the Seine, of a
situation which he held, he constructed
an infernal machine which he discharged
from a house in the Boulevard-du-
Temple, during a review of the National
Guard, July 28, 1835. The king escaped
unhurt, but Marshal Mortier and 17
people were killed and many more
wounded. Fieschi, with his accomplices,
Pepin and Morey, was guillotined, Feb.
16, 1836.
FIFESHIRE, a maritime county of
Scotland, in the eastern midland division.
It has an area of 504 square miles
FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN
130
FILIBUSTER
and a coast line of 108. The surface is
for the most part a succession of valleys
and hills. Agriculture is carried on in
an adranced state. There are important
coal and iron mines and lime quarries.
The chief industries are the manufacture
of linens, oil-cloth, paper, and malt
liquors. The principal river is Eden,
which flows N. E. into the North Sea.
Pop. about 270,000.
FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN, in Eng-
lish history, a set of fanatics who formed
a principal support of Cromwell during
the Protectorate. They considered his
assumption of power as an earnest of the
foundation of the fifth monarchy, which
should succeed to the Assyrian, the Per-
sian, the Grecian, and the Roman, and
in which Jesus Christ should reign with
the saints on earth for the space of 1,000
years. Upon the restoration of the royal
family, and the return of the kingdom
to its former principles in Church and
State, a party of these enthusiasts, head-
ed by a man of the name of Venner,
made a desperate insurrection in the
streets of London, which was put down
with the slaughter of a great number of
them.
FIGURE, in arithmetic, a character
employed to represent a number. The
Arabic figures are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, 0, by combinations of which any pos-
sible number can be represented. In as-
trology, a horoscope; a diagram of the
aspects of the astrological houses. In
dancing, the several steps which a dancer
makes in order and cadence, considered
as they form certain figures on the floor.
In geometry, a diagram or drawing made
to represent a magnitude upon a plane
surface. In logic, the form of the syl-
logism with respect to the position of the
Middle Term. In music, a form of
melody or accompaniment maintained
throughout the phrase in which it is sug-
gested. In a melody, figure is called se-
quence. In harmony, a figure relates to
the rhythmical observance of a certain
form in all the accompanying chords to
the melody. Also a musical phrase, or a
florid melody. In rhetoric, any mode of
speaking or writing in which words are
distorted or deflected from their literal
and primitive sense; the use of figura-
tive language or expressions ; a deviation
from the rules of analogy or syntax,
FIJI ISLANDS, a group of over 250
islands belonging to Great Britain, in the
South Pacific Ocean. Their total area is
7,083 square miles. The two largest are
the Viti Levu, with an area of 4,053
square miles, and the Vanua Levu, with
an area of 2,180 square miles. The
islands are mostly mountainous, and have
a fertile soil, and luxuriant vegetation.
The forests contain valuable timber.
There is a tropical climate, but it is
healthy for Europeans, of whom there
are about 3,500. In 1874 the group was
voluntarily ceded to England by the king
and chiefs. The government is admin-
istered by a governor and an executive
council. The legislative council consists
of 7 elected and 12 nominated members,
appointed by the governor. The prin-
cipal exports are sugar, copra, and fruit.
Besides two government grammar
schools, there are many mission schools.
The pop. on Dec. 31, 1919, was 163,84 (.
FILAMENT, a slender, thread-like
process; a fiber or fine thread of which
flesh, nerves, skin, roots, etc., are com-
posed. In botany, that part of the sta-
men which supports the anther. The fila-
ment is usually, as its name imports, fili-
form or thread-like, cylindrical, or
slightly tapering toward its summit. It
is often, however, thickened, compressed,
and flattened in various ways. It some-
times assumes the appearance of a petal,
or becomes petaloid. The filament is
usually of sufficient solidity to support
the anther in an erect position ; but some-
times, as in grasses, Littorella, and
Plantago, it is very delicate and capillary
or hair-like, so that the anther is pendu-
lous. The filament is usually continuous
from one end to the other, but in some
cases it is bent or jointed. In electricity,
the carbon thread or conductor in an ex-
hausted glass lamp bulb, which becomes
incandescent by its resistance to the elec-
tric current.
FILANDER, in zoology, Halmaturns
asiaticus, a species of kangaroo found in
the N. of Australia, in the region of King
George's Sound. It is about the size of
a common rabbit, and has a scaly tail.
It is also called the short -tailed kangaroo.
FILARIA. in zoology, a genus of
Entozoa, of the order Ccelelmintha, and
family Nematoidea. The body is filiform,
very long, and nearly uniform; head not
distinct from the body; mouth round or
triangular, naked or with papilse; it is
white, yellowish, or red. They are most
commonly found in the abdominal cavity
and between the peritoneal folds of mam-
malia and birds, in the air-cells of the
latter. Species are also met with in
reptiles, fishes, and insects. Filaria
medmensis or gxiinea worm is common in
hot climates.
FILIBUSTER, a sea-rover; a pirate;
a corsair; a freebooter, or buccaneer;
sometimes applied to any military adven-
turer who undertakes an expedition
against a territory, unauthorized by law
FILLET
131
FILTEB BED
or the exigencies of war. The term fili-
buster, now used in any country where
the English language is spoken, was first
applied in New Orleans to certain ad-
venturers who, after the termination of
the war between this country and Mexi-
co, exerted themselves with setting on
foot within the United States military
expeditions designed to operate in the
Spanish-American countries to the S. of
us. The pretended object of these expe-
ditions was the emancipation of those
countries from tyranny, foreign or
domestic, and the introduction of demo-
cratic institutions after the model of the
United States. The most noted expedi-
tion of this sort was that led by Walker
against Nicaragua in 1855, See Walker,
William.
FILLET, in ordinary language, a band
of metal, linen, or ribbon worn round the
head. Also the fleshy part of the thigh;
applied most commonly to veal. Also
portions of meat or fish removed from
the bone and served either flat or rolled
together and tied round; the term is spe-
cially applied to the under-cut of the sir-
loin of beef, served whole or cut into
steaks, and to slices of flat-fish removed
from the bone. In anatomy, a collection
of fibers passing upward from the an-
terior columns of the spinal cord. Also
a similar bundle of fibers in the corpus
callosum.
In architecture, a small flat face or
band used principally between moldings
to separate them from each other in
classical architecture; in the Gothic,
Early English, or decorated styles of
architecture, it is also used on larger
moldings and shafts.
FILLMORE, MILLARD, an Ameri-
can statesman, 13th President of the
United States; born in Summer Hill,
Cayuga co., N. Y., Feb. 7, 1800. Appren-
ticed to a wool-carder, he made amends
by his zeal in the pursuit of knowledge.
His talents and aptitude procured him
the notice of Judge Wood, an eminent
lawyer who invited the young man to
a desk in his ofiice, and offered to defray
his expenses while he prepared for the
bar. Fillmore accepted the off'er, but
continued teaching in a school to help
pay his way. He moved to Erie county
in 1821 and "Was admitted as attorney two
years later. In 1829 he was a member
of the Legislature, and in 18.32 was
elected to Congress as a Whig. In 1847
he was elected comptroller of New York
State and a year later Vice-President
of the United States. President Taylor
entered on his oflice in March, 1849, and
died suddenly in July, 1850. Fillmore be-
came, in virtue of his office. President of
the United States. It was the era of the
Lopez expedition against Cuba; and of a
more than usual bitterness in the rela-
tions between North and South on the
slavery question. Fillmore made Daniel
Webster his Secretary of State. Presi-
dent Fillmore's messages favored the
fugitive slave law, and recommended a
protective, but not a prohibitory tariff.
Under his presidency California was ad-
mitted as a new State into the Union. In
his final message he had to deplore the
MILLARD FILLMORE
death of Webster; and in March, 1853,
he yielded up his office to his successor,
General Pierce. He was the candidate
of the American party for the presidency
in 1856, but he received a very small
minority of votes. After his retirement
from public life he resided in Buffalo, N.
Y., where he died, March 8, 1874.
FILM, a transparent, flexible sub-
stance used as a substitute for glass
plates for portable photographic work.
It consists of a strip of celluloid which
is ti-eated with a sensitized coating, the
same as is used on plates. See Photog-
raphy.
FILTER BED, a settling pond whose
bottom is a filter. It may consist of a
reservoir five feet deep, with a paved
bottom covered with open- jointed tubu-
lar drains leading into a central conduit.
The drains are covered with a layer of
gravel, and a top layer of sand. The
water is delivered upon the surface uni-
formly, and the rate of subsidence is
about six inches an hour. The mora
FIN
182
FINE AKTS
rapid the rate (other things being equal)
the less effective the operation.
FIN, the organ by which locomotion
is effected in a fish. As a rule fins con-
sist of a membrane supported by rays.
Of these organs the two pectoral fins, so
called from being situated on the breast,
where they are just behind the branchial
aperture, are modifications of the an-
terior limbs in other vertebrata. The
ventral fins, so called from being, as a
rule, situated on the belly, correspond to
the hind limbs in other vertebrata. Often
there are also one or more dorsal fins
on the back, two anal fins near the anus,
while the tail is technically called the
caudal fin. In carpentry, a tongue on
the edge of a board. In commerce, a
blade of whalebone. In machinery, a slip
inserted longitudinally into a shaft or
arbor, and left projecting so as to form
a guide for an object which may slip
thereon, but not rotate; a spline or
feather. In molding, a mark or ridge
left in casting at the junction of the
parts of the mold.
FINANCE, the art of managing
money matters, the person who professes
this art being called a financier. Fi-
nances, in the plural, is often used for
money itself, but still with a reference to
the purpose to which it is to be applied,
as where the finances of a country are
said to have improved or fallen off. It is
used in the United States as in England,
rather in a political and economic sense
than ofiicially; but in France there have
been, from time to time, comptrollers-
general of finances, councils of finances,
bureaus of finances, etc., and at the
present time, Minister of Finances.
FINANCES, UNITED STATES. See
United States, section Finance.
FINCH, FRANCIS MILES, an Ameri-
can poet, and associate judge of
N. Y. Court of Appeals; born in Ithaca,
N. Y., June 9, 1827. He was graduated
at Yale; and was the author of the well-
known lyrics "Nathan Hale" and "The
Blue and the Gray," and of several popu-
lar college songs. He died July 31, 1907.
FINCK, HENRY THEOPHILTJS, an
American musical critic; born in Bethel,
Mo., Sept. 22, 1854. He was graduated
at Harvard in 1876; and from 1878 to
1881 studied physiological psychology at
Berlin, Heidelberg, and Vienna. He was
musical critic of the New York "Evening
Post," and a contributor to the "Nation."
His works include: "Wagner and Other
Musicians" (1887) ; "Romantic Love and
Personal Beauty" (1887) ; "The Pacific
Coast Scenic tour" (1890); "Chopin,
and Other Musical Essays," "Lotos Time
in Japan" (1895) ; "Spain and Morocco";
"Paderewski"; "Primitive Love" (1899)
"Songs and Song Writers" (1900)
"Eduard Grieg" (1905) ; "Massenet'
(1910); "Henry Strauss" (1917).
FINDLAY, a city and county-seat of
Hancock co., 0.; on the Toledo and Ohio
Central, the Cincinnati, Hamilton and
Dayton, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chi-
cago and St. Louis, and other railroads;
44 miles S. of Toledo. It is in the heart
of the oil and gas fields of Ohio. It con-
tains Findlay College, electric lights,
electric railroads, several banks, and
numerous daily, weekly, and monthly
periodicals. In the vicinity are rich beds
of clay and vast deposits of gravel and
sand. There are manufactories of glass,
pressed bricks, furniture, wooden imple-
ments, nails, and an oil refinery, machine
shops, foundries, extensive potteries, and
rolling mills. Pop. (1910) 14,858;
(1920) 17,021.
FINDLAY COLLEGE, a coeducational
institution in Findlay, O.; founded in
1882 under the auspices of the Church
of God; reported at the close of 1919:
Professors and instructors, 19; students,
535. President, W. H. Guyer, A. M., D. D.
FINE ARTS, a term generally ap-
plied to those arts in which the artist
seeks chiefly to give pleasure by the im-
mediate impression produced on the mind
by his work. These arts are thus dis-
tinguished from arts which are designed
to answer some practical purpose, and so
have been termed useful.
Antique, Mediaeval and Modern Art. —
In its general acceptation, the term an-
tique art is understood to be that of a
period antecedent to the revival of the
classical studies in western Europe, or
before the risorgimento, or renaissance,
of the arts from their assumed period of
lethargy. There was, in fact, a distinct
character about the productions of the
artists of the more ancient and themore
modern times, which was sufficiently
marked to produce in the best of them
a separate style of art. The antique
school was distinguished by an anthro-
pomorphism and a divination of the hu-
man form; the mediaeval school was
formed on and characterized by a species
of contempt for the human figure, and
an aspiration after an ideal perfection,
and therefore there is something vague
and undefined in its efforts to represent
the objects it copied; while the modern
school has united the indefiniteness of
its aim with that clearness of the per-
ception of its objects which is so marked
a characteristic of its production. The
antique schools date from the dawn of
civilization to the end of the 10th cen-
tury; the mediseval schools date from the
FINGAL
133
FINXAND
10th to the 15th century; and the modem
schools have continued the traditions of
the masters of art to the present times.
FINGAL, a personage celebrated in
the poems of Ossian, who was his son.
He was Prince of Morven, a province
of ancient Caledonia, and struggled
against the power of the Romans, who
were in his time the rulers of England.
He also undertook warlike expeditions
to the Orkneys, Ireland, and even
Sweden, and was a prince of a highly
chivalric character. Lived in the 3d
century.
FINGAL'S CAVE, a curious cavern
formed of basaltic columns, in the Isle
of Staffa, one of the Hebrides, on the
W. coast of Scotland, 25 miles from
Oban. See Basalt.
FINGER ALPHABET. See Deaf
AND Dumb.
FINGERING, the art of arranging
and managing the fingers on any musi-
cal instrument so as to produce the re-
quired notes in an easy and graceful
manner. A good method of fingering is
of the utmost importance to the student,
as without it the easiest passages will
often appear difficult, and the difficult
ones almost impracticable.
FINGER PRINTS. The individual
distinctiveness that attaches to the pap-
illary ridges on the palms of the hand,
their unchanging characteristic through
life, and their broad variations as be-
tween one individual and another, are
the traits that have led to their study
and classification for purposes of per-
sonal identification. These characteris-
tics apply especially to the patterns of
the fingers, and the circumstance has re-
sulted in much effort among men of
science so to facilitate subdivision in
cases where such identification is likely
to be necessary as to make identification
easily available. Up to the present the
chief purpose to which the use of finger
prints has been put to secure identifica-
tion has been in the case of criminal
classes, but there are not wanting thosp
who see in it uses in many other direc-
tions, as in important legal documents
where something moi'e certain than
mere signature is desirable, and in the
army and navy during war. In wills
and similar documents the use of the
finger print would render forgeiy al-
most impossible, while it is an easily
available substitute for a signature in
the case of an illiterate. In the case
of criminal identification, finger prints
are now largely in use as a supplement
to the Bertillon system, and the combi-
nation of the two systems leaves little
chance for error. Occasionally finger
prints left on doors, windows, and pol-
ished surfaces in the course of the com-
mission of a crime have led to the iden-
tification of the perpetrators, but suc-
cess in these cases is not easily ob-
tainable from the imperfect character
of the imprints and the difficulty in ade-
quately reproducing them.
FINISTERE, the extreme W. depart-
ment of France, formerly a part of the
province of Brittany; surrounded on
three sides by the Atlantic and British
Channel, and having E. the departments
of C6tes-du-Nord and Morbihan; length,
65 miles; breadth about 55 miles; area,
2,595 square miles; pop. about 810,000.
The coasts are generally steep, rocky,
and indented with many bays and har-
bors, some of which, as that of Bi'est,
are of the first excellence. Numerous
small islands skirt the coast. Surface,
diversified, two chains of hills running
through the department E. to W. Soil,
various. Climate, humid, and subject
to tempests and fogs. Agriculture is
in a backward state, though oats, rye,
wheat, barley, flax, and potatoes are
largely raised. Pasturage is excellent,
rearing large numbers of cattle. The
fisheries yield a good return. The mines
of lead at Poullaouen and Huelgoet are
the most productive in France. Manu-
factures, sail-cloth, linen, ropes, leather,
oil, tobacco, etc. Chief towns, Quimper
(the capital), Brest, and Morlaix.
FINLAND, REPUBLIC OF, (called
by the natives, Soumen-maa, "land of
marshes"), a country of northern Eu-
rope, having N. Russian Lapland; E. the
provinces of Archangel and Olonetz; S.
Lake Ladoga, the province of St. Peters-
burg, and the Gulf of Finland; and
W. Sweden and the Gulf of Bothnia;
length, 600 miles; average breadth, about
240 miles; area, 125,689 square miles;
pop. (1918) 3,329,146; chiefly Finns and
Lapps; capital, Helsingfors (1918) 187,-
544.
Topography. — Finland, which is di-
vided into 8 provinces, consists princi-
pally of a tableland from 400 to 600 feet
above the level of the sea, and inter-
spersed with hills of no great elevation.
In the N., however, the Manselka Moun-
tains have an average height of between
3,000 to 4,000 feet. The coasts, par-
ticularly on the S., are surrounded by a
vast number of rocky islets, separated
from the mainland and from each other
by intricate and narrow channels, ren-
dering the shores of the country easy of
defense in case of hostile attack by sea.
But the chief natural feature of Finland
is its myriads of lakes, which spread like
FINLAND
134
FINLAND
a network over a large proportion of its
surface ; some of them being of very con-
siderable size. The greater number of
these are on the S. and E.; they have
frequent communications with each
other, and generally abound with islands.
There are numerous rivers, but none of
much importance.
Climate. — The climate is rigorous.
Even in the S. the winter lasts from 6 to
7 months, and in the N. from 8 to 9
months. Dense fogs are very frequent;
heavy rains take place in autumn, and
in May and June the thaws put a stop
to nearly all traveling. In the N. the
sun is absent during December and Janu-
ary; but during the short summer, while
that luminary is almost perpetually
above the horizon, the heat is often very
great; and near Uleaborg, in about lat.
65°, the corn is sown and reaped within
6 or 7 weeks. Crops in all parts of the
land are exposed to thfe double danger
of being destroyed by sudden frosts, and
by the ravages of a variety of caterpillar
called turila by the natives.
Soil. — The principal geological forma-
tions are granite, which very easily dis-
integrates, hard limestone, and slate.
Soil for the most part stony and poor.
Production and Industry. — Finland is
chiefly an agricultural country, although
the cultivated area covers less than 10
per cent, of the land. There are about
300,000 farms. In 1919 the production
of the principal agricultural crops was
as follows, in bushels: rye, 11,030,560;
barley, 5,634,560; oats, 22,659,000; pota-
toes, 22,569,480; flax and hemp, 1,222
tons; hay, 2,012,200 tons. The produc-
tion of butter is an important industry.
Over half of the country is covered with
pine and spruce forests. These form the
chief natural wealth of the country. The
main industry is lumbering.
The chief mineral products are copper,
pyrite, iron pyrite, magnetite, galenite,
and molibdonite. Iron exists in consider-
able quantities in Lapland, but has not
been developed. A small amount of gold
is also mined. On account of the war and
the high cost of labor, the mineral pro-
duction in recent years has been small.
In 1918 about 2,000 tons of copper, about
3,000 tons of magnetite, about 800 tons
of pyrite and about 1,000 tons of iron
pyrite were mined. The production of
ron ore was about 8,000 tons.
There were in 1916 4,693 manufactur-
ing establishments employing an aggre-
ECate of 109,900 workers, and yielding a
product valued at 1,458,993,100 marks.
The most important industries are the
nanufacture of paper, iron and mechani-
.•al products, textiles, lumber, leather, to-
bacco, chemicals, and liquors.
Commerce. — The imports in 1919
amounted to £94,956,000, and the exports
to £31,717,000. The largest quantity of
imports was received from Sweden and
Norway followed by Germany and Rus-
sia. The chief exports were to Ger-
many, Russia, Sweden and Norway.
The chief articles of export were
paper, paper mass and cardboard, tim-
ber, butter, tar, iron and iron goods,
textiles, leather, hides, pitch, and fish.
The chief imports were cereals, cofl'ee,
and chicory, sugar, fish, iron and iron
ware, cotton, machinery, chemicals, and
leather ware.
Fisheries. — Fishing is an important
Industry. Over 7,000 families are en-
gaged in it, employing over 10,000 boats.
The chief fish taken is Baltic herring.
The catch in 1918 amounted to 9,000
tons.
Transportation. — For inland commu-
nication Finland has a remarkably
developed system of lakes, which are
connected with each other and with the
Gulf of Finland by canal. Over 60,000
vessels pass along the canal yearly. There
are about 2,600 miles of railway, prac-
tically all of which belong to the State.
Banking and Fitmnces. — There were
in 1917 437 savings banks with 462,771
depositors, with deposits of nearly £25,-
000,000. In addition to the State Bank,
there were in 1919 22 banks and 7 land
mortgage banks. The deposits of all
private banks amount to about 3,000,-
000,000 marks. The mark has a normal
value of about 20 cents.
Finances. — The estimated revenue for
1920 was £52,443,026, and the estimated
expenditure £55,843,563. The consoli-
dated debt on Jan. 1, 1919, amounted to
662,196,837 marks, of which the foreign
debt comprised 329,217,278 marks.
Education. — The system of education
is well developed. There is a university
at Helsingfors and another at Abo,
which, however, is entirely Swedish.
This was opened in 1919. There are 70
lyceums, 37 elementary schools for boys
and girls, 25 girls' schools, 35 prelimi-
nary schools, and 46 popular high schools.
In the country there are 3,391 primary
schools of higher grade, with 157,215
pupils. In the primary schools of lower
grade are 75,332 pupils. There are pri-
mary schools in 38 towns, with 43,357
pupils. In addition there are a large
number of special schools, including
commercial schools, navigation schools,
trade schools, technical schools, agricul-
tural schools, etc. The school age in the
primary schools is from 7 to 15 years.
There were in 1919-1920 in all schools
215,995 pupils, with about 6,000 teachers.
Army. — The army is based on con-
FINLAND
135
FINLAND, GULF OF
scription and is formed in accordance
with a law enacted in February, 1919. It
consists of three divisions and one inde-
pendent brigade. Subordinate to the
army command are also heavy artil-
lery, flying, automobile, and intelligence
troops. The coastal defense consists
chiefly of three artillery coast regiments.
There is practically no fleet. In addition
to the regular army there is an organi-
zation of Civic Safety Corps, in which
about 100,000 men are enlisted. The
regular army includes about 36,600 men
and the volunteer about 105,000 men.
Government. — On Dec. 6, 1917, Fin-
land was proclaimed an independent and
sovereign state by the House of Repre-
sentatives. It was recognized by most of
the leading powers. The National Par-
liament consists of one chamber of 200
members, chosen by direct and propor-
tional election, in which all who are en-
titled to vote have an equal vote. The
suffrage is possessed by all Finnish men
and women who have reached their
twenty-fourth year. Every citizen en-
titled to vote is eligible to the House of
Representatives. The Diet exists for
three years, unless sooner dissolved. The
president is elected for six years by the
vote of the citizens.
History. — The origin of the Finns is
to a large extent unknown. They are
thought to have been driven northward
from the Volga at the beginning of the
8th century. In the 12th century began
the long struggle with the Swedes which
lasted over 100 years and ended in the
subjection of the Finnish people to
Swedish sovereignty. Finland remained
for over 500 years as a part of Sweden.
The people enjoyed a practical self-gov-
ernment and developed an intelligent
civilization. Finland was frequently a
battle ground in the war between Russia
and Sweden. As the Finnish frontier is
only 33 miles from Petrograd. Russia de-
sired to possess the country in order to
complete its defenses. This wish was
realized in 1809, when Sweden ceded to
Russia the Grand Duchy with the Aland
Islands. Finland was guaranteed the
preservation of its laws, constitution,
and religion. This pledge was kept until
1897, when the Russian Government
began a series of systematic attacks cul-
minating in 1899 in an edict which re-
moved from the Finnish Diet all matters
afi'ecting the Grand Duchy, in common
with Russia proper. An attempt to Rus-
sianize the country was carried on in the
following years with great severity. The
people resisted, and in 1905 revolution-
ary agitation in Russia was supported in
Finland. The Czar granted the Diet its
old privileges and this was followed by
a period of quiet. Women were given the
suffrage and other radical changes in the
government were made. The government
of Russia, however, continued hostile to
the self-rule of Finland, and in 1910 a
law was passed stipulating that the Rus-
sian Duma and the Imperial Council had
sole power in matters affecting Russia
and Finland together. This practically
deprived Finland of home rule. On July
20, 1917, the Diet declared the independ-
ence of the country. The Russian Pro-
visional Government in August of the
same year ordered the dissolution of the
Diet and the summoning of a new one
to meet on November 1. Shortly after
the meeting of the Diet the Kerensky
government fell and on Dec. 9, 1917, the
country was proclaimed an independent
republic. There followed a period of
civil war between the Red Guards (Bol-
sheviki) and the White Guards (pro-
Germans). The Finnish authorities
seized the Red Guards and executed
many of them. Distui'bances continued
until the signing of the Brest-Litovsk
Treaty between Germany and the Bol-
shevik Government. Four days later
Germany signed a treaty with Finland
and German troops were sent into Fin-
land. There was a strong attempt to
establish a monarchy, but this was op-
posed by the people. The country re-
mained under the practical domination
of Germany during 1918. General Man-
nerheim, the organizer of the Finnish
White Guard became Regent in Decem-
ber of that year. He used severe meas-
ures in ridding the counti'y of Bolshe-
vists and conditions gradually turned to
a liberal policy. Professor Staahlberg
was elected president of the republic,
defeating General Mannerheim on July
5, 1919. A constitution was formulated
and the republic was established on a
firm basis. In 1920 and 1921 a contro-
versy was carried on between Sweden
and Finland as to the disposition of the
Aland Islands. A plebiscite was held
according to the conditions set down by
the Peace Conference and it was main-
tained by Sweden that this indicated an
overwhelming majority in favor of Swe-
dish sovereignty. Finland declared, how-
ever, that the islands had l>een adminis-
tered as a part of the Finnish province
for more than a century and that the
majority of them lay nearer the Finnish
coast than to the Swedish coast. A
commission was appointed by the Council
of the League of Nations to make in-
quiries and submit recommendations as
a basis for peaceful settlement.
FINLAND, GULF OF, one of the
great arms of the Baltic Sea, extending
E. and N. between lat. 58° 40' and 60°
FINLEY
136
FIRE ALABM
40', and between Ion. 23° and 30° 10' E.
It has a length of 260 miles, by a vary-
ing width of between 25 and 90 miles.
FINLEY, JOHN HUSTON, an Ameri-
can educator; born in 1863 at Grand
Eidge, 111. He was educated at Knox
College and at Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity. From 1892 to 1899 he served as
president of Knox College, and after
that as editor of "Harper's Weekly,"
and later of "McClure's Magazine."
Princeton University appointed him in
1900 professor of politics, and three
years later he was elected president of
the College of the City of New York.
In 1913 he becairte Commissioner of
Education for the State of New York,
a position he still holds. In 1917 he
went to France as special commissioner
representing the State of New York in
matters pertaining to education. He is
the author of many periodical articles
and reviews, and his recent books are:
"The French in the Heart of America"
(1914) ; "French Schools in War Time"
(1917) ; "A Pilgrim in Palestine"
(1918).
FINNAN, or FINDON, a fishing vil-
lage of Scotland, Kincardine county; 6
miles S. of Aberdeen. It has been long
celebrated for its preparation of smoked
haddocks, known far and wide as "Fin-
nan haddocks," or "baddies." This deli-
cacy is prepared by gutting, cleaning,
splitting, and smoking the fish. The
most particular part of the process is
the smoking, which should be done by
the green branches of the fir tree, or
still better, spruce; thus communicating
to the fish its peculiar odor and bright
yellow color.
FIORD, an inlet of the sea, generally
long, narrow, and deep; a term applied
in Scandinavian countries to any bay,
creek, or arm of the sea which extends
inland, and sometimes used to express an
inland lake or considerable sheet of
water; as, Sogne Fiord. The fiords of
Iceland, like those which indent the gra-
nitic coasts of Norway, were formed by
immense flows of lava, raised and rent
by subterraneous forces. In the S. part
of the island, the caverns, basaltic colon-
nades, and natural arches of Stapi re-
mind one of the strangest formations
of Ireland, and the beautiful grotto of
Antrim. These gulfs, often but half a
mile in width, extend as far as 5 or 6
miles into the mountains, where they are
suiTounded on all sides by perpendicular
rocks, rising to an immense height.
FIR, the common name of a large
number of coniferous trees, of a pyra-
midal form^ and elegant proportions.
This name is often used in a sense co-
extensive with the widest sense of the
word Pine {q. v.), and therefore so as
to include a large portion of the Pina-
cese (coniferse) , or at least the whole
of the Linnsean genus Pinus. But the
name fir is also often used in a more
restricted signification, and the trees so
designated are those forming the genus
Abies of some authors, Abies and Picea
of others, which the greater number of
botanists have now agreed in separating
from Pinus. In the classification of
Lindley, all the firs are included in the
genus Abies. The common silver fir,
Abies picea, has erect cylindrical cones,
5-6 inches long, and two-rowed leaves,
with two white lines upon the under
side. It forms considerable woods upon
the mountains of central Europe and of
the N. of Asia, and attains a height of
150-180 feet, and an age of 300 years.
The wood is white, contains little resin, is
very soft and light, and is employed for
the ordinary purposes of coopers, turn-
ers, and joiners, and in ship and house
carpentry, also for making bandboxes,
and for many fine purposes, especially
for the sounding-boards of musical in-
struments. It yields the beautiful clear
turpentine known as Strassburg turpen-
tine. Very similar to the silver fir, but
generally of much smaller size, and indeed
seldom much above 40 feet in height,
is the Balm-of-Gilead fir (Abies bal-
samea) , a native of the United States,
from Virginia to Canada. The wood is
of little value, but the tree yields the
Canada balsam. (See Turpentine.)
The other important species of firs will
be seen under their particular names.
FIRDAXJSI (fer-dou'se) , or FIRDUSI
(-do-se), a Persian poet; lived from
about 935 to about 1020. His true name
was Abul Kasim Mansur. He is the
greatest of Persian epic poets. In 1010,
after 35 years of labor, was completed
his first heroic epic, the "Shah-Namah"
(King's Book), in about 80,000 distichs;
it recounts the ancient Persian tradi-
tions of heroism. His other great poem,
"Jussuf and Zullkha," a religious-roman-
tic epos, is founded on the Biblical story
of Joseph and Potiphar's wife. He
lived long at the court of Mahmud of
Ghazni.
FIRE ALARM, elective signaling
equipment connected by wire with a
central office for the purpose of notify-
ing the fire department in case of fire.
The instrument is usually reduced to its
simplest dimensions so that people not
familiar with the system may operate it.
Fire-alarm boxes contain devices to
make and break electric currents. There
is usually a wheel provided with teeth
separated by a non-conducting substance
FIBEABMS
137
riBE ENGINE
and this when turned comes in contact
with a spring which opens and closes
the circuit at each tooth, thus producing
a signal at the central station. The
number of the signal box is usually
indicated by the arrangements of teeth
and spaces and in that way the fire is lo-
cated. Access to the crank or chain by
which the signal is communicated is ob-
tained either by a key or by twisting the
door handle or by breaking the glass —
this last being the method most in vogue
in large cities. Telegraph instruments
connecting with headquarters for the use
of firemen are often attached. The sig-
nal may be registered on a Morse re-
cording instrument or by some similar
device. In some districts there is an
apparatus by which the signal results
in the ringmg of tower l^lls or the
sounding of steam-whistles. The last
method, now supplemented by electricity,
was formerly in general use, but the
development of the electric telegraph has
resulted in greater speed and in many
simplifications. From the middle of the
19th century telegraph boxes have been
with great velocity, and not infrequently
passing unbroken across the sky until
lost in the horizon. They differ frora
ordinary meteors, probably, more in vol-
ume and brilliancy than in any other dis-
tinctive characteristic.
FIRE ENGINE, a machine employed
for throwing a jet of water for the pur-
pose of extinguishing fires. This name
was formerly applied to the steam en-
gine. Machines for the extinguishing
of fires have been used from a very
early date. They were employed by the
Romans, and are referred to by Pliny;
but he gives no account of their con-
struction. Hero of Alexandria, in his
treatise on pneumatics — written prob-
ably about 150 years before the Christian
era — proposition 27, describes a machine
which he calls "the siphons used in con-
flagrations." It consisted of two cyl-
inders and pistons connected by a recip-
rocating beam, which raises and lowers
the pistons alternately, and thus, with
the aid of valves opening only toward the
jet, projects the water from it, but not
FIRE APPARATUS — ELECTRIC STORAGE BATTERY ENGINE
in use in Boston, and improvements such
as the non-interfering pull and succes-
sive feature have brought the fire-alarm
system to its present perfection.
FIREARMS. See AMMUNITION; Ar-
tillery; Explosives; Gun Powder;
Ordnance; Etc.
FIREBALL, a ball filled with powder
or other combustibles, intended to be
thrown among enemief- and to injure by
explosion, or to set fire to their works.
Bombs and grenades were thus employed
in the World War (1914-1918).
A popular name applied to a certain
class of meteors which exhibit them-
selves as globular masses of light moving
in a continuous stream, as the pressure
ceases at each alternation of the stroke.
The first application of the steam fire
engine was made when the Argyle Rooms
in London were burned in 1830. Float-
ing fire engines have been constructed
and worked by steam. The steam fire
engines have been greatly improved, and
steam of more than 100 pounds pressure
on the square inch can be raised in seven
minutes after making the fire. Some of
these engines throw a jet to a vertical
heisrht of about 200 feet, or can drive
water horizontally through half a mile
of pipe. Gasoline motor-driven engines
now iareely in use can be started in-
stantly and make 35 miles an hour. The
FIRE ESCAPES
138
FIRELESS ENGINE
same engine drives and pumps the water.
Those preferred are six cylinders of 70
h. p. pumping 700 gallons of water a
minute. Chemical engines, motor driven,
are within the means of the smallest
towns and require only two men and a
pilot to operate.
FIRE ESCAPES are of two distinct
kinds — one for affording aid from out-
side, and another for enabling those
within the house to effect their own
escape. Of the latter the simplest is a
cord that should be firmly attached to
the window sill of every sleeping apart-
ment, and coiled either in a box on the
floor, or under a dressing table, or other
suitable place. A rope one-quarter or
three-eighths of an inch thick, and knotted
at intervals of about one foot, is well
adapted for the purpose. A pulley fixed
to the window sill, over which runs a
rope with a chair or simple board to sit
on, is a well-known contrivance. Fire
escapes, to be used from without, con-
sist either of simple ladders kept at con-
venient stations, or a series of ladders
that can be joined together; or ropes with
weights at one end that they may be
thrown or shot into windows. Large
buildings generally have permanent iron
stairways attached to the outer walls for
use in the case of fire.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER, or FIRE
ANNIHILATOR, an apparatus intended
for extinguishing fire by the spraying of
specific liquids, such as water charged
with carbon dioxide or some other gas
impervious to combustion. These extin-
guishers are usually cylindrical in form,
made of a metal both light and strong,
containing a solution of soluble carbon-
ate, and in an upper glass receptacle a
quantity of sulphuric acid which mingles
with the carbonate solution when the
cylinder is inverted preparatory to its
use. The resultant carbon dioxide during
its process of generation drives the sat-
urated liquid through a valve, nozzle,
or other opening, by the manipulation
of which it may be directed on the
flames. The extinguishers may be of a
size convenient for carrying or they may
be large enough to require moving on
wheels, as in factories. A more elaborate
arrangement is the sprinkler system,
consisting of pipes running under the
ceiling in the successive stories of an
establishment, from which water is auto-
matically released when a given tempera-
ture is reached, supplemented by the use
of certain chemical agents. A smaller
form of extinguisher is the hand grenade,
containing solutions such as chlorine, and
mixtures of calcium chloride, which is
thrown bodily in the flames where the
fire is at >ts inception.
FIREFLY, popularly, a comprehensive
name for any small insect which flies
and is luminous. They belong to the
Lampyridss and the Elateridse. The Ful-
gora lantemaria, or lantern fly, a homop-
terous insect, is too large to be called a
firefly. The glowworm {Lampyris nocti-
luca) is also excluded, because the lu-
minous sex, the female one, only crawls.
In the case of several Lampyri in hot
countries, the female, like the male flies.
The firefly of the S. of Europe is Lam-
pyris italica, that of this country L.
canadensis. An East Indian species may
be seen in myriads during the rainy
reason glancing round trees. The firefly
of South America is one of the Elater-
idse elaters, or Pyrophwus noctilucus.
FIRE ISLAND, the most W. end of a
strip of the Great South Beach, Suffolk
CO., N. Y., 40 miles long, averaging one-
half mile W., off Long Island, between
Great South Bay and the Atlantic Ocean.
It is reached by ferry from Babylon. The
beach took its name from the fires built
there as signals to vessels during the
war with England, in 1812. Between the
beach and the mainland, in Great South
Bay, are five small islands. About 45
miles E. of the inlet to the bay Great
South Beach joins the mainland. The
entire strip is dotted with popular and
well-known watering-places. To the east
there is a lighthouse 185 feet high with
a revolving light.
FIRELESS COOKER, a mechanical ar-
rangement by which hot or partially
cooked food can be kept at a tempera-
ture which will complete the cooking
and allow the food to be served still
heated. To this end the cooking pot has
to be inclosed in a box or other recep-
tacle provided with insulating material
in sufficient thickness and quantity.
The insulating materials most in use ai-e
asbestos and mineral wool, but there is
great variety in the materials that may
be used, the object in every case being
to conserve the heat sufficiently to allow
the food to be thoroughly cooked, and
to keep it at the required temperature
for a given time. Among the fireless
cookers on the market, some supplement
the insulating material with metal plates
that may be heated and placed under
the pot. The principle is a simple one
and has been used by housewives in va-
rious forms from time immemorial, so
that there is a great variety in the
mechanical devices employed. The chief
considerations are that the arrange-
ments should be convenient and the
danger of causing fire be obviated.
FIRELESS ENGINE, vapor or steam
engine, acting independently of any
FIRELOCK
139
FIRE PROTECTION
heating apparatus or combustion. In
its simplest form the engine consists of
a tank filled with water and condensed
steam, from which valves allow the
steam to emerge and exert pressure on
cylinder and piston. By this device suf-
ficient steam is capable of being stored
to carry a locomotive and several cars
over a distance of several miles. The
engine may be replenished with a fresh
supply of steam as occasion requires.
This form of steam engine has been
found serviceable under certain condi-
tions, but there are other forms of fire-
less engines which have been found con-
venient. In one form, invented in 1870,
by Lamm of Louisiana, the motive
power was furnished by vapor of am-
monia, and the engine was used for a
number of years in running street cars.
Its great advantage was that the vapor
of ammonia could be used over and over
again, a reservoir of water absorbing
the vapor as it emerged from the engine
and releasing it again when the proper
temperature was reached. The advan-
tages to be derived from the use of en-
gines that can dispense with the use of
fire-boxes are many, and they have been
developed to a still higher level by the
arrival of compressed-air and similar
locomotives.
FIRELOCK, a musket or other gun,
with a lock furnished with a flint and
steel, by means of which fire is pro-
duced in order to discharge it; distin-
guished from the old matchlock, which
was fired with a match.
FIREPROOF, proof against fire, in-
combustible. Buildings are rendered
fireproof by constructing them entirely
of brick or stone, and using iron doors,
lintels, etc., and stone stairs. Wood can
be treated with silicate of soda, which,
on the application of a strong heat,
fuses into a kind of glass, forming a
shield against fire. Cloth or wood im-
pregnated with certain saline substances
will not blaze. Borax, alum, and phos-
phate of soda or ammonia are recom-
mended as most suitable for this pur-
pose. By treating cloth with graphite
in a bath in which the mineral is sus-
pended, and then subjecting it to the
action of the electro-metallic bath, the
cloth may be coated with metal. Woolen
and ordinary stuffs may be treated with
borax, alum, or soluble glass, but these
cannot well be applied to the lighter
descriptions, which are most liable to
take fire.
Fireproof building, a term somewhat
loosely applied, and may be held to
mean: (1) A building absolutely incom-
bustible, such as one whose walls, floors,
and roofs are of metal, stone, brick, or
cement. (2) A building capable of op-
posing the access of fire from without,
having walls, window shutters, and
roofs which are incombustible from ex-
ternal flame and heat.
Fireproof structure, a vault, safe, or
building proof against destruction by
fire, either from the outside or by the
burning of its contents.
FIRE PROTECTION. From the very
earliest times, since men first began to
live together in communities, organized
fire protection has been a function of
local government. So far as despatch
and efficiency are concerned, the munic-
ipal fire department of ancient Rome
was little behind the fire departments of
modern cities at the present time. In
various districts of the city brigades of
fire fighters were barracked, whose mem-
bers were ever ready to respond to the
call of the fire guardians, sentinels sta-
tioned in high towers, watching for the
first signs of a blaze. At the sound of
the bucina, as the horn which sounded
the alarm was called, the Roman firemen
hurried to the scene of the fire, equipped
with ladders, axes, buckets, and even
with a large water squirt on wheels,
which was fed water with buckets. Di-
recting the operations of the brigades
was the fire centurion, corresponding to
our fire chief, who arrived in a special
chariot drawn by four fleet horses.
Pumps, hose and, above all, municipal
water systems, have brought about im-
proved equipment for fire fighters since
then, but hardly any better organization.
In no country in the world has fire pro-
tection reached so high a degree of per-
fection as in the United States, for the
simple reason that in no other country
has there ever been so high a percent-
age of loss through fire. Whether be-
cause of the fact that frame houses are
more common here, or that the Ameri-
can people are naturally more careless,
statistics prove that the loss of property
from fire in this country, amounting to
about $15 per family each year, is ten
times greater than in any other country.
Instead of exercising precaution
through legislation or by fixing legal
responsibility on house owners, American
cities have, instead, organized remark-
ably eflficient fire departments, whose
contingents have invariably won the com-
petition prizes at the international ex-
positions.
Throughout the country towns volun-
teer fire departments are still the rule,
but in every community approaching the
dignity of a municipality paid fire
fighters are maintained.
FIEE WORSHIPERS
140
FISH
Within the past few years, however,
notably since the big fire in San Fran-
cisco, in 1906, the emphasis has been
placed on prevention, rather than on
fighting fires already started. In prac-
tically all cities strict ordinances are
passed regarding fireproof structures in
the commercial districts. But not only
must the buildings themselves be built
of fireproof material, but wired glass for
windows must be used, floors must be
insulated, to prevent heat being trans-
mitted from the burning contents of one
story to material above or below. The
most effective device for the prevention
of fire is the automatic fire sprinkler,
whose use makes a difference of from
fifty to seventy-five per cent, in the cost
of insurance. The principle of the auto-
matic fire sprinkler is quite simple.
Pipes, filled with a continuous supply of
water, pass back and forth under the
ceiling, perforated with holes which are
plugged with wax, or a soft solder. With
a rise in the temperature above a cer-
tain degree, these plugs melt and the
water begins pouring forth. It has been
estimated that the automatic sprinkler
has reduced the loss by fire in commer-
cial districts by at least 70 per cent.
FIRE WORSHIPERS, the Zoroas-
trians called also Guebres. Herodotus,
about 450 B. C, said "The Persians think
fire to be a god." Strabo, about 50 A. D.,
says, "They peculiarly sacrifice to fire
and water, placing dry wood on the fire
stripped of its bark, with fat thrown
upon it." The Rev. Dr. Wilson, of Bom-
bay, alleges that "they actually address
it in supplication, as if it were sentient,
intelligent, divine, and omnipresent, and
ready to hear, bless, assist, and deliver."
No prominent race now in India has be-
come more rapidly modified by inter-
course with Europeans. The fire wor-
shipers have, in the course of their his-
tory, suffered the most cruel persecution
from the Mohammedans.
FIRST FRUIT, the fruit or produce
first matured or collected in any season;
first profits of anything; first or earliest
effects of anything, in a good or bad sense.
In ecclesiology, that portion of the fruits
of the earth and other natural produce,
which, by the usage of the Jews and
)ther ancient nations, was offered to God.
The mediaeval ecclesiastical impost known
under the name of primitiss, or first
fruits, and sometimes of annates or an-
nalia, was the first year's whole profits,
first of a bishopric, and afterward of any
benefice, claimed by the Pope. This
claim was the subject of many contests
in Germany, in France, and in England.
Henry VIII. withdrew the right of first
fruits from the Pope, in order to transfer
it to the king; and he established a spe-
cial court for the administration of first
fruits. In the reign of Anne, the reve-
nues arising from this impost in Eng-
land were vested in a board, to be ap-
plied for the purpose of supplementing
the incomes of small benefices.
FISCHART, JOHANN (fish'art), a
German satirist; born in Mainz, in 1545.
He took the doctor's degree in the Uni-
versity of Basel, in 1574, and afterward
was an official of the Imperial Chamber
of Justice at Spires. The period of his
literary production lies between 1575 and
1581, while he assisted his brother-in-law
Jobin, who had a printing office in Strass-
burg. Among his compositions in verse
may be mentioned : "The Jester in
Rhyme" (1571); "Description of the
Four-Cornered Hat" (1580), against the
Jesuits; the "Flohhatz Weibertratz"
(1573) ; "Podagramic Book of Consola-
tion" (1577), "The Hive of the Holy
Roman Swarm" (1579). In imitation of
Rabelais's "Gargantua," but giving free
play to his own native humor and wit,
he wrote of "The Wondrous Deeds,
Thoughts and Words of the Famous
Heroes and Lords Grandgusier, Gar-
gantua, and Pantagruel" (1575). He
died in Forbach, in 1591.
FISH, the name applied to a class of
animals exclusively aquatic, and occupy-
ing the fourth and lowest station of the
section Vertebrata. The head is large,
and set on the body without the inter-
vention of any distinct neck; the body is
usually of a spindle-shape, tapering
gradually toward the extremity; and the
surface is usually smooth, without any
irregularities which might impede the
motion of the creature in its native ele-
ment. In its general form the body is
usually rounded, or slightly compressed
at the sides; sometimes this flattening
proceeds to a much greater extent, so
that the animal presents the appear-
ance of a broad band, or oval disk, of
which the edges correspond with the
dorsal and ventral surfaces; in other
cases, the flattening takes place from
above downward, producing a disk-like
body, of which the upper and lov/er
surfaces are dorsal and ventral. A fish
may be shortly defined as an animal
breathing through the medium of water
by means of gills. This latter apparatus
is the most important feature presented.
It is situated on each side of the neck,
and consists of numerous laminas fixed on
arches. These laminae are covered with
numerous blood-vessels, and are so con-
structed as to present a considerable sur-
face to the water, so that the blood may
receive a sufficient portion of the oxygen
FISH
141
FISH
contained in that element. As the water
in contact with the gills becomes de-
teriorated, it is necessary that a constant
current be caused to Aov/ over them. In
most fishes this is effected by their tak-
ing water in at the mouth and expelling it
at the gill-covers. The blood, which is con-
stantly sent from the gills to the heart,
is distributed by means of the arteries to
every part of the body, whence it returns
to the heart by means of the veins. Ani-
mals of this order are for the most part
furnished with an air-bladder in the in-
terior of the body, which, as it is often
connected with the oesophagus by a tube,
must be regarded to a certain extent
analogous to the lungs of the air breath-
ing Vertebrata. This sac or air bladder,
however, has nothing to do with respira-
tion; it receives blood from the arteries,
and I'eturns it into the veins and the air
which it incloses is probably derived
from this fluid. By the dilatation or com-
pression of this sac, the specific gravity
of the fish is governed, and, acted on by
a curious muscular apparatus, renders
its possessor lighter or heavier than the
surrounding element. The limbs of the
fish are formed into fins; the forelegs
constituting what are termed the pec-
toral fins, and the posterior extremities,
the ventral. Besides these, ordinary
fishes are furnished with one or two
dorsal fins, an anal fin, and a caudal fin,
or tail.
The principal organ of motion is the
caudal fin, or tail; by this it is propelled.
The dorsal and ventral fins serve to bal-
ance it, and the pectorals to arrest its
progress when required. The bones of
fishes are of a less dense and compact
nature than in the higher order of ani-
mals, and always remain in an isolated
state, similar to that of the embryo of the
Mammalia. The head varies more in
form than in any other class of verte-
brate animals. The same bones as those
found in other oviparous animals are al-
most always traceable. The upper jaw
consists of maxillary and intermaxillary
bones. In the greater number of fishes,
the intermaxillary bones constitute the
chief portion of the upper jaw, the max-
illary bones being placed behind and pa-
rallel to them. The lower jaw is composed
generally of two bones on each side,
the dental portion in front, and the
articular portion behind. The form of the
body is for the most part such as
mechanical principles teach to be best
adapted for moving with least resistance
through a liquid medium. The surface
of the body is either smooth and lubri-
cous, or is covered by closely imbricated
scales, rarely defended by bony plates or
roughened by hard tubercles, still more
Vol. IV— Cyc— J
rarely armed with spines. The power of
touch can be but feebly developed in
fishes. The organ of taste is a very in-
conspicuous one — the chief function of
the framework supporting it, or the hyoi-
dan apparatus, relating to the mechan-
ism of swallowing and breathing. Of
the organ of hearing there is no outward
sign; but the essential part, the acoustic
labyrinth, is present, and the semicir-
cular canal, largely developed within the
labyrinth, is without cochlea, and is
rarely provided with a special chamber,
but is lodged, in common with the brain,
in the cranial cavity. The eyes are
usually large, but seldom defended by
eyelids, and ever destitute of a lachrymal
organ.
The alimentary canal is commonly
short and simple, with its divisions not
always clearly marked, the short and
Made gullet being hardly distinguishable
from the stomach. The blood of fishes is
red but cold, and is rarely elevated above
the temperature of the surrounding ele-
ment. The sexes of fishes, excepting the
sharks and rays, offer no very decided
external characters by which they may
be distinguished. The respiratory organs,
however, occupy more space in the males
than in the females, and, on the other
hand, the abdomen is larger in the
females than in the males. The differences
of character in the scales have been
made the foundation of a classification
of fishes by Agassiz, by whom all fishes
are distributed into the following four
orders of cycloid, ctenoid, placoid, and
ganoid fishes, having respectively cycloid,
ctenoid, placoid, and ganoid scales; a
classification which has been found par-
ticularly convenient with reference to
fossil fishes.
FISH, HAMILTON, an American
diplomatist; born in New York City,
Aug. 3, 1808; was graduated at Columbia
College, and admitted to the bar in 1830.
A Whig in politics, he was elected a
congressman in 1842, and governor in
1848. In 1851 he was returned to the
United States Senate, where he opposed
the I'epeal of the Missouri Compromise
and joined the Republican party on its
formation. He was Secretary of State
under Grant from 1869 to 1877, signing,
as one of the commissioners, the Wash-
ington Treaty of 1871, and carrying
through the settlement of the "Alabama"
question. Died at Garrison, Putnam CO.,
N. Y., Sept. 7, 1893.
FISH, NICHOLAS, an American mili-
tary officer; born in New York City,
Aug. 28, 1758, studied law; joined the
Continental army and was an aide on
the staff of John Morin Scott early in
FISH CULTURE
X42
FISHER
1776; was promoted major of the 2d
New York Regiment in November of
that year; participated in the battles at
Saratoga in 1777; led a corps of light
infantry in the battle of Monmouth ; and
otherwise distinguished himself during
the Revolutionary War. He was made
adjutant-general of New York in 1786;
supervisor of United States revenue in
1794, and president of the New York
State Cincinnati Society in 1797. He
died in New York City, June 20, 1833.
FISH CULTURE, or PISCICULTURE,
the artificial propagation of fish to off-
set the destructive effect of fisheries.
The art of fish fertilization is compara-
tively new. In 1763 Stephen L. Jacobi
of Westphalia, Germany, devised the
process now in use of stripping the ova
from the female fish and mixing them
with milt taken from the male. In 1850
the first government fish culture station
was established in Huningue, Alsace.
In the United States the art has made
greater progress than in Europe. Dr.
Garlick in 1865 began the propagation
of brook trout, and New Hampshire im-
ported salmon eggs from Canada to
hatch in the waters of that State. Since
then the various States have one by one
taken up the art, till now nearly all
have regularly appointed fish commis-
sioners. Of the numerous inventions
along this line, the most important is
McDonald's fish-hatching jar, which
keeps the eggs in motion, and automati-
cally separates the dead fish from the
living.
The United States Commission of
Fish and Fisheries was established by
joint resolution of Congi-ess, approved
Feb. 9, 1871. It is placed in charge of
a Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries,
who is required to be a person of scien-
tific and practical acquaintance with the
fish and fisheries of the sea, coast, and
inland waters. Reports are made annu-
ally to Congress. The scope of the work
of the commission covers (1) the propa-
gation of useful food fishes, including
lobsters, oysters, and other shellfish,
and their distribution to suitable waters ;
(2) the inquiry into the causes of de-
crease of food fishes in the lakes, rivers,
and coast waters of the United States,
the study of the waters of the coast and
interior in the interest of fish culture,
and the investigation of the fishing
grounds of the Atlantic, gulf, and
Pacific coasts, with the view of deter-
mining their food resources and the
development of the commercial fisheries;
(3) the collection and compilation of
the statistics of the fisheries and the
study of their methods and relations.
See Fishery.
FISHER, ANDREW, High Commis-
sioner of Australia in England. He
was bom at Crosshouse, Kilmarnock, in
1862, and went to Queensland, Australia,
in 1885. He entered the Queensland
Parliament in 1893, and later became
Minister of Railways in the Dav/s-on
Ministry. He represented Wide Bay in
the Commonwealth Parliament for the
first fifteen years of the Parliament. In
1904 he became Minister for Trade and
Customs, Commonwealth of Australia;
and in 1907 leader of the Federal Par-
liamentary Labor party. In 1908-1909
he was Prime Minister of Australia; in
1909-1910 leader of Federal Opposition,
and in 1910-1913 and 1914-1915 Prime
Minister. In 1915 he resigned office as
Prime Minister to represent Australia
in London.
FISHER, DOROTHY CANFIELD
(DOROTHEA FRANCES CANFIELD
FISHER), an American writer, born in
Lawrence, Kan., in 1879. She graduated
from the Ohio State University in 1899,
and took post-graduate courses at Co-
lumbia. In 1907 she married John Red-
wood Fisher. She traveled and studied
extensively in Europe. She wrote sev-
eral books on educational subjects. Her
chief fame, however, rests on her works
in fiction, which include "The Squivrel-
Cage" (1912) ; "Hillsboro People" (1915) ;
"The Bent Twig" (1915); "Fellow-Cap-
tains" (1916); "The Day of Glory"
(1919); "The Brimming Cup" (1919).
During the World War she spent three
years in France engaged in war work.
FISHER, GEORGE PARK, an Amer-
ican educator; born in Wrentham,
Mass., Aug. 10, 1827; was graduated dt
Brown University in 1847; studied
theology at the Yale Divinity School; at
Andover, and in Germany; was Pro-
fessor of Divinity in 1854-1861, and
subsequently of Ecclesiastical History at
Yale. He was the author of "Essays on
the Supernatural Origin of Christian-
ity," "History of the Reformation,"
"The Grounds of Historic and Christian
Belief," "Manual of Christian Evi-
dences," "Colonial History of the United
States." He died in 1909.
FISHER, HARRISON, an American
illustrator; born in Brooklyn, N. Y., in
1876. He was educated in San Fran-
cisco. He was recognized as one of the
most talented of American illustrators,
and his work appeared in the leading
magazines. He made illustrations for
"The Market Place," by Harold Fred-
eric; "The Eagle's Heart," by Hamlin
Garland; and other books.
FISHER, HERBERT ALBERT
LAURENS, a British legislator. He
FISHER
14S
FISK
was born in London in 1865 and was
educated at Winchester and Oxford
University. He divided his time between
politics and educational subjects, and in
1912 became a member of the Commis-
sion on the Public Services of India. In
1916 he was elected to represent the
Hallam Division of Sheffield in Parlia-
ment, and in the same year became
President of the Board of Education.
His publications include: "The Mediaeval
Empire," "Studies in Napoleonic States-
manship," "A Political History of Eng-
land," ''Bonapartism," "Life of F. W.
Maitland," "The Republican Tradition
in Europe," "Political Unions," "Napo-
leon Bonaparte," with contributions to
many magazines.
FISHER, IRVING, an American eco-
nomist; born in Saugei'ties, N. Y., in
1867. He graduated from Yale in 1888
and afterward studied in Bei'lin and in
Paris. In 1890 he joined the faculty of
Yale and became successively assistant
professor and professor of political econ-
omy, the latter in 1898. From 1896 to
1910 he was editor of the "Yale Review."
He was president and director of many
important commissions, including the
Citizens' Commission on War-Time Pro-
hibition, and the National Conservation
Commission, appointed by President
Roosevelt. In 1917 he was chairman of
the board of scientific directors of the
Eugenics Record Office. During the
campaign of 1920 he was active in sup-
port of the League of Nations as a cam-
paign issue. He wrote "The Nature of
Capital and Income" (1906) ; "The Rate
of Interest" (1907) ; "The Purchasing
Power of Money" (1911); "Stabilizing
the Dollar" (1919). He also contrib-
uted numerous articles to magazines.
FISHER'S HILL, a lofty eminence,
about 20 miles S. of Winchester, Va.,
between the Massanutten and North
Mountains, and with its base washed by
a branch of the Shenandoah. This place
was the scene of a smart action, Sept.
22, 1864, between a National force under
General Sheridan, and one of Confeder-
ates commanded by General Early, in
which the latter was defeated with the
loss of about 1,000 men killed and
wounded, over 1,000 prisoners, and 16
guns. Among the killed were Generals
Rhodes and Goodwin. The Union casual-
ties numbered about 3,000.
FISHERY, the business or occupation
of catching fish. The word fishery is
popularly used in a comprehensive sense ;
not merely is there a herring fishery, a
salmon fishery, a cod fishery, a pilchard
fishery, etc., for catching these genuine
fishes, there is a whale fishery for har-
pooning the mammals called whales, a
crab and lobster fishery for catching
those crustaceans, an oyster fishery for
obtaining those testaceaus mollusks, as
well as a seal fishery for capturing those
animals. The great locality for the
whale fishery is the polar regions of the
N. and S. hemispheres, that for the cod
fisheries the banks of Newfoundland,
that for the herring fishery the entire
E. coast of this country and the coasts
of Great Britain and Ireland, that for
the salmon fishery the rivers of North
America and Great Britain. The prac-
tice of salting fish was known to the
Egyptians about 1351 b. c, or even
earlier. Herrings were largely caught in
Scotland, as early as the 9th century.
The injudicious interference of the gov-
ernment drove some of the fishermen to
Holland. The fisheries of the United
States are superintended by the federal
Bureau of Fisheries which is a division of
the Department of Commerce. There are
also similar bureaus in many States,
and extensive hatcheries for propa-
gation of various species with which
to stock our waters have been established.
In 1919 the number of vessels employed
in the fishery industry of the United
States was estimated at 8,280 of 228,000
tons; the number of persons employed
at 188,000; the capital invested at
$142,140,000; and value of products at
$110,992,000, about one-fifth of the total
value of fishery products throughout the
world.
FISK, CLINTON BOWEN, an Ameri-
can soldier and publicist, born in 1828
at Greigsville, N. Y. For some time he
was engaged in business in Michigan and
then removed to St. Louis. He entered
the Union army at the outbreak of the
Civil War and in 1865 was brevetted
major-general. He devoted the remain-
der of his life chiefly to the interests of
the negro race and was assistant com-
missioner in the Freedmen's Bureau. He
was instrumental in founding Fisk Uni-
versity. In 1884 he left the Republican
party and joined the temperance move-
ment. He was Prohibition candidate for
Governor of New Jersey in 1886, and for
President of the United States in 1888.
He died in 1890.
FISK, FRANKLIN W., an American
educator; born in Hopkinton, Vt., in
1820; was graduated at Yale University
in 1849; taught there awhile; then be-
came Professor of Rhetoric in the Sem-
inary of Beloit, Wis. He was called to
the Chicago Theological Seminary when
that school was founded in 1859. Sub-
sequently he was president of the sem-
inarv till 1900 when he resiened. He
died" in Chicago, 111., July 4, 1901.
FISK UNIVERSITY
144
FISSURE
FISK UNIVERSITY, a coeducational years later she became a star under the
institution for colored persons in Nash- name of Minnie Maddern. She became
^ille, Tenn. ; founded in 1866 under the one of the most eminent artists on the
auspices of the Congregational Church. American stage. Among the most suc-
FISKE, BRADLEY ALLEN, an
American naval officer; bom in Lyons,
N. Y., June 13, 1854; was appointed a
cadet midshipman in the United States
navy Sept. 24, 1870; became a lieutenant
Jan. 26, 1887, and a lieutenant-comman-
der March 3, 1899. He invented a boat
detaching and attaching apparatus for
warships in 1877; the first electric am-
munition used in the navy in 1888; elec-
tric gun training apparatus and electric
steering gear the same year; range and
position finders in 1889; improvements
of the range finder and electric steering
gear in 1895; and an electrical appara-
tus for transmitting the orders of a
ship's commander from the deck bridge
to the engine room in 1896; and was at-
tached to the Naval Bureau of Ordnance
from 1895. In 1901 he was appointed a
lieutenant-commander and, by promotion,
a rear-admiral in 1911. He assisted in
naval operations 1913-1915, retiring in
the latter year. Was awarded Cresson
gold medal by French Institute in 1893,
Gold Medal by U. S. Naval Institute for
prize essay "American Naval Policy"
(1905) ; author "Electricity and Electri-
cal Engineering,** "Electricity in Theory
and Practice," "War Times in Manila"
(1915). He published "Electricity and
Electrical Engineering."
FISKE, JOHN, an American his-
torian; born in Hartford, Conn., March
30, 1842. He was graduated at Harvard
College in 1863, and in 1865 took his
degree in law, but never practiced. He
was for a while lecturer on philosophy at
Harvard, and in 1872-1879 assistant li-
brarian. He was author of "Mvths and
Myth-Makers" (1872) ; "Outlines of
Cosmic Philosophy" (2 vols. 1875), his
principal work, in which he gives an
exposition of the philosophy of natural
evolution; "The Unseen World" (1876);
"Darwinism" (1879) ; "The Idea of God"
(1885). On phases of American history,
he wrote: "American Political Ideas"
(1885) ; "The Critical Period of Ameri-
can History, 1783-1789" (1888); "The
Beginnings of New England" (1889) ;
"The American Revolution" (3 vols.
1891) ; "Discovery of America" (2 vols.
1892). He died in Gloucester, Mass.,
July 4, 1901.
FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN, an
American actress, born in New Orleans
in 1865. She took a child's part on the
stage when but three years of age, and
at the age of twelve, played leading
roles in old women's parts. Three
MINNIE MADDERN FISKE
cessful plays in which she appeared were
"Tess of the D'Urbervilles," "Becky
Sharp," and plays of Ibsen.
FISMES, FRANCE, a town in the de-
partment of the Marne, situated at the
juncture of the Vesle and the Ardre,
seventeen miles N. W. of Rheims. Shortly
after the invasion of northern France
by the Germans, in the summer of 1914,
Fismes was occupied by them and used
as a supply depot. They were finally
ousted by the American troops, who
entered the town on Aug. 4, 1918. Pop.
about 3,000.
FISSURE, in ordinary language, a
cleft; a narrow opening made by the
parting or opening of any substance; a
crack. In botany the opening of seed-
vessels, anthers etc. In heraldry, the
fourth part of the bend sinister. In
geology, a crack in the strata, produced
by volcanic or earthquake action, sub-
sidence, or any other cause. Fissure
of Glaser: In anatomy, a fissure in the
ear, separating the upper margin of the
tympanic plate from the glenoid fossa.
Fissure of Rolando: In anatomy, a
fissure separating the parietal from the
frontal lobe of the cerebrum. Fissure
of Sylvius: In anatomy, a fissure or
deep cleft commencing on the under sur-
FISSURE NEEDLE
145
FITZROT
face of the brain, and passing trans-
versely outward to the lateral surface
of the hemisphere, where it divides into
two limbs. Fissures of Santorini: In
anatomy, irregular gaps transversely
dividing the cartilaginous tube of the
ear. Great fissure of Bichat: In
anatomy, a fissure connecting the two
limbs of the fissure of Sylvius.
FISSURE NEEDLE, a spiral needle
for drawing together the gaping lips of
wounds. By revolution, the point is made
to pierce the lips alternately, carrying its
thread with it.
FISTULA, a shepherd's pipe; a water-
pipe. In zoology, the intermediate sub-
quadrangular pipe, in insects, formed by
the union of the two branches of the an-
thia which conveys the nectar to the
pharynx.
In surgery, a long and sinuous ulcer,
having a narrow opening, sometimes
leading to a larger cavity, and which has
no disposition to heal.
FITCH. JOHN, an American inventor;
born in East Windsor, Conn., Jan. 21,
1743; manufactured arms during the
Revolutionary War. In 1786 he built a
steamboat which could run eight miles
an hour. Two years later a company
was organized in Philadelphia, which
built a steampacket that ran on the Dela-
ware river for about two years, when the
company failed. He wrote a history of
his work on the steamboat. He died in
Bardstown, Ky., July 2, 1798.
FITCH, WILLIAM CLYDE, an Amer-
ican playwright and author; born in New
York, May 2, 1865. He was educated at
Hartford, Conn., and Amherst College,
Amherst, Mass. He wrote a number of
successful plays, among them "Beau
Brummell" and "Bohemia," "The Climb-
ers." "The Way of the World," "The
Girl and the Judge," etc. He is also the
author of "The Knighting of the Twins,
and Ten Other Tales" and "Some Cor-
I'espondence and Six Conversations."
He died Sept. 4, 1909.
FITCHBURG. a city and one of the
county-seats of Worcester co., Mass., on
the New York, New Haven, and Hart-
ford, railroad; 50 miles N. W. of Boston.
It comprises the villages of Traskville,
Rockville, South Fitchburg, West Fitch-
burg, and Fitchburg Center. It contains
a public library, high school, electric
street railroad, electric lights, several
National and savings banks, and a
number of daily and weekly newspapers.
There are manufactories of pianofortes,
tools, machinery, paper, saws, electrical
apparatus, steam engines, bicycles, fire-
arms, cotton, and woolen goods, etc
Pop. (1910) 37,826; (1920) 41,013.
FITZGERALD, a city of Georgia, the
county-seat of Ben Hill co. It is on the
Seaboard Air Line, the Atlanta, Bir-
mingham and Atlantic, and the Ocilla
Southern railroads. Its industries in-
clude cotton and oil mills, fertilizer
plants, and railroad repair shops. It
has a large trade in timber and turpen-
tine. Pop. (1910) 5,795; (1920) 6,870.
FITZGERALD, EDWARD, LORD, an
Irish patriot; born near Dublin, Ireland,
in 1763. He was a son of the first Duke
of Leinster. He distinguished himself
for intrepidity as aide-de-camp to Lord
Rawdon in the latter part of the Ameri-
can Revolutionary War, and was severely
wounded in the battle of Eutaw Springs.
When the French Revolution broke out,
he supported its principles, and in 1793
hastened to Paris. Here he married
Pamela, the daughter, it is said, of Louis
Philippe Joseph, the Duke of Orleans,
and Madame de Genlis. On his return to
Ireland, Fitzgerald was desirous of ef-
fecting a separation of that country from
England, and induced the French Direc-
tory to furnish him with a fleet and
troops. A landing was attempted on sev-
eral occasions, but without success, owing
to the vigilance of the English channel
fleet; and Fitzgerald was seized, tried,
and condemned to death. He died of his
wounds before the time fixed for his ex-
ecution, 1798. His wife had been edu-
cated with the daughters of the Duke of
Orleans, by Madame de Genlis, and mar-
ried a second time, Mr. Pitcairn, the
American consul at Hamburg.
FITZGERALD. EDWARD, an Eng-
lish poet; born in Bredfield House, near
SuflTolk, England, March 31, 1809. His
father, John Purcell, assumed the name
Fitzgerald, which was his wife's family
name. His writings are for the most
part remodeled translations of poems in
other languages; among them are: "Six
Dramas from Calderon" (1853), and
two more ("The Mighty Magician" and
"Such Stuff as Dreams Are Made of")
subsequently "The Rubaiyat of Omar
Khayyam" (1859), a translation that
won for Fitzgerald great celebrity; a
version of the "Agamemnon" of .^Eschy-
lus; and versions of other Greek and
Persian poets. He died in Merton, Nor-
folk, England, June 14, 1883.
FITZROY. two Australian rivers, one
in Western Australia and one in Queens-
land. The first rises in the King Leopold
Mountains and after a westerly course
of about 300 miles enters into King
Sound on the Indian Ocean. It is navi-
FIUME
146
FLAG
gable for about 100 miles. The Queens-
land river is formed by the junction of
the Mackenzie and the Dawson rivers.
It flows in an easterly direction into
Keppel Bay on the Pacific coast. It is
navigable for about 40 miles from its
mouth.
FIUME, a city on the west coast of
the Adriatic, forty miles S. E. of Trieste.
It is a large, modern city, with buildings
of large size, covering eight square miles,
and with a population of 50,000, com-
prising Slavs and Italians. Fiume was,
before the World War, under Hungarian
sovereignty, and constituted the only
seaport of the kingdom, for which reason
much money was spent in its develop-
ment. Its exports averaged $35,000,000
a year, and its imports only slightly less.
It was also of first-class importance as an
industrial center, there being established
here large manufacturing plants for the
production of Whitehead torpedoes,
paper, petroleum, and flour. Extensive
fisheries were carried on in the Adriatic
with Fiume as their center.
After the collapse of the Austro-Hun-
garian Empire, in 1918, the city fell into
the hands of the Jugoslavs, who claimed
it on the ground that it was indisputably
situated in Slav territory. This claim,
however, Italy was disposed to contest,
contending that the majority of the pop-
ulation within the city was Italian, and
desired to be part of Italy. A compro-
mise was finally effected, both parties
agreeing that Fiume should become a
free city. Suddenly, on Sept. 12, 1919,
it was announced that a force of Italian
soldiers, under the leadership of Captain
Gabriele d'Annunzio, the famous poet
and writer, who had distinguished him-
self as an aviator during the war, had
entered the city and taken possession by
armed force, declaring that the city
should remain Italian. This action was
not only without the sanction of the
Italian Government, but occupation was
continued in spite of the orders of the
Premier that the Italian soldiers within
the city should withdraw. A threat was
even made to send other Italian forces
against the mutineers. D'Annunzio's
popularity, however, gave him a moral
force stronger than the military force of
the Government, or even of that of the
Allies, for, in November, 1920, he was
still in possession. A treaty signed by
Italy and Jugoslavia on Nov. 12, 1920,
made Fiume a free city.
FIVE FORKS, a locality near Din-
widdle Court-house, Va. Here, on April
1, 1865, a severe engagement was fought
between the National troops and the
Confederates, the former under the com-
mand of General Sheridan, and the latter
under that of General Lee. After sev-
eral hours' heavy fighting, the Confed-
erates retreated with a loss of a large
number of killed and wounded, 5,000
prisoners, and several guns. The Na-
tional loss was about 1,000 men, includ-
ing General Winthrop, who was killed.
FIVES, an English game at ball, in
which the ball is struck against a wall.
It is played either in close or in open
courts, of various shapes and propor-
tions. The game is known as hand-fives
or bat-fives, according as the ball is
struck by the open hand or a small
wooden bat. Also the first, or hand, as
having five fingers. Also a disease in
horses, resembling the staggers, and con-
sisting of an inflammation of the parotid
glands; written also vives.
FIXED STAR, in pyrotechnics, a com-
position introduced into a rocket case
and emitting fire at five holes, to repre-
sent a star. The composition is niter,
sulphur, gunpowder meal, and antimony.
In astronomy, fixed stars are those
which till lately were supposed absolute-
ly to maintain their relative positions
toward each other in the sky, and are
still admitted to do so very nearly. They
are contra-distinguished from planets or
"wandering stars." The number of
fixed stars is infinitely great, especially in
the part of the heavens called the Milky
Way (see Galaxy). From a remote
period of antiquity they have been
grouped into constellations (see Con-
stellation). They shine by their own
light, and probably are suns each one
surrounded by planets of its own. Some
stars are periodic, and vary in bright-
ness, others disappear and come again.
There are double and triple stars, grav-
ity operating on their movements.
FIXTURE, in law, a term applied to
things of an accessory nature annexed
to houses or lands, so as to become part
of the realty. The annexation must be
by the article being set into or united
with the land, or with some substance
previously connected therewith. Thus a
shed built upon a frame not let into the
earth, is not a fixture. Machines and
other things erected for the purposes
of trade are not fixtures, if they can be
removed without material damage to
the property. Fixtures may not be dis-
trained upon.
FLAG, an ensign or colors; a piece of
cloth, either plain or colored, and hav-
ing certain figures, lines, or marks
painted or worked on it; a banner indi-
cating nationality, occrpation, or intelli-
gence. Flags of nationality are stand-
ards, ensigns, pennants (pendants),
jacks. Flags of occupation indicate serv-
FLAGELLANTS
147
FLAGLER
ice, as war, merchant, dispatch, pilot,
yacht-squadron, liners, etc. Flags of
intelligence are of various colors and of
three shapes: square, pointed, and bur-
gee. They are used in various combina-
tions to transmit messages according to
a printed or secret code. The standard
(military or naval) is a war flag. The
ensign is national. The idea of stand-
ards originated with the Egyptians, at
an early age. The Crusaders added the
cross to their banners. The union of
the three crosses of St. George, St. An-
drew, and St. Patrick, marks, first the
union of England and Scotland into the
kingdom of Great Britain; and, then,
this kingdom with Ireland. This is
termed the Great Union Flag of Great
Britain, and was brought by the colo-
nists to America. When the 13 colonies
began to feel the pressure of British
rule they placed upon their banners a
rattlesnake, cut in 13 pieces, represent-
ing the 13 colonies, with the motto:
"Join or die." When these colonies be-
came more united in their purpose of
resistance to British tyranny, they
placed upon their flag a well-formed
rattlesnake in the attitude of about to
strike, with the motto, "Don't tread on
me."
The next form of the United States
flag was our present standard, the Stars
and Stripes. On June 14, 1777, the Con-
tinental Congress resolved that the flag
of the United States be 13 stripes, alter-
nate red and white, and that the union
be 13 white stars on a blue field, repre-
senting ''a new constellation." On Jan.
13, 1794, by an act of Congress, the flag
was altered to 15 red and white stripes,
and 15 stars. On April 4, 1818, Con-
gress again altered the flag by returning
to the original 13 stripes and 15 stars,
as the adding of a new stripe for each
additional State would soon make the
flag too unwieldy. The new star is
added to the flag on July 4, following
the admission of each State into the
Union.
Also, the uneven end of an uncut tuft
of hair on a brush. To strike or lower
the flag: To pull the flag down in token
of respect, surrender, or submission. To
dip the flag: To lower it for a brief
space as a salute or mark of respect.
To hang the flag half-mast high: To
raise it only halfway up the staff as a
token of mourning.
FLAGELLANTS, a Christian sect
which arose in 1260 at Perugia, called
by the French Peronse, and spread
throughout and beyond Italy. Its ad-
herents, who saw a plague raging, and
moreover expected the world speedily to
terminate, believed that they could "pro-
pititate the Divine Being by walking in
procession with only a cloth tied round
them, and flagellating their bare shoul-
ders with whips which they carried. At
first they were noted for sanctity, and
made many converts, but doubtful char-
acters beginning to join their ranks,
they fell into disrepute, and were re-
strained from their processions by the
civil and ecclesiastical authorities, when
the sect gradually died away. The terror
produced by the dreadful disease called
the black death, which destroyed many
millions of people in Europe between
1348 and 1351, produced a revival of the
flagellation mania, which spread over
most of Europe. In 1349 Clement VII.
declared the Flagellants heretics and
took steps to repress them. In 1414 an
effort was made in Thuringia to revive
them anew, but the burning alive of
their leader, Conrad Schmidt, and 90 of
his followers led to the gradual decline
of the sect.
FLAGEOLET, in music, a small pipe
with a mouth-piece inserted in a bulb
(hence the derivation of the name from
the same root from which the word fla-
gon comes), producing a shrill sound,
similar but much softer in quality than
that produced from the flauto piccolo.
It was formerly employed in the orches-
tra. Also the tone produced from a vio-
lin by lightly pressing the bow near the
bridge upon lightly touched strings, is
called flageolet or flute tone.
FLAGG, JAMES MONTGOMERY, an
American artist and illustrator, born in
Pelham Manor, N. Y., in 1877. He was
educated privately and in the New York
public schools. He studied at the Art
Students' League in New York, and in
Paris. In 1890 he began his work as
an illustrator, and within a few years
his work appeared in nearly all the im-
portant magazines. He also illustrated
several well-known books. He became
well known as a painter of portraits. He
wrote and illustrated several books, in-
cluding "Yankee Girls Abroad" (1900);
"Why They Married" (1906) ; "The
Mystery of the Hated Man" (1916).
During the World War he was ap-
pointed State military artist of New
York and designed 45 war posters.
FLAGLER, HENRY M., an Ameri-
can capitalist, born in Canandaigua, N.
Y., in 1830. For several years he acted
as a clerk in a country store, and was
later a manufacturer of salt in Michi-
gan. He came in association with Johi
D. Rockefeller in the oil business, and
became a member of the Standard Oil
Co. He was vice-president and practi-
cal head of this corporation until 1908,
FLAMBOBOUGH HEAD
148
FLAME THEOWEBS
and was a director until 1911. He was
interested in the development of the
east coast of Florida and built several
of the largest hotels at Palm Beach, St.
Augustine, and other resorts. He was
also instrumental in the building of the
Florida East Coast Railway and was a
director in many other important rail-
roads and financial institutions. He
died in 1913.
FLAMBOROUGH HEAD, a bold
promontory of England, on the York-
shire coast, projecting a considerable dis-
tance into the sea ; lat. 54° 7' N., Ion.
0°5' W. This is at once the most strik-
ing and most celebrated headland on the
E. coast of Great Britain, rising 450 feet
sheer above the sea, having on its sum-
mit a lighthouse, 214 feet high, showing
a revolving light. For the battle of
Flamborough Head, see Jones, Paul.
FLAME, in chemistry, a shell of in-
candescent matter surrounding a mass of
combustible vapor. To produce flame it
is therefore necessary that the burning
body should be capable of volatilization
just below the temperature at which it
undergoes combustion. Charcoal or iron
will burn with a steady glow, more or
less luminous according to the medium
in which they are burnt, neither of these
substances being susceptible of volatili-
zation at the temperature at which com-
bustion takes place. A piece of wood or
paper, on the contrary, burns with a
large luminous flame, in consequence of
the combustible matter of which it is
composed rising in vapor or becoming
converted into mixed gases at the tem-
perature required for kindling the sub-
stance. Flame is, in fact, produced when-
ever a continuous supply of inflammable
vapor or gas is made to combine with a
supporter of combustion, such as the
atmosphere, at a sufficiently elevated
temperature to cause ignition. The heat-
ing power of a flame is in direct propor-
tion to the energy of the chemical action
that takes place, those flames being hot-
test and least luminous which proceed
from gases containing no solid particles,
as in the case of a mixture of oxygen
and hydrogen in the proportion necessary
to form water, which is one of the hottest
flames we have at our command. The
most luminous flames are from gases
which contain just sufficient solid matter
to give the maximum of incandescence
without any of its particles passing
away unburnt. defiant gas and the
ordinax'y coal gas are good examples of
this as compared with the oxyhydrogen
flame, which contains no solid "matter on
the one hand, and the flame of pitch or
turpentine on the other, which contains
too much carbon, the excess passing off
in the form of smoke. The flames used for
illuminating purposes are all produced
by the combustion of compounds con-
taining carbon and hydrogen. Besides
the proper proportions of gaseous and
solid matter contained in illuminating
substances, care must be taken to regu-
late the supply of air. The Argand
Lamp (q. v.) and chimney, as applied to
gas and camphene, are examples of this.
Flame has three distinct parts: The
central or non-luminous part, where
there is no combustion, but where the
carbon begins to separate from the
hydrogen; the second or luminous part,
where the carbon is for a moment free
and heated to a white heat; and the
exterior part, which is the hottest, and
where the combustion is complete. It is
easy now to understand of what impor-
tance is the form of the burner, and
how it may be modified accordingly as
we desire light or heat. If we wish light
the carbon must be protected for some
seconds from contact with the air; but
not long enough to allow it to pass off
unconsumed. If, on the contrary, heat
is desired, the carbon must be burned
as quickly as possible. The German
chemist Bunsen constructed a gas burner
after this theory, which is perfectly
adapted to the production of heat. Every
mixture of gases requires a certain tem-
perature to inflame it; and if the tem-
perature be not reached, the mixture does
not take fire; we may thus cool down
a flame so much that it goes out by plac-
ing over it a small coil of cold copper
wire, whereas if the coil be previously
heated, the flame will contine to burn.
If a piece of wire gauze be held close
over a jet of gas and the gas lit, the
gauze may be removed several inches
above the jet, and yet the inflammable
gas below will not take fire, the flame
burning only above the gauze. See
Safety Lamp.
FLAME THROWEBS, or FLAMMEN-
WERFER, were used by the Germans
in the World War as a weapon of
attack. They consisted of a cylindrical
vessel of steel, approximately two feet
long and fifteen inches in diameter,
divided internally into two compart-
ments. The upper compartment con-
tained nitrogen under a pressure of
twenty-three atmospheres, while the
lower was filled with inflammable oil. The
cylinder was strapped to the back of the
operator, and toward the base was affixed
a valve to which was attached a short
length of flexible hose ending in a nozzle.
On opening the valve the oil was forced
out under pressure and moved an auto^
matic friction lighter which ignited the
oil, thus producing a spray of "liquid
)Eunng Galloi^ay
A FISHING BOAT LEAVING BOSTON HARBOR
)ColoniaI Press Service
HOISTING A TUNA FISH FROM A SPILLER TRAP INTO A FISHERMAN'S SMACK
©Colonial Press Service
PURSING THE SEINE NET FOR "SARDINE" FISHING IN THE
NEW BRUNSWICK FISHING GROUNDS
©Colonial Press Service
A CATCH OF HERRING, NEW BRUNSWICK FISHING GROUNDS
} V ft
© Underwood & '^ndcncood
A VIEIW ON THE TOMOKA RIVER, FLORIDA, SHOWING TYPICAL VEGETATION
AND AN ALLIGATOR IN THE FOREGROUND
©American Photo Service
THE CATHEDRAL OF NOTRE DAME AT RHEIMS, AT THE CLOSE OF THE WORLD WAR
FLAMINGO
149
FLANK
fire," which was directed toward the
enemy. The oil was a carefully com-
pounded mixture of light and heavy com-
ponents, the lighter portion being either
gasoline or ether, and the heavier portion
higher boiling petroleum oils,
FLAMINGO, a bird, Phcenicoptems
mber, which has very long legs, and in
other respects so much resembles one of
the grallatores (waders), that it was
long classed with them. But Swainson
pointed out that its feet have the webbed
toes of the duck, and the bill is a modi-
fication of a duck's bill. He therefore
placed it with the natatorial (swimming)
FLAMINGO
birds. The plumage is rose-colored, the
wing coverts red, the quill feathers of the
wings black. It is about 3% feet high.
It is found in the S. of Europe, frequent-
ing the seashore, and living on mollusca,
Crustacea, and smaller fishes. Also the
genus Phcenicoptems, of which species
exist in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South
America. They are gregarious and mi-
gratory, moving in large flocks.
FLAMMARION, CAMILLE (fla-ma-
re-6n'), a French astronomer, writer on
descriptive astronomy, and "astronomical
novelist"; born in Montigny-le-Roi,
Haute-Marne, France, Feb. 25, 1842.
He was designed by his parents for the
Church, but went over to science, and by
a long course of writings of a more or
less popular character made his name
widely known. "The Plurality of the
Inhabited Worlds" (1862); "Celestial
Wonders" (1865); "The Atmosphere"
(1872); "Urania" (1889); "The Planet
Mars and Its Habitability" (1892) ;
"Popular Astronomy" (1894) ; and "Lu-
men" (1897), "Thunder and Lightning"
(1906), "Mysterious Psychic Forces"
(1907), etc., are among his best known
works.
FLANDERS, the name of a very in-
teresting and early civilized portion of
Europe, forming two contiguous prov-
inces of Belgium, termed East Flanders
and West Flanders, respectively, bound-
ed on the N. W. by the North Sea, and
inclosed on its other sides by the prov-
inces of Antwerp, Zealand, South Bra-
bant, Hainault, and the French depart-
ment Nord. East Flanders is separated
from West Flanders by a line running
almost due S. from Sluys, a small town
nearly opposite Flushing. Area, 1,158
square miles; pop. about 1,134,079. The
surface is level in the N. part, while to
the S. it consists of undulating plains.
The soil is heavy loam, and highly fer-
tile. Capital, Ghent.
West Flanders has a considerable
coast-line, in the central part of which
is the port of Ostend. This side faces
the N., but the W. boundary of the
province adjoins the French territory.
Area, 1,249 square miles; pop. about
885,000. The surface is generally level,
excepting the dunes, or sand-hills, on the
coast. The soil is fertile and agricul-
ture good. Capital, Bruges. For pro-
ductions, manufactures, etc., and history,
see Belgium.
FLANK, one of the two parts of the
body which enable it to bend; the part
of the side of an animal between the
ribs and the hip. As a military term,
either side of a body of troops;
the extremities of a body of soldiers
in line, or the sides of a column,
being termed the right and left flanks
respectively. In any defense work, it
is applied to that part from which a fire
may be directed against the side or flank
of an attacking party. Thus, the flanks
of a bastion are those parts of the ram-
part and parapet which connect its faces
with the extremities of the curtains of
the enceinte on either side of it. A fire
from the flanks is effective in preventing
an attacking party from eflfecting a
lodgment at the foot of the curtain that
FLANNAGAN
150
FLEA
lies between them, which might be done
with comparative ease and security if
these portions of the work did not exist.
A fire from the flanks of any bastion enfi-
lades the ditch at the foot of the curtain.
In architecture, the side of any building.
In machinery, the straight part of the
tooth of a wheel which receives the im-
pulse. Flanks, in farriery, a wrench,
strain, or other injury received by a
horse in the back.
FLANNAGAN, JOHN, an American
sculptor; born at Newark, N. J. He
studied under Augustus Saint-Gaudens
and in Paris. Among the most important
works executed by him were the monu-
mental clock in the Library of Congress;
a bronze relief at the Newark Public
Library; and a number of porti-ait busts
and heads. He was awarded many
medals for the excellence of his work,
and was an associate of the National
Academy and a member of the National
Sculpture Society.
FLAT. In music, a character of the
form b, which depresses the note before
which it is placed, a chromatic semitone.
Thus D6 signifies a semi-tone below D
natural. On keyed instruments the short
keys are the representatives of these flats
and sharps. An accidental flat is one
which, though not occurring at the com-
mencement of the staff, is inserted in any
other part of it, and only affects the bar
in which it is placed. A flat fifth is an
interval of a fifth depressed by a flat.
FLATHEAD, or SALISH, INDIANS,
in the State of Washington, a tribe in-
habiting the region between lat. 48° and
50° N., and Ion. 117° and 121° W, They
are so named on account of a practice
formerly prevalent among them, of flat-
tening the heads of their infants by arti-
ficial means. The custom, it is said, has
been abandoned by this tribe, though it
still exists among several neighboring
tribes, to whom the name of Flathead
is not generally given. They are short
of stature, and badly formed, with wide
mouth, thick nose and lips, and large
nostrils.
FLAUBEET, GUSTAV (flo-bar'), a
French novelist; born in Rouen, France,
Dec. 12, 1821. His gfreatest novel was
his first, "Madame Bovary" (1857). He
next wrote a historical novel, "Salamm-
bo," the scene laid in the most flour-
ishing period of Carthage ; "The History
of a Young Man" (1869)"; "The Temp-
tation of St. Anthony" (1874), and
"Three Stories" (1877). The posthu-
mous novel "Bouvard and Pecuchet"
(1881) is a satire on humanity in gen-
eral. His comedy "The Candidate"
(1874) failed on the stage. He died in
Rouen, May 8, 1880.
FLAX BRAKE, a machine for remov-
ing the woody and cellular portion of
flax from the fibrous. Also a machine
for shortening flax staple to adapt it to
be worked by a given class of machines,
FLAXMAN, JOHN, an English sculp-
tor and draughtsman; born in York,
England, July 6, 1755, His father was
a figure-molder. The son, from his earli-
est years, exhibited and cultivated his
talent for designing, and was also at-
tracted by the picturesque conceptions of
Greek mythology. He began to study at
the Royal Academy in 1770, earning for
some time a living by making designs
for Wedgwood, the potter, and other per-
sons. He went to Italy in 1787, and dur-
ing the seven years he spent there, his
wife accompanying him, he acquired the
highest reputation by three series of de-
signs, the illustrations to Homer, -lEschy-
lus, and Dante. He was chosen A. R. A.
in 1797, and Professor of Sculpture in
1810. The monument to Lord Mansfield
in Westminster Abbey, the group of
"Cephalus and Aurora," "Psyche," the
group of the "Archangel Michael and
Satan," are among his best works. The
monuments to Nelson Howe, and Reyn-
olds in St. Paul's are by his hand. ()ne
of his latest and finest productions is the
"Shield of Achilles." He died in London,
Dec. 7, 1826. The sculptures and sketches
of Flaxman are exhibited in a gallery,
called the "Flaxman Hall," at University
College, London.
FLEA, a too well-known wingless in-
sect. Pulex irritans. Though, as a rule,
each species of Pulex is parasitic only on
one animal, as P. canis upon the dog,
P. talpse on the mole, and P. hirundinis
on the swallow, yet P. penetrans is said
to be an exception, and to prey on man,
the dog, and the cat. The female lays
in the cracks of floors or such places, a
dozen of eggs, white and a little ciscous.
In favorable weather they hatch in five
or six days, giving exit to little footless
larvae, like small worms, first white, then
reddish, which roll themselves in a circle
or spiral, and move forward in a serpen-
tine manner. In about 12 days they in-
close themselves in a small silken shell,
and become nymphs. After another 12
they come forth as perfect insects. The
last brood of summer continues in the
larval state all winter. The flea is in-
cased in armor like a mediaeval knight.
It can leap 30 times its own height; it
can draw with ease 80 times its own
weight. A plant, Fleabane, has been
said to destroy it.
In Scripture, the rendering of the
FLEECE, ORDER OF GOLDEN 151
FLEUR DE LIS
Hebrew word parsh; Sept. psyllos; Vulg.
pidex, which is probably correct. The
Hebrew word, according to Gesenius, is
from an obsolete quadrilateral root,
paras h = to leap (1 Sam. xxiv:14;
xxvi:20).
FLEECE, ORDER OF THE GOLDEN.
See Golden Fleece.
FLEMISH SCHOOL, a school of paint-
ing highly recommended to the lovers of
the art by the invention, or at least the
first practice, of painting in oil. It has
been generally attributed to John Van
Eyck, in the beginning of the 15th cen-
tury, who was, it is said, accustomrd to
varnish his distemper pictures with a
composition of oils, which was pleasing
on account of the luster it gave them. In
course of practice he came to mix his
colors with oil, instead of water, which
rendered them brilliant without the trou-
ble of varnishing. From this and sub-
sequent experiments arose the art of
painting in oil. The attention of the
Italian painters was soon excited. John
of Bruges was the founder of painting
as a profession in Flanders. The chief
masters of the school were Memling,
Weyden, Rubens, Vandyck, Snyders, and
the younger Teniers.
FLENSBORG, one of the most popu-
lous towns of Slesvig, at the extremity
of the Flensborg Fjord, an inlet from the
Baltic, forty miles N. W. of Kiel. It
was taken from the Danes by the Ger-
mans in 1866. Pop. about 60,000.
FLETCHER, DUNCAN UPSHAW, a
United States Senator from Florida,
born in Sumter county, Ga., in 1859. He
graduated from Vanderbilt University in
1880 and afterward studied law at that
institution. He was admitted to the bar
in 1881 and engaged in practice in Jack-
sonville, Fla. He was a member of the
Florida House of Representatives in
1893, and for two years following was
mayor of Jacksonville. He was appointed
United States senator by the governor
of the State in 1909, and was elected
senator by the legislature in the same
year. He was re-elected in 1914. He was
chairman of the Senate Committee on
Commerce.
FLETCHER, FRANK FRIDAY, an
American admiral, born at Oskaloosa, la.,
in 1855. He graduated from the United
States Naval Academy in 1875 and in the
following year was promoted ensign. He
was promoted through the various
grades to the rank of rear-admiral, in
1911. After performing important duties
on shore and at sea, he was in 1913 ap-
pointed commander of the 3d division of
the Atlantic Fleet, and was later com-
mander of the 2d and 1st divisions. In
1913 and 1914 he commanded the naval
force on the west coast of Mexico, and
on April 21 seized and occupied the city
of Vera Cruz. In 1914 he was appointed
commander-in-chief of the Atlantic Fleet,
and in the following year was appointed
admiral. During the World War he was
a member of the War Industries Board
of the Council of National Defense, and
a member of the General Board of the
Navy. He invented several pieces of
mechanism for guns and was awarded
a medal of honor for distinguished con-
duct in battle.
FLETCHER, GILES, an English
clergyman and poet, cousin of John;
born in London, England, about 1580.
His only notable composition was a
sacred poem entitled "Christ's Victorie
and Triumph in Heaven and Earth over
and after Death" (1610), rich in imagery
and descriptions of natural scenery.
Parts of it were utilized by Milton in his
"Paradise Regained." He died in Alder-
ton, in 1623.
FLETCHER, JOHN. See BEAUMONT,
Francis, and Fletcher, John.
FLETCHER, SIR LAZARUS, a Brit-
ish scientist. He was born at Salford,
England, in 1854, and was educated at
Manchester Grammar School and Oxford
University. In 1880 he became Keeper of
Minerals in the British Museum and in
1882 Examiner for Natural Sciences
Tripos, Cambridge. He is a member and
official of many British and other scien-
tific societies, and was vice-president of
the Royal Society (1910-1912.). His pub-
lications include: "Introduction to the
Study of Meteorites," "Introduction to
the Study of Minerals," "Introduction to
the Study of Rocks," "The Optical In-
dicatrix," and papers on the crystallo-
graphical, physical, and mineralogical
subjects and on meteorites.
FLEUR DE LIS, in botany, various
species of the genus iris; also Phalan-
gium liliago, a liliaceous plant. In
heraldry, the royal insignia of France.
Its origin is disputed; by some it is sup-
posed to represent a lily, by others the
iron head of some weapon. In the old
time the French Royal banner was seme
of lys, that is, completely covered with
fleurs de lis; but from the time of
Charles VI. it has consisted of three
golden fleurs de lis on a blue field. It is
of frequent occurrence in English ar-
mory. From the claims invariably put
forth by English sovereigns to certain
principalities in France, gained by in-
heritance or marriage, the French royal
coat appeared as a quartering in the
English royal arms; and though all such
FLEURUS
152
FLINT
claims had long ceased to be enforced or
justified, it remained till the accession of
George IV., by whom it was abolished.
FLEURUS, a town of Belgium, in the
province of Hainault, near the Sambre,
7 miles N. E. of Charleroi. This place is
noted for four important battles having
taken place in its vicinity. The first took
place on Aug. 30, 1622, between the Span-
iards under Gonsalvo of Cordova, the
general of the Catholic League, and the
troops of the Protestant Union com-
manded by the Bastard of Mansfeld and
the Dukes of Brunswick and Saxe-
Weimar. Both sides claimed the advan-
ia";e. The second was fought July 1,
1390, Montmorency, Duke of Luxem-
bourg, defeating the Prince of Waldeck,
one of the most able of the generals of
the Augsburg League. The third was that
in which General Jourdain defeated the
Imperialists under the Prince of Coburg,
June 26, 1794. The fourth, more com-
monly known as the battle of Ligny, took
place on June 16, 1815. On that day
Bliicher was defeated by Napoleon.
FLEURY, a small village in France,
about six miles N. W. of Verdun, at
which were located some of the outer
works defending Verdun during the
World War. It was the center of
some of the heaviest fighting during the
attack on Verdun by the Germans, in
June, 1916, known as the battle of Mort
Homme.
FLEURY, CLAUDE (fle-re'), a
French Church historian; born in Paris,
France, Dec. 6, 1640. His learning and
unaffected simplicity made him a notable
figure at the court of Louis XIV., and
later at that of Louis XV., whose con-
fessor he became. An "Ecclesiastical
History" (1691-1720) forms his claim to
enduring renown; the work coming down
to 1414. He also vrrote: "A History of
French Law" (1674) and a "Historical
Catechism" (1679). He died in 1723.
FLEXIBILITY, in physics, the prop-
perty which all bodies possess to a
greater or less degree, and which is
evinced in their disposition to yield or
change their form in a direction at right
angles to their length, through their own
weight or by means of any pressure or
strain applied to them. Pieces of the
same material differ from each other in
the degi'ee of flexibility they exhibit, in
proportion to their length and thickness.
Thus it is evident that a cylindrical bar
pf iron an inch in diameter and 20 feet
in length will exhibit a far greater de-
gree of flexibility than another which is
only half the length, and has a diameter
of two inches. Materials also exhibit a
greater degree of flexibility in one condi-
tion than in another; metals, for in-
stance, yielding far more readily to pres-
sure when heated than when cold. The
degree of flexibility possessed by any
material is denoted by the extent to
which it will bend, or by the weight
which it will support without breaking.
This property must not be confounded
with that of elasticity; elastic bodies will
return to their former shape when they
have been bent or altered by pressure
in any way; but bodies which possess
flexibility without elasticity do not return
to their original form in all cases. The
consideration of the deflection or flexi-
bility of beams of wood and iron bars
and girders, as well as of ropes and
chains, and other materials, is an im-
portant point in the construction of
buildings, bridges, and engineering works
of various kinds.
FLEXNER, ABRAHAM, an Ameri-
can educator, born in Louisville, Ky., in
1866, brother of Simon Flexner. He
graduated from Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity in 1883 and took post-graduate
courses at Harvard and at the Uni-
versity of Berlin. After teaching for
several years he was appointed an expert
of the Carnegie Foundation for the Ad-
vancement of Teaching, in 1908, serving
until 1912. He was assistant secretary of
the General Education Board from 1912
to 1917, and secretary from 1917. He
wrote "The American College" (1909) ;
"Medical Education in the United States
and Canada" (1910); "Medical Educa-
tion in Europe" (1912) ; and "A Modern
School" (1916). He also contributed
educational papers to periodicals.
FLEXNER, SIMON, an American
physician and medical authority, born in
Louisville, Ky., in 1863. He received a
common school education in his native
city and took his medical degree from the
University of Louisville in 1889. He took
post-graduate work at Johns Hopkins
and at the Universities of Strassburg
and Berlin. From 1891-1899 he was a pro-
fessor in Johns Hopkins University and
from 1899-1904 in the University of
Pennsylvania. In 1903 he became direc-
tor of the laboratories of the Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research, with
which he has been connected ever since.
He has published numerous treatises and
monographs upon pathological and bac-
teriological subjects, and his work has
been recognized abroad, where he has
been made a member of many of the
learned fraternities.
FLINT, a crypto-crystalline variety
of quartz. It is usually gray, smoke-
brown, or brownish black. If derived, as
it mostly is, from the cretaceous forma-
FLINT
163
FLINT IMPLEMENTS
tion, the white of the chalk is still seen
on its external surface. Luster subvitre-
ous; fracture conchoidal, leaving a cut-
ting edge. Most of the flints scattei'ed
on the surface of the ground or existing
in Tertiary or more recent sedimentary
deposits came originally from the cre-
taceous rocks, one division of M^hich is
termed Upper White Chalk with flints,
this being distinguished from the Lower
White Chalk without flints. Next to the
Maestricht beds and Faxoe limestone, the
chalk with flints constitutes the highest
or newest layer yet discovered of the
sedimentary rocks. The organic portion
of flint pebbles consists of diatoms, sea-
weeds of low organization, the minute
infusorial animals called polycistina, the
spicules of sponges, with echinoderms,
etc. They are the same as those in agate
and chalk. Liquor of flints, a solution
of flint in potassic hydrate. To skin a
flint, to descend to any false economy or
meanness to make a trifling sum of
money.
DR. SIMON FLEXNER
FLINT, a city and county-seat of
Genesee co., Mich.; on the Flint river and
on the Grand Trunk Western and the
Pere Marquette railroads; 64 miles N. N.
W. of Detroit. Here are a court house,
the State Institution for the Deaf and
Dumb, a private retreat for the insane,
a high school, waterworks, gas and elec-
tric lights, public library, a National
bank and several daily, weekly, and
monthly periodicals. It has a large num-
ber of saw mills, carriage and wagon
factories, automobile works, iron works,
stove works, flour and woolen mills, etc.
Pop. (1910) 38,550; (1920) 91,599.
FLINT, AUSTIN, an American phy-
sician ; born in Petersham, Mass., Oct.
30, 1812; was graduated at the medical
department of Harvard College in 1833.
His professional career began in North-
ampton, Mass., but after a few years'
practice there he removed to Boston,
thence to Buffalo, where he remained till
1844. He then accepted a call to a chair
in the Rush Medical College in Chicago,
but soon returned to Buffalo, where he
established the Buffalo "Medical Journal"
in 1846, and where later he was one of
the founders, and for six years a pro-
fessor, of the Buffalo Medical College.
He was a professor in Louisville Univer-
sity in 1852-1856; Professor of Pathology
in the Long Island College Hospital in
1861-1868; president of the New York
Academy of Medicine in 1872-1875, and
of the American Medical Association in
1884; delegate to the International
Medical Congress in Philadelphia in
1876; etc. He was the author of numer-
ous text-books, clinical reports and medi-
cal papers. He died in New York City,
March 13, 1886.
FLINT GLASS, a species of glass made
of white sand, 52; carbonate of potash,
14; oxide of lead, 33; alumina, 1; with
metallic additions to neutralize color.
Pure white sand free from oxide of iron
is required for flint glass, as iron im-
parts a green color. The articles are
made by the agency of the blow-pipe, or
ponty, the mold and press, and frequently
by a combination of blowing and press-
ing. The silica for its manufacture was
formerly derived from pulverized flints,
and hence its name. The presence of
lead gives it a peculiar property of re-
fracting light, which causes it to be used
for lenses. Flint glass fuses at a lower
temperature than ordinary glass, such
as crown, plate, or window glass. Flint
glass is softer than some other varieties,
and is the kind which is cut. It is much
used for tumblers, fine tableware, and
various articles of decorative furniture
and fittings.
FLINT IMPLEMENTS, a generic
term used for any implements of flint
obtained from Pleistocene or more recent
deposits, each being afterward named
more specifically as its exact nature be-
comes understood. Evans divides the
implements into three classes — spear
heads, oval or almond-shaped flint imple-
FLINTSHIRE
154
FLOOB
ments, and flint flakes. Such relics of
early man had been found with the bones
of an elephant, in 1715, in the gravel of
London, England. Similar remains were
exhumed at Hoxne, near Diss, in 1797,
by John Frere. About 1833 or 1834, the
Rev. Mr. McEnery, a Roman Catholic
priest, discovered similar ones in Kent's
Hole, Torquay, in Devon, England. From
about 1841, M. Boucher de Perthes, of
Abbeville, collected flint implements from
the valley of the Somme, in France, pub-
lishing the result in his "Celtic An-
tiquities," in 1847.
Many flint implements have been
found in the S. and E. of England, in
Bedfordshire, in Suffolk, Hampshire,
Wiltshire, and in the N. and N. E. of
London, in Essex, in Buckinghamshire,
etc. The oldest ones are palaeolithic, and
are unpolished; the newer neolithic, and
are polished. The implements from the
Somme are of the former kind, and are
the oldest known. According to Prof.
Boyd Dawkins, the river-drift man in-
habiting the valleys of the Somme, the
Thames, etc., was older than the cava
man of Brixham, Kent's Hole, and other
caverns. The former lived in the middle
part of the Pleistocene (Lyell's Upper
Pliocene) period and inhabited Palestine,
India, and this country as well as Europe.
FLINTSHIRE, a maritime county of
North Wales, with an area of 257 square
miles and a coast line of about 20 miles.
Only about one-seventh of the area is
cultivated. The most important industry
is mining, which includes coal, iron, lead,
copper, and zinc. The chief rivers are
the Dee, Alyn, and Clwyd. Pop. about
70,000. The chief town is Flint. Other
important towns are St. Asaph, Holywell,
and Hawarden.
FLOATING DOCK. See DOCK.
FLODDEN, a village of England,
Northumberland county, near the Scot-
tish border, 5 miles S. E. of Coldstream;
memorable as being the scene of the
battle of Flodden Field, one of the most
sanguinary conflicts recorded in British
history. James IV., King of Scotland,
having invaded England with a large
force, was encountered here, Sept. 9. 1513,
by an English army under the Earl of
Surrey. James, who was destitute of
every martial quality except bravery, was
killed, and his army totally defeated.
The loss on the part of the Scots was
extremely great. Besides the king him-
self, no fewer than 12 earls, 13 barons,
and 5 eldest sons of peers, with a vast
number of knights and persons of dis-
tinction, and probably about 10,000 com-
mon soldiers, were left dead on the field.
The English loss was about 7.000. This
is by far the most calamitous defeat
recorded in Scottish annals; and there
was scarcely a family of distinction in
the kingdom who did not lose one or more
members in it. Archibald Douglas, the
great Earl of Angus, for instance, was
killed, together with his six sons and 200
knights and gentlemen of the name of
Douglas.
FLOETZ ROCKS, in geology, a name
applied by Werner and his followers to
the Secondary rocks of Germany, be-
cause they were supposed to occur most
frequently in flat, horizontal beds.
FLOODS are caused by excessive rains,
giving rise to an overflow of the rivers;
by the bursting of the banks of rivers,
lakes, and reservoirs ; by the sudden melt-
ing of ice and snow; and by irruptions
of the sea, produced by high tides, wind
storms driving the sea water inland,
earthquakes, volcanic outbreaks, and the
bursting of sea banks. The felling of
forest trees throughout extensive tracts
of mountainous country also tends to
make the rivers which have their ori-
gin there swell rapidly after a heavy
rainfall (see Forestry) ; good and com-
plete drainage of land has the same
tendency.
FLOOR, in building, the surface on
which a person walks in a room or house.
It may be of masonry, brick, tiles, con-
crete, earth, boards. The term usually
refers to boards laid close together, and
nailed to timbers which are termed joists.
A single floor is one in which the joists
pass from side to side of the house, rest-
ing upon wall-plates and sustaining the
floor above, and the ceiling of the room
below. A double floor is one in which
the primary timbers are binders which
rest upon the wall-plates, and support the
floor or bridging joists and the ceiling
joists. A framed floor has an additional
member, which assumes the primary po-
sition. The girder rests on the wall-
plates and supports the binding joists,
whose ends rest thereupon. The binding
joists support the bridging or floor joists
and the ceiling joists, as before de-
scribed.
In geology and archaeology, the part of
a cavern corresponding in situation to
the floor of a house. As a nautical term
the bottom part of the hold on each side
of the keelson ; the flat portion of a ves-
sel's hold. In hydraulic eng^ineering, the
inner piece of the two which together
form the bucket of an overshot water
wheel. In mining, the bottom of a coal
seam; the underlay on which the coal,
lead, or iron ore rests. To take the floor:
To rise to address a public meeting; also
to stand up to dance (Irish).
ELOQUET
155
FLORENCE
FLOQUET, CHARLES THOMAS (flo-
ka'), a French statesman; born in St.
Jean de Luz in 1828; began life as a
lawyer in Paris. His cry, "Vive la Po-
logne. Monsieur!" ("Hurrah for Poland,
Sir!") addressed to the Czar Alexander
II., in the Palace of Justice in 1867,
made him a political celebrity. On the
fall of the empire he was appointed one
of the deputy mayors of Paris, but was
forced to resign on account of his com-
plaisance toward the Red Republicans.
Later he was elected to the Paris munic-
ipal council, and in 1876 became one of
the Deputies for Paris. He sat in the
Chamber till 1882, when he was appointed
Prefect of the Seine; re-entered the
Chamber in 1882 and was elected its
president in 1885, but resigned in April,
1888, to become prime minister. In 1889
he was again elected president of the
Chamber. He was the Radical candidate
for the Presidency of the Republic in
1887; but his career was cut short by
the Panama Canal scandal. He died in
Paris, Jan. 18, 1896.
FLORENCE, a city and county-seat
of Lauderdale co., Ala.; on the Tennes-
see river, and on the Southern and the
Louisville and Nashville railroads. Here
are the State Normal College, a high
school, several churches, and a number
of weekly newspapers. The city has
manufactories of iron, cotton, wagons,
ice, flour, stoves, etc. Pop. (1910) 6,689;
(1920) 10,529.
FLORENCE, a city of South Carolina,
The county-seat of Florence co. It is
on the Atlantic Coast Line and the
Southern Carolina Western railroads.
It is the center of an important agricul-
tural region and has an important trade
in tobacco and cotton. Its industries in-
clude cottonseed oil mills, railway repair
shops, machine shops, lumber mills, etc.
It is the seat of the South Carolina In-
dustrial School and a State agricultural
experiment station. Within its borders
is a national cemetery. Pop. (1910) 7,-
057; (1920) 10,968.
FLORENCE, a famous city of central
Italy; on both sides of the Arno, 63 miles
S. by W. of Bologna; 68 E. N. E. of Leg-
horn, and 187 N.N.W. of Rome. It stands
in a richly wooded, well-cultivated, and
beautiful valley, encircled by the Apen-
nines, and is well built and agreeable.
Its shape is nearly a square, the sides of
which almost correspond with the car-
dinal points; the Arno intersects it from
S. E. to N. W., three of the quarters into
which it is divided being situated on the
right, and the fourth on the left bank of
the river. The communication between
the opposite sides of the river is main-
tained by means of seven bridges. Flor-
ence contains a great number of mag-
nificent edifices and squares, generally
adorned with statues, columns, or foun-
tains; there are no fewer than 170
churches, 89 convents, 2 royal, and many
other palaces, hospitals, and theaters
great and small. Each angle of a street
presents an architectural view, fit to be
drawn for a scene in a theater. Many
of the houses are palaces, and are fitted
up with great magnificence.
The Piazza Reale is the largest
square; it has a fine marble fountain,
and an equestrian statue in bronze of
Duke Cosmo I. by John of Bologna. The
Piazza del Mercato Veochio, exactly in
the center of the city, has a marble
column from which Florence radiates for
one mile on each side. The Arno is
decidedly superior to the Tiber at Rome.
The bridge Santa Trinita, built of mar-
ble in 1559 by Ammanati, is designed in
a style of elegance and simplicity unri-
valed by the most successful efforts of
modern artists. The bridges, and the
handsome though not spacious quays by
Avhich the river is bordered, afford fine
views of the river, Florence being in
this respect much superior to the "Eter-
nal City." The duomo, or cathedral, a
vast edifice, coated with marble, about
500 feet in length, and 384 feet in height
to the top of the cross, stands in a
spacious square. It was begun by Ar-
nolfo di Lapo in 1296, and finished by
Brunelleschi in 1426. It is built of brick,
and veneered, as it were, with parti-
colored marble slabs arranged in narrow
strips or panels. The interior is very
striking. The campanile or belfry, ad
joining the duomo, but detached from it,
is a fine tower 288 feet in height. The
church of Santa Croce, called the Pan-
theon of Florence, is interesting from its
containing the remains and tombs of
four of the greatest men of modern Italy,
or indeed of modern times — Michael
Angelo, Galileo, Machiavelli, and Alfieri.
Among the palaces are the Palazzo
Vecchio, or Old Palace, inhabited by the
Medici when citizens of Florence, which
was begun in 1298, and finished in 1550.
It is in a massive, severe, and gloomy
style, with a tower 268 feet high. Ad-
joining it is the Piazza del Palazzo
Vecchio, a square containing a fine col-
lection of statues, and a noble arcade, the
Loggia di Lanzi, under the porticoes of
which are magnificent groups of sculp-
ture. The Palazzo Pitti, erected in 1440.
the ordinary residence of the King of
Italy, is a vast and heavy structure; it
is furnished in the most costly manner,
and is enriched with a great number of
the choicest works of art and virtu, and ^
an excellent library. Attached to this
FLORENCE
156
FLORIDA
palace are the Boboli Gardens, laid out
by Cosmo I. in 1550, in the classical style.
Connected with these gardens is the
botanical garden, a museum of natural
history, the Fontana anatomical collec-
tion in wax, etc. Another fine palace,
the Riccardi (built in 1440), has a noble
gallery with a ceiling painted by Luca
Giordano, and a library of 40,000 vol-
umes, open to the public. But the crown-
ing glory of Florence is its Grand Gal-
lery, occupying the upper floor of the
Uffizi, a building erected after a design
of Vasari, by Cosmo I., consisting of two
parallel corridors or galleries, each 448
feet in length, and 72 feet apart, united
at one end by a third corridor. This
contains some masterpieces of statuary,
as the world-renowned "Venus de Me-
dici," "The Knife-Grinder," the "Fawn,"
"Niobe and her Children," etc. The col-
lection of pictures comprises superb ex-
amples of all the best schools. A splen-
did apartment, known as the Tribuna,
contains the rarest treasures of the col-
lection, and is in itself a wonder of art,
with its cupola inlaid with mother-of-
pearl, and its rich marble pavement.
Besides the Riccardi and Laurentian
libraries, the Magliabecchi library, con-
taining a rare, extensive, and valuable
collection of books, is also open to the
public. Florence is subject to fogs in the
winter; but in spring and autumn it is
a delightful residence. The literary and
educational institutions are both numer-
ous and important. At the head of these
is the famous Academia della Crusca.
The charitable institutions are numerous,
extensive, and well conducted.
The encouragement given under the
late as well as the present government,
to artistic and scientific studies, has con-
ferred advantages on Florence unknown
in most other parts of Italy. Manufac-
tures silks, straw hats, articles of virtu,
as intaglios, etc., jewelry, porcelain, per-
fumery, etc. Florence has produced more
celebrated men than any other place in
Italy, or, perhaps, of Europe; among
others may be specified Dante, Petrarch,
Boccaccio, Villani, Cosmo and Lorenzo
de Medici; Galileo, Michael Angelo,
Leonardo da Vinci, Benvenuto Cellini,
A.lberti, Lapo, Brunelleschi, Giotto, An-
drea del Sarto, Machiavelli; Popes Leo
X. and XL, Clement VIL, VIIL, and XII.
The origin of this city is not clearly as-
certained; but it owed its first distinc-
tion to Sylla, who planted in it a Roman
colony. In 541 it was almost wholly
destroyed by Totila, King of the Goths.
About 250 years afterward it was re-
stored by Charlemagne. It then became
the chief city of a famous republic; and
was for a lengthened period in Italy
what Athens had been in Greece in the
days of Xenophon and Thucydides. At
length, in 1537, the Medici, from being
the first of her citizens, became sovereign
dukes of Florence. The city afterward
became the capital of the former grand-
duchy of Tuscany till 1860, when it was
annexed to the new kingdom of Italy,
and in 1865, the seat of government was
transferred thither from Turin. Pop.
about 235,000.
FLORENCE CRITTENTON MIS-
SION, an organization, established in
1883 by C. F. Crittenton, having for its
purpose the tendering of aid to women
in need of it, particularly those of an
unfortunate class. The mission has
established homes in seven cities of the
United States, and has one in Marseilles,
France, and another in Tokyo, Japan.
Its principal establishment is in New
York City, and here over 1,000 girls have
been cared for. The head office is in
Washington, D. C, and a feature of the
mission is the provision of summer
homes, to which girls can be sent for
the summer holidays.
FLORENTINE SCHOOL, a school of
painting remarkable for greatness; for
attitudes seemingly in motion; for a cer-
tain dark severity; for an expression of
strength by which grace is perhaps ex-
cluded ; and for a character of design ap-
proaching to the gigantic. This school
has an indisputable title to the venera-
tion of all the lovers of the arts, as the
first in Italy which cultivated them.
FLORES, a department of Uruguay,
with an area of 1,744 square miles. The
surface is level and well watered. The
chief industry is the raising of cattle.
Wheat and corn are also produced. The
capital is Trinidad. Pop. about 25,000.
FLORIDA, a State in the South At-
lantic division of the North American
Union, bounded by Alabama, Georgia,
the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and
the Straits of Florida; arc-a, 58,680
square miles; admitted as a State in
1845; number of counties, 54. Pop.
(1890) 391,422; (1900) 528,542; (1910)
751,139; (1920) 968,470; capital, Talla-
hassee.
Topography. — The surface of the
State is very low and flat, gradually ris-
ing from a few feet above sea-level along
the coast to a central ridge with an
altitude of about 300 feet. The flat lands
extending along the coasts consist of
open grass-grown savannahs, cypress
swamps, pine forests, and "cabbage ham-
mocks," so called from the extensive
growth of the cabbage palms. The W.
part of the State, excepting on the coast,
is quite hilly. The S. part of the pen-
insula is built up of successive coral
FLORIDA
157
FLORIDA
dikes; the upper part being occupied by
Lake Okechobee, whose shallow waters
gradually merge into the Everglades, an
extensive swamp covering the entire
lower part of the State. The Everglades
are penetrated in all directions by a net-
work of small, shallow streams, and at
short intervals over the entire area are
found wooded islands covered with semi-
tropical vegetation. These islands are
supposed to have been formerly sur-
rounded by the ocean and to have borne
the same relation to the mainland as do
the reefs and keys of to-day. The Ever-
glades are separated from the Gulf by
extensive cypress swamps, the forests
extending dovsm the W. coast, narrowing
out around the cape, and extending up
along the Atlantic coast. Many of the
Florida swamps are so densely over-
grown with vegetation that they have
been explored but little and are con-
sidered impassable. Among these are the
Great Cypress in the S. part, and the
Fen Holloway and Wakulla swamps
farther N. The Okefenoke swamp in the
extreme N. extends over into the State of
Georgia. Almost the entire Atlantic
coast is protected from the ocean by sand
bars and coral reefs. Florida is noted
for the number, size, and clearness of her
springs, the most famous being the Silver
Spring near Ocala in Marion county,
with an estimated output of 300,000,000
gallons daily. Other notable springs are
the Wakulla, near Tallahassee, the We-
kiva in Orange county, and the Blue in
Marion county. There are numerous
sulphuretted springs along the coast;
one near St. Augustine, 2 miles out at
sea, boils so violently that the waves
break against it as though it were a
sunken reef. There are numberless lakes,
many being aggregations of smaller
springs. The largest are Okechobee,
Munroe, George, Kissimmee, Crescent,
Dexter, Apopka, Harris, and Eustis.
These lakes are usually quite shallow
and are in many cases connected with
the sea by subterranean passages, often
causing strange fluctuations, rising and
falling at irregular periods.
Geology. — The substratum of the
greater part of the State is of Upper
Eocene or Vicksburg limestone, while
the coasts and the S. parts are mostly
Postplio.cene, or coralline limestone. Con-
siderable phosphate exists in various
forms, land and river pebble, hard and
soft rock, and vertebrate remains, the
hard rock extending in a belt running
S. E. from Tallahassee to the S. E.
part of Pasco county.
Mineral Production. — The only impor-
tant mineral product is phosphate rock.
About 1,500,000 tons, valued at about
$4,000,000, are produced annually. Other
Vol. IV— Cyc— K
mineral products are fuller's earth,
lime, and mineral waters.
Soil. — The soil is mostly sandy, but
supports vegetation in great luxuriance.
The surface soil, depending on the char-
acter of the underlying rock, is rich in
phosphates, and these, together with de-
composed vegetable matter, produce a
very rich soil. In the N. and middle
portions of the State, the oak, hickory,
and pine grow extensively, while the
long-leaved pine, pitch-pine, and cypress
cover the S. portions.
Agriculture. — Florida exhibits the
vegetable productions of both temperate
and semi-tropical nature. In the N. the
products include peaches, pears, and
cotton, while the middle and S. counties
produce the finest oranges, pineapples,
mangoes, cocoa palms, guavas and al-
most all tropical fruits. The acreage,
value and production of the principal
crops in 1919 were as follows: com, 840,-
000 acres, production 12,600,000 bushels,
value .$17,640,000; hay, 113,000 acres,
production 141,000 tons, value $3,243,-
000; peanuts, 216,000 acres, production
3,402,000 bushels, value $7,178,000; to-
bacco, 4,200 acres, production 3,990,000
pounds, value $2,175,000; potatoes, 24,-
000 acres, production 1,824,000 bushels,
value $3,830,000; sweet potatoes, 41,000
acres, production 4,100,000 bushels, value
$5,740,000; cotton, 117,000 acres, produc-
tion 17,000 bales, value $3,570,000.
Manufactures. — There were, in 1914,
2,518 manufacturing establishments, em-
ploying 55,608 wage earners. The
capital invested was $88,319,000 and the
wages paid $24,822,000. The value of the
materials used was $33,816,000 and the
value of the finished product was $81,-
112,000. The principal manufactures are
naval stores, cotton-seed oil, cigars, lead
pencils, refined sugar, flour, salt by
evaporation, palmetto hats, braids, and
wooden boxes. Lumbering is a leading
industry; fishing, sponge and coral
gathering aff'ord occupations for many.
Jacksonville has many canning estab-
lishments, and Key West and Tampa are
noted for their fine cigars.
Banking.— On Oct. 31, 1919, there
were 54 National banks in operation,
having $6,460,000 in capital. $5,502,000
in outstanding circulation, and $25,084,-
000 in United States bonds. There were
also 184 State banks with $5,585,000
capital and $2,147,000 surplus. In the
year ending Sept. 30, 1919, the exchanges
at the United States clearing-house at
Jacksonville aggregated $411,247,000, an
increase over the previous year of $202,-
120,000.
Education. — School attendance is not
compulsory. Separate schools are pro-
vided for white and colored children.
FLOBIDA
158
FLORIDA UNIVEBSITY
There are about 200,000 enrolled pupils
in the elementary schools and about
6,000 teachers. There are 100 public high
schools with about 7,000 pupils. The
total annual expenditure for educational
purposes is about $4,000,000, The in-
stitutions for higher education include
the University of Florida at Gainesville,
the State College for Women at Talla-
hassee, Rollins College at Winter Park,
John B. Stetson University at De Land,
Churches. — The strongest denomina-
tions in the State are the African Method-
ist Episcopal; the Methodist Episcopal,
South; Regular Baptist, South; Regular
Baptist, Colored; Roman Catholic;
Methodist Episcopal; Protestant Epis-
copal ; Presbyterian ; Disciples ; and Con-
gregational,
Finance. — The receipts during the
fiscal year 1919 amounted to $6,334,025,
and the disbursements to $6,369,753,
There was a balance on hand January
1, 1919, of $1,861,628, and on January 1,
1920, there was a balance of $1,825,899.
The public debt amounted to $601,567.
Transportation. — There are about 6,000
miles of steam railway and about 200
miles of electric railway. The Atlantic
Coast Railway and the Louisville and
Nashville Railway run through the
State. The Florida East Coast Railway
with an extension to Key West was
opened in 1912. A large trade is carried
on through Pensacola and other ports.
Harbor improvements have been carried
out at Jacksonville.
ChaHties and Corrections. — The char-
itable and correctional institutions in-
clude the State Institute for the Deaf,
Dumb, and Blind at St. Augustine, Hos-
pital for the Insane at Chattahoochee;
Industrial School for Boys, at Mari-
anna; Prison Farm, at Raiford; Indus-
trial School for Girls, at Ocala.
State Government. — The governor is
elected for a term of four years. Leg-
islative sessions are held biennially, be-
ginning on the first Tuesday in April,
and are limited to 60 days each. The
legislature has 32 members in the Senate
and 75 in the House. There are 4 repre-
sentatives in Congress.
History. — Florida was discovered by
Juan Ponce de Leon, March 27, 1513,
on Easter Sunday, after which the pen-
insula was named. He and his succes-
sors explored a large part of Florida
in search of gold and "the fountain of
perpetual youth." He was killed in a fight
with the natives in 1521. A Spanish
force of 400 men under Panfilo de Nar-
vaez landed in 1528, and all but four
perished. In 1539 a force of 600 under
Fernando De Soto landed at Tampa Bay
and moving to the N. and W., over-
coming the natives by treachery and
violence, passed beyond the present limits
of Florida. A settlement of French
Huguenots was attempted '.n 1564, but
two years later was exterminated by
the Spanish. From this time the Span-
ish were in absolute control, and settle-
ments were made at Pensacola and else-
where along the coast. In 1687 the first
large consignment of negi'o slaves was
brought to Florida. From 1702 to 1748
there were continued hostilities between
the Spanish, French, and British along
the coast, during which St. Augustine
was twice besieged by the British. A
truce lasted from 1748 to 1752, when
war was again renewed, resulting in the
exchange of Cuba for Florida, the
British immediately taking possession.
Shortly after the American Revolution-
ary War Florida was re-ceded to Spain.
West Florida was sold to France in
1795. During the War of 1812 the
British occupied Pensacola with the con-
sent of Spain. In 1814 it was captured
by the United States forces under An-
di'ew Jackson. Then followed a long
series of wars with the natives, the
whole of Florida being ceded to the
United States by Spain in 1819. In 1822
Florida was organized as a Territory of
the United States. From 1835 to 1842
the Seminole Indians were in active hos-
tility and on their final surrender they
were removed to a special reservation.
Florida was admitted to the Union as
a State in 1845. At the outbreak of the
Civil War the principal government
posts were seized by the State forces.
Fort Pickens, however, was held by a
Union garrison, and after being re-en-
forced was used as the base of opera-
tions in the vicinity. Jacksonville was
several times occupied by the contending
forces, and many minor engagements
took place along the coast, Florida was
given full civil govern uient July 4, 1868.
FLORIDA KEYS, or REEFS, in
Florida, a chain of small islands, keys or
reefs, and sandbanks, extending S. W,
from Cape Florida, about 220 miles.
They are very considerable in number,
but only a few are of any importance.
Among these may be mentioned Cayo
Largo, Indian Key, Long island, Old and
New Matacombs, Cayo de Boca, and Key
West, on which the city of Key West is
built,
FLORIDA. UNIVERSITY OF, a
State institution for higher education,
established in 1905. It is organized into
a Graduate School; College of Arts and
Sciences; College of Agriculture; College
of Engineering; College of Law; Teach-
ers' College; University Extension Di-
vision; and an Agricultural Experinient
Station. It has an income of over $100,-
FLOBIO
159
FLOWER
000 a year for current expenses. In 1919
there were 43 instructors and 988 stu-
dents. President, A. A. Murphree, LL.D.
FLOBIO, JOHN, an English lexicog-
rapher, and the translator of Mon-
taigne; born in London, England, about
1553. His father was a Protestant exile
and Italian preacher in London. Florio
appears as a private tutor in foreign
languages at Oxford about 1576, and
two years later published his "First
Fruits, which yield Familiar Speech,
Merry Proverbs, Witty Sentences and
Golden Sayings," accompanied by "A
Perfect Induction to the Italian and
English Tongues." In 1581 Florio was
admitted a member of Magdalen Col-
lege, and became a teacher of French
and Italian. He enjoyed the patronage
successively of Leicester, the Earl of
Southampton, and other noble persons.
His next work was "Second Fruits, to
be gathered of Twelve Trees, of divers
but delightsome Tastes to the Tongues
of Italian and English men," with, an-
nexed to it, the "Garden of Recreation,"
yielding 6,000 Italian proverbs (1591).
His Italian and English dictionary, en-
titled "A World of Words," was pub-
lished in 1598. Florio was appointed
reader in Italian to Queen Anne, and
afterward groom of the privy chamber.
In 1603 he published in folio his famous
translation of Montaigne. It was long
believed that the pedantic Holofernes in
"Love's Labor's Lost" was a study after
Florio. He died in Fulham, in 1625.
F L O T 0 W (fl5'to) , FRIEDRICH
ADOLPHUS VON, a German composer;
born in Teutendorf, Mecklenburg-
Schwerin, Germany, April 26, 1812. He
studied music in Paris, but his earlier
operas did not find favor with the Pari-
sian opera house directors, so he had to
content himself with performances in
the aristocratic private theaters. At
length "Medusa's Shipwreck" was suc-
cessfully produced at the Renaissance
Theater in 1839. This was followed by
"Camoen's Slave" (1848) and "The
Soul in Pain" (1846), perfoi-med in Lon-
don as "Leoline." "Alexander Stradella"
was first performed at Hamburg in
1844, and his most successful work,
"Martha," at Vienna in 1847. Among
his other works are: "Indra" (1853);
"The Phantom" (1869) ; and "The En-
chantress" (1878). He was director of
the court theater at Schwerin in 1855-
1863; the last years of his life were
chiefly spent at Vienna. He died in
Darmstadt, Germany, Jan. 23, 1883.
FLOTSAM, JETSAM, and LIGAN. in
law: Flotsam, or floatsam, is derelict or
shipwrecked goods floating on the sea;
jetsam, goods thrown overboard which
sink and remain under water; and ligan,
goods sunk with a wreck or attached to
a buoy, as a mark of ownership. When
found such goods may be returned to
the owner if he appear; if not, they are
the property of the crown.
FLOUR MILL, a mill for grinding
and sifting flour.
FLOWER, in botany, a developed
terminal bud inclosing the organs of re-
production by seed. The earlier botan-
ists limited it to the corolla of a plant,
but Linnaeus extended it to include the
calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil. The
two last are the only essential parts.
This is the modern sense of the term.
The manner in which its parts are ar-
ranged is called their estivation, and the
calyx, corolla, and other parts are gen-
erally believed to be transformed leaves
arranged on a branchlet ; but many writ-
ers consider the petals to be transformed
stamens. The arrangement of flowers
on a branch or stem is called Inflores-
cence (q. v.). The term Flower of Con-
stantinople, or Flower Constantinople, is
a translation of the old name Flos con-
stantinopolitanus, given to the plant
now called Lychnis chalcedonica. It
is named also flower of Bristowe. The
flower of the Axe is Lobelia urens, found
in England only near Axminster in De-
von; the flower of Crete is Mesemhryan-
themum tripolium; and flower of Jove
Lychnis flos jovis; flower of four hours,
Mirabilis dichototna; flowers of heaven,
a fungal, Nostoc coeruleum; and flowers
of tan, ^thalium, a gasteromycetous
fungal. It is so called from its growing
on tan. In chemistry, flowers used to he
the name given to bodies of a powdery
or mealy consistence or form, e. g., flow-
ers of sulphur, a name sometimes given
to sublimed sulphur. In printing, orna-
mental types or blocks for borders of
pages, cards, and the like.
FLOWER, ROSWELL PETTIBONE,
an American financier; born in Jeffer-
son CO., N. Y., Aug. 7, 1835; began his
business and political career in Water-
town, N. Y., where he organized the
Jefferson County Democratic Club. Hi
success in politics attracted the atter
tion of Samuel J. Tilden, through whos<.
influence he was appointed chainnan of
the Democratic State Committee in 1847.
Four years later he was elected to Con-
gress, and in 1886 was appointed presi-
dent of the Subway Commission. He
was re-elected to Congress in 1888 and
1890, and in 1891 was elected governor
of New York. From the close of his
term till his death he applied himself to
the interests of his large banking house
FLOYD
160
FLUTE
and to a systematic course of philan-
thropy. He died in Eastport, Long Is-
land, N. Y., May 12, 1899.
FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN, an
American statesman; born in Blacks-
burg, Va., June 1, 1807; was admitted
to the bar in 1828; served in the Vir-
ginia Legislature several terans; and
was governor of the State in 1850-1853.
In 1857 President Buchanan appointed
him Secretary of War. While in the
cabinet he was detected in the act of
stripping the Northern arsenals of arms
and ammunition, and indicted by the
grand jury of the District of Columbia
as being privy to the abstracting of
$870,000 in bonds from the Department
of the Interior. He fled, however, to Vir-
ginia, where, at the close of 1860, he was
commissioned a general in the Confed-
erate army. In that capacity he was
driven from West Virginia by General
Rosecrans. The night before the sur-
render of Fort Donelson he stole away
in the darkness, throwing the responsi-
bility of surrendering on a subordinate
officer, and, being censured by the Con-
federate government, never afterward
served in the army. He died near Ab-
ingdon, Va., Aug. 26, 1863.
FLUID, having the parts easily
separable; consisting of particles which
move and change their relative positions
very readily; capable of flowing; liquid;
gaseous. The fundamental property of
fluids, viewed as forces, in physics, is
their equality of pressure in all direc-
tions. The term includes both liquids
and gases. Elastic fluids: In physics,
gases. Electric or electrical fluid: In
electricity, a fluid composed, in the opin-
ion of Symmer, now generally accepted,
of two fluids, the positive and the nega-
tive. Imponderable fluids: In physics, a
name sometimes given to heat, light,
magnetism, and electricity. They are
mobHe and yet, if consisting of matter,
are in such a state of tenuity that they
possess no perceptible weight. Mag-
netic fluids: In magnetism, two fluids as-
sumed to exist. They are called respec-
tively the N, or boreal fluid and the S.
or austral fluid, the former predominat-
ing at the N. and the latter at the S.
pole of the magnet. Sometimes the N.
fluid is called the positive, and the S.
fluid the negative one. Ponderable
fluids: In physics, those possessed of
weight; as water and carbonic acid gas.
FLUORESCEIN, C^Ha^Os. An im-
portant dye-stuff, occurring as dark-red
crusts, almost insoluble in water, but
readily soluble in alkalies r.nd in alco-
hol. Its alkaline solutions are dark red-
dish-brown in color, and when diluted
show a remarkable yellowish-green fluo-
rescence, to which the material owes its
name. It is prepared by heating to-
gether phthalic anhydride and resorci-
nol. As a dye, fluorescein has only a
limited application, as the yellow color
which it produces on wool and silk is
not permanent. It is used largely, how-
ever, in admixture with other dyes to
produce fluorescence in the dyed mate-
rial. The important dye Eosin is made
fi'om fluorescein.
FLUORESCENCE, in optics, a quality
which exists in the rays of light by
which, in certain circumstances, they
undergo a change of refrangibility.
Hence, certain solutions which, when
viewed by transmitted light, are color-
less, become bluish under reflected light.
Fluorescence was discovered by Stokes
in 1852.
FLUORINE. A very pale yellow gas,
atomic weight 19, molecular weight 38,
density (compared to air = 1) 1.31. It
does not occur in the free state, but its
compounds (fluorides) are found in
abundance; the best known being fluor-
spar and chrysolite. It is considered to
be the most active of the elements. It
decomposes water with formation of
hydrofluoric acid, oxygen and ozone; all
metals are attacked by the gas, some
taking fire in it, spontaneously, and
many other elements combine with it
with incandescence. It is prepared by
the electrolysis of a solution of potas-
sium fluoride in anhydrous hydrofluoric
acid, hydrogen being evolved at the kath-
ode and fluorine at the anode.
FLUOROSCOPE, a device invented by
T. A. Edison for use in making observa-
tions of the influence of the X-rays.
FLUTE, in music, a popular instru-
ment, the use of wiiich, under various
forms, may be traced to the most remote
ages. Of its origin no direct account can
be given. In its primitive state the flute
was played like the modern flageolet,
with a mouth-piece at the upper end ; and
from the shape of this mouth-piece, which
resembled the beak of a bird, it received
the name of flute a bee. In this form,
with slight alterations, it continued until
the beginning of the 18th century, when
it was gradually superseded by the flauto
traverso, or transverse flute, so called
from its being blown at the side, and con-
sequently held in a horizontal position.
At its introduction this instrument was
about 18 inches in length, and had but
one key. Shortly after, a movable head-
joint was invented, its lengfth being in-
creased, and more keys added, some
flutes at the present time having more
than a dozen keys, and a few less than
FLUXION
161
FLYING BUTTRESS
six. By means of these they are able to
execute any music, howevez* chromatic, if
within theii- compass, which extends
from C below the treble to C in altissimo.
In December, 1832, a flute of an entirely
new construction was invented by Mr.
Boehm, of Munich. It, however, remained
in obscurity until 1837, when it was
adopted and inti'oduced to the French
professors by Mr. Cadmus; but they con-
sidered its adoption would be attended
with too much trouble, in consequence of
its having an open G-sharp key. This,
hov.'ever, was soon afterward remedied
by Mr. Dorus, who put a shut G-sharp
key in its place. It now became univer-
sally adopted.
In architecture, an upright channel on
the shaft of a column, usually ending
hemispherically at the top and bottom.
Their plane or horizontal section is some-
times semicircular, or segmental, or ellip-
tical, as in some examples of Grecian
architecture. The Doric column has 20
flutes round its circumference; the Ionic,
Corinthian, and Composite have respec-
tively 24.
FLUXION, in medicine, an unnatural
flow or determination of blood or other
humor toward any organ; a catarrh.
In mathematics, a method of calcula-
tion resulting from the operation of
fluents, or flowing numbers.
FLY, in zoology, a name applied al-
most indiscriminately to all insects
possessing wings; being often extended
to all insects of the sub-order Diptera,
and often also restricted to the family
MuscicUe. The fly is characterized as pos-
sessing a pair of veined and membranous
wings, with two movable bodies called
balancers (halteres) , placed a little be-
hind them. The mouth is formed of be-
tween two and six setaceous pieces of
scaly texture, and these pieces are either
inclosed in a proboscis-like sheath, or
covered by one or two laminae, which
form it. The head is globular or hemi-
spherical. The mouth is only formed
for transmitting fluids, and is conse-
quently very delicate in structure. The
sucker performs the part of a lancet, and
pierces the envelope of vegetable or ani-
mal fluids, in order to allow of the fluid
itself being transmitted up into the
mouth of the insect. The antennae are
united in front, and are approximated at
the base. Above the true wings of the
insect and a little behind them, ai'e the
balancers or halteres; these are almost
rnembranous, and are furnished with two
little knobs at their extremities, which
are capable of dilatation. The legs of
this class of insects are long and slender;
and the feet, it is well known, are fui--
nished with skinny palms, to enable them
to stick on glass and other smooth bodies
by means of the pressure of the atmos-
phere.
In machinery, that part of a machine
which, being put in motion, regulates the
rest. In nautical language that part of a
compass on which the 32 points are
drawn, and to which the needle is at-
tached underneath; the compass-card. In
printing, that part of the machinery of
a printing press which withdraws the
sheet, and lays it aside after the impres-
sion is made.
FLY CATCHERS , the Musicapidxa, an
extensive family of birds, order Inses-
sores, represented in North America by
about 80 species. As their name implies,
the fly catchers prey on insects, which
they seize in mid-air. They have the
beak horizontally depressed, and armed
with bristles at its base, with the point
more or less decurved and emarginated.
The value of the insectivorous family of
birds to man is incalculable. One of the
best types of fly catchers is that pre-
sented by the tyrant fly catcher, king
bird or bee martin, Muscicapa Tyrannus,
or Tyrannus Carolinensis. This bird is
peculiar to America E. of the Rocky
Mountains. It is 8 inches in length, and
14 in extent of wing. The general color
of the upper parts is a dark bluish-gray,
inclining to dull slate-black, on the head
of which the central feathers along the
crown form a gorgeous orange patch.
The European species, Muscicapa grisola,
the beam bird or bee bird, is distin-
guished from any other by having much
more slender bills, with shorter bristles
at the gape.
FLYING SQUIRREL
FLYING BUTTRESS, in architecture,
a structure in the form of an arch, span-
ning the roof of an aisle between an
outer buttress and the wall of the nave.
It assists in resisting the thrust of the
roof.
FLYING FISH
162
FOCH
FLYING FISH, the name given to
more than one fish which, having ex-
tended fins, leaps from the water and,
after a more or less lengthened flight,
drops into it again. The fins seem to act
as parachutes rather than as wings. The
common flying fish is ExocseUis volitans.
It belongs to the family Esocidse. An-
other closely allied species is E. exilieiis,
the greater flying fish. Both have
straggled to the North Atlantic waters.
They are abundant in the Mediterranean.
FLYING SQUIRBEL, a name given to
such of the Sciuridge (squirrels) as have
the skin of the sides very much extended
between the fore and hind legs, so as, to
a certain extent, to sustain the animal
in the air when taking long leaps.
Sciuopterus vokins is the only European
species.
FOCH, FERDINAND, French general
and supreme commander of the Allied
forces operating against the Germans on
the western front, in Belgium and
France during the World War. He
was born in Tarbes, 1851, the son of a
minor departmental oflficial under Napo-
leon III. Together with his two brothers
he was educated in a local college, where
he especially distinguished himself in
geometry and the higher mathematics.
Already at a very early age he was pre-
paring himself for an army career. Leav-
ing college, he entered the Ecole Poly-
technique, from which he gi'aduated as
an artilleryman. When the Franco-
Prussian War broke out he was only
nineteen, but served as a second lieuten-
ant with the army against the Prussians.
At the age of twenty-six, when a captain
of artillery, he was appointed instructor
in strategy and general tactics at the
Ecole de Guerre. Here he remained for
five years, during which he established
his reputation as little less than a genius
as a teacher, a reputation which had
spread so far and high that several years
later, when he had reached the rank of
brigadier-general, Clemenceau, who was
then Premier, had him sent back to the
ficole de Guerre as a director.
It was not so much his ability to im-
part information to the students that
distinguished the teaching career of Gen-
eral Foch, but rather the spirit with
which he permeated the whole institu-
tion. He was the very reverse of a dry
tactician. He taught rather the art of
war than its science; or, rather, he
emphasized the human side of it. War,
as he taught its principles, was not only
a study of explosives and engineering,
but the capacity to understand the psy-
'"bology of the human brain under stress
of the excitement of actual military oper-
ations. In his courses intuition played
quite as important a part as mathemat-
ics. Briefly, he considered morale the
most important element in successful
warfare. How to inspire this, he taught
quite as much by personal demonstration
as by precept. This feature of his mode
of instruction was more evident in his
personal teaching than in his two books,
"The Principles of War" and "The Con-
duct of War," both of which works have
been translated into practically all Euro-
pean languages.
When the Germans invaded France, in
August, 1914, thus beginning the five
years' military operations on the western
MARSHAL FERDINAND FOCH
front, General Foch was in command of
the Ninth Army. His remarkable achieve-
ments following, which gradually brought
him to the highest rank on the side of
the Allied forces, are historical, rather
than biographical. His masterful defeat
of the Germans under General von Bil-
low, on Sept. 8, 1914, known as "The
Affair of the Marshes of St. Gond,"
wherein the Allies registered the firs*
check to the oncoming invaders, was but
the beginning of a series of such achieve-
ments.
In May, 1917, General Foch succeeded
General Petain as Chief of Staff of the
French Army. On March 28, 1918, it
was announced that the Allies had finally
agreed to amalgamate their forces on the
FOCUS
163
FOU.
western front under a single command,
with General Foch as supreme director
of operations. Henceforward, the co-
ordination of the Allies equalled that of
the Germans, and the defeat of the latter
was assured. In the following October
Marshal Foch, who still remembered
vividly the experiences of the French
during the Franco-Prussian War, had
the supreme honor of receiving the Ger-
man delegation which brought the sur-
render of the Central Empires into his
hands.
FOCUS, in ordinary language, any
place from which an influence emanates,
or where that influence exists in very
concentrated form. In optics, a point at
which the rays of light refracted from
a convex lens, or reflected from a con-
cave mirror, are most concentrated; a
point in which such rays meet, or tend
to meet; if produced either backward or
forward. In conic sections: (1) Singular
(of a parabola) : A point so situated
that if from it there be drawn a line to
any point in the curve, and another from
the latter perpendicular to a straight line
given in position, these two straight
lines will always be equal to one an-
other. (2) Plural: (a) Of an ellipse:
Two points so situated that if two
straight lines be drawn from them to any
point in the curve, the sum of these
straight lines will always be the same,
(b) Of a hyperbola: Two points so
situated that if two straight lines be
drawn from them to any point in the
curve, the excess of the straight line
drawn to one of the points above the
other will always be the same.
In astronomy, the term foci is often
used in connection vnth the orbit of the
earth, which is an ellipse, with the sun
in one of the foci. In acoustics, the point
of convergence of sound rays, these fol-
lowing the same laws as those of light
and heat. Acoustic focus: The focus of
sound rays. Calorific focus: The focus
of heat rays. Conjugate foci: In optics,
two foci so situated that, if rays of light
diverging from one strike a concave
mirror, they will be reflected and meet
in the other. Luminous focus: In optics,
the focus of light rays. Principal focus:
In optics, the focus of parallel rays strik-
ing a concave mirror. Vertical focus : In
optics, a radiant point behind a mirror,
from which rays may be held to diverge
more and more, and in which, looking at
them now as coming from the opposite
direction, and consequently as conver-
gent, they would tend to meet. Magnetic
foci: The two points on the earth's sur-
face where the magnetic intensity is
greatest; they nearly coincide in position
with the magnetic poles.
FOG. a very thick mist; small hollorw
vesicles of water suspended in the air,
but so low as to be but a short distance
from the earth in place of rising high
above it and becoming so illuminated by
the sun as to constitute clouds of varied
hue. Fogs often arise when the air above
warm, moist soil is colder than the soil
itself. The hot vapors from the ground
are then condensed by coming in contact
with the colder air above, as the warm
steam of a kettle is by the comparatively
cold air of a room. But no fog arises till
the cold air has absorbed vapor enough
to bring it to the point of saturation.
Fogs often hang over rivers. Their cause
is the condensation by contact with the
cold water, Of the vapor in a hot and
moist air current passing over the river.
FOGAZZARO. ANTONIO (fo-gats-
ar'6), an Italian poet; born in Vicenza,
Italy, in 1842. He first came into notice
with "Miranda," a story in verse (1874),
and added greatly to his reputation as a
poet with "Valsonda," a volume of lyrics
(1876). He was author of several novels
which were received with marked favor,
among them, "Master Chicco's Fiasco"
(1885) ; "Daniel Cortis" (1887) ; "The
Poet's Mystery" (1888); "The Saint"
(1905); "Leila" (1910).
FOGGIA, a city of southern Italy,
capital of the province of the same name,
in the center of the great Apulian plain,
46 miles E. by S. of Campo Basso. It is
well built, most of the houses being re-
constructed since an earthquake, which
happened in 1732. It has large store-
houses for keeping corn, and is the place
where the flocks that feed on the great
plain of Apulia are registered. Pop.
about 79,000.
FOGO, FUEGO. or ST. PHILIP, one
of the Cape Verde Islands, in the At-
lantic Ocean, and the highest of the
group, being 9,760 feet above sea-level,
and presenting the appearance of one
single mountain, though, on the sides,
there are deep valleys; area, 40 miles
in circumference; pop. estimated, 16,000.
It has no rivers, and a scarcity of fresh
water prevails, yet it is one of the most
fertile islands of the archipelago, pro-
ducing excellent maize and fruits. Chief
town, Nostra Senhora da Luz. Also the
name of a port of entry, capital of Fogo
Island, Newfoundland.
FOHR (fer), an island in the North
Sea, ofl' the W. coast of Schleswig; area,
28 square miles; population mostly
Frisians engaged in fishing, the capture
of wild fowl, and agriculture.
FOIL, in fencing, a rod of steel, repre-
senting a sword, with a handle or hilt at
FOIL
164
FOLKESTONE
one end, and a leather button at the other
to prevent accidents. Foils measure from
31 to 38 inches in len^h.
FOIL, a leaf or thin sheet of metal
placed beneath transparent jewels to
heighten their color and improve their
brilliancy; also applied to those sheets of
tin amalgam placed behind mirrors. They
are made of copper, tin, and silvered
copper. The sheet lead which is used for
the lining of tea-chests is a species of
foil. By extension, anything of another
color, or of different qualities, which
serves to adorn or set off a thing to
advantage.
rOIX, GASTON III., COUNT DE
and Viscount de Beam, a French mili-
tary officer; born in 1331; acquired the
surname of Phoebus. He was handsome,
accomplished, and brave, and spent his
life in war and the chase. His first service
in arms was against the English in 1345.
During the revolt known as la Jacquerie
he contributed to the rescue of the
Dauphin at Meaux. He made war on the
Count of Armagnac, and took him pris-
oner; was for a short time governor of
Languedoc; and in 1390 magnificently
entertained Charles VI. at his chateau of
Mazeres. Gaston was of excessively vio-
lent temper, and probably was guilty of
the murder of his own son. He wrote a
book on the pleasures of the chase, of
which several editions were published.
He died in 1391.
FOLCLAND, or FOLKLAND, the land
of the people, that portion of Anglo-
Saxon England which was retained on
behalf of the community. It might be
occupied in common or possessed in sev-
eralty, but could not become allodial
estate or absolute private property ex-
cept with the consent of the Witan or
highest council in the land. From time
to time large grants were made both to
individuals and to communities; and land
thus cut off from folcland was called
bocland or "book-land." Ultimately the
king practically acquired the disposal of
it, and the remnant of folcland became
crown lands.
FOLCMOTE, in Anglo-Saxon Eng-
land, an assembly of the people to con-
sult respecting public affairs.
FOLDVAR (ancient Sussuinum), a
walled town of Hungary, on the slope
and summit of a hill, on the right bank
of the Danube, 49 miles S. of Budapest;
pop. about 12,000.
FOLGER, CHARLES JAMES, an
American jurist; born in Nantucket,
Mass., April 16, 1818; settled in Geneva,
N. Y., in 1831; was graduated at Hobart
College in 1836; and was admitted to the
bar in Albany, N. Y., in 1839. He be-
came judge of the Court of Common
Pleas of Ontario county in 1843; was a
member of the State Senate in 1861-
1869 ; elected associate judge of the State
Court of Appeals in 1871; succeeded to
the chief justiceship of that court in
1880; and was secretary of the United
States Treasury in 1881-1884. In Novem-
ber, 1882, he was the Republican candi-
date for governor of New York, but was
defeated by Grover Cleveland. He died
in Geneva, N. Y., Sept. 4, 1884.
FOLIO, in printing: (1) The running
number of the pages of a book. The even
folios are on the left-hand pages, the
odd upon the right. The folios of prefa-
tory matter are frequently in lower
case Roman numerals. (2) A sheet of
paper once folded. (3) A book of the
largest size, whose sheets are folded but
once, four pages to the sheet; hence it is
used generally for any large volume or
work. In bookkeeping, a page or open-
ing in an account book. In law, a certain
number of words in legal documents. The
number varies in the States; thus in
some of them, as in England, in low
law documents, conveyances, deeds, etc.,
the folio is 72 words; in chancery and
parliamentary proceedings 90 words. In
New York and other States 100 words
constitute a folio.
FOLK, JOSEPH WINGATE, an
American public official, born in Browns-
ville, Tenn., in 1869. He graduated from
Vanderbilt University in 1890. In the
same year he was admitted to the bar.
After practicing for 4 years in Browns-
ville, he removed to St. Louis, and from
1900 to 1904 was circuit attorney of
that city. During his term of office he
exposed a vast amount of political and
official corruption and prosecuted numer-
ous bribery cases which attracted wide
attention. In 1905 he was elected gov-
ernor of Missouri. He was the author of
many reform laws during his term of
office. In 1913 he was appointed solicitor
for the United States Department of
State and from 1914 was chief counsel
for the Interstate Commerce Commission.
He was also general counsel for the St.
Louis Chamber of Commerce. In 1918
he was the Democratic primary nominee
for United States senator, but was de-
feated.
FOLKESTONE (fok'ston), a fortified
seaport town of England, in Kent co.,
62 miles S. E. by E. of London, and
7 W. by S. of Dover, It possesses a
spacious harbor and fine pier whence
the tidal steamers sail twice a day to
Boulogne on the French coast. It was
the birthplace of William Harvey, the
FOLKLORE
165
FONT
discoverer of the circulation of the
blood. Pop. about 35,000.
FOLKLORE, the science which em-
braces all that relates to ancient obser-
vances and customs, to the notions, be-
liefs, traditions, superstitions, and preju-
dices of the common people. Gomme's
divisions are: (1) Traditional Narra-
tives: (a) Folk-tales, (b) Hero Tales,
(c) Ballads and Songs, (d) Place Leg-
ends; (2) Traditional Customs: (a) Lo-
cal Customs, (b) Festival Customs, (c)
Ceremonial Customs, (d) Games; (3)
Superstitions and Beliefs: (a) Witch-
craft, (b) Astrology, (c) Superstitious
Practices and Fancies; (4) Folk-speech:
(a) Popular Sayings, (b) Popular No-
menclature, (c) Proverbs, (d) Jingle
Rhymes, Riddles, etc.
Folklore had indeed been observed and
noted by countless vi^riters from the
Father of History downward, but it was
not till after the beginning of the 19th
century that its value for the elucidation
of the social history of mankind had
become apparent to thinkers, and its
systematic study been sei'iously begun.
Meantime the reawakening to natural
poetry and to the beauty of free emotion-
al expression in literature, which lay at
the foundation of what it is usual to call
Romanticism, had already commenced
even in the 18th century, and the publi-
cation of Percy's "Reliques of Ancient
English Poetry" (1765) had given a
powerful impulse to Scott and others in
England, to Herder, and to Arnim and
Brentano in Germany, who found lying
to hand a rich wealth of traditional
poetry, the poetic value of which they
fortunately had the eyes to see. But
the study of folksongs really began with
Scott's "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Bor-
der" (1802-1803). Popular traditions
began to be valued duly just as they
began to decline and disappear; but for-
tunately a plentiful crop had been gath-
ered and put into writing beyond the
risk of oblivion.
Such works as E. B. Tylor's "Primi-
tive Culture" (1871), and G. L. Gom-
me's "Folklore Relics of Early Village
Life" (1883), have shown us what sig-
nificant constructive results may already
be attained with the evidence we possess.
FOLLEN, ELIZA LEE (CABOT), an
American author; born in Boston, Mass.,
Aug. 15, 1787. She was the wife of
Charles T. C. Follen, whose memoirs she
wrote (1842). Her other works are:
"Well-Spent Hours" (1827); "Poems"
(1839); "Anti - Slavery Hymns and
Songs" (1855) ; "Twilight Stories"
(1855); and "Home Dramas" (1859).
She died in Brookline, Mass., Jan.
26, 1860.
FOLLICLE^ a form of fruit placed by
Lindley in his class Apocarpi. It differs
from the legume in having but one valve
instead of two. A flower of Nigella, or
one of Delphinium, produces several such
follicles. In anatomy, a follicle is a
minute secreting bag, which commonly
opens upon a mucous membrane; a
simple gland. It is called also a crypt
or lacuna.
FOMENTATION, the application of
a liquid, such as water, generally warm,
to a portion of the body to remove exter-
nal or internal disease. The application
is usually made by means of flannel,
steeped in the liquid. If the water be
charged with mucilaginous principles, it
is called emollient; if with a narcotic one
it is said to be sedative or anodyne.
FOND DU LAC, a city and county-
seat of Fond du Lac co., Wis., on Winne-
bago lake, at the mouth of Fond du Lac
river, and on the Chicago, Milwaukee,
and St. Paul, the Chicago and North-
western, and the Minneapolis, St. Paul
and Sault Ste. Marie raih-oads; 60 miles
N. W. of Milwaukee. There is steam-
boat connection through Winnebago
Lake and Fox river with all the Great
Lakes. Here are a high school, St. Agnes
Hospital and Sanatorium, a court house,
Grafton Hall (Prot. Epis.), several
banks, and daily and weekly newspapers.
It has manufactories of engines, machin-
ery, flour, paper, carriages, lumber,
leather, typewriters, drugs, candies, etc.
Pop. (1910) 18,797; (1920) 23,427.
FONT, the vessel which contains the
water for the purposes of baptism. The
font is the only relic of our ancient archi-
tecture which in its form is at all analo-
gous to the Grecian and Roman vases.
Norman fonts are generally square or
circular; the first frequently placed on
five legs. The circular form continued to
be much used during the early English
period; so, occasionally, was the square.
Throughout the continuance of the Dec-
orated style, the octagon was generally
employed, sometimes the hexagon. Dur-
ing the Perpendicular style, the octagon
was almost always used. Until the
Reformation, and occasionally after, dip-
ping was practiced in England. Pouring
or sprinkling was not unusual previous
to the Reformation; for as early as the
year 754, pouring, in cases of necessity,
was declared by Pope Stephen III. to be
lawful; and in the year 1311, the Council
of Ravenna declared dipping or sprinkling
indifferent; yet dipping appears to have
been in England the more usual mode.
Fonts were required to be covered and
locked, and the covers were highly orna-
mented.
FONTAINEBLEATJ
166
FOOT
FONTAINEBLEAU (fon'tain-blo) , a
town of France, department of Seine-et-
jMarne, near the Seine, in the forest of
the same name, 32 miles S. S. E. of
Paris, and 8 S. by E. of Melun. Manu-
factures porcelain. Fontainebleau owes
its celebrity, and indeed origin, to its
palace, or chateau, a favorite residence
of the French monarchs. This is a vast
and superb pile, in fact, rather a collec-
tion of palaces of different architectural
periods, than a single edifice. Saracenic,
Tuscan, and Greek orders are intermixed
and interspersed with that of the Renais-
sance, and with the most bizarre and
dissimilar ornamentation ; yet, on the
whole, the structure has a striking air of
grandeur and majesty. It is surrounded
by magnificent gardens, and lies in the
forest of Fontainebleau, a finely wooded
tract of 42,500 acres, intersected by the
Seine, and presenting a very varied and
picturesque surface. The chateau of
Fontainebleau has been the scene of
many historical events. Philip IV., Henry
III., and Louis XIII. were born in it;
and the first-named monarch died here.
It was here that Louis XIV. signed the
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, in
1685. It was visited by Peter the Great;
Louis XV. espoused the daughter of
Stanislaus, King of Poland, in this pal-
ace; Pope Pius VII. was confined within
its walls for 18 months; and it is inti-
mately connected with the history of
Napoleon, who made it his favorite resi-
dence. He signed his abdication in the
palace, in 1814. It was comparatively
neglected by Louis XVIII. and Charles
X.; but Louis Philippe restored it to
somewhat of its ancient grandeur. In
1837 the nuptials of the Due d'Orleans
were celebrated here with great pomp.
Under Napoleon III. the palace was still
more enlarged and embellished, and be-
came the scene of luxurious autumnal
fetes, rivalling those of the days of
Louis XIV. The forest of Fontainebleau
became famous during the 19th century
as the resort of many famous French
painters of the modern school, Rousseau,
Corot, Diaz, Millet, etc. Pop, about
15,000.
FONTENOY, BATTLE OF, one of the
most famous battles in the War of the
Austrian Succession. It was fought at
a small village of the same name, in
western Belgium. Here, May 11, 1745,
the French under Marshal Saxe defeated
the Allies under the Duke of Cumber-
land, with very heavy loss on both sides.
FOOD, any substance which, taken into
the body, is capable of sustaining or
nourishing, or which assists in sustain-
ing or nourishing the living being. Foods
may be classed under three heads, gase-
ous, liquid, and solid, the first two con-
sisting of the air we breathe — the oxygen
of which is so essential to life — and the
water we drink. Milk, tea, coffee, cocoa,
etc., are popularly called liquid food, but
each of these is simply water in which
various solid substances are dissolved, or
held in suspension. The solid foods are
of three kinds — viz., nitrogenous, non-
nitrogenous, and mineral. Nitrogen
compounds, or flesh formers, are essen-
tially composed of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen. They possess the
only ingredients capable of building up
and repairing the nitrogenous tissues of
the body, but they also furnish a limited
supply of heat, especially when heat-giv-
ing compounds are deficient in the body.
Nitrogenous compounds are found both
in the animal and vegetable kingdoms
under the forms of albumen, fibrin, casein,
gelatine, and chondrin. Non-nitrogenous
compounds, or heat givers, sometimes
called carbonaceous compounds, are com-
posed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
They serve to keep up the heat of the
body, and so produce energy or force;
but they contribute, also, to the repair
and growth of the body. The chief heat
givers are starch (abundant in the cereal
grains), sugar, and fat. None of these
substances will of itself sustain life. The
mineral foods are the salts of soda and
potash, the phosphates of lime and mag-
nesia, iron, etc. As the daily waste of
the body must be met by a daily supply
of nourishment, it becomes of the utmost
importance that such supply should con-
sist of both flesh formers and heat givers,
and in the proportion of two parts of the
former to six of the latter. The National
Pure Food Law, which went into effect
in the United States Aug. 1, 1900, was
aimed against Adulteration (q.v.). See
Nutrition; Conservation of Food.
The food of animals is not directly de-
rived from inorganic nature, but medi-
ately through the agency of plants.
Plants can feed on and assimilate inor-
ganic matter, in this respect differing
from animals. A few plants, however,
such as fungi, the sundew (Drosera),
and Venus' fly trap, require animal
food. The ordinary food of plants con-
sists of carbon, water, and nitrogen.
FOOT, that part of the lower extrem-
ity below the leg on which we stand and
walk. It is composed of three series or
groups of bones — the tarsal, or hinder-
most; the metatarsal, which occupy the
middle portion; and the phalanges,
which form the toes. The tarsal bones
are seven in number. Above, they are
connected with the tibia and fibula
bones of the leg, and below from the
FOOT
167
FOOTBALL
heel and the hinder part of the instep.
They are the astragalus, which articu-
lates with the tibia and fibula; the os
calcis, or bone of the heel; the os navi-
culare, or scaphoid bone, on the inner
side of the foot, articulating with the
astragalus; the os cuboides, on the outer
side of the foot, articulating with the
OS calcis, the three cuneiform or wedge-
shaped bones (the internal, middle, and
external) in front of the scaphoid bone,
near the middle of the foot. The meta-
tarsal bones are five in number, and be-
long to the class of long bones. They
are connected posteriorly with the tar-
sal, and anteriorly with the phalangeal
bones. One is attached to each of the
cuneiform bones, and two to the os cubo-
ides; and they diverge slightly outward
as they proceed forward. Their anterior
ends form the balls of the toes. The
first metatarsal bone is the shortest and
strongest, while the second is the largest
CROSS SECTION OF HUMAN FOOT
A. Tibia D. Metatarsal bones
B. Bone of the heel E. Phalanges
O. Tarsal bones F. Sesamoid bones
G. Ankle joint
— the others all decreasing in length ac-
cording to their distance from it. These
bones form the anterior portion of the
instep. The phalanges, or bones of the
toes, are 14 in number, three to each
toe, except the great one, which has only
two. The upper ones, which are longest
and largest, are named the metatarsal;
the next, the middle; and the most an-
terior, the ungual phalanges. The bones
of the foot, more particularly those that
compose the tarsus and metatarsus, are
firmly connected together, so that they
are not liable to be displaced; and those
parts where they articulate with one
another being covered with a tolerably
thick layer of highly elastic cartilage,
, they possess a considerable degree of
elasticity. They are bound together in
various directions, by a number of liga-
ments, one of the principal of which is
the plantar ligament, which is of great
strength, and passes through the under
surface of the heel-bone near its extrem-
ity, forward to the ends of the metatar-
sal bones. The movements of the foot,
which are permitted by the connecting
ligaments, are effected by a variety of
muscles. The principal movements are :
(1) That at the ankle, formed by the
tibia and fibula with the astragalus, by
which the foot is bent and straightened;
(2) between the astragalus and os calcis,
by which the foot is rolled inward and
outward; (3) between the first and sec-
ond range of tarsal bones, admitting of
a very slight motion, by which the arch
of the foot may be somewhat increased
or diminished. Besides these there are
the less complicated movements of the
metatarsal and phalangeal bones. The
foot is usually so much interfered with
in civilized life as to be deprived of
much of its beauty, and even of its utili-
ty j its movements being impeded by its
being confined in tight-fitting boots, to
the shape of which feet are made to con-
form.
In poetry, a foot is a meter, or meas-
ure, composed of a certain number of
long and short syllables. Some are dis-
syllabic, consisting of two feet, as the
spondee, iambus, trochee; and some tri-
syllablic, as the dactyl, anapest, tribrach.
These are what are called simple feet.
There are others, consisting of four, five,
or six syllables, which are reckoned dou-
ble or compound feet, but which are com-
monly resolved into single feet.
In arithmetic, a measure of length,
consisting of 12 inches, or 36 barley-
corns laid end to end. It also expresses
surface and solidity. A square foot is
the same measure both in length and
breadth, containing 12x12 = 144 square
or superficial inches. A cubic or solid
foot is the same measure in all direc-
tions, or 12 inches long, broad and deep,
containing 12 x 12 = 144 x 12 = 1,728 cubic
inches to the solid or cubic foot. As
this term is employed in almost all lan-
guages as a linear measure, it has
doubtless been derived from the length
of the human foot. Though the denom-
ination is the same, the measure itself
varies considerably in different coun-
tries.
As a military term, soldiers who
march and fight on foot; infantry; as,
horse and foot.
FOOTBALL, a field game played in
the United States, Great Britain,
Canada, and Australia. The game is
said to have originated among the Ro-
mans, but it was under the guidance of
the public schools of Great Britain that
it advanced and became popular. There
are at the present time several styles of
football, the American and English, Rug-
FOOTBALL
168
FOOTE
by, and the Association games, being the
most popular. The American Rugby
game is played among the colleges,
schools, and athletic clubs of the United
States. The game is played on a field 360
feet long by 160 feet wide, the bound-
aries being marked off with white lines,
i|(. END LINE l60Feet
FOOTBALL — DIAGRAM OF FIELD OF PLAY
Black players about to start play. White players
ia defense positions
with lines at everv five yards, running
across the field. Two goal posts are
placed 18 feet 6 inches apart in the mid-
dle of each end line. These posts are
20 feet high and have a cross bar 10
feet from the ground. The ball has an
oval-shaped leather covering containing
an inflated rubber bladder. The foot*
ball team consists of 11 men, (1) the
center, (2) two guards, (3) two tackles,
(4) two halfbacks, (5) two ends, (6)
the quarterback, and (7) the fullback.
The game is commenced by one team
placing the ball on the center of its 40-
yard line and kicking it into the oppo-
nents' territory. One of the opponents
catches it, and runs forward until tackled
and thrown. The ball is then put down
for scrimmage. The center of the team
holding the ball passes it back between
his legs to a runner. When the runner
is stopped the referee signals "down,"
and the ball is held. The team is al-
lowed four downs, in which it must ad-
vance the ball 10 yards or surrender the
ball to its opponents. The ball may also
be advanced by the forward pass (throw-
ing ball toward goal), by punting (drop-
ping ball and kicking before it reaches
ground), and by drop kicking. The game
continues until one team carries the ball
over its opponents' goal line. This is
called a touchdown, and scores 6 points.
One of the team then tries to kick the
ball over crossbar and between opponents'
goal posts by a direct place kick (kick
from where it rests). This kicked
goal counts 1 point. The ball is then
taken out to the 40-yard line and kicked
off again by either team, at loser's
option. A goal from field (made — not on
kick-off — by place kick or drop kick, 1, e.
dropped ball kicked the instant it rises)
counts 3 points; a safety (bringing ball
over one's own goal), 2 points for oppo-
nents. The game is played in four periods
of 15 minutes each, with a 1 minute inter-
mission, but 15 minutes between halves.
The rules are somewhat modified every
year, the tendency being to bring about
open rather than mass play.
The English game (15 men) is more
open, more kicking being done, but does
not develop team work and interference
to any great extent.
In the Association (or soccer) game a
spherical ball is advanced entirely by
kicking or propulsion by head or body,
the hands being used only by goal keeper.
The team consists of five forwards, three
halfbacks, two fullbacks, and a goal
keeper. The goals are made by kicking?
ball between goal posts, 8 yards apart,
and under a bar 8 feet from ground.
The game is decided by the number of
goals scored. The tendency in recent
times has been to make the game faster
by bringing every man into full play.
FOOTE, AITDREW HULL, an
American naval officer; born in New
FOOTE
169
FOBBES
Haven, Conn., Sept. 12, 1806; entered
the navy as a midshipman in 1822. In
1849-1852 he was engaged in the sup-
pression of the slave trade on the coast
of Africa. In command of the China
station in 1856, when the Chinese tnd
English were at war, he exerted himself
to protect American property, and was
fired upon by the Celestials. His de-
mand for an apology was refused and
he stormed and captured four Chinese
forts, killing and wounding 400 of the
garrisons of 5,000 men. In 1861 he
commanded the expedition against Forts
Henry and Donelson on the Tennessee
and Cumberland rivers, and directed the
attack on Island Number 10. In 1862,
he was promoted rear-admiral, and in
1863 was ordered to take command of
the South Atlantic Squadron, but died in
New York while preparing to join his
flag-ship, June 26, 1863.
FOOTE, MARY (HALLOCK), an
American author; born in Milton, N. Y.,
Nov. 19, 1847; married a mining engi-
neer. She was the author of several
novels and collections of short stories
illustrated by herself, on life in the
Rocky Mountain regions: "The Led
Horse Claim" (1883); "John Bodewin's
Testimony" (1886); "Cceur d'Alene"
(1894) ; "The Cup of Trembling and
Other Stories" (1895) ; "The Little Fig
Tree Stories" (1899) ; "The Prodigal"
(1900); "ATouchof Sun" (1903); "The
Royal Americans" (1910) ; "Picked
Company" (1912); "Valley Road"
(1915).
FOOTE, SAMUEL, an English actor;
bom in Truro, England, Jan. 27, 1720.
From Oxford he went to London to
study law, but had to go on the stage
for a living; tried tragic parts and
failed; then began to give entertain-
ments, impersonating real and imagi-
nary people and acting little farces by
himself. He wrote farces, 22 in num-
ber; the most notable being "The Minor"
(1760), a skit at the Methodists; "The
Liar"; "The Mayor of Garratt." He
died in Dover, England, Oct. 21, 1777.
FOOTSCRAY, a city of Victoria,
Australia. It is a suburb of Melbourne
and has manufactures of sugar, soap,
woolen goods, chemicals, machinery, etc.
In the neighborhood are important blue-
stone quarries. Pop. about 25,000.
FORAKER, JOSEPH BENSON, an
American statesman; born near Rains-
boro, 0., Jan. 5, 1846; enlisted as a pri-
'Vate in the 89th Ohio Infantry and
served till the end of the Civil War. He
was graduated at Cornell University in
1869, and began law practice in Cincin-
nati, in the same year. He was judge
of the Superior Court of Cincinnati in
1879-1882, governor of Ohio in 1885-
1887 and 1887-1889, and was United
States Senator in 1897-1903. He ran
for senator in 1914 against Warren G.
Harding and was defeated. He died in
1917.
FORAMINIFERA, an order of ani-
mals belonging to the sub-kingdom Pro-
tozoa, and the class Rhizopoda (q. v.).
The body is contained within a calcare-
ous test or shell, which is polythalamous
(many-chambered) . It may be cylindrical
or spiral, or it may tend to the pyramidal
form. The outer surface presents a punc-
tate or dotted appearance, produced by
the presence of very numerous foramina,
or small apertures. Foraminifers are
always of small size, and often indeed
microscopic. With the exception of
Gromia, which occurs both in fresh and
salt water, they are exclusively marine.
Sometimes their shells constitute sea
sand. In the Atlantic, at a depth of 3,000
fathoms, there is an ooze composed al-
most entirely of Globigerime, which be-
long to this order; the stratum thus
formed is a direct continuation of the
white chalk deposit, having gone on ap-
parently through the whole Tertiary
period. Drs. Carpenter and Parker, and
Prof. T. Rupert Jones have divided the
Foraminifera thus:
Sub-order I. — Imperforata. Families:
(1) Gromida, (2) Miliolida, (3) Lituo-
lida.
Sub-order II. — Perforata. Families:
(1) Lagenida, (2) Globigerinida, and
(3) Numrmdinida.
The exceedingly antique Eozoon of the
Laurentian rocks, if organic, as it is
generally believed to be, was apparently
a foraminifer. Forms more unequiv-
ocal, some of them very like recent
species, occur in the Silurian, the Car-
boniferous, and other strata. They are
found through all the Secondary period,
chalk being almost entirely composed of
their cases. They increase in number and
importance in the Tertiary. The num-
mulites of the Midde Eocene are forami-
niferous animals.
FORBES, ARCHIBALD, a British
journalist; born in Morayshire, Scot-
land, in 1838; was educated at the Uni-
versity of Aberdeen. When the Franco-
Prussian War broke out the London
"Daily News" sent him to the front as
war correspondent, in which capacity he
impressed on his work a new and dis-
tinctive character and style. In 1875
he was sent to report the incidents of
the Indian tour of the Prince of Wales.
Subsequently he watched the course of
events in Servia ; described the war with
Turkey; and went to India to report the
FORBES
170
FORCE
AfghanWar, and to South Africa for the
Zulu War. Afterward he revised his
letters and reports, and recast them into
historical narratives of the various cam-
paigns. He died in London, March 29,
1900.
FORBES, WILLIAM CAMERON, an
American public official, born in Milton,
Mass., in 1870. He graduated from
Harvard in 1892, and entered the bank-
ing business, becoming a partner in the
banking firm of J. M. Forbes & Co.
From 1904 to 1908 he was a member of
the Philippine Commission and secretary
of commerce and police in the govern-
ment of the Philippine Islands. He was
successively vice-governor and governor-
general, resigning the latter position in
1913.
FORBES-ROBERTSON. SIR JOHN-
STONE, an English actor, born in Lon-
don in 1853. His early years were spent
FORBES-ROBERTSON
as a painter. He went on the stage at
the age of 21, and at once exhibited un-
usual talent. He acted as leading man
for Sir Henry Irving and Sir Squire
Bancroft. In 1895 he appeared with
Mrs. Patrick Campbell in "The Notori-
ous Mrs. Ebbsmith." In the same year
he began his career of manager in Lon-
don, playing the part of Romeo in
"Romeo and Juliet," following this with
"Othello" and "Hamlet." In the latter
he scored a great success. He made fre-
quent tours to the United States, where
he appeared in Shakespearean plays,
several plays by George Bernard Shaw,
and others. He was recognized as one
of the most distinguished actors of his
time. He was knighted in 1913.
PORCE, in physics, an influence or
exertion which, if made to act on a body,
has a tendency to move it when at rest,
or to affect or stop its progress if it be
already in motion. The strength of
man's arms is a force, so is the power
of a horse or ox to pull a vehicle, or
turn a wheel, or set in action an agri-
cultural machine. Gravity, friction,
elasticity of springs or gases, electrical
or magnetical attraction or repulsion are
forces. Accelerated force is the in-
creased force which a body exerts in
consequence of the acceleration of its
motion. Active force is force which
tends to move another body from a state
of rest. Animal force is the muscular
strength of man, horses, asses, cattle,
or other animals viewed as a moving
power.
Composition of forces is produced by
two other forces acting on a body. If
they operate in the same direction the
resultant or the resulting force will be
the sum of both. If the two forces act
in opposite directions and are equal, they
will make the body remain at rest; and
if they are unequal, they will move in
the direction of the greater force; and
with a force equivalent to their differ-
ence. If the lines of direction make an
angle with each other, the resultant will
be a mean force in an intermediate di-
rection. If many forces act, the result-
ant is the line of motion or state of rest
produced by their conjoint action. Reso-
lution of forces is the decomposition of
a force into the forces which have com-
bined to produce it.
The theory of the conservation of
force, or of energy, is the doctrine or
principle that in all cases force is con-
served— i. e., kept in existence even when
it appears to perish. Just as a certain
definite amount of matter exists in the
universe, to which man cannot add, and
from which he cannot subtract an atom,
so a definite amount of force, incapable
of being increased or diminished, exists
like the former, in the universe. It can,
however, be transformed so as to look
quite unlike its former self; but in every
case the force or energy communicate!
to a body or system of bodies is with-
dravvTi from some fund of energy pre-
viously existing. The theory of the cor-
relation of force, or energy, is the doc-
trine or principle that the different kinds
of force in the universe are so correlated
together that any one can be trans-
formed into an exactly equivalent amount
of another. There is equality when one
can do precisely the same amount of
FORCE PUMP
171
FORD
work as any other. It has long been
known that in a machine, the screw for
example, what is gained in power is lost
in velocity, and vice versa. At first
sight motion and heat seem to have no
relation to each other; but if a moving
body be suddenly arrested in its career,
as, for instance, a bullet by a target,
heat will be generated, and the same
number of units of the work which the
motion was capable of effecting can be
achieved also by the heat. Conversely,
a certain amount of heat can produce
an equivalent one of motion; thus the
working energy communicated to the
piston of a steam engine is withdrawn
from the heat of the steam, and exactly
balances the latter.
By equilibrium of forces is meant the
action of forces which, balancing each
other, produce an equilibrium or state
of balance, or rest in the body or bodies
on which they operate. An impulsive
force is a force which acts on a body
for an unappreciably short time, as
when one body strikes another. Kinetic
force is the actual force excited by a
moving body as distinguished from the
potential forces which it is capable of
creating. Potential force is the whole
force which a body in motion can exert,
as distinguished from the kinetic force
which it is exerting at the specific mo-
ment of time. The measure of force is the
measurement of the magnitude of a
force, which is done by noting the mo-
mentum which it communicates to a
body in a unit of time. The unit of force
is the force which acting on a pound
mass would, in one second, produce a
velocity of a foot per second. Mechan-
ical force is force of a mechanical na-
ture acting on material bodies. It may
be either that of the active force of a
body in motion, or the tension or resist-
ance opposed by a body at rest. Molecu-
lar forces are those which by means
of certain attractions and repulsions
retain the atoms of matter side by side
without their touching each other. When
a force tends to produce rotation about
a fixed point the tendency is called
Moment.
FORCE PUMP, a pump which delivers
the water under pressure, so as to eject
it forcibly or deliver it at an elevation.
The term is used in contradistinction to
a lift pump, in which the water is lifted,
and simply runs out of the spout. The
single-acting force pump is that in which
the lift and delivery are alternate. The
double-acting is that in which the pas-
sages are duplicated, so that a lift and
delivery are obtained by each motion of
the plunger; the pump has a distinct
water-way both above and below the pis-
ton, so as both to draw and force water
at each stroke, and thus cause a continu-
ous stream, which is rendered more uni-
form by an air-chamber. Also the boiler-
supply pump sometimes connected to
the piston rod of the cylinder of a loco-
motive.
FORD CITY, a borough in Pennsyl-
vania, in Armstrong co. It is the center
of an important agricultural and coal-
mining region and its industries include
the manufacture of plate glass. Pop.
(1910) 4,850; (1920) 5,605.
FORD, HENRY, an American cap-
italist and philanthropist, born at Green-
field, Mich., in 1863. After attending a
district school he learned the machinist's
trade and moved to Detroit to secure em-
ployment. After securing notable suc-
HENRY FORD
cesses in his vocation he became chief
engineer of the Edison Illuminating Co.
and in 1903 organized the Ford Motor
Co., which became the largest automobile
company in the world. In the conduct
of his plant he achieved great success
partly by his enlightened attitude toward
his employees, granting them high
wages, making them profit-sharers in
the plant, and maintaining for their
benefit hospitals and schools. In 1915
he financed a group of peace advocates
which attempted to influence the belli-
gerent powers to end the World War.
After the war he was among the first
FOBD
172
FORELANDS
to announce a reduction in the prices of
his goods in order to reduce the high
cost of living. He was defeated for the
United States Senate in 1918 by Tru-
man H. Newberry.
FORD, HENRY JONES, an American
educator, born in Baltimore in 1851. He
graduated from Baltimore City College
in 1868. In 1872 he became an editorial
v/riter on the Baltimore "American" and
for several years acted as editor for
papers in New York, Pittsburgh, and
Baltimore. He was lecturer on political
science at Johns Hopkins University in
1906-1907. In 1908 he was appointed
professor of politics at Princeton. He
wrote "The Rise and Growth of Ameri-
can Politics" (1898) ; "The Scotch-Irish
in America" (1915); "Woodrow Wilson,
the Man and His Work" (1916) ; "The
Cleveland Era" (1919). He was a fre-
quent contributor on economic subjects
to magazines.
FORD, JOHN, an English dramatist;
born in Islington, England, in April,
1586. He turned from law to devote
himself to the drama. His first poem
was "Fame's Memorial," an elegy on the
Earl of Devonshire. Alone and in co-
laboration he wrote a series of very suc-
cessful plays. As a poet he ranks among
the foremost outside of Shakespeare.
Among his best plays are: "The Lover's
Melancholy," "The Broken Heart," and
"Love's Sacrifice." He died about 1640.
FORD, PAUL LEICESTER, an Amer-
ican author; born in Brooklyn, N. Y., in
1865. His works include: "The Honor-
able Peter Stirling" (1894) ; "The True
George Washington" (1896); "Biblio-
theca Hamilton"; "Franklin Bibliog-
raphy"; "The Works of Thomas Jef-
ferson" (1897) ; "The Story of an Un-
told Love"; "Tattle Tales of Cupid";
"Janice Meredith" (1899), etc. He died
in 1902.
FORD, WORTHINGTON CHATJN-
CEY, an American statistician; born in
Brooklyn, N. Y., Feb. 16, 1858; was chief
of the Bureau of Statistics, Department
of State, in 1885-1889, and of the Bu-
reau of Statistics in the Treasury De-
partment in 1893-1898; became connected
with the Boston Public Library in 1897 ;
was chosen Lecturer on Statistics in the
University of Chicago in 1901. He was
the author of "American Citizen's Man-
ual"; "The Standard Silver Dollar"
(1884)and "George Washington" (1899) ;
"Journal of Continental Congress"
(1905) ; "Life and Writings of John
Quincy Adams" (1913).
FORDHAM UNIVERSITY, a Roman
Catholic institution for higher education,
formerly known as St. John's College.
The latter institution was opened in 1841
as the New York Diocesan College and
Seminary. It then included St. Joseph's
Seminary and a college department.
The seminary was in 1864 removed
to Troy, and in 1896 to Dunwoodie.
In 1907 the charter of the college
was amended to authorize the estab-
lishment of law and medical depart-
ments, and at the same time the name
was changed to Fordham University. It
is situated in Fordham, N. Y. In 1919
there were 201 instructors and 3,209
students. The president is Rev. E. P.
Tivnan, S. J.
FORECASTLE, a short deck placed
in front of a ship above the upper deck.
It is generally terminated at each end,
in ships of war, by a breastwork, the
foremast part reaching to the beak-head,
and the after portion reaching to the
fore-chains. This part of a ship used to
be very much elevated in former times,
for the accommodation of archers and
cross-bowmen; whence the term fore-
castle.
FOREIGN WARS, MILITARY
ORDER OF, a hereditary, patriotic or-
ganization formed in New York in 1894.
During the first year it was known as
the Military and Naval Order of the
United States, but the name was changed
to its present one in 1895. The foreign
wars referred to are the War of the
Revolution, the War with Tripoli, the
War of 1812, the Mexican War, and the
War with Spain — and the objects are to
preserve the names of those engaged in
them and collect the records. The mem-
bers fnclude Veteran Companions, con-
sisting of commissioned officers of the
army, navy, and marine corps, who took
part in the wars, and Hereditary Com-
panions, descendants of commissioned
officers who so participated. When the
World War broke out the State com-
manderies numbered 20, and the mem-
bership was over 1,500.
FORELANDS, NORTH and SOUTH,
two headlands on the S. E. coast of Eng-
land, and on the E. seaboard of the
county of Kent : the first, or North Fore-
land, forms the N. E. angle of the
county ; it projects into the sea in the form
of a bastion, and consists of chalky cliffs
nearly 200 feet in height. A lighthouse
of the first class, having a fixed light
elevated 340 feet above the level of the
sea, was erected on this promontory in
1688. The South Foreland, about 16
miles S. of the former, consists also of
chalky cliffs, and has two lighthouses,
with fixed lights, erected upon it, to
warn ships coming from the S. of their
FOREORDIN'ATION
173
FOBEY
approach to the Goodwin Sands. The
North Foreland is made, by Act of Par-
liament, the S. E. extremity of the port
of London.
FOREORDINATION, or PREDESTI-
NATION, according to the Calvinistic
view, the predestination before the foun-
dation of the world of some to eternal
life and others to eternal death. In the
authorized version of the Scriptures, the
word foreordination does not appear at
all, and the word foreordain does not
occur in this sense, but ordain does:
"And as many as were ordained to eter-
nal life believed" (Acts xiii: 48) ; "Who
were of old ordained to this condemna-
tion" (Jude 4, 13).
FOREST CITY, a borough of Penn-
sylvania, in Susquehanna co. It is on
the Delaware and Hudson, the Erie, and
the New York, Ontario, and Western
railroads. Its chief industries are coal
mining and the manufacture of silk. It
is also the center of an important agri-
cultural region. Pop. (1910) 5,749;
(1920) 6,004.
FOREST PARK, a city of Illinois, in
Cook CO. It is 4 miles beyond the city
limits of Chicago. It is on the Chicago
Great Western, the Baltimore and Ohio,
Chicago Terminal, and the Minneapolis,
St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie railroads.
It is also on the Des Plaines river. The
town is a suburb of Chicago, and within
its borders are several cemeteries. Pop.
(1910) 6,594; (1920) 10,768.
FORESTERS, INDEPENDENT
ORDER OF, a benevolent and fraternal
organization founded at Newark, N. J.,
in 1874 and reorganized in 1881. The
order has members throughout the
United States and Canada, with branches
in Great Britain, Frp.nce, Norway, Aus-
tralia, and India. The responsibility for
government is vested in a supreme court
which sits in Toronto, Can., while high
courts attend to the affairs of the order
in the different States of the Union and
in countries where branches exist. The
number of members is now about 260,000,
and the disbursements have amounted to
over $50,000,000. In the United States
there are a high court, and about 4,200
subordinate courts.
FORESTRY, the act, occupation, or art
of forming and cultivating forests; the
systematic utilization, reproduction and
improvement in productive capacity of
trees in masses, including the planting
and culture of new forests. Not only
private interest exists in forests but a
public interest, which necessitates at
times governmental action. Such action
rests on the following principles: (1)
VoL IV— Cyc— L
The widest scope should be allowed to
private enterprise in production, care
being taken that abundant statistics in
regard to supply and demand and oppor-
tunity for education on the subject be
furnished. (2) Adequate legal protection
should be given to forest property. (3)
Whenever improper management threat-
ens damage to neighboring property the
State should interfere to enforce proper
management. (4) Wherever public wel-
fare demands the reforestation of de-
nuded tracts, the State should assist
individual or communal enterprise in
performing this, or else do the reforest-
ing as a work of internal improvement.
(5) In cases where a permanent forest
is desirable and private interest can not
be relied on for its proper management,
the State should own and manage it.
There were, in 1920, 152 National
Forests, embracing 180,299,776 acres, of
which a little over 86 per cent, is public
land. By the act of February 26, 1919,
the Grand Canyon National Park was
created. For this purpose 606,720 acres
were transferred from other National
Forests. For a discussion of conserva-
tion of forest lands, see Conservation.
See also National Parks, and Forestry
Association, American.
FORESTRY ASSOCIATION, AMER-
ICAN. An association organized in 1882
and incorporated in 1897, having among
its purposes the promotion of a business-
like use of the forest resources of the
United States, the advancement of legis-
lation to that end and the inauguration
of forest administration by the Federal
Government and States, and the diffu-
sion of knowledge in respect to the con-
servation and utilization of forests. As
a result of its work committees have
investigated forest conditions and issued
reports of great value in forest renewal
and management. The members number
over 5,000. The headquarters are in
Washington, D. C, and there a maga-
zine, "American Forestry," is issued
each month.
FOREY, ELIE FREDERIC, a French
military officer; born in Paris, France,
Jan. 10. 1804; was admitted to the Mili-
tary School of St. Cyr in 1822. He took
part in the first expedition to Algiers,
and distinguished himself at the battle
of Medeah, in the retreat which followed
the first siege of Constantine, and at the
Iron Gates. In 1840, he went through
four other African campaigns, and re-
turned to France with the rank of colonel
in 1844, became a general in 1848, took
an active part in the coup d'etat of
December, 1851, and was made a general
of division and commander of the Legion
of Honor in 1852. At the breaking out
FOEFARSHIRE
174
FORGET-ME-NOT
of the war with Russia, he was placed
on the reserve division of the Army of
the East, and for a time held the com-
mand of the siege force before Sebasto-
pol. In 1857 he was nominated to the
first division of the army of Paris. He
commanded this division during the
Italian War in 1860, gained at Monte-
bello the first battle of the campaign,
and distinguished himself at Magenta
and Solferino, being wounded at the lat-
ter. When the expedition to Mexico was
decided upon in 1861, Forey received the
command of the French troops. After
several sanguinary engagements, he at-
tacked and stormed the strong post of
Puebla, thereby throwing open the road
to the city of Mexico. For this service
he was made Marshal of France, when
he resigned his command to General
Bazaine, and returned home, receiving
the command of the 2d army corps in
1863, He received the Grand Cross of
the Legion of Honor in 1859, and was
elected to the Senate in that year. He
died in Paris, France, June 20, 1872.
FORFABSHmE, or ANGUS, a mari-
time county of Scotland, in the east mid-
land division. It has an area of 873
square miles. The surface is for the
most part irregular and intersected with
hills. It is an agricultural and stock-
raising county. Its chief industries are
the manufacture of jute and linen. Pop.
about 285,000. The capital is Forfar.
FORFEITURE, in English law, is a
punishment annexed to some illegal act
or negligence in the owner of real prop-
erty, whereby he loses all his interest
therein, and it goes to the party injured,
as a recompense for the wrong which
either he alone or the public with him
has sustained. Forfeitures are either
civil ^r criminal. Civil forfeiture takes
place when some alienation is made con-
trary to law, as in mortmain; or when a
particular tenant aliens for a larger
estate than he himself has, as when a
tenant for life makes a conveyance in
fee. Forfeiture for criminal causes takes
place in treason or felony, and for one
or two other offenses.
Forfeiture by alienation is almost un-
known in the United States, and the just
principle prevails that the conveyance
by the tenant operates only on the inter-
est which he possessed, and does not
affect the remainder man or reversioner.
Under the Constitution and laws of the
United States, forfeiture for crimes is
nearly abolished; and when it occurs,
the State recovers only the title which
the owner had. An estate may be for-
feited by a breach or non-performance
of a condition annexed to the estate,
either expressed in the deed at its orig-
inal creation, or implied by law, from a
principle of natural reason.
FORGE, the apparatus or works for
heating bars of iron and steel and work-
ing them under the hammer. Works in
which cast iron from the blast furnaces
is converted into malleable iron by
puddling and subsequent hammering,
and also where the native ores of iron
are reduced without fusion to the metal-
lic state, are also called forges. Forges
are required of various dimensions, and
are often adapted to special uses. Port-
able forges are used in many workshops.
For forging heavy articles, as anchors,
wrought-iron shafts for ocean steamers,
etc., powerful machinery is required,
adapted to the nature of the work to be
done. Morrison's steam hammer, with
which a bar of iron can be forged of any
size or thickness, is one solid wrought-
iron hammer bar, piston head and head
for hammer face forged solid, with the
bar passing through both ends of the
cylinder, prevented from turning by the
upper cylinder head. No guides below
the cylinder. Slide-valve balanced.
Double-acting hammers of all sizes, tak-
ing steam above and below the piston,
with self-acting valve gear and hand
movement, can be changed at will while
in operation, thus affording complete
control over its movements. Hammers
of 2,000 pounds and under have one up-
right only; those over this size, two. In
puddling iron, when the mass of cast-
iron has been sufficiently purified in the
furnace by burning out its carbon and
other impurities, it is placed under the
heavy forge hammer, which squeezes out
the liquid slag and forces the softened
particles of iron to cohere into a con-
tinuous oblong mass or bloom. When
iron is extracted from rich ores without
first being converted into cast-iron, the
forge hammer is used to force the spongy
mass of reduced ore into a compact bar
of malleable iron.
FORGES, a small village in France,
about eight miles N. W. of Verdun,
which figured prominently in the first
attack by the Germans on Verdun, in
March, 1916. It was taken and re-taken
several times by both sides, but on that
occasion was finally held by the Ger-
mans, who pressed on toward the main
French position at Mort Homme. Dur-
ing these operations the village was al-
most entirely destroyed by gunfire.
FORGET-ME-NOT, Myosotis palustHs,
the creeping water scorpion grass, a
boraginaceous plant about a foot high.
The flowers are bright blue, with a yel-
low eye and a small white ray at the
base of each segment. It is found abun»
FORK
175
FORMOSA
dantly in ditches and the sides of rivers,
flowering from June to August. The
name is also applied to Myosotis arven-
sis, Veronica chamaedrys, and Ajuga
chamsepitys.
FORK, an instrument divided at the
end into two or more points or prongs,
and used for lifting or pitching any-
thing. The instrument used at table is
only about three centuries old. The
Greeks, Romans, and other ancient na-
tions knew nothing of table forks, though
they had large forks for hay, and also
iron forks for taking meat out of pots.
The use of any species of forks at the
table was quite unknown till the 15th
century, and they were then known only
in Italy, which has the merit of this
invention. None of the sovereigns of
England had forks till after the reign of
Henry VIII.; all, high and low, used
their fingers. The first royal personage
in England who is known to have had
a fork was Queen Elizabeth; but it re-
mains doubtful whether she used them
on ordinary occasions. As late as the
middle of the 17th century forks were
used in England only by the highest
classes. The general use of silver forks
in Great Britain cannot be dated farther
back than beginning of 19th century.
In machinery, a fork is a short piece
of steel which fits into one of the sockets
or chucks of a lathe, used by wood-turn-
ers for carrying round the piece to be
turned; it is flattened at the end like a
chisel, but has a projecting center point,
to prevent the wood from moving later-
ally.
FORLI (ancient Forum Livii), a
walled city of central Italy, capital of
province of same name, in a fertile plain
between the Montone and Ronco, on the
Emilian Way, 38 miles S. E. of Bologna,
and 15 S. W. of Ravenna. Manufac-
tures, silk ribbons and twist, oil-cloth,
woolens, wax, niter, and sulphur. In
1797 Forli was taken by the French,
who made it the capital of the depart-
ment of Rubicon. In 1860 it was annexed
to the kingdom of Italy. The collection
of paintings in the municipal Pinacoteca
is important. Pop. of commune, about
46,000.
FORMALDEHYDE. HCOrH, formic
aldehyde, methyl aldehyde; obtained
when a current of air, charged with the
vapor of methyl alcohol, is directed on
an incandescent spiral of platinum wire.
The liquid collected reduces nitrate of
silver, forming a mirror; a small quan-
tity is formed by the action of the silent
electric discharge on a mixture of hydro-
gen and carbon dioxide, C02 + 2H2=:H-
CO-H-|-H,0.
FORMAMIDE. H-CO-NH., the amide
of formic acid, obtained by the dry dis-
tillation of formate of ammonium, or by
heating two parts of dry ammonium for-
mate with one part of urea to 140"^, till
no more ammonium carbonate is given
off. It is a liquid which distills in a
vacuum at 150" at ordinary pressure, at
195° with partial decomposition: when
quickly heated, it is decomposed into
CO and NH3.
FORMICA, ant, the typical genus of
the family FoKMiciDiE (q. v.). It has
the footstalk of the abdomen composed
of a single joint; the mandibles are tri-
angular, and denticulated at the edge.
The females are destitute of a sting. Of
these F. sanguinea makes its nest in
wood, and is a slave holder, carrying off
the young of other species, such as those
of F. cunicularia and F. fusca. Of the
foreig^n species, F. saccharivora makes
its nest at the foot of sugar canes, so
loosening the soil that they are blown
down by gales. F. indefessa, an Indian
species, is a great devourer of sweets.
See Ant.
FORMIC ACID, HCHO2, or H:COr
OH, a monobasic fatty acid, which de-
rives its name from the circumstance
that it was first obtained by distilling
ants. It occurs in the animal and vege-
table kingdoms, especially in the red ant,
Formica rufa. When an ant walks over
moistened blue litmus it turns it red. It
exists also in certain caterpillars, in sev-
eral secretions of the human body, as in
blood, in urine, in the fish-juice, and in
perspiration. It is also found in the
juice of the stinging nettle, and in com-
mercial oil of turpentine that has been
exposed to the air, and in certain min-
eral springs.
FORMICID.ffi. in entomology, a genus
of aculeate Hymenoptera, tribe or sub-
tribe Heterogyiia. The abortive females
are wingless, the basal joint of the an-
tennae in the females and neuters is long
and elbowed; the upper lip of the neu-
ters, large, horny, and perpendicular, the
first or second joint of the abdomen
knotted. In many species the females
and neuters have stings. They are gen-
erally social insects living in communi-
ties, consisting of males, females, and
neuters. The chief genera are Foi-mic^,
Polyergus, Ponera, Myrmica, and Atta.
Formica and Myrmica have representa-
tives widely distributed.
FORMOSA (Chinese Tai-Wan. or
"Terrace Bay"), an island in the Chinese
Sea, belonging to Japan; about 80 miles
from the Chinese coast, from which it
is separated by the Channel of Foh-kien
(sometimes called Strait of Formosa),
FORMULA
176
FORT
and 170 miles N. of Luzon, the chief of
the Philippine Islands; length, N. to S.
about 250 miles; breadth, in its center,
about 80 miles; area estimated at 13,300
square miles. A chain of mountains runs
through the island in its entire length,
forming, in general, the barrier between
the Chinese on the W., and the independ-
ent natives of the unexplored country on
the E. side. On many of its peaks snow
remains during the most of the summer.
It exhibits distinct evidence of former
volcanic action, and sulphur, naphtha,
and other volcanic products are abundant.
Some parts of the coast present bold
headlands; but all of the W. shore is
flat, and surrounded with rocks and
shoals. Its harbors, which were formerly
good, have now become nearly useless,
owing to the encroachments of the land
upon the sea. Ke-lung, at its N. extrem-
ity, is the only good port. Soil, highly
fertile and productive. All the large
plain of the S. resembles a vast culti-
vated garden. The principal productions
are rice, sugar, camphor, tobacco, wheat,
maize, millet, truffles, vegetables, and the
choicest of Asiatic and European fruits;
pepper, aloes, green tea, cotton, hemp,
and silk are also important articles of
cultivation. The leopard, tiger, wolf,
etc., are found in the more impenetrable
tracts of the interior; the domestic
breeds of animals, game, etc., are abun-
dant. The chief mineral deposits are
salt and sulphur. The trade is mostly
in the hands of Chinese and British mer-
chants, who also own all the shipping.
The principal article of import is opium.
The natives bear no resemblance to the
Chinese; but they have an apparent alli-
ance with the Malay or Polynesian race.
The Japanese, Spanish, Portuguese, and
Dutch have been successively masters of
this island. The latter were in 1662 ex-
pelled by the Chinese, and the former
reoccupied it after the Chinese-Japanese
War, in 1895. Pop. about 3,700,000, in-
cluding resident Japanese citizens and
soldiers. Capital, Taiwan City. Pop.
54,000.
FORMULA, in chemistry, an ex-
pression by means of symbols, especially
letters and numbers, of the chemical
elements contained in a compound; in
medicine, a prescription. In mathemat-
ics, a formula is the expression of a gen-
eral rule or principle in algebraic sym-
bols. For example, the equation —
(a + b) {a — b)=a' — b'
is a formula, being the algebraic expres-
sion of the fact that the sum of two
quantities multiplied by their difference
is equal to the difference of their squares.
If a rule or principle is translated into
algebraic expressions, the result is a for-
mula; conversely, if a formula is trans-
lated into ordinary language, the result
is a rule or principle.
In Church history, a formula is a for-
mal enunciation or declaration of faith
or doctrine. The formula of concord was
a confession of faith upon the points on
which the Lutherans differed from the
Calvinists, especially in connection with
the Eucharist. The issue of such a docu-
ment was suggested by Augustus, Elec-
tor of Saxony, who employed James An-
drea to ascertain opinions on the subject,
and draw it out. His chief assistants
were Martin Chemnitz, Nicholas Sel-
necker, Andrew Musculus, Christopher
Corner, and David Chytasus. The for-
mula was published in 1580, all clergy-
men and schoolmasters being required
by the Elector to subscribe to it. It in-
dorsed the opinions of Luther, and wid-
ened the breach with the Swiss and
other reformed Churches.
The formula consensus was a formula
drawn up in 1675, by John Henry Heid-
egger, a celebrated divine, of Zurich, at
the instance of his clerical brethren, to
preserve the Calvinistic doctrine from
the slight modifications of it introduced
by the French divine, Amyraut, and
others. It was annexed by the magis-
trates to the common Helvetic formulas
of religion. Its effect was found adverse
rather than favorable to peace. It was
abolished in the canton of Berne and the
republic of Geneva in 1686, and ulti-
mately became incapable of enforcement
anywhere.
FORREST, EDWIN, an American
actor; born in Philadelphia, Pa., March
9, 1806 ; made his first appearance on the
professional stage in the title role of
Douglas at the Walnut Street Theater,
Philadelphia, in 1820. After a long tour
in the West, during which he undertook
several Shakespearean characters, he ap-
peared as Othello at the Park Theater,
New York, in 1826, where he met with
remarkable success. In 1835 he went to
England, and was there warmly received.
Subsequently he played in Europe and
the United States, but in 1871 retired
from the stage. He died in Philadelphia,
Pa., Dec. 12, 1872.
FORT, in the general sense of t'e
word, a small, inclosed work, usually
erected near an important fortress or
fortified town, to command any of the
approaches to it. Forts are also fre-
quently erected on the sea coast, for the
defense of certain positions. They are
generally quadrilateral, with bastions or
demibastions at the angles, but it de-
pends mainly on the position they oc-
cupy, whether they are triangular;
FORT COLLINS
177
FORTIFICATION
square, polygonal, or in the form of a
crown-work or star. They consist for
the most part of a rampart, surrounded
with a ditch and glacis; but in some
cases an outwork is constructed for the
defense of any side on which it may be
more easily assailed. Paris is completely
girdled with a chain of carefully planned
forts, mostly pentagonal, in the shape
of an enceinte, and situated at distances
varying from a mile to IV^ miles from
the inner line of bastions that encircle
the city. In North America, generally,
the name was also applied to a trading
post in the wilderness with reference
to the indispensable defenses, however
slight, against the surrounding savages.
FORT COLLINS, a city of Colorado,
the county-seat of Larimer co. It is
on the Cache la Poudre river, and on
the Union Pacific and the Colorado and
Southern railroads. It is the center of
an important agricultural region and
has manufactures of beet sugar, flour,
bricks, etc. It is the seat of a Lutheran
theological seminary and of the State
agricultural college. It has a public
library, a court house, hospital, and sev-
eral excellent parks. Pop. (1910) 8,210;
(1920) 8,755.
FORT DODGE, a city of Iowa, the
county-seat of Webster co. It is on the
Minneapolis and St. Louis, the Illinois
Central, the Fert Dodge, Deg Moines
and Southern, and the Chicago Great
Western railroads, and on the Des
Moines river. It is an important manu-
facturing center and has manufactures
of clay products, brick and tile, oatmeal,
shoes, etc. It is also an extensive coal
regrion and in the neighborhood are large
deposits of sand, clay, and sandstone.
It is the seat of Tobin College and St.
Joseph's Mercy Hospital. There is also
a court house and a public library. It
has the repair shops of four railroads
which enter the city. Pop. (1910) 15,543;
(1920) 19,347.
FORTH, a river of Scotland, rising on
' the E. side of Ben Lomond, in Stirling-
shire. After a sinuous course E. past
Aberfoyle, Stirling, and Alloa, it unites
with an arm of the sea called the Firth
of Forth. Its chief affluents are the
Teith, Allan, and Devon. The Firth at
its mouth is 35 or 40 miles wide, from
Fife Ness on the N., to St. Abb's Head
on the S. shore, both washed by the Ger-
man Ocean. It contains several islands,
of which the chief are Inchgarvie, Inch-
colm, Inchkeith, the Bass, and the Isls
of May; the largest of these is but a
few miles in circuit. Lighthouses are
erected on Inchkeith and on the Isle of
May. The Forth possesses many good
harbors, and St. Margaret's Hope, above
Queen's Ferry, is one of the safest road-
steads in the island. Length of river, in-
cluding its "links," 180 miles.
FORTH BRIDGE, a remarkable work
in engineering, spanning the Firth of
Forth in Scotland; completed and for-
mally opened on March 4, 1890. The
construction was begun early in 1883,
and the total cost up to the time of com-
pletion may be given in round numbers
as $16,000,000. Total length, upward of
XVz miles; cantilever arms projection
(outer), 680 feet; depth of cantilevers
over piers, 342 feet; depth at ends, 41
feet; distance apart of lower members
at piers, 120 feet; struts, largest diam-
eter, 8 feet; ties, greatest length, 327
feet; central girder, span, 350 feet; cen-
tral girder, depth at center, 51 feet;
central girder, depth at ends, 41 feet;
total amount of steel in bridge, over
50,000 tons, height of cantilever pier
(masonry) above water, 209 feet. The
designers of the bridge were Sir John
Fowler and Benjamin Baker.
FORTIFICATION, the art of increas-
ing, by engineering devices, the fighting
power of troops who occupy a position.
The relation of fortification to the other
great divisions of the art of warfare,
strategy and tactics, may be divided as
follows: Strategy determines the loca-
tion of the position, which must conform
to the general plan of campaign; tactics
determines the best disposition of the
troops on the position, for offense or de-
fense; fortification improves the natural
features of the position so as to increase
the chances of success. Fortifications
are commonly divided into two classes :
"permanent fortifications" and "field-
works." Under the former are included
all works that are constructed for the
defense of town, harbor, arsenal, dock-
yard, etc., being carefully laid out and
built with a view to durability and the
resistance of an attack, whenever it may
be made; under the latter, all works are
classed that are intended to serve a tem-
porary purpose, such as siege-work and
batteries for an attack on a fortress, or
lines of intrenchment hastily thrown up
for the protection of an army in the
field, or to check the advance of an
enemy on an important strategical posi-
tion. These works differ mainly in the
manner in which they are built, the ram-
parts and parapets of permanent works
being faced or riveted with blocks of
granite; the terre-plein of the rampart
on which the guns are worked, the
cheeks of the embrasures, casemates,
bomb-proof buildings for magazines, etc.,
being formed of the same material;
while field-works consist of mounds of
earth formed of that which is thrown
FOBTIFICATION
178
FORTRESS
up out of the ditch in front, having the
ramparts and embrasures riveted with
sods of turf, fascines, gabions, and sand-
bags, the terre-plein for the support of
the guns and their carriages being made
of pieces of thick timber strongly bolted
together.
The great improvements lately made
in the construction of heavy guns have
rendered it necessary to revise the sys-
tems of fortification formerly in vogue.
Iron and steel turrets are taking the
place of masonry on low sites which are
much exposed and where earth cannot be
employed advantageously. These turrets
are revolving' cupolas, with spherical
roofs; while in some instances the guns
are mounted on disappearing carriages.
In the United States the frontiers ex-
posed to attack being very largely mari-
time, the fortifications are principally
batteries of heavy guns adapted to a
contest with steel-plated ships. It was
formerly usual to mount guns in ma-
sonry casements built tier over tier, but
this method has been discarded in con-
sequence of the modern developments in
ships and guns. It was demonstrated
during the World War when the Ger-
mans smashed the Belgian forts that
earth and sand constitute the most effec-
tive defense. Stone, concrete and steel
cannot withstand modern siegeguns.
Iron-clad Forts. Since 1859 the prog-
ress of fortification in Europe was in
the direction of the use of some form of
iron ai'mor. In England the necessity
for using iron in fortifications was ap-
parent just as soon as this material be-
gan to be used in ships, and in 1861
England entered upon the work of re-
building her forts with iron. It was
substantially completed in 1878, at a
cost of $37,000,000, expended on nine
harbors. Within comparatively recent
times have come the solid iron turrets, of
enormous thickness, carrying two 80-
ton guns each, which form part of the
defenses of Dover, England. While
many of these forts, which were built
while the contest between guns and ar-
mor was still in progress, can be pierced
by the more recent guns, yet the number
of large guns which they mount is far
superior to the number that could be
brought against them afloat, and in con-
nection with torpedoes and ironclad
ships they afford a secure defense. On
the Continent the problem was not taken
up till guns had reached a greater devel-
opment, and then it was solved generally
in the direction of using iron alone, in
the form of turrets or domes. Some
were of wrought iron, some of steel, and
some of cast iron. The latter were the
Gruson cupolas, of which many were
constructed in various harbors of Ger-
many, Austria, Belgium, Holland, and
Italy. See Fort.
FORT LEE, a borough of New Jersey,
in Bergen co. It is connected by ferry
with New York City. Several important
moving picture studios are located here.
It has the Institute of the Holy Angels.
During the Revolutionary War one of
the forts defending the Hudson was situ-
ated here. Pop. (1910) 4,474; (1920)
5,761.
FORT MADISON, a city of Iowa, the
county-seat of Lee co. It is on the Mis-
souri river, and on the Atchison, Topeka,
and Santa Fe, and the Chicago, Burling-
ton and Quincy railroads. Its industries
include pork packing, railroad shops,
grain elevators, cement works, flour and
saw mills, farm-implement works, button
works, etc. It is the seat of the State
penitentiary and has a public library,
two hospitals, and several parks. Pop.
(1910) 8,900; (1920) 12,066.
FORTRESS, the development of mod-
ern ordnance has rendered fortification
as exhibited in the construction of the
fortresses of the past practically obsolete
and useless. It is probable that no for-
tress in the world (with the exception,
perhaps, of Gibraltar) would form a
serious obstacle to a modern naval or
land attack, if the assailants were pro-
vided with the most approved modern
heavy guns. In view of this fact, the
construction of fortresses has been di-
rected almost entirely to enabling them
to cause a ricochet of shots directed
against them rather than to oppose the
direct impact. Hence modern foi'tresses
are usually small, and present nowhere
a direct angle to the line of fire, being
generally constructed on the turtle-back
or spherical plan. They usually contain
but few guns, and those of the heavier
calibers, rendering them offensive, rather
than great strongholds of defense, as
formerly. Of this latter class the strong-
est fortress surviving in the United
States is Fortress Monroe, on Hampton
Roads in Virginia, erected for the
defense of Norfolk navy yard and the
Virginian coast at that point. It was
planned and built by a French engineer,
and was an important Federal strong-
hold during the Civil War. Other im-
portant historical fortresses are Mc-
Henry, Moultrie, Pickens, Webster, St.
Augustine, and Sumter.
The greatest fortress in the world,
from a strategical point of view, is the
stronghold of Gibraltar, on the coast of
Spain. It occupies a rocky peninsula jut-
ting out into the sea, about one and a half
miles in length and three-quarters of a
mile in width. One central rock rises to a
FORT SCOTT
179
FOBT WORTH
height of 1,435 feet above the sea level.
Its N. face is almost perpendicular, while
its E. side is full of tremendous preci-
pices. On the S. it terminates in what
is called Europa Point. The W. side is
less steen than the E., and between its
base and the sea is the narrow, almost
level, span on which the town of Gibral-
tar is built. The fortress is considered
impregrnable to military assault. The
regular garrison in time of peace num-
bers about 7,000. It belongs to England.
FORT SCOTT, a city of Kansas, the
county-seat of Bourbon county. It is on
the St. Louis and San Francisco, the
Missouri, Kansas and Texas, and the
Missouri Pacific railroads. It is also on
the Marmaton river. It is the center of
important deposits of coal, cement, clay,
zinc, and lead. The industries include
foundry and machine shops, flour mills,
cement works, and manufactures of har-
ness, medicines, etc. Pop. (1910) 10,463;
(1920) 10,693.
FORT SMITH, a city of Arkansas,
one of the county-seats of Sebastian co.
It is at the junction of the Arkansas and
Poteau rivers, and is on the St. Louis
and San Francisco, the Arkansas Cen-
tral, the Midland Valley, the Kansas City
Southern, the Fort Smith and Western,
and the St. Louis, Iron Mountain and
Southern railroads. It is an important
wholesale jobbing center for the sur-
rounding country, and has a large trade
in coal, cotton, lumber, etc. Its indus-
tries include saw and planing mills, iron
and steel mills, and manufactures of
brooms, stoves, overalls, refrigerators,
etc. The river is spanned within the
city limits by four steel bridges. It has
a United States court house and post
office, a high school, a public library, a
city park, several hospitals, and a na-
tional cemetery. Pop. (1910) 23,975;
(1920) 28,870.
FORTTJNA, in m3rthology, daughter of
Oceanus according to Homer, or one of
the Parcae according to Pindar, was the
goddess of fortune, and from her hand
were derived riches and poverty, pleas-
ures and pains, blessings and misfor-
tunes. She was worshipped in different
parts of Greece. Bupalus was the first
who modeled a statue of Fortuna for the
people of Smyrna, and he represented
her with the polar star upon her head,
and the horn of plenty in her hand. The
Romans held her in high esteem, and
had no less than eight different temples
erected to her honor in their city. She
is generally represented blindfolded, and
holding a wheel in her hand, as an em-
blem of her inconstancy. Sometimes she
appears with wings.
FORT WAYNE, a city and county-
seat of Allen CO., Ind. ; at the confluence
of the St. Mary and St. Joseph rivers,
and on the Wabash, the Lake Shore and
Michigan Southern, the Lake Erie and
Western, the Grand Rapids and In-
diana, the Fort Wayne, Cincinnati
and Louisville, and other railroads;
43 miles S. W. of Defiance, O. It is
built on a high plateau, covers an area
of about 10 square miles, and is popi>-
larly known as Summit City. Here are
a United States Government building,
several county buildings, Concordia Col-
lege (Luth.), and several other educa-
tional institutions, Hope and St. Joseph
Hospitals. Fort Wayne has street rail-
roads, electric lights, sewerage system,
improved waterworks, several National
banks, and numerous daily, weekly, and
monthly periodicals. Among the indus-
tries are extensive railroad, machine and
repair shops which occupy many acres,
flour mills, knitting mills, oil-tank works,
and packing houses. The French visited
this locality about 1700, and shortly
afterward a trading post named Fort
Miami was founded. The English con-
structed a fort near the place in 1760.
General Wayne located a government
post here in 1794. Pop. (1910) 63,933;
(1920) 86,549.
FORT WILLIAM, a city of Canada,
in the Thunder Bay District, in the
Province of Ontario. It is on the Kam-
inistiquia river, at its entrance into
Lake Superior. The city has excellent
harbor facilities and carries on a large
lake traffic. It is the head of lake navi-
gation on Lake Superior and is the en-
trance of the wheat fields of western
Canada. It has repair shops of the
Canadian Pacific, Grand Trunk Pacific,
and Canadian Northern railroads. Its
industries include flour mills, stove
works, machine-shop, and car-wheel
foundries, shipbuilding, brickyards,
breweries, etc. The city has a large
number of grain elevators. There is a
number of fine public buildings includ-
ing a city hall, a court house, hospitals,
parks, a librarv, and a collegiate in-
stitute. Pop. (1920) about 20,000.
FORT WORTH, a city of Texas, the
county-seat of Tarrant co. It is on the
Texas and Pacific, the International
and Great Northern, the Chicago, Rock
Island and Gulf, the Gulf, Colorado
and Santa Fe, the Fort Worth and
Denver City, the St. Louis and San
Francisco, and other railroads. It is
also on Trinity river. Fort Worth is
the center of a large stock-raising and
agricultural district and has a large
jobbing trade in general commodities,
FOBTY IMMORTALS
180
FOSSA
and in hogs, sheep and cattle, grain,
fruit, and produce. It has large stock
yards with a daily capacity of over
30,000 head of cattle, and large packing
houses. It has several important indus-
tries, including flour and stock-feed mills,
rolling mills, railroad repair shops,
foundries, cotton and oil mills, clothing-
factories, chemical works, etc. There
has been built, at a cost of nearly $1,500,-
000 a large storage dam on the west
fork of the Trinity river, 7 miles from
the city, with a storage capacity of 30
billion gallons of water. Fort Worth is
the seat of the Fort Worth University,
the Texas Christian University, and the
Southwestern Baptist Theological Sem-
inary, and has a Masonic Orphans'
Home and School, several academies, a
number of denominational schools, and
technical, art, and music schools. There
are a public library and the Medical Li-
brary. The city is supplied with an ex-
cellent system of roads and has over 30
parks or park places; about 100
churches; and 10 hospitals. There were
in 1920 5 National banks. Fort Worth
was founded as a military post in 1849,
becoming the county-seat in 1860, and
was incorporated in 1873. Pop. (1910)
73,312; (1920) 106,482.
FORTY IMMORTALS, THE, the
members of the French Academy. See
Academy, French.
FORUM, an open space in Roman
cities, generally surrounded by a cov-
ered colonnade, that fronted an ambula-
tory, and buildings of various kinds,
such as temples, courts of law, prisons,
granaries, etc. In the later period of
the empire, when Rome had attained the
summit of its glory, there were 19 fora
within its limits, which were divided
into two classes, some being especially
s<t apart for public meetings and the
proceedings of the law courts, while
others were devoted to business purposes
and the requirements of trade. The
Forum Romanum, the first that was
erected in Rome, served equally for the
purposes of trade and all public meet-
ings, as well as for the administration
of justice by the consuls, decemvirs, and
other magistrates of Rome. This forum
was subsequently distinguished for its
magniiicence ; the shops were removed,
and many temples of the heathen gods,
the senate-house, and the comitium,
were erected in its immediate vicinity,
and in communication with it. It was
also adorned with arches, statues, and
pulpits, from which public meetings were
addressed, and which were called rostra,
from being surrounded with the brazen
beaks (rostra) , or ornaments of the
prows of the ships of war that had been
captured by the Roman triremes. Ex-
hibitions of gladiators were often shown
in the forum. The Roman forum corre-
sponded to the agora of the Greeks, and
no Roman city or colony was without
this important center for the transac-
tion of business and public affairs. Plans
of the forum at Pompeii and the prin-
cipal forum of Rome are given in "Pom-
peii," a work published by the Society
for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.
See Rome.
FOSCARI, FRANCESCO, a doge of
Venice; born in 1372, in 1416 was named
procurator of St. Mark's and in 1423
was elected doge. His son, Giacopo, be-
ing accused of ordering the assassina-
tion of a senator Donati, the enemies of
the family created such commotion in
the state, that he was banished from
the city, the father having to ratify the
sentence. Love of his country, and de-
votion of his wife, compelled the ban-
ished Foscari to revisit Venice, where
he was again made prisoner, put to the
question of the rack, and a second time
banished, dying soon after of his
wounds. The bereaved father went mad,
in which state the enemies of his family
compelled him to abdicate. He died
three days after a spasm, upon hearing
the bells of St. Mark's announce to Ven-
ice the election of a new ruler. Byron
wrote on the subject a tragedy entitled
"The Two Foscari." He died in Venice,
Nov. 1, 1457.
FOSCOLO, UGO (fos'ko-16) , an Italian
poet and patriot; born on the island of
Zante, Jan. 26, 1778. His tragedy "Thy-
este" was received with great favor at
Venice in 1797. "The True Story of
Two Luckless Lovers, or Last Letters of
Jacopo Ortis" (1799), afterward re-
written and renamed "Italy" (1802),
voices his disappointment that the
French armies did not liberate Italy; as
did an outspoken apostrophe to Bona-
parte. In 1807 was published his finest
poem, "The Graves." His second tra-
gedy, "Ajax," brought out at Milan in
1809, caused his expulsion from Lom-
bardy; he went to Florence and there
produced the tragedy "Ricciarda"
(1813) ; compelled to flee from Italy, he
composed in Switzerland the bitter satire
against his enemies, "The One-Volume
Book of the Super-Revelations of the
Cleric Didumus, Least of the Prophets.
He wrote many critical and literary
essays. He died in London, in 1827.
FOSSA, in zoology, a term applied to
certain depressions on the external
surface, generally the seat of cutaneous
glands, as the lachrymal fossae in deer
and antelopes.
FOSSIL
181
FOSTER
In anatomy (1) In the singular, a
groove. There are in the ear a fossa of
the helix, which is a groove called also
fossa innominata or scaphoidea, and a
fossa of the antihelix, which is a some-
what triangular depression, called also
fossa triangularis or ovalis. There are
also a fossa of the heart, one of the gall
bladder, etc. There are also a canine,
a corodoid, a digastric, a digital and
many other fossa. (2) In the plural,
grooves. There are nasal fossae, su-
perior and inferior occipital, etc.
FOSSIL, originally, "all bodies what-
ever that are dug out of the earth are by
naturalists commonly called by the gen-
eral name of fossils."
At present, any body, or the traces of
the existence of any body, whether an-
imal or vegetable, which has been
buried in the earth by natural causes;
one of the bodies called organic remains.
Even the cast of a fossil shell, that is
the impression which it has left on the
rock, is deemed a fossil. (Used often in
the plural.)
In the early part of the 16th century
fossils were supposed by some Italians
to have been formed in the hills by the
FOSSIL — SKELETON OP HYRACOTHERIUM
VENTICOLUM, FROM EOCENE STRATA
action of the stars, a view which, prior
to 1579, Leonardo da Vinci combatted.
Then the hynothesis arose of a plastic
force, or, according to Andrea Mattioli,
a fatty matter capable of fashioning
stones into organic forms. But the
hypothesis which held its place longer
than any other, and is not yet extinct
among the unscientific, is that they were
relics of the Mosaic deluge. It is now
thoroughly proved that the relics are
really those plants and animals, that
they were nearly all of them in existence
ages before the Mosaic deluge, that they
are not nearly contemporaneous with
each other, but differ in age by untold
millions of years, that there is at least a
progression among them, if not even the
evolution of the last from the more
antique. There are breaks or gaps in
the series of fossiliferous strata, espe-
cially one between the Palaeozoic and the
Secondary strata, and another between
the Secondary and the Tertiary. Mr.
Darwin showed that it is almost exclu-
sively strata desposited in seas or lakes
which at the time were slowly sinking
that have been preserved; those formed
when land was rising have as a rule^
been washed away. In thf older strata,
and sometimes in those not so ancient,
fossils have been destroyed by meta-
morphic action, and when any rock is
called non-fossiliferous or azoic, the cau-
tious geologist means by the term only
that fossils have not been found in it
up to the present time.
FOSSORES, or FOSSORIA, in en-
tomology, burrowing Hymenoptera, a
sub-tribe of the hymenopterous tribe
Aciileata. Sexes two, the individuals in
both of which are furnished with wings,
legs formed for burrowing or for run-
ning, tongue not elongated, but widened
at the extremity. Habits not social.
The females of the fossores construct
holes in the ground, where they form
their nests. Depositing their eggs, they
next lay up for the future larvae a supply
of food consisting of spiders and cater-
pillars rendered half dead by being
stung. Many of the fossores are called
sandwasps. The sub-tribe ils divided
into eight families: (1) Scoliadas, (2)
Sapygidse, (3) Pompilidse, (4) Sphe-
ddse, (5) Bembic-idae, (6) Larridse, (7)
Nyssonidss, and (8) Crahonidse.
FOSTER, JOHN WATSON, an Amer-
ican statesman and diplomat. He was
born in Pike co., Ind., March 2, 1836.
He graduated in 1855 from Indiana State
University and for a time attended the
Harvard Law School. When the Civil
War broke out he enlisted as a major in
the United States Volunteers, rising to
the rank of Brigadier-General by the
time the contest closed. After taking a
prominent part in the councils of the
Republican party he began his diplo-
matic career as minister to Mexico. After
serving seven years at this post and one
as minister to Russia he practiced inter-
national law at Washington and thus in
1883 became Minister to Spain. From
1885 to 1891 he negotiated for the
United States a series of reciprocity
treaties with Germany and Brazil. Presi-
dent Harrison in 1892 appointed him
Secretary of State, a post he held until
Cleveland was inaugurated the following
year. The closing years of his life saw
him engaged on many important diplo-
matic missions for the United States,
FOSTER
182
FOULOIS
and for a few years he acted as adviser
to the Emperor of China. He died Nov.
15, 1917. He w^rote several important
works, among them being: "A Century
of American Diplomacy" (1900) and
"American Diplomacy on the Orient"
(1903).
FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS, an
American song-writer; bora in Pitts-
burgh, Pa., July 4, 1826; was educated
at Athens Academy and Jeiferson Col-
lege, Pennsylvania. He composed the
music and wrote the words of over 125
popular songs and melodies, among
which are: "01k Folks at Home";
"Nelly Bly"; "Old Dog Tray"; "Come
Where My Love Lies Dreaming"; "Su-
wannee River," etc. He died in New
York City, Jan. 13, 1864.
(1879): "Kith and Kin" (1881); "The
Lass of Lavprhouse" (1888) ; "Oriole's
Daughter" (1893). She died in Lon-
don, July 30, 1891.
FOUGERES, a town and capital of an
arrondissement, in the department of
Ille-et-Vilaine, France, situated on the
Nan?on river, 25 miles N. E. of
Rennes. It is the center of a considerable
industry in leather goods, boots and
shoes, sail cloth, dairy products and tim-
ber, being surrounded by extensive for-
ests. The population is about 14,000.
FOULKE, WILLIAM DUDLEY, an
American writer and publicist, born in
New York City in 1848. He graduated
from Columbia University in 1869 and
after studying law was admitted to the
bar in 1870. In 1876 he removed to
/« 6 1 ■ ■■■ - •
c »- • ■ ■
^■••^^•- •'■:•• ■■'■■ r--"-:; :•^■^|^^.•^<4^^
FOSSIE — SKELETON OF ICHTHYOSAURUS
FOSTORIA, a city of Ohio in Seneca
and Hancock counties, and near the
boundary line of Wood county. It is on
the Baltimore and Ohio, the Lake Erie
and Western, the Hocking Valley, the
Lake Shore Electric, the New York,
Chicago, and St. Louis, and the Toledo
and Ohio Central railroads. It is an im-
portant industrial community and has
lime kilns, manufactures of glass, auto-
mobiles, lumber, etc. In the neighbor-
hood are extensive oil fields. The city
was founded by the father of Charles
Foster, Governor of Ohio and Secretary
of the United States Treasui-y in 1891-
1893. Pop. (1910) 9,597; (1920) 9,987.
FOTHERGILL, JESSIE, an English
author; born in Manchester, England,
June 7, 1856. Her stories show a keen
faculty of observation ; among them are :
"Healey, a Romance" (1875); "The
First Violin" (1878), in which Gorman
life is faithfully portrayed; "Probation"
Indiana, becoming a member of the Stat©
Senate in 1883. From 1901 to 1903 he
was a member of the United States
Civil Service Commission, and was
prominently identified with the work of
the National Civil Service Reform
League. From 1910 to 1915 he was
president of the National Municipal
League. He wrote "Slav or Saxon"
(1887); "Dorothy Day" (a novel)
(1911) "Lyrics of War and Peace"
(1916) ; "Today and Yesterday" (poems)
(1920). He was a frequent contributor
to magazines on historical and other
subjects.
FOULOIS, BENJAMIN DELAHAUF,
an American soldier, born in Connecti-
cut in 1879. He entered the army as a
private and served until 1901 as a non-
commissioned officer. In that year he
was appointed 2d lieutenant of the 17th
Infantry, and was promoted to be 1st
lieutenant of the Signal Corps. In 1914 he
FOUNDATION
183
FOUQUIER-TINVILLE,
was appointed captain of the aviation
section of the Signal Corps. He was
promoted to be major in 1917 and in
the same year was made temporary
brigadier-general of the Signal Corps.
He made a special study of aviation
and was the senior military aviator in
point of service. He commanded air
service troops on the Mexican border
and in 1917-1918 was chief of the air
Oervice of the A. E. F.
FOUNDATION, act of founding or
fixing the base; the base of an edifice;
original; rise; origin; that part of a
building which rests on the ground; the
base or groundwork of anything; estab-
lishment. A donation or legacy to
support an institution; an established
revenue, particularly for a charity;
endowment; settlement; institution.
In architecture, the word foundation
may be applied either to the surface or
bed on which a building rests, or to the
lower part of the building which rests on
the natural bed. (1) Foundation as the
bed. The best that can be had is solid
rock, or any kind of resisting incompres-
sible stratum, free from water. Where
there is no chance of water, sand forms a
solid foundation. When the soil is soft,
loose, and shifting, a solid bearing can
be obtained only by driving piles or long
beams of wood sharpened at the end,
through the soft soil, till they reach a
hard bottom. This is then planked or
laid with cross beams, on which the su-
perstructure is built. The piers of many
bridges are formed in this manner.
Where the soil is soft, but not shifting,
as in the case of made or deposited earth,
the method of converting is adopted —
i. e., a large surface is laid with broken
metal or gravel, and run together with
hot lime, so as to form a broad, solid,
artificial rock, on which the building may
rest. (2) Foundation as the base of the
building. The broader and larger the
lower course of the mason work, the
stronger the wall. The stones should, if
possible, extend through and through,
and project on each side of the wall.
The Romans formed solid bearings of
concrete as above described. In the dark
ages, when there was want of knowledge
combined with want of materials and
means, many buildings fell fi'om the
yielding of the foundations. But knowl-
edge came with experience, and the foun-
dations of later buildings, during the
14th and 15th centuries, were built with
extreme care, and on the virgin soil; the
stones being as finely dressed as those
above ground, were necessary to resist
a strong thrust.
FOUNDING Act of casting metals.
FOUQUE, BARON FRIEDRICH DE
LA MOTTE, a German author; bom in
Brandenburg, Germany, Feb. 12, 1777.
His first contributions to literature were:
"Romances from the Vale of Roncesval"
(1805); "Story of the Noble Knight
Galmy and a Fair Duchess of Brittany"
(1806) ; "Alwin" (1808) ; followed by the
hero-drama "Sigurd the Snake-Killer"
(1808) ; the epic poem,"Bertram du Gues-
clin" (1821); etc. In 1840 he pub-
lished an autobiography. The work by
which he is chiefly known to-day is "Un-
dine" (1811) ; "Sintram" is also still
familiar. He died in Berlin, Jan. 23, 1843.
FOUQUET, NICOLAS, a French
statesman; born in Paris in 1615. He
was Viscount of Melun and of Vaux, and
Marquis of Belle Isle, finance minister
under Louis XIV. of France. Attaching
himself closely to Mazarin, he received
in 1650 the important appointment of
procureur-general to the parliament of
Paris, and three years later was ad-
vanced to be superintendent of finance.
His rapid advance made him ambitious
of succeeding Mazarin as first minister,
and in order to secure himself friends
and a party he distributed money with a
lavish hand; but he had a formidable
rival in Colbert. Fouquet's plans were,
however, brought to naught; for, in the
first place, Louis himself took the reins
of power into his own hands when they
slipped from the grasp of the dead cardi-
nal, and, in the second place, instigated
thereto by Colbert, he suddenly arrested
Fouquet in September, 1661. After a
trial extending over three years, Fou-
quet was sentenced to perpetual exile
and the loss of all his property, but the
sentence was afterward altered to life-
long imprisonment. He died in the for-
tress of Pignerol, March 23, 1680.
FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, ANTOINE
QUENTIN. one of the most execrated
figures of the French Revolution; born
in Herovel, France, in 1747. His early
career was immoral, but insignificant.
On the outbreak of the Revolution, he
figured as one of the fiercest democrats.
By Robespierre he was appointed, first,
a member , then director and public
accuser, of the revolutionary tribunal.
Without education, or sense of justice,
he executed the bloody orders of the
Committee of Public Safety. Incapable
of friendship, or of anything even re-
motely allied to generosity, he systemati-
cally abandoned his successive coadju-
tors in their hour of need, and sent to
the scaffold, without the slightest com-
punction, Danton and Herbert, Robes-
pierre and St. Just. He himself died by
the guillotine, May 7, 1795.
FOUmERISM
184
FOX
FOURIERISM, a system partly of co-
operation, partly of socialism ; advocated,
and to a certain extent carried out, by
Francois Marie Charles Fourier.
Fourier's scheme was that what he
called from the word phalanx, a phalan-
stery, consisting of about 400 families,
or 1,800 persons, should live together,
combining their labor, upon a district
about a square league in extent. The
buying and selling transactions requisite
for the support of the community, were
to be managed by a single person, which
would save a multitude of peddling oper-
ations. If any brought capital into the
concern, it was not confiscated, but he
was allowed interest upon it. The labor
being carried on in common, the profits
were apportioned on the following sys-
tem: First a minimum of mere sub-
sistence money was assigned to every
member of the society, including those
incapable of labor. The reniainder of
the profits were then divided in propor-
tions agreed on beforehand, to remuner-
ate labor and talent, and pay interest on
the capital received. The profits divided
thus were then expended by the individ-
ual recipients as they pleased. An effort
was made about 1852 to form an indus-
trial colony on Fourier's plan, but the at-
tempt was unsuccessful.
FOWL, in its general sense, this term
is nearly synonymous with birds; but in
a more restricted sense it means those
domestic birds brought up in a farmyard
for the table. Fowls originally came
from Persia and India, and they are val-
uable to the breeder in many ways, yield-
ing profit as they do in eggs, in broods,
and in feathers. The principal kinds of
this useful domestic creature are : ( 1 ) the
game fowl, with erect and slender body
and showy colors; valued also for the del-
icacy of the flesh and of the eggs. It is
this breed which is used for cock fighting.
(2) The Dorking fowl, so named from
Dorking, in Surrey, where it has long
been bred in great numbers for the Lon-
don market — a breed characterized by an
additional spur on each leg; often of a
white color, with short legs; one of the
most useful of all breeds, both for ex-
cellence of flesh and for abundance of
eggs. (3) The Polish fowl, black, with a
white tuft, a breed very extensively
reared in France, Egypt, etc., little in-
clined to incubation, but valued for an
almost uninterrupted laying of eggs. (4)
The Spanish fowl, very similar to the
Polish, but larger, and laying larger
eggs, on account of which it is now much
valued, and very common in Great Brit-
ain; black, with white" cheeks and large
red comb. (5) The Malay fowl, tall and
handsome, and very pugnacious, but little
esteemed. (6) The Hamburg fowl, of
very be^tiful plumage, and much val-
ued for the quality both of flesh, and
eggs, as also for extreme productiveness
of eggs. (7) The Cochin China fowl, a
large, tall, ungraceful variety, with
small tail and wings. Is valuable chiefly
on account of its fecundity, eggs being
laid even during winter, and the hens
incubating frequently. (8) The bantam
fowl, a diminutive variety, rather curi-
ous than useful. Of most of these there
are many sub-varieties and fancy breeds
— gold-penciled, silver-penciled, etc. The
guinea fowl, or pintado, is sometimes
classed among the common order of
fowls; they are very wild and restless in
their nature, and, unlike the ordinary
fowls, they give no notice to any one of
their laying or sitting; they have conse-
quently to be closely watched. The
guinea fowl is very delicate eating, and
is in season about Lent. See Poultry.
FOWLER, ELLEN THORNEY-
CROFT, an English novelist, born in
1873. She published several volumes of
verse and a volume of short stories. She
first achieved fame by the publication
of "Concerning Isabel Carnaby" (1898).
This was followed by "A Double Thread"
(1899) ; "Fuel of Fire" (1902) ; "Place
and Power" (1903); and "Ten Degrees
Backward" (1915).
FOX, in general, the genus Vulpes.
The foxes differ from the dogs in having
a long, bushy tail, and the pupil of the
eye elliptical or nearly linear by day, but
becoming circular or nearly so by night.
This fits them to be nocturnal animals.
The American or red fox is Cayiix fulvus.
Many skins are annually exported from
this country. V. lagopus is the Arctic
fox. The Deccan fox is V. bengalensis,
though Bengal and the Deccan are some
distance apart. V. vulgaris, formerly
and still by many called, after the ex-
ample of Linnaeus, Canis vulpes, is the
common English species. Its cunning is
proverbial. It is an inhabitant of nearly
all Euope, as well as of western Asia
and northern Africa, Other species are
the black or silver gray, the cross-gray,
and the cross-woods foxes.
Also Callionymus lyra, the gemmeous
dragonet, a fish, so called from its yellow
color.
In nautical language, a small strand
of rope made by twisting several rope-
yarns together. Used for seizings, mats,
sennits, and gaskets. In mechanics, a
wedge driven into the split end of a
bolt to tighten it.
FOX, CHARLES JAMES, an Eng-
lish statesman; born in England, Jan.
FOX
185
FOX
24, 1749; was educated at Oxford; en-
tered Parliament in 1768; and in 1770
came forward as a supporter of Lord
North. After six years' active support
of that administration he was dismissed
from office in consequence of a quarrel
with his chief. Thereupon he joined the
opposition and became the most formi-
dable opponent of the coercive measures
adopted by England toward the Ameri-
can colonies. In 1782, on the downfall
of Loi'd North, he was appointed one of
the secretaries of state, which office he
held till the death of Rockingham. On
the dissolution of the Shelburne admin-
istration in 1783 the North and Fox
coalition was formed, and he resumed
his former office; but the rejection of the
India Bill by the House of Lords led to
his resignation. It was then that Pitt
came into power and that the long and
famous contest between him and Fox be-
gan. After the death of Pitt in January,
1806, Fox became Foreign Secretary in
the Ministry of All the Talents, and was
on the point of introducing a bill for the
abolition of the slave-trade, when he
died in Cheswick, England, Sept. 13, 1806.
FOX, GEORGE, founder of the Society
of Friends; born in Drayton in Leices-
tershire, England, in July, 1624. His
father was a weaver, and by the strict
honesty of his conduct had won from his
neighbors the sobriquet of "Righteous
Christer." George, while yet a boy, was
distinguished by his gravity and exem-
plary conduct. When in the 20th year of
his age, and for some two or three years
afterward, Fox describes himself as hav-
ing been in a very distressed state
of mind, from which the various pro-
fessors and clergymen to whom he ap-
plied for counsel were unable to relieve
him. From this condition he was at
length delivered by that which he re-
garded as the voice of God in his soul,
directing him to Christ as alone able "to
speak to his condition." Very soon after
this he commenced his public ministra-
tions at Dukinfield, Manchester, and
the neighborhood. From the first, his
preaching seems to have made many
converts and excited much opposition.
Fox's first imprisonment took place in
the year 1648, in consequence of his op-
posing the preacher in "the great steeple-
house at Nottingham," on a point of
doctrine. In 1650 he was imprisoned at
Derby under a false charge of blasphemy.
One of the committing justices, Bennet,
acted with great violence on this occa-
sion. Cromwell, though himself favor-
able to liberty of conscience, seems to
have been unable to curb popular hos-
tility launched against a sect which de-
nounced all state interferences with reli-
gion and maintained that the gospel
should be preached without fee or re-
ward. About a month after the restora-
tion of Charles II., Fox was committed
to Lancaster Castle "on the charge of
being a common disturber of the peace,
and of endeavoring to make insurrection
and embroil the whole kingdom in blood."
After lying in jail some months, a habeas
corpus was obtained, and the authorities
showed their disbelief of these grave
charges by allowing Fox himself, un-
bailed and unguarded, to convey to Lon-
don the sheriff's return to the writ. The
act empowering magistrates to tender
the oaths of allegiance and supremacy
to any person whom they thought fit to
suspect, operated with great severity
against the Friends; under its provisions
Fox was committed to prison at Lancas-
ter in the beginning of 1664, whence he
was removed to Scarborough Castle,
where he lay till the autumn of 1666. In
1669 Fox married Margaret Fell, the
widow of one of the judges of the Welsh
courts. The year 1670 witnessed the
passing of the most stringent of the Con-
venticle Acts, forbidding under heavy
penalties the assembling for religious
worship, in any house, of more than four
persons besides the family, except ac-
cording to the usages of the Church of
England. Fox exhorted his friends to
firmness, and himself remained in Lon-
don, to share with their suff'erings. Soon
after his recovery from a severe illness
he sailed for Barbadoes, where he
exerted himself greatly in the inter-
ests of religion and humanity. After a
considerable time spent in Barbadoes,
Jamaica, and the North American conti-
nent, he returned to England in 1673.
Here further persecutions awaited him.
He underwent 14 months' imprisonment,
and was at length liberated by the Court
of King's Bench on account of the errors
in his indictment. In 1677, in company
with Penn and Barclay, who had joined
the Society about 10 years before, he paid
a visit to Holland and some parts of
Germany, where his services seem to
have been well received. The last 15
years of his life were tranquil as regards
personal molestation. Persecution of
Quakers continued throughout the reign
of Charles II.; and though James, by a
stretch of the royal prerogative, ordered
a general release of those imprisoned for
conscience's sake, the legal toleration of
dissent was reserved for the next roign.
In the first year of William and Mary
was passed the bill which nullified the
Conventicle Acts, and allowed the Friends
to make a solemn declaration in lieu of
taking the oaths, and Fox had the grati-
FOX
186
FBA DIAVOLO
fication of seeing the public worship of
the Society legally recognized before his
death. He died in London, Jan. 13, 1690.
See Friends, Society of.
FOX. JOHN (WILLIAM), an Ameri-
can writer of dialect stories; born in
1863. He became a contributor to maga-
zines, and published "The Cumberland
Vendetta, and Other Stories" (1895) ;
"Hell Fer Sartain, and Other Stories"
(1897) ; "Crittenden" (1900) ; "Blue-
grass" (1901); "A Knight of the Cum-
berland"' (1906) "Heart of the Hills"
(1913) "In Happy Valley" (1917)
"Erskine Dale— Pioneer" (1920). He
d:ei in 1920.
FOXGLOVE, in botany, the genus
Digitalis, and specially the species D.
piirimrea, the purple foxglove. It grows
to the height of three or four feet, with
very long spikes of numerous drooping
flowers, which are generally purple,
though occasionally white. D. jnirpurea
yields a valuable cardiac tonic and diu-
retic. The Canary foxglove is D. cana-
riensis; the downy false foxglove is an
American name for Gerardia flava; and
the ladies' foxglove is Verbascum th^p-
sus. They succeed well in light, rich soil.
FOX HOUND, a hound kept and
trained for hunting foxes. They are
smaller than the staghound, averaging
22 to 24 inches in height. They vary very
much in color. They possess a very fine
scent, great fleetness and endurance.
FRACKVILLE, a borough of Penn-
sylvania, in Schuylkill co. It is on the
Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia and
Reading railroads. There are important
coal mines in the neighborhood and coal
mining is the chief industry. Pop. (1910)
3,118; (1920) 5,590.
FRACTION, a part of any magnitude,
integer (whole number) , or unit. For
example, "two and a fraction" means two
units and that part of a unit which can
be distinguished, as one-half, two-fifths,
and so on. In the fraction ^ in arith-
a
metic, or — in algebra, the figure 1, or
b
a, is the numerator, and 3, or 6, is the
denominator; and they represent that, if
a whole number is divided into three
or b parts, only one or a parts are taken.
In the addition of fractions, the fractions
must be brought down to the same de-
nominator, and their numerators (as ex-
pressed in the value of their new denom-
inator) must then be added, when we
have one whole fraction. Thus, if we
want to add Vs and 2-5, we must find
the least common multiple of 3 and 5,
which is found to be 15; then, as 3 goes
5 times into 15, and 5 goes 3 times into
the same number, we multiply the numer-
ators of the different fractions by those
respective quotients, and then add the
two quantities together. Thus, ys added
to 2-5 will be 5 added to 6 fifteenths. The
true definition of a fraction may be
thus summed up: It is the division of its
numerator by its denominator; as seven-
eighths are equivalent to the whole num-
ber 7 divided by 8 — whence a fraction is
obtained. Decimal fractions simplify
calculations greatly, as they are con-
structed on the principle of having one
common denominator — a multiple of 10;
and thus fractions can be added, sub-
tracted, and divided without repeating
over the tedious process of bringing down
to a common denominator. See ARITH-
METIC; Decimal Fraction.
FRACTURE, in mineralogy, the ir-
regular surface produced by breaking a
mineral across, as distinguished from
splitting it along the planes of cleavage.
The chief kinds of fracture enumerated
by William Phillips and others are con-
choidal, even, uneven, splintery, and
hackly.
In surgery, a solution of continuity in
a bone. It is said to be simple when the
bone only is divided, and compound when
there is also a wound of the integuments
communicating with the bone, which in
such cases generally protrudes. In a
comminuted fracture, the bone is broken
into several pieces, and in a complicated
fracture there is in addition to the injury
done to the bone a lesion of some consid-
erable vessel, nervous trunk, etc. Frac-
tures are also termed transverse, oblique,
etc., according to their direction.
FRA DIAVOLO ("The Devil's
Brother"), a Neapolitan robber, whose
real name was Michael Pezza; born in
Calabria, 1760. He began life as a stock-
ing-maker, after which he became a
friar, and in this capacity was the leader
of a gang of banditti in Calabria. In 1799
he assisted Cardinal Ruffo, who headed
the counter-revolutionists in favor of the
Bourbons of Naples. For this he re-
ceived a pardon of his crimes, and a pen-
sion of 3,600 ducats, with which he was
enabled to purchase an estate. He lived
in peace till 1806, when he rose again in
favor of the expelled Bourbons. He
entered Spalinga, and threw open the
prisons, when he was joined by large
numbers of lazzaroni; but after a severe
engagement with the Bonapartists, he
was taken prisoner, condemned, and sum-
marily executed in the same year. Auber,
the French musical composer, has written
one of his best operas founded on the
adventures of this bandit.
FBA GIOVANNI ANGELICO
187
FRANCE
ERA GIOVANNI ANGELICO DA
FIESOLE. See Angblico, Fra.
FRAGONARD, JEAN HONORE, a
French painter; born in Grasse in Octo-
ber, 1732. He studied under Chardin and
Boucher; and, entering the academy
schools, gained the prix de Rome in 1752.
In Italy — which, later, he revisited — he
was influenced mainly by the works of
Tiepolo, the last of the great Venetians;
and he executed many illustrations for
Saint-Non's "Journey to Naples and
Sicily." Returning to France, he in
1765 received 2,400 francs from Louis
XV. for his "Callirrho^," commissioned
for reproduction in Gobelin tapestry;
then he ceased to be academic, and began
to be personal, to follow his true bent —
helped to be most himself by the art of
Venice and by the art of Rubens. He is
well represented in the Louvre, most
typically in its La Gaze collection by such
works as "Bacchante Endormie" and
"La Chemise Enlevee." He died in Paris,
Aug. 22, 1806.
FRAME, in engineering, the strong
framework, outside the wheel, which sup-
ports the boiler and machinery on the
axes of a locomotive engine.
FRAMINGHAM, a town in Middlesex
CO., Mass.; on the Sudbury river, and on
the New York, New Haven, and Hart-
ford, and the Boston and Albany rail-
roads; about 20 miles W. of Boston. It
comprises the villages of Framingham,
South Framingham, and Saxonville.
Here are a high school, a State Normal
School, Historical and Natural History
Societies, the State Woman's Reforma-
tory, several National and savings
banks, daily and weekly newspapers, and
street railroad and electric light plants.
It has a large industry in woolen goods.
Pop. (1910) 12,948; (1920) 17,033.
FRAMPTON, SIR GEORGE JAMES,
a British sculptor. He studied under
W. S. Frith and entered the Royal Acad-
emy schools in 1881. In 1887 he won
Gold Medal and Travelling Studentship
and since then has won many medals and
other honors in several countries. Has
executed many memorials and statues,
including that of Queen Victoria for Cal-
cutta, Southport, St. Helens, Newcastle-
on-Tyne, Winnipeg, and Leeds. Among
his other works are the terra-cotta deco-
ration on the Constitutional Club, Lon-
don; the sculpture on the Glasgow Art
Galleries and Lloyd's Register, London;
the entrance to Electra House, Moorgate
Street, London; spandrels at the en-
trance of the Victoria and Albert Mu-
seum; figures on the spires of St. Mary's,
Oxford; saints on the shrine of William
of Wykeham, Winchester Cathedral;
lions at the British Museum; statues of
Queen Mary at Calcutta and Delhi;
Edith Cavell Memorial, London. Has
also designed many medals, including the
British Coronation medal.
FRANCE, a republic of S. W. Eu-
rope; bounded on the N. and N. E. by
the North Sea, Strait of Dover, English
Channel, and Belgium; E. and S. E.
by the Alps, separating it from Italy,
Switzerland, German Empire, and the
Mediterranean; S. by the Mediterranean
and the Pyrenees, that separate it from
Spain; and W. by the Atlantic Ocean.
By the terms of the Peace Treaty with
Germany signed on June 28, 1919,
Alsace-Lorraine was transferred to
France, to date from the armistice of
November 11, 1918. The districts of
Lower Alsace, Upper Alsace and Lor-
raine became the Departments of Bas-
Rhin, Alsace; Haut-Rhin; and Moselle.
The total area added to France was
5,605 square miles, with a population in
addition of 1,874,014, making the total
area 212,659 square miles and the popu-
lation 41,475,523.
Topography. — Generally, France may
be said to lie in a gently descending
slope between the mountains and the
sea. The principal mountains are the
Alps, designated in their various parts
as the Maritime Alps, between France
and Italy; the Cottian Alps, bounding
the province of Savoy; the Graian Alps,
between France and Switzerland, and
the Pennine Alps, reaching to St. Gott-
hard. Branch ranges of the Alps in the
interior make the whole country more or
less mountainous. Of these spurs the
Alps of Valais, Savoy, Dauphine, and
Faucigny, and the Great Chartreuse
group, are the most important. Next
in importance to the Alps are the Pyre-
nees, across nearly the entire Spanish
boundary, and then N. nearly 300 miles.
This range, called the Cevennes Moun-
tains, is continued by the Cote d'Or. The
Faucilles connect the Cote d'Or A\'ith the
Vosges range on the Swiss frontier. In
the interior are the mountains of Lim-
ousin, and the Aubrac system. Some of
the highest peaks are famous, Mt. Blanc,
15,776 feet; Mt. Cenis, noted for the
great tunnel that pierces it; St. Gotthard
and Mt. Viso, 12,585 feet, of the Alps;
and Pique d'Etats, 10,302 feet; Pic
d'Carlitte, 10,203 feet; Nethou, 11,168
feet; and Mount Perdu, 10,995 feet, of
the Pyrenees. The Seine, Loire, Garonne,
Rhine, Meuse, Rhone, and Scheldt are
the principal rivers of the country. Some
of the chief affluents are the Maine and
Allier. flowing into the Loire; the Dor-
dogne, that joins the Garonne to form
the Gironde; the Sambre, flowing mto
FBANCE
188
FBANCE
the Meuse; the Moselle, flowing into the
Rhine; and the Saone, flowing into the
Rhone. France has over 1,500 miles of
sea-coast, of which 395 is Mediter-
ranean, 584 Atlantic, and 572 washed
by the North Sea, English Channel, and
Dover Straits. The principal ports are
Havre, at the mouth of the Seine ; Brest
on the W. extremity of Brittany;
Nantes, on the Loire estuary; Bordeaux,
on the Garonne, having the Gironde
estuary for a harbor; and Toulon on the
Mediterranean. The Atlantic coast is
mostly bold and rocky. The principal
outlying islands are the Channel Islands
in Bay St. Michael. The island of
Corsica, in the Mediterranean, belongs
to France.
Agriculture. — France is essentially an
agricultural country of great richness
and fertility. There were in 1912 nearly
100,000,000 acres available for cultiva-
tion, and of this about 60,000,000 acres
were under crops. The war area in-
cluded some of the richest agricultural
land in the country and this, for more
than four years, was practically un-
touched, and after the conclusion of the
war remained in such condition that it
will be probably useless for cultivation
for many years. The arable ground torn
up by shell fire and troops was about
9,925,000 acres. The fact that practically
all the men available were engaged in
the armies or in military services, threw
the burden of agricultural cultivation
on the women, girls, and boys. In spite
of this fact the production of agricul-
tural products continued to an amazing
extent. The decrease in production, how-
ever, is shown by comparative figures.
There were planted to wheat in 1914
6,060,000 hectares (a hectare is equal to
2.47 acres) ; in 1919 4,579,000 hectares,
and in 1920 4,896,000 hectares. There
were planted in rye in 1914 1,050,000
hectares; in 1919 827,000; and in 1920
906,000. In 1914 there were planted to
oats 3,590,000 hectares; in 1919 2,758,-
000; and in 1920 3,014,000. France is
a great wine producing country. The
production of wine in 1919 was as great
as that in the pre-war period, amounting
to 1,132,161,000 gallons. The Germans
removed from France a great number of
cattle and horses. The cattle taken by
them numbered 523,000 head; the horses
and mules, 367,000; and the sheep and
goats, 465,000 head. According to the
terms of the Peace Treaty these ani-
mals were to be replaced. In 1920 74,000
head of cattle, 4,400 horses and mules,
and 43,000 sheep and goats were re-
placed.
Mineral Production. — Prior to the
World War there were 41,638 mines and
quarries, employing 372,517 workers.
The annual yield of the mines was
valued at 829,458,262 francs and of the
quarries 305,955,651 francs. During the
war the coal area was directly in the
line of military operations and the coal
mines were not worked during that time.
The systematic destruction of the coal
mines was carried on by the Germans.
The production of coal before the war
was 42,000,000 tons. The production in
1920 was about 2,000,000 tons a month.
By the terms of the Peace Treaty Ger-
many is to deliver to France a specified
amount of coal a month, and France has
practical possession of the Sarre Basin.
See Sarre Basin.
The iron industry was of great im-
portance during the war. There were in
operation in 1914 72 blast furnaces, and
in 1920 there were about 17 operated.
The iron and steel industry in the in-
vaded districts represented 85 per cent,
of the total French production before
the war. In 1920 this was being re-estab-
lished to about 50 per cent., except the
heavy steel works, of which about 14
per cent, had been restored. Of the roll-
ing mills ZV2 per cent, had been restored.
The rolling mills were dismounted and
machinery taken to Germany. Accord-
ing to the terms of the Peace Treaty
this must be restored to France.
Commerce. — The commercial life of
France was entirely disorganized as a
result of the World War. In 1917 the
imports were valued at 16,311,000,000
francs and the exports to 3,837,000,000
francs. During the first half of 1919 the
imports exceeded the exports by 10,000,-
000,000 francs, while the imports during
that period exceeded by 2,389,000,000
francs those during the same period
in 1918. In spite of this enormous in-
crease in value, the quantity had slightly
diminished. This decrease was in ma-
terial and manufactured products, while
in food products there was an increase.
As a result of the rise of prices the
value of the exports, in spite of the fall-
ing off in quantity was nearly equal to
that of 1913. The enormous rise of price
was shovni by the fact that the quantity
had diminished by more than 500 per
cent. The imports of food for the first
eight months of 1919 amounted to 5,463,-
270,000 francs, and the total imports for
the eight months of that year amounted
to 18,475,706,000 francs. This was an
increase of about 4,000,000,000 francs
over the same period of 1918. The im-
ports greatly exceeded the exports, and
this continued throughout the year. The
imports from Jan. 1 to Nov. 30, 1919,
amounted to 25,336,978,000 francs, while
the exports amounted to 6,223,448,000
francs, or a deficit of about 19,000,000,-
000 francs. This condition is explained
FRANCE
189
FRANCE
by the fact that nearly all French ex-
ports fall under the head of luxuries,
for which it was difficult to find a mar-
ket. The total imports for the first five
months of 1920 amounted to 13,041,000,-
000, while the exports amounted to 5,-
970,000,000 francs. The chief articles
of import are coal and coke, cast iron
and steel, cereals, arms and munitions,
chemical products and machinery. The
chief articles of export are textiles, raw
silk and yarn, leather, chemical products,
and paper.
Transportation. — There were prior to
the World War, about 25,000 miles of
railway open for traffic. During the war
the railroads were greatly disorganized
and were used chiefly for war purposes.
During the period of the war 1,400 miles
of principal line were practically de-
stroyed, while 1,480 miles of branch lines
were destroyed. By 1920 the principal
lines had been entirely repaired, while
half of the branch lines had also been
restored to use. In 1919 measures were
passed providing for an increased effici-
ency in the operation of roads and a
satisfactory organization of the great
railroad systems. During 1919-1920 ex-
traordinary efforts were made to restore
normal conditions of operation of the
railroads, especially of the battle area
where they had suffered most severely.
The great canal system also suffered
greatly during the war. About 1,000
miles of canal were destroyed, of which
485 miles had been repaired by 1920.
32,000 miles of roads were also de-
stroyed. Of this 10,000 miles were re-
paired in part and 1,122 miles com-
pletely restored in 1920.
Education. — The public schools con-
stitute the University of France and
are divided into primary, secondary, and
superior. Before the war there existed
6,445 schools. Of these, 5,345 had been
re-established in 1920. The total number
of pupils of school age is 6,000,000.
Of this about 3,000,000 are enrolled in
the public schools. There are about 70,-
000 schools and 150,000 teachers. Second-
ary instruction is supplied by the lycees
and by the communes in the colleges,
and by associations and private indi-
viduals in free establishments. There are
about 120 lycees, with about 60,000
pupils, and about 200 communal colleges
with about 30,000 pupils. The higher
education is supplied by the state and
the universities and special schools.
There are 16 universities in France.
They are as follows: Aix-en-Provence,
Besangon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont-
Ferrand, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon,
Montpellier, Nancy, Paris, Poitiers,
Rennes, Strasbourg and Toulouse. There
were in the universities in 1917 about
Vol. IV— Cyc— M
15,000 pupils. Professional and techni-
cal instruction is provided in profes-
sional schools.
Religion. — There is no religion recog-
nized by the state. Under the law of
December 9, 1905, the churches were
separated from the state, and the ad-
herents of all creeds were authorized to
fonn associations for public worship. All
buildings actually used for public wor-
ship and as dwellings were made over
to associations for public worship. There
are in France 17 archbishops and 68
bishops of the Roman Catholic Church.
The Associations law, passed July 1,
1901, requires religious communities to
be authorized by the state and no mo-
nastic association can be authorized with-
out a special law in each particular
case. The prevailing religion is Roman
Catholic.
War Destruction and Reconstruction.
— The following figures are prepared by
Andre Tardieu. The population driven
from their homes by the war amounted
to 2,728,000. Those returned in 1920
numbered 2,023,000. There were de-
stroyed 4,068 municipal governments,
of which 4,006 had been re-established in
1920. The dwelling houses damaged or
wholly destroyed numbered 574,777. Of
these, 13,100 had been rebuilt and 178,-
500 had been repaired in 1920. There
had been constructed 46,570 temporary
houses. The temporary houses and those
rebuilt and repaired sheltered 887,000
people. The remainder of the returning
population found quarter in the undam-
aged houses. Factories destroyed num-
bered 11,500. Those restored to work
in 1920 numbered 3,540, and those in
process of rebuilding in that year num-
bered 3,812. Reconstruction was under-
taken on a large scale by the govern-
ment and also by organizations estab-
lished in the United States and other
countries. In many cases towns and
cities in the United States undertook the
reconstruction of cities and towns in
France. In spite of these efforts, how-
ever, the devastated ai'ea in 1921 had
practically been untouched. The French
depended in a large measure on the in-
demnity to be received from Germany
for the reconstruction of this area. The
delay in receiving any funds from the
German Government made it necessary
to adopt other measures.
The effect of the war on the popula-
tion is indicated by the fact that the
pre-war population was 37,790.000.
There were mobilized 8,410,000 men out
of a total subject to mobilization (19
to 50 years) of 9,420,000, or a mobiliza-
tion o*f 89.5 per cent, of the available
number. There were killed during the
war 1,364,000 men or 16 per cent of
FRANCE
190
FRANCE
those mobilized. The total wounded num-
bered 3,000,000. Of these 740,000 were
incapacitated by the loss of an arm, leg,
eye, or otherwise.
Finance. — The public debt on July 31,
1914, amounted to 27,264,937,331 francs.
The consolidated public debt contracted
in France from July 31, 1914, to June
30, 1920, amounted to 92,434,336,500
francs. The funded debt contracted from
July 31, 1914, to June 30, 1920, amounted
to 19,838,736,000 francs. The floating
debt on June 30, 1920, amounted to 71,-
487,930,000 francs. There were advanced
from banks sums amounting to 26,020,-
000,000 francs, making a total debt on
July 30, 1920, of 247,045,937,831. The
Bank of France had on hand gold
amounting to 5,558,603,903 francs and of
silver, 247,483,930 francs, or a total of
5,806,087,833. The total expenditure in
1919 was 48,793,884,587 francs. Of this
36,675,781,168 francs was for military
and special expenditures. The budget for
1920 provided for expenditures amount-
ing to 17,861,140,000 francs. The for-
eign debt included $2,785,300,000 ad-
vanced by the United States Government.
Army and Navy. — See Army and
Navy.
Colonies. — The colonies of France in
Asia include French India, French Indo-
China, Cochin-China, Annam, Cambodia,
Tonking, and the territory of Kwang
Chau Wan on the coast of China. In
Africa are included Algeria, practically a
government of Morocco; French Congo;
Madagascar; Mayotte and the Comoro
Islands; Reunion; French Somaliland;
French West Africa and the Sahara,
and Tunis. In America, they include
Guadeloupe and dependencies, French
Guiana; Martinique, and St. Pierre and
Miquelon. In Austi-alasia the colonies
are New Caledonia and dependencies, and
the French establishments in Oceania.
Government. — The government of
France is that of a republic, the present
republic dating from 1870. The execu-
tive and judiciary powers are vested in
a President, chosen by the Senate and
Chamber of Deputies, on joint ballot,
and serving for seven years. The legis-
lative body consists of a Senate, one-
third of whose number is elected by the
Senate itself, and the remainder by spe-
cial bodies in each department, and in
the colonies, and a Chamber of Depu-
ties, the members of which are elected by
popular suifrage, one from each arron-
dissement, and one additional for each
100,000 population or fraction of the
same in the arrondissement, in excess of
100,000. The Cabinet of the President
is composed of Ministers of Foreign Af-
fairs, of Interior, Justice, War, Marine,
Finance, Colonies, Works, Commerce,
Agriculture, Labor, Liberated Territories,
Hygiene, of Assistance and Social Pre-
vision and of Pensions, Awards and War
Grants. For administrative purposes
France is divided into communes (local
units), of which there are 37,946; can-
tons comprised of communes, 2,899; ar-
rondissements, 362; departments, 90, and
provinces, 37. The communes are gov-
erned locally by a mayor and municipal
council (in the case of Paris, by a Presi-
dent and Vice-President), The cantons,
usually comprising 12 communes, have
no administrative officers; the arrondis-
sement, usually consisting of 8 cantons,
is governed by a sub-prefect. The de-
partments, usually comprising 4 arron-
dissements, are each governed by a pre-
fect, appointed by the President of the
Republic. He superintends public order,
commands the police, etc. Each depart-
ment has a local legislative council, elect-
ed from the cantons.
History. — France was originally known
to the Romans by the name of Trans-
alpine Gaul; but after its conquest
by Caesar it was divided into the
four provinces of Provincia Romanorum
(Provence), Gallica Aquitanica, Celtica,
and Belgica. In the 5th century it was
subdivided into 17 provinces, inclusive
of all the territory on the E. bank of
the Rhine. At this time the Gennanic
nations began to overrun Gaul; the Visi-
goths established themselves from the
Loire to the Pyrenees, where they estab-
lished a kingdom that lasted till about
540. Burgundians settled in the E., from
the Lake of Geneva to the Rhine, and
afterward stretched along the Rhone to
the Mediterranean. The independent
sovereignty they erected lasted till about
532. The Franks, whose dominion swal-
lowed up those of both the foregoing
tribes, had long been settled in the N.;
and Pharamond, their chief in 420, is
considered the foundei' of the French
monarchy, as he was of the first or
Merovingian race of Frankish kings. In
486 Clovis defeated Syagrius, the Roman
general, at Soissons^, and in 507. by his
victoi*y over the Visigoths, he rendered
himself master of all the counti-y be-
tween the Loire and the Garonne. ^ On
the death of Clovis. in 511, his dominions
were divided into four kingdoms — those
of Paris, Metz, Soissons, and Orleans.
These, however, were reunited in 558.
In 732 Charles Martel defeated the
Saracens in the S. of France, and ex-
pelled them from the kingdom. Under
Pepin and Charlemagne the country was
relatively peaceful and prosperous; but
after the latter's death things returned
to their original state of confusion.
Under his immediate successor France
was again divided into four parts, and
FRANOE
191
FRANCE
the Normans began to ravage its N.
provinces; the power of the nobility also
rapidly increased and the last sovereign
of the Carlovingian dynasty, Louis V.
in 986-987, possessed only the town of
Laon. His successor, Hugh Capet, Count
of Paris and Orleans, the founder of
the third race of kings, governed only
the Ile-de-France, Picardy, and the Or-
leannais; the dukes of Normandy, Brit-
tany, Aquitaine, Gascony, Lorraine, and
Burgundy, the count of Flanders, Cham-
pagne, Vermandois, Toulouse, and sev-
eral minor seigneurs, shared among
them the rest of the modern kingdom.
Vermandois was united to the crown
by Philip Augustus; Toulouse and
Perche, by Louis IX.; Champagne, in
1274; the Lyonnais, Dauphiny, and Lan-
guedoc, in the 14th century; Berri, Nor-
mandy, Gascony, Burgundy, Anjou,
Maine, and Provence, in the 15th; Bour-
bonnais, Auvergne, Brittany, Lorraine,
and considerable territories in the S. W.
in the 16th; and Flanders, Artois,
Franche-Comte, and Alsace in the 17th
century. While the monarchy gained in
consistency and extent, the regal power
was making constant advances. At
length, under the administration of
Richelieu, the nobles were stripped of
all power; and there being no other body
in the State, with the exception of the
parliaments — which had degenerated in-
to little else than courts of law — that
enjoyed any constitutional privileges,
the power of the crown was raised above
control. Under the vigorous, and for a
lengthened period prosperous, govern-
ment of Louis XIV., the royal preroga-
tive arrived at a maximum. During the
regency and the subsequent part of the
reign of Louis XV., abuses of all sorts
multiplied on all hands, and were no
longer concealed by the dazzling splen-
dor and magnificence of the preceding
period.
Louis XVI., who ascended the throne
in 1774, was actuated by the best in-
dentions, but he wanted the firmness of
purpose and capacity required in so des-
perate a crisis. At length, after a
variety of futile expedients had been in
vain resorted to, it was resolved, in
1789, to hold a meeting of the States-
General, which had not been convened
since 1614, for effecting the necessary
changes and averting a public bank-
ruptcy. This was the commencement of
that tremendous revolution which cost
Louis XVI. the crown and his life, and
destroyed every vestige of the govern-
ment and institutions that existed when
it broke out. The atrocities connected
with the Revolution were in wild, but
not unnatural excesses of an unin-
structed populace that had suddenly
been emancipated from a state of ex*
treme degradation. '
The proscriptions and anarchy by
which the Revolution was accompanied
continued till Napoleon attained to the
supreme direction of affairs. The talents
of this extraordinary man were surpass-
ed only by his ambition, which, by over-
stepping all bounds, precipitated him in-
to enterprises that ultimately led to his
overthrow. In 1814 the Bourbons were re-
placed on the throne; but in 1830 they
were re-expelled from the kingdom. The
crown was then offered, under condi-
tions, to Louis Philippe, Due d'Orleans,
by whom it was accepted. He has the
merit of having contributed, under very
difficult circumstances, to the mainte-
nance, for a lengthened period, of the
peace of France and Europe. Under his
reign the Revolution of Feb. 24, 1848,
broke out, and resulted in the establish-
ment of the republic, with a provisional
government.
A new constitution having been voted
by a "Constituent Assembly" of 900
members. Prince Louis Napoleon was
elected head of the republic, for four
years, by 5,562,843 votes, on Dec. 10,
1848. The prince President dissolved
the National Assembly by a coup d'etat,
Dec. 2, 1851, and having remodeled the
constitution, appealed to universal suf-
frage, which declared him president for
10 years, by 7,439,216 votes, on Dec. 21,
1851. By a third vote, Louis Napoleon
was chosen Emperor of France, by 7,-
864,216 against 31,145 votes, on Nov.
22, 1852, and assumed the title of Napo-
leon III., Emperor of the French, on
Dec. 1, 1852. For the history ol France
since 1852, see Napoleon.
The government of Napoleon III. was
in all essentials an absolute monarchy.
The legislative powers and the suffrage
were entirely within his control. In
order to quiet the dissatisfaction of the
people, Napoleon entered upon an ag-
gressive foreign policy. He made an al-
liance with England and France against
Russia in 1854, and the successful out-
come of the Crimean War was a per-
sonal triumph for him. Paris became the
diplomatic capital of Europe, follo\\ing
the Congress of Paris in 1856. Napoleon,
in 1859, in the role of the champion
of the oppressed nationalities, aided
Italy against Austria and obtained as
a reward possession of Savoy and Nice.
His attempts at intel•^'ention in Poland
in 1863 and in Schleswig-Holstein in ;
the following year, were, however, un- •
successful. Far more disastrous, how-
ever, was his invasion of Mexico and
the establishment there of an empire
under Maximilian of Austria. The fail-
ure of this empire and the execution of
FBANCE
192
FRANCE
Maximilian were fatal blows at Napo-
leon's prestige. This was followed by the
defeat of Austria in 1866 and the rise
of Prussia, which threatened to deprive
France of the leading position in Euro-
pean politics. While there was economic
prosperity in France and great indus-
trial development, there were many signs
of dissatisfaction. Opposition to the
Empire continued to grow until in 1869
Napoleon was obliged to grant a respon-
sible ministry. It soon appeared, how-
ever, that this was in reality without
power and that the personal govem-
roent of the Emperor continued. An ap-
peal to the people failed and the neces-
sity of regaining his influence led Napo-
leon to enter once more upon an aggres-
sive course of action in foreign affairs.
This issue of the succession to the va-
cant Spanish throne precipitated the
crisis between France and Prussia,
whose foreign policy was now conducted
by the genius of Bismarck. Napoleon,
deceived by the false reports of his min-
isters in relation to the efficiency of the
French army, permitted himself to be
carried into the war with Prussia, which
had been silently preparing for many
years for such a conflict. The Franco-
Prussian War was of short duration.
The succession of defeats for the French
ended on Sept. 2, 1870, in the sur-
render of Sedan. On Sept. 4, the
Emperor and his descendants were de-
clared forever excluded from the throne
and France was proclaimed a republic.
Following a period of disorder the first
National Assembly met in February,
1871, at Bordeaux, and the Third Repub-
lic was formed. A treaty of peace was
signed with Germany at Versailles on
Feb. 26 and was quickly ratified by
the French Government. France was
obliged to cede Alsace and parts of Lor-
raine to Prussia, and pav an indemnity
of 5,000,000,000 francs. Not until this
indemnity was paid, in September, 1873,
were the Prussian troops withdrawn
from French territory. There were vio-
lent outbreaks of the commune in 1871,
but these were suppressed. On Aug. 31
of that year, Thiers received from the
National Assembly the title of President
of the Republic. He resigned in 1873
and Marshal MacMahon was elected for
a period of seven years. The National
Assembly in 1873 adopted laws provid-
ing for the constitution of the National
Legislature. MacMahon resigned in 1879
and was succeeded by Jules Grevy. In
spite of attempts at the revival of the
monarchy, republican sentiment con-
tmued to grow. The constitution was
revised in 1884. France, in 1881, entered
upon a foreign colonial policy by estab-
lishing a protectorate over Tunis. This
was followed in 1883 by the enforcement
of a claim of certain rights over Mada-
gascar, which in 1896 became a French
possession. In 1884 the war with China
resulted in the establishment of a
French protectorate over Annam and
Tonking. M. Grevy was re-elected in
1885, but resigned in 1887. He was suc-
ceeded by Sadi Carnot, in whose admin-
istration occurred the Panama Canal
scandal.
In 1889 there was a formidable at-
tempt to overthrow the republic by a
union of all parties favoring a mon-
archy. This was under the leadership of
General Boulanger. After promises of
success, the movement failed and the
republic continued to grow in strength.
President Carnot was assassinated in
1894 and was succeeded by Casimir-
Perier, who in 1895 resigned and was
succeeded by Felix Faure. In the latter's
administration and that of his successor,
Emile Loubet, occurred the famous
DreyfuE case, which for a time threat-
ened the downfall of the republic. The
chief political tendency of this period
was the increase of the Socialist power.
Alexandre Millerand, the leader of the
Socialists, at this time first emerged into
power. In 1901 the Associations Law
brought religious congregations under
government supervision. The struggle
between the Church and State continued
throughout the following years, and
ended in the complete separation of the
Church and State in France, in 1905.
France had in 1891 formed an alliance
with Russia, thus offsetting the impor-
tance of the Triple Alliance. This alliance
was strengthened throughout the follow-
ing years and cordial relations were
established with Italy. These relations
were chiefly due to Th^ophile Delcasse,
who also accomplfehed in 1904 an agree-
ment with England by which France
abandoned certain rights in Newfound-
land in return for territorial concessions
in west Africa. France also recognized
the predominance of Great Britain in
Egypt in return for the right of France
to maintain order in Morocco.
The defeat of Russia in the war with
Japan left France .without a strong ally,
and Germany seized the opportunity to
bring about the dismissal of Delcasse,
whose policies were regarded by the Ger-
man Government as hostile to it. The
Algeciras Conference, which met in 1906,
gave France certain customs rights on
the Algerian frontier. Germany pro-
tested in 1008 and 1911 that the French
sphere of influence was too extensive.
In the latter year the German Emperor
sent a warship to Agadir to protect
German interests. France, however, was
strongly supported by England, and Ger-
FBANCH
193
FRANCE
many was obliged to give way and
to recognize rights of France in Morocco.
In return of this recognition France
ceded to Germany 112,000 square miles
of the French Congo. In 1912 France
secured a practical protectorate over
Morocco.
The economic history of France is
marked during this period by the rapid
growth of industrial unionism and the
development of the theory of direct
action (See Syndicalism). General
strikes occurred in 1909 and in 1910, but
these were suppressed by the prompt
action of Premier Briand who shattered
the railroad strike by threatening mili-
tary punishment.
Raymond Foincare was elected Presi-
dent in 1913. Threatening conditions in
Europe, especially in Germany, led to
demands for an increase in the size of
the army, and this was accomplished.
During the closing months of 1913, dis-
turbances in Alsace-Lorraine, particu-
larly in Zabern, increased the growing
hostility between France and Germany.
Germany's policy of aggressiveness and
militarism foreshadowed the outbreak of
the World War. For an account of
France's part in this great struggle, see
World War.
The progress of the war was marked
by many important political events.
The first of these was the assassination
of M. Jaures, the leader of the Unified
Socialists, in 1914. The French Cabinet
was reorganized on Aug. 26, 1914,
with M. Viviani as Prime Minister. On
Sept. 3, as a result of the possible
danger of the German occupation of
Paris, the French Government was re-
moved to Bordeaux, where it remained
until December of that year. Delcasse
resigned as Foreign Minister on Oct.
30. 1914. On Dec. 2, 1915, General
Joffre was placed in supreme command
of all the French armies. Changes in
the Cabinet were made during 1916 as a
result of criticism in respect to the con-
duct of the war. There were, indeed,
throughout the struggle, continuous
changes in the ministry, which continued
until the formation, in 1917, of a new
ministry under Clemenceau. This con-
tinued throughout the duration of the
war. A number of prominent persons
were involved in charges of disloyalty
and treason. These included Malvy,
Minister of the Interior; Caillaux, a
former Prime Minister; and Senator
Humbert. There were also treason
charges against the editors of the Bon-
net Rouge, Bolo Pasha, and others. All
these men were charged with being con-
cerned either directly or indirectly in
treasonable dealings with the enemy.
They were all eventually tried and found
guilty, with the exception of Senator
Humbert, who was acquitted. France
was represented at the Peace Conference
chiefly by M. Clemenceau, who was one of
the chief figures in the deliberations of
that body on June 27, 1919. The Senate
passed the Electoral Reform Bill which
had already been passed by the Chamber.
The Peace Treaty was ratified by the
Chamber of Deputies on Oct. 9, 1919,
and the military agreements between
France, Great Britain, and the United
States were also ratified on Oct. 13.
On Oct. 19 the French War Parlia-
ment, which had been in session since
the summer of 1919, came to an end.
M. Clemenceau resigned as premier on
Jan. 18, 1920. President Poincard com-
pleted his term of office on Feb.
17, 1920, and was succeeded bj" Paul
Deschanel. During May there were riots
in Paris and a strike was begun for the
nationalization of the railroads. These
strikes were prevented by a threat of
Premier Millerand to dissolve the General
Federation of Labor. Deschanel resigned
the presidency on Dec. 10 on ac-
count of ill health, and was succeeded
by Alexandre Millerand. Georges Leygues
became Prime Minister.
The chief efforts in France during 1920
and 1921 were for the reconstruction of
the country from the devastations of the
war. The financial and economic con-
ditions are described in another portion
of this article. France depended largely
for rehabilitation upon the indemnities
or reparations to be received from Ger-
rnany. The Supreme Council finally de-
cided that the total reparations should
be about .S.56,000,000,000, to be paid in a
definite period of years. At a session of
the Supreme Council held in London in
March, 1921, Germany refused to accept
this sum and as a consequence French
troops were despatched to occupy the Ger-
man cities of Diisseldorf, Duisburg, and
Ruhrort on March 7, 1921. See Peace
"HiEATY; Alsace-Lorraine; World War;
Verdun, Marne, Picardy, Aisne, Bat-
tles of; League of Nations; Treaty
OF Versailles.
The following are the Presidents of
the Third Republic:
Louis Adolph Thiers, 1871-1873.
M. E. Patrice Maurice MacMahon,
1873-1879.
Francois Paul Jules Grevy, 1879-1887.
Marie Francois Sadi-Carnot, 1887-
1894.
Jean Casimir-Perier. 1894-1895.
Felix Faure. 1895-1898.
Emile Loubet, 1898-1906.
Armand Fallieres, 1906-1913.
Ravmond Poincare, 1913-1920.
Paul Deschanel. 1920.
Alexandre Millerand, 1920-
FBANCE
194
FBANCIS I.
PRANCE, ANATOLE (JACQUES
ANATOLE THIBAULT), a French
novelist and poet of great perfection and
distinction of style; born in Paris, April
16, 1844. His tirst volume of "Poems"
v^^as published in 1873, and his dramatic
poem "Corinthian Revels" in 1876. The
humorous story "Jocaste and the Lean
Cat" (1879) was received with indiffer-
ence, but he had brilliant success with
"The Crime of Sylvester Bonnard"
(1881); "The Yule Log" (1881); and
"The Wishes of Jean Servien" (1881).
His other works include "Our Children:
Scenes in Town and in the Fields"
(1886); "Queen Pedauque's Cook-Shop";
"Opinions of the Abbd Jerome Coignard"
(1893); "The Garden of Epicurus";
"Abeille"; "My Friend's Book"; "Our
Children"; "Balthazar"; "Thais"; "Lit-
erary Life"; "Alfred de Vigny"; etc. He
was elected to the French Academy in
1884.
FRANCE, ISLE OF. See Mauritius.
FRANCE, JOSEPH IRWIN, a United
States senator from Maryland, born in
1873. He graduated from Hamilton Col-
lege in 1895. He studied in Germany and
at the Clark University. He graduated
from the College of Physicians and Sur-
geons of Baltimore, in 1903, and engaged
in the practice of his profession in Balti-
more from 1905 to 1909. He was a mem-
ber of the Maryland Senate and in 1916
was elected United States Senator for
the term 1917-1923. He was a frequent
contributor to magazines on scientific,
economic, and political subjects.
FRANCESCO DI PAULA, or ST,
FRANCIS OF PAOLA, an Italian monk,
founder of the order of the Minims ; born
in Paula or Paola, a village of Calabria,
in 1416. At the age of 13 he was the in-
mate of a Franciscan convent; and at 19
he retired to a cave where he inflicted on
himself every species of self-mortifica-
tion. The fame of his piety having at-
tracted to his cell several emulators of
his austere life, he obtained permission to
erect a convent, and the new community
received from Pope Sixtus IV. the title
of the Hermits of St. Francis of Assisi;
but the title was changed by Alexander
VI. to Minim-Hermits of St. Francis of
Paola. The founder established nu-
merous communities in Italy, Sicily,
France, Spain, and Germany, but the
Minims were never settled in Great Brit-
ain or Ireland. Popular report having
attributed to Francesco several wonder-
ful cures, Louis XI. of France, being ill,
summoned him to his presence. Fran-
cesco was received v/ith the highest honor
and attended the king on his deathbed.
Charles VIII. and Louis XIL induced
him to settle in France, and built him
convents at Plessis-les-Tours and Am-
boise. Francesco died in Plessis on Good
Friday, 1507, and was canonized in 1519.
FRANCHE-COMTE, an ancient prov-
ince of France, adjacent to Switzerland
and Lorraine: Its capital was Besan^on,
and it is now divided into the depart-
ments of Haute-Saone, Jura,, and Doubs.
This province, conquered by the Franks
in 534, formed part of the Duchy of Bur-
gundy, and was bestowed on Philip II. of
Spain on his marriage with Isabella,
daughter of Henry II. of France, In 1559.
Louis XIV. conquered it in 1668, and re-
stored it to Spain by the treaty of Aix-
la-Chapelle, May 12, 1668. He conquered
it again in 1674, and it was finally ceded
to France by Spain, by the treaty of
Nimeguen, Sept. 17, 1678.
FRANCIA, JOSE GASPAR ROD-
RIGUEZ, dictator of Paraguay; born in
Asuncion, in 1757. His mother was a
Creole. Arrived at the proper age, he
was sent to the University of Cordova,
v/ith a view to entering the Church; but
his plans underwent a change while he
was still a student, and on his return to
his native town with the degree of doctor
of laws, he began his public career as a
barrister. He devoted himself to legal
pursuits for 30 years, varying his pro-
fessional avocations with a study of the
French encyclopaedic writers, mathe-
matics and mechanical philosophy. In
1811, soon after the revolution in the
Spanish possessions of South America
became general, Di*. Francia, then in his
54th year, was appointed secretary to the
independent junta of Paraguay; and on
the formation of a new congress, called
in 1813, he was appointed consul of the
republic, vnth Yegros for his colleague.
From this moment the affairs of his
country underwent a favorable change;
and the people's gratitude to their de-
liverer was characteristically exhibited
in conferring upon him, in 1817, un-
limited despotic authority, which he ex-
ercised during the remainder of his life.
He died in Asuncion, Sept. 26, 1840.
FRANCIS I., King of France; bom in
Cognac, France, Sept. 12, 1494; suc-
ceeded to the throne in 1515, on the death
of Louis XIL, who died without male
issue. Scarcely had he ascended, than
he, as grandson of Valentino of Milan,
put himself at the head of an army to
assert his right over the Milanese. The
Swiss, who opposed him in his entry into
the duchy, were defeated at Marignano
(or Melegnano), and Milan fell immedi-
ately after this victory. After a short
war with England, the famous intei'view
between Henry VIII. and Francis took
FRANCIS II.
195
FRANCIS FERDINAND
place, in 1520, in Flanders, which, from
the magnificence displayed on the oc-
casion, was called The Field of the
Cloth of Gold {q. v.). In the same
year, Charles V. of Spain, having in-
herited the empire after the death of
Maximilian, Francis laid claim to the im-
perial dignity, and declared war against
his rival. In this struggle, however, he
met with nothing but reverses. After
the defeat of Marshal Lautrec at Bi-
coca, in 1522, the retreat of Bonnivet,
and Bayard's death, Francis was him-
self, in 1525, beaten at Pavia, and taken
prisoner. The fight had been a fierce one,
and the king wrote to his mother, "All is
lost, except honor." Led captive into
Spain, he only recovered his liberty at
the cost of an onerous treaty, signed at
Madrid in 1526; but which Francis sub-
sequently declared null and void. He im-
mediately recommenced war in Italy, met
with fresh defeats, and concluded a sec-
ond treaty at Cambrai in 1529. He once
more invaded Italy, in 1536, and, after
various successes, consented to a defini-
tive arrangement at Crespi, in 1544, by
which the French were excluded from
Italy, though Milan was given to the
Duke of Orleans, the second son of
Francis. Francis was a friend to arts
and literature, which flourished during
his reign; and he was called the "Father
of Letters." Justice, also, began to be
better administered in his reign. He
founded the Royal College of France, the
Royal Library, and built several palaces.
He died at the Chateau de Rambouillet,
March 31, 1547, and was succeeded by
his son, Henry II.
FRANCIS II., King of France, the
eldest son of Henry II. and his queen
Catherine de Medici; born in Fontaine-
bleau, Jan. 19, 1543. He succeeded his
father in July, 1559, having in the pre-
ceding year married Mary Stuart, daugh-
ter of James V. of Scotland. He made
the Cardinal of Lorraine first minister,
and his brother, the Duke of Guise, com-
mander-in-chief. The insolence and
cruelty of their rule produced profound
discontent, and led to the conspiracy of
Amboise, and the beginning of the civil
war between the Catholics and Protes-
tants. The states-general were convoked
at Orleans in 1560, and the Prince of
Conde, who had joined the Protestants,
was there arrested, and sentenced to
death; but the sentence was not executed
owing to the King's death in Orleans,
Dec. 5, 1560.
FRANCIS I.. Emperor of Germany;
born Dec. 8, 1708; the son of Leopold,
Duke of Lorraine. He inherited this
duchy from his father, in 1729, and six
years afterward exchanged it for that of
Tuscany, which the death of the last of
the Medicis had rendered vacant. In
1736 he married Maria Theresa, the
daughter of the Emperor Charles VI.
On the death of the latter, he disputed the
imperial dignity with the Elector of Ba-
varia, whom France supported, and who
took the name of Charles VII.; he was,
however, defeated, and Francis reigned
peacefully for 20 years. He had 16 chil-
dren, among whom was Joseph II., who
succeeded him, and the unfortunate Marie
Antoinette. He died in Innsbruck, Aug.
18, 1765.
FRANCIS II., Emperor of Germany,
and I. of Austria; born in Florence, Italy,
Feb. 12, 1768, succeeded his father, Leo-
pold II., in 1792, as Emperor of Germany,
King of Bohemia, Hungary, etc. At the
very commencement of his reign, he had
to sustain a war against France, in which
he was defeated, and was, in 1797, obliged
to sign the treaty of Campo Formio,
which deprived him of the Netherlands
and Lombardy. In another war with
France he was defeated at Marengo and
lost, by the treaty of Luneville, in 1801,
all his possessions on the Rhine. In a
third campaign, undertaken in 1805, the
French were victorious over his armies
at Elchingen, Ulm, and Austerlitz; and
the treaty of Pressburg still further di-
minished his territory. Renouncing now
the title of Emperor of Germany, he took
that of Austria, under the name of Fran-
cis I. He tried again the fate of battles
in 1809; but the defeats of Eckmiihl and
Wagram led to the peace of Schonbrunn,
to cement which more strongly, his
daughter Maria Louisa was, in 1810,
given to Napoleon I. Notwithstanding
this alliance, however, he, in 1813, joined
the coalition against his son-in-law. The
treaties of 1815 put him again in pos-
session of the greater portion of his ter-
ritory, and he reigned peaceably till his
death in Vienna, March 2, 1835. He was
succeeded by his son Ferdinand.
FRANCIS FERDINAND, Austrian
Archduke and heir to the throne, whose
assassination was the pretext for the
World War. He was the nephew of the
Emperor, Franz Joseph, and was born
in Gratz, in 1863. His father, the Arch-
duke, Charles Louis, having renounced
his right to the throne, after the death
of the Crown Prince, Rudolph, in 1889,
Francis Ferdinand, became the heir.
Having finished his education, he took
up an army career, then went through
the usual experience in administrative
affairs, customary among members of
the imperial family. In so far as he
made his influence felt in the policies of
the Government, he was a strong reac-
FBANCIS FERDINAND
196
FBANCIS JOSEPH I.
tionary, being in favor of a "strong"
foreign policy; in other words, he was
in close sympathy with the elements
which stood for the "ironing out" of the
Slavic nationalities within the Empire
and the gradual expansion of its terri-
tories at the expense of the Balkan na-
tions, especially Serbia. In 1900 he con-
tracted a morganatic marriage with the
daughter of a Bohemian nobleman, the
Countess Sophie Chotek, later created
the Duchess of Hohenberg.
The chief claim to a place in history
of Francis Ferdinand, however, will
ever be based on his death. In the
middle of June, 1914, the Archduke had
gone to Bosnia on his first visit, since
that territory had been annexed to the
Empire, in 1908, to take charge of mili-
ARCHDUKE FRANCIS FERDINAND
tary maneuvers there. Before his de-
parture he was warned by the Serbian
Minister in Vienna that there was dan-
ger of a popular demonstration being
made against him by the Serbian popu-
lation of the annexed province.
On arriving in Sarajevo, June 28,
1914, the Archduke, his wife and their
party proceeded from the railroad sta-
tion to the town hall, where the provin-
cial authorities were gathered to receive
them. On the way a bomb was thrown
from the roof of a house into the Arch-
duke's automobile, but he had the pres-
ence of mind to catch the missile in his
hand before it exploded and hurl it out
into the street, where it burst without
doing any harm except slightly wound-
ing one of his adjutants. The assailant.
a Serbian by the name of Gabrinovics,
was arrested on the spot. On arriving
at the town hall, the Archduke pro-
ceeded to berate the officials for the at-
tempt on his life, accusing them of not
having taken proper precautions. The
ceremony of welcoming him then pro-
ceeded.
On leaving the town hall, and after
the Archduke had seated himself in his
automobile, a man rushed out of the
ci'owd on the sidewalk and emptied the
contents of an automatic revolver into
both the Archduke and his wife, who
were both killed. This second assailant
was arrested, and also proved to be a
Serbian, by the name of Prinzip.
The Austrian Government immediately
took the attitude that the assassination
was the result of a conspiracy by Ser-
bian expansionists, encouraged by the
Serbian Government.
FBANCIS JOSEPH I., Emperor of
Austria and King of Hungary. He was
born on Aug. 18, 1830, at Laxenburg
Castle, near Vienna. His father was
the Archduke Francis Charles, younger
son of Emperor Francis I., and his
mother was the Archduchess Sofia. He
was carefully educated, and in 1848
served under Radetzky in Italy. On
Dec. 2, 1848, following political disturb-
ances which threatened the dissolution
of the Empire, the Emperor Ferdinand
abdicated and the brother, the Archduke
Francis, abandoned his claims to the
crown. Francis Joseph thereupon be-
came Emperor. During the first year of
his reign he carried on campaigns which
resulted in the defeat of the revolting
Italian provinces. He was then obliged
to direct his attention to Hungary, which
was in revolt, under the leadership of
Louis Kossuth. This revolt was put
down only with Russian aid. As a pun-
ishment, Hungary was absorbed into the
Empire and was deprived of its constitu-
tional liberties. In 1853 an attempt was
made on the life of the Emperor by a
Hungarian, but he escaped with a slight
wound. Two years later he concluded a
concordance with Pope Pius IX. by which
there were restored to the Roman Catho-
lic Church many of the liberties of which
it had been deprived since the time of the
Emperor Joseph II. In 1859 Francis
Joseph was forced into a war with
France and Sardinia. This ended with
the loss of Lombardy by Austria. Fol-
lowing this disaster, the Emperor aban-
doned his former conservative policy and
began many necessary measures of re-
form. Following the disaster of the
Seven Weeks' War with Prussia, the
monarchy was reconstituted on a dualis-
tic basis in 1867. Francis Joseph always
FRANCIS JOSEPH I.
197
FRANCIS DE SALES, ST.
attempted to maintain a constitutional
and parliamentary regime in his domin-
ions, and only through the respect and
affection of his subjects and by means
of his own personal influence, was the
Dual Empire held together during the
period of his long reign. On April 24,
1854, he married Elizabeth, daughter
of Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. This
marriage ended in an estrangement
which was terminated only by the assas-
sination of the Empress by an Italian
anarchist in Geneva, on Sept. 10, 1898.
The only son of Francis Joseph and
Elizabeth, Rudolph, died mysteriously in
his hunting lodge at Meyerling, Austria.
This left an heir apparent, Archduke
Francis Ferdinand, nephew of the Em-
FRANCIS .JOSEPH I.
peror, whose murder on July 18, 1914,
at Sarajevo, Bosnia, precipitated the
World War. Throughout the long reign
of Francis Joseph, public calamity and
private distress were mingled. It was
reported that he v/as forced into actual
hostilities against Serbia only through
t|ie influence of his ministers and the
German Emperor. The disasters suf-
fered by the Austrian armies greatly
depressed him, although he continued to
perform his duties until within a few
hours of his death, which occurred on
Nov. 21, 1916.
Francis Joseph's reign was the longest
in modern history. It lasted 67 years
and exceeded that of Queen Victoria
by 4^y4 years. He was succeeded as
Emperor by Charles Francis Joseph,
nephew of Francis Ferdinand and son
of Archduke Otto.
FRANCIS I., King of the Two Sicilies,
son of Ferdinand I.; bom in Naples,
Aug. 19, 1777, and twice during the life-
time of his father he carried on the gov-
ernment of the kingdom under the name
of viceroy; first in 1812, when a con-
stitution was granted to Sicily; and
afterward in 1820, during the troubles
which broke out in Naples and Palermo.
He mounted the throne in 1825, and died
in Naples, Dec. 8, 1830. He was suc-
ceeded ly Ferdinand II. (Bomba), who,
dying in 1859, was followed by Francis
II., who lost his throne in 1861.
FRANCIS, DAVID ROWLAND, an
American public official, born in Rich-
mond, Ky., in 1850. He graduated from
Washington University in 1870. He en-
gaged in business and became a director
and official in many important financial
institutions. From 1889 to 1893, he was
governor of Missouri. He was appointed
Secretary of the Interior by President
Cleveland, in 1896, serving for a year.
He was president of the Louisiana Pur-
chase Exposition in 1904. In 1916 he
was appointed ambassador to Russia,
serving until compelled to leave by the
Bolshevik Government, in 1919.
FRANCIS, ST., or FRANCIS OF AS-
SISI, the founder of the order of Fran-
ciscan friars; born in Assisi, Umbria, in
1182. He was the son of a merchant,
and was said to be of dissolute habits;
but on recovering from a dangerous ill-
ness he became enthusiastically devout,
undergoing every species of penance and
mortification. Thinking his extrava-
gance proceeded from insanity, his
father had him closely confined. Being
taken before the Bishop of Assisi, in
order formally to resign all claim to his
paternal estate, he cheerfully resigned
everything. He was now looked upon as
a saint, and great numbers joining him
in his vow of poverty, he drew up rules
for their use, which being sanctioned by
Pope Innocent III., the order of Fran-
ciscans was established. In 1219 he held
a chapter which was attended by 5,000
friars. After having made a fruitless
effort to convert the Sultan Meleddin, he
returned to Assisi, where he died, Oct.
4, 1226, and was canonized by Pope
Gregory IX. in 1230.
FRANCIS DE SALES. ST., Bishop of
Geneva, founder of the Order of Visita-
tion; born of a noble Savoyard family,
in the chateau of Sales, near Geneva,
Aug. 21, 1567. He was educated by the
Jesuits at Paris, studied law at Padua,
and having a strong bent to theology
and a religious life, entered the Church.
He was sent, in 1594, with his kinsman,
Louis de Sales, to preach in the Duchy
FRANCISCAN
198
FBANKAU
of Chablais, and bring back, if possible,
to the Catholic Church the followers of
Calvin. He had a large measure of suc-
cess. His conferences with Theodore de
Beze, Calvin's successor, at Geneva,
were, however, without result. He went
to Paris in 1602, preached there with
great success. The same year he was
appointed Bishop of Geneva and applied
himself zealously to the reform of the
diocese and its monasteries. He declined
the offer of a cardinal's hat. In 1610 he
founded the Order of the Visitation, of
which the first directress was his
friend, Madame de Chantal. He was
sent again to Paris in 1618. His best
known works are the "Introduction to
a Devout Life" and "A Treatise on the
Love of God." He died in Lyons,
France, in 1622; was canonizpi by Pope
Alexander VII. in 1665.
FRANCISCAN, the followers of St.
Francis (g. v.). Hearing accidentally
in 1208, in a church the words of the
Saviour (Matt, x: 9, 10), he considered
that the essence of the Gospel was ab-
solute poverty, and founded an order on
this basis, which ultimately became one
of the two great fraternities of mendicant
friars. To manifest his humility he
would not allow his followers to be
called brethren (in Lat. fratres), but
only little brothers, a designation which
they still retain. Pope Innocent III., in
1210, and a council of Lateran, in 1215,
approved of his rules for the government
of his order, which enjoined poverty,
chastity, and obedience, and in 1223
Pope Honorius III. issued a bull in his
favor. He died in Assisi, in 1226, and
in 1230 was canonized by Pope Gregory
IX., the anniversary of his death, Oct.
4, being fixed as his festival. In 1224,
Franciscans went over to England.
From 1228 till 1259 they contended with
the Dominicans about precedency. At
the suppression of the monasteries in
England under Henry VIII., 1536-1538,
the Franciscans had 66 abbeys or other
religious houses. Their dress was a
loose garment of gray color, reach-
ing to their ankles, and a gray cowl,
covered when they went into the streets,
with a cloak. They were called Gray-
friars. The order, in the course of its
history, split into various branches.
FRANCONIA, a name which was
originally applied to the German coun-
try on both sides of the Main, which
was colonized by Frankish settlers under
Thierry I., eldest son of Clovis I., who
succeeded to his father's German pos-
sessions in 511. Conrad, Duke or Count
of Franconia, was elected King of Ger-
many Nov. 8, 911, and princes of the
same house occupied the throne from
1024 till 1250. The Emperor Wences-
laus, in 1387, divided the empire into
four circles, of which Franconia and
Thuringia constituted one; and Max-
imilian I., in 1512, erected Fran-
conia into a distinct circle. In 1806 it
was divided among Wiirttemberg, Baden,
Hesse-Cassel, the Saxon duchies, and
Bavaria, but since 1814 the greater part
has belonged to Bavaria, where the dis-
tricts or circles of Upper, Middle, and
Lower Franconia were established in
1837. Upper Franconia includes the N.
E. portion of Bavaria. It is watered by
numerous rivers, as the Main, Raab,
Saale, etc., and it is intersected by the
Fichtelgebirge and by the hilly ravines
of the Bohmer-, Franken-, and Steiger-
Wald. The valleys produce good crops
and fruit, and the district is rich in min-
erals. Middle Franconia, which abuts
upon Wiirttemberg, is intersected by
branches of the Franconian Jura chain,
but has few rivers of importance besides
the Regrnitz and Altmiihl, which are con-
nected by the great Ludwig canal. It
produces good wine, but is principally
celebrated for its hop-gardens. Lower
Franconia, which occupies the N. W.
part of Bavaria, is traversed by the
Spessart, the Rhongebirge, and the Stei-
ger-Wald, and watered by the Main and
Saale. It is the richest and best cul-
tivated of the Franconian circles, and is
celebrated for the excellence of its wines,
the Steiner and Leisten. The district is
noted for its mineral springs at Kissin-
gen, Briickenau, Orb, and Wipfeld. See
Bavaria.
FRANK, ROYAL THAXTER, an ^
American military officer; born in Gray,
Me., May 6, 1836; was graduated at the
United States Military Academy in 1864.
During the Civil War he was brevetted
major and lieutenant-colonel for bravery
at Fredericksburg, Dec. 13, 1862. Later
was promoted colonel of the 1st United
States Artillery and was in command of
the Artillery School at Fort Monroe in
1888-1898. He was promoted Brigadier-
General in 1898. He died March 18,
1908.
FRANKAIT, GILBERT. A British
novelist. He was born in 1884 and was
educated at Eton. He entered his
father's business on leaving school and
did not commence writing till 1910. In
1912 he produced his first book, "One of
Us," and during the next two years
traveled around the world. He fought
in the World War at Loos, Ypres, and
on the Somme, became Staff Captain in
1916, and was invalided from service
in 1918. In 1914 he wrote "Tid'apa,"
FRANKENTHAL
199
FRANKFORT
and during the war "The Guns," "The
City of Fear," "The Woman of the
Horizon," and ''The Judgment of Val-
halla." In 1919 appeared "One of
Them."
FRANKENTHAL, a city of Germany,
in the Bavarian Palatinate, eight miles
N. W, of Mannheim and near the
Rhine canal. As an important indus-
trial center is especially famous for its
production of iron and steel machinery,
and toys, soap and cement. Pop. about
19,000.
FRANKFORT, a city of Indiana, the
county-seat of Clinton co. It is on the
Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville, the
Lake Erie and Western, the Vandalia,
and the Toledo, St. Louis and Western
railroads. It is the center of an im-
portant agricultural region. Its indus-
tries include the manufacture of kitchen
cabinets, brick, lumber, agricultural im-
plements, etc. There are several large
wholesale grocer establishments and
railroad repair shops. Among the im-
portant public buildings are a Carnegie
library, a court house, and a high
school. Pop. (1910) 8,634; (1920) 11,-
585.
FRANKFORT, a city, capital of the
State of Kentucky, and county-seat of
Franklin co.; on the Kentucky river,
and on the Chesapeake and Ohio, and
the Louisville and Nashville railroads;
65 miles E. of Louisville. The city is
built on a high plain and is regularly
laid out. Here are the capitol, court
house, governor's residence, the Ken-
tucky Military Institute, the State
Home for Feeble-Minded Children, State
Colored Normal School, penitentiary,
Young Men's Public Library, Odd Fel-
lows' Hall, King's Daughters' Hospital,
street railroad and electric light plants,
waterworks, several banks, and a num-
ber of daily and weekly newspapers. It
has manufactories of brooms, shoes, fur-
niture, lumber, flour, twine, carriages.
On one of the hills in the vicinity of the
city is a cemetery where lie the remains
of Daniel Boone, several governors, and
other prominent persons of the State.
Pop. (1910) 10,465; (1920) 9,805.
PRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN, a city
of Germany, the capital of a district of
same name, on the Main, 20 miles above
its conflux with the Rhine. It is divided
by the river into two unequal parts; the
one on the N. bank, called Frankfort
proper, being considerably larger than
the other, which is called Sachsenhausen;
and the two communicate by stone
bridges. Frankfort was formerly forti-
fied; but most of its outworks are now
converted into gardens and promenades,
and it is entered by nine gates. The
principal streets are wide ; there are
also many squares, and a number of
large buildings, among which may be
named the Rcemerberg, or old palace, in
which the emperors of Germany were
elected and place of the assembling of
the Diet; the Taxis palace, a place of
residence of the emperors ; the Saalhof ,
a modern imperial palace; the Lutheran,
or High church; other churches, Jews'
synagogues, hospitals, an academy of
painting, and the Senckenberg Museum.
Manufactures, carpets, table-covers, oil-
cloths, cotton and silk fabrics, woolen
stuffs, jewelry, tobacco and printer's
black. It has also large printing, litho-
graphic and stereotyping establishments.
Frankfort was founded by the Franks
in the 5th century. Charlemagne, who
had a palace in this city, summoned a
council in 794, and it was surrounded
with walls by Louis I. in 838. It was
the capita) of the Eastern Franks from
843 to 889, when Ratisbon was selected.
Frederick I. was elected at Frankfort
in 1152. From that time it became the
place of election of the emperors. Frank-
fort was made a free city in 1257. Th^i
bridge over the Main was built in
1342. Frederick of Prussia signed a
treaty, known as the Union of Frank-
fort, with the empire. France, and Swe-
den, at this city, May 13, 1744. The
French captured it Jan. 2, 1750, and
again in 1792; but the Prussians wrested
it from them Dec. 2, 1792. It was bom-
barded by the French July 12, and sur-
rendered July 19, 1796. It formed part
of the Confederation of the Rhine in
1806. Napoleon I. erected Frankfoi-t
into a duchy in 1810. The Declaration
of the Allied Powers was issued at
Frankfort Dec. 1, 1813. By the Con-
gress of Vienna, in 1815, it was made
one of the four free cities of Germanv.
and the seat of the Germanic Diet. It
was made a fi-ee port in 1831. The con-
stituent assembly, elected in 1848, held
its sittings at Frankfort. It was occu-
pied by the Prussians July 16, 1866. and
is now incorporated with Prussia. Coun-
cils were held here in 794. 8.53, 1001,
1007 (Feb. 2), 1234, and 1400. Pop.
about 415,000.
FRANKFORT - ON - THE - ODER, a
well-built town of Prussia, the capital of
a district of the same name, province of
Brandenburg, 48 miles from Berlin, Its
university, founded in 1506, was, in 1811,
transferred to Breslau, Manufactures
are woolens, silks, leather, earthenware,
tobacco, mustard, etc. Near it is Kuners-
dorf, the scene of the victory of the
FRANKINCENSE
200
FRANKLAND
Austrians and Russians over Frederick
the Great, in 1759. Pop. about 70,000.
The district has an area of 8,000 square
miles, with a population of 1,200,000.
FRANKINCENSE, a resin obtained
from a great number of trees of the fir
species, and greatly esteemed as an in-
cense. The article now universally
known as fi'ankincense is the resin
called thus, a common, inodorous article,
little better than common white resin.
which discovery led to the theory of
"equivalents." He was appointed Pro-
fessor of Chemistry at Owens College,
Manchester, in 1851, and there developed
the process of making water gas. Be-
coming Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal School of Mines in 1865 he turned
his attention to water analysis, the puri-
fication of sewage and the means of
preventing pollution. Subsequently he
proved that compressed gases are ca-
pable of giving out a flame of constant
FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN
The article once so highly valued, and
which, with gold and myrrh, was deemed
a gift to lay before the Saviour, must
have been some other drug.
FRANKLAND, SIR EDWARD, an
ii^nglish chemist; born in Churchtown,
England, in 1825; studied chemistry in
the Museum of Practical Geology and in
Germany under Bunsen. He made the
discovery of the union of organic radicles
with metals, announcing in 1850 the
preparation of compounds of zinc with
methyl and ethyl. From this he deduced
the conclusion that an atom of the metal
could only attach itself to a definite
number of the atoms of other elements,
spectrum, from which he concluded that
the photosphere of the sun was atmos-
pheric. He also investigated the chemis-
try of foods. He died in Norway, Aug.
11, 1899.
FRANKLAND, PERCY FARADAY.
a British scientist. He was born at
London in 1858, and was educated at
University College School, the Royal
School of Mines, and Wiirzburg Univer-
sity. He was Professor of Chemistry at
Dundee, Scotland, 1888-1894, and at Bir-
mingham, 1894-1900. He inaugurated
monthly bacteriological examination of
London water supply in 1885. In 1901
he was president of the Chemical Sec-
FRANKLAND
201
FRANKLIN
tion, British Association, Glasgow, and
in 1906, of the Institute of Chemistry.
He was president of the Chemical So-
ciety in 1911 and in 1919 was made of-
ficer of the Order S.S. Maurice and
Lazarus. He has contributed numerous
memoirs to publications and has writ-
ten "Our Secret Friends and Foes," and
a "Life of Pasteur."
FRANKLAND, STATE OF, in 1784
North Carolina ceded her W. lands to
the United States. The inhabitants of
East Tennessee, piqued at being thus
disposed of, and alleging that no provi-
sion was made for their defense or the
administration of justice, assembled in
convention and took measures to form a
new and independent State. Notwith-
standing the fact that North Carolina,
willing to compromise, repealed the act
of cession the same year, the scheme was
urged forward and at a second conven-
tion, Dec. 14, steps were taken toward
the organization of a separate State un-
der the name of Frankland. A pro-
visional government was set up. John
Sevier was chosen governor, and the
machinery of an independent State was
put in motion. Vei'y soon rivalries and
jealousies appeared, opposing parties
arose and divided the people, and a third
party favoring adherence to North Car-
olina led by Colonel Tipton, showed much
increasing " strength. Party spirit ran
high. Frankland had two sets of officers,
and civil war became immment. Finally
an armed collision between the men un-
der Tipton and Sevier took place. The
latter were defeated, arrested and taken
to prison in irons. Frankland had re-
ceived its deathblow. The assembly of
North Carolina passed an act of oblivion,
and offered pai-don to all offenders,
whereupon the troubles ceased.
FRANKLIN, a city of Massachusetts,
in Norfolk co. It is on the New York,
New Ha\en, and Hartford Railroad, and
includes the village of Unionville. Its
industries include the manufacture of
pianos, printing presses, straw hats, and
cotton, woolen, and felt goods. It has
an almshouse, a public library, and is
the seat of Dean Academy. Pop. (1910)
5,641; (1920) 6,497.
FRANKLIN, a city of New Hamp-
shire, in Merrimack co. It is at the
junction of the Pemigewasset and
Winnipesaukee rivers, which here unite
to form the Merrimack, and is on the
Boston and Maine Railroad. The city
has excellent water power and has manu-
factures of paper and pulp, hosiery,
knitting machines, woolen goods, lum-
ber, etc. Franklin is the birthplace of
Daniel Webster, and contains a public
library and a hospital. Pop. (1910)
6,132; (1920) 6,318.
FRANKLIN, a city of Pennsylvania,
the county-seat of Venango co. It is
on the Allegheny river, and on the
Pennsylvania, the Erie, the Lake Erie,
Franklin, and Clarion, and the Lake
Shore and Michigan Southern railroads.
Its industries include flour mills, brick
works, machine shops, and manufactures
of tools. It is the center of an impor-
tant oil-producing region. There are a
public library, pai'ks, and several hand-
some public buildings. Pop. (1910)
9,767; (1920) 9,970.
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN, an Ameri-
can statesman; born in Boston, Mass.,
Jan. 17, 1706. When 12 years old he was
apprenticed to his brother James to learn
the printer's trade. Three years later
BENJAMIN FRAfJKLIN
James started a newspaper called the
"New England Courant." Benjamin tried
his hand as a contributor to the columns
of the newspaper, and with such success
that, when his brother was arrested and
imprisoned for a month by the speaker
of the assembly for a too liberal exercise
of his critical faculties, the management
of the paper was confided to Benjamin.
Diffei'ences arose between the brothers
and Benjamin left Boston, drifting final-
ly to Philadelphia, where he landed with
only $1.25 in his pocket.
He was fortunate enough to find em-
ployment immediately with a printer.
An accident secured him thte acquain-
tance of Sir William Keith, the governor
of the colony, who persuaded him to go
FRANKLIN
202
FRANKLIN
over to England for the requisite ma-
terial to establish himself in the printing
business in Philadelphia, by the promise
to advance what money he would need
for this purpose, and also to secure
to him the printing for the government.
Franklin arrived in London on Dec. 12,
1724. Instead of the lettei's of credit he
expected he discovered that no one who
knew Keith placed the smallest depend-
ence upon his word. Franklin soon
found employment in a London printing
house, where he remained for the next
18 months. He then returned to Phila-
delphia, where in connection with a
fellow printer whose father advanced
some capital, he established a printing
house for himself. In September, 1729,
he bought for a trifle the "Pennsylvania
Gazette."
In the following year, Franklin married
his old love, Deborah Read, a widow, a
young woman of his own station in life,
by whom he had two children, a son who
died in his youth, and a daughter, Sally,
who afterward became Mrs. Bache, a
name since associated with the history of
American science. In 1732 he commenced
the publication of what is still known to
literature as "Poor Richard's Almanac,"
which gained a wide circulation. His con-
tributions to it have been republished in
many languages. In 1736 Franklin was
appointed clerk of the assembly, in 1737
postmaster of Philadelphia; and shortly
after he was elected a member of the
assembly.
In 1746 he began those researches in
electricity which gave him a position
among the most illustrious natural phi-
losophers. He exhibited in a more dis-
tinct form than heretofore the theory of
positive and negative electricity; by his
famous experiment with a boy's kite he
proved that lightning and electricity are
identical; and he it was who suggested
the protecting of buildings by lightning-
conductors. At the comparatively early
age_ of 47 he was elected to the Roval
Society of London. Franklin was the
author of many other discoveries. They
are: (1) The course of storms over the
North American continent — a discovery
which marked an epoch in the science of
meteorology, and which has since been
utilized by the aid of land and ocean
telegraphy. (2) The course and most
important characteristics of the Gulf
Stream, its high temperature, and the
consequent uses of the thermometer in
navigation. (3) The diverse powers of
different colors to absorb solar heat.
In 1757 he was sent to England to in-
sist upon the right of the province to tax
the proprietors of the land still held
under the Penn charter for their share
of the cost of defending it from hostile
Frenchmen and Indians. His mission
was crowned with success. He was
absent on this work five years, during
which he received honorory degrees from
Oxford and Edinburgh. In 1764 he was
again sent to England to contest the
pretensions of Parliament to tax the
American colonies without representa-
tion. The differences, however, became
too grave to be reconciled by negotiation.
The officers sent by the home government
to New England were resisted in the dis-
charge of their duty, and in 1775 patri-
otism as well as regard for his personal
safety decided Franklin to return to the
United States, where he at once partici-
pated actively in the measures and de-
liberations of the Colonists, which re-
sulted in the declaration of independence,
July 4, 1776.
"To secure foreign assistance in prose-
cuting the war in which the colonies were
already engaged with Great Britain,
Franklin then, in the 71st year of his
age, was sent to Paris. He reached the
French capital in the winter of 1776-
1777, where his fame as a philosopher
as well as a statesman had already pre-
ceded him. His great skill as a negotia-
tor and immense personal popularity led
to an alliance between France and the
United States signed by the French king
Feb. 6, 1778, while opportune and sub-
stantial aids in arms and munitions of
war as well as money were supplied from
the royal arsenals and treasury. On Sept.
3, 1783, his mission was crowned with
success through England's recognition of
the independence of the United States.
Franklin continued to discharge the
duties of minister-plenipotentiary in
Paris till 1785, when he was relieved at
his own request. He reached Philadelphia
Sept. 14, 1785, when he was elected al-
most immediately governor of Pennsyl-
vania with but one dissenting vote be-
sides his own. To this office he was twice
re-elected unanimously. During the period
of his service as governor he was also
chosen a delegate to the convention which
framed the Constitution of the United
States. With the expiration of his third
term as governor in 1788 Franklin re-
tired from public life, after an almost
continuous service of more than 40 years.
Franklin was the founder and first presi-
dent of the Philosophical Society of
Pennsylvania, and an honorary member
of all the leading scientific societies of
the Old World. He died April 17, 1790,
and was buried in the graveyard of
Christ Church, PhiladelpTiia.
FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN, an Eng-
lish navigator, born in Spilsby, Lincoln-
shire, April 16, 1786 ; when only a boy he
went to sea, and later entered the Eng-
FRANKLIN
203
FRANKS
lish navy. In 1806 he was present at
the battle of Trafalgar, and in 1814 at
that of New Orleans, and in 1819 was
appointed to head an overland expedition
from Hudson's Bay to the Arctic Ocean.
After suffering many hardships, he
reached home in 1822. In the following
year he married a Miss Purden, the
daughter of an architect. In 1825 he
submitted to Lord Bathurst a plan "for
an expedition overland to the mouth of
the Mackenzie river, and thence by sea
to the N. W. extremity of America, with
the combined object also of surveying
the coast between the Mackenzie and
Coppermine rivers." This proposition
was accepted, and six days after he left
Liverpool. In the same year, his wife
died. In 1827 Captain Franklin arrived
at Liverpool, where he was married a
second time, and in 1820 had the honor
of knighthood conferred upon him. In
1845, Sir John set out on a third expedi-
tion with two ships, called the "Erebus"
and "Terror," and spent his first winter
in a cove between Cape Riley and
Beechey Island. After that period many
expeditions were dispatched, both from
England and America, in search of Sir
John, of whom there were no tidings, and
not till 1854 did the intelligence reach
England that the brave navigator and
his heroic companions had, in all prob-
ability, perished in the winter of 1850-
1851. This intelligence, however, wanted
confirmation and Lady Franklin, resolved
to have the mystery cleared up. Accord-
ingly, a last expedition was fitted out,
and the news was, in 1859, at length con-
firmed by the return of Captain McClin-
tock, in the yacht "Fox," after a per-
severing search for the lost adventurers.
This officer brought with him indisput-
able proofs of the death of Sir John and
the loss of his crew. Several articles
belonging to the unfortunate explorers
were found at Ross Cairn and Point
Victory. At the latter place a record was
discovered, wherein it was stated that
Sir John Franklin had died June 11,
1847. C. F. Hall, the eminent Arctic ex-
plorer, returned in September, 1869,
from a 5-years' search for the remains
of Sir John Franklin's companions with
more relics of the expedition. Lieutenant
Schwatka found the bodies of the Frank-
lin party in his expedition of 1879-1880.
FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BXJEL, an
American military officer; born in York,
Pa., Feb. 27, 1823; was graduated at
the United States Military Academy in
1843. In the Mexican War he served on
the staff of General Taylor as a topo-
graphical engineer; was engaged in mak-
ing reconnoissances and carried Taylor's
orders at the battle of Buena Vista. At
the outbreak of the Civil War he was as-
signed to the command of a brigade in
Heintzelman's division. He took part in
the battle of Bull Run, served with dis-
tinction in the Peninsular campaign and
was promoted Major-General in 1862.
Subsequently he served under McClellan
in Maryland and under Burnside at
Fredericksburg, was assigned to the De-
partment of the Gulf, under Banks, in
1863; and in 1865 was brevetted Major-
General in the regular army, but re-
signed a year later to engage in manu-
facturing. He was appointed United
States Commissioner-General to the
Paris Exposition in 1899. He died March
8, 1903.
FRANKLIN AND MARSHAL COL-
LEGE, an educational institution in
Lancaster, Pa.; founded in 1787 under
the auspices of the Reformed Church in
the United States; reported at the close
of 1919: Professors and instructors, 17;
students, 298; president, H. H. Apple, D.
D., LL.D.
FRANKLIN COLLEGE, a coeduca-
tional institution in Franklin, Ind.,
founded in 1834 under the auspices of
the Baptist Church; reported at the close
of 1919: Professors and instructors, 16;
students, 259; president. C. E. Goodell,
A. M.
FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, THE. of
the State of Pennsylvania for the Pro-
motion of the Mechanic Arts, an institu-
tion established in Philadelphia in 1824,
for the dissemination of knowledge of the
arts and sciences. It combines many
features of the mechanical institutes and
of the scientific societies. The work of
the institution is carried on by means of
lectures, reports, libraries, exhibitions,
and instruction. Publication of a journal
was begun in 1826 and has continued
without interruption. The library con-
tains about 75.000 volumes. A school of
mechanical and architectural drawing is
conducted and there are also night
schools in machine design and naval
architecture. There are also schools for
the instruction of English and ancient
and modern languages. The institute is
open to all persons of legal age on pay-
ment of dues.
FRANKS, the name of a confedera-
tion which was formed about A. D. 240, by
the tribes dwelling on the banks of the
Lower Rhine anc. the Weser, who united
under the title of Franks or free men.
They invaded Gaul in 256, and for 12
years ravaged that country and Spain,
extending their incursions as far as the
opposite continent of Africa. Probus
drove them back into their native
marshes in 277 ; but their influence grad-
ually increased, and after the death of
FRANZ
204
FRATRICELLI
Constantine I., in 337, they constituted
a powerful faction at the imperial
court. In 355 they again invaded Gaul,
and were defeated by Julian, who per-
mitted them to establish a colony in Bra-
bant or Taxandria. In 418 they again
invaded Gaul, where, under their leader
Pharamond, they founded the modern
kingdom of France (q. v.).
FRANZ, ROBERT, a German musi-
cian; bom in Halle, Prussia, June 28,
1815. He was famous for his songs,
which were of a peculiar lyric beauty.
His first published composition appeared
in 1843. The latter years of his life
were spent in editing the works of Bach,
Handel, etc. He died in Halle, Oct. 24,
1892.
F R A S E R, MARY CRAWFORD
(MRS. HUGH), an English Crawford,
sister of Marion Crawford, the novel-
ist. She was born in Rome and was
educated in that city and in England.
She married Hugh Eraser, who was af-
terward Minister of Japan, and with
him traveled throughout the East, and
in North and South America. She
wrote much, chiefly on Japanese life and
characters. Her writings include "A
Diplomat's Wife in Japan" (1911) ;
"Letters from Japan" (1904) ; "A Diplo-
mat's Wife in Many Lands" (1910) ;
"Further Reminiscences of a Diplomat's
Wife" (1912) ; "Italian Yesterdays"
(1913); and "Storied Italy" (1916).
FRATERNAL SOCIETIES. Many of
the secret fraternal societies of the Uni-
ted States include in their obligations
the payment of sick: and death benefits,
and fraternal care of the members when
sick. Others are formed for the express
purpose of insurance, the money for
death payments being raised by assess-
ments, the assessment rate either re-
maining stationary or increasing with
the age of the member. The insurance
is generally from $1,000 to $3,000. An
other class of such societies is that in
which the lodge principle prevails and
which have the social features promi-
nently kept in view. In these a stipu-
lated sum is paid on the death of a
member, and assessments are made on
the death ratio. Among the largest of
these organizations are the Odd Fel-
lows, founded in 1819; Knights of
Honor, 1873; Knights OF Pythias (g. -y.)
1864 ; and Royal Arcanum, 1877. The in-
surance paid by these varies. There are
numerous other societies conducted on
the same principle.
FRATERNITIES, a voluntary as-
sociation of men for promoting their
common interest, business or pleasure.
In this wide sense it includes all secret
and benevolent societies, the monastic
and sacerdotal congregations, the orders
of knighthood, and also guilds, trades-
unions, and the like. In a limited sense
it is applied to religious societies for
pious practices and benevolent objects.
They were often formed during the
Middle Ages, from a desire of imitating
the holy orders. Many of these socie-
ties, which did not obtain or seek the
acknowledgment of the Church, had the
appearance of separatists, which sub-
jected them to the charge of heresy. The
pious fraternities which were formed
under the direction of the Church, or
were acknowledged by it, were either
required by their rules to afford as-
sistence to travelers, to the unfortu-
nate, the distressed, the sick, and
the deserted, on account of the ineffi-
ciency of the police, and the want of
institutions for the poor, or to perform
certain acts of penitence and devotion.
Of this description were the Fratres
Pontifices, a brotherhood that origi-
nated in Tuscany in the 12th century,
where they maintained establishments
on the banks of the Arno, to enable
travelers to cross the river, and to suc-
cor them in case of distress. A similar
society was afterward formed in
France, where they built bridges and
hospitals, maintained ferries, kept the
roads in repair, and provided for the
security of the highways. Similar to
these were the Knights and Compan-
ions of the Santa Hermandad (or Holy
Brotherhood) in Spain; the Familiars
and Crossbearers in the service of the
Spanish Inquisition; the Calendar Bro-
thers in Germany; the Alexians in Ger-
many Poland, and the Netherlands, etc.
The professed object of the Alexians, so
called from Alexius, their patron saint,
was to visi' the sick and imprisoned
and to collrjt alms for distribution.
There were also Gray Penitents (an old
fraternity of an order existing as early
as 1264 in Rome, and introduced into
France under Henry III.), the black
fraternities of Mercy and of Death;
the Red, the Blue, the Green, and the
Violet Penitents, so called from the
color of their cowl; the divisions of each
were known by the colors of the girdle
or mantle. The fraternity of the Holy
Trinity was founded at Rome in 1548
by Philip de Neri for the relief of pil-
grims and the cured dismissed from the
hospitals. The Brothers and Sisters
of Charity are another fraternity whose
hospitals are found in all the principal
cities of Catholic Christendom. See
College Fraternities.
FRATRICELLI, FRATICELLI, or
FRATRICELLIANS, originally a name
FBAUD
205
FREDEBICZ I.
assumed in the 13th century by the
Franciscans by direction of their foun-
der to mark the humble character of
their claims.
Specifically, one of the names claimed
in the 14th century as a monopoly by
the section of the Franciscans who re-
mained true to the rigid rules of their
founder when the majority of the order
gradually welcomed some relaxation of
their stringency. In 1317 Pope John
XXII. ordered their extirpation and
many of them were cruelly put to death.
FRAUD, in law, all deceitful practices
in defrauding or endeavoring to de-
fraud another of his known right, by
means of some artful device, contrary
to the plain rules of common honesty.
It is condemned by the common law, and
punishable according to the heinousness
of the offense. All frauds and deceits
for which there is no remedy by the
ordinary course of law are properly
cognizable in equity, and, indeed, con-
stitute one of the chief branches of
cases to which the jurisdiction of chan-
cery was originally confined.
Pious Fraud. — In Church history, a
fraud considered to be "pious" because
it was planned and carried out for some
pious object. From the 1st to the 15th
century believers in such frauds existed.
Statute of Frauds. — In English law,
a statute passed in 1676. Among its
complex provisions several enacted that
important contracts about land, etc.,
should be in writing, so as to prevent
the perjury which occurred when they
had to be proved by parole evidence.
This statute has been re-enacted in most
of the States of the American Union gen-
erally with omissions, amendments, or
alterations. When the words of the
statute have been used, the construc-
tion put upon them has also been
adopted.
FRAZIER. JAMES B.. a United
States senator from Tennessee, born in
Pikeville, Tenn., in 1856. He graduated
from the University of Tennessee in 1888
and studied law at that institution. He
was admitted to the bar in 1891 and
began practice in Chattanooga, Tenn.
He was governor of Tennessee from 1903
to 1905, and again from 1905 to 1907.
He was elected United States senator in
1905 to fill the unexpired term of Will-
iam B. Bate, and resigned as governor
in the same year.
FREDERIC, HAROLD, an American
journalist and novelist; born in Utica,
N. Y., Aug. 19, 1856. He was for many
years London correspondent of the New
York "Times." Among his stories are:
"The Lawton Girl"; "The Valley"; "The
Vol. IV — Cyc — N
Copperhead," a tale of the Civil War;
"The Damnation of Theron Ware"; and
"March Hares." He died in Hornby, Eng-
land, Oct. 19, 1898.
FREDERICK, a city and county-seat
of Frederick co., Md., on Carroll's creek,
and on the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore
and Ohio and the Frederick railroads, 62
miles W. by N. of Baltimore. Here are
high schools, a convent, the State in-
stitution for the deaf and dumb, street
railroads, electric lights. National and
State banks, and several daily and weekly
newspapers. The city has manufactories
of coaches, leather, shoes, knit goods,
shirt waists, palmetto, fiber brushes,
tobacco, flour, etc. During the Civil
War it was twice occupied by the Con-
federates. The second time, in 1864, by
General Early, who forced the citizens to
pay a ransom of $200,000. In 1862 Fed-
eral troops under General McClellan oc-
cupied the place. Pop. (1910) 10,411;
(1920) 11,066.
FREDERICK I., surnamed Barba-
rossa. Emperor of the Holy Roman Em-
pire, son of Frederick, Duke of Suabia;
born in 1121, and was chosen to suc-
ceed his uncle Conrad III. in 1152. He
had accompanied Conrad to Palestine
five years previously, and his great quali-
ties had already appeared. He was
crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle a few days
after his election. His great ambition
was to secure the independence of the
empire, and, above all, to be master of
Italy. His first expedition to Italy was
made in 1154, when, after subduing sev-
eral towns in Lombardy, he went to
Rome, and, after some delays, had him-
self crowned emperor by Adrian IV. He
marched a second time into Italy in 1158,
took Brescia and Milan, and at the cele-
brated diet at Roncaglia assumed the
sovereigrnty of the towns and received
the homage of the lords. On his return
to Germany he triumphed over Bohemia,
and made Poland tributary to the empire.
After the death of Pope Adrian. Fred-
erick had three anti-popes in succession
elected in opposition to Alexander III.,
who excommunicated him and his Pope,
Victor. The same year, 1160, he besieged
and took Crema, after a most courageous
defense. In 1162 he conquered Milan,
and had many of the public buildings
destroyed, as well as parts of the forti-
fications, after which the other towns of
Lombardy submitted to him. Fresh re-
volts, excited by the tyrannical measures
of his ofiicers, recalled him to Italv in
1164; but he retired without engaging
the army of the League. Again, there,
in 1166. he traversed the Romagna,
levied contributions on the towns, be-
rBEDERICK II.
206
FREDERICK I.
sieged Ancona, and had himself crowned
a second time at Rome by the anti-pope
Pascal. A fresh league being formed
against him, he put its members under
the ban of the empire and returned to
Germany. In 1174 he besieged unsuc-
cessfully the newly founded town of
Alessandria, and in the following year
was totally defeated by the Milanese at
Como. Soon after he made peace with
the Pope and the towns of Lombardy.
In 1188 he assumed the cross, set out in
the following year on the third crusade,
was opposed on the march by the Greek
emperor and the sultan, arrived in Asia,
and was drowned while ci'ossing a river.
Fredei'ick was gi-eat, not only as a
soldier, but as a ruler. His memory is
still cherished among the peasants of
Germany, who dream of the return of
Fritz Redbeard, as the Welsh did of King
Arthur. He died in June, 1190.
FREDERICK II., Emperor of the
Holy Roman Empire, son of Henry VI.
and Constance, of Sicily; born in Jesi,
Dec. 26, 1194, elected king of the Romans
in 1196, again after his father's death,
and a third time on the excommunica-
tion of Otho IV., in 1211. He was al-
ready King of Sicily, and Duke of Sua-
bia, under the joint regency of his
mother and Pope Innocent II. He made
a league with Philip. Augustus, King of
France, and after the defeat of Otho by
the latter at the battle of Bouvines, was
crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215.
Five years still elapsed before he re-
ceived the imperial crown at Rome; on
which occasion he had to renew a vow
previously extorted from him to take the
cross. In 1225 he married Yolande,
daughter of John of Brienne, King of
Jerusalem, and two years later, after
several delays, he embarked for the Holy
Land. Illness compelled him in a few
days to land again, and for this he was
excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX.,
the first of 10 thunders of the Vatican
against him. He set out again in 1228,
and the Pope exciting opposition to him,
and invading his hereditary states, he
at once concluded a truce with Kameel,
the Sultan of Egypt, by which he became
master of Jerusalem. He entered the
city, crowned himself (no priest daring
to do it), and returned to Europe. He
recovered his states, made peace with
the Pope, and suppressed the revolt of
his son Henry, who was then imprisoned
for life. In 1235 Frederick began the
war with the cities of Lombardy, having
for his ally Eccelino, tyrant of Verona.
After his victory of Cortenuova, most of
the cities submitted to him, and he ap-
proached Rome, but did not attack it.
He took Ravenna, Faenza, and Bene-
vento; and, in 1241, his fleet, commanded
by his natural son, Enzio, whom he made
King of Sardinia, defeated that of the
Genoese. Frederick promoted the elec-
tion of Innocent IV., who had been his
friend, and made a treaty with him; but
he soon found Innocent a most deter-
mined enemy. Rival emperors were set
up, the war in Italy continued, Parma
was lost in 1248, Enzio was defeated and
made prisoner in the following year.
Frederick was the most accomplished
sovereign of the Middle Ages; but his
strong sympathies with his Italian
motherland, and his endeavors to estab-
lish an all-supreme empire in Italy,
caused not only his own misfortunes,
but the miseries which he brought on
the Gei'man empire. He died in Fioren-
tino, Dec. 13, 1250.
FREDERICK III., Emperor of the
Holy Roman Empire, a title sometimes
applied to the son of Albert I., who was
chosen emperor by some of the electors
in 1314, but was defeated by Louis of
Bavaria and taken prisoner in 1322. He
died Jan. 11, 1330. The Frederick III.
of history, however, was the son of
Ernst, and was born in Innsbruck, Dec.
21, 1415. He was elected emperor in
1440 and ruled for 53 years, the longest
German reign. His soubriquet was "the
Pacific," owing to his plans for the
pacification of the empire.
He left it to his son Maximilian to
carry out the device inscribed upon his
palaces and books. A, E, I, 0, U; which
characters are generally supposed to rep-
resent the motto, Axistrise est Imperare
Orbi Umverso (Austria is to rule the
world). He died in Linz, Aug. 19, 1493.
BOHEMIA
Frederick V., Elector-Palatine and
King of Bohemia; born in Amberg, in
1596; succeeded his father, Frederick
IV., in 1610. In 1618 he married the
Princess Elizabeth, daughter of Jamer
I. of England, and in the following year
accepted the crown of Bohemia. He
made a triumphal entry into Prague,
followed in 1620 by his total defeat by
the Imperial forces at the battle of
Prague, and the loss of his kingdom and
hereditary States. He took refuge in
Holland, and died in Mentz, Nov. 19,
1632.
DENMARK.
Frederick I., King of Denmark and
Norway; born in 1473, succeeded his
nephew Christiern (or Christian) II., on
the deposition of the latter, in 1523, and
entered into an alliance with Gustavus
I., King of Sweden. After taking Copen-
hagen, he gained over all the nobility,
FREDERICK II.
207
FREDERICK WILLIAM I.
and introduced Lutheranism into his
dominions. He died in 1534.
FrE3)ERIck II., the son and successor of
Christiem (or Christian) III., born in
1534, ascended the throne in 1559. He
was a great friend of learning, and was
a patron of Tycho Brahe and other men
of science. He waged a long war with
Sweden, which ended in 1570. He died
in 1588.
Frederick III., born in 1609, suc-
ceeded his father Christiem IV., in 1648.
The most remarkable event of his reign
was his changing of the constitution
from an elective to a hereditary mon-
archy. He died in 1670.
Frederick IV., born in 1671, ascended
the throne on the death of Christiem V.
in 1699. He leagued against Charles
XII. of Sweden, who forced him to make
peace; but when Charles fled to Turkey,
Frederick drove the Swedes out of Nor-
way, and concluded a favorable peace;
retaining possession of the duchy of
Schleswig. He died in 1730.
Frederick V., grandson of the preced-
ing; born in 1723, and came to the
throne in 1746. The character of his
reign may be inferred from the follow-
ing remark, which, on his deathbed, he
made to his successor, Christiem VII. :
"It is a great consolation to me, my son,
that I have not injured any person, and
that my hands are not stained with one
drop of blood." He died in 1766.
Frederick VI., King of Denmark;
born Jan. 28, 1768, ascended the throne
in 1808, though, from 1784, he was asso-
ciated in the government with his father,
who had lost his reason. On his acces-
sion he had to repair the damages done
by the English in their bombardment of
Copenhagen in 1807, and to wage a war
with the Swedes, who attempted to
possess themselves of Norway. He suc-
ceeded in defeating them, and peace was
signed at Jon Keeping, in 1809. Allying
himself with Napoleon, Norway was, in
1814, given to Sweden, under Bema-
riotte; Pomerania and the isle of Riigen
falling to Denmark. More tranquil times
now arriving, Frederick devoted him-
self to the extension of the internal re-
sources of his kingdom. He died Dec. 3,
1839.
Frederick VII., King of Denmark;
born in Copenhagen, Oct. 6, 1808; and
ascended the throne in 1848. He was
well known as an archaeologist, publish-
ing numerous works on the subject. On
his death, in Gliicksburg, Nov. 15, 1863,
the elder lire of the house of Oldenburg
became extinct.
PRUSSIA.
Frederick William, generally called
the Great Elector; born in 1620, and at
the age of 20 years succeeded his father
as Elector of Brandenburg. He is con-
sidered as the founder of Prussian
greatness; and from him was derived
much of that military spirit which be-
came the national characteristic. He
made Prussia free from feudal subjec-
tion to Poland, conquered Pomerania,
joined the League against Louis XIV.,
and defeated the Swedes who invaded
Prussia in 1647. He applied himself
with much wisdom and earnestness to
the promotion of the well-being of his
subjects, favoring trade, making roads,
etc. By affording protection to the
French Protestant refugees, he gained,
as citizens of the State, 20,000 indus-
trious manufacturers, an acquisition of
no slight importance to the N. of Ger-
many ; and he also gave great encourage-
ment to agricultural improvements. He
founded the library at Berlin, and a uni-
versity at Duisburg; and at his death he
left to his son a country much enlarged
and a well-supplied treasury. He died
in Potsdam, April 29, 1688.
Frederick I., first King of Prussia
(Frederick III. as Elector of Branden-
burg), son of the above; born in Konigs-
berg, July 22, 1657. He succeeded his
father in 1688, entered into the alliance
against France, and seized Bonn and
other towns, sent auxiliaries to the em-
peror against the Turks, and, after a dis-
pute of some years, sold to the empero^
the circle Schwiebus, which the Great
Elector had acquired in exchange for the
principalities of Liegnitz, Brieg, and
Wohlau. He supported the emperor in
the war of the Spanish Succession, and
in 1701 obtained from him the title of
king, which he had long coveted. Fred-
erick gratified his love of pomp in the
ceremony of his coronation at Konigs-
berg, the cost of which exhausted his
treasury for a time. He placed the
crown on his head with his own hands.
In 1694 he founded the University of
Halle; two years later, the Berlin Acad-
emy of Painting; and, in 1707, he estab-
lished the Academy of Sciences, Berlin,
and made Leibnitz first president. He
was thrice married; his third wife be-
came insane, but her state was concealed
from him. One day she escaped, rushed
into the king's apartment, smashmg the
glass door, and so terrified him that he
immediately fell into a fever, and after
six weeks* illness died, Feb. 25, 1713.
Frederick William I., son of the
above, and father of Frederick the
Great; born in 1688, and commenced his
FBEDEBICK II.
208
ritEDEBICK WILLIAM III.
reign in 1713, after having married the
daughter of the Elector of Hanover,
afterward George I. of England. In
1715 he declared war against Charles
XII. of Sweden, and in conjunction with
Denmark took Stralsund; but on the
death of Charles, in 1718, he made peace.
The habits of this sovereign were entirely
military, and he labored unweariedly to
promote the discipline of his troops. One
of his strongest peculiarities was an ex-
traordinary love for tall soldiers; and in
order to procure these sons of Anak he
had agents employed in all parts of Eu-
rope. He held science and literature in
profound contempt; but money he wor-
shiped, and men of a military character
after his own ideal he respected and en-
couraged. The consequence was that he
left an abundant treasury and a well-
appointed army of 66,000 men. He died
May 31, 1740.
Frederick II., commonly called Fred-
erick the Great; born in Berlin, Jan. 24,
1712, and began to reign in 1740, found
himself in possession of a full treasury
FREDERICK THE GREAT
and a powerful army, which he soon em-
ployed in attacking Austria, and con-
quering from her the province of Silesia
(1740-1742). In 1744 he engaged in a
second war with Austria, which was ter-
minated in 1745, and left him possession
of Silesia. The great struggle of the
Seven Years' War bagan in 1756. Prus-
sia was now attacked by the Austrians,
the Russians, the French, the Saxons,
and the Swedes, and her destruction and
dismemberment seemed inevitable. Eng-
land was her only ally. Prussia went
through the struggle and came out tri-
umphant. When the peace of Hubertus-
burg was concluded in 1763, Prussia
did not cede an inch of land, or pay a
dollar of money; and from that time
forth she was recognized as one of the
great powers of Europe. For this glori-
ous result she was indebted to her king.
Though victorious at Prague, at Ross-
bach, and Lissa (1757), at Zorndorf
(1758), at Liegnitz and Torgau (1760),
he suffered heavy defeats at Collin
(1757), at Hochkirchen (1758), at Ku-
nersdorf (1759) ; and his lieutenants,
with the exception of Prince Ferdinand
of Brunswick, were generally unsuccess-
ful. But Frederick's firmness never
failed him, even when all hope seemed
lost. During his struggles against Aus-
tria and France, Frederick was regarded
in England and America as the champion
of Protestantism and he was called a
second Gustavus Adolphus. He ill de-
served the title. The disciple of Voltaire,
he is supposed to have had no religious
faith whatever. He died in the chateau
of Sans Souci, near Potsdam, Aug. 17,
1786.
Frederick William II., King of
Prussia, nephew to Frederick the Great;
born Sept. 25, 1744. He succeeded his
uncle in 1786, and gave himself up, as he
had long done, to low pleasures, wasting
his resources on his mistresses and fav-
orites. He entered into the Triple Alli-
ance in 1788; made an alliance with the
Porte; sent an army under the Duke of
Brunswick to invade France in 1792;
took part in the second partition of Po-
land; and made peace with France in
1795. He died Nov. 16, 1797.
Frederick William III., King of
Prussia, son of the above; born Aug. 3,
1770, commenced his reign in 1797 by
maintaining a strict neutrality in the
various alliances with and against
France, which resulted from the ambiti-
ous designs of Napoleon I. In 1805, how-
ever, he yielded to the solicitations of
Russia, allying himself with the czar
against the French emperor. The rapid
campaign of 1806, and the defeat of the
Prussians at Jena, opened the gates of
Berlin to the enemy, in whose hands it
remained till 1809. In 1807 the battle of
Friedland led to the humiliating peace
of Tilsit, by which Frederick lost half
his dominions. Restored to his capital,
the king diligently endeavored to repair
the evils of war; but new disasters over-
took him, and his kingdom suffered
greatly during the struggle from 1812 to
1814. Forced, in the former year, to
contribute a force of 30,000 men to
Napoleon's army, he subsequently joined
his troops with those of Russia. The
allies having triumphed over the French
at Leipsic, Frederick William, in 1814,
entered Paris with Czar Alexander. He
FREDERICK WILLIAM IV.
209
FRED ERICKSBURO
also accompanied the latter to England
in the same year. On the return of
Napoleon from Elba, he once more joined
the allies. After the victory of Water-
loo, in which the Prussians, under
Bluchbr {q. v.), played an important
part, Prussia, once more at peace, grad-
ually recovered the losses she had sus-
tained, under the wise and paternal
sway of Frederick, whose constant ef-
forts and moderation contributed greatly
to the maintenance of peace. He died
June 7, 1840.
Frederick William IV., King of
Prussia, son of the preceding; born Oct.
15, 1795; on the death of his father, suc-
ceeded to the throne in 1840. He served
as a simple officer, in the campaigns
of 1813 and 1814, and evinced, at an
early period of his life, a very great love
for the arts. During the first years of
his reign his subjects anxiously demand-
ed the reform of the government, requir-
ing the liberal constitution which had
been promised them in 1815, in return
for the great sacrifices they had made
during the continental war. In 1847, at
a general diet of the Prussian states,
many of these reforms were granted.
In March, 1848, the people and the
troops came into collision, the king was
obliged to change the ministry, to is-
sue a general amnesty, and commence a
war in favor of Schleswig against Den-
mark, and to salute from his balcony the
corpses of the insurgents. These humili-
ations were somewhat softened by his
hopes of becoming emperor of a united
Germany, and by the success of his army
in putting down an insurrection of the
Poles in Posen. The mingled irresolu-
tion and absolutism of Frederick, how-
ever, led him subsequently to other
conflicts in June and August of the same
year; and it was not till two coups
d'etat that Frederick, assisted by his
army, succeeded in retaining his author-
ity almost unimpaired by the powers he
had yielded. In the war between the W.
powers and Russia, the king preserved a
strict neutrality. In 1856, in conse-
quence of an attack on Neufchatel by
some Prussian partisans, war was in
danger of breaking out between Switzer-
land and Prussia; but this was avoided,
and a treaty concluded, in May, 1857, in
reference to the king's claims on that
place. In the complication relative to
the Danubian principalities, Prussia fol-
lowed the lead of France and Russia as
opposed to England and Austria. To-
ward the end of 1857, a severe illness,
resulting in the loss of some of his facul-
ties, caused his brother William to be
nominated regent, who succeeded him as
king on his death, near Potsdam, Jan. 2,
1861.
Frederick III., 2d Emperor of Ger-
many, and 8th King of Prussia; bom in
Potsdam, Prussia, Oct. 18, 1831 ; was
educated at Bonn University; entered
the army; became Crown Prince of
Prussia in 1861 ; served with distinction
in the Danish War; conducted a brief
but brilliant campaign in the war be-
tween Prussia and Austria; and at the
outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War
was placed in command of one of the
three divisions of the German army.
After the war he received the Iron Cross
and numerous other orders in recogni-
tion of his services against the French.
In 1871 he became Crown Prince of the
German Empire. The death of Em-
peror William I. on March 9, 1888, made
him Emperor of Germany and King of
Prussia. He assumed the title of Fred-
erick III. He was suffering with cancer
in the throat at the time of his accession,
and died in Potsdam, June 15, 1888.
POLAND.
Frederick Augustus II., III. See Au-
gustus.
SAXONY.
Frederick III., the Wise; born in Tor-
gau, Jan. 17, 1463; succeeded his father,
Ernest, 1436, as Elector of Saxony. He
is known chiefly as founder of the Uni-
versity of Wittenberg, and as the friend
and very cautious protector of Luther,
who was one of the first professors of
the new university. It was by his ar-
rangement that Luther, after the Diet of
Worms, was seized and carried off to the
Wartburg. He did not, however, estab-
lish the reformed faith in his dominions.
He became administrator of the empire
in 1519, and was offered the imperial
crown, but declined it. He died May 5,
1525.
SWEDEN.
Frederick, King of Sweden, the eldest
son of Charles, landgrave of Hesse-
Cassel. He married the sister of Charles
XII., on whose death, in 1718, the States
of Sweden elected her queen, and in the
year following consented to her resign-
ing the crown to her husband. He had
a long and unsuccessful war with Rus-
sia, v/hich ended in a disadvantageous
peace to Sweden. He then gave his
energies to the pursuits of peace, re-
stored the finances, and founded an
academy at Stockholm. He died in 1751.
FRFDERICKSBURG, a city in Spott-
sylvania CO., Va.; on the S. bank of the
Rappahannock river, and on the Rich-
mond, Fredericksburg and Potomac, and
the Potomac, Fredericksburg and Pied-
FREDERICKSBURG
210
TREE COMPANIES
mont railroads; 61 miles N. of Richmond.
It is situated in a valley surrounded by
hig-h hills. Here are a public library, a
military school, an orphan asylum,
waterworks, electric lights, a National
bank, and several daily and weekly news-
papers. It has tanneries, iron works,
cigars, ice, and shoe factories, woolen,
silk, and flour mills, etc. It was the
scene of several battles during the Civil
War. Pop. (1910) 5,874; (1920) 5,882.
FREDERICKSBURG, BATTLE OF.
On Dec. 13, 1862, General Burnside
crossed the Rappahannock river at
Fredericksburg, and attacked the Con-
federates, who, under General Lee, occu-
pied a strong position on the heights.
The Union forces were estimated at 100,-
000 men and the Confederate at 80,000.
The battle, after raging with desperate
violence through the day, terminated in
the defeat of General Burnside. Little
fighting took place Dec. 14 and 15, and
on Dec. 16 the Union forces recrossed
the river with opposition. The Union
loss was 1,138 killed, 9,105 wounded, and
2,078 missing; while the Confederate loss
amounted to 595 killed, 4,061 wounded,
and 653 missing.
FREDERIKSBERG, a city of Den-
mark, a western suburban municipality
near Copenhagen, the Danish capital. It
is laid out with handsome residences and
public parks. One of its prominent
features is the Royal Military Academy,
in the Frederiksberg Palace, an ancient
building of historical interest. Here, also,
is located the Royal Porcelain Works, in
which the king himself is financially in-
terested. Pop. about 97,000.
FREDONIA, a village of New York,
In Chautauqua co. It is on the Dun-
kirk, Allegheny Valley and Pittsburgh
Railroad. The town is the center of an
important fruit-growing region and has
canning establishments and patent medi-
cine factories. It is in the famous grape
belt district of New York. The village
is the seat of a State normal school and
has a public library. Pop. (1910) 5,285;
(1920) 6,051.
FREE CHURCH, a name often given
by English Noncomformists to the Chris-
tian denominations in England free from
state patronage and control. In ecclesi-
ologi'^ and English Church history, an as-
sociation which has for one object to
abolish in the Church of England pew
rents as well as pews, maintaining the
equal right of all parishioners to the free
use of seats in churches. The society was
founded in 1866. This association
at times aids various churches with
pecuniary grants, but only if they
are "free."
FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, an
evangelical Protestant denomination
founded on the basis of recognizing only
two orders — the first being presbyters,
and the second deacons. "Nevertheless,
the first order is divided into two distinct
offices, viz., bishops and presbyters.
This Church maintains the ecclesiastical
parity of presbyters, whether episcopally
or otherwise ordained." The governing
body is the Convocation, consisting of all
the clergy and laity in the several
churches. The impulse which gave the
Church birth was communicated by the
Tractarian movement of 1832, a reaction
against which created a few "free
churches" in the W. of England; the
Shore controversy (1843-1849) and the
Gorham case (1849-1850) promoted its
development. It was enrolled in chancery
by a deed poll in 1863. A primus was
consecrated in 1876 by a bishop of
the Reformed Church in America. The
bishops are in the Canterbury line of
Episcopal succession.
FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, the
name assumed by the large number of
ministers and their adherents who left
the Scottish Establishment at the "Dis-
ruption" of May 18, 1843. They had se-
ceded in vindication of what they called
the "Headship of Christ," i. e., to gain
liberty to obey what they deemed the
will of their Divine Lord in all Church
arrangements. When the disruption took
place, the financial difficulties which the
secessionists had to face were very for-
midable. Wherever the Free Church had
adherents, which was in nearly every
parish, fresh places of worship had to be
provided for the ministers whose sti-
pends were gone. All the Scottish estab-
lished missionaries to the Jews or the
Gentiles, having joined the seceding
party, had to be provided for. _ Theo-
logical colleges had also to be built, day
schools and manses provided in connec-
tion with the several churches. One part
of the financial arrangements which has
attracted most notice, was the sustenta-
tion fund.
FREE COMPANIES, bands of dis-
charged soldiers, who ravaged France
after the conclusion of the peace of
Bretigny, May 8, 1360. Bertrand du
Guesclin, born in Britain in 1314, put
himself at their head, and led them
against Peter the Cruel, King of Castile,
whom he dethroned in 1365, placing
Henry, Count of Trastamara, on the
throne. Edward the Black Prince re-
called the free companies, defeated
Henry at Najara, April 3, 1367, and re-
stored Peter the Cruel, who was, how-
ever, defeated March 14, 1369, an.d killed
by Henry of Trastamara, March 23.
FREELAND
211
FREETOWN
,^ FBEELAND, a borough of Pennsyl-
vania, in Luzerne co. It is on the Lehigh
Valley Railroad. It is the center of an
important coal mining and agricultural
region and its industries include foun-
dries, machine shops, and silk mills. It
has the Mining and Mechanical Institute,
Girls' Industrial School and Hill Observa-
tory. Pop. (1910) 6,197; (1920) 6,666.
FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS,
an English historian; born in Harborne,
in Staffordshire, Aug. 2, 1823; was ap-
pointed Professor of History at Oxford,
1884. The principal of his very numer-
ous works are: "History and Conquests
of the Saracens" (1856) ; "History of the
Norman Conquest of England " (6 vols.
1867-1879) ; "General Sketch of Euro-
pean History" (1872) ; "Growth of the
English Constitution" (1872) ; "Reign of
William Rufus and Accession of Henry
I." (2 vols. 1882) ; "Fifty Years of Euro-
pean History" (1888). At the time of his
death he was engaged on a great "His-
tory of Sicily," of which four volumes
have been published. Among his miscel-
laneous writings are: "Lectures to Amer-
ican Audiences" (1882) and "Some Im-
pressions of the United States" (1883).
He was a fiery and unvarying champion
of national freedom. He died in Alicante,
in Spain, March 16, 1892.
FREEMANTLE, a city of Australia,
the chief seaport on the West Coast
of Australia, situated at the mouth of
the Swan River and twelve miles from
Perth. Some thirty years ago it acquired
importance on account of the rush of
gold hunters to this part of Australia,
extensive placer diggings being developed
at various points in the interior. It is
now of considerable importance as the
point of export of leather and lumber,
and for its shipyards. A large supply
of salt is obtained from the salt works
established by the government on an
island in the large but rather shallow
harbor. The pop. is about 22,000.
FREEMASON, a member of an ancient
secret order or fraternity now designated
as "Free and Accepted Masons." The
order is of such ancient origin that even
the derivation of its name is in doubt.
The most reasonable theory is that the
name owes its origin to the practice of
the ancient masons of giving the passed
apprentice his freedom as he was sent
forth to seek employment on some great
and worthy structure in process of erec-
r tion to complete his mechanical educa-
tion. It was early in the 17th century that
the word was first used in the sense in
which it is now universally understood.
At that time the ancient guilds of prac-
tical masons began to admit as a mark
of especial esteem certain worthy persons
whom it was intended to honor, not regu«
lar members of the guild through appren-
ticeship and occupation. To these was
given the appellation "accepted." They
were afterward given the title of "free-
masons." In the year 1717 J. T. Desa-
guliers, a man of scientific knowledge
and attainments, brought a number of
scattered "lodges" or guilds of London
under a single jurisdiction called the
"Grand Lodge," and it is to this ancient
and august body that all the regular
lodges of the ancient craft to-day trace
their origin. The first Provincial Grand
Lodge in America was established at
Boston in 1733 by Henry Price, who, in
1734, was made Grand Master over all
of North America. The order has at-
tained a remarkable growth throughout
the world, and especially in the United
States and Canada, the returns of the
grand lodges of these two countries for
1919 showing 2,056,596 members.
FREEPORT, a city and county-seat
of Stephenson co.. 111.; on the Pecatonica
river, and on the Illinois Central, the
Chicago and Northwestern, and other
railroads; 121 miles W. of Chicago. It
contains a public library, St. Francis
Hospital, waterworks, a street railroad,
electric lights. National and State banks,
and daily and weekly newspapers. It has
manufactories of hardware, wind-mills,
wagons and buggies, and railroad shops.
Pop. (1910) 17,567; (1920) 19,669.
FREEPORT, a village of Long Island,
in Nassau co., New York. It is entirely a
residential place, although fishing is
carried on to some extent. There are a
high school and two large club houses.
Pop. (1910) 4,836; (1920) 8,599.
FREETHINKER, a name often as-
sumed by those who, disbelieving in rev-
elation, feel themselves free to adopt any
opinion in religious or other matters
which may result from their own inde-
pendent thinking. The name was spe-
cially claimed by those who in the 17th
and 18th centuries took part on the anti-
Christian side in the deistic controversy.
FREETOWN, the capital of the Brit-
ish west African colony of Sierra Leone.
It is on the left bank of the Sierra
Leone river, about 5 miles from the
coast. It is an important coaling station
and is the headquarters of the British
forces in west Africa. It has an ex-
cellent harbor which is well protected
by fortifications. Among the notable
buildings are a cathedral, a governor's
palace, a technical school, and Fourah
Bay College. Freetown is the chief sea-
port of west Africa and has important
exports, including rubber, palm oil, nuts,
and ginger. Pop. about 35,000.
FBEE TRADE
212
FREIGHT
FREE TRADE, the term applied to
national commerce when relieved from
such interference as is intended to im-
prove or otherwise influence it; that is,
unrestricted by laws or tariffs, and not
unduly stimulated by bounties. In all
countries it was long held to be of im-
portance to encourage native production
and manufactures by excluding from
their ov^m markets, and from the
colonial markets over which they had
control, the competing produce and
manufactures of other countries. On this
theory the great body of British com-
mercial legislation was founded till 1846,
when the policy of free trade was intro-
duced in grain, and afterward gradually
extended by the repeal of the navigation
laws in 1849 and other great measures,
till nearly all British commercial legis-
lation had been brought into conforming
with it. Free trade can hardly yet_ be
said to have been adopted as a principle
of commercial policy by any nation ex-
cept Great Britain. As an economic
principle, free trade is the direct opposite
to the principle or system of protection,
which maintains that a State can reach
a high degree of material prosperity only
by protecting its domestic industries
from the competition of all similar
foreign industries. To effect this, coun-
tries either prohibit the importation _ of
foreign goods by direct legislation, or im-
pose such duties as shall, by enhancing
the price, check the introduction of
foreign goods. The advocates of what is
called fair trade in Great Britain profess
a preference for universal or even com-
mon free trade, but seeing that Great
Britain is almost the sole free trade
country in the world, they declare that a
policy of reciprocity is required for the
protection of British traders and manu-
facturers. See Protection.
FREIBERG- (fri'bairg), a mining
town of Saxony, 19 miles from Dresden.
It is the capital of the mining district
of Saxony, and contains a mining acad-
emy founded in 1765, with 13 professors,
fine scientific collections, among which
is the celebrated collection of precious
stones amassed by Werner, and a large
library. There is a fine relic called the
Golden Portal belonging to the ancient
Church, which stood on the site of the
Gothic cathedral. The town owes its
origin to the discovery of silver mines.
It is said to have about 150 mines
of silver, copper, lead, and cobalt in its
vicinity; but their product has fallen
off. The manufactures are chiefly metal
ware, feather goods, pigments, etc.
Here, on Oct. 29, 1762, Prince Henry of
Prussia defeated the allied Austrian and
Saxon army. Pop. about 36,000.
FREIBURG, or FRIBOURG, a canton
of Switzerland, between the canton of
Berne and the Pays de Vaud; area, 564
square miles; rivers, the Broie and the
Sarine. The principal lake is Morat.
Freiburg is finely diversified with every
kind of scenery, Alpine mountains, and
verdant valleys. It lies principally in the
basin of the Aar, and in the S. and E.
is traversed by branches of the Bernese
Alps, in which are Mt. Moleson, Dent de
Folligrau, and Dent de Breulaire, re-
spectively 6,580, 7,710 and 7,720 feet
above the level of the sea. Cattle rearing
and dairy husbandry are extensively
followed. The annual product of cheese
is about 40,000 hundredweight, princi-
pally the famous Gruyere cheese. Peat
and timber are important products. Of
the population, seven-eighths are Roman
Catholics. Its capital, of the same name,
occupies a wild and romantic situation on
the Sarine, 16 miles from Berne. The
best buildings are the Jesuits' Church
and the Cathedral of St. Nicholas; the
latter has a spire of 376 feet in height,
and an organ of 7,800 pipes. There are
four bridges across the Sarine, one of
which is a suspension bridge 905 feet
in length. Manufactures straw hats,
earthenware, tobacco, playing cards; also
tanning and dyeing. Pop. about 14,000.
FREIBURG IM BREISGAU, a towi
of Gei-many, Republic of Baden; 32
miles N. N. E. of Basel. It is an open,
well-built town ; the walls and ditches
with which it was formerly surrounded
have been converted into promenades
and vineyards. The cathedral, one of the
most beautiful and perfect specimens of
Gothic architecture in Germany, cruci-
form in shape, and built of red sand-
stone, was begun in 1122, but not com-
pleted till 1513. Its W. steeple, 381 feet
high, is remarkable for its elegance and
lightness. The university was founded
in 1455. The chief manufactures are
sewing silk, cotton and thread, buttons,
artificial beads, chicory, paper, par-
quetry, etc. Wine and timber are the
chief articles of trade. Freiburg is the
seat of a Catholic archbishop. Founded
in 1091 by the Duke of Zahringen, and
created a town in 1115, Freiburg has
repeatedly changed masters ; twice it was
given over to France (1679-1697 and
1744-1748). It also played an eventful
part in the Thirty Years' War. In 1806
it fell to Baden; and in 1848 the Baden
revolutionists were defeated here by the
troops of the German confederation.
Pop. about 83,000.
FREIGHT, formerly a charge paid to
the owner of a ship for the carriage of
goods, but this term now extends to
transportation by land, especially by I'ail-
FBEILIGRATH
213
FREMONT
roads. In maritime freight the person
chartering a ship pays freight for goods
sent by it, and dead freight for any de-
ficiency of cargo ; the terms of the agree-
ment are fixed by the charter party. A
person sending goods by a general ship
pays freight for them; and the contract
takes the form of a bill of lading. So
far as the rights of parties are not made
the subject of positive stipulation in the
contract of affreightment, they are ascer-
tained with reference to the usage of
trade. The carrier's duty is to have the
ship ready to start at the time appointed
(wind and weather permitting), and to
receive the goods and carry them to their
destination; having performed these
duties, he has a lien on the goods and a
right of action in case of non-payment
of freight. The shipper's duty is to have
his goods forwarded in time. Freight is
not usually payable unless the voyage is
completed; but it is sometimes prepaid,
in whole or in part, at the risk of the
shipper. It was formerly held that the
wages of the crew depended on the earn-
ing of freight by the ships. This rule
was set aside by the British Merchant
Shipping Act of 1854. Even in case of
shipwreck a seaman may recover his
wages; but his claim will be barred if
evidence can be given to show that he
failed to exert himself to the utmost to
save the ship and cargo. The old rule is
adhered to in the United States; but it
does not apply to the master, nor does it
apply to seamen if freight has been lost
by the fault of the master or owners.
Freight is the subject of insurance. See
Carrier.
FBEILIGRATH, FERDINAND (fri'
lig-rat), a German poet; born in i)et-
mold, Germany, June 17, 1810. His first
volume of "Poems" (1838), won a royal
pension, which he renounced as discredit-
ing his liberalism, publishing a "Confes-
sion of Faith" in verse (1844). Banished
as a sower of sedition, he took refuge in
London till the Revolution of 1848. Re-
turning, he was tried for high treason
for his poem "The Dead to the Living,"
but acquitted ; then threatened with pros-
ecution for "Political and Social Poems";
he returned to London and lived there till
1868. Many of his songs are widely
popular. He was an admirable transla-
tor, notably from Scott, Shakespeare, and
Longfellow. He died in Cannstatt, Ger-
many, March 18, 1876.
FRELINGHUYSEN, JOSEPH SHER-
MAN, a United States senator from New
Jersey, born in Raritan, N. J. in 1869.
He engaged in business and became di-
rector and officer of many important
financial institutions. He was an un-
successful candidate for the New Jersey
Senate in 1902, but was elected in 1904
and again in 1908. In 1910 he was
president of the Senate and acting gov-
ernor of the State. In 1916 he was
elected to the United States Senate.
FRELINGHUYSEN, THEODORE, an
American lawyer; born in Millstone, N.
J., March 28, 1787; was graduated at
the College of New Jersey in 1804, and
admitted to the bar in 1808. In the
War of 1812 he commanded a company
of volunteers, and in 1817 became at-
torney-general of New Jersey, which
office he held till 1829 when he was
elected United States Senator. He was
chosen chancellor of the University of
New York in 1838; was nominated for
Vice-President of the United States in
1844; and in 1850 became president of
Rutgers College, which position he re-
tained until his death. He died in New
Brunswick, N. J., April 12, 1862.
FREMONT, a city of Nebraska, the
county - seat of Dodge co. It is on
the Union Pacific, the Chicago and
Northwestern, and the Chicago, Bur-
lington and Quincy railroads. The city
is an important dairying and live-stock
center. Its industries include flour
mills, planing mills, etc. It is the seat
of the Fremont normal school, and the
public buildings include a public library,
court house, and a high school building.
Pop. (1910) 8,718; (1920) 9,605.
FREMONT, a city of Ohio, the county-
seat of Sandusky co. It is on the
Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, the
Lake Erie and Western, the Lake Shore
Electric, and the Wheeling and Lake
Erie railroads. It is also on the San-
dusky river, of which it is the head of
steam navigation. It is the center of
an important agricultural and oil-pro-
ducing region. Its manufactures in-
clude electro-carbons, engines and boil-
ers, agricultural implements, stoves,
beet sugar, flour, etc. Water power is
furnished by a large dam and power
plant. The city has several handsome
parks, a State historical building, and a
public library. It was the home of
President Rutherford B. Hayes. Pop.
(1910) 9,939; (1920) 12,468.
FREMONT. JESSIE BENTON, an
Amei'ican author, wife of John Charles;
born in Virginia in 1824; daughter of
Senator Thomas H. Benton. She pub-
lished: "Story of the Guard: A Chroni-
cle of the War," with a German transla-
tion (1863) ; a sketch of her father pre-
fixed to her husband's memoirs (1886) ;
"Souvenirs of My Time" (1887); and
"The Will and the Way Stories." Shp
died in 1902.
FREMONT
214
FBENCH
FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES, an
American explorer, popularly known as
"The Pathfinder of the Rocky Moun-
tains"; born in Savannah, Ga., Jan. 31,
1813, of a mixed French and Virginian
parentage. Though left an orphan in
his fifth year, he received a good educa-
tion, having, at the age of 15, entered
Charleston College, where he highly dis-
tinguished himself by his proficiency in
mathematics and other kindred sciences.
In 1833, after a period during which
he had devoted himself to the duties of
a private teacher, he was appointed
teacher of mathematics on board the
United States sloop of war "Natchez,"
with which he proceeded on a cruise to
South America. On his return _ he
turned his attention to civil engineering,
and was recommended to the govern-
ment for employment in the explora-
tion and survey of the mountainous re-
gion between South Carolina and Ten-
nessee. In 1838-1839 he undertook the
exploration of the country between the
Missouri river and the British frontier,
and in 1838 received a commission as
2d lieutenant in the corps of topograph-
ical engineers. Shortly afterward, he
proposed to the government to un-
dertake the exploration of the Rocky
Mountains — at that day a terra incog-
nita. His plan being approved, he, in
1842, started with a handful of picked
men, and reached and explored the
South Pass. Not only did he fix the lo-
cality of that great defile through which
thousands have since found their way
to California, but he defined the astron-
omy, geography, botany, geology, and
meteorology of that region, described
the route since followed, and desig-
nated the points upon which a line of
United States forts were subsequently
erected. In 1845 he cleared the N. part
of California of Mexican troops, and
then, seeking a broader field of activity,
planned an expedition to the distant
territory of Oregon. He approached
the Rocky Mountains by a new line,
scaled the summits S. of the Soiuth
Pass, deflected to the Great Salt Lake,
pushed investigations right and left his
entire course, and at the same time con-
nected his survey with that of Commo-
dore Wilkes' exploring expedition.
Later in the winter, without resources,
adequate supplies, or as much as a
guide he traversed the wilderness to
the Rocky Mountains. In this daring
expedition he crossed 3,500 miles of
country in sight of eternal snows, discov-
ering the grand features of Alta Canon,
California, its great basin, the Sierra
Nevada, the valleys of San Joaquin and
Sacramento, and determined the geo-
graphical position of the W. portion of
the North American continent. In
1846 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel
and also military commandant and civil
governor of the Territory of California,
in which capacity he in 1847 concluded
those articles of capitulation by which
Mexico conceded exclusive possession of
that territory to the United States. In
the same year he purchased in Califor-
nia the valuable Mariposa estate, upon
which he settled in 1849. In 1853 he
undertook a fifth expedition across the
Continent, made new discoveries, and
reached California after enduring al-
most incredible hardships. In 1856 he
was the first candidate of the Republi-
can party for the presidency; and in
1861, on the outbreak of the Civil War,
was appointed a Major-General of vol-
unteers. He then, as commander of the
Western Union army, marched into
Missouri with the view of encountering
General Price's Confederate force then
in possession of that State, but an un-
fortunate dispute with a subordinate
oflScer caused the War Department to
relieve him of his command. He was
governor of Arizona in 1878-1881. His
publications include: "Report of the Ex-
ploring Expedition to the Rocky Moun-
tains in 1842, and to Oregon and North
California in 1843-1844"; "Col. J. C.
Fremont's Explorations"; and "Memoirs
of My Life." He died in New York City,
July 13, 1890.
FREMSTAD, OLIVE, an American
soprano. Born at Stockholm, Sweden, in
1870, she received most of her early edu-
cation at Christiania. When in 1882
her parents moved to Minneapolis she
had already learned to play the piano,
and in a few years she was giving music
lessons and singing in the church choirs.
She came to New York in 1890 and
after receiving vocal instruction made
her debut as a concert singer two years
later. From 1892-1894 she studied in
Germany under Lilli Lehmann, specializ-
ing in Wagnerian operas. For the next
few years she sang in the grand opera
companies of Vienna, Cologne, Antwerp,
and Amsterdam. In 1900 the Royal
Opera in Munich and the Covent Gar-
den in London made an arrangement to
secure her services for the next three
years. In 1903 she made her debut with
the Metropolitan Opera Company as
Sieglinde. Her success was such that
for eleven consecutive seasons thereafter
she was one of the stars of that famous
company.
FRENCH, ALICE. See Thanet,
Octave.
TRENCH
215
FRENCH EST. IN INDIA
FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER, an
American sculptor; born in Exeter, N.
H., April 20, 1850; was educated in
Boston and in Florence, Italy; had stu-
dios in Boston and Concord, N. H., in
1878-1887, and in New York City in
1887-1900. His principal works include
"The Minute Man of Concord"; statues
of General Cass, Rufus Choate, John
Harvard, and Thomas Starr King; "Dr.
Gallaudet and His First Deaf Mute
Pupil"; "Statue of the Republic"; the
Milmore Memorial, etc. Consult Caffin's
"American Masters of Sculpture."
FRENCH, VISCOUNT JOHN DEN-
TON PINKSTONE, British general, son
of a British naval officer, born at Rip-
ple Vale, Kent, England, in 1852. He
began his career in the Royal Navy
as a midshipman, which he entered in
1866, but eight years later he was
VISCOUNT FRENCH
transferred to the Army. He saw serv-
ice in the Sudan with the Nineteenth
Hussars, during 1884-1885. In 1889 he
had reached the rank of colonel. In
1893-1894 he was Assistant Adjutant-
General of Cavalry on the General
Staff, and during 1895-1897 he was
an assistant adjutant-general at Army
Headquarters. In 1899 he became Major-
General, commanding the cavalry divi-
sion in Natal during the Boer War
operations, and had command of oper-
ations around Colesberg, from Novem-
ber, 1899, to January 31, 1900. His
cavalry assisted in the relief of Kim-
berley. In 1907, having now attained
the full rank of General, he became In-
.spector-General of the Home Forces.
In 1913 he was made Field Marshal,
but early in 1914 he resigned, on ac-
count of friction with the Liberal As-
quith Cabinet over the Government's
military policy in Ireland. At the out-
break of the World War he immedi-
ately proffered his services and was
placed in command of the British ex-
peditionary forces sent to France. In
the beginning of December, 1915, he
was relieved of his command at his
own instance and appointed to the com-
mand of the home forces. He was given
a viscountcy in recognition of his long
and faithful services. Nevertheless,
there had been much criticism of the
ability he had displayed in his com-
mand in France. In 1918 he was ap-
pointed Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland.
FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA,
or FRENCH CONGO, a French pos-
session in west central Africa extending
from the Atlantic Coast to the Congo
river. The boundary prior to the World
War was most irregular, being di-
vided at two points by the German
Kamerun, but by the Treaty of Versailles
Germany ceded these regions to France.
A large section of the land is still un-
explored and it is only possible to esti-
mate of its area; this is about 700,000
square miles with an estimated popula-
tion of approximately 11,000,000. The
land is very fertile, its numerous and
large river valleys being capable of sup-
porting a vast population. The climate
is, however, unhealthful for Europeans
and the population consists almost en-
tirely of negroes. In the forests the
gorilla and chimpanzee are found and
along the rivers crocodiles abound. The
most valuable product is rubber and the
costly woods that come from the trop-
ical forests. The exports are chiefly
these and coffee. The mineral resources
are believed to be extensive, particularly
in the mountainous southern region.
French Equatorial Africa is divided
into three colonies, Gabun, Middle
Congo, and Ubangi-Shari. The three are
united for administi-ative purposes un-
der a governor-general, who is assisted
by a secretary-general and a council of
government.
FRENCH ESTABLISHMENTS IN
INDIA. Territories in India which still
belong to France. They are very small,
their total extent being but 197 square
miles, with an estimated population of
270,000. They are the French colonies
of Chandernagore, Pondicherry, Kari-
kal, Mahe, and Yanaon. The imports
before the World War were valued
FRENCH INDO-CHINA
216
FRENCH REVOLUTION
at nearly ten million francs and their
exports at over thirty-seven million
francs. It was not until 1920, however,
that their trade began to recover from
the serious interruption of the years
1914-1918.
FRENCH INDO-CHINA, French pos-
sessions in extreme southeast Asia, in-
cluding the colonies of Cochin-China.
Tongking, Laos, Annam, Cambodia, and
Battambang. They are all grouped near
the little kingdom of Siam whose terri-
tories have been steadily encroached
upon by the French. Their estimated
area in 1920 was 256,200 square miles
and their population about 17,500,000.
Although missionaries from France
were in the country as early as Louis
VIV.'s time and occasional interference
by French soldiers occurred in and just
after Napoleon I.'s rule, it was not until
the Second Empire that the real con-
quest of these possessions was begun and
completed. From the institution of the
Third Republic the accessions to French
power in this region have been steadily
growing until France is now suspected
of desiring to include Siam in its
"sphere of influence."
The number of French in Indo-China
is very small, practically all of them
being connected with the administra-
tion. The capital is Saigon, where
the governor-general resides, who has
oversight over the four provincial gov-
ernors. The exports consist largely of
rice and rice products and about half
the trade is done with France and the
other French colonies. The French have
built nearly 1,200 miles of railways in
the country and have also trained and
equipped a small native army under
French oifficers, part of which took part
in the European battlefields of 1914-
1918.
FRENCH REVOLUTION. Although
there have been not a few revolutions in
France the name is always given to
that extraordinary series of events
which occurred between the summoning
of the Estates-General in 1788 and the
assumption of power by Napoleon in
1799. The Estates-General which met
at Versailles on May 5, 1789, was com-
posed of three orders: the clergy or first
estate, the nobility or second estate, and
the third estate, comprising- represen-
tatives of all those in the nation who
were not clergymen or nobles. In the
previous centuries the three orders had
assembled separately and voted sepa-
rately and it was the intention of the
king and the court party that the cus-
tom should be continued. But the depu-
ties of the third estate were in no mood
to have themselves outvoted in this man-
ner and, under the leadership of Mira-
beau, one of their number, they called
upon the other two orders to join them
in a single body. The king had already
granted them 600 deputies, while the
other two orders had about 300 apiece.
As there were many of the clergy who
were in sympathy with the aims of the
third estate, these, with the aid of the
few liberal nobles, would place the dep-
uties of the third estate in control of
the situation, provided they all sat and
voted as one body, and not as three
separate orders. After continued refus-
als on the part of the other two orders
to join tbem, the deputies of the third
estate on June 17, 1789, declared them-
selves a "National Assembly" and in-
vited members of the clergy and nobility
to associate themselves with them.
Three days later, finding themselves ex-
cluded from their meeting places, they
took the famous "Tennis Court" oath
binding them to assemble together until
the "constitution of the kingdom shall
be established." After a weak attempt
on the part of the king to force the
estates to vote separately, he finally
agreed to order the clergy and nobility
to assemble with the deputies of the
third estate in the National Assembly.
_ The dismissal of Necker and the ac-
tions of the court party in collecting
troops in and about Paris led to a rising
of the Parisians on the 14th of July
and their capture of the Bastille. The
necessity of preserving order and yet
avoiding placing power in the king^s
hand led to the formation of the "Na-
tional Guard," a volunteer citizen army
of which Lafayette assumed command.
These events stimulated the deputies at
Versailles to action and on Aug. 4, 1789,
they passed series of decrees abolishing
feudalism, doing away with the titles
of the Church, abolishing all exemptions
from taxation, and declaring that "all
the peculiar privileges, pecuniary or
otherwise, of the provinces . . . are
once for all abolished and are absorbed
into the law common to all Frenchmen."
Thus, at one blow, the most serious of
the abuses of the old regime were reme-
died. France was divided into 81 de-
partments in which all laws and taxes
were to be uniform. The Assembly fol-
lowed this action by passing on Aug.
26 the "Declaration of the Rights of
Man," in which were stated the privi-
leges which belong to man as man
everywhere and under all conditions.
Rumors began to circulate about the
beginning of October that the king, un-
der the influence of the court, was pre-
paring to use force to dismiss the As-
FRENCH REVOLUTION
217
FRENCH REVOLUTION"
sembly and put an end to the revolution.
These rumors led to a fresh outbreak
of the mob of Paris which brought
about a march of several thousand
women to Versailles, whose purpose was
to bring the king and the Assembly to
Paris where they might be under the
watchful eye of the Paris Commune.
The women invaded the royal palace at
Versailles and had it not been for the
timely arrival of Lafayette and the
National Guard the queen would have
probably been killed. The court and
Assembly obeyed the commands of the
mob to return with them to Paris where
the monarch was lodged in the Tuile-
ries, while the Assembly continued its
sessions in a riding school nearby. This
transfer to the capital placed the As-
sembly under the domination of the
Commune which more and more began
to usurp the power of the French Gov-
ernment.
The unjust apportionment of the rev-
enues of the Church, which gave the
higher clergy extraordinary sums of
money while the parish priests barely
received a living wage, had been one of
the most obvious abuses of the ancient
regime. By its action of Aug. 4th the
Assembly had abolished the tithes; it
now confiscated to the state the im-
mense properties of the Church, and
made all the clergy dependent on the
state for their revenue. The lands of
the Church were sold and served as se-
curity for paper money — the assignats
which the government issued in great
quantities. Owing to the amount is-
sued and to the drop in the market price
of the land this paper money greatly
depreciated. Equally sweeping were
the changes made by a bill passed by
the Assembly entitled "The Civil Con-
stitution of the Clergy." By it the 134
bishoprics were reduced to 83, the num-
ber of the departments, and the bishops
were to be elected by the people. Al-
though the salaries of the parish priests
were greatly increased by these meas-
ures, thousands of them and nearly
all of the bishops refused to take the
oath required of them by the state, and
the harsh treatment of these "non-
juring clergy" aroused the enmity of
many who had hitherto wished the revo-
lution well.
The year 1790 saw many of the
French nobles leave the country and col-
lect upon the border of France a small
army, with which, with the assistance of
Leopold II., the Emperor and brother of
Marie Antoinette, they hoped to regain
their former privileges. The result of
the action of the emigres was to further
excite hostility to their fellows who re-
mained in France, Suspicion was al-
ready general in France that the king
and queen were secretly opposed to the
"patriot" party, nor was this suspicion
lessened by the attempted flight of the
royal family from France on June 21,
1791. The National Assembly finished
its work on the new Constitution the
following month and gave way to the
Legislative Assembly which was to
operate under its provisions.
Meanwhile, on Aug. 27, 1791, the king
of Prussia and the Emperor Leopold
united in issuing the Declaration of
Pillnitz in which they asserted their
readiness to join with other powers to
place the king of France in a position
to form a government which "shall once
more be in harmony with the rights of
sovereigns and shall promote the wel-
fare of the French nation." This idle
threat, issued on the eve of the assem-
bling of the new lawmaking body, served
to throw power into the hands of the
Jacobins — as the extremists of the Paris
Commune were called. Radical news-
papers, such as "The Friend of the
People," called for the abolition of the
monarchy and the establishment of a re-
public. The Legislative Assembly declared
the property of the emigres confiscated
to the state and passed severe laws
against the non-juring clergy. The dep-
uties from the Gironde district, sus-
pecting the patriotism of the king, urged
upon the Assembly a declaration of war
against Austria in which event the king
would be forced to show his colors. Ac-
cordingly, France, on April 24, 1792, de-
clared war upon Austria, thus opening
a struggle which was destined to con-
tinue almost uninterrupedly for nearly
twenty years.
The half-hearted measures of the
king, the ill-success of the French
arms, and a threatening manifesto of
the commander of the Austrian-Prus-
sian army invading France, brought
about a rising of the Paris mob on Aug.
10, 1792. The king was forced to take
refuge in the Assembly, while the mob
placed its leaders in control of the munic-
ipal government of Paris. The use-
lessness of the monarchy was now ap-
parent to all the leaders and a call was
issued for a Constitutional ConveJition
to form a new government for France.
The Convention met on Sept. 21, 1792,
and its first act was to declare France
a republic, and to declare the twenty-
second day of September as the first
day of the Year One of French Liberty.
The Convention was a much more radi-
cal body than either of its predecessors
and more under the influence of the
Paris Commune. Three weeks before
FRENCH HEVOLUTIOIT
218
FRENCH REVOLUTION
the meeting of the Convention the
Parisian leaders had arrested and ex-
ecuted hundreds of persons suspected of
sympathy with the emigres. The pur-
pose of these "September Massacres"
was to inspire terror in the hearts of
the aristocrats who still remained in
France.
The problem of how to treat the king
who was now rendered useless puzzled
the Convention until in January, 1793,
the monarch was brought before the
Convention and by a small majority
was sentenced to death. Louis XVI.
mounted the scaffold with the dignity
and composure of a martyr. His death
aroused his brother monarchs to greater
exertions to put down the revolution.
The convention now offered the as-
sistance of its armies to any nation
whose people would throw off the yoke
of monarchy and, ten days after the ex-
ecution of Louis, they declared war on
England. When, in March, Spain joined
the enemies of France, a formidable
coalition had been formed in Europe
against the revolution. The loss of the
Netherlands, together with the treason
of one of the French generals, con-
vinced the Convention that it had no
opportunity to take thought on anything
but defense. For that purpose they
placed all power in the hands of a Com-
mittee composed of twelve of its mem-
bers, the famous "Committee of Public
Safety." From the date of the appoint-
ment of this committee in April, 1793,
the reign of terror may be said to have
begun. Power in the Convention had
previously passed from the Girondists
to the more radical "Mountain." These
men believed that every trace of the
ancient regime should be completely
eliminated, even those who sympathized
with the old regime or who were luke-
warm toward the new should be put
to death. The people of Paris were
easy converts to this view and by their
influence on the Convention imposed it
on the rest of France. Robespierre and
Danton were the leaders of the Moun-
tain and, while heartless in the prose-
cution of their aims, few will question
their ability and the sincerity of their
views. Among the first to be arrested
<vere the Girondist deputies who on
June 2, 1793, were expelled from the
Convention. These extreme measures
brought about a serious rebellion in
some of the^ outlying provinces, notably
in La Vendee and in Lyons, which were
put down only with terrible slaughter
by the troops of the Convention. Mean-
while the Committee was displaying
great energy in meeting the attacks of
its foreign enemies. In August, Carnot,
the "Organizer of Victory," was added to
the body and before the end of the year
he had raised and equipped the armies
which expelled the invaders from
French soil.
The "Reign of Terror" began in ear-
nest with the appointment of the Revolu-
tionary Tribunal which rapidly passed
on the guilt of those brought before it
and executed hundreds with hardly a
trial at all. In October the former
queen, Marie Antoinette, fell a victim
to the guillotine, while commissioners
were despatched to Nantes and other
centers of disaffection who brought
about the death of thousands, many of
them guiltless of any crime except a
doubt of the justice of the more radical
of the Convention's acts. The leader of the
Paris Commune, Hebert, advocated even
greater excesses than these, while Dan-
ton, already tired of so much bloodshed,
advocated more moderation. By care-
ful intriguing, Robespierre brought about
the death of both these men and for a
space of a few months ruled as the
dictator of France. His own turn came
on July 27, 1794, when the reaction set
in and the Convention, in defiance of
the Commune, ordered his arrest and ex-
ecution. Soon afterward the Convention
abolished the Committee of Public
Safety and resumed its task of forming
a new Constitution for France. In
1795 it completed its task by establish-
ing as the executive branch of the gov-
ernment a directory of five members
and vesting the legislative power in
two houses, a Council of Five Hundred,
and a Council of Elders. In October of
the same year the Convention ad-
journed, having brought France safely,
although not without disorder, through
unprecedented foreign and domestic
dangers.
The success of the republican troops
had forced Prussia and Spain to con-
clude peace with France, leaving in the
spring of 1795 only Austria, England
and Sardinia at war with the Republic.
In 1796 the Directory despatched a ris-
ing young republican general. Napoleon
Bonaparte, to Italy to force Austria to
sue for peace. By a series of brilliant
marches he separated Sardinia from
her allies and quickly dictated peace to
that little state. Turning about, he drove
the Austrians from the plains of Lom-
bardy and in 1797 pressed his offensive
to within a hundred miles of Vienna.
The Austrians were glad to sign the
peace of Campo-Formio in October of
1797, by the terms of which the Aus-
trian Netherlands were ceded to
France together with the larger share
of the Austrian possessions in Italy.
FRENCH WEST AFRICA
219
FREUD
The successes of Bonaparte and his
haughty demeanor alarmed the Directors
and in 1798 they were glad to assent to
a scheme which took him away from
France. This was nothing less than his
plan to strike at English commerce in
the Mediterranean by seizing Egypt.
Napoleon and his army successfully
eluded the English fleet and by the battle
of the Pyramids he destroyed the Sultan's
army in Egypt. His attempt to advance
into Syria met with reverses and it was
only after great loss that he succeeded
in making good his retreat to Alex-
andria. In the meanwhile Nelson had
destroyed the French fleet at Aboukir,
leaving the French army stranded on the
Egyptian shores. By clever reporting
Napoleon had concealed his defeats from
the French people while magnifying his
victories. The Directory was proving it-
self an inefficient and corrupt govern-
ment, and was unable in the new Euro-
pean war to defend its recently gained
possessions. Leaving his army in Egypt
Napoleon with a few officers escaped the
British patrols and landed in France.
Proceeding immediately to Paris by a
coup d'etat he overthrew the Directory
on November 9, 1799, and established
himself in power as First Consul. With
this event the French Revolution may
be said to close.
FRENCH WEST AFRICA. By a
decree of the French Government of Oct.
18, 1904, French West Africa was de-
clared to consist of French Guinea,
Senegal, Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Mauri-
tania, Upper Senegal, and Niger, and
(Decree of 1911), the military territory
of the Niger. These seven colonies situated
in western Africa contain an estimated
area of over 1,500,000 square miles
with a population close to twelve million.
Taking them altogether they are per-
haps the most single valuable colonial
possession of France. In 1912 and 1913,
the years just prior to the World
War, the imports of French West Africa
were valued at 150,817,649 francs and
their exports reached almost the same
figure. Taken together with the French
Congo they represent enormous potential
wealth, for their resources have not as
, yet been touched. The French during
. 1912 and 1913 carried on extensive rail-
road and telegraph building, as well as
work in deepening harbors and improv-
ing waterways.
FRENEAU, PHILIP, an American
poet; born in New York City, Jan. 2,
1752. His connection with Jefferson and
other men of the time made him con-
spicuous. Among his poems are: "The
Home of Night," "The College Exam-
ination," "Eutaw Springs," "The Indian
Student," and "Lines to a Wild Honey-
suckle." He died near Freehold, N. Y.,
Dec. 18, 1832.
FRESNO, a city and county-seat of
Fresno co., Cal. ; on the Atchison, To-
peka and Santa Fe Coast Line and the
Southern Pacific railroads; 208 miles S,
E. of San Francisco. Here are a public
library, high school, county hospital,
business college, waterworks, street rail-
roads, electric lights, National and pri-
vate banks, and several daily and weekly
newspapers. The chief industries are
fruit growing and canning, farming, the
manufacture of wine, and sheep raising.
Pop. (1910) 24,892; (1920) 45,086.
FRET, in music, a small piece of wood
or ivory placed upon the finger board of
certain stringed instruments, to regulate
the pitch of the notes produced. By
pressing the string down to the finger
board behind a fret, only so much of the
string can be set in vibration as lies be-
tween the fret and the bridge. All the
viols contained in a chest had frets, and
some of the early forms of the violin
were even furnished with them. But not
only do they prevent the rapid fingering
of difficult passages, but they also en-
tirely deprive the violin of one of its
most charming qualities, that of slurring
or portamento, an attempt to produce
which will, on a fretted instrument, re-
sult in a well-defined chromatic scale.
Another reason for the abandonment of
fretted violins was that, in extreme keys,
the intervals could not be tempered. In
architecture, a fret is an ornament
formed by small bands or fillets, inter-
secting each other at right angles, used
in classical architecture. It is suscep-
tible of many modifications, and is still
often employed. In heraldry, a fret is
a bearing composed of bars crossed and
interlaced.
FREUD, SIGMUND, an Austrian phy-
sician and psychologist, born in Frei-
burg, Moravia, in 1856. Having finished
his education in the University of
Vienna, he became assistant physician
at the General Hospital, and afterward
a lecturer on nervous diseases. In 1885
he went to Paris, where he studied a year
under the tutorship of Charcot. In 1902
he became associate professor of neurop-
athy in the University of Vienna. In
1909 he paid a brief visit to the United
States, where he was given the honorary
degree of L.L. D. by Clark University.
Dr. Freud, however, is famous on ac-
count of the study of Psycho-Analysis,
q. v., so closely connected with his name,
otherwise kno\\Ti as the theory of
dreams. Briefly, the theory is that
dreams are an indication of subconscious
FBEWEN
220
FRICOURT
impressions gained by early experiences,
which, remaining submerged, may pro-
duce manifestations of hysteria. By spe-
cial mental effort these subconscious im-
SIGMUND FREUD
pressions may be brought to the surface
and the brain may be liberated from
their detrimental influence.
FREWEN, MORETON, a British
publicist. He was born in S. Leicester-
shire, England, in 1853, and was edu-
cated at Trinity College, Cambridge.
After leaving school he specialized in
economic subjects, and traveled consid-
erably. In regard to Ireland he worked
in the interests of Home Rule, and with
the aid of the party led by William
O'Brien was elected to represent East
Cork in the British House of Commons
during 1910-1911. He is a vice-president
of the Imperial Federation League and a
frequent writer in the reviews on eco-
nomic problems, tariff and exchanges.
He wrote "The Economic Crisis," etc.
FREYCINET, CHARLES LOUIS DE
SAULCE DE, a French statesman. He
was born in 1828 and received his pre-
liminary education at the Ecole Poly-
technique. He engaged himself both with
politics and engineering, and in 1870
became state engineer of mines. In the
same year he was appointed Prefect of
Tarn-et-Garonne, and was Minister of
Public Works, 1877-1879. He then held
the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs
intermittently from 1879 to 1886. From
1888 to 1899 he was Minister of War, be-
coming in 1893 President of the Commis^
sion of the Army. Member of the French
Academy ; officer of the Legion of Honor ;
Senateur of the Seine; Inspector-General
of Mines.
FREYTAG, GUSTAV (fri'tag), a
German author; born in Kreuzburg,
Prussia, July 13, 1816. His first dramatic
composition was "The Bridal Tour,"
(1844); "The Savant" (1844), and a
volume of poems, "In Breslau" (1845) ;
after which he produced "The Valentine"
(1846), "Count Valdemar" (1847), and
"The Journalist" (1853). Among his
works outside of the drama may be men-
tioned his great novel of social life,
"Debit and Credit" (3 vols. 1855), "The
Lost MS." (1864), "Ancestors," and
"Karl Mathy" (1869). He died in Wies-
baden, Germany, April 30, 1895.
FRIAR, any religious of the male sex
belonging to a monastic order. Thus,
the Capuchins were originally called
Friars Hermits Minor, and the Observ-
ants more permanently, Friars Observ-
ant. The term is used specifically for
religious belonging to one of the four
mendicant orders for men: (a) The
Franciscans {q. v.), or Friars Minor,
popularly called Gray Friars; (b)
the Dominicans, or Preaching Friars,
popularly called Black Friars; (c) the
Augustinians ; (d) the Carmelities, popu-
larly known as White Friars. In print-
ing, a friar is a pale patch on a printed
sheet.
FRICK, HENRY CLAY, an American
capitalist and philanthropist. Born in
Overton, Pa., in 1849, and died in 1920.
He began his career as a clerk in a flour
and distillery plant owned by his grand-
father and later entered the business of
the manufacture of coke. From a small
concern this has grown to be the largest
coke-producing company in the world,
under the name of the H. C. Frick Coke
Co. During the Homestead strike of 1892
Frick had complete direction of the com-
pany's forces and his severe measures
exposed him to the hostility of the work-
men. More than once during the strike
attempts were made to assassinate him.
At his death he left his handsome art
collection to the public.
FRICOTJRT, a French village in the
valley of the Ancre, about 12 miles
S. W. of Bapaume, the center of heavy
fighting on the western front, during
the World War. It was the scene of
especially important operations during
the offensive launched by the British in
the Ancre Valley, on July 1, 1916. Fri-
court then marked the apex of a pro-
nounced salient formed by the German
FBICTION
221
FRENCH, SOCIETY OF
lines, and the British attack was
launched on both sides of the village.
Gradually the Germans were nipped out
of this strategic point and the village
was taken on the following day by the
British.
HENRY C. FRICK
FRICTION, the act of rubbing two
bodies together, or rubbing one body on
another; in physics, the resistance which
any body meets with in moving over an-
other body. No body is quite smooth;
all have elevations and depressions, and
when one moves over another some of
the projecting points of the one are sure
to enter the cavities of the other, and
render movement more difficult. Fric-
tion is grreater when a body, previously
at rest, first begins to move. The
larger and heavier the body, the greater
the friction. Friction is a retarding
force in nature. It gives stability to
bodies which else would be easily moved.
It generates heat, and is one of the chief
means of developing electricity.
Co-efficient of Friction for Two Sur-
faces.— The ratio between the force re-
quired to move one of these surfaces
over the other, and the pressure between
the two surfaces.
FRICTION CLUTCH, in machinery,
a device for connecting two shafts by
bringing a piece on one shaft into con-
tact with a piece of another shaft, which
revolves with such force that the former
partakes of the motion of the latter. It
consists of a shell or box fixed on the
cmd of a driving shaft, fitted by a conical
Vol. IV — crc — 0
piece which slides on a feather or raised
part of the end of another shaft, so that
it can be engaged at pleasure by the cone
being forced into the shell by a lever or
screw. This apparatus is very useful
for driving machines, the parts of which
are subject to violent strains, as the
pressure upon the clutch can be regu-
lated so as to allow it to slip when the
strain is abnormal.
FRICTION WHEEL, in machinery, a
wheel, the motion of which is caused by
the friction of a moving body, or, con-
versely, whjch communicates motion to
a body by frictional contact. In one
variety, one wheel being driven becomes
a motor to the other, their perimeters
being in contact. The surface is usually
clothed with leather, rubber, or some
sufficiently elastic material which does
not polish too readily, and thus induce
slipping. By grooving the perimeters of
the wheels, the contact may be made
more intimate, as the surface engaged is
increased, and the elastic material of the
respective faces caused to bind. In an-
other form a collar fastened to the cen-
tral shaft has four pivoted arms. When
the rim turns in one direction, the arms
turn on their pivots, leaving the rim
and failing to transfer the motion to the
shaft. When the rim turns in the con-
trary direction, the arms catch against
it and are rotated by the contact, turn-
ing the shaft also. Another form has
an upper india-rubber wheel with V-
edge, clamped between two metallic
plates. By screwing up the nut which
holds the parts together, the disk is
made to expand radially, and thus in-
crease the tractive power on the lower
driving wheel. The term friction wheel
is often, but erroneously, applied to
wheels which diminish friction ; these are
properly called anti-friction wheels.
FRIENDLY ISLANDS. See TONGA.
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, societies
formed with the view of assisting any
one of their members who may be sick,
infirm, or old, or who may have to meet
the expense of a funeral in his family;
or for providing a certain amount of
support for his widow and family on his
death. To obtain money for those objects,
there is a fixed scale of contributions
binding on all the members. Friendly
societies existed among the Anglo-
Saxons. An act for the encouragement
of such institutions was passed by the
English Parliament in 1793. See Frater-
nal Societies.
FRIENDS. SOCIETY OF. the organi-
zation commonly called Quakers, founded
in the middle of the 17th centurj^ by
George Fox. They are distinguished from
FRIEZE
222
FRISIANS
other Christian bodies by the special
stress they lay on the immediate teach-
ing and guidance of the Holy Spirit, and
their belief that no one should be paid
or appointed by human authority for
the exercise of the gift of the ministry.
In obedience to this belief they hold their
meetings without any prearranged serv-
ice or sermon, and sometimes in total
silence. The Friends believe that the
sacraments of Baptism and the Lord's
Supper are to be taken spiritually, and
not in an outward form. Their protests
against the use of oaths and against the
exaction of tithes and church rates cost
them much suffering and frequent im-
prisonment during the first 50 years of
their existence. The simplified dress
which Friends adopted from conviction
200 years ago became stereotyped into a
uniform. This dress has generally been
given up, as have the "testimony"
against music and singing in its rigid
application, and the peculiarities of
speech, such as the use of "thee" and
"thou" instead of "you" (though many
Friends still retain this custom among
themselves), and the avoidance of all
titles of courtesy. Of late years there has
been a very decided evangelical move-
ment among Friends, under the influence
of which the old quietism is dying out.
As a result of this change the influence
of the Society beyond its own borders,
through home and foreign missions and
adult First Day (Sunday) Schools has
developed to a remarkable extent. There
is in the United States a numerous body
of Friends called Hickiites (from their
founder, Elias Hicks), who separated
from the orthodox community. They
hold latitudinarian views. The Wilburite
section are conspicuous in Pennsylvania
by their adherence to the livery and the
"plain language." Large numbers of
persons who do not appear in the statis-
tical returns attend the Mission meetings
of the Society of Friends, and very large
numbers come under their influence in
the foreign mission field. In the World
War (1914-1918) the Friends were not
enlisted as combatants because of their
principles, but they performed valiant
services behind the lines in hospitals, in
helping refugees, etc., and in rebuilding
devastated towns. See Fox, George:
Hicks, Elias.
The Orthodox body had in 1919 94,111
communicants, 790 churches and 1,232
ministers. The other three bodies had
20,603 communicants, 218 churches and
50 ministers.
FRIEZE, in architecture, that portion
of the entablature which is between the
architrave and the cornice. It was gen-
erally adorned with triglyphs in the
J)oric order, the intervening spaces,
called metopes, being filled with sculp-
tured figures in alto-relievo, or with the
skulls of oxen and wreaths alternately;
while in the Corinthian and Composite
orders it was ornamented with figures ov
scroll work in low relief, extending along
its entire length. The term frieze was
also applied to a broad band oi" sculpture,
in low relief, that was frequently placed
round the cella of a Grecian temple, im-
mediately under the ceiling of the portico,
and completely surrounding the exterior.
In modern domestic architecture a frieze
is frequently introduced immediately be-
low the cornice of an apartment.
FRIGATE, originally a MediterrP'i"!^-
vessel propelled by sails and oars; after-
ward a ship of war, between a sloop or
brig and a ship of the line. Such ves-
sels generally carried from 30 to 50 guns
on the main deck and on a raised quarter
deck and forecastle. They were usually
employed as cruisers or scouts. The
name is now given to a vessel of war
having an upper flush deck, and one
covered gun deck. The armament is
from 28 to 44 guns. The grade is be-
low a ship of the line and above a cor-
vette. The rating of ironclads is differ-
ent, the guns being larger and fewer in
number. A double-banked frigate is one
carrying guns on two decks and having
a flush upper deck.
FRIGATE BIRD, tachypetes, a genus
of natatorial birds, family Pelecanidge,
and specially Tachypetes aquihis. They
have a long and forked tail, and an ex-
pansion of wings sometimes reaching 12
feet. They abound on both the Atlantic
and Pacific coasts of tropical America.
They are called also man-of-war birds.
FRIGENTO, or FRICENTO (fre-
tshen'to) , a town of south Italy, province
of Avellino, 17 miles E. N. E. of Avellino.
It has a fine cathedral, containing some
excellent paintings. Its inhabitants sub-
sist by the sale of sheep, hogs, and corn.
Near it is a valley, supposed, apparently
on good grounds, to be identical with the
Amsancti valles of Virgil. In the low-
est part is an oval pool in which water
boils and spouts up, at irregular inter-
vals, accompanied by strong sulphurous
and mephitic exhalations. It was
through this orifice that the Fury Alecto
descended to Tartarus.
FRISIANS (friz'shans), or FRISII
(later called Frisones), an ancient Ger-
manic people, who inhabited the extreme
N. W. of Germany, between the mouths
of the Rhine and Ems, and were sub-
jected to the Roman power under Drusus.
They were subdued by the Franks, and,
on the division of the Carlovingian em-
FRITH
223
FBOa
pire, their country was divided into
West Frisian (West Friesland), and
East Frisian (East Friesland). The
language of the Frisians is intermediate
between the Anglo-Saxon and the Old
Norse. Our knowledge of the old Fri-
sian is derived from certain collections of
laws; as the "Asegabuch," composed
about 1200; the "Brockmerbrief," in the
13th century; the "CEpnsiger Domen,"
about 1300, and some others. The mod-
ern Frisian is now spoken only in a few
districts, and even in these only by the
peasantry.
FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL, an
English painter; bom in Studley, Eng-
land, in 1819; became a Royal Academi-
cian in 1853; received the decoration of
the Legion of Honor in 1878; honorary
member of the principal art academies in
Europe. His paintings include "Derby
Day" (1858) ; "The Railway Station"
(1862); and "The Marriage of the
Prince of Wales" (1865). He wrote
** Autobiography and Reminiscences"
(1887) and "Further Reminiscences"
(1888). He died in 1909.
FROBISHER, MARTIN, an English
navigator; born in Doncaster, Yorkshire,
England, about 1536; was a mariner by
profession. In search of a N. W. pas-
sage to India and under the patronage of
the Earl of Warwick, he set sail with a
fleet of three vessels from Deptford in
June, 1576. After exploring different
parts of the Arctic coast, and entering
the strait that bears his name, he re-
turned to England, bearing with him
some black ore which is said to have
been gold. In consequence of this dis-
covery he was encouraged to make two
more journeys, both of which proved
fruitless. In 1558 he accompanied Drake
to the West Indies. On board the
"Triumph" he took part in the destruc-
tion of the Spanish Armada and was
knighted for his bravery. In 1594 he
served Henry IV. of France against the
Leagoiers and Philip II. of Spain, and
while attacking a fort near Brest re-
ceived a mortal wound. He died in Plym-
outh, England, Nov. 7, 1594.
FROBISHER STRAIT, a passage be-
tween the W. side of Davis Strait and
the N. side of Hudson Strait, is 240
miles long, with an average breadth of
20. It is not of any practical value as
a channel of communication ; and in fact
it has been very seldom visited by ves-
sels bound .either W. or E. It was dis-
covered in 1576 by Sir Mai-tin Frobisher,
an energetic English navigator.
FROBEL. FRIEDERICH WILHELM
AUGUST, a German educator. Born in
1782 in Thuringia, his boyhood was un-
usually sad and his days were spent in
morbid introspection. At the age of
fifteen he was apprenticed to a forester,
after which time he attended for a few
months the University of Jena. Unable
to center his attention upon any one vo-
cation, he spent the early years of man-
hood drifting from one thing to another.
In 1816, when he was 34 years of age, he
founded a school at Griesheim and be-
gan the work which was to give him
fame. Although his school was closed by
the reactionary officials, its influence on
education in Germany was considerable.
In 1835, with the encouragement of the
Swiss officials, he founded an orphanage
at Burgdorf, and there he resided until
his death in 1852. Frobel was the
founder of the Kindergarten and his
principles in reference to the methods of
instruction for children between the ages
of four and twelve are recognized as
fundamental in modern educational
practice.
FROBEL, JULIUS, a German pub-
licist; bom in Griesheim, near Stadtilm,
July 16, 1805; was active in the popular
movements preceding and during 1848.
He wrote: "The Republicans," a politi-
cal drama; "Theory of Politics" (1861-
1864); "America; Experiences, Studies
and Travels" (1857-1858), and "A Sys-
tem of Social Politics" (1847). He died
in Zurich, Switzerland, Nov. 6, 1893.
FROO, in zoology, (1) singular, the
English name of the amphibious genus
Rana, and particularly of the species
Rana temporaria, or common frog. The
genus Raim is distinguished from its
congeners by having the tongue and
tympanum distinct, the skin smooth, and
the toes without claws; they are, how-
ever, pointed, and the hinder feet are
united almost to the tips by a mem-
brane. The common frog is too well
known to require description. It buries
itself in the mud at the approach of
winter, reappearing in the spring. In
the month of March it lays its eggs,
which are enveloped in a gelatinous ma-
terial, in water, where they float. Each
female deposits from 600 to 1,200 eggs
a year. By April they begin to hatch.
The immature frogs which come forth
are called tadpoles. They have tails, no
legs, breath by gills, and are aquatic.
Six or eight weeks later the legs are
fully developed, the tail is absorbed, and
they quit the water. The common frog
is found in most parts of this country,
in Europe, in the N. parts of Asia, and
in the N. of Africa. Rmia escnlenta is
the eatable frog, common on the Euro-
pean continent. R. pipievs is the bull-
frog of North America, and R. clamit-ans
the grunting or Argus frog.
FBOHMAN
224
FRONTENAC
(2) Plural frogs; the family Ranidse
of which Rana is the type. They have a
thick body, destitute of tail; feet four,
long, muscular and adapted for leaping;
the larva elongate, fish-like, tailed, and
without legs ; the gills four on each side.
The family does not include the tree
frogs, which are ranked as Hylid^e.
In farriery, a kind of tender horny
substance growing in the middle of a
horse's foot.
FROHMAN, CHARLES, an American
theatrical manager. Bom in Sandusky,
Ohio, in 1860, while yet a boy he was an
advance agent of a minstrel show.
Early in 1880, he entered the business
of theatrical manager for several stock
companies and, in 1893, became director
of the Empire Theater in New York. A
few years later he became the leading
figure in the syndicate known as the
Theatrical Trust. Among the stars
brought out by Frohman are Maude
Adams and John Drew. In 1905-1906 he
managed E. H. Sothem and Julia Mar-
lowe in their Shakespearean productions.
The exchange of plays betwen England
and America was fostered by Frohman,
who was likewise interested in several
London theaters. He met his death when
the steamship "Lusitania" was sunk by
a German submarine in May, 1915.
FROISSART, JEAN (froi'sart or
frwa-sar'), French chronicler; bom in
Valenciennes, in Hainault, in 1337. He
began at 20 to write the history of the
Wars of the time. His "Chronicle," cov-
ering the years 1326-1400, is of capital
importance for its period. To a collec-
tion of the verses of Wenceslaus of Bra-
bant, Froissart added some of his own,
and gave to the whole the title "Meliador,
or the Knight of the Golden Sun." All
his extant poems were published at
Brussels in 3 vols. 1870-1872. He died
in Chimay, 1416 (?).
FRONDE, the name of a political
faction which played a conspicuous part
in French history during the minority of
Louis XIV., and which gave rise to the
celebrated insurrectionary movement
known historically as the War of the
Fronde. The members of this party ob-
tained the derisive name of Frondeurs
(slingers), from the pertinacious lam-
poon warfare which they waged against
both the powerful minister of that day,
Cardinal Mazarin, and the Queen Reg-
ent, Anne of Austria. Mazarin, as a
foreigner and a parvenu, enjoyed the
detestation of the French people — ^both
patrician and proletarian — and espe-
cially had incurred the opposition of the
Parliament of Paris to his measure. In
1648 Mazarin ventured on the bold step
of arresting two of the most popuJai-
members of the latter body, and on the
next day {la jam-nee des barricade^)
the Parisians rose in arms, dispersed
some of the royal troops sent out against
them, and barricaded the approaches to
the Louvre, compelling the court party
to retire to St. Germain, and thus leav-
ing Paris in the hands of the insurgents.
Upon the Prince de Conde advancing to
besiege the capital, the parliament called
the citizens to arms, when the Prince de
Conti, the Due de Beaufort ("Le Roi des
Halles," and son of Henry IV.), and
numerous others of the great nobles of
the kingdom, came forward to head the
insurrection. The famous Cardinal de
Retz also joined the movement, nor was
beauty wanting, in the persons of the
Duchesses de Longueville and de Mont-
bazon, to inspire the popular cause. The
Prince de Conde, too, changed sides and
went over to the malcontents, with
whom the court party shortly afterward
patched up a treaty of peace of but brief
duration. Fresh contentions arose, and
Mazarin caused the arrest of Conde and
C-onti, two of the princes of the blood.
This step on the part of the hated Ital-
ian excited a revolt in the provinces,
and Marshal Turenne hastened to the
rescue of the Frondeur princes, but was
routed in the battle of Rethel (1650).
The cardinal, however, enjoyed but a
mere temporary supremacy; the parlia-
ment again agitated against him, and
procured his banishment from France,
leaving the Prince de Conde master of
the situation. Subsequently, the contest
degenerated into a war of intrigue.
Some of the Frondeur leaders were in-
fluenced by the queen to desert their
party, and others were bought over by
the cardinal's gold. Ultimately, ail
parties being weary with these dissen-
sions, the court agi'eed to remove Maz-
arin, and a general amnesty was pro-
claimed. Conde, who refused to be a
party to these terms, now finding his
cause desperate, entered the Spanish
service; while Mazarin, after a time, i-e-
tnmed to Paris, and again obtained the
reins of government.
FRONTAL BONE, a bone, double in
the foetus, single in the adult, situate at
the base of the cranium, at the superior
part of the face. It forms the vault of
the orbit, lodges the ethmoid bone in a
notch in its middle part, and is articu-
lated besides with the sphenoid, parietal,
and the nasal bones, the ossa nasales,
superior maxillary, and malar bones,
FRONTENAC (front-nak'), LOUIS
DE BUADE, COMTE DE, a French
colonial officer; born in France in 1620.
FBOSCHDOBF
225
FROTHINGHAM
He entered the army in 1635, and at an
early age became brigadier. In 1672
he was appointed governor of the
French possessions in North America, to
be recalled 10 years later, in conse-
quence of endless quarrels with his in-
tendant and the Jesuits. He had gained
the confidence of the settlers and the
respect of the Indians. In 1689, when to
the attacks from the Iroquois the misery
of a war with England was added, he
was again sent out by the king. During
the next nine years he loosed his savage
allies on the villages of New England,
repulsed a British attack on Quebec, and
broke the power of the Iroquois. He died
in Quebec, Nov. 28, 1698.
FSOSCHDORF, a village in Lower
Austria, rather more than 30 miles from
Vienna, and not far from the frontiers
of Hungary, on the right bank of the
Leitha river; called by the French
Frohsdorf. It is celebrated for its splen-
did castle, which acquired a kind of
political importance, from having been,
since 1844, the residence of the Duchess
d'Angouleme and the rendezvous of the
elder Bourbon party. After the death
of the duchess it came into the posses-
sion of the Comte de Chambord.
FROST, ARTHUR BT7RDETT, an
American illustrator and author, born
in Philadelphia in 1851. He was self-
taught in art and in 1900 exhibited at
the Paris Exposition. He became es-
pecially noted for his drawings of ani-
mals, and for the illustration of many
humorous books, including books written
by himself. Among his writings are
"Bull Calf and Other Tales"; "Stuff and
Nonsense"; "Sports and Games in the
Open"; "Book of Drawings" (1905);
and "Carlo" (1913).
FROST, ROBERT, an American edu-
cator and writer, born in San Francisco
in 1875. He studied at Dartmouth Col-
lege in 1892 and at Harvard, from 1897
to 1899. From 1900 to 1905 he was
engaged in farming in Derry, N. H., and
from 1905 to 1911 was a teacher of Eng-
lish at the Pinkerton Academy in that
town. He lived in Europe in 1912 and
1915. His first book of poems was "A
Boy's Will" (1913). He first attained
wide notice at the publication of the
book of poems entitled "North of Bos-
ton" (1914). This placed him in the
first rank of the younger American
poets. "Mountain Interval" followed in
1916.
FROSTBITE, the freezing of any por-
tion of the body by exposure to a high
degree of cold. The parts of the body
most exposed to the serious consequence
of frostbite are those farthest from the
seat of circulation, and the most ex-
posed to a great degree of cold. These
are, the toes and feet, fingers, ears, nose,
and the cheeks below the eye. The ef-
fect of intense cold is, in the first place,
to deaden the sensibility of the part
most exposed, which it does by contract-
ing the vessels and driving the blood
from the surface; when the part, losing
its healthy vitality, is unable to resist
the specific influence of the surrounding
cold, and quickly falls a prey to the
potency of the frost, and, in a short
time, a partial gives way to an absolute
deatn, or mortification of the member or
organ. The treatment of frostbite con-
sists in coaxing back by degrees the vi-
tality of the part; this is most prudently
effected by friction, at first with snow,
then with water at ordinary tempera-
ture, no warmth being applied for some
time.
FROSTBURG, a city of Maryland, in
Allegheny co. It is on the Western
Maryland and the Cumberland and
Pennsylvania railroads. Its situation at
an elevation of about 2,200 feet makes it
a popular summer resort. It has a State
normal school and also a miners' hospi-
tal. Its industries include fire-brick and
tile works, planing mills, foundries,
hosiery mills, etc. It is the center of
an important coal mining region. Pop.
(1910) 6,026; (1920) 6,017.
FROSTED GLASS, a form of glass
made by the Venetians. It has irregu-
larly varied marble-like projecting dis-
locations in the intervening fissures.
Suddenly plunging hot glass into cold
water produces ciystalline convex frac-
tures, with a polished exterior; but the
concave intervening figures are caused,
first by chilling, and then reheating at
the furnace, and simultaneously expand-
ing the reheated ball of glass by blow-
ing, thus separating the crystals from
each other, and leaving open figures be-
tween, which is done preparatory to
forming vases or ornaments.
FROTHINGHAM, ARTHUR LIN-
COLN, an American archaeologist, born
in Boston in 1859. He was educated in
Rome and in Germany. He was a lec-
turer in archaeology at Johns Hopkins
University from 1882 to 1886. In 1887
he became a member of the faculty of
Princeton University, as professor of
aix;haeology and ancient history, ser%ing
until 1906. In 1895-1896 he was director
of the American School of Classical
Studies at Rome. He was a member of
many learned societies and was the au-
thor of "A History of Sculpture";
"Monuments of Christian Rome"
(1908) ; "A History of Architecture"
PROTHINGHAM
226
FBY
(1915) ; and "Handbook of War Facts
and Peace Problems" (1918),
FROTHINGHAM, OCTAVITJS
BBOOES, an American clergyman; born
in Boston, Mass., Nov. 26, 1822. His
radical views led to the resignation of
his pastorate in the Unitarian Church,
Salem, Mass. He preached in Jersey
City in 1855-1859; then organized the
Third Unitarian Church in New York
City, where he preached very radical and
advanced views till the dissolution of the
Church in 1879. The remainder of his
life was devoted to travel and literary
pursuits, his home being in Boston. His
works include: ''Stories from the Old
Testament"; ''The Religion of Human-
ity"; "The Cradle of the Christ"; "Mem-
oir of W. H. Channing"; "The Safest
Creed"; "Beliefs of the Unbelievers";
"Creed and Conduct"; "The Rising and
the Setting Faith"; "Transcendentalism
in New England"; "Recollections and
Impressions"; etc. He died in Boston,
Nov. 27, 1895.
FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY (frod),
an English historian; born in Darting-
ton, Devonshire, England, April 23,
1818. In the beginning of the Tracta-
rian controversy he was a close friend
of Newman, and was a contributor to
the ''Lives of the English Saints." He
took orders in the Anglican Church
(1844). Among his works may be men-
tioned: "Luther: A Short Biography"
(1833) ; "Shadows of a Cloud" (1847) ;
*'Nemesis of Faith" (1848) ; "History of
England from the Fall of Wolsey to the
Death of Elizabeth" (12 vols. 1850-
1870) ; "Influence of the Reformation on
the Scottish Character" (1867); "The
English in Ireland in the Eighteenth
Century" (3 vols. 1872); "C«sar: A
Sketch" (1879) ; ''Thomas Carlyle"
(1882) ; "Spanish Story of the Armada"
(1892). He was the successor of Ed-
ward A. Freeman in the Professorship
of Modem History at Oxford. He died
in London, Oct. 20, 1894.
FRTJCTIDOR, the name given in
October, 1793, by the French (!onven-
tion to the 12th month of the republican
year. It commenced on Aug. 18, and
ended on Sept. 16, and was the third
summer month.
FRUIT, in botany, a term applied to
the ripened ovary and its contents, quite
regardless of their being eatable or
otherwise. In many instances, there are
additions to the ovary in the form of the
remains of some or all of the other parts
of the flower. In the strawberry, the
calyx remains, and is converted into a
succulent substance, or that part of the
fruit which is eaten. In the apple, both
the caljrx and the corolla are converted
into fruit. The pineapple is composed
of all the parts entering into the com-
position of the ovary, namely, bracts,
calyx, corolla and ovary. The orange is
a largely developed ovary, containing
the seeds, and a succulent mass in which
the refreshing juice is placed. Fruit is
divided into two distinct parts, the seed
and the pericarp, or investing substance.
The pericarp is composed of three parts,
or layers, one within the other. For
example, the pericarp of the apple con-
sists of an external layer, or skin, epi-
carp; the internal layer, endocarp; and
the fleshy substance, sarcocarp, lying be-
tween them. Thus, the outer skin is the
epicarp, the pulpy substance the sarco-
carp, and the tough, thick covering to
the seeds, the endocarp. The same re-
lation is found in stone fruit, the shell
of the nut being the endocarp. The epi-
carp, or outward covering, is less sub-
ject to variation than other parts; but
the sarcocarp and endocarp assume
every variety of form and consistence.
The most common forms of fruit are,
the pomum or apple, the drupe or peach,
and plum; the glans, as the acorn; the
pineapple, the fruit of which is a scaly
berry, surmounted by a crown of spi-
nous leaves. The legume, or pea; the
siliqua, or pod, as in the mustard; and
the bacca, or common currant, goose-
berry, etc.
FRY, SIR EDWARD. British lawyer.
He was born at Bristol, Eng., in 1827,
and was educated at Bristol College and
University College, London. He was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1854, and became
Queen's Council and Bencher of Lin-
coln's Inn in 1869. He presided over the
Royal Commission on the Irish Lord
Acts in 1897-1898; was Conciliator in the
S. Wales Colliery Dispute in 1898;
Chairman of the Departmental Commit-
tee on the Patent Laws in 1900; Arbi-
trator between the United States and
Mexico in the Pious Funds case 1902,
and Ambassador Extraordinary and
First British Plenipotentiary to the
Hague Peace Conference in 1907. He
was successively Judge of the High
Court, of the Chancery Division, and
of Appeal. He died in 1918. His works
include: "The Doctrine of Election";
"Treatise on the Specific Performance
of Contracts"; "British Mosses"; "Stud-
ies by the Way."
FRY, ELIZABETH (GURNEY), an
English philanthropist and prison re-
former; born in Earlham, Norfolk, Eng-
land, May 21, 1780. Brought up a Quaker
by her family, she did not adapt her
mode of life to that prescribed by the
more orthodox of the sect till 1798, being
FBYATT
227
FUEL
then induced to do so by the preaching
of William Savery, an American Friend
traveling in England. This change was
consummated by her marriage, in 1800,
with Joseph Fry, himself a "plain
Friend." In 1810 Mrs. Fry joined the
ministry, and thenceforward devoted her-
self to Christian service. By her exer-
tions, important reforms were effected
in the prison systems of Great Britain,
France and Germany. She died in Rams-
gate, Oct. 12, 1845.
FRYATT, CHARLES, master mariner,
captain of a British merchant steamer
which, on being signaled to stop by a
German submarine in the North Sea in
March, 1916, attempted to ram the sub-
marine, so that the latter was compelled
to submerge. For this act Captain Fryatt
received a gold watch from the British
Admiralty on arriving in England and
was honorably mentioned in the House of
Commons. In the following June Captain
Fryatt, while piloting a passenger steam-
er across the North Sea, from Rotter-
dam to an English port, was captured
by a German torpedo boat. A month
later he wa_s tried by court-martial at
Bruges as a "f ranc-tireur" and sentenced
to death, being executed immediately
afterward. World-wide indignation was
roused by this act on the part of the
Germans, who thereby attempted to ter-
rorize all skippers of merchant vessels
attacked by their submarines into sub-
mitting without resistance.
FBYE, WILLIAM PIERCE, an
American diplomatist; born in Lewiston,
Me., Sept. 2, 1831; was graduated at
Bowdoin College in 1850; and was later
admitted to the bar; was a Represent-
ative in Congress in 1871-1881. In the
latter year he was elected to the United
States Senate ; and was re-elected in 1887,
1893, 1900, 1907. He was president pro
tem. of the Senate in 1896-1901; was a
member of the American-Spanish Peace
Ck)mmission in 1898, and after the death
of Vice-President Hobart was again
elected president pro tem. of the Senate.
Senator Frye was for many years a
member of the Senate Committee on
Foreign Relations. He died in 1911.
FUCA, STRAIT OF. See JUAN DE
FucA, Strait of.
FUCHSIA (fii'shya), so named from
the discoverer, Leonard Fuchs, a Ger-
man botanist, a genus of Onagracse,
tribe Fuchseas, of which it is the type.
More than 50 species are known; most
from the warmer parts of Amei'ica, Mex-
ico, Peru, Chile, etc., except two from
New Zealand. These beautiful plants are
common in gardens, conservatories, and
flower pots in windows. The hybrids
amount to some hundreds.
FUEL, any combustible substance
which is used for the production of heat.
In this extended sense of the term, alco-
hol, wax, tallow, coal-gas, oil, and other
inflammable bodies which are occasionally
used, especially in the chemical labora-
tory, as sources of heat as well as light,
might be included under it. But the term
fuel is more properly limited to coal,
coke, charcoal, wood, and a few other
substances, which are our common
sources of heat, and as such are burnt in
grates, stoves, fireplaces, and furnaces.
In this country, as in England, coal, from
its abundance and cheapness, is the fuel
commonly employed; but in other coun-
tries, as France, Germany, etc., wood is
chiefly used, either in its original state
or in the form of charcoal. But what-
ever substance be used, the essential ulti-
mate elements of fuel are carbon and
hydrogen; and the heat which is evolved
by their combustion is derived from
their combination at high temperatures
with the oxygen of the air; the principal
results or products of this combustion
are carbonic acid and water, these escap-
ing into the atmosphere by the flue or
chimney generally attached to furnaces
and fireplaces. The different kinds of
pit-coal give out variable quantities of
heat during their combustion; upon an
average, one pound of coal should raise
60 pounds of water from the freezing
to its boiling point. The heating power
of coke as compared with coal is nearly
in the ratio of 75 to 69 : a pound of good
coke, heating from 64 to 66 pounds of
water from 32° to 212°. A pound of turf
will heat about 26 pounds of water from
32° to 212°, and a pound of dense peat
about 30 pounds; by compressing and
drying peat, its value as a fuel is greatly
increased. The following table, by Dr.
Ure, shows the quantity of water raised
from 32° to 212° by one pound weight
of the different combustibles enumerated
in the first column; it also shows the
number of pounds of boiling water which
the same weight of fuel will evaporate
and the quantity of atmospheric air
absolutely consumed during combustion:
Combustible.
Dry wood
Common wood .
Charcoal
Pit coal
Coke
Turt
Coal-gas
on, wax, tallow
Alcohol
Pounds of
water
which a
pound can
raise from
32° to
212°
35.00
26.00
73.00
60.00
65.00
30.00
76.00
7S.00
52.00
Pounds of
boiling
water
evaporated
by one
pound
6.36
4.72
13.27
10.90
11.81
5.45
13.81
14.18
9.56
Weight of
atmos-
pheric air
at 32° re-
quired to
burn one
pound.
5.96
4.47
11.46
9.26
11.46
4.60
14.58
15.00
11.60
PUENTERRABIA,
228
FULLER
FUENTERRABIA, or FONTARABIA,
a fortified frontier and seaport town of
Spain, in Biscay, province of Guipuzcoa,
on a small neck of land, on the left bank
of the Bidassoa, at its mouth 20 miles W.
by S. of Bayonne. The town used to be
reckoned one of the keys of the kingdom,
but its walls were leveled by the British
troops in 1813. Fuenterrabia was taken,
in 1521, by Francis I. of France, in 1719,
by the Duke of Berwick.
FTJGGER (fog'ger), the name of a
rich and illustrious family of Suabia,
descended from a weaver, who originally
lived in the environs of Augsburg, about
1300. They were at first successful in
selling clothes, but afterward extended
their dealings, and became merchants,
accumulating an immense fortune. Reach-
ing the height of their affluence at the
commencement of the 16th century, they
rendered considerable services to the Em-
perors Charles V. and Maximilian, by
making them large advances. These
princes bestowed titles of nobility on the
Fugger family, and they soon became
connected with the best blood of Ger-
many. Promoted to the highest dignities
of the empire, they did not any the more
neglect the pursuits cf commerce. Their
riches were always forthcoming for the
improvement of their birthplace, Augs-
burg. The best known of them are the
three brothers, Ulric, James and George;
and afterward Raymond and Antony,
both sons of George. Ulric received for
his loans to Maximilian the eountship
of Kirchberg, and the seigniory of Weis-
senhorn, which afterward remained in
the possession of his family. He was a
great encourager of learning. Antony
and Raymond bore, to a great extent,
the expenses of the expedition of Charles
V. against Algeria, obtaining from him
the permission to coin money. Several of
this family still exist, and Augsburg
owes its position on the Continent, as a
financial center, to the energy and talent
of the Fuggers.
FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW, a law
which was enacted by the Congress of
the United States in 1850. By its pro-
visions a slave escaping from his master
into another State was to be seized and
restored to his owner, and any person
aiding in his flight was to be deemed
guilty of having committed a penal
offense. The most noted case arising
during this exciting period of national
history was that of Dred Scott.
FUGUE, in music, a polyphonic compo-
sition constructed on one or more short
subjects or themes, which are harmon-
ized according to the laws of counter-
point, and introduced from time to time
with various contrapuntal devices; the
interest in these frequently heard themes
being sustained by diminishing the inter-
val of time at which they follow each
other, and monotony being avoided by
the occasional use of episodes, or pas-
sages open to free treatment. The chief
elements of a fugue are: (1) the subject;
(2) the counter-subject, or contrapuntal
harmonization of the answer by the part
which has finished the enunciation of the
subject; (3) the answer; (4) episodes;
(5) the stretto; and (6) the pedal point.
FUKIEN, or FOKIEN, a province of
China, situated on the sea-coast. It has
an area of 46,320 square miles and an
estimated population of 8,560,000. The
capital is Foochow. Formosa, formerly
a part of the province, was separated
from it in 1886. Low mountain ranges
cross from southwest to northeast. The
only level tracts are found near the
mouths of the Min and Lung rivers.
The soil is well adapted to cultivation
and produces large quantities of tea, rice,
sweet potatoes, wheat, indigo, sugar, etc.
There is also an important lumbering
industry in the interior. Tea is grown
widely. The province has been for cen-
turies noted for its production of porce-
lain. The two treaty ports are Foochow
and Amoy. In 1889 another port, San
Tu Ao, was voluntarily opened to foreign
trade.
FUKUOKA, a city of Japan, on the
north coast of Kiushiu. It has a number
of important buildings, including a
castle, and has a public garden. Pop.
about 85,000.
FULDA, LUDWIG (fol'da), a Ger-
man dramatist; born in Frankfort-on-
the-Main, July 15, 1862. One of his first
pieces, a comedy in verse, "Honest Men,"
was repeatedly put on the stage. His
most successful plays are the two come-
dies "Under Four Eyes" (1886) and
"The Wild Chase" (1888); and the
drama of society "The Lost Paradise"
(1890). His dramatic tale "The Talis-
man" (1893) was received with extraor-
dinary favor. The French Government
conferred on him the Legion of Honor in
1907.
FULLAM, or FULHAM (from Ful-
ham, a suburb of London, England,
which was a notorious resort of blacklegs
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth), false
dice.
FULLER, HENRY BLAKE, an Am^er-
ican author; born, of New England blood,
in Chicago, 111., Jan. 9, 1857. He was in-
tended for a mercantile career, but
entered literature with "The Chevalier
of Pensieri-Vani" (new ed. 1892) . ^nd
"The Chatelaine of La Trinite" (1892).
He next wrote "The Cliff Dwellers"
FULLEB
229
FULMINATE
(1893), and "With the Procession"
(1895), "The Puppet-Booth" (1896),
"From the Other Side" (1898). short
stories; "The Last Refuge" (1900);
"Waldo Trench and Others" (1908).
FTJLLER, MELVILLE WESTON, an
American jurist; bom in Augxista, Me.,
Feb. 11, 1833; was graduated at Bow-
doin College in 1853 ; admitted to the bar
in 1855; settled in Chicago, 111., in 1856;
and practiced there till 1888. He was a
delegate to the National Democratic Con-
ventions of 1864, 1872, 1876, and 1880;
and was appointed chief-justice of the
United States Supreme Court April 30,
1888. In 1904-1905 Great Britain ap-
pointed him a commissioner to arbitrate
at the Hague Court the case of the
French flag at Muscat. He died in 1910.
FULLER, SABAH MARGARET. See
OssoLi, Marchioness d'.
FULLER, THOMAS, an English his-
torian; born in June, 1608. He was a
presbyter of the Established Church and
a prebendary of Salisbury Cathedral. He
was a voluminous writer. His works in-
clude: "David's Heinous Sin" (1631), a
poem; "History of the Holy War"
(1639) ; "A Pisgah Sight of Palestine"
(1650); "Church History of Britain"
(1655). The one work for which he is
now esteemed is "The Worthies of Eng-
land" (folio, 1662). He died in London,
England, Aug. 16, 1661.
FULLER'S EARTH, in mineralogy,
smectite; an argillaceous earth, used by
fullers to absorb the oil or grease with
which woolen cloth has been treated dur-
ing previous manufacture. Also kaolin-
ite. In geology, a stratum belonging to
the Lower Oolite, in some instances, ly-
ing in certain localities, just below the
Great Oolite, while in others it is wholly
absent. Its characteristic fossil is an
oyster (Ostrea acuminata). In all about
60 mollusca are found in the fuller's
earth, 50 being lamellibranchiate bi-
valves, 10 bracniopoda, three gastero-
pods, and seven or eight cephalopoda.
FULLING, a process by which cloth
made of a felting fiber is condensed,
strengthened, and thickened, with a loss
of width and length (see Felt) . In ffelt-
ing, the fibers — wool, for instance — slip
past each other, and their toothed edees
interlock, so that a continuation of the
process causes them to be more and more
intimately associated. The cloth is folded
or rolled and treated with soapy water.
It is then beaten with wooden mallets,
by which the serrated edges are forced
past each other and the fibers closely com-
mingled. Precautions are taken in some
eases to prevent adherence of the folds of
cloth by felting together. For this pur-
pose cotton cloth is sometimes put be-
tween the folds of woolen cloth. Fulling
and felting are dependent upon the same
principle. Felted cloth is made by asso-
ciating the fibers, and is not woven.
Woven cloth exposed to the fulling or
felting action is said to be milled. Repeti-
tion of the process constitutes it double
milled or treble milled, as the case may
be. Each milling thickens and solidifies
the cloth while diminishing its quantity.
FULMINATE, in chemistry, a salt of
fulminic acid. Fulminate of mercury is
prepared by dissolving 1 part of mercury
in 12 parts of nitric acid; the solution
is mixed with an equal volume of alcohol
when cold. The mixture is then gently
heated on a water bath. Red vapors are
given off of nitrogen oxides and CO., and
a large quantity of nitrous ether, alde-
hyde, and other products. When the
liquid becomes turbid it is allowed to
cool, and the salt separates out; it is
purified by recrystallization from boiling
water. It forms white needles, which,
when heated to 186°, explode, also by
friction or percussion when dry. It is
used for charging percussion caps; one
kilogram of mercury will make fulminate
sufficient for 40,000 caps. Fulminates
have been regarded as methyl cyanide in
which one atom of hydrogen has been
replaced by NO.., and two atoms of hy-
drogen by mercury or silver. The action
of chlorine on mercuric fulminate under
water forms chloropicrin, CC1:<(N0..),
mercuric chloride HgCl., and cyanogen
chloride CnCl. Hot nitric acid decom-
poses mercuric fulminate, yielding car-
bonic acid, acetic acid, and mercuric
nitrate. Hydrochloric acid converts it
into mercuric chloride and mercurous
oxalate. When boiled with an aqueous
solution of potassium chloride it is con-
verted into potassium fulminurate.
Fulminate of silver is obtained by
heating nitrate of silver with strong
nitric acid and alcohol till the liquid boils
up. It is very dangerous to prepare. It
crystallizes in small, white, opaque
needles; it is very poisonous, and ex-
plodes by friction or percussion, or when
heated. It is soluble in aqueous ammonia,
and deposits the fulminate unaltered.
When silver fulminate is digested with
water and metallic copper or zinc, the
silver is replaced and copper fulminate
or zinc fulminate is obtained. When ful-
minate of copper is mixed with ammonia,
and a stream of HC gas is passed
through the solution, the copper is com-
pletely precipitated, and the filtered solu-
tion contains hydrosulphocyanic acid and
urea. Fulminate of gold was discovered
by a monk in the 15th century. This
substance, which explodes more rapidly
and with greater local force than gun-
FULTON
230
FULTON
powder, is made by precipitating a solu-
tion of chloride of gold by an excess of
ammonia.
FULTON, a city of Missouri, the
county-seat of Callaway co. It is on
the Chicago and Alton railroad. The
city is the center of an important agri-
cultural and stock-raising region and of
coal and fire clay deposits. Its indus-
tries include the manufacture of flour,
fire brick, and overalls. It is the seat
of the State School for the Deaf, State
Hospital No. 1, an insane asylum, West-
minster College, Synodical College, Con-
servatory of Music, and William Woods
College. Pop. (1910) 5,228; (1920)
5,595.
FULTON, a city of New York, in
Oswego CO. It is on the Oswego
river, the Oswego canal, and the New
York Central, the Lackawanna, and the
New York, Ontario, and Western rail-
roads. The city has an important trade
in milk and tobacco, and has manufac-
tures of chocolate, flour, woolen goods,
paper, pulp, cutlery, paper-mill ma-
chinery, motor boats, etc. It has a pub-
lic libraiy and other public buildings.
Pop. (1910) 10,480; (1920) 13,043.
FULTON. BOBERT, an American in-
ventor, celebrated as being the introdu-
cer of steam navigation; born of Irish
decent, in Little Britain, Lancaster co.,
Pa., in 1765. Early in life he mani-
fested a taste for painting, and repaired
to England to study under Benjamin
West. In that country, however, he be-
came acquainted with the Duke of
Bridgewater, the founder of the canal
system of Great Britain, who induced
Fulton to abandon art and study mechani-
cal science. This nobleman was at the time
engaged in a scheme of steam naviga-
tion, which he imparted to Fulton. The
latter visiting Birmingham was brought
into communication with James Watt,
who had just succeeded in his great im-
provement of the steam engine, with the
construction of which Fulton made him-
self thoroughly familiar. About this
time he invented a machine for spinning
flax, and another for making ropes, for
which he obtained patents in England.
In 1796 he published a treatise on the im-
provement of canal navigation. From
1797 to 1804 he resided in Paris vnth Mr.
Joel Barlow, the American representa-
tive at the French court. During this
period he invented a submarine or plung-
ing boat, called a "Torpedo," designed to
be used in naval warfare. He invited
the attention of the French Government
to his invention, and Bonaparte, then
First_ Consul, appointed a commission to
examine it. Several experiments were
made in 1801 in the harbor of Brest. He
could easily descend to any depth, or rise
to the surface; and where there was no
strong current, the boat was quite obedi-
ent to her helm while under water. But
the motion of the boat while submerged
was very slow, and it was clearly unequal
to the stemming of a strong current. The
French Government declined to patronize
the project, and Fulton accepted an invi-
tation from the English ministry, who
also appointed a commission to test the
ROBERT FXJLTON
merits of his torpedo. He appears, how-
ever, to have received but little en-
couragement, and in 1806 he returned to
the United States. Having been supplied
with the necessary funds by Robert Liv-
ingston, who had been American ambas-
sador at Paris, Fulton had the satisfac-
tion of proving, in 1807, that steam could
be applied to the propulsion of vessels
with entire success. His first steamboat,
called "The Clermont" (of 140 feet keel
and 16% feet beam), made a progress on
the Hudson of 5 miles an hour. His sec-
ond large boat on the Hudson was the
"Car of Neptune," and was built in 1807.
He afterward built other steam vessels,
one of them a frigate which bore his
name. His reputation became estab-
lished, and his fortune was rapidly in-
creasing, when his patent for steam ves-
sels was disputed, and his opponents were
in a considerable degree successful. The
lawsuits about his patent rights, together
with his enthusiasm, which led him to
expose himself too much while directing
his workmen, impaired his constitution,
and he died in New York City, Feb. 24,
1815. In 1900 the centenary of the "Cle-
mont" was celebrated in conjunction with
FUNCHAL
231
FUNGUS
the tercentenary of the discovery of the
Hudson by Hendrik Hudson.
FUNCHAL (fon-shal'), the capital
snd seaport of the island of Madeira, in
the center of a large bay on the S. coast.
It is irregularly built; the streets are
narrow, winding, ill-paved, and dirty. An
old castle, which commands the roads,
stands on the top of a steep, black rock,
called Loo Rock, surrounded by the sea at
high water. The entire produce of the
island, consisting mostly of wine and
sweetmeats, is exported from Funchal.
Pop. about 20,000, among whom are many
of the dependence above referred to.
Thus the function above written is said
to be an algebraical function of x, since y
is obtainable from x by the performance
of a limited and definite number of alge-
braical operations. Log x, sin x, a% on
the other hand, are said to be transcen-
dental functions of x, and for obvious
reasons receive the distinctive names of
logarithmic, trigonometrical and exponen-
tial functions.
FUNDY, BAY OF, an arm of the
Atlantic Ocean between Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick. It is about 170 miles
POISONOUS FUNGI
1. Fly Mushroom
2. Sulphur Tuft
3. Satan's Mushroom
4. Death-cup
English, French, Portuguese, and mulat-
to and negro freedmen. See Madeira.
FXJNCK-BBENTANO, THEOPHILE
(fonk-bren-ta'no) , a French philosophi-
cal and critical writer; born in Luxem-
burg, Aug. 20, 1830. His thorough studies
in law and medicine imparted to his
philosophical writings an exactitude of
thought and inspired a special stress on
method, as in "New Thoughts and
Maxims" (1858) ; "Exact Thought in
Philosophy" (1869) ; "Greek Sophists
and Contemporary English Sophists"
(1879); "The French Sophists" (1905),
FUNCTION, in physiology, the proper
office of any organ in the animal or vege-
table economy. Thus the function of the
lachrymal gland is to secrete tears; of
the liver, to secrete bile; of the stomach,
gastric juice, the fluid to digest the food.
The three most important of all the func-
tions, as those of the heart, lungs, and
brain, are called the vital functions, from
being necessary for the support of the
living body. In mathematics, one quan-
tity is said to be a function of another,
or of several others, when its value de-
pends on those of the latter. Thus the
area of a triangle is a function of its
three sides, and y=a+bx + cx' is a func-
tion of a, b, c, and x. Functions receive
distinctive names according to the nature
long, and from 30 to 50 miles wide. Open-
ing into it are Chignecto Bay and Mines
Channel at the N. extremity, and Passa-
maquoddy Bay near its mouth. It re-
ceives the St. John and St. Croix rivers,
and though very deep, navigation is dan-
gerous. The tide rises here to the height
of 71 feet, rushing with great and dan-
gerous rapidity.
FUNEN, an island of the Danish
archipelago, separated from Jiitland by
the strait called Little Belt; area 1,123
square miles. Its shores are deeply in-
dented; its intei-ior is undulating, and
there are numerous lakes, streams, and
marshes. The soil is productive. Pro-
ducts, corn, flax, hemp, and fruit. Ex-
ports, corn, cattle, horses, honey, fruit,
lard, butter, leather. It trades princi-
pally with Sweden and Norway. It forms
with other islands a province of Den-
mark {q. v.). Chief towns Odense, the
capital; Svendborg, and Nyeborg.
FUNGUS, in botany, the singular of
fungi; a term of comprehensive mean-
ing, used for any plant belonging to the
fungal alliance. Some botanists rtot
infrequently apply the term fungal in-
stead of fungus. In medicine, a morbid
growth suggestive of a fungus, and gen-
erally dependent on the presence of vege-
table parasites.
FUNK
232
FUR
FUNK, ISAAC KAUFFMAN, an
American editor and publisher, born at
Clifton, Ohio, in 1839. He was educated
at Wittenberg College, Ohio. For sev-
eral years he was a pastor in Brooklyn,
N. Y. In 1878 he formed the publishing
house of Funk and Wagnalls and pub-
lished many reprints of English books.
In 1889 the Literary Digest was estab-
lished and in 1898 the Standard Diction-
moted him Brigadier-General of volun-
teers May 2, 1899, in recognition of his
fearless and brilliant feat in swimming
across the Rio Grande at Calumpit under
a heavy fire, and establishing a rope
ferry, by means of which the Americans
crossed the river and defeated the insur-
gents. On May 2, 1900, while cruising
up the Rio Grande he espied a ladder con-
necting with the summit of a cliff on
EDIBLE FUNGI
1. Lacterla 5. Chanterelle
2. Morel 6. Champignon
3. Ringed Boletus 7. Hedgehog Fungtis
4. Rough-Stemmed Boletus
ary was published. This was revised in
1913. He was an active Pronibitionist
and founded in 1880 the "Voice" as an
organ of that party. In his later years
he became interested in psychical re-
search and wrote "The Next Step in Evo-
lution" (1902); and "The Psychic Rid-
dle" (1907). He died in 1912.
FUNSTON, FREDEBICK, an Ameri-
can military officer; born in Ohio, Nov.
9, 1865; was educated at the Kansas
State University; engaged in newspaper
work in Kansas City in 1890; was special
agent of the Agricultural Department to
investigate the flora of Alaska in 1893-
1894; enlisted for service with the Cu-
bans in 1896, and fought against Spain
for a year and a half. When the Ameri-
can-Spanish War broke out he was ap-
pointed colonel of the 20th Kansas Volun-
teers, with which he was ordered to the
Philippines, where he achieved a marked
success. He was the first to enter Malo-
los, the capital of the Filipino insurgents,
March 31, 1899. President McKinley pro-
which he discovered numerous boxes con-
taining Filipino documents, and all of
Aguinaldo's correspondence from the
time he first communicated with Dewey
down to the action at Malolos. On March
23, 1901, he captured Aguinaldo at his
hiding place in Palanon, Isabella prov-
ince, Luzon. In recognition of this serv-
ice he was commissioned a Brigadier-
General, U. S. A., on March 30 following.
In 1906 he commanded Dept. of Califor-
nia during the fire and earthquake, and
in 1907-1908, troops at Goldfields, Col. In
1914 he commanded the troops in the
Vera Cruz, Mexico, expedition, and in
1916 troops on the Mexican border, and
had direction of the campaign to secure
the Mexican bandit Villa. He died in 1919.
FUR, the coated skins of wild animals,
especially of those of high N. latitudes;
such as the wolf, bear, beaver, etc. For
wearing, the hair or fur is cleansed, and
the skin is generally slightly tanned. The
most valuable furs, such as ermine and
sable, come chiefly from Russia. When
FUBIES
233
FURROW
iinprepared, or merely dried, the fur-
skins go under the name of peltry. (See
Furs.)
FURIES (Latin Furise) , in classical
mythology, the three daughters of Nox
and Achero, or of Pluto and Proserpine,
also called the Eumenides. Sometimes
they were represented young and beauti-
ful, with or without serpents twining
about their heads. These avenging
deities of the ancients were called Alecto,
Megara, and Tisiphone, to which some
add Nemesis. They were supposed to be
the ministers of the gods. Their sphere
of action was consequently both in the
infernal regions, to punish condemned
souls, and on the earth, to rack the guilty
conscience. The most usual mode of
typifying the Furies was by giving them
a frightful aspect, with a burning torch
in one hand and a whip of scorpions in
the other, and always attended by Ter-
ror, Paleness, Rage, and Death.
FURMAN UNIVERSITY, a coeduca-
tional institution in Greenville, S. C.;
founded in 1854 under the auspices of
the Baptist Church; reported at the
close of 1919: Professors and instructors,
11; students, 300; president, S. E. Brad-
shaw, A. M.
FURNACE, a place where a vehement
fire and heat may be made and main-
tained, as for melting ores or metals,
heating the boiler of a steam engine,
warming a house, baking pottery or
bread, and other purposes. Furnaces are
constructed in a great variety of ways,
according to the different purposes to
which they are applied. In constructing
furnaces the following objects are kept
in view: (1) To obtain the greatest
quantity of heat from a given quantity
of fuel. (2) To prevent the dissipation
of the heat after it is produced. (3)
To concentrate the heat and direct it as
much as possible to the substances to be
acted on. (4) To be able to regulate at
pleasure the necessary degree of heat
and have it wholly under the operator's
management. An air furnace is one in
which the flames are urged only by the
natural draught; a blast furnace, one in
which the heat is intensified by the in-
jection of a strong current of air by
artificial means; a reverberatory fur-
nace, one in which the flames in passing
to the chimney are thrown down by a
low-arched roof on the objects which it
is intended to expose to their action. See
Blast Furnace.
FURNESS, HORACE HOWARD, an
American Shakespeare scholar and edi-
tor; son of William H. ; born in Phila-
delphia, Pa., Nov. 2, 1833 ; was graduated
at Harvard in 1854; studied law, and
was admitted to the bar in 1859. The
honorary degree of Ph. D. was conferred
on him by the University of Gottingen.
He was the editor of the exhaustive "New
Variorum Edition" (1871-1900), of
Shakespeare. He died in 1912.
FURNESS, WILLIAM HENRY, an
American clergyman and author; born
in Boston, Mass., April 20, 1802, He was
educated at Harvard; studied theol-
ogy at Cambridge, Mass., and was pastor
of the First Unitarian Church in Phila-
delphia in 1825-1875. Among his numer-
ous works are: "Remarks on the Four
Gospels" (1836) ; "Jesus and His Biog-
raphers" (1838) ; "The Story of the Re-
surrection Told Once More" (1885) ;
"Verses and Translations from the Ger-
man Poets" (1886); "Pastoral Offices"
(1893). He died in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Jan. 30, 1896.
FURNISS, HARRY, an English artist.
He was born in Wexford, in 1854, and
settled in London at nineteen. He con-
tributed for many years to the ''Illus-
trated London News," 'Graphic," "Black
and White," "Illustrated Sporting and
Dramatic News," and other magazines in
England and America. He joined the staff
of "Punch" in 1880, and has since toured
the United States, Canada, Australia,
etc., as a humorous lecturer. His works
include: "Romps, Flying Visits"; "Royal
Academy Antics"; "HunK.urs ol ta.ua-
ment"; "America in a Hurry"; "P. and
O. Sketches"; "Confessions of a Cari-
caturist"; "Harry Furniss at Home";.
"Poverty Bay" (novel) ; "How to Draw
in Pen and Ink"; "Friends Without
Faces"; "Our Lady Cinema"; "Peace in
War."
FURNIVALL, FREDERICK JAMES,
an English historian of literature; bom
in Egham, Surrey, England, Feb. 4, 1825.
A lawyer by profession, he became a
socialist and reformer, and a student of
debatable literary problems. His labors
resulted in the production of "Shake-
speare's England" (1877), and many
editions of old masterpieces, such as:
"Saint-Graal, the History of the Holy
Graal in English Verse, by Henry Lone-
lich," and "Caxton's Book of Curtesye."
He died July 2, 1910.
FURROW, in ordinary lano:uage, a
trench in the earth made by a plow; any
narrow trench, groove, or hollow; a
wrinkle. In milling, the grooves in the
face of a millstone; the plane surface is
land. A leader furrow extends from the
eye to the skirt of the stone at such
draft as may be determined. The steep
edge of the furrow is called the track
edge ; the more inclined edge is called the
feather edge. The second furrow is that
ruKS
234
FUSION
branching from the leader nearest to the
eye. The skirt furrow departs from the
leader nearer to the skirt. A gauge
furrow is concave at bottom.
FURS. Under the name of furs may
be included the skins of almost all those
animals which, for the sake of protec-
tion against cold, have for a covering an
under layer of a soft, woolly, or downy
texture, through which grows in most
instances an upper one of a more bristly
or hairy nature; some by nature possess
more of the under coat, and others more
of the upper, the proportion varying con-
siderably in different animals and coun-
tries. In winter the fur becomes thicker
in its growth, thereby improving the
quality and value for commercial pur-
poses; young animals too possess thicker
coats than full-grown ones. In some in-
stances the under-fur alone is used in
manufacturing, while the upper hairs
are removed — e. g., in the fur-seal.
The chief supply of furs is obtained
from Siberia and the N. parts of North
America, and, as these tracts are for
the greater part of the year frostbound,
the fur-bearing animals enjoy a com-
paratively unmolested life; the fur,
therefore, grows thickly during the win-
ter season, and is in its best condition
when the animal is trapped in the
spring; large quantities also of the
smaller sorts are found in the United
States; Europe produces immense num-
bers of common furs, such as rabbits,
hares, foxes, etc., besides the more valu-
able stone and baum (tree) martens,
though the larger animals have almost
disappeared as the countries have be-
come more and more cleared and inhab-
ited; South America yields nutrias and
chinchillas; while Australia exports rab-
bits, opossums, and kangaroos, and
Africa monkey and leopard skins. Near-
ly all fur-skins are brought to the mar-
ket in the raw or undressed state.
FUSAROLE, or FUSAROL, in archi-
tectiare, a molding or ornament placed
immediately under the echinus in the
Doric, Ionic, and Composite capitals; the
shaft of a column, pilaster, or pillar, or
that part comprehended between the
shaft and the capital.
FUSE (a shortened form of fusee),
a tube or casing filled with combustible
material, and used for igniting a charge
in a mine or a hollow projectile. The in-
vention was undoubtedly contemporane-
ous with that of hollow projectiles. The
following are the principal varieties of
fuses in use :
(1) Bickford fuse, used for mining
and submarine purposes. It consists of
a small linen tube filled with gunpowder.
the whole being covered with pitch. It
burns at the rate of one yard in 70 sec-
onds.
(2) Blasting fuse, used in mining and
quarrying. It is filled with a slow-burn-
ing composition, allowing time for the
operatives to reach a place of safety be-
fore it burns down to the charge. It is
also used for submarine blasting.
(3) Combination f^ise, for hollow pro-
jectiles, comprises a time-fuse and a per-
cussion or concussion fuse united in the
same case. The former is designed to
explode the charge in case the latter
fails to act on striking. Another form
is that in which the time-fuse explodes
the percussion-fuse. The variety is used
with such explosives as dynamite and
gun cotton.
(4) Concussion fuse, for hollow pro-
jectiles; designed to explode the charge
when the shell strikes an object.
(5) Delayed action fuse, for use with
common shell against earthworks. It
causes the projectile to explode four sec-
onds after impact.
(6) Electric fuse is one adapted to be
ignited by the passage of an electric
spark through it.
(7) Percussion fuse, embraces a cap-
sule charged with fulminate, which is
exploded by a plunger or its equivalent,
when the projectile strikes. The plung-
er is held by a pin sufficiently strong to
keep it in place in case of a fall, yet
weak enough to be severed by the shock
of striking.
(8) Safety fuse is a cord or ribbon-
shaped fuse filled with a fulminating or
quick-burning composition, and suffi-
ciently long to be ignited at a safe dis-
tance from the chamber where the charge
is placed.
(9) Tape fuse is a safety fuse, so
called from its shape.
(10) Time-fuse is one which is adapt-
ed either by cutting off a portion of its
length or by the character of its com-
position to burn a certain definite time.
FUSEL OIL, an oily product formed
during the fermentation of potatoes,
corn, and the juice of grapes. This is
separated in the rectification of the
spirit, occurring in the last part of the
distillate as an acrid, oily liquid, haying
a peculiar odor and burning taste; it is
poisonous.
FUSION, in ordinary language, the
act of fusing, melting, or rendering
liquid by means of heat; or the state of
being melted or liquefied by means of
heat. In politics, the term is used of
the union of opposing parties for a com-
mon end. If a ticket should contain the
names of members of two political par-
ties with a view of securing for that
FTJSISPORIUM
has
FYZABAD
ticket enough votes to defeat a nominee
of a third party at an election, that
would be called a "fusion ticket." In
chemistry, every substance begins to fuse
at a certain temperature, which is in-
variable for each of them if the pressure
be constant. Whatever be the intensity
of the source of heat, from the moment
fusion commences the temperature of
the body ceases to rise, and remains
constant till the fusion is complete.
Some bodies have a definite fusing or
melting point, as mercui*y at — 38.8° ; ice.
-fO; butter, +33; phosphorus, +44;
sulphur, + 114; tin, + 228; lead, +335;
zinc, + 422; antimony, + 450; silver, +
1,000; gold, + 1,250; and iron, + 1,500.
Some have no definite point of fusion,
melting gradually. This is called vit-
reous fusion.
FUSISPOmUM, in botany^ a genus
of hyphomycetous fungi, forming first a
mildew and next an extensive gelatinous
stratum, with spindle-shaped spores.
There are many British species. Fusis-
porium atrovireiis is a destructive mil-
dew on onions; F. foeni is found in
orange-red patches many feet wide;
and F. grisentn is common on dead
leaves.
FUSTIAN, a species of cotton cloth
somewhat similar m manufacture to vel-
vet, having, in addition to the warp and
weft, a species of pile. When in the
loom, this pile presents the appearance
of a set of loops; but these are after-
ward cut in two and sheared down. The
fustian, when polished and finished,
presents an evenly-ribbed surface on the
exterior. The best descriptions of this
class of goods are those known as
cotton-velvet and velveteen; but besides
these there are moleskin, corduroy, and
several other kinds. See Weaving. In
literature, a forced, bombastic style of
writing.
FTTSXJS, in zoology a genus of Gastero-
poda, family Muricidse. Shell, fusiform;
canal, long, straight; operculum, ovate
curved; nucleus, apicol. Known i^cent
species, 184; fossil, 320; these latter,
perhaps from the Bath Oolite, or at least
the Gault, to the Eocene. Fusus or Chry-
sodomus antiqutis is the buckie and roar-
ing buckie of Scotland. F. colosseus and
F. proboscidalis are of large size.
FUTURE LIFE, a life to succeed this
one; a life beyond the tomb.
Ethnic Fadtlis. — The belief in a future
life is very widely spread. In its early
form no distinction is drawn between
the souls of men and brutes; for both
another state of existence is reser\-ed.
In the lowest form of Animism, a figure
of a deceased friend appearing to a sur-
vivor in a dream is supposed to be the
actual soul of the person dead, whence
faith in another state of existence be-
comes natural and easy. Two distinct
forms of belief now diverge, the one
leading in the direction of the transmi-
gration of souls, the other maintaining
the independent existence of the personal
soul after the death of the body. Among
the lower races, the moral element in the
doctrine of a future life is almost wholly
wanting.
Judaism. — There are but few allusions
to a future life in the Old Testament.
The most notable one is, "And many of
them that sleep in the dust of the earth
shall awake, some to everlasting life,
and some to shame and everlasting con-
tempt. And they that be wise shall
shine as the brightness of the firmament ;
and they that turn many to righteous-
ness as the stars forever and ever"
(Dan. xii:2,3).
Christianity. — "Jesus Chi'ist," says St.
Paul, "hath abolished death, and hath
brought life and immortality to light
through the gospel" (II Tim. i: 10). The
doctrine in this case is not merely that
of the immortality of the soul, not trans-
migrated, but retaining its separate in-
dividuality (see Immortality) ; there is
superadded to this the resurrection
and transformation of the body (see
Resurrex:tion), The moral element
in the doctrine of a future life is here
all in all.
FYFFE, CHARLE3 ALAN, an Eng-
lish historian; bom in Blackheath, Kent,
England, in December, 1845; was gradu-
ated at Oxford in 1868; and was called
to the bar in 1876, but never practiced.
As correspondent of the "Daily News"
during the Franco-Prussian War he is
said to have sent to that journal the
first account of the battle of Sedan that
appeared in print. On account of a false
charge, he committed suicide. His his-
torical works include "History of Greece"
(1875); "History Primers"; and the
well-known "History of Modern Europe"
(1880, 1886, 1890). He died Feb. 19,
1892.
FYZABAD, or FAIZABAU. a city in
the United Provinces of India, the capi-
tal of the division of the same name.
Within its limits are many temples and
a vast number of ruins of the ancient
city of Ayodhya. The great fair
annually held here is attended by over
half a million pilgrims. There is an
important trade in wheat and rice. The
city contains large sugar refineries. It
is the headquarters of a British commis-
sioner. Pop. about 60,000.
G
G, g, the seventh letter and fifth con-
sonant of the English alphabet, formed
by arching the tongue against the hinder
part of the roof of the mouth, then low-
ering the tongue and giving utterance to
voice. G has two sounds in the English,
one hard when it occurs before a, o, u,
as in gate, god, gun (except in gaol),
and when initial, always before e and 1
in all words of English origin, as in get,
give, and when final, as in bag; also be-
fore the consonants 1 and r, as in glove,
grove; the second sound of g is soft, and
is a palatal sound like j. This second
sound of g was unknown in Anglo-Saxon.
It is the voiced sound corresponding to
the breathed sound of ch as in church. It
is the sound which g has commonly be-
fore e, i, and y, as in gem, gin, g:ym-
nastics. G is silent before n, as in gnat,
when at the beginning of a word, and
at the end of a word it generally serves
to lengthen the vowel, as in benigri. In
form G is a modification of C, which in
the Roman alphabet had the same power.
The Anglo-Saxon g is in many words
now represented by y, as in may (verb),
way (Anglo-Saxon wcega), or w, as in
law (Anglo-Saxon lagu) , dawn (Anglo-
Saxon dagian) . Sometimes it has been
softened down to a, e, or i, as in alike
(Anglo-Saxon gelic) , enough (Anglo-
Saxon genoh), handiwork (Anglo-Saxon
handgeweorc) . Sometimes it is lost in
the root, and makes its appearance in the
derivative as in dry and drought, slay
and slaughter, etc. From some words it
has disappeared altogether, as in if (An-
glo-Saxon gif), icicle (Anglo-Saxon isgi-
eel), etc. It has been softened to ge
(=j), as in cringe (Anglo-Saxon crin-
gan) , and to ch in orchard (Anglo-Saxon
ortgeard). In Romance words g often
disappears, as in master (Lat. magister) .
It has crept into some words (generally
false analogy), as in sovereign, foreign,
(Old French soverain, fm-ain) . Ec, eg
has often become ge (=j), as in edge
(Anglo-Saxon ecg, egg). Gh has a gut-
tural sound, as in lough, the sound of f ,
as in tough, and in many words is not
sounded, as in bright, plough.
G, as a symbol is used :
1. In numerals, for 400, and with a
dash over it, for 40,000.
2. In music:
(1) The note lichanos in Greek music.
(2) The first note of the Church mode,
called Eolin, the highest in pitch of the
authentic modes.
(3) The lowest note of the grave hexa-
chord; in the Guidonian system, ga/m-
ma ut.
(4) The fifth note of the normal scale
of C, called sol.
(5) The lowest or fourth string of a
violin, the third of the viola and violon-
cello.
(6) The key-note of the major scale,
having one sharp in the signature.
(7) The letter-name of the treble clef.
3. In Church calendar, for the seventh
of the Dominical letters.
4. Physics : A symbol for the accelera-
tion of a body falling in vacuo. It = 980
C. G. S. units of acceleration.
GABLONZ (ga'blonts), a town of the
N. of Bohemia, 6 miles S. E. of Reichen-
berg, celebrated for its glass manufac-
tures, in which thousands of men are
employed. The town has also textile
Industries, bookbinding, and poircelain
painting. Pop. about 30,000.
GABOON, or GABUN, a French colony
on the W. coast of Africa on an eskiary
of the Gaboon river, 40 miles long by
10 miles, just north of the equator. The
climate on the coastal strip is extremely
unhealthy. On the inland plateau (2,600
feet above sea-level) it is better. Among
the exports figure timber, gum, ivory,
gutta-percha, palm oil and kernels, earth
nuts, sesamum, and malachite; other
products are brown hematite, quicksilver,
sugar cane, cotton and bananas. The
people belong for the most part to tribes
of the Bantu stock, the more important
being the Mpongwe, the Fans, Bakele,
Bateke, etc. Sheep and goats are numer-
236
aAB0BIAT7
237
OADSDEN PURCHASE
ous, but the former yield no wool. This
part of Africa was discovered by the
Spaniards in the 15th century. The
French made their first settlement on the
Gaboon estuary in 1842; 20 years later
they extended their sway to the Ogowe.
But they seem never to have attached any
importance to the colony till after Savor-
gnan de Brazza began to explore it in
1876-1886. See French Equatorial
Africa.
GABORIAU, EMILE (ga-bo-ryo') , a
French writer of detective stories; born
in Saujon, Charente-Inferieure, France,
Nov. 9, 1835. His early years were a
succession of vicissitudes; the army, the
law, and even the Church, were in turn
the objects of his inconstant attentions
till at last he wrote the highly successful
romance, "The Lerouge Affair" in 1866.
His works include: "File No. 113"
(1867) ; "The Crime of Orcival" (1867) ;
"Monsieur Lecoq" (1869) ; "The Fall"
(1871) ; "The Rope About the Neck"
(1873) ; etc. He died in Paris, Sept. 28,
1873.
GABRIEL CHANNEL, a strait of
Tierra del Fuego, between Dawson Is-
land and the mainland. This remarkable
channel is about 2y-i. miles wide at either
end, but the shores approach toward the
middle, and rise to an almost perpen-
dicular height of 1,500 feet. Lat. 54° 20'
S.; Ion. 70° 40' W.
GABRILOVITCH, OSSIP, a Russian
pianist and composer. Born in St.
Petersburg, Russia, in 1878, he studied
at the conservatory there under the
famous Rubinstein. Later he studied in
Vienna, and in 1896 made his d^but in
Berlin. After this he toured the Conti-
nent, and four years later came to the
United States. His reception was most
cordial both on this and on his numerous
subsequent tours. In 1909 he married
Mark Twain's daughter, Clara Clemens.
GAD, the seventh son of Jacob by
Zilpah, the handmaid of Leah, and
founder of an Israelitish tribe number-
ing at the exodus from Eg^'pt over 40,-
000 fighting men. Nomadic by nature,
end possessing large herds of cattle, they
preferred to remain on the E. side of
Jordan. Their territory lay to the N,
of that of Reuben, and comprised the
mountainous district known as Gilead,
through which flowed the brook Jabbock,
touching the Sea of Galilee at its N.
extremity, and reaching as far E. as
Rabbath-Ammon.
GADAMES, or GHADAMES (ga-da'
mes) (the Cydamus of the Romans), the
name of an oasis and town of Africa,
situated on the N. border of the Sahara,
in lat. 30° 9' N. and Ion. 9° 17' E. The
Vol. IV — Cyc— P
entire oasis is surrounded by a wall,
which protects it from the sands of the
desert. The gardens of Gadames, which
grow dates, figs, and apricots, owe their
fertility to a hot spring (89° F.), from
which the town had its origin. The town
is a center for ivory, beeswax, hides,
ostrich feathers, gold, etc., from the in-
terior to Tripoli. Pop. about 7,500.
GADARA (gad'a-ra), formerly a
flourishing town of Syria, in the Dec-
apolis, a few miles S. E. of the Sea of
Galilee, but now a group of ruins. It
was the capital of Peraea. It endured
sieges by Alexander Jannseus and Ves-
pasian, but fell into decay after the
Mohammedan conquest,
GADID.ffl (gad'i-de), in ichthyology,
cods; a family of fishes, sub-order Aiia-
canthina (spineless fishes), tribe or
group Snbbrachiata, with ventral fins
attached to the breast or throat. The
body is rather long, a little compressed,
and covered with small, soft scales; the
teeth are in several rows. They are
voracious fishes. They are found chiefly
in the seas of temperate climates, and are
largely used for the food of man. Species
described by Yarrel, 21. See CoD.
GADOR (ga-dor'), SIERRA DE. a
mountain chain of Spain, in Andalusia,
ranging nearly parallel with the Sierra
Nevada. Its' highest point is nearly
7,000 feet above sea-level.
GADSDEN, a city of Alabama, the
county-seat of Etowah co. It is on the
Coosa river, and on the Chattanooga
Southern, the Louisville and Nashville,
the Southern, and the Nashville, Chatta-
nooga and St. Louis railroads. It is the
center of an important timber and min-
eral region, and its industries include
steel mills, lumber mills, blast furnaces,
foundries and machine shops, car works,
and manufactures of doors, blinds, flour,
wagons, etc. Among the public buildings
are a handsome post office and excellent
school buildings. Pop. (1910) 10,557;
(1920) 14.737.
GADSDEN. JAMES, an American
diplomatist; born in Charleston, S. C,
May 15, 1788; was graduated at Yale
College in 1806; served with distinction
in the War of 1812; and afterward took
part in the campaign against the Sem-
inole Indians. He was appointed minis-
ter to Mexico in 1853, and on Dec. 30
of that year negotiated the Gadsden
Purchase (q. v.), which fixed a new
boundary between Mexico and the United
States. He died in Charleston, S. C,
Dec. 25, 1858.
GADSDEN PURCHASE, a treaty
negotiated Dec. 30, 1853, by James Gads*
GADSHILL
238
GAETA
den, by which a tract of 45,000 square
miles, now included in the S. part of"
Arizona and New Mexico, was purchased
by the United States from Mexico for the
sum of $10,000,000.
GADSHILL, a hill 3 miles N. W. of the
Rochester, England, on the road to
Gravesend. It is commemorated in
Shakespeare's play, "Henry IV.," as the
place where Falstaff had his encounter
with the robbers and an inn at the place
is called Falstaff' s Inn. It is interesting
in modern times for Gadshill Place, oppo-
site the hill, which was long the residence
of Charles Dickens and was the home in
which he died.
GAELIC, or ERSE, LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE. The language spoken
by the Highlanders of Scotland is
termed by them the Gaelic ; but the name
frequently given to it by the Lowlanders
is Erse, or Ersh, evidently a corruption
of Irish. It is a dialect of that great
branch of the Celtic languages termed
the Gwyddelian or Gaelic, and to which
belong also the Irish and Manx, or that
spoken in the Isle of Man. According
to Dr. Prichard, the Celts are of Eastern
origin, belonging to the great Indo-Euro-
pean family. They arrived before the
Teutons from the regions on the Oxus,
and from Media, and penetrated through
the Allophylic races along the S. shores
of the Baltic Sea, at a time of which we
have no historic data. At the time of
the Roman invasion, Celtic was the lan-
guage generally spoken in western Eu-
rope. The dialects of the Celtic still
spoken, besides the three already men-
tioned, are the Welsh, and the language
of Brittany; while the Cornish, another
dialect, though not now spoken, is pre-
served in books. The three dialects,
the Irish, the Scottish-Gaelic, and the
Manx, approach each other so nearly
as to constitute but one language,
the peculiarities which distinguish them
from each other not being sufficiently
bi-oad or vital to constitute either of
them a distinct language. There are also
marked differences in the language as
spoken in different parts of the High-
lands; and a native of Sutherland has
some difficulty in understanding one.
The Gaelic which, from a variety of
cases has retained, in a considerable de-
gree, its original purity, is copious, bold,
and expressive. Having affixes and pre-
fixes, it greatly resembles the Hebrew,
particularly in the inflections of its nouns
and verbs. In Ireland, the Gaelic spoken
in the different parts varies.
GAELIC LEAGUE. An organization
having for its object the preservation,
cultivation and extension of the Irish
language and Irish literature, and the
reorganization of life in Ireland on the
basis of the old Irish civilization. The
Norman French who entered Ireland
from England from 1169 onward speedily
fell into Irish customs, learned to speak
Irish in place of French, and became
in the old phrase more Irish than the
Irish. Two centuries later, however, when
French among the educated classes in
England began to give way to English,
the English Government enacted laws,
such as the Statute of Kilkenny of 1367,
prohibiting the use of the Irish language,
dress and family names in Ireland. At
that time, however, English power in Ire-
land was confined to three or four coun-
ties in Leinster and even this restricted
area was continually dwindling. Follow-
ing the Reformation, however, and the
Tudor wars, immense effort was put forth
by the English Government to conquer
Ireland and destroy its language and lit-
erature, and this effort found its culmi-
nation in the National Schools of 1833, in
which English was introduced as the
medium of instruction. Various efforts
were made to preserve the national
language, but without much avail till,
in 1893, the Gaelic League was organized.
Branches of the league spread quickly
through not only Ireland, but other coun-
tries, and side by side with the cultiva-
tion of the language there was a revival
of Irish art, industry, and sport. Chairs
in Irish were established at Harvard,
Columbia, and the Catholic University,
as they had long been established in nu-
merous continental universities. The
movement spread to Scotland and the
Isle of Man where the language still
persisted from the period of Irish coloni-
zation in the early centuries of the
Christian era. At the present time the
language shows great vigor in Ireland
and the output of books in Irish is almost
equal to that in English.
GAETA (ga-a'ta), a fortified seaport
town of southern Italy, province of Ca-
serta, at the end of a peninsula, on the
W. shore of the kingdom, forming the N.
W. boundary of the gulf to which it gives
its name; 4 miles S. S. W. of Mola di
Gaeta, 41 N. W. of Naples, and 72 S. E.
of Rome. The town is regarded as one
of the keys of southern Italy. Its port,
though not the largest, is one of the
safest and best in Italy. It is the center
of a considerable trade. The place is
very ancient. Cicero was put to death,
by order of Antony, in its immediate
vicinity. After the fall of the Western
empire it had a republican form of gov-
ernment. In 1435 it was taken by Al-
fonso V. of Aragon; and since then be-
G^TULIA
239
GAINES'S MILL
longed to the crown of Naples till 1860.
In modern times it has been repeatedly
besieged; the last siege of note was in
1806, when it fell into the hands of the
French. In November, 1860, it with-
stood a siege of several weeks (as the
last stronghold of Francis II., King of
Naples, who had sought refuge within
its walls) by the national troops com-
manded by General Cialdini. Pop. about
6,000.
G-ffiTULIA (je-tu'li-a), an ancient
country of Africa situated S. of Mauri-
tania and Numidia, and embracing the
W. part of the Sahara. Its inhabitants
belonged in all probability to the aborig-
inal Berber family of north and north-
western Africa; they were not in general
black, though a portion of them dwelling
in the extreme S., toward the Niger, had
approximated to this color through inter-
mixture with the natives and from cli-
matic causes, and were called Melano-
gsetuli, or "Black Gaetulians." The Gaetu-
lians were savage and war-like, and
paid great attention to the rearing of
horses. They first came into collision
with the Romans during the Jugurthine
war, when they served as light horse in
the army of the Numidian king. Cossus
Lentulus broke them to Roman rule, ob-
taining for his success a triumph and
the surname of Gaetulicus (a. d. 6). The
ancient Gaetulians are believed to be rep-
resented by the modern Tuareg.
GAGE. LYMAN JUDSON. an Ameri-
can financier; born in De Ruyter, N. Y.,
June 28, 1836; removed to Rome, N. Y.,
in 1848, and was educated at the Rome
Academy. He worked in the Oneida
Central Bank from 1853 to 1855, when
he went to Chicago and was employed by
a planing-mill company. In 1868 he be-
came cashier and in 1891 president of
the First National Bank of Chicago. He
was the first president of the Board of
Directors of the World's Columbian Ex-
position, and several times president of
the American Bankers' Association and
the Civic Federation of Chicago. On
March 5, 1897, he was appointed Secre-
tary of the Treasury by President Mc-
Kinley; in 1901 was reappointed; and at
the end of that year resigned. He was
the originator of the Civic Reform move-
ment which started in Chicago and be-
came national. In 1906 he retired from
public life. He died in 1920.
GAGE, THOMAS, a British general;
born in 1721. He fought with the British
troops in America in 1755, 1758, and
1760; was commander-in-chief in North
America, with headquarters at New
York, in 1763-1772; was governor-in-
chief and captain-general of province of
Massachusetts Bay, with headquarters at
Boston, in 1774; was again made com-
mander-in-chief in North America in
1775, and returned to England the same
year. He was promoted general in 1782.
The battles of Lexington and Bunker
Hill took place during his generalship.
He died in April 2, 1787.
GAILLAC (ga-yak') , a town in the
French department of Tarn, on the river
Gaillac, 32 miles by rail N. E. of Tou-
louse. The Abbey Church of St. Michel
dates from the 12th century. The in-
habitants are engaged in wine-growing,
coopering, and spinning, and trade in
clover, coriander seeds, plums and wine.
GAILLARD, DAVID DU BOSE, an
American soldier and engineer. Born
in 1859 in South Carolina, he graduated
from the military academy at West Point
in 1884. As a lieutenant he superin-
tended harbor improvements at St. Au-
gustine and Tampa, Florida. In the
Spanish American War he served as a
colonel and after the war closed he was
chief engineer for the Santa Clara Dis-
trict in Cuba, having charge of the nu-
merous public improvements carried on
under the auspices of the Cuban and
American Governments. After a period as
a member of the staff of the War College
at Washington he returned to Cuba as
an important officer in the American
Army of pacification in 1907. A member
of the Isthmian Canal Commission in
1908, his whole time and attention were
devoted for years to the problem of build-
ing an inter-oceanic canal. Many of the
difficulties incident to the building of the
Panama canal were surmounted by the
aid of his genius. He died in 1913.
GAILOR. THOMAS FRANK, an
American Protestant Episcopal bishop,
born at Jackson, Miss., in 1856. He
graduated from Racine College in 1876
and afterward studied at the General
Theological Seminary. He was ordained
priest in 1880. From 1879 to 1893 he
was connected with the University of
the South as professor of history and
vice-chancellor. In the latter year he was
appointed coadjutor bishop and succeeded
to the bishopric in 1898. He was chan-
cellor and president of the board of
trustees of the University of the South
from 1908. His writings include "Things
New and Old" (1891) ; "Christianitv and
Education" (1903) ; "The Communion of
Saints" (1908) ; "The Episcopal Church"
(1914).
GAINES'S MILL, a locality near Rich-
mond, Va., noted as being the scene of
many balloon ascensions during the Civil
War (1861-1865). Near here occurred
the battle of Cold Harbor, called also
GAINESVILLE
240
GALATIAN
battle of Gaines's. Mill, June 27, 1862,
between a part of Lee's army and a part
of McClellan's. Here, too, Lee repulsed
Grant's assault, June 3, 1864.
GAINESVILLE, a city of Florida, the
county-seat of Alachua county. It is on
the Seaboard Air Line, the Atlantic
Coast Line, and the Tampa and Jack-
sonville railroads. It is an important
agricultural and stock-raising region and
its industries include lumbering, phos-
phate mining, wagon works, planing
mills, etc. It is the seat of the Florida
State University and is a popular winter
resort. Pop. (1910) 6,183; (1920) 6,860.
GAINESVILLE, a city of Georgia,
the county-seat of Hall co. It is on
the Southern, the Gainesville North-
western, and the Gainesville Midland
railroads. It has manufactures of cotton
goods, cotton yarn, asbestos, cottonseed
oil, wagons, brick works, etc. It is the
seat of Brenau College and Conservatory
of Music for young ladies. It also con-
tains the Riverside Military Academy.
Pop. (1910) 5,925; (1920) 6,272.
GAIWESVILLE, a city of Texas, the
county-seat of Cooke co. It is on
the Trinity river and on the Gulf, Colo-
rado, and Santa Fe, and the Missouri,
Kansas, and Texas railroads. It is
situated in an important agi'icultural and
stock-raising region and its industries
include iron foundries, machine shops,
cottonseed oil works, flour mills, pressed
brick works, etc. There are handsome
public buildings, including a city hall, a
city park, a library, etc. Pop. (1910)
7,624; (1920) 8,648.
GAINSBOROUGH, a market town of
Lincolnshire, on the right bank of the
Trent, 21 miles above its embouchure in
the Humber, and 16 miles by rail N. W.
of Lincoln. The parish church, with the
exception of a fine old tower, dating
from the 12th century, was' rebuilt in
1736. The manor house, built by John
of Gaunt, now forms part of the corn
exchange. The grammar school was
founded in 1589. The town manufactures
linseed cake and oil, malt and cordage.
GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS, an Eng-
lish portrait and landscape painter; bom
in Sudbury, Suffolk, England, in 1727.
He was sent to London at the age of
14, to study art under Gravelot, Frank
Haymau; and in the St. Martin's Lane
Academy. Returning to his native coun-
ty about 1744, he established himself as
a portrait painter at Ipswich. He was
patronized by Sir Philip Thicknesse, the
governor of Landguard Fort. Through
the advice of his friend, he removed in
1760 to Bath. Here he won the public
by his portrait of Earl Nugent; numer-
ous commissions followed, and in 1761
he began to exhibit with the Society of
Artists of Great Britain, a body which
he continued to support till 1768, when
he became a foundation member of the
Royal Academy. In 1774, after a deadly
quarrel with "Thicknesse, he removed to
London, and there prosecuted his art
with splendid success, being in por-
traiture the only worthy rival of Reyn-
olds, and in landscape of Wilson, Gains-
borough is excellently represented in the
National Gallery, London, by 14 works,
including portraits of ''Mrs. Siddons,"
of "Orpin the Parish Clerk," and of
"Ralph Schomberg, M. P.," and "The
Market Cart," and "The Watering-
Place"; in the National Portrait Gallery,
London, by five works; in the Dulwich
Gallery by six works, and in the National
Gallery of Scotland by the portrait of
the "Hon. Mrs. Graham." One of his
most celebrated portraits is that of
Master Jonathan Buttal, known as "The
Blue Boy," in the collection of the Duke
of Westminster. He died in London,
Aug. 2, 1788.
GALAPAGOS (ga-la'pa-gos) Spanish,
"tortoises," a group of 13 islands of vol-
canic origin in the North Pacific Ocean,
about 600 miles W. of the coast of
Ecuador, to which they belong; area,
2,950 square miles. The most important
are Albemarle, 60 miles long by 15
broad, and rising 4,700 feet above the
sea; Indefatigable, Chatham, Charles,
James, and Narborough. Many of the
fauna and flora of the islands are pecu-
liar to them, the most remarkable being
a large lizard and the elephant tortoise.
GALASHIELS (gal-a-shelz'), the chief
seat in Scotland of the Scoth tweed
manufacture. It occupies 2^.^ miles of
the valley of the Gala, immediately above
the junction of that river with the Tweed..
33% miles S. S. E. of Edinburgh, and 4
W. N. W. of Melrose. Its tower, de-
molished about 1814, was occupied in the
15th cen^-ury by the Douglases. As early
as 1581 wool was here manufactured
into cloth. The town has also the largest
skinnery in Scotland. Pop. about 13,000.
GALATIA, in ancient geography, a
country of Asia Minor, lying S. of Paph-
lagonia, W. of Pontus, and N. E. of
Phrygia. It was originally a part of
Phrygia, but the Gauls or Celts, having
invaded Asia in several bodies, con-
quered and settled in this country about
B. C. 241, whence the name.
GALATIAN, a native, or inhabitant of
Galatia. St. Paul's Epistle to the Gala-
tians, a New Testament epistle, stated in
ch. i: 1 to have been written by the
Apostle Paul, a claim admitted by the
GALATINA
241
GALEN
ancient Church universally, and by
nearly all the ablest modem critics.
GALATINA (ga-la-te'na) , a town of
Italy, 13 miles S. W. of Lecce. It has a
church, erected in 1384, with antique
sculptures and fine tombs of the Balzo-
Orsini family. Pop, 12,500.
GALATZ (ga'lats), or GALACZ
(ga'lach), a river port of Moldavia, the
center of the commerce of Rumania,
situated on the left bank of the Danube.
3 miles below the influx of the Sereth,
and 85 from the Sulina mouth of the
Danube, by rail 166 N. E. of Bucharest,
and 259 S. W. of Odessa. It occupies the
slope of a hill overlooking the river, and
is divided into an Old and a New Town,
the former consisting of irregularly built
streets, the latter built more after the
fashion of western Europe. Prior to the
World War the chief objects of indus-
try were iron, copper, wax candles, and
soap. The exports consist of maize,
wheat, wheat flour, barley, rye, and tim-
ber. Galatz has frequently been taken
in the wars between the Russians and
Turks since 1789. It ceased to be a free
port in 1883. Pop. about 74,000.
GALA (ga'la) WATER, a stream of
Edinburgh, Selkirk, and Roxburgh
shires, Scotland, rising among the Moor-
foot Hills, and winding 21 miles S. S. E.
past Stow and Galashiels, till, after a
total descent of 800 feet, it falls into the
Tweed, a little below Abbotsford, and
2^/^ miles W. of Melrose.
GALAXY, in astronomy, the Milky
Way. It constitutes nearly a great circle
inclined to the equinoctial at an angle of
about 63°, and cutting that circle in
right ascension Oh. 47' and 12h. 47', so
that the N. and S. poles are situated, the
one on right ascension 12h. 47', declina-
tion N. 27°, and right ascension Oh. 47',
declination S. 27°. The milky appear-
ance of the great belt or zone now
described arises fi'om the blended light
of countless multitudes of stars, each
doubtless a sun to some system of
planets. Sir William Herschel estimated
that at one portion of the Milky Way
116,000 stars passed through the field of
the telescope in a quarter of an hour, and
on another occasion 258,000 stars in 41
minutes. Here and there the Milky Way
divides, especially at one spot, where
there is a separation into two portions,
somewhat resembling the projecting sides
of a fish tail.
GALEA. SERVIUS SULPICIUS. a
Roman emperor, successor of Nero; born
Dec. 24, 3 B. c. He was made a praetor
(a. d. 20), and afterward governor of
Aquitania, and in A. D. 33 was raised to
the consulship. Caligula appointed him
general in Germany, and Claudius sent
him in A. D. 45 as proconsul to Africa.
He then lived in retirement till the
middle of Nero's reign, when the em-
peror appointed him governor of His-
pania Tarraconensis, but soon after or-
dered him to be secretly assassinated.
Galba revolted; the death of Nero fol-
lowed (a. d. 68), and he himself was
chosen emperor by the praetorian cohorts
in Rome. He went directly to Rome, but
soon made himself unpopular by cruelty
and avarice, and he was slain in the
forum, Jan. 15, A. D. 69.
GALDOS, BENITO PEREZ (gal'dos),
See Perez Galdos.
GALCHAS. a collective name given to
a group of tribes inhabiting the high-
lands and upland valleys of Ferghana,
Zarafsjjan and the Oxus. They are
closely akin to the Iranic stock, and in
speech are near the Tajiks and Persians,
GALE, NORMAN ROWLAND, an
English poet born at Kew, Surrey, March
4, 1862. He graduated from Oxford in
1884. His most important works in-
clude: "A Country Muse" (1892);
"Cricket Songs" (1894); "All Expenses
Paid" (1895) ; "Songs for Little People"
(1896); "Barty's Star" (1903). "A Book
of Quatrains" (1909) ; "Song in Septem-
ber" (1912); "Collected Poems" (1914).
GALE, ZONA, an American writer,
born at Portage, Wis., in 1874. She
graduated from the University of Wis-
consin in 1895, and until 1904 was en-
gaged in newspaper work in Milwaukee
and New York. She began contributing
short stories to magazines and at once
attained notice for her unusual skill in
portraying life and character in rural
communities. Her works include "Friend-
ship Village" (1908) ; "Mothers to Men"
(1911); "A Daughter of To-morrow"
(1917); "Peace in Friendship Village"
(1919) ; "Miss Lulu Bett" (1920).
GALEN, or CLAUDIUS GALENUS, a
celebrated Greek physician; born in Per-
gamus, Mysia, in A. D. 131. In his 19th
year he began the study of medicine, first
at Pergamus, after\vard at Smyrna,
Corinth, and Alexandria. On his return
to his native city in 158 he was appointed
physician to the school of gladiators.
Six years later he went to Rome and was
offered, though he declined, the post of
physician to the emperor. Scarcely,
however, had he returned to his native
city when summoned by the Emperors
M. Aurelius and L. Verus to attend them
in the Venetian territory, and shortly
aftei-ward he accompanied or followed
them to Rome (170). There he remained
GALENA
242
G ALICIA
several years. He attended M. Aurelius
and his two sons, Commodus and Sextus,
and about the end of the 2d century was
employed by the Emperor Severus. Ga-
len was a voluminous writer not only on
medical, but also on philosophical sub-
jects, such as logic, ethics, and grammar.
The works that are still extant under
his name consist of 83 treatises that are
acknowledged to be genuine; 19 whose
genuineness has been questioned; 45 un-
doubtedly spurious; 19 fragments; and
15 commentaries on different works of
Hippocrates. His most important ana-
tomical and physiological works are:
"Of Anatomical Administrations" and
"Of the Use of the Parts of the Human
Body." As an anatomist, he combined
with patient skill and sober observation
as a practical dissecter — of lower ani-
mals, not of the human body — accuracy
of description and clearness of exposition
as a writer. He is said to have died in
Sicily, about A. D. 201.
GALENA (PbS), the sulphide of lead,
found both in masses and crystallized in
cubes, but sometimes in truncated octa-
hedra; its color is bluish-gray, like lead,
but brighter. For the most part it con-
tains about 86.6 per cent, of lead and
13.4 of sulphur, generally some silver
and also antimony, zinc, iron, and bis-
muth. Where the proportion of silver
is high it is known as argentiferous
galena, and worked with a view to the
extraction of this metal. Galena occurs
principally in the older or Primary rocks,
being found in England mainly in the
Mountain Limestone (base of the Car-
boniferous formation). In the United
States it is very abundant, the deposit
of galena in which the mines of Illinois
are situated being the most extensive
and important hitherto discovered.
GALENA, a city and county-seat of
Jo Daviess co.. 111.; on the Galena river,
near its junction with the Mississippi,
and on the Illinois Central, the Chicago
and Northwestern, and the Burlington
and Chicago Great Western railroads;
165 miles W. of Chicago. It has steamer
connections with all important river
ports, and has numerous smelting, mar-
ble, and stone works, foundries, bridge-
works, machine shops, planing mills, and
a large trade in farm and dairy prod-
ucts, and live stock. It is noted as an
early residence of General Grant and re-
ceived its name from the numerous lead
mines in the vicinity. Among points of
interest in the city are its public parks,
Grant Park, United States Marine Hos-
pital, Custom House, and the Grant
Homestead. The city has an abundant
water supply from artesian wells, fine
natural drainage, public high school,
daily and weekly papers, National banks;
Pop. (1919) 4,835; (1920) 4,742.
GALEE.IUS (-le'ri-us),or GALEBIUS
VALERIUS MAXIMIANT7S, a Roman
emperor; born of humble parentage, near
Sardica, Dacia. Entering the imperial
army, he rose rapidly to the highest
ranks. In 292 Diocletian conferred on
him the title of Caesar, and gave him his
daughter in marriage. In 296-297 he
conducted a campaign against the Per-
sians, in which he decisively defeated
their king, Narses. On the abdication of
Diocletian (305) he and Constantius
Chlorus became joint rulers of the Ro-
man empire, Galerius taking the E. half.
When Constantius died in York (306)
the troops in Britain and Gaul immedi-
ately transferred their allegiance to his
son, Constantine (afterward Constantine
the Great). Galerius, however, retained
possession of the E. till his death. He
died in a. d. 311.
GALESBURG, a city of Illinois, the
county-seat of Knox co. It is on the
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and the
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe rail-
roads. It is an important industrial com-
munity and has the Burlington Railroad
shops, stock yards, brick making plants,
boiler and engine works, iron foundries,
etc. It is the distributing point for the
wholesale and jobbing trade of a large
section. The city is notable for the num-
ber of its educational institutions within
its borders. These include Knox College,
Lombard College, Corpus Christi Lyceum^
St. Mary's School, St. Joseph's Academy,
and others. There are several excellent
parks, hospitals, and a public library.
Pop. (1910) 22,089; (1920) 23,834.
GALICIA, formerlj^ a kingdom and
afterward a province in Spain, bounded
N. and W. by the Atlantic, S. by Portu-
gal, and E. by Leon and Asturias, with
an area of 11,340 squai'e miles. It has
been divided since 1833 into the minor
provinces of Coruna, Lugo, Orense, and
Pontevedra, whose joint population is
about 2,100,000. The country is moun-
tainous, being traversed by offsets of the
Asturian chain, rising in their highest
peaks to about 6,500 feet. The W. spurs,
Capes Ortegal and Finisterre, project
into the Atlantic. The numerous short
but rapid rivers form small estuaries
which afford secure havens and roads.
The principal river is the Minho, which,
with its feeder, the Sil, is navigable for
small vessels on its lower course. Galicia
is one of the most fruitful portions of
Europe, and has a mild, nourishing
climate. Mines of lead, tin, copper, and
iron pyrites are worked. The inhabitants,
called Gallegos, are a robust, vigorous,
G ALICIA
243
GALILEE, SEA OF
industrious race. Great numbers of them
annually visit central and southern
Spain and Portugal, where they find em-
ployment as harvesters, water carriers,
porters, etc. Chief exports, live cattle,
preserved meat, eggs, minerals, fish,
fruits and grain; imports, coal, oil, hides,
spirits, sugar, and tobacco. The principal
towns are Santiago di Compostella and
the two strongly fortified seaports
Corufia and Ferrol. Galicia was a king-
dom under the Suevi from 411 to 585,
and again from 1060 to 1071, at which
date it was finally incorporated with
Leon and Castile.
GALICIA, a former province of Aus-
tria, now a part of the Republic of
Poland, bounded by Russia, Bukowina,
Hungary, and Moravia; area, 30,307
square miles; pop., Polish in the W.,
Russniak in the E. The great physical
features of the country are, in a man-
ner determined by the Carpathians,
■yvhich form a long and irregular curve
on the S. and send out branches into
Galicia. Farther to the N. the hills sub-
side rapidly and finally merge into vast
plains. It has several considerable rivers,
those on the W. being affluents of the
Vistula, those in the E. of the Danube
and Dniester. The climate is severe,
particularly in the S. where more
than one of the Carpathian summits rise
beyond the snow-line. The summers are
very warm but comparatively short. The
soil in general is fertile, and yields abun-
dant crops of cereals, hemp, flax, tobacco,
etc. The domestic animals include great
numbers of horned cattle and a fine
hardy breed of horses. Sheep are in gen-
eral neglected; but goats, swine and
poultry abound, and bee-keeping is prac-
ticed on a large scale. Bears and wolves
are still found in the forests; and all the
lesser kinds of game are in abundance.
The minerals include marble, alabaster,
copper, calamine, coal, iron, and rock
salt. Only the last two are of much im-
portance. Rock salt is particularly
abundant. The most important mines
have their central locality at Wieliczka.
Manufactures have not made much prog-
ress. The spinning and weaving of flax
and hemp prevail to a considerable ex-
tent on the confines of Silesia. Distil-
leries exist in every quarter. The Roman
Catholics and the Greek Catholics are the
chief religious bodies. The chief educa-
tional establishments are the University
of Lemberg and that of Cracow. The
principal towns are Lemberg, the capital,
and Cracow.
After being the field of continuous
strife between Russians, Poles, and Hun-
garians, Galicia continued a Polish de-
pendency from 1382 till the first parti-
tion of Poland in 1772, when it was ac-
quired by Austria. Galicia was one of
the Cis-Leithan provinces of the Aus-
trian empire, and was represented in the
Reichsrath by 63 deputies, while the
affairs peculiar to itself were deliberated
and determined on by its own Landtag or
Diet. Polish is the language of official
intercourse and of higher educational in-
stitutions. Galicia suffered severely in
the World War, and was successively in-
vaded by Russian and Austrian armies.
It was awarded to Poland by the Treaty
of Versailles. The capital is Lemberg.
Pop. about 8,500,000. See Poland.
GALIGNAISTI, JOHN ANTHONY (ga-
le-nya'-ne), an English journalist; born
in London, England, Oct. 13, 1796; was
taken by his father to Paris in the latter
part of 1798. He succeeded his father in
publishing the weekly paper "Galignani's
Messenger," which had become i)opular
among the English residents of Paris. He
remained a subject of Great Britain dur-
ing his life, and was very liberal to the
charitable institutions of that country.
He died in Paris, Dec. 31, 1873. His
brother, William, born in London,
March 10, 1798, was associated with him
in the management of the "Messenger,"
and in the building of a hospital in
Neuilly for indigent English people. In
his will he provided money and land for
the erection in Neuilly of the Galignani
Brothers' Retreat for 100 printers, book-
sellers, etc., or their families. He died
in Paris, Dec. 12, 1882.
GALILEE, a Roman province, compre-
hending all the N. of Palestine W. of
the Jordan. As the term Asia began
with a small patch of territory in Asia
Minor, but gradually had its meaning ex-
tended till it took in all the Asiatic con-
tinent, so the word Galilee was first ap-
plied to a fragment of the tribe of Naph-
tali, constituting its N. portion (Joshua
XX : 7; II Kings xv: 29). It was mostly
inhabited by Gentiles (Isaiah ix: 1; I
Maccab. v: 20-23). In the New Testa-
ment times the word had the more ex-
tended meaning, and we learn from
Josephus that there were an Upper and
Lower Galilee. In architecture, a porch
or chapel at the entrance of a church.
In the galilee were formerly deposited
corpses previous to interment, and re-
ligious processions were formed. The
name is derived from the expression in
the Bible, "Galilee of the Gentiles."
GALILEE, SEA OF, called also in the
New Testament Lake of Gennesaret
and Sea of Tiberias, and in the old
Testament Sea of Chinnereth or CiN-
NEROTH, a large lake in the N. half of
Palestine. Lying 626 feet below sea-level,
it is 13 miles long by 6 broad, and 680
feet deep. It occupies the bottom cf a
GALILEI
244
GALITZIN
great basin, and is undoubtedly of vol-
canic origin. Its shores on the E. and
N. sides are bare and rocky; on the W.
sloping gradually, and luxuriantly cov-
ered with vegetation. The surrounding
scenery is hardly beautiful, but its asso-
ciations are the most sacred in the world.
GALILEI, GALILEO (ga-le-la'e),
commonly called Galileo (gal-i-le'o), a
distinguished Italian physicist; born in
Pisa, Italy, Feb. 18, 1564. His father,
Vincenzo Galilei, a nobleman of Florence,
intended him for the medical profession;
but his love of mathematical studies was
so decided that he was allowed to pur-
sue them. At the age of 24 he was ap-
pointed mathematical professor at Pisa.
There he was constantly engaged in as-
serting the laws of nature against the
scholastic philosophy, which raised up
GALILEO
such a host of enemies against him that
in 1592 he was obliged to resign his pro-
fessorship. He then went to Padua,
where he lectured with unparalleled suc-
cess, and students flocked to hear him
from all parts of Europe. After remain-
ing there 18 years, Cosmo III. invited
him back to Pisa, and then to Florence,
with the title of principal mathematician
and philosopher to the grand-duke. Gali-
leo had heard of the invention of the
telescope by Janson, and making one for
himself. He found that the moon, like
the earth, has an uneven surface, and
he taught his scholars to measure the
height of its mountains by their shadow.
His most remarkable discoveries were
Jupiter's satellites, Saturn's ring, the
Sun's spots, and the starry nature of the
Milky Way. The result of his discoveries
was his decided conviction of the truth
of the Copernican system; though the
blind conservatism of the monks charged
him with heresy for it, and he was twice
pi'osecuted by the Inquisition, first in
1615, and again in 1633. On both occa-
sions he was compelled to abjure the sys-
tem of Copernicus. In the following year,
when he was 70 years old, and his health
was declining, a very heavy blow fell on
him by the death of his beloved daughter,
Maria. Two years later he became blind.
His latter years were spent near Flor-
ence, devoting himself to the perfecting
of his telescope. His greatest work is
the "Dialogue on the Copernican and
Ptolemaic Systems." Among his others
are "Dialogues on Motion," "Sidereus
Nuncius," "Treatise on the Sphere, etc."
He died in Arcetri, near Florence, Italy,
Jan. 8, 1642. His remains were ultimate-
ly deposited in the Church of Santa
Croce at Florence.
GALION, a city of Ohio in Craw-
ford CO. It is on the Cleveland, Cin-
cinnati, Chicago and St. Louis and the
Erie railroads. Its manufacturing indus-
tries are of great importance. They in-
clude railroad shops, carriage factories,
wagon works, lumber mills, manufac-
tures of automobile gears, pipes, etc.
The city has a public library. Pop.
(1910) 7,214; (1920) 7,374.
GALITZIN (ga-let'sen), GALLITZIN
GALYZIN, or GOLYZIN (go-let'sen),
one of the most powerful and distin-
guished Russian families, whose mem-
bers have been equally prominent in war
and diplomacy from the 16th century
downward. Vasili, surnamed the Great,
born in 1643, was the councillor and
favorite of Sophia, the sister of Peter
the Great, and regent during his minor-
ity. His great aim was to bring Russia
into contact with the W. of Europe, and
to encourage the arts and sciences in
Russia. His design to marry Sophia and
plant himself on the Russian throne mis-
carried. Sophia was placed by her
brother in a convent and Vasili banished
(1689) to a spot on the Frozen Ocean,
where in 1714 he died. Amalie, Prin-
cess GALITZIN (1746-1806), daughter of
the Prussian general. Count von Schmet-
tau. She was remarkable for her literary
culture, her sympathetic relations with
scholars and poets, but, above all, for her
ardent piety. Having separated from her
husband, she took up her residence in
Miinster, where she gathered round her
a cii'cle of learned companions, including
Jacobi, Hemsterhuis, Hamann, and Count
Stolberg. Prince DiMiTRi Alexeievitch,
a Russian diplomat and statesman; born
Dec. 21, 1738; was ambassador to the
court of France in 1763, and to The
Hague in 1773. He was in correspond-
ence with Voltaire and was the author of
oall
245
GALLAS
several works relating to geology. He
died in Brunswick, Germany, March 21,
1803. DiMiTRi Augustine, son of the
foregoing; born in The Hague, Dec.
22, 1770; became a Roman Catholic
in his 17th year; was ordained a
priest in the United States by Bishop
Carroll of Baltimore in 1795; and betook
himself to a bleak region among the Alle-
gheny Mountains in Pennsylvania, where
he was known as "Father Smith." Here
he laid the foundation of a town called
Loretto. He was for some years vicar-
general of the diocese of Philadelphia.
He wrote various controversial works,
including a "Defense of Catholic Prin-
ciples" (1816), "Letter to a Protestant
Friend" (1820), and "Appeal to the Prot-
estant Public" (1834). He died in
Loretto, Pa., May 6, 1841.
GALL, a morbid excrescence on the
leaf or leaf-bud of any plant, arising
probably from the puncture of a cynips.
These small hymenopterous insects de-
posit their eggs on the leaves, etc., of
various plants, each species being limited
to a single plant, or even a single part of
one; thus there is a Cynips ficus caricss
on the common fig, a C. fagi on the
beech, and a C. quercus foli on the leaves
of the common oak. The so-called oak-
apples are not fruits but morbid ex-
crescences produced by C. terminalis, so
called because it deposits its eggs at the
extremity of the shoots of the tree. The
galls of commerce are produced by the
puncture by C. gallx tinctoria of the
leaf-bud of Quercus infectoria, or more
rarely of some other species of oak. In
the hole made by the insect, an egg is
deposited, in due time to be developed
into a larva, which eats its way out when
it comes to the perfect state. One variety
is white or yellow, another green, gray,
or black. The best galls come from
Smyrna and Aleppo. With the salts of
iron they should yield a fine black color,
and therefore are used in the manu-
facture of ink.
GALL, ST., an Irish monk of the 6th
and 7th centuries; born in Ireland,
about 550. He was educated at the mon-
astery of Bangor, accompanied St.
Columba to France about 585, and took
part with him in all his missionary
labors. Banished from France, they went
together into the wilder regions of Swit
zerland, and near the Lake of Constance
they founded the monastery which bore
the name of St. Gall and gave name to
the town and canton of St. Gall. After
a few years Columba retired to Italy,
leaving his companion abbot of the new
house. The monastery was burnt by
Hungarians in the 10th century. He died
in St. Gall, Switzerland, about 645.
GALL, ST., a canton in the E. part of
S\vitzerland, occupying the 14th place
in the Swiss Confederation. It has E.
the Vorarlberg and Lichtenstein, from
which it is separated by the Rhine, S.
E. and S. the Grisons; W. the cantons
Glarus, Schwyz, and Zurich, with its
lake; and N. Thurgau and the Lake of
Constance. Length, N. to S., about 40
miles; breadth varying from 11 to nearly
35 miles. Area, 779 square miles. Sur-
face, greatly diversified. In the N. there
is an inconsiderable portion of plain
country; but the central and S. parts are
almost wholly covered with Alpine
ranges, the summits of some of which rise
above the snow limits. Mt. Scheibe, at
the S. W. extremity, is estimated to be
10,188 feet above sea-level. There are,
however, several extensive and fertile
valleys, as that of Toggenburg (watered
by the Thur, 36 miles in length), those
of the Rhine, and others noted for their
wild and picturesque character^ Next
to the Rhine, the chief rivers are the
Thur, Sitter, Serz, etc.; Wallensee is
the principal lake. Extensive forests
cover the S. portion of the canton. Soil,
moderately fertile. Products, corn, maize,
hemp, and flax, fruit, etc. Cattle and
hog feeding is extensively carried on.
Minerals, iron and coal. Mineral springs
are numerous. St. Gall is one of the
principal Swiss manufacturing cantons;
its inhabitants are mostly employed in
its manufactures of cotton fabrics,
thread, linens, glass, wax, etc. ^^ Chief
to^vn St. Gall, the capital. Fop. 304,000.
GALL, ST., capital of the above canton,
situated on the Steinach, in a narrow
and elevated valley, 7 miles S. W. of the
Lake of Constance. It possesses a fa-
mous Benedictine abbey, which became
the asylum of learning during the Dark
Ages, and was one of the most celebrated
schools in Europe between the 8th and
10th centuries; it now serves as the
cathedral of the diocese. St. Gall is one
of the chief manufacturing towns in the
confederation; it has extensive manufac-
tures of muslin, is the center of the Swiss
trade in that fabric, and of gold and
silver embroidery, besides cotton fabrics
and yarn. Pop. about 75,000.
GALLAS. a race of people inhabiting
that part of Africa which lies to the S.
and W. of Harar and S. of Shoa, between
lat. 9° and 3° S. and Ion. 34° and 44° E.
The best authorities regard them as be-
longing to the Ethiopic branch of the
Hamites, and their language as a de-
scendant of the ancient Geez of Abys-
sinia. Individually they are of average
stature, with strong, well-made limbs,
skin of a light chocolate brown, hair
GALLATIN
246
GALLEGOS
frizzled but not woolly. Though cruel
in war they are of frank disposition and
faithfully keep their promises and obliga-
tions. They are distinguished for their
energy, both physical and mental, espe-
cially those tribes to the S. and S. W.
which pursue pastoral avocations, not-
ably the breeding of horses, asses, sheep,
cattle, and camels, and those which live
by hunting, especially the elephant.
These same tribes are mostly still hea-
thens, though Mohammedanism is rapidly
making way among them. The more N.
tribes who dwell about Harar profess a
crass form of Christianity derived from
Abyssinia, and for the most part pj-ac-
tice agriculture, raising cotton, durra,
sugar, and coffee. The total Galla popu-
lation, who call themseves Argatta or
Oromo, is estimated at about 6,000,000.
Politically they are divided into a great
number of separate tribes (Itu, Arussi,
Nole, Jarsso, Ala, Ennia, Walamo, Bor-
ana, etc). Their inveterate century-long
foes are the Somali on the N. E. and E.,
who have gradually driven back the Gal-
las from the shores of the Red Sea and
the extremities of the Somali peninsula,
regions which were occupied by them in
the 16th century, just as on the other
side the Abyssinians and Shoans have
beaten them back S. The country they
now inhabit is, generally speaking, a pla-
teau that slopes S. E. to the Indian
Ocean, and has a hilly, well-timbered sur-
face. This region, with plenty of rains
and running streams, and abundant vege-
tation, is well cultivated, and yields
wheat, barley, beans, sorghum, sweet
potatoes, flax, lentils, cotton and coffee.
GALLATIN, ALBERT (gal'a-tin) , an
American financier; born in Geneva,
Switzerland, Jan. 29, 1761. He was grad-
uated at the university there in 1779. In
1780 he went to the United States, and
was for a time teacher of French in
Harvard College. In 1786 he removed to
Pennsylvania, became a member of the
State Legislature, and in 1793 he was
elected to the United States Senate, but
was declared ineligible. From 1795 to
1801 he served in the House of Repre-
sentatives, and from 1801 to 1813 he was
Secretary of the Treasury. He took an
important part in the negotiations for
peace with England in 1814, and signed
the treaty of Ghent. From 1815 to 1823
he was minister at Paris, and in 1826
he was sent to London as ambassador
extraordinary. On his return in 1827
he settled in New York, and devoted
much of his time to literature, being
chiefly occupied in historical and ethno-
logical researches. He was one of the
founders and the first president of the
Ethnological Society of America; and
from 1843 to his death he was president
of the New York Historical Society. His
works include publications on finance,
politics, and ethnology; among these last
are "The Indian Tribes East of the
Rocky Mountains, etc." (1836), and
"Notes on the Semi-Civilized Nations of
Mexico, Yucatan, and Central America"
(1845). He died Aug. 12, 1849.
GALLAUDEl, EDWARD MINER
(gal-a-def) , an American educator; born
in Hartford, Conn., Feb. 5, 1837, son of
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet; was grad-
uated at Trinity College in 1856. He or-
ganized the Columbia Institute for the
Deaf, Dumb and Blind in Washington,
D. C, in 1857, and from it developed the
Gallaudet College for the Deaf, in 1864,
becoming its president. His publications
include "Manual of International Law"
(1879), and "Life of Thomas Hopkins
Gallaudet" (1888). He died in 1917.
GALL BLADDER, a pear-shaped
membranous sac, 3 or 4 inches long by
1% inches broad, lodged obliquely in a
fossa on the under surface of the right
lobe of the liver. The neck, which is
shaped like the letter S, bends down-
ward and terminates in the cystic duct^
GALLE (gal), or POINT DE GALLE
(point de gal), a fortified town and sea-
port of the S. W. extremity of the island
of Ceylon, on a low rocky promontory of
the same name. It has a good harbor,
formed by a small bay. It has lost its
former importance as a coaling and
transhipping station for the great lines
of steamers from Europe to Australia
and China since the completion of the
breakwater at Colombo. It is the capital
of the S. province of Ceylon. Pop. about
40,000.
GALLEGO, JUAN NICASIO (gal-ya'
go), a Spanish lyric poet; born in Za-
mora, Spain, Dec. 14, 1777. He studied
law, philosophy, and theology, at Sala-
manca; but began a poetical career on
becoming intimate with Valdes, Quintana,
and Cienfuegos. His political activity
resulted in his imprisonment in 1814,
and banishment for a short time subse-
quently. His "The Second of May" and
an elegy on the death of Queen Isabella
(1818), have attained particular celeb-
rity. He served in the Spanish Cortes
for some years. He died in Madrid, Jan.
9, 1853.
GALLEGOS (gal-ya'gos), a river of
Patagonia entermg the Atlantic Ocean
opposite the Falkland Islands; lat. 51°
33' S., Ion. 69° W. It is small but very
rapid, and at its mouth or estuary the
tide rises 46 feet.
GALLEON
247
GALLICAN CHURCH
GALLEON, a name given by the
Spaniards to a very large kind of a ves-
sel, with three masts and three or four
decks, such as those used by them in their
commerce with South America, to trans-
port the precious metals. They were
large clumsy, square-sterned vessels that
could make only slow progress under the
most favorable conditions.
GALLEY. (1) A low, flat-built vessel
with one or more rows or banks of oars,
said to have been invented by the Corin-
thians in 700 B. c. The biremes, tri-
remes, quinqueremes, etc., were galleys
having so many banks of oars — two,
three, five, etc. The pentecontori had 50
oars in a single tier. (2) A clinker-built
boat for ship's use, from 28 to 36 feet
long, and with a beam equal to one-fifth
of its length. It is light and sharp,
carrying from 10 to 12 oars, and is used
for speedy rowing on expeditions. It
usually has six alternate oars rowed by
a picked crew. (3) An open boat used
on the Thames by English custom house
officers, river police, and formerly by
press gangs, etc. (4) The cook house on
board ship, which is on deck, or in a
forward part of the vessel. In distilling,
a gallery furnace. In printing, an oblong
tray which receives matter from the
3omposing-stick, and on which it is ar-
ranged in a column or page. The galley
sometimes has a groove to admit a false
bottom, called a galley slice.
GALLFLY, or GALLWASP, names
generally applied to any member of a
large family {Cynipidse) of hymenopter-
ous insects, most of the females of which
lay their eggs in plants and by the as-
sociated irritation produce galls. The in-
sects are not unlike little wasps with
straight, thread-like antennse, laterally
compressed abdomen, and long wings.
The eggs are laid in the leaves, twigs,
roots, etc., of plants, which the mothers
pierce with their ovipositors. The irri-
tation of the wound and of the intruded
and rapidly developing eggs results in
pathological excrescences or galls. Within
these the larvse feed and grow, and either
eat their way out while still grubs or
remain till the pupa stage is past and
emerge as adolescent insects. While
most produce true galls, some members
of the family act like cuckoos and util-
ize galls already formed by other genera.
Others again depart more widely from
the general habit and deposit their ova
in other insects. The genera Cynips,
Aphilotrix, Andrimis, Neurotems, Spa-
thegaster, Biorhiza all form galls on
oaks; Rhodite-i is the cause of mossy ex-
crescences on rose bushes. Among those
which utilize already formed galls, Sy-
nergus and Aidax are important genera;
while Ibalia, Figites, Eucoila, and the
minute species of Allotria are in their
youth parasitic on other insects, such
as flies and plant-lice. Among the com-
mon gall wasps Cynips quercusfolii
makes the cherry-galls of oak leaves;
C. tinctoria produces the well-known ink-
gall of the Levantine oak; Rhodites rosse
forms the curious and familiar Bedeguar
on wild roses.
GALLICAN CHURCH, the distinctive
title of the Roman Catholic Church in
France. It is the Church of France,
considered less in relation to geographi-
cal boundaries than in its constitution
and principles of church government
The Christian faith was widely diflTused
in France or Gaul, even during the life-
time of the apostles; and it especially
flourished among the descendants of the
Greek colonies of the S., and in the
numerous towns and cities on the Rhone
and its confluent rivers. The Church of
Gaul numbers several eminent names in
the literature of the 3d, 4th, and 5th
centuries. The works of Irenseus, Bishop
of Lyons, are among the most important
for the history of doctrine of all the
early patristic remains; and in the fol-
lowing century Sulpicius Severus, Hil-
ary of Poitiers, Hilary of Aries, Vincent
of Lerins, Prosper, Victor, Eucherius,
Salvian, and Gregory of Tours combine
to form a body of literature of which the
later modern representatives of the
French Church are reasonably proud.
The hierarchical organization also of
the Church of Gaul was, at a very early
period, among the most complete and
reg-ular throughout the churches of
Western Christendom. The Galljcan
Church underwent very extensive modi-
flcations at the close of the 18th and the
beginning of the 19th century, not merely
by the enactment of what was called the
"civil constitution of the clergy," and
which introduced into the constitution of
the Church a large infusion of the Pres-
byterian, and even the Congregational
element, but by the concordat of Pius
VII. with Bonaparte as First Consul,
which reduced the number of sees, di-
minished the number of festivals, and
confirmed the suppression of the ancient
religious establishments, and confisca-
tion of the church property. Under the
Third Republic successive French Gov-
ernments became more and more aggres-
sive in their attitude toward the
Church. This attitude eventually led to
the suppression of the religious congre-
gations, the confiscation of their prop-
erty, and the repeal of the Concordat,
absolutely separating Church and State.
As a result of the World War, however,
GALLIENI
248
GALLINULINiB
and in appreciation of the work done by
the French Roman Catholics, both clergy
and laity, in behalf of France, more
friendly relations between France and
the Vatican were re-established.
GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON. French
soldier. He was born at St. Beat, 1849,
and after passing through the military
academy of St. Cyr, fought as lieutenant
in the Franco-German war, distinguish-
ing himself in the defense portrayed in
"La Derniere Cartouche" of Neuville. In
1880 he procured for France from the
Sultan of Segou, though a captive, com-
mercial privileges in Upper Nigeria. He
A^as made a general for his. later work in
GENERAL GALLIENI
Indo-China, and after 1896 became gov-
erenor-genei-al of Madagascar, deposing
Queen Ranavalo. In 1908 he became
a member of the Superior War Council.
On the breaking out of the World War in
1914 Gallieni was made military gov-
ernor of Paris, and his despatch of troops
to the aid of General Manoury was in-
strumental in checking the Germans at
the Marne. As a result, Gallieni was
hailed as "savior of Paris." He continued
his work as governor of the city for
over 14 months, developing its defense,
and rushing aid to threatened points in
the front line. Toward the close of 1915
he became Minister of War, and was
later intrusted with the development of
the aviation arm, but a breakdown forced
his retirement and he died at Versailles,
May 27, 1916.
GALLIFET (ga-li-fa), GASTON
ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE, MARQUIS
DE, a French general; boro in Paris,
France, Jan. 23, 1830. He joined the
army in April, 1848, and became colonel
in December, 1867. He served in the
Crimea, Mexico (severely wounded at
Puebla, 1863), Algeria (1860-1868). He
commanded the 3d Regiment of Chas-
seurs d'Afrique, took part with the Army
of the Rhine during the Franco-German
War, being made prisoner at Sedan, and
was promoted to the rank of General of
Brigade, Aug. 30, 1870. During the
second siege of Paris he commanded a
brigade of the Army of Versailles, and
was distinguished for severity to the
Communard prisoners. In 1872 he was
sent to Africa and had a considerable
share in the pacification of the unsub-
dued tribes. He took charge of the ex-
pedition on El-Goliah, executed a rapid
march through a desert country and se-
verely punished the revolted tribes (De-
cember, 1872-March, 1873). On the gen-
eral reorganization of the army, the
Marquis de Gallifet was named to the
command of the 3d Brigade of Infantry
of the 8th Army Corps, and of the sub-
division of the department of the Cher.
Promoted to the rank of General of
Division, May 3, 1875, he obtained the
command of the 1st Division of Cavalry,
and in February, 1879, that of the 9th
Regiment. He was decorated with the
Legion of Honor in 1855, made oflRcer in
1863, and commander in 1873; Member
of the Council of War in 1885, and Min-
ister of War in 1899. He died July 8,
1909.
GALLINGER, JACOB HAROLD,
United States senator from New Hamp-
shire, born in Cornwall, Ontario, in 1837.
He received an academic education and
studied medicine at the Medical Institute
of Cincinnati. He engaged in practice in
Concord, N. H., in 1862. In 1872 he
was elected to the State House of Rep-
resentatives and to the State Senate for
three years succeeding. He was chair-
man of the Republican State Committee
from 1882 to 1890, and again from 1898
to 1907. He was elected United States
senator in 1891 and was successively re-
elected until 1915. He was a member
of many important committees, including
those of Appropriation, Finance, etc. He
was recognized as one of the leading
members of the Senate. He died in 1918.
GALLINITLIN-ffi (-li'ne), in ornithol-
ogy, water hens. A sub-family of Ral-
Udse (rails). They have the base of the
ridge of the bill dilated into a soft ob-
long plate, occupying part of the fore-
head. They are aquatic birds, swimming
and diving well, feeding on insects,
worms, mollusca, besides seeds of grasses
and other plants.
GALLIPOLI
249
GALLIWASP
GALLIPOLI (gal-lep'6-le), a town of
southern Italy, built on a steep insulated
rock in the Gulf of Taranto, connected
with the mainland by a bridge, and 59
miles by rail S. of Brindisi. The harbor
is protected by a mole and fortified. The
town contains a handsome cathedral and
is remarkable for its oil tanks, excavated
in the solid rock, in which olive oil is
deposited for exportation. Pop. about
12,000.
GALLIPOLI, a seaport of Turkey, on
the peninsula of the same name (the an-
cient Thracian Chersonesus), at the N.
E. extremity of the Dardanelles, 90 miles
S. of Adrianople, and 130 W. S. W. of
Constantinople. The ancient Kallipolis,
of which some ruins remain, it was
formerly the most important commercial
town on the Hellespont, and still retains
considerable trade. There are two har-
bors, extensive bazaars, and some manu-
factures. Gallipoli is the headquarters
of the Turkish fleet and the seat of a
Greek bishop, and contains numerous
mosques and fountains. The town was
taken by the Turks in 1356, and formed
their earliest European possession ; and
here the allies disembarked during the
Crimean War. Pop. about 30,000. The
"northern portion of the peninsula was
the scene of intense fighting in 1915. See
World War; Turkey.
GALLIPOLI, PENINSULA OF, a
tongue of land separating the Hellespont
from the ^gean Sea and the Gulf of
Saros, 62 miles long, by a varying
breadth of from 4 to 12 miles. Lat. be-
tween 40° 3' and 40° 38' N., Ion. between
26° 10' and 27° E.
GALLIPOLIS, a city of Ohio, the
county-seat of Gallia co. It is on the
Ohio river, and on the Hocking Valley
and the Kanawha and Michigan rail-
roads. It is the center of important
coal fields, the greater part of which
have not been developed. Its industries
include iron and wood working estab-
lishments, the manufacture of stoves,
flour, ice, brooms, lumber, leather, etc.
It is the seat of the Ohio Hospital for
Epileptics, and has a public library, a
park, and Gallia Academy. Pop. (1910)
5,560; (1920) 6,070.
GALLIUM, a metallic element, symbol
Ga, atomic weight 69.9. Gallium is a
triad element. Specific heat 0.079. It
was discovered by a French chemist,
Lecoq de Boisbaudram, in zinc blende.
The metal is obtained by dissolving the
blende in sulphuric acid and placing in
the solution plates of zinc till the dis-
engagement of hydrogen becomes slow,
but is still perceptible, by which means
the greater portion of the copper, lead.
cadmium, iridium, thallium, silver, mer-
cury, selenium, arsenic, etc., contained in
the ore is precipitated; the clear filtered
liquid is then heated with a large excess
of zinc, the resulting gelatinous precipi-
tate, consisting chiefly of alumina, basic
salts of zinc, and gallium, is redissolved
in hydrochloric acid, and again heated
with zinc, which gives a precipitate in
which the gallium is more concentrated.
This precipitate is redissolved in hydro-
chloric acid, the solution is treated with
hydrogen sulphide, and the filtered liquid,
after expulsion of the H^S, is fraction-
ally precipitated with ammonium car-
bonate till the solution of the resulting
precipitate in hydrochloric acid no longer
gives any indication of the presence of
gallium when examined by the spectro-
scope. The precipitates are collected and
dissolved in sulphuric acid, and cauti-
ously evaporated till the free sulphuric
acid is expelled; the residue when cold is
digested with water till it is dissolved,
the nearly neutral solution is boiled, the
basic gallium sulphate is precipitated
and filtered while hot, and then dissolved
in a small quantity of sulphuric acid,
treated with excess of potash till the pre-
cipitate is redissolved and then precipi-
tated by a stream of CO2. Finally the
gallium oxide is redissolved in the small-
est quantity of sulphuric acid, the solu-
tion mixed with excess of slightly acid
ammonium acetate, then H;S gas is
passed through the liquid; the filtered
acetic solution is diluted with water, and
heated to boiling, whereby the greater
part of the gallium is precipitated as
oxide; this precipitate is filtered off hot,
washed with boiling water, and redis-
solved in sulphuric acid, and the solution
mixed with a slight excess of potash, and
filtered, whereby a pure alkaline solution
of gallium is obtained. Metallic gallium
is obtained by the electrolysis of this al-
kaline solution, platinum electrodes being
used, and the positive electrode being
larger than the negative on which the
metallic gallium is precipitated, which is
detached by dipping the platinum plate
in warm water and bending it backward
and forward. Gallium is a silver-white
metal, which melts at 30°, but remains
liquid for weeks at 0°. Cooled to 15°
it crystallizes. Gallium is a hard metal,
very slightly malleable, and leaves a
bluish-gray trace on paper; when melted
it adheres to glass ; it does not tarnish
in the air. Its specific gravity is 5.95.
It gives a brilliant violet line in the
spectrum.
GALLIWASP. a small lizard, family
Scincida^, found in the West Indies. It
is an object of terror to the inhabitants,
but is really harmless.
GALLOWAY
250
QALT
GALLOWAY, an extensive district in
the S. W. of Scotland, once somewhat
larger, but now entirely comprised in the
shire of Wigtown and stewartry of Kirk-
cudbright. It enjoys a remarkably mild
climate, and has long been famous as a
pastoral country, its breed of small
horses and of large hornless black cattle
being well known centuries ago; dairy
farming is now the most important in-
dustry. The province is about 70 miles
in length, by 40 at its utmost breadth,
and contains the greatest diversity of
scenery — mountain, lake, and stream.
There is no mineral wealth and hardly
any industry, hence the inhabitants are
almost entirely concerned with tilling the
soil, sheep and cattle rearing, and fishing.
The province owes its name to the fact
that the natives were called Gall-Gael,
or foreign Gaels, at first because of their
falling under the foreign rule of the
Anglians; but as the Picts of Galloway
they continued to be known so late as
the Battle of the Standard in 1138. Their
geographical position had shut them off
from their N. congeners, and they con-
tinued under their ancient name a dis-
tinct people till the 12th century, and
preserved their language — which was
substantially identical with Gaelic — till
the 16th, when it finally disappeared be-
fore the Reformation and the use of
Lowland Scotch in the parish churches
and schools.
GALLOWS, an instrument or appara-
tus on which criminals are executed by
hanging. It is usually constructed of
two posts with a cross-beam on the top,
from which the criminal is hanged by a
rope passing round his neck. In agri-
culture, the central core of four Indian
cornstalks, interlaced diagonally and
bound at the intersection, forming a stool
or support for cut corn, which is bound
around it to form a shock. In printing,
the rest for the tympan when open. Also
the frame supporting the beam of a
steam engine.
GALLUS. TBEBONIANUS. a Roman
emperor; the successor of the ill-fated
Decius. He is memorable only for the
dishonorable peace with the Goths, in
permitting them to retain their plunder
and captives and promising them a fixed
annual tribute, and by a dreadful pesti-
lence in Italy. He was murdered by his
own soldiers in 253 or 254 A. D.
GALOP ABO (gal-6-par5), or CAPO
DI FARO (ka'po de fa'ro), the Cha-
rybdis of the ancients. It forms the
whirlpool on the outside of the harbor of
Messina, in the strait separating Italy
from Sicily. Opposite, on the Italian
coast, is the rock Scylla.
GALSWORTHY, JOHN, an English
writer. Born in 1867, his early writings
excited but slight attention. It was not
until he turned to modern social prob-
lems that his power as a dramatist and
novelist was revealed. His novels deal
with many phases of English life chiefly
for the purpose of satire. Such for ex-
ample is his first work that attracted
attention, "The Island Pharisees" (1904,
revised 1908) and later (1906) "The
Man of Property." Likewise in his
dramas he pays particular attention to
the injustices of the present social
scheme. "The Silver Box" (1906) is a
JOHN GALSWORTHY
drama with the theme of the different
legal justice for the rich and poor.
"Strife" (1909) is written to illustrate
the war between capital and labor which
features modern society. His most recent
work is the drama entitled "The Mob"
published in the year in which the World
War opened.
GALT, a city of Ontario, Canada, in
Waterloo co. It occupies both sides of
the Grand river, and is on the Grand
Trunk and the Canadian Pacific rail-
roads. The river is spanned by several
bridges. The city is important as an in-
dustrial center. The manufactured prod-
ucts include edged tools, underwear,
agricultural implements, boilers, engines,
leather, safes, stoves, etc. The city has
four parks, a collegiate institute and a
mechanics' institute. It is connected by
electric railway with the neighboring
towns of Kitchener, Paris, Waterloo, and
Brantford. Pop. (1919) 12,434.
GALT. JOHN, a Scotch novelist; born
in Irvine, Ayrshire, Scotland, May 2,
GALTON
251
GALVANISM
1779. He was educated in Greenock, and
was then placed in the custom house.
He remained there till 1804, when he
went to London, with an epic poem on
the battle of the Largs. After a few
years his health began to fail, and he
was obliged to seek relief in a more
genial climate. At Gibraltar he made the
acquaintance of Lord Byron and his
friend Hobhouse, and the three travelers
became f ellow- voyagers ; but soon after
Gait separated from his new friends to
visit Sicily, then Malta, and finally
Greece, where he again renewed his ac-
quaintance with Byron. On his return he
published with considerable success
"Letters from the Levant"; "The Ayr-
shire Legatees" (1820) ; "The Annals of
the Parish" (1821), his masterpiece;
"Sir Andrew Wylie" (1822) ; "The Pro-
vost" (1822); "The Entail" (1823). He
was now busily engaged in the formation
of the Canada Company. He went to
Canada in 1826, but three years later re-
turned to England a ruined man, and
at once recommenced his literary labors.
His first novel was "Lawrie Todd"
(1830), which was followed by "Southen-
nan," and a "Life of Lord Byron." In
1834 he published his "Literary Life and
Miscellanies." He returned to Scotland,
and died in Greenock, April 11, 1839.
GALTON, FRANCIS, an English
scientist; grandson of Dr. Erasmus Dar-
win, and cousin of Charles Darwin; bom
at Birmingham, England, in 1822. He
was educated at King Edward's School,
Birmingham; studied medicine at the
Birmingham Hospital and King's Col-
lege, London* and graduated from Trin-
ity College, Cambridge, in 1844. Having
in 1846 traveled in north Africa, he
explored in 1850 lands hitherto unknown
in south Africa, publishing his experi-
ences in his "Narrative of an Explorer
in Tropical South Africa," which ob-
tained the gold medal of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society, and in ''Art of
Travel," which passed through five
editions between 1855 and 1872. His
investigations in meteorology are re-
corded in "Meteorographica," published
in 1863. A member of a Meteoro-
logical Committee of the Board of Trade,
he was appointed one of the committee
intrusted with the parliamentary grant
for the Meteorological Office. Later he
specially devoted himself to the problem
of heredity, publishing "Hereditary
Genius; Its Laws and Consequences"
(1869) ; "Expei-iments in Pangenesis"
(1871); "Natural Inheritance" (1889);
"Finger Prints" (1893) ; "Fingerprint
Directory" "Noteworthv Families"
(1906), "Memoirs of My^ Life" (1908),
•'Essays in Eugenics" (1909). He was
general secretary of the British Associa-
tion in 1863-1868; president of the An-
thropological Sections in 1877 and 1885;
president of the Anthropological Insti-
tute in 1885-1886. He died in 1911.
GALVANI, LUIGI (g«al-va'ne), an
Italian anatomist; born in Bologna, Italy,
Sept. 9, 1737. He studied theology and
subsequently medicine at the university
there, and in 1762 was elected Professor
of Anatomy. Galvani owes the wide
celebrity attached to his name to his dis-
coveries in animal electricity. He pub-
lished his "Commentary on the Electrical
Forces in Muscular Motion" in 1791.
Most of his writings were published in a
quarto edition in 1841-1842 by the Acad-
emy of Sciences of his native city. He
died in Bologna, Dec. 4, 1798. His statue
was erected there in 1879.
GALVANISM, the branch of electric
science to which an experiment by Gal-
vani gave birth. His wife, who was mak-
ing soup from frogs, happened to put
them, after being skinned, in proximity
to a charged electrical machine belonging
to her husband. On touching them with
a scalpel their legs became gi*eatly con-
vulsed. From this Galvani came to the
erroneous conclusion that animal electric-
ity existed in the nerves and muscles of
GALVANOMETER
frogs, etc. In this explanation Galvani
ignored the metallic connecting wire. His
contemporary, Volta, gave attention to
this, and found that the contraction of
the limbs is more energetic when the con-
GALVANOMETEB
252
GALWAY
necting arc is made of two metals instead
of one. He therefore inferred that the
metals took the active part in producing
the contraction and the disengagement
of electricity was due to their contact,
and that the animal parts constituted
only a conductor, and at the same time
a very sensitive electroscope. In 1793 he
published these views, and in 1800 first
described and constructed what has since
been called after him the voltaic pile.
Now voltaic plates have nearly given
place to voltaic or galvanic batteries, of
which there are many varieties. See
Galvani, Luigi.
GALVANOMETER, an instrument for
detecting the presence and measuring
the intensity of feeble galvanic currents.
A differential galvanometer is an in-
strument designed to ascertain a differ-
ence in the intensity of two galvanic
currents. A marine galvanometer is a
galvanometer designed to test the in-
sulation of submarine cables, and at the
same time unaffected by the pitching and
rolling of the ship.
metropolis of the State, and is regularly
laid out, with wide streets and handsome
buildings. The public buildings include
the United States Government Building,
County Court House, City Hall, Su-
preme Court House, Cotton Exchange,
Masonic Temple, and several club houses.
Among the more noted educational in-
stitutions are the University of St.
Mary, Medical School of the University
of Texas, Ursuline Convent, Convent of
the Sacred Heart, Ball High School, and
the Rosenberg School. The city has elec-
tric lights, and street railroads, water-
works, a public library, and several mag-
nificent parks.
Business Interests. — The commerce of
the city is very extensive. In the fiscal
year 1920 exports were valued at $598,-
239,227, and imports at $16,287,637. In
value of exports it was second only to
New York. It is the first city in the
United States in the export of cotton.
The industries include cotton pressing,
milling and manufacturing of cotton
goods, bagging and cordage. In 1919
GALVESTON SEA WALL
GALVESTON, city and county-seat of
Galveston co., Tex., on Galveston Island,
between Galveston Bay and the Gulf of
Mexico, and on the Gulf, Colorado and
Santa Fe, the Missouri, Kansas and
Texas, the International and Great
Northern, and several other large rail-
roads; and having steamship lines con-
necting with New York, New Orleans,
Vera Cruz, Liverpool, and nearly all
South American and West Indian ports.
It has the largest and deepest harbor on
the Gulf coast, with two miles of wharf
front. Following the great flood of 1900
a great sea-wall covering the entire
frontage of the city was constructed at
a cost of $2,000,000. The harbor was
also improved by the United States Gov-
ernment and was made accessible for the
largest steamers.
Public Interests. — Galveston is the
.second largest city and the commercial
there were 2 National banks and several
private banking institutions.
History. — Galveston was settled in
1837; captured by the Federal forces in
1862; and retaken by the Confederates
in 1863. It was nearly destroyed by fire
in 1885, and on Sept. 8, 1900, was visited
by a violent tornado and flood, causing
the loss of 7,000 lives and the destruc-
tion of property to the value of $20,000,«
000. Pop. (1910) 36,981; (1920) 44,255.
GALWAY, a municipal and parlia-
mentary borough of Ireland, a seaport,
and county of itself, at the mouth of the
river Corrib, on the N. shore of Galway
Bay, 50 miles N. N. W. of Limerick. The
old town is poorly built and irregular.
The new town consists of well-planned
and spacious streets, and is built on a
rising ground which slopes gradually
toward the sea and the river. Galway
is the see of a Catholic bishop, but is in
GALWAY BAY
25S
GAMBIA
the Protestant Episcopal diocese of
Tuam. The principal buildings are the
cruciform church (Episcopal) of St.
Nicholas (1320), St. Augustine's Catho-
lic Church, Queens College, monasteries,
nunneries, the county court house, bar-
racks, etc. Galway has flour mills, ex-
tensive salmon and sea fishing, a good
harbor, and a lighthouse. During 1858-
1864 a line of steamers plied between
Galway and the United States. The ex-
ports consist mainly of agricultural
produce, wool, and black marble. It was
taken by Richard de Burgh in 1232.
From the 13th till the middle of the 17th
century it continued to rise in commer-
cial importance. In 1652 it was taken
by Sir Charles Coote, after a blockade
of several months; and in July, 1691, it
was compelled to surrender to General
Ginkell. Pop. about 16,000.
GALWAY BAY, a large bay on the
W. coast of Ireland, between County Gal-
way on the N. and County Clare on the
S., about 20 miles in length and from 20
to 7 miles in breadth. Across its en-
trance lie the Aran Islands.
GAMA, DOM VASCO DA. a noted
Portuguese navigator, who first made
the voyage to the East Indies by the
Cape of Good Hope; born of a noble
VASCO DA GAMA
family in Sines, Portugal, in 1450. The
voyage had been projected under John
II., and his successor, Emmanuel the
Fortunate, having fitted out four vessels,
intrusted Gama with the chief com-
mand. He sailed from Lisbon July 8,
1497, and doubling the Cape, visited Mo-
zambique, Mombaza, Melinda, and Cali-
Vol. IV — Cyc — Q
cut, returning to Lisbon in 1499. For
this exploit he was named Admiral of
the Indies. In the year 1502 he was
placed at the head of a powerful fleet,
with which he provided for the security
of future voyagers by founding estab-
lishments at Mozambique and Sofala.
He established the first Portuguese fac-
tory in the Indies. He re-entered Lisbon
in 1503 and passed the next 20 years in
obscurity. In 1524 he was appointed
Viceroy of India by King John III., but
his administration lasted only three
months. He died in Cochin, India, Dec,
24, 1524.
GAMALIEL, the name of two persons
mentioned in Bible history, of whom the
first, Gamaliel, the son of Pedahzur
(Num. i: 10; ii: 20; vii: 54, 59; x: 23),
was prince or head of the tribe of Ma-
nasseh. The other and better known
Gamaliel is mentioned twice in the Acts
of the Apostles, as a learned doctor of
the law, of the sect of the Pharisees.
From Acts xii: 3 we learn that he was
the preceptor of St. Paul.
GAMBETTA. LEON MICHEL (gon-
be-ta'), a French statesman; born in
Cahors, France, April 3, 1838. He was
of Genoese extraction; was educated for
the Church; and finally decided in favor
of the law, and repairing to Paris be-
came a member of the metropolitan bar
in 1859. In November, 1868, he gained
the leadership of the republican party
by his defense of Delescluze, a noted re-
publican. In 1869, having been elected
by both Paris and Marseilles, he chose
to represent the S. city; and in the
Chamber of Deputies showed himself an
irreconcilable opponent of the empire
and its measures, especially of the policy
which led to the war with Prussia. On
the downfall of the empire, after the sur-
render of Sedan in 1870, a government
for national defense was formed, in
which Gambetta was nominated Minister
of the Interior. The Germans having
encircled Paris, he left that city in a
balloon, and set up his headquarters at
Tours, from which he for a short time
organized a fierce but vain resistance
against the invaders. After the close of
the war he held ofiice in several short-
lived ministries, and in November, 1881,
accepted the premiership. The sweeping
changes proposed by him and his col-
leagues led to his resignation. The acci-
dental discharge of a pistol caused his
death near Sevres, France, Dec. 31, 1882.
GAMBIA, a river of west Africa, ris-
ing in a mountainous district in Futa
Jallon and flowing N. W. and W. to the
Atlantic; length about 1,400 miles. It
is navigable for 600 miles during seven
OAMBIEB
254
GAME
months of the year for vessels of 150
tons, but from June to November the
river becomes a torrent.
The British Colony and Protectorate
of Gambia occupies the banks of the
river as far up as Georgetown; area, 69
square miles. It embraces St. Mary's
Island, containing Bathurst, the chief
town of the settlement. Besides the weav-
ing of cotton into native cloths, there are
manufactures of vegetable oils and
bricks, and some boat-building. The
staple product is the groundnut, which is
exported to the S. of Europe for the ex-
traction of oil. Other products are hides,
rice, cotton, beeswax, kola nuts, and
india-rubber. Formerly a dependency of
Sierra Leone, the settlement was created
an independent colony in 1843, and be-
came a portion of the West African
Settlements in 1876; in 1888 it was made
a separate government. Pop. about 8,-
000. The protectorate has an area of
4,500 square miles; pop. about 200,000.
GAMBIEB, GAMBIR (gam'ber), or
PALE CATECHU, an important article
of commerce, used to a small extent
medicinally as an astringent but very
largely in tanning and dyeing. It is an
earthy-looking, light-brown substance,
often in small cubes or in compact
masses. It possesses no odor, but has a
bitter, astringent taste, subsequently be-
coming sweetish. It is prepared from
the young leaves of the Uncaria Gatnbir,
a native of the countries bordering the
Straits of Malacca. As the plant, which
grows to 8 or 10 feet, constantly pro-
duces young leaves, the manufacture is
carried on throughout the year.
GAMBIEB, ISLANDS, a group of
small coral islands in the South Pacific,
about lat. 23° 8' S. and Ion. 134° 55' W.;
belon^ng to France. The vegetation is
luxuriant and there are numerous birds
but no indigenous quadrupeds. A
French mission station was formed on
the largest island, Mangareva, in 1834.
GAMBIT, in chess, the sacrifice of a
pawn in the beginning of the game in
order to obtain a favorable position for
attack.
GAMBLING, playing at games of
hazard or chance for money. Strictly
speaking, gambling may be understood as
gaming in its worst sense, and as imply-
ing professional play for a money stake
by men who are unscrupulous adepts at
so-called games of chance.
GAMBOGE, or GAMBOGE (a corrup-
tion of Cambodia, the name of the dis-
trict in Annam where it is found) , a gum
Tesin containing about 70 per cent, of
resin, and 24 per cent, of soluble gum.
It is obtained by piercing the bark of
Garcinia tnorella, variety pedicellata, a
tree belonging to the order Guttiferse,
growing in Cambodia, Siam, and the S.
part of Cochin China. The juice is
allowed to harden in bamboo reeds, hence
it occurs in commerce in the form of
pipes which are striated externally.
Gamboge is hard and brittle, breaking
vdth a yellow-brown vitreous conchoidal
fracture; its powder is a bright yellow
color; it is inodorous, has a slight taste,
but when chewed is acid. Gamboge is
used as a pigment in water-color paint-
ing. By the action of nitric acid it is
oxidized into picric and oxalic acids. An
inferior kind of gamboge in the form of
flat cakes is prepared in Ceylon from
Hehradendron gambogioides. In phar-
macy, gamboge is used in the prepara-
tion of Pilula cambogise composite, com-
pound gamboge pill, composed of gam-
boge, Barbados aloes, compound powder
of cinnamon, hard soap, and syrup.
Gamboge acts as a drastic hydragogrie
purgative, it causes vomiting and grip-
ing; it is seldom given alone, but com-
bined with cream of tartar in cases of
dropsy, or with calomel in cerebral
diseases.
GAMBRINUS (-bri'nus), a mythical
king of Flanders, to whom is ascribed the
invention of beer. His figure is familiar
in German beer-cellars, often seated
astride a cask, a foaming tankard in his
hand.
GAME, any contrivance, arrangement,
or institution designed to afford recrea-
tion, sport or amusement; as, the game
of baseball, or of football; in the plural
contests in different sports, as wrestling,
running, etc.
Public Games of Antiquity. — The pub-
lic games of the Greeks were very
numerous, and the origin of many of
them is lost, on account of the religious
mystery in which they were founded.
Among the Grecian games, the most cele-
brated were the Olympic, the Pythian, the
Nemean, and the Isthmian. The con-
querors in the Olympic games were held
in high respect, and were looked on as
the noblest and happiest of men. These
games were held every five years at
Olympia, in Elis, on the W. side of the
Peloponnesus. Among the exercises, some
were designed to give strength, and
others agility. The lighter exercises com-
prised running, leaping, throwing the
quoit, and hurling the javelin. The more
severe course of discipline included
wrestling and boxing. Racing also con-
stituted a particular feature in all the
ancient games. The Isthmian games were
held at Corinth, and, together with
athletic exercises, horse and chariot
races, constituted a large portion oi tha
GAME LAWS
255
GANGES
spectacle. Originally these games were
connected with the worship of Neptune.
The Persian war gave an impulse to the
Isthmian games, while the Peloponnesian
war dimmed their glory. Under the
Romans, these games did not lose their
importance, but were exhibited with in-
creased celebrity. They were then held
every three years, and comprised three
leading divisions — musical, gymnastic,
and equestrian contests. The prize at
the Olympic games was merely a chaplet
of wild olive. At the Isthmian games,
the prize was parsley during the mythic
periods; in later times, however, the
victor was generally crowned with a
wreath of pine leaves.
The amusements in the Roman circus
did not differ materially from those
which were celebrated in the games of
ancient Greece. The theriomachia, or
beast fight, was a favorite species of en-
tertainment among them; and the men
employed to fight with wild beasts, were
called bestiarii. The combatants were
divided into two classes — those who
fought voluntarily for amusement or
pay, and who were provided with
weapons — and condemned persons, who
were generally exposed to the fury of
the animals naked, without arms, and
sometimes bound. Under Pompey, no
less than 600 lions were thus destroyed;
and under Titus, 5,000 wild and 4,000
tame animals perished in a similar
manner.
GAME LAWS, laws relating to the
killing of certain wild animals pursued
for sport, and called game. Formerly
in Great Britain certain qualifications of
rank or property were needed to con-
stitute the right to kill game ; but by the
Game Act of William IV. the necessity
for any qualification except the posses-
sion of a game certificate was abolished.
Night poaching is a graver offense; any
person found guilty of trespassing in
pursuit of game between the first hour
after sunset and the last before sunrise,
is for the first offense liable to imprison-
ment with hard labor for three months
and to find security for a year, a third
offense involving liability to penal servi-
tude. By an act of 1880 every occupier
of land has a right, as inseparable from
and incident to the occupation of the
land, to kill and take ground game
(hares and rabbits) thereon, concur-
rently with any other duly authorized
person, all agreements in contravention
of this right being declared void. Game
laws of greater or less strictness are in
force in many other countries. In Can-
ada and the United States the chief re-
strictions are in regard to killing wild
animals during the breeding season.
GANDAK (gun-dak') (the Great
Gandak; the Little Gandak being an un-
important tributary of the Gogra) a
river of India, rising in the Nepal Hima-
layas, in lat. 30° 56' N. and Ion. 79° 7'
E., flowing S. W. to British territory,
and then S. E., forming for some dis-
tance the boundary between the North-
west provinces and Bengal, and entering
the Ganges opposite Patna.
GANDAMAK (gun-da-muk') , a vil-
lage of Afghanistan, between Cabul and
Peshawar, where, during the retreat
from Kabul in 1842, the last remnant of
the British force was massacred, only
one man making his escape. Here also
a treaty was signed with Yakub Khan in
1879. See Afghanistan.
GANGES (gan'jez), a river of Hin-
dustan, one of the greatest rivers of
Asia, rising in the Himalaya Mountains,
in Garhwal state, and formed by the
junction of two head streams, the
Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda, which
unite at Deoprag, 10 miles below Srina-
gar, 1,500 feet above sea-level. The
Bhagirathi, as being a sacred stream, is
usually considered the source of the
Ganges, rising at the height of 13,800
feet, but the Alaknanda flows farther
and brings a larger volume of water to
the junction. At Hardwar, about 30
miles below Deoprag, the river fairly
enters the great valley of Hindustan,
and flows in a S. E. direction till it dis-
charges itself by numerous mouths into
the Bay of Bengal, after a course of
about 1,500 miles. During its course it
is joined by 11 large rivers, the chief
being the Jumna, Son, Ramganga,
Gumti, Gogra, Gandak and Kusi. In the
rainy season the flat country of Bengal
is overflowed to the extent of 100 miles
in breadth, the water beginning to recede
after the middle of August. The Ganges
delta has the Hugli on the W., the
Meghna on the E. and commences about
200 miles, or 300 by the course of the
river, from the sea. Along the sea it
forms an uninhabited swampy waste,
called Sunderbunds, or Sundarbans, and
the whole coast of the delta is a mass of
shifting mud banks. The W. branch, the
Hugli, is the only branch commonly
navigated by ships. The Meghna, or
main branch, on the E. is joined by a
branch of the Brahmaputra. Some of the
principal cities on the Ganges and its
branches, ascending the stream, are Cal-
cutta, Murshedabad, Bahar, Patna, Ben-
ares, Allahabad, Cawnpur, and Farucka-
bad. The Ganges is navigable for boats
of a large size nearly 1,500 miles from
its mouths, and it forms a great channel
for traffic.
It is an imperative duty of the Hindus
GANGLION
256
GAP
to bathe in the Ganges, or at least to
wash themselves with its waters, and to
distribute alms, on certain days. The
Hindus believe that whoever dies on its
banks, and drinks of its waters before
death, is exempted from the necessity
of returning into this world and com-
mencing a new life. The sick are there-
fore carried to the bank of the Ganges,
and its water is a considerable article
of commerce in the remoter parts of
India.
GAJSTGLION, in human anatomy, (1)
a small mass of vascular neurine, situ-
ated in the course of a nerve, and dis-
tinct both from the brain and from the
spinal cord. The sympathetic system of
nerves consists of a series of ganglia,
extending on each side of the vertebral
column, from the head to the coccyx,
connecting with all the other nerves of
the body. Each ganglion is a distinct
center, giving off branches in four direc-
tions, superior, inferior, external, and in-
ternal. They are divided into cranial
ganglia, cervical, thoracic, etc., (2) a
lymphatic gland. In comparative an-
atomy, a center of the nervous system,
containing nerve cells, and receiving and
giving out impressions. In surgery, a
globular indolent tumor, situated on the
course of a tendon. It is produced by
the elevation of a sheath of the tendon
and the infusion into it of a viscid fluid.
In botany, the mycelium of certain
fungal s.
GANGRENE, a tendency to death or
mortification, but stopping short of the
complete process. It may affect an organ,
such as the lung, but this is rare, or
the soft tissues, which is common, par-
ticularly of the foot, especially in the
aged, as senile gangrene. When part
remains alive it is gangrene, when it is
completely dead sphacelus. So in bone,
caries and necrosis occur, the first as
gangrene or incomplete, the second as
sphacelus of complete death. Degenera-
tion differs from gangrene in not be-
coming isolated or putrid, but, if not
absorbed, remaining in continuity with
surrounding parts. Gangrene of soft
parts is usually termed sloughing.
Necramia, or death of the blood, and
sequestrum, or a dead piece of bone, are
examples of gangrenous lesions.
GANGWAY, a passage or means of
temporary access to a place or building,
consisting of an inclined plane of planks ;
specifically, the opening in the bulwarks
of a vessel by which persons come on
board or disembark; also the temporary
bridge affording means of passing from
the ship to the shore, or vice versa. To
bring to the gangway, to punish a sailor
by seizing and flogging him. In the
British House of Commons, a narrow
passage running across the House and
dividing the seats on each side into two
parts. Above the gangway, that is, near
the Speaker's end of the House, sit the
Ministry and Opposition with their re-
spective adherents, the former on the
Speaker's right, the latter on his left.
Below the gangway sit the neutral or
independent members. In mining a main
level, applied chiefly to coal mines.
GANHWEI (gan-hwa'e), or AN-
HWEI (an-hwa'e), an E. inland province
of China, intersected by the Yang-tse-
Kiang.
GANNETT, HENBY, an American
geographer; born in Bath, Me., Aug. 24,
1846; was graduated at the Lawrence
Scientific School, in 1869; became geog-
rapher of the United States Geological
Survey in 1882; was geographer of
the 10th, 11th, and 12th censuses, and
of those taken by the War Department
in Cuba and Porto Rico in 1899. His
publications include "Manual of Topo-
graphic Surveying"; "Statistical Atlases
10th and 11th Censuses"; "Dictionary of
Altitudes"; "Commercial Geography";
etc. He died in 1914.
GANYMEDE (gan'i-med), in Greek
mythology, the cup-bearer of Zeus.
According to Homer, he was the son of
King Tros and the nymph Callirrhoe;
or, according to others, of Laomedon,
Ilus, or Erichthonius. The most beautiful
of mortals, he attracted the notice of the
king of the gods, who determined to
make him his cup-bearer in succession
to Hebe, and accordingly dispatched his
eagle to carry him off to heaven. At a
later period he was identified with the
divinity who presided over the sources
of the Nile. The Greek astronomers like-
wise placed him among the stars, under
the name of Aquarius ("the water-
bearer") in allusion to his celestial
function.
GANZ, BUDOLPH, a pianist and
composer, born in Zurich, Switzerland,
in 1877. He studied music in Switzer-
land and Germany and made his first
appearance in Zurich at the age of 12.
He later made extensive concert tours
in Europe and in 1900 came to the
United States. He taught music in Chi-
cago from 1902 to 1905. In the latter
year he abandoned teaching to under-
take concert tours. He appeared with
the leading orchestras and musical
organizations throughout the United
States and Canada. His musical works
include a symphony, many piano pieces,
and over 200 songs.
GAP (gap), the mountain capital of
the French department of Hautes Alpes-J
GARAYE
257
GARCIA
on the Luye river; 2,424 feet above sea-
level, among vine-clad slopes, 47 miles
S. E. of Grenoble. It has a cathedral
(rebuilt since 1866), and some manufac-
tures of silk and cotton fabrics, and hats.
The ancient Vapincum, it was formerly
a fortress of some importance, and gave
the title of Gapencois to the surrounding
district of Dauphine. Pop. about 11,000.
GARAYE (g&-ra'), LA, a ruined
chateau in Brittany, 2 miles from Dinan.
Its last owners, Claude Toussaint and
his countess, in the first half of the 18th
century converted it into a hospital.
GARBAGE, DISPOSAL OF. The
question of the proper disposal of gar-
bage and refuse has been one of the most
important problems of municipal life.
In the United States, the term garbage
is used to designate kitchen waste of
animal or vegetable origin, incident to
the preparation and serving of food.
Aside from household wastes, there are
various classes of trade and manufac-
turing refuse, such as paper, rags, and
shavings. It is the custom to keep or-
ganic and inorganic wastes in separate
receptacles. Ashes are the chief inor-
ganic substances, but no practical meth-
od has been found for their use, except
as a filling. Garbage collection in large
cities is undertaken by the city. A rela-
tively small number of cities and towns
have adopted thoroughly modern sani-
tary methods of garbage and refuse
disposal.
The first garbage furnaces used to in-
cinerate garbage, were installed in Great
Britain. The first furnace in the United
States built for a city was in Des
Moines, Iowa, in 1887. Furnaces are of
various types. Most of them are con-
structed upon English models.
The sorting of refuse has come to be
highly specialized in some cities of the
United States. The first city to install
a well equipped refuse sorting plant was
Boston. In sorting, the refuse is
brought to a station, dumped and shov-
eled into an inclined conveyor from
which are sorted the various grades of
paper, rags, and other kinds of mer-
chantable refuse. The remainder is
dumped automatically into a furnace
and burned. There are refuse sorting
plants at Buffalo, Pittsburgh, New York,
and other cities.
Garbage reduction is intended to re-
cover grease and fertilizing material
from animal and vegetable waste, while
at the same time sanitary means are
afforded for final disposal. The equip-
ment required is somewhat elaborate,
and includes tanks, dryers, grinding
mills, and other apparatus. Many cities
have municipal reduction plants. These
include Cleveland, Ohio; Columbus,
Ohio; Buffalo, N. Y.; New York City;
and other cities.
Following the World War the utiliza-
tion of garbage by feeding to hogs in-
creased rapidly in the United States.
The cities of Baltimore, Newark, Buf-
falo, and St. Louis changed from reduc-
tion to hog feeding, in 1919. In many
other cities this method was used in
disposing of garbage.
GARBOARD STRAKE, or GAR-
BOARD STREAK, in shipbuilding, the
range of planks nearest to the keel. In
the merchant service, the rabbet to re-
ceive the garboard strake is made along
the upper edge of the keel. In the navy,
a groove is made half-way down the
keel to receive the garboard strake.
GARCIA, CALIXTO (gar-the'a) , a
Cuban patriot; born in Holguin, Cuba,
Oct. 14, 1836; and took up the
profession of law. In 1868, with
Donato del Marmol and Carlos Ma-
nuel Cespedes, he organized the revo-
lution which has since been called
the "Ten Years' War." Early in that
struggle the Cubans won great success
and captured many towns. In recog-
nition of his services Garcia was
appointed a Brigadier-General under
Gomez, and subsequently succeeded that
officer as commander-in-chief of the
Cuban army. In 1873 he was captured
and sent to Spain, where he was par-
doned in 1878. Returning to Cuba, he
again took up arms against Spain in
what is known as the "Little War."
Later he was forced to surrender and a
second time sent to Madrid, where for
17 years he remained under the espion-
age of the police. He escaped in Septem-
ber, 1895, and took passage for New
York. On Jan. 26, 1896, he led a suc-
cessful filibustering expedition to Cuba.
Later, while planning a second expedi-
tion, he was arrested by United States
Government officers, gave bail, which he
forfeited, and again landed in Cuba.
When Santiago was taken by the Ameri-
cans in 1898 he withdrew from the Cuban
army because he was not given the com-
mand of that city. Subsequently, how-
ever, he accepted the new conditions. In
November, 1898, he was sent to the
United States as chairman of a commis-
sion authorized to lay before President
McKinley the wishes of the Cuban lead-
ers, but before accomplishing this duty
he died in Washington, D. C., Dec. 11,
1898. His remains received official and
military honors in Washington.
GARCIA. MANUEL (gar-the'a), a
Spanish vocalist and composer; born in
Seville, Spain, Jan. 22, 1775. After ac-
GARCILASO
258
GABDEN
quiring a considerable reputation as a
tenor singer in Cadiz and Madrid, in
1808 he obtained great success at the
Italian opera in Paris, and afterward
proceeded to Italy, where he was received
with equal favor. From 1816 to 1824
he was constantly engaged as a singer,
either in Paris or London. In 1825, with
a select operatic company, composed in
part of members of his own family, he
crossed the Atlantic, and visited New
York and Mexico. On the road between
Mexico and Vera Cruz he was robbed of
all his money; and after his return to
Paris he was compelled to open a class
for singing, as his voice had become
greatly impaired by age and fatigue.
Many of Garcia's pupils reached a high
degree of excellence, but none equaled
his eldest daughter Maria, afterward
Madame Malibran. He was less success-
ful as a composer, though several of his
works, such as "The Caliph of Bagdad,"
were much admired. Garcia died in
Paris, June 10, 1832. Pauline Viardot-
Garcia, his second daughter, born in
Paris in 1821, acquired a considerable
reputation as a mezzo-soprano singer,
and also composed several operettas and
songs.
GARCILASO (gar-the-la'so) , a Span-
ish historian; born in Cuzco, Pei-u, in
1540. He was son of Garcilaso de la
Vega, one of the conquerors of Peru, and
was surnamed the Inca, from his mother,
a princess of the royal race of the Incas,
At the age of 20 he went to Spain,
and lived the rest of his life at Cordova.
His first work (1605) was an account of
the conquest of Florida by Fernando de
Soto. In 1609 appeared the first, and
eight years later the second part of his
great work on the history of Peru, en-
titled "Royal Commentaries"; translated
into English by Sir Paul Rycaut (1688),
and by C. R. Markham for the Hakluyt
Society (1869). He died in Cordova,
Spain, in 1616.
GARCINIA (named after Laurent
Garcin, an Oriental traveler), in botany,
a genus of guttifers, the typical one of
the tribe Garciniese. The finiit of G.
rnangostana is the highly-prized mangos-
teen. The fruits of G. peduncidata, G.
cornea, and G. kydiana are also eaten,
but are not greatly valued. G. camhogia
and other species of the genus furnish
Gamboge {q. v.).
GARD (gar), a department in the S.
of Prance, on the Mediterranean;
bounded on the E. by the Rhone river;
ai-ea, 2,253 square miles, one-third of
which is arable; pop. about 414,000. It
is watered mainly by the Rhone, and by
its tributaries, the Gard — from which the
department has its name — and the Ceze.
Of its surface the^ N. W. is occupied by a
branch of the Cevennes, the remainder
slopes toward the Rhone and the Medi-
terranean, the coast being lined by ex-
tensive and unhealthy marshes. The soil
is unequal, the best land occurring in the
river valleys. The famous grapes have
almost disappeared before the ravages
of the phylloxera. The rearing of silk-
worms is widely engaged in, and the
cultivation of olives and chestnuts is of
value. The minerals include coal, iron,
argentiferous lead, antimony, marble,
and salt; and the department's iron and
steel works are important. Chief city,
Nimes. Pop. about 80,000.
GARD, PONT DU (pon dvi), a fine
Roman aqueduct, in Gard, 10 miles from
Nimes, joining two mountains and pass-
ing over the Gardon. It has thi'ee tier?
of arches, and is 160 feet high.
GARDA (gai-'da), LAKE OF (the
Lacus Benacus of the Romans) , the
largest lake of Italy, between Lombardy
and Venetia, its N. end extending into
the Austrian Tyrol. Situated 216 feet
above sea-level, it has an area of 115
square miles, a length of 37 miles, a
breadth of 2 to 11 miles, and a maximum
depth of 1916 feet. Its chief tributaries
are the Sarca and Ponale, and it is
drained by the Mincio, a tributary of the
Po. Along the W. shore the mulberry,
fig, grape, myrtle, and citron are grown
in the sheltered gardens, many of them
terraced; olives flourish most on th*^'
opposite bank. The clear waters of the
lake abound in fish of various kinds. The
mild climate in the district of the lake,
and the beauty of its vicinity, have
caused its shores to be lined with beau-
tiful villas; and the district between
Garguano and Salo, called by the people
La Riviera, passes for the warmest point
in northern Italy. Arco, near the head
of the lake, is a favorite winter resort.
GARDEN. The earliest gardens of
which there is any account are those of
Solomon, which are described as having
been of quadrangular form, surrounded
by high walls. They contained aviaries,
wells, an<l streams of water. The gar-
dens of Cyrus and other Persian mon-
archs were of great extent, and generally
laid out in romantic situations. The first
allusion to terraces in gardens is to be
found in the description of the celebrated
hanging gardens of Babylon. The ter-
races are described as being furnished
with groves, containing fountains, seats,
parterres, and banqueting rooms, and as
combining the minute beauties of flowers
and foliage with masses of light and
GARDEN
259
GARDINER
shade and extensive prospects. The
grove of Orontes, described by Strabo,
must be regarded as a park or large
gai'den in the picturesque style; it was
9 miles in circumference. In ancient
Greece, gardening was rather a neglected
art at first, but in process of time great
advance was made. The vale of Tempe,
the Academus at Athens, and other pub-
lic gardens, were extremely elegant, and
were ornamented with temples, altars,
tombs, statues, monuments, and towers.
The Greeks copied their gardening from
the Persians; and the Romans, in their
turn, followed the pattern and style of
the Greeks. See Horticulture; Graft-
ing; Hotbed.
GARDEN, MARY, an American so-
prano. Born in 1877 at Aberdeen, Scot-
MARY GARDEN
land, her parents moved to America when
she was very young. In Chicago she
learned to play both the violin and piano
and when sixteen placed herself under
the instruction of Mrs, Duff of Bangor,
Me. After training her voice for two
years she continued her vocal studies in
Paris under eminent teachers. Making
her debut in Paris in 1900 she was a
striking success from the first. In 1908
she became a member of the Manhattan
Opera Company of New York and re-
mained with them two years. From 1910
to 1920 she was connected with the
Chicago Opera Company. Her favorite
operas were those of the modern French
school and she excelled in her dramatic
work particularly in such an opera as
"Thais." In 1921 she was appointed
general director of the Chicago Opera Co.
GARDEN CITY, a village on Long
Island, N. Y.; on the Long Island rail-
road; 18 miles E. of New York City. It
was founded by Alexander T. Stewart as
a residential town. It is the seat of the
Protestant Episcopal bishop of Long Is-
land, and contains the Cathedral of the
Incarnation, which was consecrated in
May, 1885, having been erected by his
widow as a memorial to Mr. Stewart.
Here are also the Cathedral Schools of
St. Mary and St. Paul.
GARDENIA, a genus of trees and
shrubs, natural order Rubiales, natives
of tropical Asia and Africa, bearing
beautiful white or yellowish flowers of
great fragrance. The genus was named
after Dr. Garden, of Charleston, S. C.
GARDEN SPIDER, also called dia-
dem, or cross spider, the Epeira dia-
dema, a common British spider the dor-
sal surface of which is marked with a
triple yellow cross. It forms a beautiful
geometric web.
GARDINER, a city in Kennebec co.,
Me.; on the Kennebec river, and on the
Maine Central railroad; 6 miles S. W. of
Augusta. It has admirable waterpower,
derived from the Cobossee river, and has
valuable manufacturing interests, in-
cluding sawmills, paper mills, potteries,
furniture, carriage, woolen, boot and
shoe, sash, blind, and door factories.
There are electric lights and street
railroads, waterworks, public library,
3 National banks, and an assessed
property valuation of $4,000,000. The
ice cutting industry employs 1,000
people; annual output valued at $75,000.
Pop. (1910) 5,311; (1920) 5,475.
GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON, an
English historian; bom in Ropley,
Hampshire, England, March 4, 1829. He
was educated at Winchester and at
Christ Church, Oxford, taking a first-
class in 1851. For some years he filled
the chair of modern history at King's
College, London, but resigned it in 1885
to continue his history at Oxford on an
All Souls' elective fellowship. He wrote:
"The History of England from the Acces-
sion of James I. to the Disgrace of Chief
Justice Coke" (1863) ; "Prince Charles
and the Spanish Marriage" (1869);
"The Thirty Years' War" (1874); "The
First Two Stuarts and the Puritan Rev-
olution" (1875) in "Epochs of Modern
History"; "England under the Duke of
Buckingham and Charles I." (1875);
"The Personal Government of Charles
I." (1877) ; "Introduction to the Study
of English History" (1881), written in
conjunction with Mr. J. Bass Mullinger;
"The Fall of the Monarchy of Charles
I." (vols. i. and ii. 1882). He edited the
'Fortescue Papers," the "Hamilton
GABDINER
260
GABFIELD
Papers," the "Parliamentary Debates in
1610," and "Debates in the House of
Commons in 1625." He died Feb. 23,
1902.
GARDINER, STEPHEN, an English
prelate, believed to have been a natural
son of Lionel, Bishop of Salisbury, and
brother of Elizabeth Woodville, queen of
Edward IV.; born in Bury St. Edmunds,
Suffolk, England, in 1483. In 1520 he
took the degrees of D. D. and LL. D. at
Cambridge, where he became master of
Trinity Hall. He passed at this time by
the name of Dr. Stephens. Having be-
come secretary to Wolsey and a favorite
with the king, he was dispatched to
Rome in 1528 to forward Henry VIII.'s
divorce, and on his return was appointed
secretary of state, and in succession
Archdeacon of Norwich and Leicester,
and Bishop of Winchester. He also went
on various embassies to France and Ger-
many. He supported the king in re-
nouncing the authority of the Pope, but
opposed the doctrines of the Reforma-
tion, and took an active part in the pass-
ing of the six articles and in the prose-
cution of Protestants. He was success-
ful in contriving the fall of his opponent
Cromwell, but failed to injure Catherine
Parr, and fell into disfavor. During the
reign of Edward he was imprisoned in
the Fleet, deprived of his bishopric, and
afterward imprisoned in the Tower from
1548-1553, but Mary i*estored him to his
bishopric, and appointed him lord chan-
cellor. He officiated at her coronation
and marriage, and became one of her
chief advisers. He took an active part
in the persecutions at the beginning of
the reign. He died in London, Nov.
12, 1555.
GARDNER, a town in Worcester co.,
Mass., including the villages of Gardner
Center, South Gardner, and West Gard-
ner; on the Fitchburg railroad; 25 miles
N. of Worcester. It is the trade center
for an extensive agricultural region, and
has manufactories of rattan goods, gas
and oil stoves, chairs, foundry, and ma-
chine-shop products, electric lights,
street railroads, waterworks, the Levi
Haywood Memorial Library, high school,
2 National banks, and an assessed valua-
tion of $5,500,000. Pop. (1910) 14,699;
(1920) 16,971.
GARFIELD, a borough of New Jersey,
in Bergen co. It is on the Erie rail-
road, and on the Passaic river. It has
industries of great importance, includ-
ing woolen mills, knitting mills, stone
works, a machine shop, and manufac-
tures of clothing, chemicals, rubber
goods, cigars, paper boxes, etc. Pop.
(1910) 10,213; (1920) 19,381*
GARFIELD, HARRY AUGUSTUS, an
American educator and public official.
Born in 1863 in Ohio, the son of James
Abram Garfield, twentieth President of
the United States. After giaduating
from Williams College in 1885, he studied
law at Columbia University and at Ox
ford, England. From 1888 to 1903, he
practiced law in Cleveland, Ohio, and in
the latter year became professor of
politics in Princeton University. In
1908 he became president of Williams
College. When the United States en-
tered the World War, President Wil-
son appointed him Fuel Administrator.
HARRY A. GARFIELD
His duties gave him practically un-
limited control over the enormous fuel
supplies of the United States and made
him an important official in the Govern^
ment. He resigned his position a few
months after the armistice in 1918, to
return to the presidency of Williams
College.
GARFIELD. JAMES ABRAM, an
American statesman, 20th President of
the United States; born in Orange, 0.,
Nov. 19, 1831. The family home was
a small log cabin in the Ohio "\\ilder-
ness," a region now known as the West-
em Resei've. He went to school winters,
and became an omnivorous reader, espe-
cially of the Bible. In the winter of
1849-1850 he attended a seminary at
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THE GALVESTON SEA WALL AFTER A STORM
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ATLANTA'S "FLATIRON'
BUILDING, BROAD AND PEACHTREE STREETS.
ATLANTA, GA.
GARFIELD
261
GARHMUKHTESAB
Chester, 0., learned the trade of a car-
penter during vacations, and was able
to support himself in school from that
time by his own exertions. In 1851 he
entered an institute at Hiram, O. (now
Hiram College), and went thence in 1854
to Williams College, and graduated in
1856. In 1857 he was made president
of Hiram College, where he won reputa-
tion as an educator. In 1859 he was
elected to the Ohio State Senate. In
1861 he was commissioned lieutenant-
colonel of the 42d regiment of Ohio
Volunteers, and was made a Brigadier
in a few months. During the war he
distinguished himself more or less at
Middle Creek, Shiloh, Corinth, and
Chickamauga. In 1863 he left the army
to enter Congress, declining the offer of
JAMES A. GARFIELD
a division command under Thomas. He
remained in Congress 16 years. In 1880
he was elected United States Senator
from Ohio, but in June the Republican
National Convention nominated him to
the presidency, and he was elected in
November. A controversy arose early
in his administration over the Federal
offices in New York, especially the of-
fice of collector of the port of New York
City, which led to the resignation from
the United States Senate of Roscoe
Conkling and Thomas C. Piatt, of New
York, after a bitter and heated contest
in the Senate over the confirmation of
Garfield's appointees. On July 2, 1881,
when passing through the Baltimore and
Potomac passenger station in Wash-
ington, in company with Mr. J. G.
Blaine, to go on board a train, Garfield
was shot by Charles J. Guiteau, a dis-
appointed office-seeker. Garfield lived
till Sept. 19, being cared for in a seaside
residence at Elberon, N. J. His funeral
was a state affair of great solemnity
and pomp. A beautiful monument was
raised over his remains in a cemetery
overlooking Lake Erie, at Cleveland, O.
GARFIELD, JAMES RUDOLPH, an
American public official. Born at Hiram,
Ohio, in 1865, the son of President Gar-
field, of the United States. After
graduating from Williams College in
1885, he studied law at Columbia Uni-
versity and was admitted to the bar in
1888. After serving as a member of
the Ohio Senate he became in 1903,
Commissioner of Corporations in the
United States Department of the In-
terior. In 1907 President Roosevelt ap-
pointed him Secretary of the Interior,
a position he held until the close of
Roosevelt's administration. He took a
prominent part in formulating and
carrying out the President's conservation
policies. Upon leaving the cabinet he
took up the practice of law in Cleveland,
Ohio.
GARFISH, SEAPIKE, or GARPIKE
(Belcme vulgaris), a fish, known also as
the sea needle, making its appearance a
short time before the mackerel in their
annual visit for spawning. It is long
and slender, sometimes 2 or 3 feet in
length. The name garfish, or garpike,
is also given to other species of Belcme,
and to a ganoid fish of the genus
Lepidosteus, found in the fresh waters
of America.
GAR GANG (gar-ga'no) (ancient
Garganus), a mountainous peninsula,
the "spur" of Italy, in the province of
Foggia, jutting out about 30 miles into
the Adriatic Sea, and attaining in
Monte Calvo a height of 3,460 feet.
Bee-keeping is yet as generally engaged
in as in the time of Horace. The district
is visited mainly by pilgrims to a shrine
of St. Michael on Monte St. Angelo.
GARGARA (gar'ga-ra) (Turkish
Kasdagh), the highest mountain of the
ridge of Ida, in Asia Minor, near the
Gulf of Adramyti, on the N.
GARGIL, or GARGOLS, a distemper
in geese, affecting the head.
GARGOYLE, GARGOIL. or GUR-
GOYLE (French ffargonille^the wea-
sand of the throat), in architecture, a
quaintly-formed head of a man or ani-
mal, employed as a decorative spout for
the rain water from a roof.
GARHMUKHTESAR (gur-mok-tes'
ur), an ancient town in the Northwest
OARHWAL
262
GARLAND
provinces of India, on the Ganges, 26
miles S. E. of Meerut, with four shrines
dedicated to Ganga, and a great fair,
which attracts 200,000 pilgrims. Pop.
about 8,000.
GARHWAL (gur-wal'), a native state
in the Northwest provinces of India, on
the borders of Tibet; area, 4,164 square
miles; pop. about 270,000. Also the
name of a British district in the North-
west provinces, next to independent
Garhwal; area 5,500 square miles;
pop. about 300,000. Being on the S.
slope of the Himalayas, Garhwal is for
the most part a mass of rugged moun-
tain ranges, whose elevation above the
sea reaches in Nanda Devi 25,661 feet.
The native state is the cradle of both
the Jumna and the Ganges, and in the
district are the Alaknanda and its point
of junction with the Bhagirathi (see
Ganges) ; consequently, crowds of pil-
grims are attracted to the peculiarly
sacred localities of Deoprayag and
Gangotri.
GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE (ga-re-
bal'de), an Italian patriot; born in Nice,
France, July 4, 1807. His father being
a poor fisherman, he got little education,
and for a number of years was a sailor
on various trading vessels. In 1834,
being condemned to death for his share
in the schemes of Mazzini, he escaped to
Marseilles, and finally went to South
America. In the service of the Republic
of Rio Grande against the Brazilians,
he became known as a brilliant leader,
and with his famous Italian legion he
subsequently gave the Montevideans
such effective aid against Buenos Aires
as to earn the title of "hero of Monte-
video." In 1848 he returned to Italy,
raised a band of volunteers, and har-
assed the Austi-ians till the re-establish-
ment of Austrian supremacy in Lom-
bardy. He then retired to Switzerland,
but in the spring of 1849 proceeded to
Rome to support Mazzini's republic. He
was appointed to command the forces,
but the odds were overwhelming, and
after a desperate defense of 30 days
Garibaldi escaped from Rome with 4,000
of his followers. In the course of his
flight his wife Anita died from fatigue
and privations. He reached the United
States, and was for several years in
command of a merchant vessel. He then
purchased a part of the small island of
Caprera, off the N. coast of Sardinia,
and made this his home for the rest of
his life. Latterly the subscriptions of
his admirers enabled him to become
owner of the whole island.
In the war of 1859, in which Sardinia
recovered Lombardy, Garibaldi and hi3
Chasseurs of the Alps did splendid serv-
ice; and on the revolt of the Sicilians in
1860 he crossed to the island, wrested it
after a fierce struggle from the King of
Naples, recrossed to the mainland and
occupied Naples, where he was pro-
claimed dictator of the Two Sicilies. It
was now feared that Garibaldi might
prove untrue to his motto — Italy and
Victor Emmanuel — but he readily ac-
quiesced in the annexation of the Two
Sicilies to Italy, and declining all honors
retired to his island farm. In 1862 he
endeavored to force the Roman question
to a solution, and entered Calabria with
a small following, but was taken prisoner
at Aspromonte by the royal troops. He
was soon released, however, and returned
to Caprera. In 1864 he received an en-
thusiastic welcome in Great Britain. In
1866 he commanded a volunteer force
against the Austrians in the Italian
Tyrol, but failed to accomplish anything
of consequence. Next year he attempted
the liberation of Rome, but near Men-
tana was defeated by the French and
pontifical troops, and was again im-
prisoned by the Italian Government, but
soon pardoned and released. In 1870 he
gave his services to the French repub-
lican government against the Germans,
and with his 20,000 men rendered valu-
able assistance in the S. E. At the end
of the war he was elected a member of
the French assembly, but speedily re-
signed his seat and returned to Caprera.
Rome now became the capital of united
Italy, and here in January, 1875, Gari-
baldi took his seat in the Italian parlia-
ment. The latter part of his life was
spent quietly at Caprera. After 1870 he
wrote two or three novels — very medi-
ocre productions. He died on the island
of Caprera, June 2, 1882.
GARIGLIANO (ga-rel-ya'no) (ancient
T iris ; in its upper course now called
Liri), a river of southern Italy, rising
in the Abruzzi, W. of the former Lake
of Fucino, and flowing after a generally
S. course of 90 miles, into the Gulf of
Gaeta. It is navigable below Pontecorvo,
and abounds with fish. On its banks in
1503 was fought a famous battle be-
tween the French and the Spaniards,
commanded by Gonsalvo de Cordova, in
which the former were totally routed,
though Bayard is said single-handed to
have held the bridge against 200 Spani-
ards.
GARLAND, HAMLIN, an Americaii
story writer; born in West Salem, Wis.,
Sept. 16, 1860. His works included
"Main Traveled Roads" (1891); "A
"Spoil of Office"; "Prairie Folks";
"Prairie Songs" (1893) ; "Crumbling
GARLASCO
263
GABONNE
Idols"; "Little Norsk"; (1893); "Rose of
Dutcher's Coolly" (1895); "Jason Ed-
wards"; "The Eagle's Heart" (1900);
"The Captain of the Gray Horse Troop"
HAMLIN GARLAND
(1902); "Hesper" (1904); "The Forest-
er's Daughter" (1914) ; "A Son of the
Middle Border" (1917).
GARLASCO, a town of northern
Italy, in Piedmont, 24 miles S. E. of
Novara. Near this place the Austrians
crossed the Po, when invading Italy in
1849.
GARLIC, in botany. Allium sativum,
a perennial plant with a compound bulb
composed of 10 to 12 smaller ones, called
cloves, flat, narrow, erect, and pointed
leaves, flowers akin to those of the onion,
whitish or pinkish. It is used in Sicily,
and some parts of Provence. It is cul-
tivated in Portugal and other parts of
the continent. The peasantry eat their
bread with slices of it. In pharmacy,
garlic, like other species of Allium, is
stimulant, diuretic, and expectorant.
GARNET, an isometric transparent or
translucent brittle mineral, with dodeca-
hedral cleavage, sometimes with twin
crystals, having an octahedral compo-
sition face. It occurs also massive and
lamellar. Color, red, brown, yellow,
white, or black, with a white streak.
There are three leading varieties: (1)
Alumina garnet, in which the sesqui-
oxide is mainly alumina ; (2) Iron garnet,
in which it is chiefly sesquioxide of iron;
and (3) Chrome garnet, in which it is
principally sesquioxide of chrome. Under
these are ranked grossularite, pyrope,
almandite, spessartite, andradite, bred-
bergite, and ouvarovite.
GARNETT, RICHARD, an English
philologist; born in Otley, Yorkshire,
England, July 25, 1789. He had already
tried commerce and the Church, when in
1838 he was appointed assistant keeper
of printed books at the British Museum.
One of the founders of the Philological
Society, he contributed many striking
papers (on Celtic subjects, largely) to
its "Proceedings" and to the "Quarterly
Review." These were collected by his
son in "Philological Essays" (1859). He
died Sept. 27, 1850. Richard, his son,
born in Lichfield, Feb. 27, 1835, was ap-
pointed in 1851 assistant in the printed
book department of the British Museum,
where also he became superintendent of
the reading room in 1875. This office he
resigned in 18S4 to devote himself more
exclusively to the printing of the "Mu-
seum Catalogue," of which he had had
charge from its commencement. He pub-
lished: "Relics of Shelley" (1862); "Se-
lections of Shelley's Poems" (1880) and
"Letters" (1882) ; "De Quincey's Eng-
lish Opium Eater" (1885) ; "Life of Car-
lyle" (1887); "Life of Milton" (1890);
"Poems" (1893) ; "History of Italian Lit-
erature" (1898) ; "Essays in Librarian-
ship and Bibliography" (1899) ; "Essays
of an Ex-Librarian" (1901) "English
Literature" with Edmund Gosse (1903-
1904). He died in 1906.
GARNISHMENT, in law, (1) a warn-
ing or legal notice to the agent or attor-
ney of an absconding debtor to appear in
court or give information. (2) A warn-
ing or legal notice not to pay money, etc.,
to a defendant, but to appear and answer
to a plaintiff creditor's suit. (3) A fee.
GARO (ga'ro) HILLS, a district of
India, forming the S. W. corner of As-
sam; area, 3,350 square miles. It is a
mountainous and forest region inter-
sected by tributaries of the Brahmapu-
tra. The native Garos are a robust and
active race. Among them the wife is
regarded as the head of the family, and
property descends through females. Pop.
about 154,000.
GARONNE (ga-ron') (ancient Gar-
umna), the principal river in the S. W.
of France, rising within the Spanish
frontier in the Val d'Aran, at the base of
Mount Maladetta, in the Pyrenees, 6,142
feet above sea-level. About 26 miles
from its source it enters the French ter-
GARONNE
264
GARRISON
ritory in the department of Haute Ga-
ronne, flows in a general N. E. course
to Toulouse, then bends to the N. W.,
and continues to flow in that direction
till joined by the Dordogne, about 20
miles below Bordeaux, and widening af-
terward into the estuary which bears
the name of the Gironde, it enters the
Atlantic at the Pointe de Grave. The
estuary, the largest in France, is nearly
50 miles long. The total length of the
river is about 346 miles; it drains an
area of about 22,020 square miles. Its
navigation, which, however, is much im-
peded above Toulouse, commences for
small craft at Cazeres; ocean steamers
go up to Bordeaux. Its principal afflu-
ents are the Tarn, Lot, and Dordogne, on
the right ; and on the left, the Save, Gers,
and Baise. At Toulouse it is joined by
the Canal du Midi, which running E. to
the Mediterranean, forms with the Ga-
ronne a means of communication be-
tween that sea and the Atlantic; and
the river's own "side canal," starting
also from Toulouse, runs along the right
bank, receives the Montauban canal, and
spans several streams in its course, cross-
ing the Garonne itself at Agen by a mag-
nificent viaduct, and returning to the
river at Castets, after a total length of
120 miles. The valley of the Garonne is
noted for the beauty of its scenery, but
is liable to destructive inundations.
GARONNE, HAUTE, a department
in the S. of France, embracing portions
of ancient Gascony and Languedoc; area
2,457 square miles, Pop. about 432,000.
It is watered throughout by the Garonne,
from which it derives its name, and with-
in the basin of which it wholly lies.
Occupied in the S. by a branch of the
Pyrenean range, the slope of the depart-
ment and the course of its streams are
toward the N. and N. E. Apart from
this S. mountainous region, the depart-
ment is hilly and fertile. The soil in the
valleys is remarkably productive, and
bears heavy crops of wheat, maize, flax,
hemp, potatoes, and rape seed. Orchard
fruits and chestnuts are produced in
abundance, and the annual yield of wine
is over 20,000,000 gallons, two-thirds of
which is exported. The chief manufac-
tures are woolen and cotton fabrics,
paper and hardware. Capital, Toulouse.
GAROO, a trading station of the
Chinese empire, near a source of the
Indus, 16,000 feet above sea-level; lat.
31° 40' N., Ion. 80° E. Here an active
commerce is carried on in exchanging
Chinese and Tibetan commodities for
those of India and Kashmir.
GARRICK, DAVID, an English actor;
born in Hereford, England, Feb. 20, 1716.
His grandfather was a French refugee,
his father a captain in the army. He
was educated at Lichfield grammar
school, spent a short time at Lisbon with
an uncle, and returning to Lichfield was
placed under Samuel Johnson, who was
induced to accompany him to the me-
tropolis (1736). Garrick then began to
study for the law, but on the death of
his father joined his brother Peter in
the wine trade. He had, however, as a
child a strong passion for acting, and in
1741 he joined Giffard's company at
Ipswich under the name of Lyddal. At
Giffard's theater in Goodman|s fields he
achieved a great success as Richard III.,
and in 1742 was not less successful at
Drury Lane. In 1745 he became joint
manager with Mr. Sheridan of a theater
in Dublin, and after a season at Covent
Garden (1746) purchased Drury Lane
in conjunction with Mr. Lacy, opening it
Sept. 15, 1747, with the "Merchant of
Venice." From this period may be dated
a comparative revival of Shakespeare,
and a reform both in the conduct and
license of the drama. He had already
written his farces of "The Lying Valet,"
"Lethe," and "Miss in her Teens"; and
in 1766 he composed,, jointly with Col-
man, "The Clandestine Marriage." After
the death of Lacy in 1773 the sole man-
agement of the theater devolved on Gar-
rick till 1776, when he sold his moiety of
the theater for £37,000, performed his
last part, Don Felix in "The Wonder,"
for the benefit of the theatrical fund,
and bade an impressive farewell to the
stage. As a man Garrick was highly
respected, the chief defect of his charac-
ter being vanity. As an actor he ranks
with the best and was almost equally
great both in tragedy and in comedy. He
died in London, Jan. 20, 1779, and was
buried with great pomp in Westminster
Abbey.
GARRISON, a military term^ signify-
ing a body of troops stationed in a fort
or fortified place to defend it from the
enemy, or to keep the people around in
subjection; also a fort or fortified place
manned with soldiers, guns, etc. ; also the
state of being stationed in a fort or forti-
fied place for its defense, a doing duty in
a garrison; winter quarters for troops.
GARRISON, LINDLEY MILLER,
an American lawyer and public official.
He was born in Camden, N. J., in 1864,
and was educated at Phillips Exeter
and Harvard University. After grad-
uating from Harvard he studied law in
Philadelphia, being admitted to the bar
in 1886. After building up a consider-
able practice he became in 1904 vice-
chancellor of New Jersey, and in 1913
GABRISON
265
GARVIN
President Wilson appointed him Secre-
tary of War. In Feb., 1916, he resigned
from the cabinet because of a serious
difference with the President on the ques-
tion of the new "Preparedness" program.
LINDLEY M. GARRISON
He again resumed the practice of law in
New York City as a member of the firm
of Hornblower, Miller, Garrison, and
Potter.
GARRISON, MABEL, (MRS.
GEORGE SIEMONN), an American
opera singer, born in Baltimore, Md.
She graduated from the Western Mary-
land College and studied music at the
Peabody Conservatory of Music, in Bal-
timore. She first attracted attention as
a choir singer in that city. Her first
appearance as an opera singer was made
in "Mignon" at the Boston Opera House,
in 1912. She was at once successful and
in 1914 joined the Metropolitan Opera
House. She appeared frequently in con-
certs and also as a soloist with the lead-
ing orchestras.
GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD, an
American reformer; born in Newbury-
port, Mass., Dec. 12, 1805. He was ap-
prenticed to a shoemaker, but eventually
became a compositor on the Newbury-
port "Herald." In 1827 he became editor
of the "National Philanthropist," the
first American temperance journal, and
afterward on a journal in support of the
election of John Quincy Adams, With
Mr. Lundy, a Quaker, he then started
the paper called the "Genius of Universal
Emancipation" (1829), his denunciations
of slave-traders leading to his imprison-
ment for libel. On his release he com-
menced lecturing in Boston, started the
"Liberator" (1831). In 1832 appeared
his "Thoughts on African Colonization,"
and in the same year he established the
American Anti-Slavery Society, He sub-
sequently visited England, where he was
welcomed by Wilberforce, Brougham,
Buxton, etc. In 1835 he was saved with
diflficulty from a Boston mob; but his
principles made steady progress till 1865,
when the Anti-Slavery Society was dis-
solved with its work accomplished. A
volume of sonnets (1843) and one of
selections (1852) bear his name. He
died in New York City, May 24, 1879.
GARROTE, or GARROTTE, a Span-
ish instrument of execution. The victim,
usually in a sitting posture, is fastened
by an iron collar to an upright post, and
a knob operated by a screw or lever dis-
locates the spinal column, or a small
blade severs the spinal cord at the base
of the brain.
GARRY, a river in Scotland, county
of Perth, joining the Tummel after a
course of 20 miles. It is celebrated for
its picturesque scenery.
GARSHIN, VSEVOLOD MICHAILO-
VI CH (gar'shin), Russian novelist; born
in Bachmut, Yekaterinoslav, Feb. 14,
1855. He took part in the Russo-Turkish
war, and was wounded at Charkow. He
soon after finished his great work, "Four
Days." "A Very Little Story," "The
Night," and several more novels, came
from his pen during the next few years.
He developed a tendency to melancholy
(occasionally developing into insanity),
traces of which are to be found in "At-
talea Princeps" and "Night," and in the
psychiatrical study of "The Red Flower."
He died in St. Petersburg, April 5, 1888.
GARTER SNAKE, in zoology, the
snake genus Eutania. There are two
species, E. sirtalis and E. ordinate, the
latter in the Southern States, the other
more widely diffused over the Union.
Their bite is not venomous.
^ GARVIN, JAMES LOUIS, an Eng-
lish editor. Ho was born in Ireland
in 1868, and was brought at an early
ag'e to England, where he was educated
in Catholic elementary schools, in which
later, in Liverpool and Hull, he was a
pupil teacher. Removing to Newcastle,
he became first a reporter and later a
leader writer on the Newcastle "Chron-
icle," from which in 1899 he went to join
the political staff of the London "Daily
GARY
266
GAS
Telegraph." In 1905 he became editor
of "The Outlook," and in 1908 of "The
Observer," writing also, 1912-1915, for
the "Pall Mall Gazette." He was ori-
ginally a strong Parnellite, but on join-
ing "Daily Telegraph" became a Tory
Imperialist. Has contributed much to
the reviews. Publications: "Imperial
Reciprocity"; "Tariff or Budget"; ♦'Eco-
nomic Foundations of Peace,"
GARY, a city of Indiana, in Lake
CO. It is on the Indiana, Baltimore,
and Ohio, the Chicago, Indiana and
Southern, the Elgin, Joliet and Eastern,
and other railroads. The city is at the
head of Lake Michigan and lies half-
way between the great iron ore beds of
the north and the coal regions of the
south. Its advantageous situation in
regard to coal and iron led to the selec-
tion of the site for the main plant of
the United States Steel Corporation, in
April, 1906. The city has become the
gi-eatest steel producing city in the
world. It contains plants of the Ameri-
can Bridge Works, the Indiana Steel
Company, tin-plate works, locomotive
works, coke by-product works, etc. It
has a public library, a handsome city
hall, a hospital, and several public
parks. Pop. (1910) 16,802; (1920)
55,378.
GARY, ELBERT HENRY, an Amer-
ican lawyer and capitalist, born near
Wheaton, 111. He was educated in the
public schools and Wheaton College, and
at the University of Chicago. After
studying law at the latter institution, he
was admitted to the bar in 1867. He
was engaged in the general practice of
law in Chicago for 25 years, but retired
from law practice to become president
of the Federal Steel Co. He was prom-
inently identified with the organization
of the United States Steel Corporation,
of which he became chairman of the
board of directors and chairman of the
finance committee. He was president of
the American Iron and Steel Institute
and, in 1893-1894, was president of the
Chicago Bar Association.
GAS, in chemistry, a substance pos-
sessing the condition of perfect fluid
elasticity, and presenting under a con-
stant pressure a uniform rate of ex-
pansion for equal increments of teni-
perature, but when reaching its maxi-
mum density behaving like a vap>or. All
gases can be condensed into liquids by
cold and pressure. Some of the ele-
ments, as oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
chlorine, and probably fluorine, are
gases at ordinary temperatures. Atmos-
pheric air is a mechanical mixture of
77 parts by weight of nitrogen, and 23 of
oxygen, or 79 volumes of nitrogen mixed
with 21 volumes of oxygen. Gases are
formed by the dry distillation of animal
and vegetable substances, which yield
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, am-
monia, nitrogen, hydrogen, sulphur
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, and hydro-
carbons.
The gas of commerce is carburetted
hydrogen (CH4). Its frequent disen-
gagement in coal mines with resultant
explosions, generally fc.tal to many lives,
has caused the miners to give it the
name of fire-damp. In parts of the
world it issues from crevices or holes in
the strata in so moderate and continuous
a stream, as to burn with a huge jet in-
stead of exploding. It was discovered in
the United States about 1845, and is
knovni as natural gas. Gas wells abound
in Ohio, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and the
West. This natural gas serves the pur-
poses of illuminating and heating. The
<5A5
COCK
^ INLET
VALVE
GAS SUPPLY OF OTTO GAS ENGINE
ignition of carburetted hydrogen may be
seen in any coal fire. It has been dis-
covered that giant jets of apparently
GAS ENGINE
267
GAS, NATURAL
similar gas flames exist in the sun, and
are one main source of its light and
heat
GAS ENGINE, an engine in which
motion is given to the piston by the com-
pression and expansion or explosion of a
mixture of a combustible gas and air.
The first effective gas engine was
brought into public use by M. Lenoir in
1860. In the Otto engine the cylinder is
generally horizontal and single-acting,
with a trunk piston, and it takes two
revolutions of the crank shaft to com-
plete a cycle of operations. During the
first forward stroke gas and air are
drawn in, in the proportion proper to
form an explosive mixture; during the
first backward stroke the mixture is
compressed into a large clearance space
behind the piston. When the next for-
ward stroke is about to begin, the com-
pressed mixture is ignited, and work is
done by the heated gases during the
second forward stroke. The second back-
FLY BALC
Governor
CYLINDER / WIPCROIL
INLET \ / ^
without regard to its illuminating pur-
poses. Various forms have been con-
trived. Also a furnace of which the fuel
is gas from burners suitably disposed in
the chamber for the purpose required.
Steam boilers and metallurgic furnaces
are sometimes heated in this manner.
GASKELL, MRS., an English novelist;
born in Chelsea, London, England, Sept.
29, 1810. Her maiden name was Eliza-
beth Cleghorn Stevenson, and her father
was in succession teacher, preacher,
farmer, boarding-house keeper, writer,
and Keeper of the Records to the Treas-
ury. She was brought up by an aunt at
Knutsford — the Cranford of her story,
and was carefully educated. She mar-
ried in 1832 William Gaskell (1805-
1884), a Unitarian minister in Manches-
ter. In 1848 she published anonymously
her "Mary Barton," which at once arrest-
ed public attention. It was followed by
"The Moorland Cottage" (1850) ; "Cran-
ford" (1853); "Ruth" (1853); "Life of
CRANK SHAFT
GUARD
OILCUPS
FOR
CRANKSHAFT
FLY WMEEU
BED
M.^
HORIZONTAL OTTO GAS ENGINE
(Nearer Fly-Wheel Is omitted to show detail)
ward stroke completes the cycle by caus-
ing the burned gases to be expelled into
an exhaust pipe leading to the outer air.
Since only one of the four strokes re-
quired to complete a cycle is effective in
doing work, a heavy flywheel is used to
furnish a large magazine of energy. A
centrifugal governor controls the engine
by cutting off the supply of gas.
An engine possessing much originality
is Atkinson's.
GAS FURNACE, a small furnace,
much employed for laboratory purposes,
and which is so arranged as to receive
the maximum heating powers of the gas
Charlotte Bronte" (1857); "Right at
Last" (1860) ; "Sylvia's Lovers" (1863) ;
and "Wives and Daughters" (1865). She
died in Alton, Hampshire, England, Nov.
12, 1865.
GAS METER, a machine for measur-
ing the quantity of gas passing through
it. Citizen Seguin described a gas
meter at the sitting of the National
Institute of France, Oct. 6, 1797. The wet
meter was invented by Clegg in 1807,
and improved by Crosley in 1815.
The dry meter was invented by Malam
in 1820, and improved by Defries in 1838.
GAS, NATURAL. See Natural Gas,
GASOLINE
268
GASTRITIS
GASOLINE, a light grade of Petro-
leum (g. v.).
GASPE (gas-pa), a peninsula on the
E. of Quebec province, comprising the
counties of Gasp^ and Bonaventure, and
projecting into the Gulf of St. Lawi'ence,
between the estuary of that name on
the N. and the Bay of Chaleurs on the
S.; area 8,000 square miles; Pop. 64,-
000. The greater number of the popula-
tion are engaged in the important fish-
eries, which, with the export of lumber,
formJ;he staple business of the country.
Gaspe Basin, where Cartier landed in
1534, is a port of entry in Gaspe Bay,
now the seat of extensive fisheries.
GAS PUDDLING, in iron-works, the
puddling of iron by the use of gases in-
stead of solid fuel.
GASQUET, CARDINAL FRANCIS
AIDAN. A French prelate. He was
bom in London in 1846 and was edu-
cated at Downside College, Bath, be-
coming after the usual course priest and
member of the Benedictine order. In
1878 he was appointed superior of the
Benedictine Monastery and College of
St. Gregory, Downside, and in 1914 was
made cardinal and intrusted by Pope
Pius X. as president with overseeing the
International Commission for the Re-
vision of the Vulgate. For the purpose
of that work he has since lived in Rome.
His works include: "Edward VI. and the
Book of Common Prayer"; "The Great
Pestilence"; "The Old English Bible and
Other Essays"; "Eve of the Reforma-
iton"; "English Monastic Life"; "Parish
Life in Mediseval England."
GASTEIN (gas'tin), a romantic val-
ley in the S. of the Austrian duchy of
Salzburg, 28 miles long, with a number
of small villages. The chief of these,
Wildbad-Gastein, is a famous watering-
place, and was .a favorite resort of the
Emperor William I. of Germany. Here,
Aug. 14, 1865, a convention was signed
between Austria and Prussia, which, by
a partition of Schleswig and Holstein,
for a short period prevented the rupture
between the rival powers. Pop. of the
valley about 5,000.
GASTEROPODA (-.op'o-da), in zool-
ogy, gasteropods; the most typical,
though not the most highly-organized
class of the sub-kingdom Mollusca. Its
essential character is that the under side
of the body constitutes a single muscu-
lar foot, on which the animal creeps or
glides. Most of the gasteropoda have
univalve shells, a few have them tubu-
lar or conical; in one the shell is multi-
valve, and in some it is internal or want-
ing. Most of the spiral shells are dex-
tral, a few are sinistral. Some have an
operculum closing the aperature of the
shell. The animal has a head furnished
with two, four, or six tentacles, or these
are wholly wanting. There is a mantle,
in the folds of which the shell is pro-
duced. Some breathe air, the others
water. Cuvier divided the gasteropoda
into eight orders (1) Pectenibranchiata,
(2) Scutibranchiata, (3) Cyclobranehi-
ata, (4) Tabulibranchiata, (5) Pulmon-
ata, (6) Tectibranchiata, (7) Infero-
branohiata, (8) Ntidibranchiata. Wood-
ward and others have divided the class
into four orders only. (1) Prosobranchi-
ata, including the first four of Couvier's
orders, (2) Pulmonata, corresponding to
his 5th, (3) Opisthobranchiata, compre-
hending his 6th, 7th, and 8th orders;
and (4) Nucleobranchiata, which Cuvier
had made a distinct class — Heteropoda
(q. v.). The Prosobranchiata have been
arranged in two divisions: Siphonosto-
mata, and Holostomata; and the Opis-
thobranchiata also in two: Tectibranchi-
ata and Nndibranchiata.
In palaeontology, gasteropoda are found
in all the formations from the Upper
Cambrian rocks till now.
GASTON DE FOIX (gas-ton de fwa) ,
a Duke of Nemours, a French soldier;
born in 1489. He was son of John de
Foix, Count d'Estampes, and Mary of
Orleans, sister of Louis XII. whose fa-
vorite he became. At the age of 23 he
routed a Svsdss army, rapidly crossed
four rivers, drove the Pope from Bo-
logna, and won the celebrated battle of
Ravenna, April 11, 1512, but was killed
while attempting to cut off a body of re-
treating Spaniards.
GASTONIA, a city of North Carolina,
the county-seat of Gaston co. It is
on the Southern, the Piedmont and
Northern and the Carolina and North-
western railroads. Its industries are of
great importance and include cotton
mills, oil works, manufactures of cotton-
mill machinery, brooms, cement, wood
fiber, etc. Pop. (1910) 5,759; (1920)
12,871.
GASTRIC JUICE, a colorless liquid
secreted by the stomach containing about
98.5 percent, of water; when evaporated
to dryness and burnt, the ashes consist
chiefly of sodium chloride. The gastric
juice also contains a free acid, probably
hydrochloric acid, and a peculiar sub-
stance called Pepsine (g. v.), to which,
and the presence of the free acid, the
power of digesting food possessed by the
gastric juice appears to be due.
GASTRITIS (-tri'tis), inflammation
of the stomach, either acute or chronic,
usually most severe at the pyloric orifice,
generally caused by corrosive or irri-
GATACRE
269
GARTHMANN GUN
tant poisons, but chiefly from the use of
raw spirits, accompanied by nausea, sick-
ness, etc., and in severe cases followed
by congestion. It seldom occurs in per-
sons of temperate habit.
GATACRE, SIR JOHN, an English
soldier, born at Shropshire, in 1841. He
was educated in private schools and en-
tered the military service as an ensign
in 1857. He served for many years in
India and was commandant of the 23d
Regiment until 1891. He was made
Brigadier-General in the same year, and
Major-General in 1897. He took part
in the Indian Mutiny and in the China
War of 1860. He also served in other
expeditions and was decorated for gal-
lantry in the service.
GATE, in carpentry, a sash or frame
in which a saw is extended to prevent
buckling or bending. In locksmithing,
one of the apertures in the tumbler for
the passage of the stub. In founding:
(1) An ingate, the aperture in a mold
through which the metal is poured. The
runner conducts the metal from the in-
gate to the hollow in the mold, where it
forms a casting. The piece of metal
which occupies the ingate and runner is
called a sprue, and is knocked off the
casting. (2) The sprue or piece of metal
cast in the gate; a sullage piece. In
hydraulic engineering: (1) The valve
which admits the water to the bucket
of the water wheel. (2) A sluice, ad-
mitting or shutting off water to or from
a lock or dock. To stand in the gate or
gates, in Scripture, to occupy a position
of advantage, defense, or honor.
GATES, HORATIO, an American
military officer; bom in Maldon, Eng-
land, in 1728; joined the British army
early in life. In 1755 he was assigned
to duty at Halifax, N. S. He was shot
through the body at the Monongahela
river while with Braddock's expedition.
In July, 1775, after offering his services
to Congress, that body appointed him
adjutant-general; in 1776 he was given
command of a portion of the Northern
army, and, Aug. 2, 1777, assumed com-
mand of the Northern department. He
met and captured Burgoyne with his
whole army at Saratoga, Oct. 7, 1777,
for which he received a gold medal and
a vote of thanks from Congress. In No-
vember of the same year he was ap-
pointed president of the new board of
war and ordnance; and in 1778, while
holding that post, sought vnth the aid
of his friends in Congress to supersede
Washington as commander-in-chief. This
action soon brought him into disci'edit,
and after fighting a duel with Wilkinson,
his former adjutant, he resigned from
active service. In June, 1780, he again
Vol. IV— Cyc— R
entered the army, becoming commander
of the troops in North Carolina. On '
Aug. 16, of that year, his army was de-
feated near Camden, S. C. He was soon
afterward suspended from duty, but re-
instated in his command in 1782 after
the capture of Cornwallis. He died in
New York City, April 10, 1806.
GATES, MERRILL EDWARDS, an
American publicist and educator, born in
Warsaw, N. Y., in 1848. He graduated
from the University of Rochester in
1870. After teaching in private schools
until 1882 he became president of Rut-
gers College, serving until 1890, when
he was chosen president of Amherst
College. In 1899 he was appointed sec-
retary of the United States Board of
Indian Commissioners, serving until
1912, He was for 6 years president of
the Lake Mohonk Indian Conference,
and was prominently identified with Y.
M. C. A. work. He was the author of
"International Arbitration" (1897);
"Highest Use of Wealth" (1901). He
lectured extensively on religious and
ethical subjects,
GATES, SIR THOMAS, a colonial
governor of Virginia. He sailed from
England in May, 1609, in charge of a
colony of 500 emigrants to the New
World. His vessel, the "Sea Venture,"
was stranded on the rocks of Bermuda,
Here the passengers built two new ships
and finally reached Virginia in May,
1610. Gates went to England in the
meantime and returned in 1611 with 300
more emigrants. He was made governor
the same year and held that oflSce till
1614, when he returned to England, and
there died in 1621, or soon after.
GATH, one of the five royal cities of
the Philistines, which, from its situation
on the borders of Judah, was of much
importance in the wars of the Jews and
Philistines. It was the native town of
Goliath, and was successively captured
by David, Hazael, and Uzziah, who dis-
mantled it.
GATHMANN GUN, a gun invented by
Louis Gathmann, a Chicago mechanician
and inventor, which is capable of throw-
ing great masses of high explosives by
means of gunpowder. It is a rifled
cannon, unjacketed, and with no re-en-
forcements at the breech. Its bore is IS
inches, 1 inch larger than in any cannon
heretofore made by the government. The
shell is 7 feet long and contains _ 400
pounds of wet guncotton. There is a
plunger at the end which, when it strikes
an object, explodes the percussion cap
which sets fire to some dry powder, that
in turn sets off some dry guncotton,
which on bursting lets loose the terrible
GATINEAU
270
GAUGE, PRESSURE
force imprisoned in the 400 pounds of
wet guncotton. See Ordnance.
GATINEAU (ga-ti-no'), a river of
Canada, Quebec Province, the largest
affluent of the Ottawa, rising in some
lakes, and flowing almost due S. to enter
the Ottawa nearly opposite Ottawa City.
It is not navigable more than 5 miles
above the Ottawa except by canoes, but
its rapid waters are well stocked with
fish and available as water powers.
GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN, an
American inventor; born in Hertford co.,
N. C, Sept. 12, 1818. While a boy he
assisted his father in perfecting a
machine for sowing cotton seed, and an-
other for thinning out cotton plants.
Subsequently he invented a machine for
sowing rice. Removing to St. Louis, in
1844, he adapted this invention to sow-
ing wheat in drills. For several winters
he attended medical lectures in Cincin-
nati, and in 1849 removed to Indian-
apolis, where he engaged in railroad en-
terprises and real estate speculations.
In 1850 he invented a double-acting
hemp brake, and in 1857 a steam plow,
which, however, he did not bring to any
practical result. In 1861 he conceived
the idea of the revolving battei'y gun
which bears his name. Of these he con-
structed six at Cincinnati, which were
destroyed by the burning of his factory.
Afterward he had 12 manufactured else-
where, which were used by General
Butler on the James river. In 1865 he
improved his invention, and in the year
following, after satisfactory trial, it was
adopted into the United States service.
It has also been adopted by several
European governments. Died Feb. 23,
1903.
GATLING GUN, a machine gun, in-
vented by Richard J. Catling. The gun
consists of a series of barrels in com-
bination with a grooved carrier and
lock cylinder. The main features of the
gun are: (1) Each barrel in the gun
is provided with its own independent
lock or firing mechanism. (2) All the
locks revolve simultaneously with the
barrels, carrier and inner breech, when
the gun is in operation. The locks also
have a reciprocating motion when the
gun is rotated. The gun cannot be fired
when either the barrels or locks are at
rest.
GATSHINA, a town of Russia, 30
miles S. S. W. of Petrograd. It has some
manufactures of porcelain, and several
barracks, but is especially worthy of
mention for its royal palace, surrounded
by one of the finest pleasure gardens in
Europe, which were the favorite summer
seat of the Emperor Paul I., and the
winter residence — practically, owing to
precautions against Nihilists, the prison
— of Alexander III.
GATTI-CASAZZA, GIULIO, an Italian
operatic manager, born in Udine, Italy,
in 1869. He graduated as a naval engi-
neer at the Polytechnic College of Genoa.
From 1892 to 1898 he was director of
the Municipal Theater at Ferrara, and
from 1898 to 1908 was director of the
Teatro Alia Scala in Milan. In the same
year he was appointed director of the
Metropolitan Opera House. In 1910 he
married Frances Alda, an operatic so-
prano.
GAUCHO (gou'cho), a native of th©
pampas of La Plata, and of Spanish de-
scent. The Gauchos live by cattle-breed-
ing, and are noted for their skill in horse-
manship and the use of the lasso and the
bolas.
GAUGE, a standard of measurement.
As applied to railways, gauge signifies
the distance between the centers of each
pair of rails, which in the ordinary or
narrow gauge is 4 feet 8% inches. The
broad gauge of the Great Western Rail-
way of England was formerly 7 feet; the
Irish, Indian, and Spanish gauge is 5
feet 6 inches. Special narrow gauges
have recently been adopted for mountain
and mineral lines, such as the 3 feet 6
inch gauge of the Norwegian lines.
Gauge is also the name applied to vari-
ous contrivances for measuring any spe-
cial dimension, such as the wire gauge,
an oblong plate of steel, with notches of
different widths cut on the edge, and
numbered, the size of the wire being de-
termined by trying it in the diff^erent
notches till one is found which it exactly
fits. The thickness of sheet metal is
tried by a similar gauge.
GAUGE, PRESSURE, an instrument
for indicating the intensity of a fluid
contained in a closed vessel. Gauges are
divided into three classes: the mercurial
pressure gauge, the air manometer, and
the spring gauge. The mercurial gauge
consists of an inverted siphon or "U"
tube of glass, the lower part of which
contains mercury, and whose vertical
legs are divided either in parts of an
inch or divisions indicating pounds per
square inch. One leg of the tube is open
to the atmosphere and the other com-
municates with the vessel containing the
fluid. The difference in level of the mer-
cury indicates the difference in pressure
between the atmosphere and the fluid.
The air manometer consists of a long
vertical glass tube closed at the upper
end, open at the lower end, containing
air and immersed in a transparent liquid
GATJL
271
GAT7S3
which communicates with the vessel in
which the pressure is to be determined.
The compression of the air in the tube is
proportional to the pressure. Spring
gauges have metallic tubes or drums
communicating with the closed vessel.
The pressure tends to straighten the
tube. The motion produced in the tube
or drum is transmitted to a pointer by
means of levers or other gearing. The
pointer travels over a graduated arc
from which the pressure is read directly.
GAUL, or GALLIA, the country of the
ancient Gauls. It extended at one time
from the Pyrenees to the Rhine, and in-
cluded also a part of Italy. Hence it
was divided into Gaul on this side (the
Roman side) of the Alps, or Gallia Cisal-
pina, and Gaul beyond the Alps, or Gallia
Transalpina. Latterly the former was
regarded quite as part of Italy, and the
name Gallia was restricted to Trans-
alpine Gaul, or the country nearly cor-
responding to modern France. Julius
Caesar, about the middle of the 1st cen-
tury B. C, found Transalpine Gaul divi-
ded into three parts: (1) Aquitania, ex-
tending from the Pyrenees to the Ga-
ronne, chiefly occupied by Iberian tribes;
(2) Gallia Celtica, Celtic Gaul, from the
Garonne to the Seine and Marne; (3)
Gallia Belgica, Belgic Gaul, in the N.,
extending to the Rhine.
GAUL, ALFRED ROBERT, an Eng-
lish composer and organist; born in Nor-
wich, England, in 1837. He was chor-
ister and assistant organist of Norwich
Cathedral 1846-1859; organist of St.
Augustine's Church, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham; Mus. B., Cambridge, 1861.
An oratorio, "Hezekiah," the cantatas
"Ruth" (1881), First Psalm, Ninety-
sixth Psalm, "Holy City" (1882), "Pas-
sion Music," "The Ten Virgins" (1890),
dedicated to the choirs of America, and
secular part songs attained success. He
died in 1913.
GAULS, the chief branch of the great
original stock of Celts. Migrations among
the Gauls about 397 B. c, and their pas-
sage of the Alps, first bring the Gallic
nation into the region of history. Hav-
ing crossed the Alps they fell on the
Etruscans, defeated the Romans at AUia
(390 B. c), and sacked and burned Rome,
the capitol, however, being saved by
Camillus. More than a century after the
burning of Rome, the E. Gauls, in 280-
278 B. c, made three destructive irrup-
tions into Macedonia and Greece. Sev-
eral tribes pursued their course into
Asia Minor, where, under the name of
Galatians, they long retained their na-
tional peculiarities. After these migra-
tions the Gauls along the banks of the
Danube and in the S. of Germany dis-
appear. Tribes of German origin oc-
cupy the whole country as far as the
Rhine, and even beyond that river. The
Belgae, who were partly German, occu-
pied the N. part of Gaul, from the Seine
and Marne to the British Channel and
the Rhine, from whence colonists passed
over into Britain, and settled on the
coast districts. The Celts in Gaul had
attained some degree of cultivation by
intercourse with the Greeks and Cartha-
ginians before they came in contact with
the Romans. Those of Cisalpine Gaul
continued formidable to Rome till after
the first Punic war, when the nation was
compelled as the result of a war of six
years to submit to the Romans (220 B.
c). When Hannibal marched on Rome
they attempted to shake off the yoke;
but the Romans, victorious over the Car-
thaginians, reduced them again to sub-
mission. Thirty-one years later (189 B.
C.) their kindred tribe in Asia, the Gala-
tians, met with the same fate; they also
were vanquished, and their princes (te-
trarchs) became tributary. In the years
128-122 B. c. the Romans conquered the
S. part of Gaul along the sea from the
Alps to the Pyrenees, and here estab-
lished their dominion in what was called
the Province (Provincia), a name that
still exists as Provence. Not long after
Gaulish tribes shared in the destructive
incursions of the Cimbri and Teutones
on the Roman territory, which were
ended by Marius in the battles of Aquae
Sextiae (Aix) in 102, and Vercelli in 101
B. c. On the appointment of Julius
Caesar to the proconsulship over the
countries bordering on Gaul, he resolved
to subject all Gaul, and executed his pur-
pose in less than nine years (58-50 B. C.).
in eight bloody campaigns. The domin-
ion of the Romans in Gaul was confirmed
by colonies, and the liberal grant of the
Roman citizenship to several Gallic
tribes. The religion of the Druids, being
suppressed in Gaul by Tiberius and
Claudius, gradually retreated into Brit-
ain, soon also conquered by the Romans.
After the extinction of the Caesars, the
Gauls once more attempted to recover
their liberty by aid of the Germans, but
after this last effort became entirely
Romanized, even their ancient language,
the Celtic, being supplanted by a corrupt
Latin dialect. About the year 486 the
Franks subdued the greater part of Gaul,
and put an end to the dominion of the
Romans in that country.
GAUSS. KARL FRIEDRICH (gous),
German mathematician and astronomer;
born in Brunswick, Germany, April 30,
1777. Aided by the Duke of Brunswick,
GAUTAMA
272
GAY
he studied at Brunswick and Gottingen.
Here he made several of his greatest dis-
coveries in analysis, which induced him
to make the cultivation of science the
chief object of his life. He published
"Arithmetical Disquisitions" in 1801. In
1807 he received the appointment of ordi-
nary professor and director of the observ-
atory at Gottingen, which situation he
held for nearly 48 years. He gave to the
world a host of treatises on pure mathe-
matics, geodesy, astronomy, and the cog-
nate sciences, besides making observa-
tions on terrestrial magnetism which
have proved of great utility to the culti-
vation of science. He died in Gottingen,
Germany, Feb. 23, 1855.
GAUTAMA, (gou'ta-ma), the family
name of the founder of Buddhism (q.v.).
GAUTIER, THEOPHILE, a French
poet and prose writer; born in Tarbes,
France, Aug. 31, 1811. He studied at the
College Charlemagne, Paris, and at first
tried painting, but turned to literature.
In verse he published: "Albertus"
(1830) ; "Comedy of Death" (1832) ;
"Enamels and Cameos" (1856) ; his best
poetry; etc. Of novels and short stories
he wrote "Young France" (1833) ; "Made-
moiselle de Maupin" (1835) ; "Fortunio"
(1838) ; "A Tear of the Devil" (1839) ;
"Militona" (1847) ; "The Tiger's Skin"
(1852) ; "Jettatura" (1857) ; "Captain
Fracasse" (1863) ; "Handsome Jenny"
(1865) ; "Spirite" (1866) ; etc. For
more than 30 years he contributed to the
Paris newspapers criticisms on the thea-
ter and the salon. He wrote "Journey
in Spain" (1843); "Zigzags" (1845);
"Constantinople" (1854) ; "Journey in
Russia" (1866) ; etc. "The Grotesque"
(1844), on the writers of the 16th ana
17th centuries; "Balzac" (1858); 'Tri-
vate Menagerie" (1869), biographical;
"History of Romanticism" (1872) "Liter-
ary Portraits and Souvenirs" (1875) ;
"The East" (1877), the last two being
posthumous. He died in Paris, Oct 23,
1872.
GAUZE, a light, transparent silk or
cotton stuff. Gauzes have been occasion-
ally made of thread, but the name has
always signified a silk fabric.
GAVARNIE (ga-var-neO , CASCADE
BE, a waterfall in the Cirque de
Gavarnie, Pyrenees. It is the second
highest in Europe, being 1,385 feet in
height.
GAVARNIE, CIRQUE DE (serk de),
a natural amphitheater in the Pyrenees,
14 miles S. S. E. of Cauterets. It is 2%
miles in vsridth and 5,380 feet in height.
GAVESTON, PIERS (ga-ves-ton) ,
the favorite of Edward 11., King of Eng-
land. He was a Gascon by birth, and on
account of his father's services to Ed-
ward I. was chosen companion to the
Prince of Wales, over whom he acquired
a complete and very mischievous ascen-
dency, and breeding dissension between
him and his father. Edward I. banished
him in 1307, but dying the same year.
Edward II. at once recalled him, made
him Earl of Cornwall, and gave him in
marriage his niece, Margaret de Clare.
Intoxicated with his elevation and honors
he exasperated the nobles. He was again
banished, again recalled, and, the barons
having declared war, was besieged in
Scarborough castle, captured, and execu-
ted near Warwick, June 19, 1312.
GAVOTTE, or GAVOT (ga-vof) , orig-
inally a dance of the gavots or people
of Gap, in the department of the Upper
Alps. Origin: French. The description
of the dance, "a brisk round for as many
as will," identifies it with the country
dance. The gavotte seems to have been
more popular as an instrumental piece
than as a dance, and to have been a
favorite movement in suites lessons, and
sonatas from the latter part of the 17th
century.
GAY, JOHN, an English poet; born
near Barnstaple, Devonshire, England,
in 1685. He was apprenticed to a siiK
mercer in London. In 1713 he published
his "Rural Sports." In 1712 he became
secretary to Anne, Duchess of Mon-
mouth. "Trivia, or the Art of Walking
the Streets of London," appeared in the
same year. In 1714 his caricature of
Ambrose Philips's pastoral poetry was
published, "The Shepherd's Week." He
was appointed secretary to the Earl of
Clarendon, in his embassy to the court
of Hanover. In 1715 appeared his bur-
lesque drama of "What d'ye Call it?"
"Three Hours after Marriage," a farce,
altogether failed. In 1720 he published
his poems by subscription, in 1723 his
tragedy, "The Captives," and in 1726 his
well-known "Fables." His "Beggar's
Opera," the notion of which seems to
have been afforded by Swift, was first
acted in 1727, at Lincoln's Inn Fields,
where it ran for 63 nights, but the lord-
chamberlain refused to license for per-
formance a second part entitled "Polly."
The latter part of his life was spent in
the house of the Duke of Queensberry,
where he wrote his sonata "Acis and
Galatea" and the opera "Achilles." He
died in London, Dec. 4, 1732.
GAY, WALTER, an American artist;
born in Hingham, Mass., Jan. 22, 1856;
was educated in Boston; studied art
under Bonnat in Paris, where he was in
frequent exhibitions. His paintings.
GAYA
273
OEAB
which won many medals, include "Bene-
dicite" (Bless ye), now in the Museum
of Amiens, France, "Las Cigarreras"
(The Cigarette Sellers), in the Luxem-
bourg, Paris; and canvases in the Metro-
politan Museum of Fine Arts, New York,
the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and
several noted collections in Europe. The
French Government made him a Cheva-
lier of the Legion of Honor in 1894, and
an officer of the order in 190G.
GAYA (gi'a), the chief town of Gaya
district, in Bengal, India, on the Phalgu,
57 miles S. of Patna. It is a place of the
greatest sanctity, from its associations
with the founder of Buddhism (q. v.),
and is annually visited by about 100,000
Hindu pilgrims, who, under the guidance
of the Brahman pi'iests, pray for the
souls of their ancestors at the 45 sacred
shrines within and without the walls.
Pop. about 50,000.
GAY HEAD, a promontory and light-
house on the S. W. extremity of Martha's
Vineyard, Mass.
GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS
(ga-lii-sak'), a French physicist; born in
St. Leonard, Haute-Vienne, France, Dec.
6, 1778. In 1804 he was the first to make
balloon ascensions for purposes of scien-
tific investigation; became a member of
the society of Arcueil, and was intro-
duced to Humboldt, with whom he prose-
cuted an investigation of the polarization
of light and other subjects. To him we
are indebted for the discovery of the
hydro-sulphuric and oxy-chloride acids.
•In 1830 he became a member of the Cham-
ber of Deputies, and in 1839 was created
a peer of France. He was Professor of
Chemistry at the Jardin du Roi. He died
in Paris, May 9, 1850.
GAYNOR, WILLIAM JAY, an Amer-
ican lawyer and public official; born at
Whitestown, Oneida co., N. Y., in 1851;
educated in the local seminary and at the
Christian Brothers' College, St. Louis,
Mo. Employed for a time as a teacher
in Boston, he subsequently removed to
Brooklyn, N. Y., became a reporter and
studied law. In 1875 he was admitted to
practice and quickly identified himself
with the reform party in Flatbush.
Elected Police Commissioner of that vil-
lage, his activities against corrupt poli-
tics soon made him a prominent figure in
municipal affairs. After serving two
terms as Supreme Court Justice, he was
elected Mayor of New York City in 1909,
with the support of Tammany Hall.
Shot, Aug. 9, 1910, while boarding an
ocean liner, he never fully recovei'ed
from the wound and succumbed to the
strain of his campaign for re-election,
Sept. 10, 1913.
GAZA (ga'za), one of the five chief
cities of the ancient Philistines, situated
in the S. W. of Palestine, about 3 miles
from the sea, on the borders of the desert
which separates Palestine from Egypt. It
is often mentioned in the history of Sam-
son, and was the scene of constant strug
gles between the Israelites and the Philis
tines. In 333 B. c. it was taken after a
five months' siege by Alexander the
Great, and from that time down to 1790,
when the French under Kleber captured
it, it witnessed the victories of the Mac-
cabees, the Calif Abubekr, the Templars,
and the heroic Saladin. Constantine the
Great, who rebuilt the town, made it the
seat of a bishop. The modern Guzzeh is
a collection of mere villages. It was
occupied by British forces Nov. 7, 1917,
in the advance on Palestine.
GAZALAND, a district in the Portu-
guese possession in east Africa, lying
to the eastward of the Transvaal and
watered by the Limpopo river. The
Portuguese obtained their first foothold
here in 1830. In 1833 they were almost
driven out by an uprising of the natives,
all their trading posts being captured.
Gradually the country was securely oc-
cupied and the district enlarged, notably
in 1884, after the death of the friendly
chieftain, Umzila. In 1890 a war was
waged with the forces of the British South
African Company, with the final result
of a boundary settlement in the interior
in favor of the Portuguese. After 1906
the Portuguese occupation was more
firmly established by the death of the
chief of the unruly elements among the
natives, Gungunyana.
GAZELLE, a kind of antelope, Gazella
dorcas, formerly called Antilope dorcas.
From the large bright eyes of the animal
and its general gracefulness, it was
sometimes used for a Greek female name,
as in the case of Dorcas, who made gar-
ments for the poor (Acts ix: 36 — end).
The horns are rounded, thick, and black;
the hair on the body light yellow on the
back, while on the lower parts a broad
band exists along each flank, a bunch of
hairs on each knee, and a deep pouch at
each groin. It lives in north Africa.
GEAR, in machinery, the furniture,
rigging, tackle (jeers), apparatus, and
appurtenances of an implement: e. g.,
expansion gear, valve gear, pump gear,
plow gear; the working parts of a loco-
motive ; the rigging of a spar or sail ; the
running parts of a wheeled vehicle, as
the fore gears, hind gears, referring to
the fore axle and its wheels, the hind
axle and its wheels. To the former is
attached the tongue and fore hounds, to
the latter the hind hounds. Each carries
GEARING
274
GEELONG
its bolster. The term is also applied to
other mechanical devices by which mo-
tion is transmitted; as change gear, chain
gear, back gear, overhead gear; or by
which parts are operated, as hoisting
gear.
GEARING, a train or series of wheels
with cogs for transmitting motion; the
parts in machinery by which motion is
communicated. In spur gearing the teeth
are arranged round either the concave
or convex surface of a cylindrical wheel
in the direction of radii from the center
of the wheel, and are of equal depth
throughout. In beveled gearing the teeth
are placed upon the exterior periphery
of a conical wheel in a direction con-
verging to the apex of the cone, and the
depth of the teeth gradually diminishes
from the base.
GEASHILL, a parish of Ireland, in
Kings county; about 8 miles N. W. of
Portarlington. It contains the ruins of
a castle heroically defended during the
civil war of 1641 by Lady Digby.
GEASTER, or GEASTRUM (so called
from the stellate appearance of the
species when burst and lying on the
ground), in botany, earth stars; a genus
of srasteromycetous fungi, sub-order
Trichogastres. It was formed by Micheli
to include the puffballs, having a stellated
volva. They are small fungi, often of a
brown color. G. hygrometricus, as the
name implies, readily absorbs and retains
moisture.
GEBA, a Levitical town of Benjamin,
situated 6 or 7 miles from Jerusalem, and
not far from the N. border of the king-
dom of Judah. Near Geba David de-
feated the Philistines (II Sam. v: 25).
GEDDES. SIR AUCKLAND CAMP-
BELL, a British statesman. He was
born in 1879 and received his preliminary
education at George Watson's College,
Edinburgh. He studied medicine at
Edinburgh University, London Hospital,
and Freiburg, and after graduating be-
came demonstrator and assistant pro-
fessor of anatomy at Edinburgh Univer-
sity. Later he was professor of anatomy
at the Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin,
and also at McGill University, Canada.
He served in the war against the Boer
republic and also in the World War,
1914-16. During 1916-17 he was Direc-
tor of Recruiting in the War Office, and
in 1917, 1918, and 1919 was Minister of
National Service, becoming also, in 1917,
Unionist member in Parliament for the
Basingstoke and Andover division of
Hampshire. He was knighted in 1917,
became President of the Local Govern-
ment Board in 1918, and President of the
Board of Trade and Minister of Recon-
struction in 1919. In the beginning of
1920 he became British Ambassador in
Washington.
GEDDES, SIR ERIC (CAMPBELL).
an English public official. He was born
in India in 1876 and was educated at Ox-
ford Military College and Merchiston
Castle School, Edinburgh. After leaving
school he engaged in lumbering in the
Southern States of America and was an
employee of the Baltimore and Ohio rail-
way. Later he was connected with the
Rohilkund and Kumaon railway, India,
and returning to England became deputy
general manager of the North Eastern
SIR ERIC GEDDES
railway. During the World War he be-
came Deputy Director-General of Mili-
tary Railways and Inspector-General of
Transportation. In 1917, he became hon-
orable Major-General, additional member
of the Board of Admiralty, Navy Con-
troller, and Temporary Honorable Vice-
Admiral. In 1918 he was a member of
the Imperial War Cabinet and First
Lord of the Admiralty. He has been
member of Parliament for Cambridge
since 1917 and Minister without portfolio
since 1919.
GEELONG, a city of Victoria, Aus-
tralia; on Corio Bay, 45 miles S. W. of
Melbourne. It is well laid out, and has
some handsome buildings. The gold dis-
coveries in 1851 brought it prosperity.
OEELVINK BAT
275
GELA
Limestone and a kind of marble are
found in the neighborhood. The indus-
tries are the manufacture of woolen
cloths and paper, meat preserving, tan-
ning, rope making, fishing, etc. It has
two parks, botanical garden, government
buildings, a town hall, a new postoffice
(1889), an excellent hospital, a chamber
of commerce, mechanics' institute, etc.
Corio Bay is a favorite bathing resort;
and on the E. boundary of the town are
extensive limestone quarries. Pop., in-
cluding suburbs (1918), 34,080,
GEELVINK BAY (gal'vink) , an arm
of the Pacific, penetrating 125 miles S.
into the W. arm of New Guinea. Its en-
trance, about 155 miles wide, is protected
by several islands; its shores are well
wooded, flat and fertile, but unhealthy.
The bay is separated by a narrow isth-
mus from the Alfura Sea on the S., and
by a still narrower isthmus from Mc-
Clure Gulf on the W.
GEESTEMTJNDE (gas'te-miin-de) , a
seaport of Prussia, at the confluence of
the Geeste with the Weser; immediately
S. E. of Bremerhaven. It owes its im-
portance to the docks and wharves con-
structed in 1857-1863. It has also a
school of navigation; imports petroleum,
tobacco, rice, coffee, timber, and corn;
and carries on various industries con-
nected with shipping.
GEFLE (yaf'la), chief town of the
Swedish Ian of Gefleborg; on the Gulf of
Bothnia, 71 miles N. by W. of Upsala.
The port for Dalecarlia, Gefle ranks third
among the commercial towns of Sweden,
coming next to Stockholm and Gothen-
burg. Among the noteworthy buildings
are the castle (16th and 18th century)
and the town hall. Gefle, which has been
rebuilt since its destruction by fire in
1869, has a school of navigation, and
carries on shipbuilding, the manufacture
of sail-cloth, cotton, and tobacco, and
fisheries. It carries on an active trade,
the principal exports being iron, timber,
and tar. Pop. about 32,000.
GEHENNA (ge-hen'a) (Hebrew Ge
Hinnom, the Valley of Hinnom), in
Scriptural geography a valley anciently
belonging to a man, Hinnom, of whom
nothing is known (Josh, xviii: 16), and
inherited by his son or sons, whence it is
called the Valley of the Son of Hinnom
(Josh. XV : 8), or of the children of
Hinnom (II Kings xxiii: 10). In Joshua
it is described as lying S. of Jebusi, the
Jebusite capital, which afterwai-d be-
came Jerusalem (xviii: 16). Here, dur-
ing the later period of the Jewish kings,
men made their sons and daughters pass
through the fire to Molech or Moloch, the
Ammonite fire-god (II Kings xxiii: 10;
II Chron. xxxiii : 6), or actually burnt
them in the fire (II Chron. xxviii: 3).
Tophet was in it (II Kings xxiii: 10),
and a prophetic passage mentions the
size and fierceness of the fires there burn-
ing for the "King" [Molech means king]
(Isaiah xxx: 33). Josiah put an end to
these cruel practices, and defiled the
place (II Kings xxiii: 10). It was
doomed afterward to become an over-
crowded cemetery (Jer. vii: 32). When
the Jews outgrew all love of human
sacrifice, they regarded the place with
horror, the rabbis deeming it the gate
of hell. The valley, which the Arabs
call Gehennam, is thoroughly known. It
is narrow and deep, with rugged lime-
stone cliffs excavated for tombs, and the
mountain sides overtopping all.
For the Gehenna of Scripture, see
Hell.
GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD (geTci),
a Scottish geologist; born in Edinburgh,
Scotland, Dec. 28, 1835. He was edu-
cated at the high school and university.
In 1855 he was appointed to the Geolog-
ical Survey; in 1867 became director to
the sui^ey in Scotland; from 1870 to
1881 was Murchison Professor of Geol-
ogy in Edinburgh University; and in
1881 was appointed director-general to
the survey of the United Kingdom, being
at the same time placed at the head of
the Museum of Practical Geology, Lon-
don. He is the author of "Story of a
Boulder" (1858) ; "Phenomena of the
Glacial Drift of Scotland" (1863) ; "The
Scenery of Scotland Viewed in Connec-
tion with Its Phvsical Geology" (1865;
2d ed. 1887) ; "Memoir of Sir R. Murch-
ison" (1874) ; "Text-book of Geology"
(1882) ; "The Founders of Geology"
(1897) ; "Types of Scenery" (1898);
etc., besides numerous class-books, pri-
mers, etc., on geology.
GEIKIE, JAMES, a Scottish geologist;
born in Edinburgh, Scotland, Aug. 23,
1839. He received an education similar
to that of his brother Archibald. Hav-
ing served on the Geological Survey of
Scotland from 1861 to 1882, he succeeded
his brother as Murchison Professor of
Geology in Edinburgh University. He
is the author of "The Great Ice Age"
(2d ed. 1877) ; "Prehistoric Europe"
(1881); "Outlines of Geology" (1886;
2d edition 1888) ; a translation of "Songs
and Lyrics bv H. Heine and other Ger-
man Poets" (1887) ; "Earth Sculpture"
(1898); "Mountains" (1913) ; "Antiquity
of Man in Europe" (1913). He died in
1915.
GELA (je'la), one of the most impor-
tant ancient Greek cities of Sicily, sit-
GELASIUS II.
276
GEM
uated on the S. coast of the island be-
tween Agrigentum and Camarina ; found-
ed in 690 B. c. by a colony of Cretans and
Rhodians. The colony was remarkably
prosperous, and in 528 B. C. sent out a
portion of its inhabitants, who founded
Agrigentum. In 280 Phintias, the tyrant
of Agrigentum, utterly destroyed Gela.
GELASIUS II., Bishop of Rome (1118-
1119), formerly John of Gaeta. He was
educated at the Benedictine abbey of
Monte Cassino, was cardinal and chan-
cellor under Urban II. and Paschal II.,
and on the death of the latter was chosen
Pope by the party hostile to the Em-
peror Henry V. The imperial party at
Rome under the Frangipani seized his
person, but were forced to set him free
by the menacing attitude of the mob.
The new Pope fled before the advancing
imperial troops to Gaeta, where he first
received his consecration, and whence he
fulminated the thunders of excommuni-
cation against Henry V. and Gregory
VIII., the antipope he had set up. Soon
after he was able to return to Rome, but
ere long had to betake himself for pro-
tection to France, where he died in the
monastery of Clugny, Jan. 29, 1119.
GELATINE, or GELATIN (Latin,
gelahis=trozen, so named from the tend-
ency which the substance has to congeal
and become to a certain extent solid) , in
chemistry, CUi.^T^i^^O^.'! Animal glutin,
obtained by treating bones with dilute
hydrochloric acid, which dissolves the
mineral constituents of the bone, con-
sisting of phosphates and carbonates of
calcium, magnesium, etc., and leaves the
bone cartilage. This, when boiled for a
long time with water, dissolves, and
forms gelatine, which can be purified by
dissolving in hot water and precipitating
by alcohol. A pure variety is obtained
from the swimming bladder of the stur-
geon, or other species of Acipenser. Im-
pure gelatine, called glue, is prepared by
boiling down pieces of hide, horn, hoof,
cartilage, etc., with water under pres-
sure. Pure gelatine is amorphous, trans-
parent in thin plates, of a yellowish-
white color; it has neither taste nor
smell, and is neutral to vegetable colors;
it is insoluble in alcohol and in ether. In
contact with cold water it swells up, and
is soluble in hot water. Gelatine sub-
jected to dry distillation yields methyl-
amine, cyanide of ammonium, pyrrol,
etc. ; by oxidation with sulphuric acid and
manganese dioxide, or with chromic acid
mixture, it yields hydrocyanic acid, acids
of the fatty series, benzoic aldehyde and
benzoic acid, etc. Gelatine boiled with
caustic potash yields glycocine and leu-
cine. Gelatine contains about 50 per
cent, of carbon, 6.6 of hydrogen, and 18.4
of nitrogen; when pure it probably con-
tains no sulphur.
GELATIN PROCESS, the name given
to the preparation of a photographic dry-
plate by covering with an emulsion of
sensitive salts in warm gelatin, and then
drying. The plates are very much more
sensitive than the old-fashioned wet
plates, and have therefore made possible
the photographing of rapidly moving ob-
jects. The exact composition of the gela-
tin emulsions varies considerably, and is
kept secret by the different manufac-
turers, but generally speaking, the
chemicals used in their manufacture in-
clude silver nitrate, ammonium bromide,
potassium bromide and potassium iodide.
GELNHAUSEN (geln'hou-zen), a
town of Prussia, on the Kinzig river,
and on the slopes of a vine-clad hill,
26 miles N. E. of Frankfort-on-the-
Main. Here, on an island in the Kinzig,
Frederick Barbarossa built an imperial
residence ("the Pfalz") ; and in 1169
he conferred on the village the freedom
of the empire. After being transferred
to the counts of Hanau in 1435, Geln-
hausen began to decay.
GELSENKIRC HEN (gel'zen-ker-
chen), a modern manufacturing town of
Westphalia, 4 miles N. W. of Bochum.
It owes to coal and iron its rise from
a mere village since 1860. Pop. about
170,000.
GEM, a precious stone. Gems are
sometimes found crystallized in regular
shapes and with a natural polish, more
commonly of irregular shapes and with
a rough coat. The term gem often de-
notes more particularly a stone that is
cut, polished, or engraved, and it also
includes pearls and various artificial
productions. The first and most valuable
class of gems includes diamonds, emer
aids, rubies, sapphires, and a few
others; the second class includes the
amethyst, topaz, garnet, etc.; while
agate, lapis-lazuli, cornelian, etc., though
much used for ornament, can scarcely
be called gems. The fabrication of arti-
ficial gems is now prosecuted with skill
and capital, and has become an impor-
tant industrial art. One class called
semi-stones or doublets, are made by
affixing thin slices of real gems to an
under part of the strass by means of
invisible cement. In some cases an imi-
tation is made by setting uncolored
strass or quartz in jewelry vdth some
colored "foil" at the back of it. Attempts
have been made with a fair measure of
success to manufacture true gems by
artificial processes. In 1858 MM. De-
ville and Caron communicated to the
GEMABA
277
GENEBAL
Academy of Sciences, Paris, a process
for the production of a number of gems
of the corundum class, as rubies, sap-
phires, etc. The process essentially con-
sisted in exposing the fluoride of alu-
minium, together with a little charcoal
and boracic acid, in a plumbago crucible
protected from the action of the air, to a
white heat for about an hour. Many ex-
periments with a view to producing dia-
monds artificially have also been made.
In art and archaeology the term gem
is usually applied to a precious stone cut
or engraved in ornamental designs, or
with inscriptions. Stones on which the
design is raised above the general sur-
face are called cameos; those having the
design sunk below the surface are called
mtaglios. Early specimens of cut gems
are seen in the scarabaei or beetle-shaped
signets worn in rings by the ancient
Egyptians. Among the Greeks, Etrus-
cans, and Romans gem sculpture held a
high place, reaching its highest point
under Augustus. Modern gem engraving
dates from the beginning of the 15th
century, the chief seats of the art being
Italy and Germany. Rome is now the
headquarters of the seal-engraving art.
The stones used for cameo cutting often
exhibit layers of different colors, so that
the raised design has a tint distinct from
the ground. Intaglios are very often
executed in transparent stones, and the
subjects treated in this manner are more
limited in number. They are chiefly such
as seals, devices, coats of arms, etc.
See Diamond.
GEMARA (ge-ma'ra), that portion of
the two Talmuds which contains the an-
notations, discussions, and amplifications
of the Mishnah by the academies of Pal-
estine on the one hand, and those of
Babylon on the other. The Babylonian
Gemara, more complete as well as more
lucid than the Palestinian, possesses
a much more highly valued authority.
The final redaction of this latter falls
in the middle of the 4th century A. p.,
while the former was not completed till
500 A. D. See Talmud.
GEMINI, the third of the zodiacal
constellations. The name is given from
two conspicuous stars, Alpha and Beta
Geminorum, the former named, after the
example of the Greeks, Castor; the
latter, Pollux. If an imaginary line be
drawn through the belt of Orion and two
bright stars in the line of the belt, it
will nearly pass through Gemini. If
again Regulus and Aldebaran be above
the horizon, and the space between them
be equally divided, the point of bisection
will be in Gemini. Castor is a remark-
able binary star of the first magnitude,
Pollux is of the second. The sun enters
the third sign of the zodiac which is
different from the actual constellation
about May 21, and passes from it to
Cancer about June 21.
GENAPPE (zhe-nap'), a town of
Belgium in the province of South Bra-
bant, 15 miles from Brussels. Many
battles have been fought here at different
times. It is, however, chiefly memorable
as the site of the first of that series of
battles which, in June, 1815, was ter-
minated on the field of Waterloo.
GENAZZANO (ja-nat-sa'no), a small
town, 27 miles E. of Rome, containing an
old castle of the Colonna family, and
the far-famed pilgrimage-chapel of the
Madonna del Buon Consiglio (the Ma-
donna of Good Counsel). Pop. 42,000.
GENEALOGY, the systematical in-
vestigation and exhibition of the origin,
descent, and relations of families (or
their "pedigree"). Persons descended
from a common father constitute a fam-
ily. Under the idea of "degree" of re-
lationship is denoted the nearness or re-
moteness of relationship in which one
person stands with respect to another.
A series of several persons, descended
from a common progenitor, is called a
"line." A line is either "direct" or "col-
lateral." The collateral lines compre-
hend the several lines which unite in a
common progenitor. For illustrating
descent and relationship genealogical
tables are constructed, the order of
which depends on the end in view. The
common form of genealogical tables
places the common stock at the head,
and shows the degree of each descendant
by lines. Some tables, however, have
been constructed in the form of a tree, in
which the progenitor (German, Stamm-
vater, "trunk-father") is placed beneath
as if for a root.
GENERAL, the title of a military
office of varying importance in different
countries. In the United States this
office was created by Congress for Gen-
eral Grant and that of lieutenant-gen-
eral for General Sherman. After the
death of General Grant the office was
conferred on General Sherman and Gen-
eral Sheridan was promoted to lieuten-
ant-general, and on the death of General
Sherman the office was revived for
General Sheridan, and in 1917 for John
Joseph Pershing. That of lieutenant-
general was revived in 1895 for Maj.-
Gen. John M. Schofield, and again in
1901, when Maj.-Gen. Nelson A. Miles
was appointed its incumbent. When the
office of lieutenant-general has expired
by law the senior major-general becomes
the commanding officer of the army,
under direction of the President. There
GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD 278
GENERATOR
are over 200 generals of different grades
on the retired list.
GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD, an
organization established for the purpose
of distributing gifts made by John D.
Rockefeller for educational purposes,
and chartered by Congress in 1903.
Over $50,000,000 have been given by
Mr. Rockefeller to the Board. The
Board generally makes its gifts to
agencies and institutions already in ex-
istence and does not undertake independ-
ent educational work. The gifts of the
Board are mainly devoted to the promo-
tion of practical farming in Southern
States; to the establishment of public
high schools in Southern States; to
the promotion of institutions of higher
learning; and to schools for negroes.
For all these purposes the Board
has expended large sums, vphich, of
course, were assigned only after a care-
ful study of the needs and condi-
tions of the recipients. The investiga-
tions which preceded the gifts of the
Board were perhaps of as great im-
portance to the development of educa-
tion in the United States as the gifts
themselves. The Board consists of 17
members and maintains headquarters in
New York City, In 1920 the president
was W. Buttrick, and the secretary, A.
Flexner.
GENERAL STAFF, ordinarily a group
of officers acting as an advisory board
to the commander-in-chief of an army,
each member of which is responsible for
the detailed working out of the chief's
orders in one particular field. The gen-
eral staff of a commanding general may
be compared to the cabinet of a premier
in civil government. There is also a
Great General Staff, not subservient to
any commanding field officer, which
plans the tactics and strategy of the
whole national army. This system of
military organization was first adopted
in Germany. In the United States a
General Staff Corps was first established
by an act of Congress passed in 1903.
Frequent amendments have since been
made to the original act, notably in
1918, after the World War, when a
thorough reorganization took place. The
Chief of Staff of the United States
Army in 1920 was General Peyton C.
March, who occupied this position during
the war with the Central Powers. Under
his authority there were four chiefs of
divisions; Chief of the Executive Divi-
sion, the War Plans Division, the Pur-
chase of Supplies Division and the Army
Operations Division. Each of these
chiefs is directly responsible to the Chief
of General Staff and Secretary of War.
The General Staff as a whole, together
with the Secretary of War, is r'^sponsi-
ble for the working out of all the plans
of campaign of the United States Army
in the field. See Military Organization,
United States.
GENERAL THEOLOGICAL SEMI-
NARY, the most important Protestant
Episcopal seminary in the United States.
It was established in 1817 in New York
City by order of the General Convention,
and began its work in 1819. From 1820
to 1822 the seminary was located in
New Haven, but in the latter year was
re-established in New York. For many
years it suffered from the lack of the
necessary financial backing. This con-
dition, however, was remedied during
the administration of Eugene A. Hoff-
man, which began in 1878 and lasted
until his death in 1902. Through his
own large gifts, as well as a result of
his ability to interest other wealthy
men, the seminary was established on
an independent basis. The regular
course covers three years. A graduate
course is also offered. The degrees of
D. D. and B. D. are conferred. The
seminary is controlled by a Board of
Trustees. No tuition fees are charged
and there are many prizes and scholar-
ships available. In 1921 the number of
students was 71, and the number of
teachers, 15. The governing official was
H. E. Fosbroke, D. D.
GENERATOR, an apparatus for gen-
erating carbonic acid g^s for charging
soda-fountains, or bottles with aerated
water. In chemistry, a term used to de-
note the elements or compounds from
which a more complex substance is ob-
tained. Thus ethyl, alcohol, and acetic
acid are the generators of acetic ether;
and benzoic acid and glycocoll are the
generators of hippuric acid. By the ac-
tion of acids or alkalies these substances
can be resolved into their generators,
and, so the constitution of a complex
body can be determined; thus, Lecithin,
a constituent of the brain, has the for-
mula C44HS0N ■ R r Og ; it has six generators,
glycerin, phosphoric acid, stearic acid,
glycol, inethyl alcohol, and ammonia;
therefore it is found to be a distearate
glycerophosphate of choline, and choline
has been found to be a trimethyl oxy-
ethyl ammonium hydrate (CH3)3N-CH»
•OH-CHs-OH. In distilling, a retort in
which volatile hydrocarbons are distilled
from liquid or solid matters.
In electricity, a Dynamo-electric Ma-
chine (q. V.) In music, a ground note,
fundamental bass, root, derivative. The
principal sound or sounds by which
others are produced, as the lower C for
the treble of the harpsichord, which be-
GENESEE
279
GENEVA
side its octave will strike an attentive
ear with its twelfth above or G in alt, and
with its fifteenth above or C in alt. In
steam, a vessel in which steam is gener-
ated from water, for use in a steam en-
gine, a heating apparatus, etc. The term
was first applied to the Perkins steam
boiler, in which water in small quantity
was heated to a high temperature. It
is now specifically applied to a class of
instantaneous generators. The name is
now rapidly coming into use for all
apparatus for generating steam, being
held to be more correct than the usual
term.
GENESEE, a river of the United
States, which rises in Pennsylvania,
flows N. through New York, and falls
into Lake Ontario 6 miles below Roches-
ter, after a course of 145 miles. It
is notable for its varied and romantic
scenery, and its extraordinary falls.
These falls are five in number; three of
them occur about 90 miles from the
mouth of the river, and are respectively
80, 90, and 110 feet high. The other
two are near Rochester, and are both
about 100 feet high.
GENESIS, in mathematics, a term for-
merly used, meaning the same as genera-
tion. In the genesis of figures, the mov-
ing magnitude or point is called the
describent ; the guiding line of the motion
is called the dirigent.
In Scripture, the first book of the
Pentateuch, of the Old Testament, and
of the Bible, In the Hebrew original,
as well as in the Septuagint and all
modern versions, it occupies this place. It
is called in Hebrew bereshith, which is
its initial word, correctly translated in
the authorized English version, ''In the
beginning."
The Jewish and, following it, the early
Christian Church almost unanimously
pronounced Moses the author of the
work, deriving his knowledge of the
events prior to his time either from
direct revelation or from prior docu-
ments consulted under divine guidance.
In A. D. 1753 Astruc, an eminent French
medical professor, attempted to point out
two such documents, distinguishable by
the fact that in one the Divine Being is
called almost always Elohim, while in the
other he is named Jehovah. On the re-
vival of this hypothesis in the 19th cen-
tury, Hengstenbei;g and others contended
against it, maintaining that in every
case there was a reason why the Divine
name which we find in the particular
verse was chosen. Most critical scholars
adhere to the opinion of the noted physi-
cian and theologist, Jean Astruc, and
perpetually speak of the Elohist and
the Jehovist.
GENEVA, a town of Switaerland;
capital of the canton of the same name;
at the W. extremity of the Lake of Ge-
neva, where the Rhone issues, here
crossed by several bridges, and dividing
the town into two portions, the larger and
more important of which is on the left
or S. bank. The upper town, occupied
chiefly by the wealthier citizens, consists
of well-built houses and handsome hotels;
the lower town, the seat of trade and
residence of the poorer classes. The
more important public buildings are the
cathedral or Church of St. Pierre, a
Gothic structure of the 10th, 11th, and
12th centuries; the town house in the
Florentine style; the Musee Rath, con-
taining a collection of pictures, etc.; the
university building, nearly opposite the
botanic garden, rebuilt in 1867-1871, and
containing the public library, founded by
Bonivard (see Bonivard, Francois de),
in 1551, and the Museum of Natural
History. Manufactures, watches, music-
boxes, and jewelry, for all of which the
town is famed. In literature and science
Geneva has long occupied a distinguished
place, and it has been the birthplace or
the residence of many eminent men,
including Calvin, Beza, Knox, Le Sage,
Necker, De Candolle, Rousseau, Sis-
mondi, etc. Geneva early adopted the
principles of the Reformation, and
chiefly through the teaching of Calvin
the town acquired an important influence
over the spiritual life of Europe, and
became the center of education for the
Protestant youth of Great Britain,
France, and Germany. Pop. for the
commune (1919) 125.520. Geneva was
chosen in 1919 by the great powers for
the home of the League of Nations and
an administration building was pur-
chased in 1920.
The canton is bounded by the canton
of Vaud and the Lake of Geneva, and
by France; area, 108 square miles.
Pop. (1919) 170.000. It belongs to
the basin of the Rhone; the only
important streams are that river and
the Arve, which joins it a little be-
low the town of Geneva. Manufactures,
chiefly clocks and watches, music-boxes,
mathematical instruments, gold, silver,
and other metal wares, woolen cloths,
and silk goods of various descriptions,
hats, leather, and articles in leather;
and there are numerous cotton mills,
calico printing works, and dye works.
The territory of Geneva having, through
the Congress of Vienna, obtained an
accession of 15 communes, detached from
France and Savoy, was admitted a
member of the Swiss Confederation in
1814, and ranks as the 22d canton.
Its constitution of 1848 is the most demo-
GENEVA
280
GENGHIS KHAN
cratic in the federation. All religious
denominations are declared to have
perfect freedom, but two of them are
paid by the state — ^the Roman Catholics,
amounting to rather more than a third
of the population, and the Protestant
National Church. Geneva was made
the official meeting place of the League
of Nations, and the first regular session
convened there in November, 1920. Lan-
guage, French.
GENEVA, a city in Ontario co., N. Y.;
on Seneca Lake, the Seneca and Cayuga
Canal, and the New York Central
and the Lehigh Valley railroads; 50
miles S. E. of Rochester. It is the
seat of Hobart College, the Geneva Medi-
cal College, and the State Agricultural
Experiment Station, and has important
manufactures, extensive waterworks,
public library, high school, electric
lights and street railroads, and National
banks. Pop. (1910) 12,446; (1920)
14,648.
GENEVA BIBLE, a translation of the
Bible into English, made and published
at Geneva, chiefly by English Protestant
refugees. It was the first English Bible
which adopted the Roman instead of the
obsolescent black type, and the first
which recognized the division into
verses; it was the first also which
omitted the Apocrypha. From its stating,
in Gen. iii: 7, that our first parents
made themselves "breeches," it is some-
times called the Breeches Bible.
GENEVA COLLEGE, a coeducational
institution in Beaver Falls, Pa., founded
in 1848 under the auspices of the Re-
formed Presbyterian Church; reported
at the end of 1919: Professors and in-
structors, 18; students, 480. President
R. H. Martin, D. D.
GENEVA, LAKE OF, or LAKE LE-
MAN (Latin, Lacus Lemanus), the
largest of the Swiss lakes, extending in
the form of a crescent, with its horns
pointing S., between France on the S.
and the cantons of Geneva, Vaud, and
Valais; length, measured on the N.
shore, 55 miles; and on the S. shore 40
miles; central breadth, about 6 miles;
area, 331 square miles; greatest depth,
1,015 feet. It is 1,150 feet above the sea.
The Rhone, which enters the E. extrem-
ity a muddy, turbid stream, issues from
the W. extremity perfectly pellucid, and
likewise of the finest blue.
GENEVA. UNIVERSITY OF, a uni-
versity of Switzerland, founded in 1559
as the Academy of Geneva, and known
under its present name since 1873. Its
faculty of theology after its foundation
was under the direct supervision of Cal-
vin and Beza, and the institution soon
became the center of Protestant schola»^
ship. It maintained its high reputation
throughout all the centuries of its exist-
ence, and both among its teachers and
its students there are to be found many
renowned names. It has always attracted
a large number of students from foreign
countries. It has faculties of theology,
law, medicine, philosophy and science.
In 1918-19 the teaching staff numbered
155, and the student body, 881. Women
are admitted to all courses on the sam©
basis as men.
GENEVIEVE (zhen-vyav), ST., the
patron saint of Paris; born in Nanterre,
near Paris, about 422. She devoted her-
self while yet a child to the conventual
life. Her prayers and fastings are
credited with having saved Paris from
threatened destruction by Attila in 451.
Her festival is held Jan. 3. She died in
Paris, Jan. 3, 512.
GENGHIS KHAN, or JENGHIS
KHAN (jen'gis khan), a Mongol con-
queror; born near the Onon river, Mon-
golia, in 1162. His father was chief over
30 or 40 clans, but paid tribute to the
Tartar Khan. He succeeded his father
when only 14 years of age, and made
himself master of the neighboring tribes.
A great number of tribes now combined
their forces against him. But he found
a powerful protector in the great Khan
cf the Karaite Mongols, Oung, or Ung,
who gave him his daughter in marriage.
After much intestine warfare with vari-
ous Tartar tribes Genghis was pro-
claimed Khan of the United Mongol and
Tartar tribes.
He now professed to have a divine
call to conquer the world, and the idea
so animated the spirit of his soldiers
that they were easily led on to new wars.
The country of the Uigers, in the center
of Tartary, was easily subdued, and
Genghis Khan was now master of the
greatest part of Tartary. In 1209 he
passed the great wall of China, the con-
quest of which country occupied him
more than six years; the capital Yen-
king (now Peking), was taken by storm
in 1215 and plundered. The murder of
the ambassadors whom Genghis Khan
had sent to the King of Kharism (now
Khiva) occasioned the invasion of Tur-
kestan in 1218 with an army of 700,-
000 men; and the two cities of Bokhara
and Samarcand were stormed, pillaged,
and burned. Seven years in succession
was the conqueror busy in the work of
destruction, pillage, and subjugation,
and extended his ravages to the banks
of the Dnieper. In 1225, though more
than 60 years old, he marched in person
at the head of his whole army against
the King of Tangut (northwestern
GENNESARET, LAKE OF
281
GENTIAN
China), who had given shelter to two
of his enemies. A great battle was
fought in which the King of Tangut was
totally defeated with the loss of 300,000
men. The victor remained some time in
his newly subdued provinces, from which
he also sent two of his sons to complete
the conquest of northern China. At his
death in Mongolia, in 1227, his immense
dominions were divided among his four
sons.
GENNESARET, LAKE OF. See
Galilee, Sea of.
GENOA (jen'o-a) (ancient Genua), a
city of Italy, situated on the Gulf of
Genoa, at the foot of the Apennines, the
capital of the province and the most
important seaport; 801 miles S. E. of
Paris. In a nine-mile circuit it rises like
an amphitheater of churches, palaces and
houses. The streets are lined with tall
buildings, some of them of marble and
handsome architecture, but now in many
cases hotels or business places. Of the
palaces the most famous are the ducal
palace formerly inhabited by the doges,
and the Doria, presented in 1529 to the
great Genoese citizen Andrea Doria,
whose residence it was during his presi-
dency of the republic. The palaces
Brignole-Sale, Reale, Durazzo-Pallavi-
cini, Spinola, Balbi-Senarega, and others
possess great interest on account of their
historical fame and architectural beauty.
Many of them contain galleries of paint-
ings ; the Brignole Sale has works by Van
Dyck, Rubens, Albrecht Dtirer, Paolo
Veronese, Guercino, etc. Among the
churches are the cathedral of St.
Lorenzo, a grand old pile in the Italian
Gothic style; the church of St. Ambrogio
(1589), containing pictures by Guido
Reno and Rubens; the church of St.
Stefano, containing an altarpiece by
Giulio Romano; L'Annunziata, splendid
inside with marbles and rich gilding.
The marble municipal palace, built in the
Late Renaissance style, and the palace of
the Dogana must also be mentioned.
Genoa has a university, founded in 1243,
a library of 116,000 volumes; also nu-
merous technical schools. The hospital,
the asylum for the poor (capacity 2,200),
the deaf and dumb institution, and the
hospital for the insane are among the
finest institutions of their kind in Italy.
There are numerous excellent philan-
thropic foundations, as the Fieschi, an
asylum for female orphans. The public
library contains over 50,000 volumes ; and
there are the Academy of Fine Arts,
founded (1751) by the Doria family;
the Carlo Felice Theater, one of the
finest in Italy; and the Verdi Institute
of Music. There is a fine monument to
Columbus by Lanzio (1862).
Genoa is the commercial outlet of a
wide extent of country, of which the
chief exports are rice, wine, olive oil,
silk goods, coral, paper, macaroni, and
marble. The imports are principally raw
cotton, wheat, sugar, coal, hides, coffee,
raw wool, fish, petroleum, iron, machin-
ery, and cotton and woolen textiles. The
principal industries are iron works, cot-
ton and cloth mills, macaroni works,
tanneries, sugar refineries, and vesta-
match, filigree, and paper factories. Pop.
commune, about 300,000; province, pop.
1,120,000.
GENOA, GULF OF, a large indenta-
tion in the N. shore of the Mediter-
ranean, N. of Corsica, having between
the towns of Oneglia on the W. and
Spezia on the E. a width of nearly 90
miles, with a depth of about 30 miles.
GENS, in Roman antiquities, a class
or house, the individuals composing
which were termed in reference to each
other Gentiles. Each gens was made up
of a certain number of branches or fam-
ilies (familiae) and each familia was
composed of individual members. Sev-
eral gentes (plural) made up the curiae
and tribes. The members of each gens
bore a common name, as the Fabian
gens, the Julian gens, etc., and were
united by certain common religious rites.
GENSERIC, or GEISERIC, a king of
the Vandals. He passed from Spain to
Africa, where he took Carthage, and laid
the foundation, in Africa, of the Vandal
kingdom, which was composed of Numi-
dia, Mauritania, Carthage, Corsica, Sar-
dinia, and the Balearic Isles. In the
course of his military expeditions he in-
vaded Italy, and sacked Rome in 455.
He died in 477.
GENTIAN (-shan), in botany, the
English name of the genus Gentiana.
Numerous species exist almost all over
the world, the best known being the
marsh gentian {Gentiana pneumoman-
the), the spring gentian (G. vema) , the
small alpine gentian (G. nivalis), the
small-flowered gentian (G. amarella) ,
the field gentian {G. catnpestris) , and
the American fringed gentians (G. crin-
ata and G. detonsa) . G. lutea grows in
Switzerland and the mountainous parts
of Germany.
In pharmacy, Gentianx radix (gen-
tian root), the dried root of Gentiana
lutea. The root occurs in lenghtened
cylindrical pieces, from half an inch to
one inch in diameter, and several inches
long, wrinkled longitudinally, and often
twisted; brown externally, yellow, tough,
and spongy within; it has a sweet sm<^ll
and a sweet and bitter taste. It is used
to prepare Extractum gentianx (Extract
GENTILES
282
GEOFFROY ST. HILAIRE
of gentian), Infusum gentianie composi-
tum, Mistura gentianse (gentian mix-
ture), and Tinctura gentianse eomposita
(compound tincture of gentian). Gen-
tian is a bitter stomachic tonic, which
improves the appetite and gives tone to
the stomach.
GENTILES, in Scripture, all the na-
tions of the world, excepting the Jews.
In the Old Testament it is the rendering
of the Hebrew word g'om^: peoples, na-
tions, the plural of goi — a nation, a
people. At first it was used as a mere
ethnological word, and quite respectfully,
but as the Jews became more conscious
of their privileges they employed it more
and more scornfully of the nations
around (Gen. x: 5; Isa. Ixvi: 19; Jer.
xiv: 22). In the New Testament Gentiles
is the rendering of the Greek ethne^the
plural of ethnos = a number of people
living together, a nation. St. Peter,
moved by a vision, was the first of the
Twelve to preach to the Gentiles (Acts
X.), but the apostle of the Gentiles was
St. Paul (Gal. ii: 8).
GENUFLEXION, the act of bending
the knees in worship. There are frequent
allusions to genuflexion in the Old and
New Testaments, and it would appear
that the use was continued among the
early Christians. Genuflexion obtains,
both by rule and prescription, in various
places in the offices of the Roman
Catholic Church, and at different parts
of the services of the Church of Eng-
land.
GENUNG, JOHN FRANKLIN, an
Amercian educator; born in Willseyville,
N. Y., Jan. 27, 1850; was graduated at
Union College in 1870 and at the
Rochester Theological Seminary in 1875;
became Professor of Rhetoric in Am-
herst College. His publications include
"Tennyson's 'In Memoriam,' Its Pur-
poses and Its Structure"; "Practical Ele-
ments of Rhetoric"; "Handbook of Rhe-
torical Analysis"; "Outlines of Rhet-
oric"; "Study of Rhetoric in the College
Course"; "Words of Koheleth" (1904)
"The Idylls and the Ages" (1907) ; "Guide
Book to Biblical Literature" (1916). He
died in 1919.
GENUS, a class, a kind, a species.
In logic, a class of objects containing
several species; a class more extensive
than a species; a universal which is
predicable of several things of different
species. In music, sort or class, es-
pecially used with reference to scales;
as, the diatonic, chromatic, and enhar-
monic genera (plural). In zoology and
botany, an assemblage of species or of
sub-genera closely agreeing together in
all essential characteristics, not found
in any others of the sub-family or family
to which they belong. It may be divided
into sub-genera. Among animals, Mus
is a genus containing, among other ani-
mals, both the domestic mouse and the
rat, which, differing in size, etc., and
being clearly distinct species, have still
a community of structure obvious to all.
So also among plants, the various species
of the rose constitute the genus Rosa.
In the Latin name of a plant or animal
adopted by naturalists, the first word in-
dicates the genus, and the second the
species : as, Mus musculus, Rosa spino-
sissina. In other sciences, sometimes a
classification like that adopted by natura-
lists is used. Thus, of skin diseases
there is a genus Acne with various
species, A. simplex, A. rosacea, etc.
GENZANO (jen-za'no), a town of
Italy, on the Via Appia, 16 miles S. E.
of Rome, near the lake of Nemi. It
contains the Cesarina palace, and is
noted for its annual flower festival, held
on the eighth day after Corpus Christi,
which attracts many visitors.
GEODESY (-od'e-si), that branch of
applied mathematics which determines,
by means of observations and measure-
ments, the figures and areas of large
portions of the earth's surface, or the
general figure and dimensions of the
earth ; that branch of surveying in which
the curvature of the earth is taken into
account. This becomes necessary in all
extensive operations.
GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH, a
famous English chronicler; born prob-
ably in Monmouth about 1100. He was
the author of a famous chronicle or his-
tory of the first British kings, often
quoted by men of letters and remarkable
for its curious legends. Geoffrey was
successively archdeacon of Monmouth
and bishop of St. Asaph. He died in
Llandaff in 1152 or 1154.
GEOFFROY ST. HILAIRE, ETIENNE
(zho-frwa' san-tg-lar'), a French natur-
alist; born in "Etampes, France, April
15, 1772. He was educated at the col-
leges of Navarre and Lemoine. At the
age of 21 he obtained the chair of zoology
in the Parisian Jardin des Plantes. As
a member of the Egyptian expedition in
1798 he founded the Institute of Cairo,
and returned about the end of 1801 with
a rich collection of zoological specimens.
In 1807 he was made a member of the
Institute, and in 1809 Professor of
Zoology at the Faculty of Science. He
devoted himself especially to the philoso-
phy of natural history. Among his
principal works are: "The Principle of
Unity in Organic Composition"; "Phil-
osophy of Anatomy"; "Natural History
GEOGBAPHICAL SOCIETIES 283
GEOGRAPHY
of the Mammifers"; "Ideas of Natural
Philosophy" (1838). He died in Paris,
June 19, 1844.
GEOGBAPHICAL SOCIETIES, as-
sociations formed with the view of ob-
taining and disseminating geographical
knowledge. In point of seniority the first
of these associations is the Geographical
Society of Paris, founded in 1821, whose
magazine, the "Bulletin of the Geo-
graphical Society," began in 1822. The
Prussian Geographical Society held its
first sittings in Berlin in 1828, and pub-
lishes a yearly "Journal." The Royal
Geographical Society, established in Lon-
don in 1830, has a capital of over £25,-
000, and devotes large sums annually to
aid the cause of geographical research,
or as rewards and recognition of services
rendered to the science. Its proceedings
are published monthly. The Royal Scot-
tish Geographical Society, founded in
1844, also publishes a monthly magazine.
The Russian Geographical Society,
founded at St. Petersburg in 1845, has
greatly extended our knowledge of Asia,
and especially Asiatic Russia.
The American Geographical Society
was founded at New York in 1852. The
National Geographic Society was founded
in 1888.
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, AMER-
ICAN, a society organized in 1852 for the
purpose of investigating and dissemi-
nating geographical knowledge. The
headquarters of the society are located
in New York City and contain a valu-
able library of over 50,000 volumes.
The executive council of the society
awards yearly two gold medals, the
CoUum and the Daly medals, named
respectively after their founders. The
societjr publishes a monthly bulletin. Its
collections and library are open for free
reference and inspection to the public.
The membership of the society is
about 4,000.
GEOGRAPHIC NAMES, UNITED
STATES BOARD ON. An organization
instituted in 1890, by President Harri-
son, having for its object the introduc-
tion of uniformity in the orthography of
geographic names. The board has fifteen
members, representing government de-
partments and the Smithsonian Institute.
Local usage is the rule generally fol-
lowed in the adoption of names though
regard is had to etymology, simplicity,
and correctness in the decisions arrived
,a,t. New names, suggested by officers and
(employees of the government, are passed
on by the board before publication.
Most of the work of the board in recent
years has been in connection with over-
sea possessions.
GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, NATION-
AL, a society founded in 1888 at Wash-
ington, D. C, for the purpose of collecting
and diffusing geographic knowledge.
The principal means of accomplishing
the latter purpose is the official organ
of the society, the "National Geographic
Magazine." The research work of the
society is carried on independently, as
well as in co-operation with other insti-
tutions and organizations. The society
has organized or participated in many
scientific and exploring expeditions in
North and South America. The mem-
bership of the society is over 500,000..
Its headquarters at Washington are
located in a building owned by the
society and containing a valuable library
of over 50,000 volumes.
GEOGRAPHY, a delineation or de-
scription of the earth as it at present is,
leaving it to geology to investigate how
it came into its present condition. It
may be divided into three distinct
sciences, mathematical or astronomical,
physical, and political geography. Ma-
thematical geography views the earth as
a planet; it investigates its relations to
the sun, the moon and other bodies be-
longing to the solar system. It gives at-
tention to the angle at which its axis is
inclined to the ecliptic, the position of
the arctic and antarctic circles and the
tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, the par-
allels of latitude, and the meridians of
longitude. Physical geography treats of
the present distribution of sea and land,
the currents of the oceans, the climates
of the several continents and islands.
With regard to the land, it commences
by indicating the position of the moun-
tain chains and table lands, thus fixing
the positions of the great rivers, to which
attention is next turned. Then the posi-
tion of the alluvial plains, the deserts,
etc., is pointed out; the distribution of
the plants over the surface of the earth,
often called botanical geogi'aphy, follows
next; then that of the animals; and fi-
nally that of the several races of man-
kind. This branch of the science ap-
proaches those of geology, hydrology, me-
teorology, botany, zoology, and ethnology
or anthropology. Finally, there follows
political geography; which treats of the
present distribution of political power
over the world, the position and re-
sources of the several empires, kingdoms,
republics, etc.
History. — Eratosthenes, B. C. 240, was
one of the earliest ancient geographers
of eminence; but the gi-eatest names in
this department were Strabo — who lived
during the reigns of Augustus and
Tiberius — and Ptolemy, who flourished
about A. D. 139. The discovery of the
OEOK TEPE
284
GEOLOGY
passage round the Cape of Good Hope
and that of America in the 16th century
gave a great impulse to its modern ad-
vance. In the United States geograph-
ical science has been carefully fostered
by the government, a board being ap-
pointed to supervise all practical work
and to insure uniformity of nomencla-
ture. Under the patronage of several of
the earlier presidents, there was great
activity in geographical research and ex-
ploration of the vast domain which lay
to the W. of the then settled portions of
the country. The most notable of these
early expeditions was that undertaken
by authority of President Jefferson, the
leaders of the enterprise being Gen.
Meriwether Lewis and Gen. William
Clark (afterward governor of the ter-
ritory of Louisiana). This attempt
bore- fruit in the settlement of the
great Mississippi basin to the N. W.,
and it was supplemented a few years
after by the expedition under Lieut,
(afterward Gen.) John C. Fremont. The
great apostle of the United States Coast
Survey was Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler,
who was invited to the United States
by President Tyler. A gieographical
congress was held at Paris in 1875, and
at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
GEOK TEPE, a town and fortress of
central Asia, oasis of the Akhal-Tekke-
Turkomans, Ion. 58° E., lat. 38° N. In
1879 the Russians under General Lo-
makine were defeated here with heavy
loss, but January, 1881, it was stormed
by General Skobeleff after a three weeks'
siege, when about 8,000 fugitives were
massacred, no quarter being given.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, UNITED
STATES, a bureau of the Interior De-
partment created for the purpose of
preparing a map of the United States,
classifying the public land, examining the
geological structure, mineral resources,
and the products of the country. To
these duties have since been added
those of investigating the extent to
which the arid lands of the West can
be redeemed by irrigation, segregating
the irrigable from the non-irrigable
lands, and the selection of sites for reser-
voirs and canals for the purposes of
irrigation. The maps made by the Geo-
logical Survey are all on a large scale,
and have a ♦degree of accuracy and a
minuteness in detail incomparably great-
er than ordinary maps. The smallest
scale is 1-250,000, or about 4 miles to the
inch, and this scale has been employed
for regions of the West which are thinly
settled, and where the topography is
mountainous. But it has been super-
seded by scales of 2 miles and 1 mile to
the inch, the latter for populous regions
with slightly or moderately diversified
topography, like Massachusetts and New
Jersey. The maps are engraved on
sheets which, with the 4-mile scale, em-
brace 1° of lat. and 1° of Ion. The
2-mile maps embrace tracts of half the
above linear or one-fourth the areal di-
mensions; the 1-mile maps embrace one-
fourth of the above linear and one-six-
teenth the areal dimensions. The topog-
raphy is represented by "contours" or
"grade curves"; i. e., by lines of equal al-
titude above the sea. The contour inter-
vals are uniform for each sheet, but vary
in different sheets acording to the charac-
ter of the country. In some tracts the
contour intervals represent a difference
of elevation of 200 feet, these being in
very mountainous countries, while in flat
countries and on large-scale sheets they
may be as small as 20 feet. The general
construction and methods of all maps
are, however, the same.
There are three principal branches of
the geological survey: (1) Geology prop-
er; (2) Topography; (3) Irrigation sur-
veys. The geological branch investigates
the stratigraphy, the geological struc-
ture and history, the lithology, mineral-
ogy, and palaeontology, the ores and
mines, and in general the natural eco-
nomics, resources, and physical geog-
raphy of the country. The topographic
branch prepares the maps ; the irrigation
branch investigates the possibilities of
irrigation and selects the irrigable lands
and sites available for reservoirs and
canals. The work of the topographic
branch is the basis of the work of the
other two, and all the results of the
latter are projected on the maps. The
publications of the Survey are (1) the
annual report of the director, which, be-
sides the administrative report, contains
memoirs on geologic subjects by mem-
bers of the survey, and is distributed
according to the regulations of the In-
terior Department; (2) monographs on
the leading subjects of special investi-
gation by the geologists; (3) bulletins
on more limited special subjects of re-
search; (4) an annual volume of mineral
statistics. The last three are distributed
gratuitously only to designated libraries
and to learned corporate societies, which
send their own publications in exchange.
Otherwise they are sold by the director
at 10 per cent, above the cost of publica-
tion, and the money deposited in the
Treasury.
GEOLOGY, the science which investi"
gates the bygone history of the earth
with the view of accounting for its pres-
ent condition. It is the province of
physical and political geography to de-
GEOLOGY
285
GEOLOGY
scribe what the earth now is, geology
attempts to furnish the reason why.
History. — Though it was only during
the 19th century that geology has started
up into the vigor of manhood, yet its
birth took place ages ago. Isolated geo-
logical observations or hypotheses occur
abundantly in ancient literature. "As
for the earth, out of it cometh bread;
and under it is turned up as it were fire"
(Job xxviii: 5); an anticipation of the
Huttonian hypothesis. Egypt, according
to Herodotus, is the gift of the Nile, that
is, the river brought down the silt which
constitutes the fertile soil of the delta
and other parts of Lower Egypt. The
best geologist of antiquity was the ge-
ographer Strabo, who lived in the 1st
century a. d. Modern geology began
with Werner, who was a professor in the
School of Mines at Freiberg, in Saxony,
in 1775. He believed that a series of
universal formations had been deposited
in succession from a chaotic fluid. Basalt
was supposed to have had the same
origin, but to this view various conti-
nental observers were opposed. Hutton
published in 1788 his "Theory of the
Earth," developed in a separate work m
1795, He assumed no causes but those
now existing. He showed that geology
and cosmogony were different. "In the
economy of the world," he said, "he could
find no trace of a beginning, no prospect
of an end." He held basalt, granite, etc.,
to be of igneous origin. The Wei-nerians
were called Neptunists, their opponents
Vulcanists. In 1798 Cuvier published
his "Fossil Bones," which gave a great
impulse to palaeontology.
Forces or Causes in Operation. — After
inquirers had outgrown the belief in fos-
sils produced by the plastic power of
nature or all entombed simultaneously
by the Noachian deluge, the belief vfas
entertained that there had been a series
of creations and catastrophies, the latter
causing the universal destruction of all
pre-existing species. The belief was also
entertained that some external causes,
say the forces producing earthquake and
volcanic action, were more potent in
former times than now. This Professor
Huxley calls catastrophism, which he
defines to be any form of geological
speculation which, in order to account
for these phenomena, supposes the opera-
tion of forces different in their nature
or immeasurably different in power from
those which are at present in action in
the universe.
The second school of geology is that
called by Huxley uniformitarianism.
This looks only to causes now in opera-
tion for the explanation of geological
phenomena. Of this school Hutton was
the founder, though it was Sir Charles
Vol. IV — Cyc— S
Lyell that carried it forward to triumph.
He showed the enormous changes which
the causes now in operation are still pro-
ducing, and that nearly every phenom-
enon, attributed to abnormally potent
causes acting suddenly and briefly, could
be produced by causes not more intense
than those in action now, but operating
through immense periods of bygone time.
In his ''Principles of Geology," he ex-
amines aqueous causes, the action of
water acting in connection with tides,
currents, etc., in seas, rivers, and lakes,
also the action of ice in all its forms.
Next he inquires into igneous causes,
volcanoes, and earthquakes. Climate and
organic life are also carefully investi-
gated in the work.
The doctrine of the third school of
geologists is called by Professor Huxley
evolutionism; it accepts nearly the whole
of uniformitarianism, except the part
referring to the development of organic
life. In his later years Sir Charles Lyell
became an evolutionist. See Darwinian
Theory: Evolution.
Geologic Time. — Both the uniform-
itarian and the evolutionist believe that
they may draw to any extent on what
may be called the bank of time, which
will be found "ready to discount any
quantity of hypothetical paper." Sir
William Thompson holds that any such
drafts must be limited "within some
such period as 100,000,000 years"; and
another natural philosopher considers
the time at call only about 60,000,000
years. Huxley believes the necessity for
these limitations is not proved, though
perhaps one, two, or three hundred mil-
lions of years might be enough to ac-
count for geological phenomena.
With regard to the subdivision of the
time, long or short, at the gelogists'
command, the sedimentary strata having
been laid down by water, the relative
thickness of each stratum will measure
the proportion of geologic time required
for its deposition.
Geologic strata. — The geological rec-
ord is made up as follows, beginning
with the five great
PERIODS.
5. Quaternary. The age of man.
4. Cenozoic Period. Age of Mammals.
3. Mesozoic Period. Age of Reptiles.
Age of Coal
2. Palaeozoic Period.
Period.
Plants.
Age of Fishes.
Age of Inver-
tebrates.
Lifeless and
1. Archaean
dawn of life.
The following list gives the eras to-
gether with their dependent series and
sub-divisions in descending order:
GEOLOGY
286
GEOMETRY
ERAS AND SERIES.
9. Quaternary or Post Tertiary: (3)
Recent, (2) Champlain, (1) Glacial,
8. Tertiary Era: (4) Pliocene, (3)
Miocene, (2) Oligocene, (1) Eocene.
7. Ci'etaceous Era: (4) Laramie, (3)
Colorado, (2) Dakota, (1) Lower.
6. Jura-Trias: (b) Jurassic; (3) Pur-
beck, (2) Oolite, (1) Lias, (a) Triassic:
(4) Rhffitic, (3) Upper, (2) Middle, (1)
Lower.
5. Carboniferous Era: (3) Permian,
(2) Carboniferous, (1) Sub-carbonifer-
ous.
4. Devonian Era: (5) Catskill and
Chemung, (4) Portage, (3) Hamilton,
(2) Corniferous, (1) Oriskany.
3. Upper Silurian: (3) Lower Helder-
berg, (2) Onondaga, (1) Niagara.
2. Lower Silurian: (3) Trenton, (2)
Chazy, (1) Calciferous.
1. Cambrian.
Eozoic (dawn of life) , Azoic (lifeless).
SUB-DIVISIONS.
9. Quaternary: Pleistocene; 8. Terti-
ary: English Crag, Upper Molasse, Ru-
pelian and Tongrian of Belgium; 7.
Cretaceous: Upper Chalk, Lower Chalk,
Chalk Marl, Gault, Neocomian, Lower
Greensand; 6. Jura-Trias: Wealden, Pur-
beck, Portland, Kimmeridge, Oxford
Oolites, Lower or Bath Oolite, Lower
Lias, Marlstone, Upper Lias, Kossen
beds, Dachstein beds; Alpine Trias, in
part; Keuper, Muschelkalk, Bunter-
Sandstein; 5. Carboniferous: Magnesian
Limestone, Lower Red Sandstone, or
Rothliegendes, Upper Coal Measures,
Lower Coal Measures, Millstone Grit,
Lower Carboniferous, Mountain Lime-
stone; 4. Devonian: Old Red Sandstone —
Catskill Red Sandstone, Chemung, Por-
tage, Genesee Slate, Hamilton beds, Mar-
cellus Shale, Upper Helderberg, Scho-
harie, Grit, Oriskany Sandstone; 3.
Upper Silurian: Lower Helderberg, On-
ondaga Salt Group, Salina beds, Water
Lime, Niagara Group, Wenlock Group,
Clinton Group, Medina Sandstone
(Upper Llandovery) ; 2. Lower Silurian:
Hudson River beds, Cincinnati Group,
Lower Llandovery, Utica Shales, Tren-
ton Limestone, Caradoc and Bala Lime-
stone, Black Shales, Armorican Grit,
Gothlandian Calcareous Sandrock, Mag-
nesian Limestone, Lower, Middle and
Upper Cambrian; 1. Archaean: Lauren-
tian, Huronian.
Other Rocks. — For these, see Igneous
Rocks.
Fossils. — For these, see Fossil: Pa-
leontology.
Applied Geology. — Geology applied to
industrial or other practical purposes;
as, for instance, to mininfr, drainage,
railway tunneling, etc.
GEOMETRIC SQUARE, an instru-
ment for measuring distances and
heights, and useful for its portability as
well as for the facility, by the common
rule of three, of solving most of the prob-
lems arising from its use. It is made of
brass or wood, 12 or 18 inches square,
and the quadrant is graduate in each
direction. The two sides opposite to the
axial point of the alidade are graduated
to 100 equal parts, with major divisions
of 10 of said parts. The 100 point
finishes at the angle obliquely opposite
the center from which the arc is struck.
One side represents the horizon, and the
alidade with two sides is equal in length
to the diagonal of the square. The ali-
dade has divisions equal to those on the
sides of the square.
GEOMETRY (Greek geometria =the
measurement of land; gee, for geios=he-
longing to the earth, and metria=mesLS-
urement) , properly the measurement of
the earth or of land, but now used exclu-
sively of the abstract science to which
practical land measurement gave or may
have given birth. It is the science of
space, whether linear, superficial, or
solid.
History. — Who first invented or cul-
tivated geometry is uncertain. The
Hindus have a geometry apparently of
indigenous growth. Some knowledge
of geometry was apparently possessed
by the builders of the Egyptian pyra-
mids. Diodorus and others attribute the
invention or discovery of geometry to
Egypt, which is doubtful. The Greeks
surpassed all ancient nations in their at-
tainments in the science. Euclid founded
a school of mathematics at Alexandria
some time in the reign of Ptolemy Lagus,
B. e. 323 to 284. His "Elements" are still
in use in many schools and colleges. See
Mathematics,
Nature of the Science. — Geometry, like
mathematics, is built up on rigorous
demonstration. To prevent the possibility
of error in reasoning it is needful to com-
mence with definitions of the terms em-
ployed. Then follow in Euclid's "Ele-
ments" postulates or concessions de-
manded as to what is possible to be done ;
then axioms, simple mathematical state-
ments worthy of being believed. A popu-
lar belief is that the whole science of
geometry rests on the axioms; it is really,
however, based on the definitions; thus
the whole third book of Euclid follows
naturally from the definition of a circle.
Analytical Geometry. — The analytical
investigation of the relations and prop-
erties of geometrical magnitudes. It is
divided into determinate and indeter-
minate geometry, according as the num-
GEOBGE
287
GEORGE III.
bei' of possible solutions in any given
case is limited or unlimited.
Descriptive Geometry. — Geometry of
which the feature is to represent solid
bodies with accurate form, perspective,
etc., on paper, or other plane surface.
Elementary Geonnetry. — Geometry
treating of points, lines, surfaces, or the
ordinary solids, as distinguished from
conic sections, etc., called the higher
geometry. Higher geometry, see under
paragraph above.
Plane Geometry. — Geometry relating
to surfaces, or to lines drawn or points
placed on them.
Solid Geometry. — Geometry relating to
solids.
GEORGE, a division of the W. prov-
ince of Cape Colony, on the S. coast, E.
of Cape To^vn. It contains 2,600 square
miles. It is valuable chiefly for its pas-
turage and its timber. The town of
George stands 6 miles N. of the coast,
and has a population of over 2,000. On
the coast is the port of Mossel Bay.
GEORGE I., King of England; bom
in Hanover, March 28, 1660. He was son
of Ernest I., first Elector of Hanover,
and of the Princess Sophia, granddaugh-
ter of James I., King of England, and
succeeded his father in the electorate, in
1698. On the death of Queen Anne, in
1714, he was called to the throne of Eng-
land, and this was the beginning of the
English dynasty of Brunswick. He gave
his support to the Whigs, and was pru-
dently neutral as regarded the Conti-
nental wars of his time, yet he joined the
Triple Alliance of 1717 and the Quadru-
ple Alliance of 1718 against Spain.
He had as premier Sir Robert Walpole,
whose genius repressed all attempts at
disorder, and nullified the efforts of the
so-called Pretender, James III. Unfortu-
nate in his family relations, George
was obliged to divorce his wife, Sophia
of Zell, charged with an intrigue, and
imprison her in the castle of Ahlen,
where she ended her days in 1726, after
a confinement of 32 years. He died in
Osnabriick, June 11, 1727.
GEORGE II., King of England, son
of the preceding; born in Hanover, Nov.
10, 1683. He succeeded his father in
1727. He retained as his prime minister
Sir Robert Walpole, who preserved the
country from war during the first 12
years of his reign. In the war of the Aus-
trian Succession he declared himself on
the side of the Empress Maria Theresa,
and against France. His armies, success-
ful at Dettingen (1743), failed signally at
Fontenoy (1745) and at Laffeld (1747),
but the campaign was closed by the
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Mean-
time, however, his throne had been
strengthened by the victory of Culloden,
gained over Prince Charles Edward Stu-
art and his adherents in 1746. War hav-
ing in 1755 again broken out on the con-
tinent of Europe, England experienced
fresh reverses in Germany and lost her
Hanoverian dominions, but these losse?
were more than compensated by brilliant
and valuable conquests in the East In-
dies and in America. George was the
founder of the British Museum. He died
in London, Oct. 25, 1760.
GEORGE III., King of England, son
of Frederick Louis, Prince of Wales;
born in London, June 4, 1738. He suc-
ceeded his grandfather, George II., in
1760. In the early part of his reign he
gained brilliant successes over France
and Austria in the Seven Years' War,
GEORGE III. OF ENGLAND
and in 1763 concluded an advantageous
peace. In 1764 George Grenville suc-
ceeded to Lord Bute as premier, and the
American Stamp Act was passed the fol-
lowing year. After a long and fruitless
war, the independence of the United
States was acknowledged. In 1782 Lord
Shelbume was placed at the head of the
State, with Mr. Pitt, son of the Earl of
Chatham as Chancellor of the Exchequer.
In 1783 the memorable coalition ministry
between Mr. Fox and Lord North was
formed. To this the king was decidedly
hostile; and as soon as Mr. Fox's India
bill had been rejected by the Lords, ho
sent a message to him and Lord North,
GEORGE IV.
288
GEORGE V.
commanding them immediately to return
him their seals of office. On the follow-
ing day Mr. Pitt became prime minister.
In 1789 the king was afflicted with men-
tal aberration, which lasted from the be-
ginning of November till the following
February. In 1798 public distress ap-
peared to have reached its climax, and
the Irish rebellion broke out. In 1800
the Act of Union between Great Britain
and Ireland was passed; and in order to
bring those over who opposed the meas-
ure, the ministers allowed a tacit under-
standing to prevail, that it would be fol-
lowed by certain political concessions.
George, however, could never be per-
suaded that he could admit the Catholics
to political power, without violating the
spirit of his coronation oath — ^the conse-
quence of which was the retirement from
office of Mr. Pitt and his colleagues in
1801, and the formation of a new minis-
try, headed by Mr. Addington. Negotia-
tions were now speedily entered into,
which led to the treaty of Amiens. When
the resumption of hostilities took place
in 1803 there was an evident demonstra-
tion of public satisfaction throughout all
ranks. The Addington administration,
proved incompetent, and Mr. Pitt, in
1804, again took the helm of State; but
he died in 1806, and the Grenville party,
which Fox had joined, went into office.
In 1807 Lord Grenville and his colleagues
attempted to change the king's opinions
with regard to Catholic emancipation;
but George was inflexible, which led to
the ejection of the Fox and Grenville
party, and the Perceval administration
succeeded them. The death of his young-
est child, the Princess Amelia, toward
the close of 1810, gave the king a shock
that renewed his insanity. He died in
Windsor, Jan. 29, 1820.
GEORGE IV., King of England; born
in London, Aug. 12, 1762. He became
Prince Regent in 1811, and succeeded
his father, George III., in 1820. Though
he had at first declared for the Whigs, he
for a long time gave himself up to Tory
influence, and had as his prime ministers
Lord Liverpool and the Duke of Welling-
ton. During his regency occurred the
final overthrow of Napoleon. He caused
the passage of numerous laws against
the liberty of the press, and had inces-
sant troubles in Ireland to put down. In
1823 he again took sides with the Whigs,
and selected as premier the celebrated
George Canning. In 1829 the bill grant-
ing Catholic emancipation was passed.
George IV. married, in 1795, the Princess
Caroline of Brunswick, whom he after-
ward caused to be tried before the law
courts on a charge of adultery. He died
in Windsor, June 26, 1830.
GEORGE V. (GEORGE FREDERICK
ERNEST ALBERT), King of Great
Britain and Ireland and of the British
dominions beyond the seas. Emperor of
India. He was born in 1865. Following
the death of his elder brother he
became direct heir to the throne. His
choice as a career had been with the
navy, which he entered in 1877, studying
at Greenwich and becoming, successively,
lieutenant, captain, rear-admiral, and
vice-admiral. After the death of his
brother he became betrothed to Princess
Victoria Mary of Teck, who had been the
fiancee of his brother, and they were
married in 1898. Following the death
of Queen Victoria in 1901 and the acces-
sion of Edward VII., he journeyed round
the world, making addresses in the vari-
GEORGE V.
ous British colonies. He then was offi-
cially installed as Prince of Wales, and
took the part previously taken by his
father in assisting at various public
ceremonies and representing the royal
family. After the death of Edward VII.,
in 1910, he became king, taking the name
of George V., while his wife took that of
Queen Mary. The coronation took place
in June, 1911, in Westminster Abbey,
but attracted so little public interest that
there was much speculation over a say-
ing attributed to Edward VII. that he
would be followed by the last king of
England. The destruction by a bomb of
the Lia Fail, or Stone of Destiny, for-
GEOBGE I.
289
GEORGE
merly used by the kings of Ireland and
Scotland, and for several centuries un-
derlying the coronation chair in West-
minster Abbey, about the time of the
king's accession, added to the specula-
tion. One of the first important acts of
George V. was to visit India, where a
durbar was held in 1911. During the
World War the role played by the king
was inconspicuous, and was confined
largely to visiting the wounded and
appearing in public on patriotic occa-
sions. The royal couple have had five
sons, and one daughter: Edward, Prince
of Wales; Albei't; Mary; Henry; George,
and John (d.) In 1919 the Prince of
"Wales made a tour of the world, as his
father had done previously, and visited
the United States.
GEORGE I., King of the Hellenes;
born in Copenhagen, Dec. 24, 1845. He
was second son of the King of Denmark.
In 1863 he was elected king by the
Greek National Assembly. In 1867 he
married the Princess Olga, a niece of
the Russian czar. His conduct as a con-
stitutional monarch was always correct
and regular, and he won the popular
sympathies by the efforts he made on be-
half of the expansion of Greek nation-
ality. His children were bred in the
Greek faith. He was assassinated in
1913. See Greece; Balkan Wars.
GEORGE, Duke of Clarence, and
brother of Edward IV., King of Eng-
land. He espoused the cause of Henry
VI. and his queen, Margaret of Anjou,
against his brother and sovereign. He
married a daughter of the Earl of War-
wick (the "king-maker") , and joined
him in his revolt against the royal au-
thority. Being taken prisoner he was
condemned to death. The unfortunate
prince is said to have drowned himself
in a butt of Malmsey wine in 1478.
GEORGE, DAVID LLOYD. See Lloyd
George, David.
GEORGE. GRACE, an American act-
ress, born in New York City in 1880.
She received a convent education and
made her first appearance on the stage
in 1894 in "The New Boy." She sub-
sequently appeared in "The Girl I Left
Behind Me"; "Charley's Aunt"; "Her
Majesty"; "The Two Orphans"; "The
Truth"; and other plays. In 1915 she
established the Playhouse Company,
playing repertory, in New York City.
In this house were given "Major Brass-
bound's Conversion" and other plays.
In 1899 she married William A. Brady.
GEORGE. HENRY, an American
nolitical economist; born in Philadelphia,
Pa., Sept. 2, 1839; received a common
school education; went to California in
1859; worked as a newspaper compositor
for a number of years; became an editor
in 1867, and later was connected with
several California periodicals; removed
to New York City in 1880. He was nom-
inated by the Labor Party for mayor of
New York in 1886; received 67,000
votes; but was defeated. In 1897 he
was again nominated for mayor by sev-
eral organizations united under the
name of the "Democracy of Thomas
Jeff"erson." Though urged to use cau-
tion against overwork, he began the
campaign with gi'eat enthusiasm. Dur-
ing the night of Oct. 28, he made four
addresses and retired about midnight,
but soon had a stroke of apoplexy and
died before morning. His publications
include "Progress and Poverty" (1879) ;
"The Land Question" (1881) ; "Social
Problems" (1883); "Property in Land";
"Protection and Free Trade" (1886) ;
etc.
GEORGE, HENRY, JUNIOR, an
American public official, son of Henry
George (g. v.), born in Sacramento, Cal.
At an early age he became a printer,
then a journalist, and in 1883 acted as
his father's secretary during an ex-
tended lecture tour in this country and
abroad. In 1897, his father having been
nominated candidate for Mayor of New
York and dying before the election, the
son succeeded him in the political cam-
paign as candidate, but was defeated.
In 1906 he was correspondent for a
newspaper syndicate in Japan. In 1909
he was correspondent for Collier's
Weekly in London, where he at the same
time campaigned during a general elec-
tion for the British budget, a political
measure based on the land taxation
theories of Henry George the elder. Re-
turning home, he was elected to the
LFnited States Congi-ess from the 17th
New York District (1911-1913) and again
from the 21st New York District for the
63d Congress (1913-1915). He died in
1916. He was the author of "The Life
of Henry George" (1900); "The Men-
ace of Privilege" (1905) ; "The Romance
of John Bainbridge" (1916).
GEORGE, W. L., an English jour-
nalist and author, born in Paris, 1882,
finished his education in University of
Paris and in Germany, and was succes-
sively an analytical chemist,^ civil en-
gineer, lawyer, soldier, and journalist.
During the World War he served in
the French Army. In London he be-
came known as a clever journalist, capa-
ble of discussing a wide range of sub-
jects. His novels include; "A Bed of
Roses" (1911); "The City of Light"
(1912) ; "The Making of an English-
GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC 290
GEORGETOWN
man" (1914) ; and "The Blind Alley"
(1919). He lectured in the United
States in 1920.
GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC, a
community of boys and girls near Free-
ville, N. Y., about 10 miles east of
Ithaca, founded in 1895 by William R.
George. The purpose of the community
is to afford to neglected, reckless, and
unfortunate children an opportunity to
acquire an education and character
necessary to lead a useful life. It is the
outcome of an experiment made by Mr.
George for a number of years, consisting
of taking between 150 and 250 children
from the city slums to his country home
during their vacation. The organization
of the Republic is modeled upon that of
the United States. The age of admis-
sion is 12 to 18 years, and children from
any part of the United States may be
admitted. Defectives are not admitted
if their condition is knovim. The institu-
tion was in successful operation for
many years and its success resulted in
the foundation of similar establishments
in various parts of the country. These
were all independent of each other and
of the original institution, but eventu-
ally the National Association of Junior
Republics was formed. The parent es-
tablishment in New York was seriously
criticized in respect to its conduct in
1913, and difficulties about meeting its
budget eventually resulted in a decision
of the trustees to close the institution in
1914. At that time, Mr. George's offer to
take over the institution was accepted.
GEORGE, LAKE, called also HORI-
CON, a beautiful lake, 32 miles long,
near the E. border of New York State.
It forms the head-waters of Lake Cham-
plain, is studded with hundreds of pic-
turesque islands, and its shores contain
several favorite summer resorts, espe-
cially the village of Caldwell or Lake
George. Here was fought the battle of
Lake George, in which the French and
Algonquins, under Baron Dieskau, were
utterly defeated by the English and
Iroquois under Sir William Johnson,
Sept. 8, 1755.
GEORGE, ORDER OF ST., the name
of numerous orders which have been
founded in honor of St. George. They
include (1) a military order instituted
in Russia in 1769 by the Empress Cath-
arine II. as a reward of military
achievements. It consists of four classes,
to which a fifth, intended for non-com-
missioned officers and privates, was
added in 1807. (2) An order instituted
in Bavaria by the Emperor Charles VII.
(Charles Albert) in 1729, and reorgan-
ised by King Louis II. in 1871. Since
the reorganization the order, which had
previously been a mere decoration for
the nobility, has devoted itself to such
services as the care of the wounded on
battlefields, etc. (3) An order insti-
tuted by Ernest Augustus of Hanover in
1839. (4) A Sicilian military order, in-
stituted by Joseph Napoleon, Feb. 24,
1808, and remodeled by King Ferdinand
IV. in 1819. (5) The name under which
the order of the Garter was first in-
stituted in England.
GEORGE, ST., the especial patron of
chivalry, and tutelary saint of England.
Though venerated both in the Eastern
and Western Churches, his history is ex-
tremely obscure. The story in the "Acta
Sanctorum" ("Deeds of the Saints") is
that he was born of noble Christian
parents in Cappadocia, became a distin-
guished soldier, and, after testifying tc
his faith before Diocletian, was tortured
and put to death at Nicomedia, April 23,
303.
GEORGE, ST., one of the Bermudas.
It is about 3 miles long and Vz mile
broad, is fortified, and contains a port of
the same name, which is a British mili-
tary station.
GEORGE'S CHANNEL, ST., the arm
of the sea v/hich separates Ireland from
Wales S. of the Irish Sea. From Holy-
head and Dublin on the N. to St. David's
Head and Carnsore Point it extends
about 100 miles, with a breadth varj'ing
from 50 to 70 miles.
GEORGETOWN, a former city in the
District of Columbia, on the Potomac
river; since 1878 part of the city of
Washington. It is the seat of George-
town University, a Jesuit institution
with a noted astronomical observatory.
Georgetown is one of the greatest fish-
markets in the country and has over 50
flour mills. See Washington (city).
GEORGETOWN (formerly the Dutch
Stabroek), capital of British Guiana; on
the Demerara river, not far from its
mouth. It is handsomely built. The
principal public edifices are the govern-
ment building, the cathedral, the Queen's
College, and a museum and library.
There is a good harbor, with a light-
house, and defenses erected within re-
cent years; the foreign trade is virtually
that of the colony. See GuiANA, Brit-
ish. Pop. (1918) 54,006.
GEORGETOWN, a city of South Caro-
lina, the county-seat of Georgetown co.
It is on the Georgetown and Western
railroad and on Winyah Bay. It has an
excellent harbor and is a seaport of con-
siderable imnortance. It is the center
of an important agricultural region.
GEORGETOWN COLLEGE
291
GEORGIA
There are steamship connections with
New York, Baltimore, and other cities.
Its industries include machine shops,
foundries, chemical factories, saw-mills,
etc. It has an important export trade in
rice, turpentine, and lumber. The not-
able public buildings include a public
library, a post office, and a custom house.
Pop. (1910) 5,530; (1920) 4,579.
GEORGETOWN COLLEGE, a coedu-
cational institution in Georgetown, Ky.,
founded in 1829 under the auspices of
the Baptist Church; reported at the
close of 1919: Professors and instruc-
tors, 20; students, 416; president M. B,
Adams.
GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY, an
educational institution in Washington,
D. C, founded in 1789 under the auspices
of the Roman Catholic Church; reported
at the close of 1919 : Professors and in-
structors, 205; students, 2,102; volumes
in the library, 100,000; number of
gi-aduates, 8,466; president, John B.
Creeden, Ph. D.
GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVER-
SITY, an institution for higher educa-
tion, founded in 1821, in Washington,
D. C, as Columbian College. It retained
this name until 1873, when it was incor-
porated as Columbian University. In
1904, with several other educational in-
stitutions, it was merged under the
name of George Washington University.
There were in 1919 2,654 students and
275 instructors. President, W. M. Col-
lier, LL.D.
GEORGIA, a State in the South At-
lantic division of the North American
Union; bounded by North and South
Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, Florida,
and the Atlantic Ocean; area, 59,475
square miles; one of the original 13
States; number of counties, 137. Pop.
(1910) 2,609,121; (1920) 2,895,832. Capi-
tal, Atlanta.
Topography. — The surface of the State
is irregular, rising in terraces. The
coast for about 20 miles inland is low
and swampy; from here it rises about
100 feet in 20 miles, till, in Baldwin
county, about 200 miles from the sea, an
elevation of 600 feet is reached. The
foot hills and mountains begin here and
extend toward the W. and N. W., reach-
ing an altitude of 2,500 to 4,000 feet. In
the extreme S. E. is the Okefinokee
Swamp. A line of islands averaging
about 10 miles in width extends along
the coast and affords many safe but
shallow sounds. The only harbors of
large size are Savannah, St. Mary's,
Darien, and Brunswick. The State is
well watered. The principal rivers are
the Savannah, forming the boundary be-
tween Georgia and South Carolina, the
Ogeechee, the Cannouchee, the Alta-
maha, the Satilla, and the St. Mary's,
running to the Atlantic; and the With-
lacoochee and AUapaha uniting in
Florida to form the Suwanee, the Och-
lockonee, and the Flint and Chatta-
hoochee forming the Apalachicola, at the
Florida line, flowing directly into the
gulf.
Geology. — The rocks of the N. part of
the State are mostly of metamorphic
or crystalline formation and include
granites, gneisses, sandstones, and
schists. A belt of Silurian origin ex-
tends through the N. W. counties with
frequent outcrops of Devonian structure.
There are extensive coal measures in the
extreme N. W. In central and most
of southern Georgia the metamorphic
rocks are overlaid with Tertiary deposits,
and farther S. and E. these are them-
selves overlaid with Quaternary sands
and clay. A Tertiary strip borders the
ocean, and a Cretaceous deposit occurs
in the vicinity of Jefferson county.
Mineralogy. — The State is rich in min-
eral resources, especially in the moun-
tain regions N. of the Chattahoochee,
and ranks second in the United States
in the production of manganese; sil-
ver, emery, bituminous coal, antimony,
granite, graphite, marble, magnetic and
specular iron ore, zinc, limonite, tel-
lurium, galena, mica, roofing slate,
pyrites and potter's clay abound. Gold
is found in seams of quartz, in veins,
and in the disintegrated sands and
gravel. It was discovered in 1828 in
White CO., and led to the forcible re-
moval of the Cherokee Indians. The
coal production in 1918 was 66,716 tons,
valued at $239,377. Georgia marble has
a high reputation. The clay-working
industries have a product of about
$2,000,000 annually. There is a small
amount of gold produced. The total min-
eral output is valued at about $5,000,000
per year.
Agricidtvre. — In the N. part of the
State the principal crops are wheat,
corn, sorghum, oats, rye, potatoes, ap-
ples, peaches, and other temperate fruits,
grains and vegetables, while middle and
southern Georgia are devoted chiefly to
upland cotton and sugar-cane. The
acreage, value, and production of the
principal crops in 1919. was as fol-
lows: Corn, 4,820,000 acres, production
69,890,000 bushels, value $111,824,000;
oats, 540,000 acres, production 10,800,000
bushels, value $12,420,000; wheat, 240,-
000 acres, production 2,520,000 bushels,
value $6,628,000; hay, 557,000 acres,
production 613,000 tons, value $15,-
509,000; peanuts, 202,000 acres, produc-
tion 5,050,000 bushels, value $12,423,000;
GEORGIA
292
GEORGIA
potatoes, 23,000 acres, production 1,610,-
000 bushels, value $3,494,000; sweet po-
tatoes, 142,000 acres, production 13,064,-
000 bushels, value $14,370,000; cotton,
5,288,000 acres, production 1,730,000
bales, value $309,670,000; tobacco, 31,000
acres, production 16,430,000 pounds,
value $3,532,000.
Manufactures. — There were in 1914
4,639 manufacturing establishments in
the State, employing 104,461 wage
earners. The capital invested amounted
to $258,326,000; the wages paid to
$38,128,000; the value of materials used
to $160,089,000; and the value of the
finished product to $258,271,000. The
manufacturing is principally carried on
in Atlanta, Augusta, Savannah, Macon,
and Columbus. The chief articles of
manufacture are cotton goods, lumber-
mill products, flour and grist, cotton-seed
oil, foundry and machine shop products,
fertilizers, naval stores, railroad cars,
brick and tile, wagons and carriages,
clothing, furniture, hosiery, and leather
goods.
Banking. — In 1919 there were 93 Na-
tional banks in operation, having $12,-
258,000 in capital, $10,422,000 in out-
standing circulation and $50,875,000 in
U. S. banks. There were also 653 State
banks, v/ith $29,264,000 capital and
$21,485,000 surplus. In the year end-
ing Sept. 30, 1920, the exchanges at the
United States clearing-houses at Atlanta
aggregated $3,204,770,000, an increase
over the previous year of $1,855,484,000.
Education. — The school population in
1918 numbered 841,861. There were en-
rolled in the public schools 679,747 pu-
pils, with an average daily attendance
of 452,064. There were 15,172 teachers.
The total fund paid for public schools
was $7,619,267, and the total for educa-
tional purposes, including colleges and
secondary schools, amounted to nearly
$10,000,000. The institutions for higher
education include the University of
Georgia, at Athens; the Georgia School
of Technology; and the North Georgia
Agricultural College.
Churches. — The strongest denomina-
tions in the State are the Baptist,
Methodist Episcopal, Presbyterian, Ro-
man Catholic, and Protestant Episcopal.
Raihvays. — Tne railway mileage of the
State in 1920 was about 7,400. There
are about 500 miles of electric railway
in the State.
Finances. — The receipts for the fiscal
year 1918 were $7,686,445, and the dis-
bursements $8,332,569. There was a
balance on January 1, 1918, of $1,459,264,
and on January 1, 1919, $813,139. The
bonded debt of the State, in 1919,
amounted to $5,918,202. The assessed
valuation of real and personal property
is about $1,000,000,000.
State Government. — The governor is
elected for a term of two years. Legis-
lative sessions are held annually begin-
ning on June 25, and are limited to 50
days each. The Legislature has 51 mem-
bers in the Senate and 193 in the House.
There are 12 Representatives in Con-
gress. The State government in 1921
was Democratic.
History. — Georgia was settled by a
colony of 120 persons in 1733, under a
patent granted to Oglethorpe, Whitefield,
and the Wesleys, June 9, 1732. It was
established as a barrier between the
Spanish and Indians on the S. and the
Carolinas on the N., and to provide a
refuge for debtors, orphans, and other
needy and destitute persons. In the war
between England and Spain in 1739-
1743, Oglethorpe made an alliance with
the Creek Indians and led the combined
troops of Carolina and Georgia in an
invasion of Florida, and in 1742 he drove
off the Spanish fleet that had attacked
the forts on the Altamaha. After the
peace, the Georgians demanded _ slaves,
which had previously been prohibited. In
1752 the trustees surrendered the colony
to the crown and negro slavery was in-
troduced. At the outbreak of the Revo-
lutionary War Georgia, having few
claims for redress and no charter on
which to base them, hesitated to join
the other colonies, and was not repre-
sented in the Constitutional Congress in
1774. In March, 1775, St. John's parish
sent a delegate to the Continental Con-
gress, and in July all the parishes sent
representatives. On July 10, 1775, a
schooner commissioned by Congress cap-
tured a British ship laden with powder
off Savannah. In 1778 Georgia ratified
the Articles of Confederation, and in
the same year the British captured Sa-
vannah, and held it till the close of the
war, despite attempts by the Americans
and French to retake it. In 1779 Au-
gusta and Sunbury were taken by the
British.
The first State constitution was
framed in February, 1777, and on Jan. ^,
1788, Georgia unanimously ratified the
Constitution of the United States. The
second State constitution was adopted in
1789, and a third, by which the importa-
tion of slaves was prohibited, in 1798.
There was some difficulty with the
Creeks and Cherokees in 1783-1790, but
treaties of peace were concluded with
them in 1790 and 1791. In 1802 the
Creeks ceded what is now southwestern
Georgia to the United States, which in
turn ceded it to the State, receiving in
exchange all the State's claims W. of the
Chattahoochee, or what is now Alabama
GEORGIA
293
GEORGIA UNIVERSITY
and Mississippi. The first steamship
that ever crossed the Atlantic Ocean left
Savannah in 1819,
In November, 1860, a State conven-
tion was called to consider the subject
of secession. On Jan. 21, 1861, an ordi-
nance of secession was unanimously
passed, and Geoi'gia ratified the Consti-
tution of the Confederate States and
adopted a new State constitution. In
January, 1861, Forts Pulaski and Jack-
son, below Savannah, were seized by
State troops, and from the battle of
Chickamauga, in September, 1863, to the
winter of 1864-1865 the State was con-
stantly the scene of conflict. Atlanta
was captured by General Sherman, Sept.
2, 1864, and he began his famous march
thence to the sea, Nov. 15, occupying
Savannah Dec. 21. Columbus, West
Point, and Macon were taken in April,
1865, by General Wilson, and on May
10, 1865, Jefferson Davis was captured
at Irwinville. One of the most noted
Confederate prisons was located at An-
dersonville in this State.
Georgia repealed the act of secession
Oct. 30, 1865; adopted a new constitu-
tion; and ratified the Thirteenth Amend-
ment to the Constitution of the United
States. Congress, dissatisfied with the
new constitution, put the State under
military rule till another constitution
was ratified in 1868; and the State was
restored to the Union on its ratification
of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1869.
On the refusal to ratify the Fifteenth
Amendment the State was again placed
under military rule, but reinstated on
its compliance with this demand. The
recent prosperity and development of
Georgia's resources has been due in large
measure to the Cotton Exposition, in
1881, the Piedmont Exposition, in 1887,
and the Cotton States and International
Exposition, in 1895, all at Atlanta.
GEORGIA (by the Russians called
Grusia, by the natives Karthli), for-
merly a kingdom, then included in the
Russian government of Tiflis. The na-
tives are a fine-looking race, the Geor-
gian women, like the Circassians, being
celebrated for their beauty. The Geor-
gian language, together with that of the
Mingi'elians, Lazes, and other Cauca-
sian peoples, seems, according to the
latest researches, to form a perfectly
distinct linguistic family. It possesses
a not unimportant literature, commen-
cing with the introduction of Christian-
ity into the country. The history of
the Georgians first becomes truthworthy
about the time of Alexander the Great,
to whom they became subject. About
324 B. c. they gained their independence
under Pharnavas. They became Chris-
tianized toward the end of the 4th cen-
tury. After yielding for a time to th«
supremacy of the Arabian caliphs,
Georgia regained its independence to-
ward the end of the 10th century, which
it retained till 1799, when Heraclius,
successor of George XI., formally ceded
his dominions to the Russian emperor
Paul. When the Bolsheviks assumed
power in Russia in November, 1917, the
Geoi'gians with Tartars and Armenians
formed the Transcaucasian state. In-
dependence was declared April 22, 1918.
Out of this developed the independent
state of Georgia, May 26, 1918. The Act
of Independence was confirmed, and rati-
fied by the National Council, March 12,
1919, and recognized by the Allies, Jan.
16, 1920. Georgia has an area of 35,-
500 square miles. It is bounded on the
N. by the Caucasus, E. by Republic of
Azerbaijan, S. by Armenia and S. W.
by Turkey. Pop. about 3,200,000. Capi-
tal, Tiflis, pop. 347,000.
GEORGIA BARK, a small tree of the
southern United States closely resem-
bling the cinchona or Peruvian bark,
and belonging to the natural order
Cinehotiacex. It has pretty, large white
flowers, with longitudinal stripes of rose-
color. The wood is soft and unfit for
use in the arts. The inner bark is ex-
tremely bitter, and is employed with suc-
cess in intermittent fevers.
GEORGIA, GULF OF, a large gulf of
the North Pacific Ocean, between the
continent of North America and Van-
couver's Island; about 120 miles in
length from N. to S.; the breadth varies
greatly in its different parts, from 6
miles to 20. It communicates with the
ocean on the N. by Queen Charlotte's
Sound and on the S. by the Strait of
Juan de Fuca.
GEORGIA SCHOOL OF TECHNOL-
OGY, an institution for higher educa-
tion, at Atlanta, Ga., founded in 1888.
There were in 1920 2,224 students and
100 members of the faculty. The school
is supported by the State and has no
endowment. The yearly income is
^240,000. President, K. J. Matheson.
LL. D.
GEORGIA, SOUTH, an island in the
South Atlantic, lat. at its N. point, 53"
57' S.; Ion. 38° 13' W. It is 90 miles
long, and has high and rocky coasts, in-
accessible from ice during a great part
of the year. It abounds with seals and
sea-fowl.
GEORGIA, UNIVERSITY OF, a non-
sectarian State institution in Athens,
Ga.; founded in 1801; reported at the
close of 1920 : Professors and instructors,
GEORGIAN BAY
294
GERARD
85; students, 1,263; volumes in the
library, about 45,000; chancellor, David
C. Barrow, LL.D.
GEORGIAN BAY, formerly Lake
Manitoulin, the N. E. part of Lake
Huron, partly separated from the main
> body of the lake by the peninsula of
Cabot's Head and the island of Great
Manitoulin. It is about 120 miles long
and 50 broad.
GERA (ga'ra), a town of Germany,
capital of the small principality of Reuss-
Schleiz, on the White Elster, 42 miles E.
by S. of Weimar. Nearly destroyed by
fire in 1780, it is for the most part a
modern town, with broad and regular
streets, but its older buildings include a
castle and a fine town hall. There are
over a score of extensive woolen factories,
besides cotton v/orks, dyeing and print-
ing works, manufactures of machinery,
leather, tobacco, and beer for export, and
four publishing houses; eight establish-
ments, employing 1,500 hands, turn out
thousands of melodeons, accordions, and
jews'-harps yearly. Pop. (1919) 73,641.
GERACE (ja-ra'che), a town of south-
ern Italy, 4 miles from the sea, and 37
N. E. of Reggio. It has a cathedral, re-
built after the earthquake of 1783, and a
trade in wine, especially the esteemed
Lacrima di Gerace. There are iron mines
and a hot sulphur spring close by, and on
a neighboring plain are the ruins of the
ancient Locri. Pop. about 11,000.
GERANIUM, in ordinary language,
a term most frequently applied to any
of the cultivated pelargoniums (these
belong to the Geraniacese, but are not the
typical genus) ; also a book name, and
partly a popular one, for the genus
Geranium. In botany, the typical genus
of the order Geraniaceie ind the alliance
geraniales. Geranium sanguineum is a
perennial plant with one-flowered pedun-
cles. It is found in dry rocky places,
on sandy shores, and on mountains. G.
sylvaticum, G. pratense, and G. pyrenai'
cnrn are perennial, with two-flowered
peduncles. Other common species are G.
violle, G. rotundifolium, G. pusillum, G.
columbinum, G. dissectiim, G. roherti-
anum, and G. lucidum. The root of gera-
nium contains more tannin than quino
does, and is a very powerful astringent.
The tubers of G. parviflomm are eaten in
Van Diemen's Land, where it is called
the native carrot. Indian geranium is
the name given by perfumers to Andro-
pogon nardus; and the nettle geranium
is Coleus fruticosus.
GERAR an ancient town or place
of the Philistines in the times of Abra-
ham and Isaac, in the S. of Judah, not
far from Gaza.
GERARD, COMTE ETIENNE MAU-
RICE (zharar'), a French marshal;
born in Damvillers, Meuse, France, April
4, 1773. Volunteering in the army in
1791, he served on the Rhine, in Italy, in
the Vendee campaign, in Germany, and
in Spain. For his brilliant services at
Austerlitz (1805) he was appointed gen-
eral of brigade; he also took a notable
part at Jena (1806), Erfurt (1806), and
Wagram (1809). During the Russian
campaign of 1812 he rendered conspicu-
ous service at the capture of Smolensk in
the battle of the Beresina. After Na-
poleon's return from Elba he commanded
a division at Ligny, and was wounded at
Wavre. The second restoration com-
pelled him to leave France, and he did
not return till 1817, In 1831 he com-
manded the French army sent to the
assistance of the Belgians against the
Dutch, whom he drove out of Flanders,
and Dec. 27, 1832, compelled the citadel
of Antwerp to capitulate. After the
July revolution of 1830 he was appointed
marshal and war minister by Louis-
Philippe; he was again war minister
from July to October in 1834. He died
in Paris, April 17, 1852.
GERARD, JAMES WATSON, an
American diplomat and lawyer, born in
Geneseo, N. Y., 1867. He graduated from
the New York Law School in 1892. For
four years he was Chairman of the New
York Democratic Campaign Committee.
JAMES W. GERARD
In 1908 he was elected associate justice
of the Supreme Court of New York, but
resigned in 1913 on being appointed Am-
bassador to Germany by President
Wilson. He became the center of public
notice during the first two years of the
World War, on account of the skill
with which he represented his country in
GEBASA
295
GERMAN CATHOLICS
Germany, at a time when the situation
between the two governments grew grad-
ually more and more strained. On the
break between Germany and the United
States, in February, 1917, he was recalled
and returned to the United States. He
is the author of two books based on his
experiences in Berlin, both of which were
widely read; "My Four Years in Ger-
many" (1917), and "Face to Face with
Kaiserism" (1918).
GERASA (jer'a-sa), in the time of
the Romans a flourishing city of Pales-
tine, situated among the mountains of
Gilead, about 20 miles E. of the Jordan.
Parts of the city wall are still in good
preservation ; two theaters and several
temples can be identified, and 230 col-
umns are still standing.
GEREI (jer'be), or JERBA (jer'ba),
an island in the Gulf of Cabes, off the
coast of Tunis. It is about 20 miles long
and 14 broad. The sui'face is level and
fertile, and occupied by a population of
about 45,000, mostly Berbers.
GERFALCON, or JER-FALCON (-fa-
kon), in zoology, the Falco Gyrfalco, a
species of falcon considered as the bold-
est and most beautiful of the tribe. In
size it approaches closely to that of the
osprey. Its general color is brownish-
gray, of varied tints above and white
beneath, and brown longitudinal spots.
The tail is crossed with a number of
deeper and lighter bands, and the bill
and legs are usually of a pale-blue or yel-
lowish color. The gerfalcon is a native
of Russia, Norway, Iceland, and Baffin's
Bay. It is considered one of the most
formidable of all rapacious birds.
GERHARDT, DAGOBERT VON,
pseudonym Gerhard von Amyntor, a
German novelist.
GERIZIM (ger'i-zim) and EBAL, the
two highest mountains in the central
Palestine chain (3,000 feet), separated
from each other by a deep narrow valley,
in which stands the town of Nablus. The
valley between them is very fertile.
Jacob's well stands where the vale joins
the plain of Moreh. On the slope of Ebal
to the N. of the well is Sychar (now
'Askar). Mount Gerizim, along with
Mount Ebal, was the scene of a grand
and impressive ceremony, in which the
whole people of Israel took part after
crossing the Jordan, in obedience to a
command which Moses had given them
(Deut. xxvii.). The half of the tribes
standing on Gerizim responded to and
affirmed the blessings, those on Ebal the
curses as pronounced by the Levites. The
Samaritans built a temple on Mount
Gerizim as a rival to that of Jerusalem,
and organized a rival priesthood; and
the Samaritan Pentateuch closed the
Decalogue with the injunction, "Thou
shalt build a temple on Mount Gerizim,
and there only shalt thou worship." And,
though the Samaritan temple was de-
stroyed by Hyrtanus about 200 years
after, the mountain on which it stood
continued to be held sacred by the
Samaritans. Subsequently, a Christian
church in honor of the Virgin was built
on it.
GERM, that from which anything
springs; the origin, source, or first prin-
ciple of anything. In physiology and
botany, the earliest stage in the existence
of an organized being, the embryo or bud
from which such a being develops; used
either of plants or of animals.
GERMAIN-EN-LA YE, ST. (san-zher-
man-on-la'), a town in the department
of Seine-et-Oise, France, on a hill ad-
joining the Seine, 6 miles N. of Ver-
sailles, and 9 W. by N. of Paris. Manu-
factures, horse-hair goods and leather.
It is chiefly noted for its noble palace,
originally built by Charles V. in 1370;
reconstructed by Francis I. ; and em-
bellished by many succeeding sovereigns,
especially Louis XIV., who added to it
five extensive pavilions, and constructed
the fine terrace which extends from it
for a distance of 1% miles. Charles IX.
and Henry II., as well as Louis XIV.,
were born in this palace. It was the
residence of Mile, de la Valliere; and
James II. of England, with most of his
family, passed their exile, and died in it.
It is now used as barracks and a military
prison.
The Forest of St. Germain, one of the
finest of its kind in France, extends N.
of the town, inclosed W., N., and E. by
the Seine. It is 9 miles in length by 3 in
breadth.
GERMAN, pertaining or relating to
Germany; or a native or inhabitant of
Germany. Also the language of the
higher and S. parts of Germany; the
literary language of the whole country.
Old High German was spoken from the
8th to the 12th century; Middle High
German from the 12th to the 15th cen-
tury; Modern High German is the exist-
ing form. Low German is the name for
a group of dialects spoken in northern
Germany, Netherlands, and Holland.
GERMAN CATHOLICS, the name
given to a body in Germany that sepa-
rated from the Roman Catholic Church
in 1844. Whatever might be the deeper
causes of the schism, the immediate occa-
sion of it was the exhibition of the Holy
Coat at Treves. The Old Catholics may
be regarded as having superseded the
German Catholic movement.
GERMAN EV. PROT. CHURCH 296
GERMAN S. W. AFRICA
GERMAN EVANGELICAL PROT-
ESTANT CHURCH, in the United
States, a religious body, liberal in doc-
trinal belief, having no confession of
faith. Its ministers are associated in dis-
trict unions.
GERMAN EVANGELICAL SYNOD
OF NORTH AMERICA, ^ a religious
body, accepting the symbolical books of
the Lutheran and Reformed Churches,
representing in the United States the
State Church of Prussia, which is a union
of the Lutheran and Reformed bodies.
It celebrated, Oct. 12, 1890, the semi-cen-
tennial anniversary of its organization
in the United States.
GERMAN SILVER, a white alloy for
tableware, consisting of nickel, copper
and zinc in various proportions. The
best quality consists of four parts copper,
two parts nickel, and two parts zinc, but
this quality is the most difficult to work.
For articles which are to be cast instead
of stamped or hammered about 2 per
cent, of lead is added. To make a good
malleable alloy, the three metals of which
it is composed should all be of the best
quality. German silver has a tendency
to crack in Annealing {q. v.), and is all
the more liable to do this if its component
metals are impure. Its crystalline struc-
ture is got rid of by hammering, rolling,
and annealing. It is harder and tougher
than brass, and takes a fine polish. In
color it is sufficiently near silver to make
it valuable for plating with that metal.
Spoons and forks of this alloy are
made in immense numbers. Such articles
as salvers, dish-covers, jugs, teapots and
the like are also largely made of it, but
these objects, or at least some of them, are
still more largely made of Britannia
Metal (q. v.), a greatly inferior alley,
because much softer.
Through care in preparing a suitable
alloy, large objects, such as the bodies of
jugs and coffeepots, can be formed of
sheet German silver by "spinning" it on
the lathe, instead of by stamping or by
the slow process of hammering. For-
merly it was only a soft alloy like Bri-
tannia metal that could be so treated.
For some time past there has been a
tendency to substitute for electroplate—
i. e., German silver plated with real sil-
ver— white alloys having nickel for their
basis.
GERMANIA, an extensive country of
ancient Europe, situated E. of Gaul,
from which it was separated by the
Rhine. Its inhabitants were warlike and
uncivilized, and always proved a watch-
ful enemy against the Romans. Caesar
first entered their country; but he rather
checked their aggressions than conquered
them; and his successors, or their gen-
erals, also attempted to chastise their
insolence. Tacitus has delineated their
manners and customs with the greatest
nicety, and has accompanied his descrip-
tion with the reflections of a philosopher,
GERMANICUS C2ESAR, a Roman
general, the son of Nero Claudius Dru-
sus, and of Antonia, daughter of Marie
Antony and niece of Augustus; born in
15 B. c. By desire of Augustus he was
adopted in the year 4 a. d. by Tiberius,
whom he accompanied in the war against
the Pannonians, Dalmatians, and Ger-
mans. In the year 12 he was consul, and
next yeax' was appointed to the command
of the eight legions on the Rhine. In 14
he was at Lugdunum Batavorum when
news came of the death of the Emperor
Augustus and of the mutiny for more pay
and shorter service among the soldiers
in Germany and Illyricum. Germanicus
hastened to the camp and quelled the
tumult by his personal popularity; and at
once led his soldiers against the enemy.
Crossing the Rhine below Wesel, he at-
tacked and routed the Marsi, and next
year marched to meet the redoubtable
Arminius (g. V.) , the conqueror of Varus
and his legionaries, whose bones had lain
whitening for six years in the Teuto-
burg Forest. With solemn rites his sol-
diers buried these sad relics of disaster,
then advanced against the foe, who, re-
tiring into a difficult country, managed
to save himself, and was not subdued
till the year after, when Germanicus
again carried a part of his army up the
Ems in ships, crossed to the Weser, and
completely overthrew Arminius in two
desperate battles. Tiberius, jealous of
the glory and popularity of Germanicus,
recalled him from Germany in the year
17, and sent him to settle affairs in the
East, at the same time appointing as
viceroy of Syria, in order secretly to
counteract him, the haughty and envious
Cn. Calpurnius Piso. Germanicus died,
probably of poison, in Epidaphnse, near
Antioch, Oct. 9, 19. His wife, Agrippina,
and two of her sons were put to death
by order of Tiberius; the third son, Cali-
gula, was spared. Of the three daughters
who survived their father, Agrippina
became as remarkable for her vices as
her mother had been for her virtues.
GERMAN SOUTHWEST AFRICA,
formerly a German protectorate in West
Africa. It was captured by South African
forces in July, 1915, and is now adminis-
tered by the government of the Union
of South Africa under mandate. It is
bounded on the N. by Portuguese West
Africa, Angola and Rhodesia. On the
S. by Cape province, £. by Rhodesia
GEBMANTOWN
297
GERMANY
and Cape province and W. by the Atlan-
tic Ocean. Area 333,200 square miles.
European population about 15,000, most-
ly Germans. The coast is desolate, but
there are rich tracts inland. The coun-
try is apparently rich in copper and the
agricultural resources have been only
partly developed. Coffee is exported.
GERMANTOWN, a former village in
Philadelphia co., Pa.; since 1854 the 22d
ward of Philadelphia. Considerable his-
torical interest is attached to the place.
It was settled by the Germans, under a
grant from William Penn, in 1684, and
on Oct. 4, 1777, a battle took place be-
tween the armies under Washington and
the English under Howe. After several
hours of severe struggle the Americans
were defeated, the loss being about equal
on both sides. Germantown has many
handsome residences, a National bank,
historical society, St. Vincent's Seminary,
Stevens School, Friends' School, and all
modern city improvements.
GERMANY, or the GERMAN RE-
PUBLIC, formerly the German Empire.
Prior to the revolution of 1918 Germany
was a constitutional monarchy, consist-
ing of 25 federated states and an im-
perial territory (Reichsland). During
the latter part of 1918 it was under a
provisional republican government, and
in 1919 was definitely constit..ted a re-
public by the constitution which went
into effect in August of that year. Prior
to the World War, Germany had an area
of 208,900 square miles, with a popula-
tion of about 65,000,000. By the terms
of the Treaty of Versailles, Alsace and
Lorraine were ceded to France, the
greater part of the province of West
Prussia was added to Poland, a part of
eastern Silesia was likewise ceded to
Poland, a portion of upper Silesia to
Czecho-Slovakia, Memel and Danzig to
the Allied counti-ies, and Eupen and
Malmedy to Belgium. The total area of
the territory lost as a result of the war
is about 37,000 square miles, with a pop-
ulation of about 10,000,000. The area of
Germany _ in 1920 was about 171,910
square miles, with a population of about
55,000,000.
Topography. — The surface of Ger-
many is much diversified with moun-
tains in the E. and S. E. and low sandy
plains intersected by rivers toward the
sea, in the N. The mountains, a branch
of the Alpine system, diverge in four
directions from the Fichtelgebirge in the
N. of Bavaria. The Erzgebirge, run-
ning N. E., forms the boundary between
Saxony and Bohemia, and is continued
E. by the Sudetengebirge, joining the
Carpathian range near the source of the
Oder. The Bohemian Forest range sep-
arates Bohemia and Bavaria, running
S. E. for 150 miles, then N. E., joining
the Sudetengebirge near the source of the
Murch. The Swabian Alps, a low range
extending S. W., form a watershed be-
tween the tributaries of the Rhine and
the Danube. The Thuringian range runs
N. W. from the Fichtelgebirge for about
50 miles, where it divides into the Hartz
chain, running N., and another range,
under various names, running W. to the
Rhine, and separating it from the Weser.
The rivers of Germany are numerous
and noted for their scenic beauty. The
Rhine, extending N. through the entire
length of western Germany, is noted for
the numerous old castles on its banks,
as well as for its natural beauty. Of
these architectural remains, probably the
best known is the Castle of Rheinstein
on the summit of an almost inaccessible
rock near Bingen. The principal afflu-
ents of the Rhine are the Moselle and
Meuse on the W., and the Lahn, Neckar,
Ruhr, and Main, on the E. The Danube,
with its tributaries, the Altmiihl, Raab,
Murch, Iller, Lech, Iser, and Inn, forms
the largest waterway system. Among
other principal streams are the Weser,
formed by the junction of the Werra and
Fulda; the Oder falling through the
Great Haffe to the Baltic Sea, and the
Elbe emptying into the German Ocean.
There are also numerous lakes lying in
the low plain of northern Germany be-
tween the Elbe and the Oder. The
republic bordei's on two seas, the North
and the Baltic. A number of islands lie
off the Friesland coast, W. of the Weser,
and are known as the Frisian Islands.
Agriculture. — The statistics of agri-
culture since the establishment of the
republic are lacking in completeness.
Prior to the war, over 90 per cent, of
the area of the country was productive.
There were about 65,000,000 acres of
arable land, about 22,000,000 of pasture
land, about 300,000 acres of vineyards,
and about 36,000,000 acres in woods and
forests. The area under the principal
crops in acres, in 1919, was as follows:
Wheat, 2,.^28,150; rye, 10,789,235; bar-
ley, 2,815,217; oats, 7,482,197; potatoes,
5,451,982. These areas are considerably
less than those under crops prior to the
war. The total yield of products in 1918
in metric tons (1 metric ton equals 2.204
pounds) was as follows: Wheat, 2,169r
169; rye, 6,100,144; barley, 1,910,363;
oats, 4,453,688; potatoes, 21,449,186;
beets, 16,877,520. The product is less
than 50 per cent, that of 1912. The
crop conditions in the autumn of 1919
were less satisfactory than had been ex-
pected. The forest industry in Germany
is very important. In normal peace
times there were about 26,000,000 cubic
GERMANY
298
GERMANY
yards of lumber produced, and about
23,000,000 cubic yards of firewood.
Mineral Production. — The chief min-
eral producing portion of Germany is
Prussia, where the chief mining districts
are Westphalia, Rhenish Prussia, and
Silesia for coal and iron; the Hartz for
silver and copper; and Silesia for zinc.
There are coal, iron, and silver mines in
Saxony. Through the Treaty of Peace,
Germany lost the great Sarre coal basin,
the product of which is to go to France
for 15 years.
The industries of Germany depend
largely upon the coal production, and the
shortage of fuel in 1919-1920 proved a
very serious factor in the re-establish-
ment of industrial operations. In spite
of careful rationing, factories were
obliged to cut down. Railroad and gas
works reserves were reduced, and dwell-
ings were unheated. In addition to the
coal required for domestic use, Germany
was obliged to furnish to France a large
amount monthly in return for the de-
struction of the coal mines in northern
France. The coal production in Ger-
many for August, 1920, the best month
following this agreement, was 11,637,000
tons, or 730,000 tons less than before the
war. There were deducted about 2,700,000
tons, leaving a total <?f about 9,000,000
tons to be applied to domestic uses. The
use of lignite, of which there are large
deposits in Germany, was greatly de-
veloped, and there are indications that
the production of this coal would more
than equal the reduced supply available.
Experiments were carried on in 1920-
1921 for the production of liquid coal, and
these were so successful that there was
every indication that a method would be
discovered to reduce coal to a liquid
form. The effect of the lack of fuel to
industry is shown by the falling off in
the pig-iron production which in July,
1920, was 526,000 tons, and in October,
1920, 490,000 tons. In general, the coal
supplied to zinc, copper, and lead mines
was scarcely more than enough to keep
the mines in operation.
Iron_ is produced chiefly in Prussia,
Bavaria, and Saxony. Steel is made in
Rhenish Prussia. The total production
of pig iron in 1918 was 11,754,542 tons,
compared with 19,291,920 tons in 1914.
Detailed figures of production in other
metals were not available in 1921.
Production and Industry. — The indus-
trial condition of Germany is indicated
to a large extent in the previous para-
graphs on agriculture and mineral pro-
duction. While manufacturing had re-
vived to a large extent from the war
conditions, the financial and economic
position of the country made it almost
impossible to arrive at even an approxi-
mate indication of the real industrial
conditions. Many of the large manufac-
turing corporations showed satisfactory
dividends on paper, but the depreciation
of the mark made impossible an accurate
determination of just what profits were
resulting from manufacture. All items
of cost had greatly increased in 1920
over pre-war cost; labor about three
times, coal much higher, and many other
supplies and requirements ran as much
as ten times the pre-war cost.
Coynmerce. — Germany has since 1879
pursued a protectionist policy in her
commercial relations. Nearly half of
the imports are subject to duty and the
duties levied in 1919 amounted to over
20 per cent, of the value of imports sub-
ject to duty. There was considerable
demand for agricultural implements,
especially to Poland, but the factories,
on account of their diminished power of
production, were unable to fill more than
50 per cent, of the orders. Foreign
trade, except with the countries border-
ing on Germany, was practically at a
standstill. During the first lOVz months
since the signing of the armistice, the
United Kingdom exported to Germany
goods to the value of over $80,000,000,
and received from Germany goods
valued at $1,087,000. There were very
large exports to Germany of American
pork, beef, and other food products, in
October and November, 1919. These
products, with cotton and leaf tobacco,
constituted the bulk of the United
States exports to Germany. The im-
ports from the United States during the
fiscal year 1920 amounted to $202,176,-
079, while the exports to the United
States were valued at $45,085,975.
Communications. — The total length of
railway lines in Germany is about 39,000
miles. On April 1, 1920, all the various
German state lines were transferred to
the central government. About 36,000
miles are state lines. The canal system
is of great importance. The Kaiser
Wilhelm or Kiel Canal connects the
North Sea with the Baltic, and is over
60 miles long. The Hohenzollern Canal
between Berlin and Hohensaaten, was
opened in 1914. Another impoi'tant
canal is the Elbe-Trave Canal. _ The
post and telegraph service are in the
hands of the central government. There
are over 150,000 miles of telegraph line
and over 80,000 miles of telephone line.
Finances. — In 1919 the revenue and ex-
penditure were estimated to balance at
£2,832,700,000. The revenue in 1918 was
£3,824,062,100, and the expenditure was
£3,950,502,500. The budget estimates for
1920-1921 are, for revenues 25,300,000,-
000 marks, and for expenditure 24,200,-
000,000 marks. The total funded debt in
GERMANY
299
GERMANY
1919 was 93,719,974,200 marks. On Oc-
tober 1, 1919, the total loan credits to the-
German Government amounted to 90,-
400,000,000 marks. On April 1, 1920,
the public debt was increased to 204,-
000,000,000 markb. The German war
debt is 517,700,000,000 marks. The an-
nual interest on this amounts to about
7,900,000,000 marks.
Army. — The total mobilized strength
of the army on the date of the armistice
of November 11, 1918, was approxi-
mately 6,000,000 men. This force was
demobilized and toward the end of Jan-
nary, 1919, the president of the republic
was authorized to raise a provisional na-
tional defense army, pending the crea-
tion of a permanent defense force. On
August 1, 1919, this force numbered
500,000 men. The Treaty of Versailles
provided for a total number of effectives
in the German army of not more than
200,000, on April 10, 1919. This was to
be gradually reduced to 100,000 men.
Universal compulsory service was abol-
ished, as were the German General Staff
and all similar organizations. The re-
duction of the defense force began in
August, 1919. During this year, how-
ever, a number of organizations came
into existence on a pretext that they
were required to maintain public order.
This included Public Safety Police, the
Emergency Volunteers, and the Civic
Guards. In all, they numbered about
500,000 men. The raising of these forces
was contrary to the Treaty of Versailles,
and after April 10, 1920, only civil
guards and police forces, as existed in
1913, were permitted.
Navy. — The Germ.an navy ceased to
exist as a fighting force under the tenns
of the treaty of peace. The sinking of
the ships at Scapa Flow on June 21,
1919, practically put an end to what had
been the German High Fleet. Ten bat-
tleships, five battle cruisers, and five
light cruisers were sunk. Three light
cruisers were beached, and 30 destroyers
were sunk and 18 were beached. The
remaining vessels of the fleet were sur-
rendered to the Allies. The Treaty of
Peace permits the German government
to maintain a navy on a volunteer basis.
The fleet may consist of six battleships,
six battle cruisers, 12 destroyers, but no
submarines ai'e to be built. The total
personnel must not exceed 15,000.
Education. — Education is compulsory
throughout the country. There are
about 65,000 public elementary schools,
with about 10,500,000 pupils. There are
also about 500 private schools. Above
the elementary schools rank the middle
schools of the towns. Children of the
working classes may continue their edu-
cation at continuation school.^. The
gymnasiums are fully equipped classical
schools, preparing pupils in a nine-year
course for the university and the profes-
sions. There are also higher schools.
There are eleven technical high schools,
agricultural high schools, and other pro-
fessional schools. There are in Germany
23 universities.
Colonies. — Germany lost all her col-
onies, either by conquest or as a result
of the conditions of the Treaty of Peace.
These include Togoland, Kamerun, Ger-
man Southwest Africa, German East
Africa, New Guinea, the Caroline Is-
lands, the Marshall Islands, the Ladrone
Islands, the German Samoan Islands,
and Kiau-chau-China. These colonies
had a total area of 1,139.877 sauare miles
and a population of 12,968,32'9.
Government. — On Nov. 9, 1918, the
German Emperor abdicated and Ger«
many became a republic from that date.
For an account of the formation of the
republic see History below. The consti-
tution was adopted on July 31, 1919, by
the National Assembly at Weimar and
was promulgated on August 13, 1919.
The constitution provides for a central
and state legislature, the central author-
ity to have power over foreign relations,
defense, customs, duty, taxation, and
railroad service, makes provision for an
imperial council, to be formed of the rep-
resentatives of the component states,
and provides for suffrage. All bills, be-
fore they are introduced into the Reichs-
tag require the assent of the Reichsrat
or the imperial council. The principle of
the referendum is provided for in the con-
stitution. Members of the Reichstag are
elected by universal, equal, direct, and
secret votes. The Reichstag is elected
for four years. The president of the
republic is elected bv the entire Ger-
man people for a perfod of seven years.
Declarations of war and peace are made
by the central goveniment. The Reichs-
rat consists of 63 members, and the
Reichstag, in 1920, of 423 members. The
National Assembly, on February 11,
1918, elected Friedrich Ebert president
of the republic.
History. — What is now the German
republic was originally divided among a
number of independent races — ^the Ale-
manni, Franks, Saxons, Slavs, Avari,
and others. Charlemagrie conquered
these various tribes, and incorporated
them in his vast empire, and the treaty
of Verdun, signed in 843 by the sons of
Louis-le-Debonnaire. gave Toii'th to the
Kingdom of Germany. On the extinc-
tion of the Carlovingian family, the mon-
archy became elective, and the crown
was conferred, in Pll on Conrad I., Duke
of Franconia. Tho Saxons renewed, in
the person of Otto the Great, the empire
GERMANY
300
GERMANY
of Charlemagne, giving it the name
"The Holy Roman Empire of the Ger-
man Nation." The Saxon dynasty added
to the empire Lotharingia, Bohemia, and
Italy; and to this family succeeded that
of Franconia, which reigned from 1024
to 1137, and added the Kingdom of Aries
to the possessions of the empire. The
house of Suabia next succeeded, and,
of this line, Conrad III., and Frederick
Barbarossa, from 1138 to 1190, raised
the imperial power to its utmost Tieight.
On Conrad IV. 's death commenced the
long interregnum from 1254 to 1273,
which ended in delivering Germany from
anarchy by Rudolph of Hapsburg. The
Golden Bull or charter was granted to
the feudatories and electors by Charles
IV. in 1356, and in 1438 Albert of Haps-
burg was elected emperor and became
the head of the present house of Austria.
Under Ferdinand II., the Thirty Years'
War began in 1618, resulting in the con-
firmation of the Lutheran religion. The
reigns of Leopold I. and Charles VI.
were occupied with long wars with
Louis XIV. and XV. of France; and the
death of Charles, in 1740, gave rise to
the War of the Austrian Succession,
which secured the throne to the husband
of Maria Theresa, Charles' daughter,
and thus placed on the throne a member
of the House of Lorraine, Francis I.
Napoleon I., who since 1799 had directed
the foreign policy of the French nation,
not satisfied with this reduction of the
power of the empire, now conceived the
idea of effecting its entire dissolution.
The treaty of Pressburg, in 1805, which
followed the battle of Austerlitz, gave
him the means of carrying this project
into effect, by forming a confederation
of German princes, called the Confedera-
tion of the Rhine, who, uniting into a
corporate body, in 1807 placed them-
selves under the protectorate of the
French emperor. The wars which fol-
lowed gave Napoleon the power of al-
tering the territorial distribution of Ger-
many at pleasure. He accordingly cre-
ated for his brother Jerome the new
kingdom of Westphalia, and for his
brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, the
grand-duchy of Berg, and raised those
members of the Rhenish confederation
who supported his cause to new digni-
ties and an openly recognized independ-
ence of sovereigns. Under the circvim-
stances, the emperor, Francis II., by
a solemn act, renounced the style and
title of emperor of Germany, Aug. 6,
1809. The termination of the war with
Russia, called in Germany the Liberation
War, restored Germany to its geograph-
ical and political position in Europe,
but not as an empire acknowladging one
supreme head. A confederation of 35 in-
dependent sovereigns and 4 free cities
replaced the elective monarchy, that fell
under its own decrepitude. A national
government was recognized in 1848, and
Archduke John, of Austrra, was elected
Vicar, but he frustrated all energetic
moves on the part of the Parliament.
In 1850 Austria and Prussia combined
to restore the Diet, but in 1866, the Bund
was dissolved and war broke out between
these states. By the treaty of Prague,
Aug. 20, 1866, Austria was excluded
from participation in the new organiza-
tion of German states, and was forced
to pay 40,000,000 thalers for the ex-
pense of the war. In 1870 the Franco-
German War broke out between France
and Prussia, resulting in the defeat of
France, the cession of Alsace-Lorraine
to Germany, and the consolidation of all
the German states into the German Em-
pire. On Jan. 18, 1871, William, King
of Prussia, was proclaimed first Em-
peror of Germany, at Versailles. An of-
fensive and defensive alliance was
formed between Austria and Germany
in 1879, and later Italy entered, form-
ing the Triple Alliance. During the dif-
ficulties between the European powers
with the United States and China in
1900-1901, Germany bore a conspicuous
part, and Field-Marshal Count von Wal-
dersee was appointed commander-in-
chief of the international military forces.
In the first years of the twentieth cen-
tury, the keynote of the German foreign
policy was a growing hostility toward
Great Britain, which had for its causes
commercial rivalry and resentment at the
conduct of the Emperor at the outbreak
of the South African War. Germany was
entirely neutral during the Russo-Jap-
anese War, but took advantage of the
Russian defeat to antagonize France
and Russia by attempting interference
with the policy of France in Morocco.
In the early rnonths of 1905 war with
France seemed imminent, but the Anglo-
French agreement held fast and Ger-
many was obliged to yield at the con-
ference held at Algeciras, in 1906. The
annexation by Austria of Bosnia and
Herzegovina in 1908, threatened war
against Austria by Serbia and Russia,
but the announcement that Russia would
support Austria, prevented ^ hostilites
and enabled Austria to maintain her ac-
tion. Measures providing for electoral
reform were passed in 1910. By a treaty
made in 1911, Russia and Germany
agreed as to their relative rights in the
Near East. Germany's influence was
to continue along the Bagdad Railway,
while Russia was given supremacy in
north Persia and Kurdestan. In this
year there was also a second controversy
with France over the question of Mor-
GERMANY
301
GERMANY
occo. England supported France, and
Germany was obliged to acknowledge
the supremacy of French claims. In
return, France ceded to Germany 112
square miles in the French Congo. Rapid
increase in the war armament in the
years preceding the World War made it
necessary to levy special taxes on prop-
erty value and incomes. The military
system received severe criticism in 1913,
owing to disturbances at Zabern, in
which German officers were found to
have acted with great brutality toward
the people. The outbreak of the World
War found Germany well prepared from
a military standpoint. Indeed, there was
abundant evidence to show that for 30
years previous economic and military
preparations had been made for a great
European war, and that only the oppor-
tunity was lacking. This was furnished
by the assassination of the Crown Prince
Ferdinand, on June 24, 1914.
The details of the part played by Ger-
many in the World War are told in the
article of that title.
The nation was well united at the out-
break of the war, and the first war loan
of 4,505,000,000 marks was easily raised.
All political parties supported the war.
With the beginning of 1915 the question
of regulating the food supply became
important, and the food question con-
tinued throughout the years following to
be the most acute of the domestic prob-
lems of the country. Political opposition
to the war developed in 1916, when a
split was brought about in the ranks
of the Social Democratic party. The
opposition was led by Carl Liebknecht,
who on January 13, 1916, was expelled
from membership in the party. Lieb-
knecht was later arrested and im-
prisoned. The question of possible terms
of peace continued throughout 1916.
The Socialists opposed the annexation
of any territory, while the Supreme War
party insisted upon annexation of all
conquered territory. At the beginning
of 1917 war appropriations had reached
the total of 40,000,000,000 marks. There
were during this year a number of im-
portant cabinet changes, the most im-
portant of these being in the navy de-
partment, where Grand Admiral von Tir-
pitz, who had inaugurated and ardently
supported the submarine campaign, was
succeeded by Admiral von Capelle.
Political conditions during 1917
rapidly grew more acute. The position
of the Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg,
became continually more difficult. The
condition was rendered more complicated
by the revolution in Russia, which raised
a demand for electoral reforms in Ger-
many. These were promised by the Em-
peror and by the Chancellor. The op-
Vol. IV— Cyc— T
position to the conduct of the war g^rew
serious and was led by Mathias Erzber-
ger. He attacked the government for
antagonizing the United States, and for
its erroneous predictions in regard to the
successful conclusion of the war. A de-
mand for peace continued to grow.
Bethmann-Hollweg resigned on July
14, 1917, and was succeeded by Dr.
George Michaelis, who in turn was suc-
ceeded on November 1, 1917, by Count
George von Hertling. There was great
dissatisfaction in the military party
over the terms of peace with Russia.
The reactionary, or military element,
was strong enough to defeat the reform
measures undertaken by the government.
They also strongly insisted upon a dic-
tated peace, involving the annexation of
large parts of Belgium and France, and
the payment to Germany of a vast in-
demnity. This party was strongly op-
posed by the Socialists, and there were
other indications that the people were
becoming restless. This unrest was in-
creased by the uncompromising attitude
taken by the Chancellor toward concili-
atory speeches made by President Wil-
son and Lloyd George. In March, 1918.
there was published the so-called Lich-
nowsky memorandum which revealed the
unsuccessful attempts of the former
German ambassador at London to pre-
vent war.
The failure of the final German drive
in spring of 1918 brought about a re-
versal of the government's position in
regard to peace terms. The Chancellor
in July declared that Germany did not
intend to hold Belgium permanently.
There were also many signs of dissen-
sion between the separate German states
and between Germany and Austria. In
September separate peace overtures were
made with Belgium. Von Hertling re-
signed on September 29, 1918, and Prince
Max von Baden became Imperial Chan-
cellor. On October 5, he appealed to
the President of the United States, ask-
ing him to take steps to bring about
peace, and on October 21, sent another
note to President Wilson describing the
changes that had been made in the Ger-
man Government and claiming that the
Government was now in complete accord
with the principle of representation of
the people. The note also stated that
orders had been issued to all German
submarines to cease the torpedoing of
passenger ships. President Wilson re-
plied on October 23, expressing his will-
ingness to consider the question of an
armistice. The discussion was carried
on in the German Reichstag during, the
weeks following. In the meantime, an
armistice had l^en signed between Aus-
tria and Italy, and political unrest in
GEBMANY
302
GEBMANY
Germany was becoming very intense.
On November 5, the German Govern-
ment received the Allied answer to the
request of an armistice, and after
negotiations between the Allied and Ger-
man military officers, an armistice was
finally signed on November 11, 1918,
The signing of the armistice could not
prevent the spread of revolution in Ger-
many, Actual revolution was begun by
the revolt of the German High Sea Fleet
at Kiel, and was followed by uprisings
in various cities throughout the Empire.
On November 9, 1918, the German Em-
peror decided to abdicate. The linal ab-
dication was not published, however,
until the end of the month, following the
Emperor's flight into Holland. The rev-
olution now swept with great swiftness.
The King of Bavaria was forced from his
throw^n and a Socialist journalist, Kurt
Eisner, was placed at the head of the
newly formed republic. In quick suc-
cession followed revolution in Wiirttem-
berg, Saxony, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg,
and Baden. The reactionary party made
an attempt at resistance throughout the
country, but finally the more moderate
wing of the Socialists, headed by Ebert,
Landsberg, and Scheidemann, assumed
the supreme power. Ebert was tempo-
rarily appointed Imperial Chancellor.
This provisional government was faced
by many difficult problems. The extreme
radical Socialists, known as the Spar-
tacan group, put themselves in direct
opposition. This party was headed by
Dr. Liebknecht, who issued a call to arms
for a social revolution. There was a
general demand for an all-Gei-man Na-
tional Assembly, and this was finally
accomplished on November 25. It was
composed of 17 delegates, representing
21 German states, and its object was to
formulate the rules for the coming na-
tional convention.
During the last November and early
December days of 1918, political con-
ditions continued more intense. Strikes
occurred in many industrial centers.
Opposition to the Ebert government was
strong in Bavaria and other south Ger-
man states. The Spartacan party con-
tinued in hostile opposition. People's
councils and soldiers' and workmen's
councils sprang up throughout the coun-
try. On Dec. 16, 1918, the central
council of delegates from soldiers' and
workmen's councils met in Berlin for the
purpose of debating the place of national
assembly. Liebknecht took this oppor-
tunity to incite the people to revolt. The
radical Socialists insisted that Germany
should be formed into one single repub-
lic, that all power should be given to the
soldiers' and workmen's councils, and
that the supreme executive power should
be exercised by the executive council. It
was finally decided by the Congress that
elections should be held to appoint a
National assembly on January 19,
1919. The Spartacan party received as-
sistance from Russia and was also en-
couraged by the continued spread of
strikes throughout the country. The
Spartacans finally broke out in actual
revolt in January. It w^as, however,
quickly suppressed. On January 16 Carl
Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, the
two most prominent leaders of the Spar-
tacans, were arrested and shortly after-
ward shot by their guards in their
place of detention. This broke the oppo-
sition of the radical Socialists.
Elections were held for members of
the National Assembly on January 19,
1919, and the Assembly convened at
Weimar on February 6. On February
21, 1919, there was a serious outbreak at
Munich. Kurt Eisner, the Prime
Minister, was killed. There were simi-
lar outbreaks throughout the country.
Eisner had been at the head of a so-
called Soviet government, and the col-
lapse of this at his death removed the
last stronghold of Bolshevism in Ger-
many, although there continued to be
uprisings of the Spartacans from time to
time. By the time of the meeting of
the Peace Conference, however, com-
parative peace reigned throughout Ger-
many.
The terms of the Peace Treaty
aroused a storm of protest throughout
Germany. The German delegates left
the conference to consult with the Ger-
man Government. An extension of time
was granted for the signing of the
treaty, and finally on June 23, 1919, the
National AssemlDly accepted, without
conditions, the reservations of the Allied
terms. The Peace Treaty was ratified
by the German National Assembly on
July 9, 1919. The new constitution was
formally adopted by the Assembly on
July 31, 1919. The constitution consists
of 181 articles. It provides for the com-
position and function of the Nationa'
government; for the regulation of the
National government and the various
State governments; for the election and
function of the Reichstag, of the Na-
tional President, of the Chancellor, of
the National ministers, of the National
Council, and of the duties of the various
National government departments. This
provides also for the administration of
justice, the fundamental rights and
duties of the citizens; for the regula-
tion of marriage, education, religion, and
economic life; of the temporary varying
of existing laws and regulations; for
the repeal of the constitution of the for-
mer German Empire; and for the con-
GERMANY
303
GERM THEORY
tinuation of German laws and regula-
tions in so far as they do not contradict
the new constitution.
The people accepted the new constitu-
tion with comparative calmness. There
continued to be, however, internal dis-
sensions and industrial troubles. On
January 13, 1920, a mob of 50,000 per-
sons gathered in front of the Reichstag
building, and overwhelmed the military
guard. The police were obliged to use
bombs and machine guns to suppress the
riot, and over 40 persons were killed.
A counter-revolution against President
Ebert's government, inspired by Pan-
Germans, suddenly broke out on March
13. Wolfgang Kapp proclaimed himself
chancellor. President Ebert fled to Stutt-
gart, but immediately proclaimed a gen-
eral strike of workmen, which spread
throughout the country, stopping all
transportation and cutting off food and
water for the cities. Dr. Kapp resigned
on March 17, and Gustav Noske, Minis-
ter of Defense, assumed charge of the
government. President Ebert returned
on March 21. The radical elements
among the workmen began a second rev-
olution in the industrial centers. They
captured Essen and other towns and
demanded the resignation of Noske. The
Ebert government agreed to this and the
rioting ceased. Elections were held on
June 6, 1920, for the first Reichstag
under the republican government. The
majority Socialists won 112 seats, the
Independents 81, the Centrists 67, and
the German Nationalists 65. The Reichs-
tag, on July 31, passed a bill abolishing
compulsory military service. The gov-
ernment ordered general disarmament
of the civilian population and this was
carried on throughout the remainder of
the year.
The Allied Powers found considerable
difficulty in enforcing the terms of the
Treaty of Peace. The question of rep-
arations was the most difficult. Ger-
many insisted on being told the exact
amount which would be exacted and the
terms upon which it was to be paid. The
Allied governments, however, refused
until February, 1921, to give explicit
terms. It was then announced that the
sum of the indemnity would be practi-
cally 59 billion dollars, to be paid during
an indefinite period. A meeting was
held in London in March, 1921, to con-
sider the method of payment and Ger-
man delegates were invited tg be present.
They protested against this sum levied
upon Germany, and proposed instead an
indemnity of about $7,000,000,000. This
proposal was rejected by the Allies and
the German delegates withdrew. Fol-
lowing this, the Allied forces, composed
chiefly of French troops, marched into
Germany, taking possession of the cities
of Diisseldorf, Duisburg, and Ruhrort.
This occupation was accomplished with-
out any hostility on the part of the in-
habitants of these cities.
The German Emperor, having fled into
Holland, for several years resided at
the Castle of Amerongen, under the pro-
tection of the Dutch Government. He
afterward purchased an estate at
Doom. The Crown Prince had fled to the
island of Wieringen, where he remained
a practical exile, although he was per-
mitted from time to time to visit his
father and mother. See World War;
Peace Treaty, and the articles on the
various German states.
GERMERSHEIM (ger'mers-him) , a
town of the Bavarian Palatinate, occupy-
ing a marshy site on the left bank of the
Rhine, 8 miles S. S. W. of Spires.
Founded in 1276, it fell into the hands of
the French in 1644, 1674, and 1688; and
in 1793 the Austrians here defeated the
French.
GERMINAL (zhar-mi-nal') , the 7th
month of the first French republican
calendar, March 21 — April 19.
GERM THEORY OF DISEASE, the
theory that certain diseases are com-
municated from an infected person to an
uninfected one by li\'ing organisms which
gain access to the body of the afflicted
person by the air or food, or drink, and
which, growing and multiplying in the
body they invade, produce the changes
characteristic of the particular disease.
The period during which the living parti-
cles of contagious matter retain their vi-
tality, like the rate of their growth and
multiplication, varies in diflferent cases,
but it is limited in all. Few, if any, re-
sist the destructive influence of a tem-
perature of 300° F., while most succumb
at the temperature of 200° or even less,
particularly if exposed for some time.
Animal poisons generally are destroyed
by boiling, and clothes, sheets, etc., in-
fected, may be rendered pure by being
exposed to a temperature of 300° F.
These living organisms are grouped to-
gether as microbes or micro-organisms,
and are divided into different classes.
The micrococcus is a round form about
the 32,000th of an inch in size, and mul-
tiplies by fission. The bacterium is rod-
shaped, about the 10,000th of an inch
long, with rounded ends; it also multi-
plies by fission. The bacillus is a third
form also rod-shaped, and somewhat
larger than the bacterium. They often
form long chains or threads, and increase
by division and by spore formation. Vi-
brio and spirillum are somewhat similar
forms; and, like the others, increase with
GERM THEORY
304
GEROULD
a rapidity beyond conception. The con-
nection between these micro-organisms
and the various forms of zymotic disease
has been thoroughly established.
The only method of investigation that
yields reliable results is to separate the
organisms supposed to be the cause of
the disease, and cultivate it outside of the
body. Thus a drop of blood from a
person suffering from a special disease,
which contains the bacteria, or bacilli,
etc., believed to be the producers of the
disease, is placed in a flask containing
a nourishing material, care having been
taken to destroy all other organisms in
the flask. The special microbe flourishes
there, let us suppose. It is then culti-
vated in one flask after another through
successive generations, only a single
minute drop of the material in one flask
being used to inoculate a succeeding
one. In this way a pure cultivation is
obtained, a cultivation, that is, contain-
ing the particular microbe and none
other. If this is the true cause of the
disease, then a drop of the solution con-
taining it introduced into the body of an
animal capable of the disease ought to
produc(' it, and the particular organism
introduced should be found multiplying
in the blood and tissues of the infected
animal. Such a demonstration has been
given of the cause of a few diseases. Dr.
Koch, of Berlin, published in 1876 a
paper giving a full account of the life
history of the bacillus organism which
had been observed in animals dead of
splenic fever; and in 1877 the great
French chemist, Pasteur, proceeded to
investigate the subject, and his investi-
gations conclusively support the germ
theory of disease. In 1882, Dr. Koch, of
Berlin, announced the discovery of a
micro-organism in tuberculosis, a disease
believed to be the chief, if not the only,
cause of consumption of the lungs. These
microbes are found not only in the lungs
of persons who have died of tubercle, but
also in the spit of tubercular and con-
sumptive patients, and multiply also by
spores. After the epidemic of cholera
in Egypt in 1883, which spread to France
and Italy, investigations were under-
taken by French, German, and British
commissioners.
All investigation, however, seems to
point to the fact that every infectious
or contagious disease is due to some form
of micro-organism, and that there is one
particular organism for each particular
disease. Each organism produces its
own disease and none other; and the
special disease cannot arise unless its
germ has gained entrance to the body.
The channels through which these germs
obtain entrance are innumerable, but
they have one origin and one only, and
that is a preceding case of disease. The
"germ theory" affords the hope and sug-
gestion of a method of diminishing, if
not of getting rid of, such diseases alto-
gether, and to some extent also indicates
the direction in which their cure is to
be sought.
GEROME, LEON (zha-rom'), a French
painter; born in Vesoul, France, May 11,
1824; and in 1841 entered the studio of
Paul Delaroche at Paris, at the same
time attending the School of Fine Arts.
In 1863 he was appointed Professor of
Painting in the School of the Fine Arts.
His first great picture, "The Age of
Augustus and the Birth of Christ," was
exhibited in 1855; and four years later
his "Roman Gladiators in the Amphi-
theater" gained him great reputation,
that was still further enhanced by
"Phryne Before Her Judges" (1861). In
the same year he exhibited, "Socrates
Searching for Alcibiades at the House
of Aspasia," "The Two Augurs," and a
portrait of "Rachel." "Louis XIV. and
Moliere," "The Prisoner," "Cleopatra and
Caesar," "The Death of Csesar," "The
Plague at Marseilles," "Death of St.
Jerome," "Lioness Meeting a Jaguar,"
and "The Gray Heights" (1874), are
among the best known of his subsequent
works. He died at Paris, Jan. 10, 1904.
GERONA (ha-ro'na), a city and capi-
tal of the province of Gerona, Spain; 65
miles N. E. of Barcelona. It contains a
beautiful Gothic cathedral of the 14th
and 15th centuries. The inhabitants
carry on the manufacture of paper, cork-
cutting, spinning, and weaving. The town
was formerly a place of great strength,
and has undergone several notable sieges,
particularly in 1653, 1684, 1694, 1706,
and 1809, on each occasion by the Fi*ench.
Pop. (1918) of province 330,153; of city,
about 16,000.
GERONTES (ge-ron'tez), a number of
magistrates of Sparta who, with the
ephors and kings, had the supreme power
in the State. They were not eligible
to office before they had attained tbe
age of 60 years. Their number is vari-
ously stated at 20 and 32.
GEROULD, KATHARINE FULLER-
TON, an American writer, born in Brock-
ton, Mass., in 1879. She graduated from
Radcliff e College in 1900. She was on the
faculty of Bryn Mawr from 1901 to 1910.
Her published writings include "Vain
Oblations" (1914); "The Great Tradi-
tion" (1915); "Modes and Morals" (es-
says) (1919). She was a frequent con-
tributor of stories, essays, and verse to
magazines.
GERRY
305
GESTATION
GERRY, ELBRIDGE, an American
statesman; born in Marblehead, Mass.,
July 17, 1744; was a member of the Con-
tinental Congress in 1776-1780 and 1783-
1785 ; delegate to the Constitutional Con-
vention in 1789; member of Congress
from Massachusetts, in 1789-1793; com-
missioner to France in 1797-1798; gov-
ernor of Massachusetts in 1810-1812; and
Vice-President of the United States in
1813-1814. It was during his term as
governor that an unsatisfactory redis-
tricting of the State took place, in which
he was supposed to have taken part,
whence arose the term "gerrymander,"
now generally applied to the process of so
arranging electoral districts as to give
a majority of Congressmen, or State
Legislators, as the case may be, to the
party having the minority in the total
popular vote of the State. He died in
Washington, D. C, Nov. 23, 1814.
GERRY, PETER GOELET, a United
States Senator, born in New York, 1879;
graduated from Harvard, 1901; began a
law practice, 1906, in Providence, R. I.;
was a member of the Representative
Council of Newport, R. I., 1912; delegate
to the National Democratic Conventions
of 1912 and 1916. He was elected to
Congress from the 2d R. I. District for
the term 1913-1915, and to the United
States Senate for the term 1917-1923.
GERS (zhar), a department in S.
W. France, separated by Landes from
the Bay of Biscay; area, 2,425 square
miles; capital, Auch. There are parallel
lines of hills in the S., separated by
fan-shaped valleys which expand as they
extend toward the plains in the N. The
Gers and other principal rivers ai'e
tributaries of the Garonne and Adour.
One-half of the surface is devoted to
agriculture, and nearly a sixth to vine-
yards. Wine is produced in considerable
quantity; a great part of it being con-
verted into Armagnac brandy. Pop.
about 222,000.
GERVINUS, GEORG GOTTFRIED
(ger-ve'nos), a German historian; born
m Darmstadt, Hesse, May 20, 1805. He
studied at Heidelberg; was for some
time a teacher. He published his "His-
tory of the Poetic National Literature
of the Germans," 1835-1842. In 1835 he
was appointed extraordinary professor
at Heidelberg, and the following year
ordinary Professor of History and Lit-
erature at Gottingen; but in 1837, being
one of the seven professors who pro-
tested against King Ernst August's
breach of the constitution, he was ban-
ished from Hanover. After another visit
to Italy he returned to Heidelberg,
where in 1844 he was appointed an hon-
orary professor. He now became an
active liberal in politics, edited the
"Deutsche Zeitung" and was returned to
the federal diet by the Hanse to\vns.
In 1848, he gave up politics and resumed
his old studies. In 1849 he published the
first part of the great work on Shake-
speare, in 1853 his "History of German
Poetry," and in 1855 the first volume
of his "History of the Nineteenth Cen-
tury," Among his last writings was a
critical essay on Handel and Shake-
speare. He died in Heidelberg, Baden,
March 18, 1871.
GESTA ROMANORUM (jes'ta r5-
ma-no'-rum). "Deeds of the Romans,"
title of a collection of short tales,
legends, etc., in Latin, very popular in
the Middle Ages. The book was probably
written about the close of the 13th cen-
tury by a certain monk Elinandus, an
Englishman or a German. The separate
tales making up the Gesta are of very
various contents, and belong to different
times and countries. Moral reflections
and allegorical interpretations were
added to them, it is said, by a Petrus
Bercorius or Pierre Bercaire of Poitou, a
Benedictine prior. After the Reforma-
tion the book fell into oblivion.
GESSLER, ALBRECHT, or HERMAN
(ges'ler), called also Gessler von Bru-
NECK (in Swiss legendry), was in 1300
appointed joint-governor along with
Berenger von Landenberg, of the Wald-
stadten or forest cantons (Schw^z, Un-
terwalden, and Uri), by Albrecht I. of
Austria. According to the traditions
connected with William Tell (q. v.),
his oppressive edicts and wanton cruelty
so enraged the inhabitants that a con-
spiracy was formed against him, and he
was shot bv Tell in a narrow pass near
Kiissnacht 'in 1307.
GESTATION, in physiology, the act
of carrying young in the uterus from
the time of conception to that of parturi-
tion. The average time of a woman's
pregnancy is 9 solar months, or about
280 days, though it may be as few as
7 or as many as 10. The period of ges-
tation is shorter in carnivorous than in
herbivorous animals. The young of the
former are also less developed at birth,
their eyes not opening for several days
thereafter. Herbivorous animals: The
elephant has 20 or 21 months' gestation;
the giraffe, 14 months; dromedary, 12
months; buffalo, 12 months; ass, 12
months; mare, upwards of 11 months;
rhinoceros, 9 months; cow, 9 months;
many of the larger deer, over 8 months;
sheep and goat, 5 months; pig, 4 months.
Rodents: Beaver, 4 months; dormouse,
31 days; rabbit. 30 to 31 days; squirrel
and rat, 28 days; guinea-pig, 21 days oi
GETA
306
GEYSER
less. Carnivorous: Bear, 6 months; lion,
108 days; puma, 79 days; fox. wolf, and
dog, 62-63 days; cat, 55 or 56 days.
Pouched animals: Kangaroo, 39 days;
opossum, 26 days. Cetaceous animals:
Greenland whale, about 10 months. The
most common duration for the varieties
of monkeys is 7 months. Oviparous an-
imals: The goose sits 30 days; swan,
42 days; hens, 21 days; ducks, 30 days;
pea-hens and turkeys, 28 days ; canaries,
14 days; pigeons, 21 days; parrots, 40
days. The periods are subject to con-
siderable variation, especially in do-
mestic animals, and various conditions
modify the period, of which the above
are only the averages.
GETA (je'ta), SEPTIMUS, second son
of the Emperor Severus; born A. D. 189,
and was brother of the infamous Cara-
calla, with whom he was associated in
the empire on the death of his father.
Caracalla, who envied his virtues and
was jealous of his popularity, after hav-
ing endeavored to effect his death by
poison, murdered him, and wounded
their mother, who was attempting to
save him, A. D. 211.
GET.ffl (je'te), a people of Thracian
extraction, first mentioned as dwelling
on the right bank of the Danube, but in
the middle of the 4th century B. C. they
crossed the river and settled in Tran-
sylvania and Wallachia. They were con-
quered by Darius Hystaspes in 515 B. C,
and then accompanied him in his cam-
paign against the Scythians. Both Alex-
ander the Great, in 335, and Lysimachus,
in 292, made unsuccessful attempts to
subdue them. The Geta°, as distinct from
the Dacians, sided with Octavius against
Antony, and during the greater part of
the 1st century after Christ continued
to harass the Roman legions. In 106
A. D. the Dacians and Getae were sub-
dued by Trajan, their country being
added to the empire. Subsequently the
Getse became fused with the Goths, who
invaded their lands, and afterward
carried many of them with them in their
W. migrations. See Jats.
GETHSEMANE (geth-sem'a-ne) , an
olive garden or orchard near Jerusalem,
memorable as the scene of the last suf-
ferings of our Lord. The traditionary
site of this garden places it on the E.
side of the city and a very little beyond
the Kedron, near the base of Mt. Olivet.
GETTYSBURG, BATTLE OF, a
battle fought July 1-3, 1863, between
the Union army under General Meade,
and the Confederates under General Lee.
During May the armies lay fronting
each other upon the Rappahannock.
Early in June Lee began his movement
for the invasion of Pennsylvania, crosS'
ing the Potomac on the 24th and 25th,
and reaching Chambersburg, Pa., on the
27th. General Hooker, then in command
of the Army of the Potomac, moved in
the same general direction, but on the
28th was relieved, and the command
given to Meade. In order to prevent his
communications from being severed, Lee
turned back toward Gettysburg to give
battle. Meade had intended to give battle
at a spot several miles from Gettysburg,
near which was, however, a small por-
tion of his army. This came into colli-
sion a little before noon, July 1, with
the advance of Lee, and was forced back,
taking up a strong position on Cemetery
Hill, in the rear of Gettysburg. Han-
cock, who had been sent forward to
examine the position, reported that
Gettysburg was the place at which to
receive the Confederate attack, and
Meade hurried his whole force to that
point. The action on the second day,
July 2, began about noon with an at-
tempt made by Lee to seize Round Top,
a rocky hill from which the Union posi-
tion could be enfiladed. When this day's
fighting closed Lee was convinced that
he had greatly the advantage, and he re-
solved to press it the next day. On the
morning of July 3 an attempt was made
upon the extreme Union right, but re-
pelled. The main attack on the center
was preluded by a cannonade from 150
guns, which was replied to by 80, little
injury being inflicted by either side.
About noon the Union fire was slackened
in order to cool the guns, and Lee, think-
ing that the batteries were silenced
launched a column of 15,000 or 18.000
against the Union lines. Some of this
column actually surmounted the low
works, and a brief hand-to-hand fight
ensued. But the column was practically
annihilated, only a small portion escap-
ing death or capture. The forces on each
side were probably about 80,000, though
all were not really engaged. No official
report of the Confederate loss was ever
published; the best estimates put it at
about 18,000 killed and wounded, and
13,600 missing, most of them prisoners.
The Union loss was 23,187, 16,543 of
whom were killed and wounded.
GEYSER (gl'zer) (Icelandic geysa =
to gush), in geology, an intermittent hot
spring, the most notable specimens being
those in the Yellowstone region of the
Rocky Mountains and those of the S. W.
division of Iceland, about 30 miles from
Mount Hecla. Nearly 100 of the latter
are said to break out within a circle of
2 miles. Few of them play longer than
five or six minutes at a time, though
sometimes they go on for half an hour.
The largest is called the Great Geyser.
GEYSER
307
GHATS
It has a pipe 78 feet in vertical depth, makes its way out of the rent, and the
and from 8 to 10 feet in diameter, but fountain ceases to play. The second in
gradually widening as it rises into the
basin. The latter is 56 feet long by 46
feet broad, and is lined with an incrusta-
tion of silica deposited from the hot
water, the process being aided by the
alkali soda, which, with minute quan-
size is the Strokkur. If stones or turf
be thrown down its pipe, an eruption
will follow within a few minutes, and
eject them with great force. Geyser ac-
tion is produced by the heating of the
lower part of the geyser tube. There
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titles of various salts, exists in the
water. When the geyser is about to act,
subterranean noises are heard like the
distant firing of cannon, and the earth
is slightly shaken; then a column of the
liquid element is thrown up to the height
of 100 or 200 feet. Steam after a time
are also some remarkable geysers in
New Zealand in the Northern Island.
GHATS, or GHAUTS (gats), EAST-
ERN and WESTERN, two converging
ranges of mountains, which run parallel
with the E. and W. coasts of southern
iHAZlTVR
308
GHEE
India, and meet at Cape Comorin, inclos-
ing the Deccan. The Ghats commence
in the vicinity of Balasor, a little N. of
the Mahanadi, and run through Madras,
with an average height of 1,500 feet, for
the most part at a distance of from 50
to 150 miles from the coast. They are
nowhere a watershed on any consider-
able scale, being penetrated and crossed
by nearly all the drainage of the interior.
The Western Ghats stretch from the val-
ley of the Tapti, in about the same lati-
tude as Balasor, to their junction with
the kindred ridge, and on to Cape Com-
orin itself. Though they are generally
far more continuous and distinct than
the Eastern Ghats, yet they are sharply
divided by the gap of Palghat — the N,
section measuring 800 miles in length,
and the S. 200. Their general elevation
varies from about 3,000 feet to upward
of 7,000; the peak of Dodabetta, in the
Nilgiri hills, is 8,760 feet above sea-level.
The name Ghats is also applied to the
flights of steps, whether intended as
landing places or as bathing stairs,
which line the river banks in towns and
places of pilgrimage in northern and
central India. Most great rivers, and
especially the Ganges, possess many
ghats; but they are also built on the
margins of lakes, as at Pushkar and
Sagar, or even of tanks. The uniformity
of the long lines of steps is often broken
by shrines or temples, built either close
to the water's edge or at the top; and on
these steps are concentrated the pas-
times of the idler, the duties of the
devout, and much of the necessary inter-
course of business. The ghats of Ben-
ares, Harwar, Panharpur, and of Mahes-
war, on the Nerbudda, are noteworthy
either for their number or beauty; while
Cawnpur, Sadullapur, the ruined city of
Gaur, and other places possess noted
"burning ghats" for purposes of crema-
tion.
GHAZIPTJR (ga-ze-por') , a city, capi-
tal of the district of Ghazipur, India, on
the left bank of the Ganges, 44 miles N.
E. of Benares. The city, which stretches
along the Ganges for about 2 miles, con-
tains the ruins of the palace of Forty
Pillars, and a marble statue by Flax-
man to Lord Cornwallis, who died here in
1805. Ghazipur is the headquarters of
the Government Opium Department for
the Northwest provinces, all the opium
from these provinces being manufac-
tured here, and there is some trade in
sugar, tobacco, rosewater, and cloth.
Pop. about 23,000.
GHAZNI (gaz'ne or guz'ne), a town
of Afghanistan, below a spur of a range
of hills, at an elevation of 7,729 feet, 84
miles S. W. of Kabul, on the road to
Kandahar and at the head of the Gonial
route to India. It is a place of consid-
erable commercial importance. The cli-
mate is cold, snow often lying for three
months in the year. Nevertheless,
wheat, barley, and madder are grown in
the vicinity. From the 10th to the 12th
century Ghazni was the capital of the
empire of the Ghaznevids (see below) ;
it then fell into the hands of the Sultan
of Ghiir; and afterward captured by the
Mongols. It remained subject to the
Mongol rulers of Delhi and Agra till
1738, when it was taken by Nadir Shah
of Persia, and at his death was incor-
porated in the kingdom of Afghanistan.
During the 19th century it figured in the
British wars against the Afghans, hav-
ing been stormed by Lord Keane in 1839,
and again in 1842 by the Afghans, but
retaken the same year by General Nutt.
In the neighborhood of Ghazni there are
several ruins and monuments of its
former greatness, such as the tomb of
Mahmud, Mahmud's dam in the Ghazni
river, and many Mohammedan shrines.
The celebrated gates of Somnath were
kept at Ghazni from 1024 to 1842.
Ghaznevid Dynasty. — About the mid-
dle of the 10th century a lieutenant of
the Samanid ruler of Bokhara seized on
Ghazni, and, dying in 977, left it to his
son-in-law, Sebuktagin, who during a
reign of 20 years extended his sway over
all modern Afghanistan and the Punjab.
But it was under his son Mahmud (997-
1030) that the Ghaznevids reached their
highest point of splendor and renown.
This prince repeatedly invaded India,
and carried his conquering arms as far
as Kurdistan and the Caspian on the
W. and to Samaiiiand on the N. He
was the first monarch in Asia to assume
the title of sultan. His descendants had
a keen struggle to maintain themselves
against the Seljuks, who had seized on
Khorasan, Balkh, Kharezm, and Irak
during the reign of Mahmud's son Mas-
aud (1030-1042), and against their jeal-
ous rivals the princes of Ghur (g. v.).
Bahram Shah, ruler of Ghazni from
1118 to 1152, was at length driven from
his capital by the latter, and retired to
the Punjab. There his grandson, Khos-
rau Malek, the last of the dynasty, made
Lahore his capital. This town was,
however, taken by the Prince of Ghiar
in 1186, and with this the Ghaznevid dy-
nasty came to an end.
GHEE, or GHI (ge), a kind of butter
in use among the Hindus; made from
the milk of the buffalo or the cow. The
milk is boiled for an hour or so, and
cooled, after which a little curdled milk
is added. Next morning the curdled
©Publishers' Ph-Au Service
A GEYSER IN ERUPTION
Enc. Vol. 4 - p. 308
"«»ft :Z,Mtit "*■
(C) Unacrvcooa & U nacr-u'ood
INTERIOR OF WINDOW-GLASS AND PLATE-GLASS FACTORY
©Ezving Gallo~i.'ay
GLASS BLOWING
GHENT
309
GHERARDI
mass is churned for half an hour; some
hot water is then added, and the churn-
ing continued for another half hour,
when the butter forms. When, after a
few days, it becomes rancid, it is boiled
till all the water is expelled, and a little
more curdled milk added, with some
salt or betel leaves, after which it is put
into pots. It is a favorite article of
consumption among rich Hindus.
GHENT (French, Gand; Flemish,
Gend or Gent), a town in Belgium, capi-
tal of the pi'ovince of East Flanders, at
the confluence of the Lys with the
Scheldt. It is upward of 6 miles in cir-
cumference, and is divided by canals into
a number of islands connected with each
other by bridges. Except in some of
the older parts, it is well built, and has
a number of fine promenades and many
notable buildings. Among the latter are
the cathedral of St. Bavon, dating from
the 13th century; the church of St.
Nicholas, the oldest in Ghent; the church
of St. Michael, with a celebrated Cruci-
fixion by Van Dyke; the university, a
handsome modern structure, with a li-
brary of about 100,000 volumes and 700
manuscripts; the City Hall, the belfry,
a lofty square tower surmounted by a
gilded dragon, und containing chimes of
44 bells; and Les Beguinages, extensive
nunneries founded in the 13th century,
the principal occupation of whose mem-
bers is lace-making. Ghent has long
been celebrated as a manufacturing
town, especially for its cotton and linen
goods and lace. Other industries of im-
portance are sugar-refining, hosiery,
thread, ribbons, instruments in steel,
carriages, paper, hats, delftware, and
tobacco. There are also machine works,
engine factories, roperies, tanneries,
breweries, and distilleries. The trade
is very important. Ghent was mentioned
as a town in the 7th century. In the
9th century Baldwin, the first Count of
Flanders, built a fortress here against
the Normans. Under the counts of
Flanders Ghent continued to increase.
Two great revolts took place under the
leadership of the Van Arteveldes (1338
and 1369) against Burgundy, and again
in the 16th century against Charles V,,
and the citizens of Ghent, besides losing
their privileges, had to pay for the erec-
tion of a citadel intended to keep them
in bondage. In 1794 the Netherlands
fell under the power of France, and
Ghent became the capital of the depart-
ment of Escaut (Scheldt). In 1814 it
became, along with Flanders, part of
the Nethei'landc!. tiM the separation of
Belgium and F'^'l^nd. In 1914 the Ger-
mans occupied Ghent. Pop. (1919) 165,-
655. See W' rli^ War.
GHENT, TREATY OF. A treaty be,
tween the United States and Great Brit-
ain, concluded at Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814.
which terminated the War of 1812.
GHENT, UNIVERSITY OF, a Flem-
ish university of Belgium, supported by
and under the control of the State. It
was founded in 1816 by King William
I of Holland. As a result of the re-
volution of 1830 the activities of the
University were temporarily curtailed,
two of its four faculties being sup.-
pressed. Its full curriculum, however,
was restored in 1835. From time to
time special schools have been absorbed
and it has now four faculties; philoso-
phy, science, law, and medicine. The
library of the University is especially
noteworthy, containing some 400,000
volumes and numerous valuable manu-
scripts. It is especially strong on the
history and literature of the Low Coun-
tries. In 1918-1919 there were 1,006
students.
GHENT, WILLIAM JAMES, an
American writer and economist, born in
Frankfort, Ind., in 1866. He was edu-
cated in the public schools and for a
time worked as a compositor and proof-
reader in various cities. He became a
regular contributor to magazines and in
1897-1899 was editor of the "American
Fabian." He was one of the founders of
the Social Reform Club of New York,
and was secretary of the Rand School of
Social Science from 1906 to 1909. From
the latter year to 1911 he was president
of this school. He was National execu-
tive committeeman of the American
Alliance for Labor and Democracy for
1917. He wrote "Our Benevolent Feuda-
lism" (1902) ; "Mass and Class" (1904) ;
and "Socialism and Success" (1910).
GHERARDESCA (ga-rar-des'ka) , a
family of Tuscan origin which plays an
important part in the history of the Ital-
ian republics of the Middle Ages. His-
torically the most prominent member of
the family is Ugolino, whose death, and
that of his two sons and gi-andsons, by
starvation in the "Tower of Hunger,"
is described in one of the celebrated
passages of Dante's "Divine Comedy."
Ugolino had made himself master of
Pisa, and had behaved in the most cruel
and arbitraiy manner for four years,
when, in 1288, he was overthrown by a
conspiracy.
GHERARDI, BANCROFT (-rar'de),
an American naval officer; born in Jack-
son, La., Nov. 10, 1832; he entered the
navy as midshipman from Massachusetts
in 1846, and was at the Naval Academy
in 1852. He was lieutenant on the "Lan-
GHERIAH
310
GHUa
caster," of the Pacific squadron, at the
commencement of the Civil War, and in
1862 was made lieutenant-commander.
During the war he commanded the "Cho-
corua" and "Port Royal," being on the
latter^ vessel in the battle of Mobile
Bay, in which he was distinguished for
bravery and gallantry. He became com-
mander in 1866; captain in 1874; com-
nodore in 1884; and rear-admiral in
1887; he was commandant of the Brook-
lyn navy yard in 1886; commanded the
North Atlantic Squadron; and directed
the Columbian naval review in New
York harbor in 1893. He retired in
1894. He died in 1903.
GHERIAH (ger'i-a), a town of Brit-
ish India. It was the principal port of
Augria, a famous piratical prince, whose
fort was taken and his whole fleet de-
stroyed by the English and Mahrattas in
1756.
GHETTO, the Jewish quarter in
Italian cities, to which they were for-
merly confined. The ghetto of Rome, in-
stituted in 1556 by Pope Paul IV., was
removed in 1885, its demolition having
been i*endered necessary by the new
Tiber embankment. The term is also
employed to indicate the Jews' quarters
in any city.
GHI. See Ghee.
GHIBELLINES (gib'e-Hnz), apolitical
party of the 12th to the 15th centuries.
On the death of Lothaire II., Emperor
of Germany, Dec. 4, 1137, Conrad, Duke
of Franconia and Lord of Weiblingen
(which by corruption became Ghibel-
line), was elected his successor. His
right to the imperial throne was, how-
ever, disputed by Henry the Proud,
puke of Saxony and Bavaria, who was
in consequence declared an outlaw and
shortly .afterward died. His adherents
transferred their allegiance to his son
Henry the Lion, at that time a boy of
10 years old, and the whole empire was
divided into the partisans of Conrad,
who assumed the name of Ghibellines,
and tho.se of Henry, or the Guelphs.
These titles were first used at the battle
of Weinsberg in 1140. The strife be-
tween the two parties subsided in Ger-
many, but continued in Italy, resulting
in war in 1159. The supporters of the
Popes were termed Guelphs and those
of the emperors Ghibellines. Charles of
Anjou expelled the Ghibellines from
Italy in 1268; but the contest between
the two factions continued until the
French invasion in 1495 united them
against a common enemy.
GHIBERTI, LORENZO (ge-ber'te),
an Italian sculptor; bom in Pelago,
Italy, in 1378. He early learned from
his stepfather Bartoluccio, an expert
goldsmith, the arts of drawing and
modeling, and that of casting metals.
He was engaged in painting frescoes at
Rimini, in the palace of Pandolfo Mala-
testa, when the priori of the society of
merchants at Florence invited artists
to propose models for one of the bronze
doors of the baptistery of San Giovanni.
The judges selected the works of Brunel-
lesco and Ghiberti as the best, but the
former voluntarily withdrew his claims,
giving the preference to Ghiberti. After
21 years' labor Ghiberti completed the
door, and, at the request of the priori,
executed a second, after almost as long
a period. Michael Angelo said of these
that they were worthy of adorning
the entrance to paradise. During these
40 years Ghiberti also completed other
works, bas-reliefs, statues, and some ex-
cellent paintings on glass, most of which
may be seen in the cathedral and the
Church of Or San Michele at Florence.
He died in Florence, Italy, in 1455.
GHIRLANDAJO (ger-lan-da'yo) , IL.
DoMENico CuRRADi, nick-named II Ghir-
landajo ("the garland-maker"), an Ital-
ian painter; born in Florence, Italy, in
1449. As a youth he was apprenticed to
a goldsmith, and it was not until his
31st year that he became known as a
painter. He painted principally frescoes,
and in his native city. The Church of
Ognisanti there contains from his hand
a "St. Jerome" and a "Last Supper"
(1480) ; the Palazzo Vecchio, the "Apo-
theosis of St. Zenobius" (1481-1485) ;
the church of St. Trinita, six subjects
from the life of St. Francis (1485) and
an altar-piece, the "Adoration of the
Shepherds"; the choir of St. Maria No-
vella, a series illustrating the lives of
the Virgin and the Baptist (1490). Be-
tween 1482 and 1484 he painted for Pope
Sixtus IV., in the Sistine Chapel at
Rome, the excellent fresco "Christ Call-
ing Peter and Andrew," and about the
same time two pictures in the chapel of
St. Fina at San Gimignano. Besides these
he also executed some easel pictures of
great merit, as "Adoration of the Magi"
(1488), in the church of the Innocents
at Florence; the "Visitation of the Vir-
gin" (1491), in the Louvre; the "Adora-
tion of the Virgin by the Saints," in the
Uffizi at Florence ; and "Christ in Glory,"
at Volterra. He also executed mosaics,
that of the "Annunciation" in the cathe-
dral of Florence being especially cele-
brated. He died in Florence, Italy, Jan.
11, 1494.
GHUR (gor) , or GHORE (gor) , a
mountainous district of western Afghan-
istan, lying S. E. from Herat and N.
GHUBI
311
GIARRETTA
W. from Kandahar; inhabited by Ha-
zaras and Eimaks, and since 1845 has
been included in the territory of Herat.
GHUm, a dynasty of princes who had
»" the seat of their empire in the country
of Ghur, and ruled over Persia, Afghan-
istan, northern Hindustan, and Trans-
oxiana. We first read of Ghur in con-
nection with Mahmud of Ghazni and his
son Masaud, the latter of whom sub-
jugated the region in 1020. About a
century later Malik Izzuddin made him-
self ruler of all the Ghur country. His
son, Alauddin Jahansoz (the Burner),
fell upon Ghazni, and took it and bui-ned
it to the ground. This prince's nephews,
Ghiyassuddin and Muizuddin, established
their power in Khorasan and Ghazni.
The latter, crossing the Indus, then con-
quered successively the provinces of
Multan (1176), Lahore (1186), and Aj-
mere (1190), and in the course of the
next six years, all Hindustan as far
S. as Nagpur and E. to the Irawadi. On
the death of Muizzuddin the Indian
states asserted their independence, the
power of the Ghuri being confined to
Ghur, Seistan, and Herat. This last
feeble remnant was taken from them by
the Shah of Kharezm about 1215. Some
30 years later the Ghur princes managed
to revive something of their former
power at Herat, which they retained by
sufferance from the Mongols down to
1383, when the city was captured by
Timur, and the Ghur sovereignty came
to an end.
GHUZ EL-HISS AR, a town of Ana-
tolia in Asia Minor, 55 miles from
Smyrna, the site of ancient Tralles.
GIA-DINH. See Saigon.
GIANTS, people of extraordinary
stature. History makes mention of
giants, and even of races of giants, but
this in general occurs only at an early
stage of civilization when the national
mind is apt to exaggerate anything un-
usual. The first mention of giants in
the Bible is in Gen. vi: 4, where the
Hebrew word used is nephilim, a word
which occurs in only one other passage,
where it is applied to the sons of Anak,
who dwelt about Hebron, and who were
described by the terrified spies as of
such size that compared with them they
appeared in their own sight as grass-
hoppers. A race of giants called the
Rephaim is frequently mentioned in the
Bible, and in Gen. xiv. and xv. appear
as a distinct tribe, of whom Og, King
of Bashan, is said to have been the last.
Other races of giants are mentioned,
such as the Emim, the Zuzim, and the
Zamzummim. The tales of old wi-iters
regarding gigantic human skeletons have
now no importance, it being mostly cer-
tain that these bones do not belong to
giants, but to animals of the primitive
woi'ld which, from ignorance of an-
atomy, were taken for human bones. A
gigantic human skeleton, however, the
largest ever recorded, was found in
1899, near Miamisburg, O., in a locality
which contains many relics of the mound
builders. It is of prehistoric age and is
fossilized. It must have belonged to a man
8 feet 1^,'^ inches high, and extremely
well proportioned. The skull is of an
extremely low order and resembles that
of the gorilla, the jaws projecting be-
yond the face.
GIANTS' CAUSEWAY (deriving its
name from a legend that it was the com-
mencement of a road to be constructed
by giants across the channel to Scot-
land) , a natural pier or mole of colum-
nar basalt, projecting from the N. coast
of Antrim, Ireland, into the North Chan-
nel, 7 miles N. E. of Portrush. It is
part of an overlying mass of basalt from
300 to 500 feet in thickness, which
covers almost the whole county of An-
trim and the E. part of Londonderry.
It is exposed for 300 yards, and exhibits
an unequal pavement, formed of the tops
of 40,000 vertical closely fitting polyg-
onal columns, which in shape are
chiefly hexagonal. The diameter of the
pillars varies from 15 to 20 inches. Each
pillar is divided into joints of unequal
length, the concave hollow at the end of
one division fitting exactly into the con-
vex projection of the other. The Giants'
Causeway is itself formed of three
causeways, the Little, Middle or Honey-
comb, and the Grand Causeway. On the
Little Causeway may be seen an octagon,
pentagon, hexagon, and heptagon all to-
gether; on the Middle Causeway is the
famous Wishing Chair, with two arms
and a back, on the platform where the
columns rise to a height of about 10 feet.
At the starting point is the Giants'
Loom, an imposing row of columns 30
feet high, each intersected by about 30
joints; to the left is the Giants' Well,
to the right the Giants' Chair.
GIARRE (jai-'re), a town of Sicily, in
the province of Catania, on the E. slope
of Mount Etna. The surrounding dis-
trict produces excellent wine. Pop. about
18,000.
GIARRETTA (jtir-ret'ta), or SI-
METO (se-ma'to), a river of Sicily,
which, with its affluents, the Adriano,
Trachino, Dettaino, and Chrisas, waters
the plain of Catania, and the portion
of the island W. of Mount Etna. It
rises 20 miles S. E. of Caronia, and after
a very tortuous course of 50 miles enters
the Mediterranean 6 miles S. of Catania.
GIBBET
312
GIBBONS
GIBBET, a gallows on whicH the
bodies of criminals who had been guilty
of particularly atrocious crimes were
suspended after execution, incased in an
iron frame, near the spot where the
crime was committed. This was done for
the purpose of striking terror into the
evil-minded. The practice, first recog-
nized by law in 1752, was abolished in
1834.
GIBBON, a genus of tailless anthro-
poid apes, natives of the East Indies.
They are nearly allied to the orangs
and chimpanzees, but are of more slen-
der form, and their arms so long as
almost to reach the ground when they
are placed in an erect posture; there are
also naked callosities on the buttocks.
In this respect they differ from the
other anthropoid apes and are allied
to some of the catarrhini; in other re-
spects also the gibbons are the lowest
among the anthropoid apes, and connect
them with the catarrhini. The gibbons
are inhabitants of forests, their long
arms enabling them to swing themselves
from bough to bough. They cannot, how-
ever, move with ease or rapidity on the
ground. The conformation of the hinder
extremities adds to their difficulty in
this, while it increases their adapta-
tion to a life among the branches of
trees, the soles of the feet being much
turned inward. None of the gibbons are
of large size. There are some 8 or 10
species. The common gibbon, or lar gib-
bon, is found in some parts of India,
and in more E. regions. The active gib-
bon, found in Sumatra, is particularly
remarkable for the power which it dis-
plays of flinging itself from one tree
to another.
GIBBON, EDWARD, an English his-
torian; born in Putney, April 27, 1737;
studied at Westminster School, Magda-
len College, Oxford, and Lausanne. On
returning to England he prepared him-
self for authorship. In 1763 he went
to Italy; and while sitting amid the
ruins of the Capitol at Rome, he con-
ceived the idea of writing the history
of the decline and fall of that city.
In the meantime he joined M. Deyvur-
dun, a Swiss scholar, in publishing a
journal called "Literary Memoirs of
Great Britain," which met with no suc-
cess. In 1772 he began his celebrated
history of the "Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire." Previous to this under-
taking Gibbon was chosen member of
Parliament for Liskeard; and when hos-
tilities commenced between England and
France, in 1778, he was employed to
draw up the manifesto on that occasion,
after which he was made Commissioner
of the Board of Trade, but lost his place
on the change of administration in 1783.
He then went to reside at Lausanne,
where he remained till the French Rev-
olution obliged him to return to Eng-
land. He died in London, Jan. 16, 1794.
GIBBON, PERCEVAL, an English
novelist. He was born at Trelech, Wales,
in 1879, and was educated at the Mora-
vian School, Konigsfeld, Baden. After
leaving school he joined the merchant
marine and served on British, French,
and American ships. As journalist and
war correspondent he traveled in south,
central, and east Africa, America, and
Europe. His works include: verse,
"African Items"; novels, "Souls in
Bondage," "Adventures of Miss Greg-
ory," "The Second-Class Passenger,"
with many contributions to English and
American magazines.
GIBBONS, HERBERT ADAMS, an
American writer, born at Annapolis,
Md., in 1880. He graduated from the
University of Pennsylvania in 1902. He
studied theolog:y and was ordained to
the Presbyterian ministry in 1908. From
that year, however, he acted as corre-
spondent for several papers in Turkey,
Egypt, and the Balkan states. He was
also correspondent to the "Century" and
"Harper's" magazines. From 1910 to 1913
he was professor of history and political
economy at Robert College, and in 1917-
1918 he was American lecturer for
French foreign affairs ministry, in
France. He was Spencer Trask lecturer
at Princeton in 1919. His writings in-
clude "The New Map of Europe"
(1914); "The Foundation of the Otto-
man Empire" (1915) ; "The New Map of
Africa" (1916) ; "The New Map of
Asia" (1919) ; and "France and Our-
selves" (1920).
GIBBONS, JAMES, an American
prelate; born in Baltimore, Md., July
23, 1834; was taken to Ireland by his
parents early in life. Returning to the
United States in 1848 he settled in New
■Orleans; was educated at St. Charles
College, Maryland, and at Mary's Sem-
inary, Baltimore; was ordained to the
Roman Catholic priesthood in June,
1861; and appointed as assistant in
St. Patrick's Cathedral, Baltimore. Later
he became the private secretary of Arch-
bishop Spalding, and chancellor of the
diocese. In 1868 he was made vicar-
apostolic of North Carolina, with the
rank of bishop ; and in 1877 became Arch-
bishop of Baltimore. He was elevated to
the cardinalate in 1886, being the second
Roman Catholic in the United States to
receive that promotion. In 1891 Cardinal
Gibbons denounced Peter P. Cahensly's
plan for racial U. S. church grouping,
GIBBS
313
GIBRALTAR
which soon made the movement unpopu-
lar. His publications include "The
Faith of Our Fathers," "Our Christian
CARDINAL GIBBONS
Heritage," and "The Ambassador of
Christ." He died March 24, 1921.
GIBBS, OLIVER WOLCOTT, an
American chemist; born in New York
City, Feb. 21, 1822; was graduated at
Columbia College in 1841 and at the
New York College of Physicians and
Surgeons in 1843; was Professor of
Physics and Chemistry in the College
of the City of New York in 1849-1863;
and Rumford Professor in Harvard Uni-
versity in 1863-1887. He has made many
valuable chemical researches and con-
tributed largely to scientific periodicals,
principally "The American Journal of
Science and Arts," of which he was one
of the editors for many years. Dr.
Gibbs was the only American honorary
member of the German Chemical So-
ciety; was one of the original members
and a president of the National Acad-
emy of Sciences. He died in 1908.
GIBBS, SIR PHILIP, an English
author and journalist. He was born in
1875 and was educated privately. After
leaving school he became at 21 one of the
editors of Cassell and Company; editor
of Tillotson's Literary Syndicate, 1901;
and acted successively as a literary editor
of the Daily Mail, Daily Chronicle, and
Tribune, afterward becoming special
correspondent and descriptive writer on
the Daily Chronicle. His articles froni'
the field during the great war attracted
attention. His works include: novels —
"The Romance of Empire"; "Men and
Women of the French Revolution"; "Now
It Can Be Told" (1920); with some
essays, plays, and numerous articles on
the World War. He lectured in the
United States in 1920 and 1921.
GIBEON, a city of ancient Palestine
on a hill among the mountains of Ben-
jamin, 5 miles N. W. of Jerusalem. At
the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites
under Joshua, it was inhabited by Hiv-
ites. By a clever stratagem the Gibeon-
ites insured the alliance and protection
of the invaders, but, their deceit being
afterward found out, they were reduced
to a condition of servitude, being made
"hewers of wood and drawers of water
unto all the congregation." When the
five kings of the Amorites besieged
Gibeon for having entered into a traitor-
ous compact with the common enemy of
all the Canaanites, Joshua hastened to
its help, and overthrew the besiegers
with great slaughter. It was there that
Joshua, in the words quoted from the
book of Jashar (Josh, x: 12), commanded
the sun to stand still upon Gibeon, and
the moon in the valley of Ajalon.
GIBRALTAR, a town and strongly
fortified rocky peninsula near the S. ex-
tremity of Spain, belonging to Great
Britain. It is connected with the main-
land by a low sandy isthmus, 1^^ miles
long and 54 mile broad, known as the
"neutral ground," with Gibraltar Bay
on the W., the open sea on the E. and S.
The highest point of the rock is about
1,400 feet above sea-level; its N. face is
almost perpendicular, while its E. side
exhibits tremendous precipices. On its
S. side it is almost inaccessible, making
approach from seaward impossible; the
W. side, again, although very rugged
and precipitous, slopes toward the sea;
and here the rock is secured by extensive
and powerful batteries, rendering it ap-
parently impregnable. Vast sums of
money and an immense amount of labor
have been spent in fortifying this cele-
brated stronghold. ,
The town of Gibraltar is situated on
the W. side of the peninsula, terminating
in Europa Point, and thus fronts the
bay. It consists chiefly of one spacious
street about half a mile in length, lined
with shops, and paved and lighted. The
principal buildings are the governor's
and lieutenant-governor's houses, the ad-
mii'alty, naval hospital, etc. Its water
GIBRALTAB, BAY OF
314
GIBSON
supply is derived from the rainfall. Gi-
braltar is a free port, and has a con-
siderable shipping trade. The chief ex-
port is wine. The administration is
vested in the governor, who is also
commander-in-chief of the troops. Pop.
(1919), 16,096. It was ultimately taken
by the Spaniards from the Moors
in 1462, fortified in the European style,
and so much strengthened that the en-
gineers of the 17th century considered it
impregnable. It was taken, however,
after a vigorous bombardment in 1704
by a combined English and Dutch force
under Sir George Rooke and Prince
George of Darmstadt, and was secured to
Great Britain by the peace of Utrecht in
1713. Since then it has remained in
British hands, notwithstanding some
harbor, two moles have been constructed,
which respectively extend 1,100 and 700
feet into the bay. The Spanish town and
port of Algeciras lie on its W. side.
GIBRALTAR MONKEY, an originally
African monkey, a colony of which is
wild on the rocks of Gibraltar.
GIBRALTAR, STRAITS OF, the
straits connecting the Mediterranean Sea
with the Atlantic Ocean extending from
Cape Spartel to Cape Ceuta, on the N.
W. coast of Africa, and from Cape Tra-
falgar to Europa Point on the S. W. sea-
board of Spain. They narrow toward
the E., their width between Europa Point
and Cape Ceuta being only 15 miles,
while at the W. extremity it is 24 miles.
Length, E. to W., about 36 miles.
ROCK OF GIBRALTAR
desperate efforts on the part of Spain
and France to retake it. In 1779, Great
Britain being then engaged in a war with
its revolted colonies and with France, a
last grand effort was made by Spain to
recover Gibraltar. The siege lasted for
nearly four years. It was heroically and
successfully defended, however, by Gen-
eral Elliott (afterward Lord Heathfield)
and the garrison. Since that time, in the
various British and Spanish and also
French wars, Gibraltar has only been
blockaded on the land side.
GIBRALTAR, BAY OF, an inlet of
the sea formed by the headland of Ca-
brita and Europa Point, 4 miles distant
from each other, and is spacious and well
adapted for shipping, being protected
from all the more dangerous winds; the
extreme depth within the bay is 110
fathoms. To increase the security of the
GIBSON, CHARLES DANA, an Amer-
can artist and Illustrator, born at Rox-
bury, Mass., in 1867. He was educated in
private schools and studied art at the Art
Students' League at New York. He
early attained success with his black
and white drawings in magazines; and
his drawings of social subjects done in a
gently satiric vein gained for him a wide
reputation. He became one of the most
widely known artists, not only in the
United States but in England. Much of
his work was done for the humorous
periodical "Life," which he purchased in
1920. His published books of pictures
include "Sketches in London"; "People
of Dickens"; "Drawings"; "The Educa-
tion of Mr. Pipp"; "A Widow and Her
Friends"; and "The Social Ladder". He
was a member of the National Institute
of Arts and Letters.
GIBSON
815
GIFFEN
GIBSON, HUGH, an American diplo-
mat, born at Los Angeles, Cal., in 1883.
He was educated in France, and in 1908
was appointed secretary of legation at
Honduras. In 1909-1910 he was 2d
secretary of the American Embassy in
London, and in 1910-1911 he was private
secretary to the Assistant Secretary of
State, in Washington. He served in Le-
gations in Havana and Santo Domingo
and in 1914 was appointed secretary of
Legation, in Brussels, where he re-
mained until 1916, when he was assigned
to the Embassy in London. In the fol-
lowing year he was on duty at the De-
partment of State in Washington. He
was appointed in 1918 1st secretary of
the American Embassy in Paris. He was
a member of the Inter-Allied Mission to
the countries of the former Austro-Hun-
garian Empire, in 1918-1919. In the lat-
ter year he was appointed first American
Minister to Poland. He was the author
of "A Journal from Our Legation in
Belgium" (1917).
GIBSON, WILLIAM HAMILTON, an
American artist and author; born in
Sandy Hook, Conn., Oct. 5, 1850; con-
tributed to the "American Agriculturist"
and "Hearth and Home," and supplied
many natural-history subjects for the
"American Cyclopaedia." Many of his il-
lustrations appeared in the "Art Jour-
nal" and in "Picturesque America"; and
his illustrations of books were numerous
and popular. He was a member of the
Art Union and the Authors' Club. The
essays, "Birds of Plumage," "A Winter
Idyl," and "Springtime," appeared in
"Harper's Magazine." His later works
included "Our Edible Toadstools and
Mushrooms." He died in Washington,
Conn., July 16, 1896.
GIDDINGS, FBANKLIN HENRY, an
American educator; bom in Sherman,
Conn., March 23, 1855; was graduated
at Union College in 1877; accepted the
chair of sociology in Columbia Univer-
sity in 1894. In 1896 he was appointed
to the chair of sociology and history of
civilization, Columbia University. He is
the author of "The Principles of Sociol-
ogy"; "The Theory of Socialization";
"The Elements of Sociology"; "Democ-
racy and Empire" ; "Inductive Sociology"
(1901); "Pagan Poems" (1914); "The
Western Hemisphere in the World of
To-morrow" (1915).
GIDDINGS, JOSHUA REED, an
American statesman; born in Athens,
Pa., Oct. 6, 1795; admitted to the Ohio
bar in 1820; elected a member of its
Legislature in 1826, and of Congress in
1838, where he was prominent as an op-
ponent of slavery. In 1861 he was ap-
pointed consul-general to British North
America. Among his works are: "The
Exiles of Florida" (1858); "History of
the Rebellion" (1864). He died in Mon-
treal, May 27, 1864.
GIDEON, a judge of Israel. He was
the youngest son of Joash, of the house
of Abiezer, and lived with his father at
Ophrah, in Manasseh. During his youth
Israel was sunk in idolatry and sloth, and
was oppressed by the plundering incur-
sions of the Amalekites and Micianites.
Confident in the assurance of super-
natural direction, he mustered the people,
reduced the unwieldy host to a handful
of resolute men, fell suddenly upon the
enemy in the neighborhood of Mount
Gilboa, and routed them with great
slaughter.
GIEN (zhyan), a town of the depart-
ment of Loiret, France, 37 miles S. E.
of Orleans. Its manufactures include
earthenware, serge and leather. Gien
has a handsome stone bridge across the
Loire. Here, in 1410, a treaty was signed
by the young Duke d'Orleans, with the
dukes of Berry, Bourbon and Brittany,
against John the Fearless, Duke of Bur-
gundy, to avenge the assassination of his
father, Louis I.
GIERS, NICHOLAS CARLOVITCH
DE (gerz), a Russian statesman; born
May 21, 1820. After holding various
posts, in 1875, he became adjunct to
Prince Gortchakoff, the minister of for-
eign affairs, whom he succeeded in 1882.
His policy in general was understood to
have peaceful tendencies, and in par-
ticular opposed to Panslavistic ideas of
development. In central Asia, however,
M. de Giers continued the policy of ad-
vance, and in 1885 the Russian occupa-
tion of positions within the Afghan fron-
tier nearly brought about a war with
Great Britain. He died in St. Peters-
burg, Jan. 26, 1895.
GIESSEN (ges'sen), a town of Hesse-
Darmstadt, Germany, at the confluence
of the Wieseck and the Lahn, 40 miles
N. of Frankfort-on-the-Main. It is the
seat of a university, founded in 1607,
which possesses well-appointed labora-
tories, collections, and museums, and a
good library, with 72 professors, and
672 students in 1899. Pop. about 31,000.
GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT, an English
economist; born in Strathaven, Scotland,
in 1837; went to London in 1862, where
he was sub-editor of the "Globe" till 1866.
He was acting editor of the "Economist"
under Walter Bagehot 1868-1876; then
founded the "Statist" and became chief
of the Statistical Department in the
board of trade and assistant secretary in
1882. He was John Morley's assistant
GIFFORD
319
GILBERT
on the "Fortnightly Review" in 1873-
1876; and is the author of a number of
reports, papers, and essays, which have
given him a high rank. His works in-
clude "American Railways as Invest-
ments" (1873); "Stock Exchange Secu-
rities" (1877) ; "Essays on Finance"
(1879) ; "The Progress of the Working
Classes" (1884). He died April 12, 1910.
GIFFORD, ROBERT SWAIN, an
American artist; born in Naushon Island,
Mass., Dec. 23, 1840; received a common
school education; studied with Albert
Van Beest in Rotterdam, Holland; trav-
eled through California and Oregon in
1869, and in Europe and North America
in 1870-1871. His principal works in-
clude "The Rock of Gibraltar"; "A Lazy
Day in Egypt"; etc. He died in 1905.
GIJON (he-h5n'), a city and seaport
of Spain, on the Bay of Biscay, 20 miles
N. E. of Oviedo. It manufactures to-
bacco, glass, and earthenware; exports
butter, cheese, fruits, hazelnuts and cop-
per ore; and imports grain, flour, sugar,
oil, iron, machinery, spirits, chemicals,
and woven goods. Here Jovellanos
founded the Collegiate Asturian In-
stitute. Pop. about 55,000.
GILA, RIO, a river of North Ameri-
ca, an affluent of the Colorado of the
West, origin in New Mexico; length, 450
miles. Its upper course is through moun-
tains, with many deep and precipitous
canons; further S. it flows through an
open and comparatively level country,
the valley being productive when irri-
gated. About 200 miles from the Colo-
rado is the reservation of the Maricopa
and Pima Indians. Ancient ruins are
numerous on the banks of the Gila.
GILBERT, CASS, an American archi-
tect, born in Zanesville, Ohio, in 1859.
He was educated in the public schools at
the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology. He began the study of architec-
ture in 1876. Among the notable build-
ings which he designed are the Capitol of
Minnesota at St. Paul; the Essex County-
court house at Newark, N. J.; the Agri-
cultural Building at the Omaha Exposi-
tion; the Woolworth Building and the
Custom House, New York; the Central
Public Library at St. Louis; the Detroit
Public Library; the New Haven Public
Library; the Capitol of Arkansas, at Lit-
tle Rock. He was appointed by Presi-
dent Roosevelt as a member of the
Council of the Fine Arts, and was re-
appointed by Presidents Taft and Wil-
son. He was a member of the National
Jury of Architecture at the Paris Expo-
sition, and was a founder of the Archi-
tectural League of New York. He was
also a member of many American and
foreign architectural and art societies.
GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY, an
English navigator; born in Dartmouth,
Devonshire, in 1539; educated at Eton
and Oxford. Then, abandoning law for
a career of arms, he did such good serv-
ice against the Irish rebels as earned
him knighthood and the government of
Munster (1570), after which he saw five
years' campaig^ning in the Netherlands.
In 1576 appeared his "Discourse on a
Northwest Passage to India," which was
published by George Gascoigne, without
his knowledge; two years later he ob-
tained a royal patent to "discover and
occupy remote heathen lands not actually
possessed of any Christian prince or
people." With his younger half-brother,
GILA MONSTER
GILA MONSTER, a poisonous lizard
also called Sonoran heloderm. It is one
of the largest lizards of North America,
and is found in the sandy deserts of New
Mexico, Arizona, and Texas. Its scales
are brilliant orange and jet black. Its
bite is rapidly fatal to small mammals
and birds, and very injurious, though
seldom fatal, to man. The heloderms
are the only lizards ascertained to be
venomous.
Sir Walter Raleigh, he set out on an ex-
pedition (1578-1579) that failed. He set
sail from Pljrmouth in June, 1583, and
in August landed in Newfoundland, of
which he took formal possession for
Queen Elizabeth. He was shipwrecked
and drowned Sept. 9, 1583.
GILBERT, SIR JOHN, an English
painter; born in Blackheath, near Lon-
don, in 1817; placed at a mercantile
GILBERTIIMES
317
GILGAL
house in the city; and later studied art.
In 1836 he began to exhibit both in oil
and water colors; and in 1852 he was
elected an associate, in 1853 a member,
in 1871 the president of the Society of
Painters in Water-colors, receiving soon
after the honor of knighthood. He also
became an A. R. A. in 1872, an R. A. in
1876, and a Chevalier of the Legion of
Honor. His oil paintings include "Don
Quixote and Sancho Panza," "Education
of Gil Bias." "Murder of Becket," "Joan
of Arc Entering Orleans," "Crusaders,"
"Wohey at Leicester," and "Morning of
Agincourt." He died in Villers-sur-Mer,
France, Oct. 6, 1897.
GILBERTINES, a religious order in
the Roman Catholic Church, one of the
few of English foundation. Its founder
in 1148 was St. Gilbert, a native of Sem-
pringham, in Lincolnshire. The rule of
the order was mainly derived from that
of the Canons Regular of St. Augustine.
St. Gilbert also founded an order of nuns
after the Benedictine institute. Both or-
ders were approved, and had numerous
convents in England at the time of the
Reformation, when they shared in the
general suppression.
GILBERT ISLANDS, a group of small
islands in Australasia, situated on the
equator, extending from longitude 172"
to 177° East, southeast of the Marshall
Islands. The group constituting a
British colonial possession, comprises
eighteen small islands with a total of
166 square miles, the largest being the
island of Tapiteuea. Most of the islands
are fertile and large quantities of copra
are produced. Population about 27,000,
including 450 Europeans.
GILBERTITE, a whitish, silky min-
eral; apparently an impure kaolinite. It
occurs near St. Austell in Cornwall, Eng-
land.
GILBOA (gil-bo'a), a chain of hills
between 500 and 600 feet high, overhang-
ing the site of the ancient city of Jezreel,
and rising between the fertile plain of
Esdraelon on the W. and the green
valley of the Jordan on the E. It is
memorable as the scene of the defeat and
death of King Saul and his three sons
at the hands of the Philistines.
GILDER, JEANNETTE LEONARD,
an American literary critic and editor,
born in Flushing, L. I., N. Y., 1849. She
was first associated with her brot..er,
Richard Watson Gilder, in the editorial
management of "Scribner's Monthly,"
now known as the "Century Magazine."
Later she also became associated with
another brother, Joseph B. Gilder, as
editor of "The Critic," after which, in
1906, she became connected with "Put-
Vol. IV— Cyc— u
nam's Magazine." She wrote "Fen Por-
traits of Literary Women" (1887) ;
"Essays from The Critic" (1882) ;
"Authors at Home" (1889) ; "Autobiog-
raphy of a Tomboy" (1900); "The
Tomboy at Work" (1904); and other
collections and compilations. In 1909
she established and edited "The Reader,"
a guide for book buyers. She died in
1916.
GILDER, RICHARD WATSON, an
American editor; born in Bordentown,
N. J., Feb. 8, 1844; received a private
school education; served with the Union
army during the Confederate invasion
of Pennsylvania in 1863 ; was connected
with the daily newspaper press and
monthly periodicals till 1881, when he be-
came editor-in-chief of "The Century."
His publications, chiefly in poetry, in-
clude "The New Day"; "The Celestial
Passion"; "Lyrics"; "Two Worlds";
"The Great Remembrance"; "In Pales-
tine"; etc. He died Nov. 18, 1909.
GILDERSLEEVE, BASIL LANNEAXT.
an American classical scholar; bom in
Charleston, S. C, Oct. 23, 1831; grad-
uated at Princeton in 1849, and studied
in Germany for several years. He was
professor of Greek and Latin at the Uni-
versity of Virginia from 1856 to 1876,
when he was appointed Professor of
Greek at Johns Hopkins University. He
is the founder and editor of the "Ameri-
can Journal of Philology." Among his
works are: "Persius" (1875); "Justin
Martyr" (1875); "Odes of Pindar." He
has published a Latin grammar and a
volume of "Essays and Studies"; "Hellas
and Hesperia" (1909) ; and with C. W.
Miller "Syntax of Classical Greek from
Homer to Demosthenes" (1900-1911);
"Creed of the Old South" (1915).
GILEAD, a mountainous district on
the E. side of the Jordan, bounded by the
Hieromax (Yarmuk), Arabia, Moab and
Amnion, and the Jordan. The district
was given to the tribes of Manasseh,
Gad, and Reuben, because of the multi-
tude of their cattle, and as a frontier
land which was exposed to invasion.
There is mention of Gilead in Gen. xxxvii.
Ramoth (Es-Salt), Jabesh, and Jazer
are three of the cities mentioned in
Scripture.
GILGAL (gil'gal), an ancient city near
the Jordan, where the Israelites passed
the river into Caanan, where they were
circumcised and held the first Passover
after leaving the desert (Joshua iv: 19).
Here rested the tabernacle, till removed
to Shiloh; here Samuel held court as
judge of Israel, and here Saul was
crowned. It is frequently mentioned in
the Bible; a school of the prophets was
GILGHIT
318
GILMAN
established here (II Kings iv: 38), yet
it afterward became a seat of heathen
worship (Amos iv: 4). Josephus places
it within 2 miles of Jericho, but no traces
of it are at this day extant.
GILGHIT, or GILGIT (gil-gif), a
valley and district in Kashmir, India, on
the S. slope of the Hindu Kiish, and
watered by the Gilgit, or Yasm, a tribu-
tary of the Indus.
GILL, DAVID, SIR a Scotch astrono-
mer; born in Aberdeen, June 12, 1843;
educated at Marischal College. He was
chief of staff of Lord Lindsay's observa-
tory, founded in 1870; in charge of Lind-
say's expedition to Mauritius in 1874 to
observe the transit of Venus and the
opposition of Juno, by means of the heli-
ometer, for the determination of the solar
parallax. He determined the longitudes
of Malta, Alexandria, Suez, Aden, Bom-
bay, Seychelles, Reunion, Mauritius, and
Rodriguez by cable and chronometers,
and measured the first base-line for the
Egyptian triangulation at the request of
the khedive. In 1877 he w^as in charge
of the expedition to Ascension to observe
the opposition of Mars for parallax ; and
in 1879 appointed director of the Cape
Observatory. In 1896-1897, he made the
first geodetic survey of Natal, Cape
Colony, and Rhodesia. He introduced
cataloguing the stars by photographs.
Wrote "History of the Royal Observa-
tory, Cape of Good Hope" (1913). He
died in 1914.
GILLAEOO, a variety of the common
trout, in which the coats of the stomach
are said to be thickened like the gizzard
of birds by feeding on shell-fish.
GILLES, ST. (san zhel), a town in the
department of Card, France, 12 miles
S. S. W. of Beaucaire. Its territory pro-
duces a strong red wine, which is ex-
ported.
GILLETTE, WILLIAM, an American
playwright; born in Hai'tford, Conn.,
July 24, 1855. He is the author of sev-
eral successful plays, in many of which
he has assumed the leading parts.
Among his best-known productions are:
"The Professor" (1881); "Esmeralda"
(1881), with Mrs. F. H. Burnett; "The
Private Secretary"; "Held by the Enemy"
(1886); "A Legal Wreck" (1888); "Too
Much Johnson" (1895) ; and "Secret Ser-
vice" (1896) ; "Sherlock Holmes"; "Cla-
rice"; etc.
GILLIUGHAM, a town of Dorsetshire,
England, on the Stour, 22 miles W. of
Salisbury. It is the center of a fruit-
growing district. Near it are the "Pen
Pits," thought variously to be quarry
holes or prehistoric dwellings.
GILLMORE, INEZ HAYNES, an
American author, born of American
parents in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1873;
received her common school education
in Boston, then took a special course in
Radcliffe College, from 1897 to 1900. She
was first married to Rufus Hamilton
Gillmore, and later to William H. Irwin.
Together with Maud Wood Park she
founded the National College of the
Equal Suffrage League. She is the author
of "June Jeopardy" (1908) ; "Maida's
Little Shop" (1910) ; "Phoebe and
Ernest" (1910); "J a n e y" (1911);
"Phoebe, Ernest and Cupid" (1912) ;
"Angel Island" (1914) ; "The Ollivant
Orphans" (1915); "The Lady of King-
doms" (1917); "The Happy Years"
(1919), and many short stories published
in American magazines.
GILLMORE, QUINCY ADAMS, an
American military officer; bora in Black
River, Lorain co., O., Feb. 28, 1825;
graduated at West Point in 1849. He
was promoted captain in 1861, and Brig-
adier-General of volunteers early m
1862. He displayed skill as an engineer
by the capture of Fort Pulaski in April,
1862, and was appointed commander of
the Department of the South in June,
1863. He made a successful attack on
Morris Island in July, 1863, began to
bombard Fort Sumter and Chaiieston
in August, and took Fort Wagner in
September; Fort Sumter was reduced
to a ruinous condition, but its garrison
continued to hold it till Feb. 17, 1865.
General Gillmoi-e commanded the 10th
Corps near Richmond in 1864, and was
brevetted Major-General U. S. A., in
1865. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., April
7, 1888.
GILL NET, a net suspended in a
stx'eam, having meshes which allow the
heads of the fish to pass, and which
catch in the gills to prevent the fish from
detaching itself.
GILL SAC, in ichthyology, one of the
rudimentary gills constituted by sacs, oc-
curring in the myxinoids and lampreys.
A gill of the ordinary fishes is the homo-
logue, not of a single gill sac, but of the
continuous halves of two of them.
GILMAN, CHARLOTTE PERKINS,
an American lecturer and writer, born in
Hartford, Conn., 1860. In 1890 she began
lecturing on ethics, economics and sociol-
ogy, and especially on the place of
women in the social structure. She is
one of the chief exponents of modern
feminism. Since 1909 she has edited and
published "The Forerunner," a magazine
dedicated to women and economics. She
was the author of; "Women and Eco-
nomics" (1898); "In This Our World"
GILMAN
319
GINSENG
(verse, 1898) ; "The Yellow Wallpaper"
(1899) ; "Concerning Children" (1900) ;
**The Home; Its Work and Influence"
(1903) ; "Human Work" (1904) ; "What
Diantha Did" (1910) ; "The Man Made
World" (1910); "The Crux" (1911);
"Moving the Mountain" (1911).
GILMAN, DANIEL COIT, an Ameri-
can educator; born in Norwich, Conn.,
July 6, 1831; was graduated at Yale
College in 1852; Professor of Physical
and Political Geography in Yale in 1856-
1872 ; president of the University of Cali-
fornia in 1872-1875. When Johns Hop-
kins University was founded in Balti-
more, Md., in 1875, he was elected its
first president and served in that capa-
city till 1901, when he resigned and be-
came editor-in-chief of the revised edition
of the "International Cyclopaedia." In
1896-1897 he was a member of the com-
mission to settle the boundary line be-
tween Venezula and British Guiana. His
publications include "Life of James Mon-
roe"; "University Problems"; "Introduc-
tion" to DeTocqueville's "Democracy
in America," etc. In 1901 Gilman was
elected president of the Carnegie Insti-
tute at Washington. He died on Oct. 18,
1908.
GILMAN. NICHOLAS PAINE, edu-
cator; born in Quincy, 111., Dec. 21, 1849;
was graduated at Harvard Divinity
School in 1871 ; editor of the Boston
"Literary World" in 1888-1895; then be-
came Professor of Sociology and Ethics
in the Meadville Theological School. His
publications include "Profit-Sharing Be-
tween Employer and Employee": "So-
cialism and the American Spirit." He
died in 1912.
GILOLO, or JILOLO (je-lo'lS), an is-
land of the Molucca group in the Indian
Archipelago; area 6,500 square miles. It
is of singular form, consisting of four
peninsulas, radiating from a common
center, and having large bays between.
It is rugged and mountainous. The prin-
cipal productions are sago, cocoanuts,
spices, fruits, edible birds'-nests, horses,
cattle, and sheep. The original inhabit-
ants, called Alfoories, have been grad-
ually pressed into the interior by the
Malays.
GILSONITE, a variety of asphalt
found as a deposit In Utah, stated to be
the purest bitumen occurring naturally.
Its color is a brilliant, lustrous black, but
on exposure to air it breaks down into a
brown powder. Specific gravity, 1.067.
Soluble in alcohol, turpentine and carbon
bisulphide. Used in the manufacture of
varnishes, and for insulating and water-
proofing.
GIN, a compounded spirit, prepared
either by redistilling plain spirit with
juniper berries, coriander seeds, angelica
root, etc., or by adding various essential
oils to rectified spirit.
In machinery, a portable hoisting ma-
chine whose frame is a tripod, one leg
being movable so as to vary its angle of
elevation, and thus determine the height
of the apex; the other two legs preserve
their relative distance, and form stand-
ards for the drum, round which the rope
is wound by power applied to the hand-
spikes. For heavy weights a fall and
tackle is used; and for hoisting a bucket
from a well or mine, simply a couple of
pulleys to change the direction of motion
of the rope. Also, a machine for sep-
arating cotton fiber from the seeds,
GINGER, in botany. Zingiber officinale,
common or narrow-leaved ginger. It is
a native of India, but is cultivated in
most tropical countries. There is a broad-
leaved ginger, Z. zerumbet, also a native
of India. It is used externally for cata-
plasms and fomentations, but is not
eaten.
In ordinary language, the dry, wrinkled
rhizomes of the ginger-plant. The pieces,
or as they are called races, are usually
from 2 to 4 inches long, branched, flat,
and of a pale buff color. The chief varie-
ties imported into the United States are
Jamaica, Cochin, Bengal, Japan, and
African. The first three are scraped gin-
gers, and of these Jamaica is the most
esteemed owing to its color and flavor.
Ginger is an agreeable aromatic and a
valuable stomachic; but is more largely
used as a condiment than as a medicine.
Preserved ginger, so largely imported
from China in jars, consists of the young
rhizomes boiled in syrup.
GINGKO. the Japanese name of a
coniferous tree of the yew alliance, with
very characteristic leaves, in form and
variation recalling the leaflets of the
maiden-hair ferns. The yellow, drupe-
like seeds reach the size of a walnut, and
are largely eaten throughout China and
Japan. The Japanese esteemed the tree
as sacred, and planted it round their
temples. The tree is dioecious, but the
Chinese sometimes plant several male
and female trees close together, so that
male and female flowers appear to arise
on the same tree.
GINSENG (Chinese Gensen— "that
which resembles a man"), a root used in
China as a medicine. It is the root of a
species of Panax (order Araliacese) . P.
Ginseng of Chinese Tartary is similar to
P. quinquefoUum of North America,
which is exported to China. The ginseng
of Korea is most valued, and is carefully
cultivated in that country. The root is
GIOBERTI
320
GIPSIES
mucilaginous, sweetish, also slightly bit-
ter and aromatic.
GIOBERTI, VINCENZO (jo-ber'te),
an Italian writer; born in Turin, April
5, 1801; was ordained priest in 1825, and
soon afterward was appointed court
chaplain at Turin. He was banished in
1833 on account of his liberal tendencies,
remaining a few years in France, and
taught philosophy in a public school at
Brussels. His first writings were philo-
sophical, "The Theoi-y of the Supernatu-
ral" (1837); the "Introduction of High
Philosophical Research" (1840). In
1842, "Philosophical Errors of Antonio
Rosmini"; and next the treatises, "The
Beautiful" and "The Good," on the prin-
ciples, respectively, of taste and morals.
In 1843 appeared the most celebrated of
his works, "Moral and Civil Principles of
the Italians." In 1848 Gioberti was re-
called to his native country amid popular
acclamation, and later, on being elected
deputy for Turin, took an active part in all
the great political questions, and finally
became prime minister of Sardina. In
1849 he returned into voluntary exile,
and spent his last years in Paris in writ-
ing his "The Civil Renovation of Italy."
He died in Paris, Oct. 26, 1852.
GIOLITTI, GIOVANNI, an Italian
statesman. He was born at Mondovi,
province of Cuneo, in 1843, and was edu-
cated at Turin. He held a post in the
Ministry of Finance for eight years,
after which he was elected to the Cham-
ber of Deputies. In 1889 he became Min-
ister of the Treasury, and in 1890 Min-
ister of Finance, becoming in 1892 Pres-
ident of the Ministry, being compelled to
resign in the following year as a result
of his relations with a director of the
Banca Romana, whom he had made sena-
tor, and who had been guilty of issuing
duplicate notes and corrupting govern-
ment officials. In 1901 he was back in
power again, becoming Minister of the
Interior, in 1903 resigning and forming
a ministry of his own. Resigning in
1905, he returned as head of the ministry
in 1906, continuing till 1909, when he
was followed by Sonnino, whom he suc-
ceeded in 1911. He resigned again in
1914, and when the World War broke
out was against the participation in it
of Italy. As a result, though regarded
as almost Italy's most capable statesman,
he did not figure prominently in the
affairs arising out of it. His conduct of
affairs was always characterized by re-
trenchment in expenditure. He brought
in much legislation tending toward the
amelioration of the condition of the
working classes, and a large part of his
influence has come from the support he
found among them.
GIORDANO, LUCA (j6r-da-no), an
Italian painter; born in Naples about
1632; a scholar of Spagnoletto, studied
the great Italian masters at Rome, and
became the pupil of Peter of Cortona.
He imitated the greatest masters so well
that even connoisseurs were imposed
upon. In 1679 he was employed by
Charles II, to ornament the Escurial, and
at the court of Spain he became a great
favorite. After the death of Charles II.
he returned to his native country. His
most celebrated pieces are his frescoes,
in the Escurial, at Madrid, Florence, and
Rome. Some of his finest paintings are
at Dresden. He died in Naples, Jan. 12,
1705.
GIORGIONE, GIORGIO BARBAREL-
LI (jor-jo'ne), an Italian painter; born
in Constelfranco about 1477. Several of
his oil paintings have been preserved,
and are at once recognizable by the firm-
ness of touch, vividness of coloring, and
the striking tone of relief which they
display. The Museum at Paris contains
four of his works, viz.: "Salome Receiv-
ing the Head of John the Baptist";
"Jesus Sitting on His Mother's Knees";
"The Rural Concert"; and "Gaston de
Foix." His chef-d'cBuvre is a picture of
"Christ Carrying His Cross," preserved
at Venice. He died in Venice, in 1511.
GIOTTO (jot'td), properly AMBRO-
GIOTTO or ANGIOLOTTO BONDONE,
an Italian painter; born in Vespignano,
in 1266 ; and in his boyhood tended cattle.
But having been seen by Cimabue, as he
was drawing figures of his sheep upon
a piece of slate, that artist can'ied him
to Florence and taught him painting.
Among his most celebrated pieces is the
"Navicella" at Rome, a picture of Peter
walking upon the waves, some fresco
paintings at Florence, also the history
of St. Francis, at Assisi, and several
miniatures. He was equally successful
as a statuary and architect. He died in
Florence in 1336.
GIPSIES, a nomad Eastern race, the
members of which came to Europe by
way of the Isthmus of Suez and Egypt.
It is now proved that they are from
India, and apparently from that part of
it adjacent to the river Indus, with the
languages of some tribes inhabiting the
banks of which their tongue best agrees.
A tribe near the mouth of the Indus is
called Tchinganes, which is almost ex-
actly the same as Tchingenes, by which
name these wanderers are known in Tur-
key and the Levant. They call them-
selves Sind, the name of the country
through which the Indus flows in the
lower part of its course. They are be-
lieved to have left their native country
in dread of Timur Beg, better known as
GIPSYWORT
321
GIRL SCOUTS
Timoor the Tartar, or Tamerlane, and
first appeared in Paris in the end of
August, 1427.
GIPSYWORT, or GYPSYWORT, a
labiate plant, with dense whorls of flow-
ers, white, with purple dots. It is about
two feet high, and grows in ditches and
by river banks.
GIRAFFE, the camelopard, Camelo-
pardalis giraffa. It has an affinity to the
camel; but its resemblance to the leop-
ard, which is only in its color and spots,
is an analogy and no more. It has two
small frontal horns and one central horn.
The neck is very long. The tongue is
t^r^^^'
I III // ^'^ ■' ''{-"=
GIRAFFE
long and prehensile, and is used for
stripping leaves off trees. The forelegs
are very long, making the animal stand
15 to 18 feet high. It lives in small
herds, and gallops in a ludicrously
clumsy manner. Its flesh is good. The
hide makes excellent leather. It is found
in Nubia, Abyssinia, and the Cape of
Good Hope.
GIRARD, a town of Ohio, in Trumbull
CO. It is on the Erie, Baltimore and
Ohio, and the Pennsylvania railroads. Its
industries include the manufacture of
iron and steel products, leather, and
chewing gum. Pop. (1910) 3,736; (1920)
6,556.
GIRARD, STEPHEN, an American
philanthropist; was born near Bordeaux,
France, May 24, 1750. In 1769 he settled
as a trader in Philadelphia, where he
established the Second National Bank,
and advanced several millions to the
United States treasury during the War
of 1812. In the yellow fever epidemic in
1793 he nursed many of the sick in the
hospitals; and in public matters his gen-
erosity was remarkable. Among other
bequests he left $7,500,000 for the erec-
tion and maintenance in Philadelphia of
a college for male white orphans. He
died in Philadelphia, Pa., Dec. 26, 1831.
GIRARD COLLEGE, an institution in
Philadelphia, Pa., for the education of
poor white orphan boys; founded under
the will of Stephen Girard, and opened
Jan. 1, 1848. By a provision in the will
no ecclesiastic, missionary, or minister
of any sect whatever is to have any con-
nection with the college. In 1919 it re-
ported: Professors and instructors,
about 100; students, 1,540; volumes in
the library, about 25,000; endowment
and plant, $40,000,000; president, Chees-
man A. Herrick, Ph. D., LL. D.
GIRGEH (jer'je), a town of Egypt, on
the Nile, lO^^ miles N. of the ancient
Abydus. It was hei-e that the discontented
Mamelukes rallied against Mehemet Ali.
Outside the town is a Roman Catholic
monastery, said to be the oldest in Egypt.
GIRGENTI ( jer-jen'te) , a town of
Sicily, near the site of the ancient Agri-
gentum, on the S. coast, 84 miles S. S. E.
of Palermo. The town is the seat of a
bishop, and has a trade in grain, oil,
fruit, sulphur, sumach, salt, and fish. Ite
port is Porto Empedocle. Pop. of dis-
trict, 409,000.
GIRL SCOUTS OF AMERICA. A
national organization having for its ob-
ject the general welfare of girls, giving
them through wholesome pleasure those
habits of mind and body which will make
them useful, responsible women, ready
and willing to take a definite part in the
home, civic, and national affairs of the
country. The association was founded
in 1912, and the movement became popu-
lar, numbering in 1920 over 82,000 mem-
bers, representing an increase of 40 per
cent, over the preceding year. The oi"-
ganization is non-sectarian and non-par-
tisan. The activities are designed to
bring to the girls the opportunity for
an all-round life, indoors, outdoors, at
home, and in the community. Woman
is recognized as a producer, a consumer,
and a citizen, and the girl scout is trained
toward these ends. Throughout all the
activities is the definite ideal of charac-
ter building. The governing body is the
GIRONDE
322
GIRTON COLLEGE
National Council, composed of represen-
tatives from local councils and other
members elected by the National Coun-
cil. National headquarters ai'e main-
tained in New York to carry out the
policies of the National Council, A lo-
cal council may be organized in any
community. This is a body of men
and women, representing the schools,
churches, social and civic organizations,
playgrounds, newspapers, and such
bodies as the Chamber of Commerce and
Rotary Clubs. This council is organized
for the purpose of promoting and super-
vising girl scout units in the district.
The unit of organization is the patrol of
eight members each. One or more patrols
form a troop, and they ai'e grouped
whenever possible according to age and
congeniality. Each patrol has a leader
and a corporal, and each troop a captain.
The captain may choose lieutenants to
assist her. It is advisable that a troop
of two patrols have a lieutenant, and
that for every additional two patrols an-
other lieutenant be secured. Each troop
selects for its name a flower, tree, shrub,
or bird. The members wear the emblem
over the left pocket of their uniforms.
Troops may be formed in connection
with any church, school, playgound,
settlement, or other institution or organ-
ization. Unattached troops are also suc-
cessful. Troop meetings are held weekly,
with the program fairly divided between
recreation and education. Any girl from
ten to eighteen years of age, who is will-
ing to subscribe to the promise and laws
required of candidates, to the effect that
they will try to do their duty to God and
country and make certain resolutions,
may become a scout after passing a
"tenderfoot" test. Captains are over 21
years of age and are commissioned by the
National Headquarters on paying a fee
of 60 cents. There is a fee of 25 cents
for each scout, and a subscription to the
"American Girl" magazine is also re-
quired. Parallel organizations exist in
Hawaii, Russia, Norway, Central Amer-
ica, Alaska, Denmark, the Philippines,
West Indies, Great Britain, Palestine,
Canada, Australia, Poland, Serbia, Bel-
gium, Italy, Portugal, New Zealand, and
China. In France a similar organization
is called "Les Eclaireuses," and in Eng-
land there are Girl Guides. In 1920 a
campaign was set going for funds to aid
the organization.
GIRONDE (zhe-rond'), a maritime de-
partment in France; formed of part of
the old province of Guienne; area, 3,761
square miles; capital, Bordeaux. It is
watered mainly by the Garonne and the
Dordogne, and by the Gironde, the es-
tuary formed by the union of these two
divers. The E. two-thirds of the sur-
face consists of a fertile hill and dale
region; the remainder, in the W. next
the ocean, belongs to the Landes. In the
E. and N. E. the soil is chiefly calca-
reous. Wine is the staple product of
the department. Grain, vegetables, pota-
toes, pulse, and fruit are grown large-
ly. On the downs or sandhills of the W.
coast there are extensive plantations of
pine, from which turpentine, pitch, and
charcoal are obtained. The principal
manufactures are salt, sugar, wax can-
dles, porcelain, and glass, chemical prod-
ucts, paper and tobacco. Pop. about
830,000.
GIRONDIST ( ji-ron'dist) , or GIRON-
DT'N (-ron'din) ; the name of a great
political party in France ; one of the most
powerful factors in the earlier part of
the first French Revolution. When the
Legislative Assembly met in 1791, it was
found to contain representatives of the
upper, the middle, and the lower classes.
The Girondists were the party of the
middle classes, and were republican in
sentiment. They obtained their desig-
nation from the fact that their most
celebrated leaders, Vergniaud, Guadet,
and Gen Sonne, were members for the de-
partment of the Gironde, originally
lawyers in the law court of Bordeaux.
In 1791 they were the most powerful
party in the Assembly, and for a time
shaped the policy of their country.
When conservative Europe threatened
France with invasion, it was the Giron-
dists who, in April, 1792, declared war,
the Jacobins deprecating hostilities, as
fearing the result. To overcome their
monarchic rivals, the Girondists co-
quetted with the last-named party, and
found that they had gained, not a ser-
vant, but a master. The quarrel be-
tween the two arose after the massacres
perpeti-ated in August and September,
1792, and the extreme revolutionists ul-
timately prevailing, an armed mob on
May 3i, 1793, assailed the Convention,
and demanded the imprisonment of 29
Girondist deputies. These were arrested
on June 2, and 21 of them were guillo-
tined on Oct. 31. Others were subse-
quently put to death ; a few escaping, re-
appeared in the Convention after the
fall of Robespierre.
GIRTON CGLLEGE, a noted college
for women in England, instituted at
Hitchin in 1869, but removed to Girton,
near Cambridge, in 1873. Instruction is
given in divinity, modern languages,
classics, mathematics, moral science, nat-
ural science, including physiology and
chemistry, history, and vocal music. De-
gree certificates are granted to those who
satisfy their examiners as to their pro-
GISORS
323
GLACIAL PERIOD
ficiency according to the standard of the
examinations for the B. A. of Cambridge
University. In 1919 there were 27
teachers and 170 students.
GISORS (zhe-zor'), a town in the
French department of Eure, on the
Epte, 43 miles N. W. of Paris. Its
double-aisled church, whose choir dates
from the 13th century, has a splendid
flamboyant portal; and the octagonal
donjon of the ruined castle was built by
Henry I. of England. Here Richard I.
defeated the French in 1198; his watch-
word, "Dieii et mmi Droit," has ever
since been the motto of the royal arms
of England. Pop. about 5,500.
GISSING. GEORGE, an English nov-
elist; born in Wakefield, in 1857. He
has made a remarkable study of the
London masses, from the ranks of skilled
labor to the most noisome human refuse
of the slums, the result being half re-
pulsive and wholly powerful; particu-
larly in "The Nether World," "New
Grub Street," "Demos," and "Sleeping
Fires." He died Dec. 28, 1903.
GITSCHIN (gich'in), a town of
Czecho-Slovakia, 60 miles N. E. of
Prague. Gitschin was once the capi-
tal of the duchy of Friedland, and here
Wallenstein built a splendid palace in
1630. On June 29, 1866, the Austrians
were severely defeated here by the Prus-
sians.
GIULIO ROMANO (j6'le-5 ro-ma'no),
properly GiULlo PiPPi de' Giannuzzi, an
Italian artist; born in Rome about
1492; assisted Raphael in the execution
of several of his finest works, such as
the series of the so-called Raphael's
Bible in the loggie of the Vatican and the
"Benefactors of the Church" in the In-
cendio del Borgo, and at Raphael's
death he completed the "Battle of Con-
stantine" and the "Apparition of the
Cross" in the Hall of Constantine in the
Vatican. He built the Villa Madama,
and adorned it with a fresco of Poly-
phemus. In 1524 Giulio accepted the in-
vitation of Federigo Gonzaga, Duke of
Mantua, to carry out a series of archi-
tectural and pictorial works, and re-
stored the Palazzo del Te, the cathedral,
the streets, and a ducal palace at Mar-
mirolo, a few miles from Mantua.
Among the pictorial works of this period
were the "History of Troy," in the
castle, and "Psyche," "Icarus," and the
"Titans," in the palace. In Bologna
he designed the fa?ade of the Church of
St. Petronio. Perhaps the best of his
oil pictures are the "Martyrdom of St.
Stephen," at Genoa; "A Holy Family,"
at Dresden; "Mary and Jesus" and the
"Madonna della Gatta." Giulio died in
Mantua, Nov. 1, 1546.
GIURGEVO (jor-ja'vo), a town of
Rumania, on the Danube, opposite Rust-
chuk, 40 miles S. S. W. of Bucharest, of
which town it is the port. It imports
iron and textile goods, coal, and spirits,
and exports corn, salt, and petroleum.
It was originally settled by the Genoese
in the 14th century, who called it St.
George. Since 1771 the town has played
an important part in all the wars be-
tween the Turks and the Russians. Pop.
about 15,000.
GIVENCHY, a village of France,
S. of Armentieres, and midway be-
tween Bethune and La Bassee, which
was the scene of much fighting in the
war. It was at first defended by an In-
dian brigade, which was driven out at
the beginning of the war by the Germans.
It remained a contested point while the
war lasted.
GIVET Czhe-va'), a town and fortress
in the French department of Ardennes,
on both banks of the Meuse, 31 miles S.
of Namur in Belgium, and 193 N. E. of
Paris. The citadel of Charlemont, on a
rock 700 feet above the stream, was re-
constructed by Vauban. There are
manufactures of lead pencils, and seal-
ing-wax, copper-wares, soap, etc. In
August, 1914, the British forces held the
town for some time against the Germans,
who occupied it in the last days of the
month. Pop. about 7,700.
GIVORS (zhe-vor'), a town in the
French department of Rhone, on the
river Rhone, 14 miles S. of Lyons. Glass,
especially bottles, and silk and iron
goods are extensively manufactured, and
a considerable trade in coal is carried on.
GIZZARD, a muscular division of the
stomach in birds; it is an elongated sac
in the body of birds just below the liver,
and having two openings above, the one
into the duodenum and the other into the
proventriculus. The gizzard of the rap-
torial bird is thin and feeble, while that
of the graminivorous bird is strong, with
thick and muscular walls, the whole
lined with a thick horny epithelium.
GLACIAL PERIOD, a period or epoch
during which ice largely prevailed, the
climate, in what are now temperate lati-
tudes, being polar. It commenced dur-
ing the Newer Pliocene, and terminated
before the close of the Post-Pliocene age.
Arctic conditions did not prevail unin-
termittingly during all this time. Two
distinct divisions of the glacial period or
distinct glacial periods are traceable in
the Alps, the earlier one the more severe
GLACIER
324
GLADIOLUS ,
of the two. It was during the glacial
period that the Alpine plants, now found
on the summit of European mountains,
passed S. from the Arctic regions. Dur-
ing the later of the two glacial periods
man existed; whether he did so during
the earlier one is a matter of dispute.
See Geology.
GLACIER (glas'i-er), a river of ice.
A glacier commences primarily as a
frozen mass of snow, formed above the
line of perpetual congelation, and consol-
idated partly by pressure and partly by
the freezing of water infiltered into it
from its surface. In the Swiss Alps the
glaciers are between 20 and 30 miles
long, their greatest breadth 2 or 3 miles,
and their depth more than 600 feet. Why
the glacier descends has been a very dis-
puted question. Tyndall attributed it
chiefly to regelation, that is, to parts of
it melting and freezing again. When,
in descending a mountain-side, the gla-
cier has to force its way through a
narrow channel, the brittle ice is crushed
and broken, but by virtue of "regelation"
it freezes anew when it has cleared the
obstruction. Tyndall imitated the whole
process artificially on a small scale, and
his is now the accepted explanation of
glacier movement. As a glacier de-
scends, it carries with it stones, which,
on its melting, are deposited in a moraine.
It makes also a dome-shaped mass of
smoother rock, called in Switzerland
roches moutonnees.
GLACIER LAKE, a lake produced
temporarily or permanently by a glacier.
It is noteworthy that glacier lands like
Switzerland are also lands abounding in
lakes.
GLACIER, NATIONAL PARK. See
National Parks.
GLACIS (gla'sis) , in fortifications, the
superior slope of the rampart of the
covered way, or, where the rampart does
not exist, the declivity immediately in
front of the ditch of a work, forming
a gentle slope toward the country, and
protecting the revetment of the escarp
from the fire of an enemy.
GLADBACH, or MUNCHEN (miin'
chen) GLADBACH, a town of Rhenish
Prussia, 16 miles W. of Diisseldorf. It
is the center of the Rhenish cotton-spin-
ning industry and has manufactures of
silk, wool, linen, and paper, cotton print-
ing works, dye works, bleachfields, ii*on
foundries, machine shops, breweries, and
brickworks. Gladbach, which has been
a town since 1366, was formerly the seat
of an important linen trade; the cotton
industry was introduced in the end of
the 18th century. The town possesses a
church dating from the 12th and ISth
centuries, the crypt from the 8th. Pop.
about 65,000.
GLADDEN, WASHINGTON, an
American author; born in Pottsgrove,
Pa., Feb., 11, 1836; was graduated at
Williams College in 1859; ordained in
the Congregational Church, and became
pastor of the First Congregational
Church in Columbus, O., in 1882. His
publications include "Plain Thoughts on
the Art of Living" (1868) ; "Workingmen
and Their Employers" (1876) ; "The
Young Men and the Churches" (1885) ;
"Burning Questions" (1889); "Social
Facts and Forces" (1897); "The Chris-
tian Pastor" (1898); "Where Does the
Sky Begin?" (1904) ; "The New Idolatry"
(1905); "The Church and Modern Life"
(1908) ; "Recollections" (1909) ; "Live
and Learn" (1914) ; "Commencement
Days" (1917). He died in 1918.
GLADIATOR, one of a class of men
whose profession was to fight in public
for the entertainment of the people.
They were armed with deadly weapons,
and usually fought in pairs. The num-
bers of these men were principally re-
cruited from prisoners of war, or re-
fractory slaves sold by their masters to
the lanista, or trainer. Malefactors also
were occasionally forced into fighting as
gladiators, and occasionally Roman citi-
zens offered themselves voluntarily for
hire, and to such the specific term
auetorati was applied, their pay be-
ing called auctoramentum. Under the
more worthless and dissolute emperors,
equites, priests, and senators did not
scruple to contend in the arena, in the
hope of attracting the attention and
gaining the favor of the prince; and
even high-born women were found who
consented to pander to the appetite for
novelty, by fighting with each other or
with dwarfs. The representatives of
different nations were frequently
matched against each other, and the
comparative efficiency of their weapons,
offensive and defensive, was thus put to
the test.
GLADIOLUS (-o'lus), a genus of
Iridacese, with beautiful spikes of
flowers, sword-shaped leaves and corms
or bulbous rhizomes. They are propa-
gated by offset corms or from seed; in
this way innumerable hybrids have been
produced. The hardy European forms
are well adapted to the mixed border,
wild garden or shi-ubbery in dry and
sunny situations. Among the leading
Cape forms are G. cardmalis (red),
psittachius (yellow with purple spots),
floribnndus (purple and white), etc., and
these have given rise to numerous by-
GLADSTONE
325
GLAND
brids — e. g. the first two to G. gandaven-
sis, which again stands at the head of
many new series of hybrids and
varieties. The scarlet G. brenchleyensis
is similarly a standard form. The corm of
G. communis was formerly officinal; and
the Hottentots dig up some of the Cape
species for the sake of their starchy
corms.
GLADSTONE, HERBERT JOHN, 1st
VISCOUNT, an English statesman, son
of William E. Gladstone, born at Lon-
don, in 1854. He was educated at Ox-
ford and from 1877 to 1880 was lecturer
on history at Keble College. In 1880-1881
he was private secretary to his father,
and in the latter year was appointed
Lord of the Treasury. He was succes-
sively Financial Secretary of War,
Under-Secretary of the Home Office, and
First Commissioner of Works. From
1899 to 1906 he was Chief Whip to the
Liberal Party, and from 1905 to 1910
was Secretary of State for Home Affairs.
He was a member of Parliament from
Leeds from 1880 to 1909. In the latter
year he was appointed First Governor-
General of South Africa, serving until
1914.
GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART,
an English statesman, born in Liverpool,
Dec. 29, 1809; was graduated at the
University of Oxford in 1831 ; became a
Tory member of the House of Commons
WILLIAM E. GLADSTONE
in 1832; appointed Junior Lord of the
Treasury in 1834, and Under-Secretary
of State for the Colonies in 1835. He
made his first great sneech in 1852 in
reply to Disraeli's famous address against
the Liberals. Soon after this Gladstone
became Chancellor of the Exchequer;
and upon rendering his first budget
made a speech which enthralled the
house and gave him a high reputation as
a speaker on the most difficult financial
problems. In 1865 he was appointed
Speaker of the House of Commons, but
continued in that office for one year only
when the Government resigned^ He was
first prime minister in 1868-1874, during
which period he introduced three bills
dealing with the great difficulties of Ire-
land. The first measure, that of the dis-
establishment of the State Church of Ire-
land, was adopted by a large majority;
the second, having to do with the Irish
land laws, was also adopted; but the
third, treating of Irish education, was
defeated, on which the ministry re-
signed. Mr. Gladstone was again prime
minister in 1880-1885, in 1885-1886, and
in 1892-1894. His publications include
"The State in Its Relations with the
Church" (1838) ; "Studies on Homer and
the Homeric Age" (1858) ; "The Vatican
Decrees" (1874) ; "Gleanings of Past
Years" (1879) ; "The Irish Question"
(1886) ; etc. He died in Hawarden
Castle, Flintshire, North Wales, May 19,
1898.
GLAMMIS, a village of Scotland, five
miles S. W. of Forfar. Near it is Glam-
mis Castle, in which is still shown the
chamber in which Malcolm II. was as-
sassinated in 1034. It was one of the
castles of Macbeth, and gave him his
hereditary title of Thane of Glammis.
GLAMORGANSHIRE, a county of
Wales, in the southernmost part. _ Its
chief industries are the mining of iron
and coal. It has also extensive agri-
cultural and cattle raising interests. The
chief towns are Cardiff, the capital,
Merthyr-Tydfil, and Swansea. The county
has an area of 809 square miles. Pop.
about 1,200,000.
GLAND, a term at first vaguely ap-
plied to any smooth, round viscus, but
which is now limited to such of these as
secrete — i. e., separate by a process of
cell growth, certain constituents of the
blood which are afterward poured out
from the gland by means of a duct.
They are divided into lymphatic and
secreting glands.
Lymphatic glands are bodies resem-
bling glands in form, but not possessing
ducts for secretion, so that their prod-
ucts must be conveyed to them by lym-
phatic or sanguiferous vessels. Ex-
amples, the spleen, the thjnroid body, the
thymus gland, the suprarenal capsules,
the pituitary body, the follicular glands
GLANI/ERS
326
GLASGOW UNIVERSITY
at the root of the ton^e and the lym-
phatic glands.
Secreting glands are the typical kind
of glands to which the name is now very
frequently restricted. They collect and
discharge at particular parts various
matters derived from the organism, that
these may be further employed for
special purposes in the economy, or
simply eliminated as redundant material
or waste products. In the latter case
the term used is excretion. In this proc-
ess the nucleated cell takes a prominent
part. When there is a simple recess
formed of secreting membrane, the gland
is said to be simple. Examples of this
structure occur in the mucous membrane
of the stomach, the intestines, etc.
When the cavity is subdivided as well as
extended with the view of increasing the
secreting surface, the gland is said to be
compound. The latter are again sub-
divided into first tubular and second
sacular or racemose glands. The glands
of the testicle and those of the kidney
are tubular; the salivary, lachrymal, and
mammary glands, and most of the
glands opening into the mouth, the
fauces, and the windpipe are racemose
glands.
In botany cells or aggregations of
cells distinguished from those in their
neighborhood by containing resinous,
oily, sugary, or fragrant substances.
The walls of the cells generally become
degenerated, and are ultimately dis-
solved, a cavity being thus formed as seen
in the rind of the orange and lemon. In
other cases the secretion is discharged
externally. Ordinary glands occur in
almost all the tissues of plants.
GLANDERS, a disease among horses,
indicated by a discharge of purulent mat-
ter from one or both nostrils, with a
hard enlargement of the submaxillary
glands. The disease is rarely if ever
cured.
GLARUS (gla'ros), a canton of Swit-
zerland, bounded by the cantons of St.
Gall, the Grisons, Uri, and Schwyz;
area, 267 square miles; capital, Glarus.
It is an Alpine region, trenched by the
valley of the Linth or Limmat and its
lateral vales, and rising in its S. W. cor-
ner, in the Todi peak, to an altitude of
11,887 feet. The rearing of cattle and
the manufacture of cotton and woolen
goods are the chief occupations of the
people. The green cheese called Schab-
ziger is wholly made here. Pop. about
34,000.
GLARUS, a town and capital of the
Swiss canton of Glarus; 43 miles S. E.
of Zurich. It was founded by an Irish
monk, Fridolin, in the end of the 5th
century. Zwingli was pastor here from
1506 to 1516. Glarus, having been
peopled by German settlers, passed after
various changes into the possession of
the dukes of Austria, but ultimately
secured its independence by the victories
of Nafels in 1352 and 1388. In 1450 it
joined the Swiss Confederation. Pop.
about 5,000.
GLASGOW, a city of Lanark co.,
Scotland; on the river Clyde, 42 miles
W. of Edinburgh; the most important
and populous manufacturing and com-
mercial city of Scotland. Area with ex-
tensions is now (1920) 19.183 square
miles. The city contains many public
buildings, among which the most cele-
brated are the cathedral of St. Mungo,
a splendid specimen of Gothic architec-
ture, begun in 1123; the Court House,
Royal Exchange, Traders' Hall, Town
Hall, and the Royal Infirmary. It con-
tains a celebrated university, founded in
1450. There are besides the Anderson
College, the College of Physicians,
Mechanics' Institute, and the Mitchell
Library (1911), the largest public
reference library in Scotland. The
manufactures include cottons, bandana
handkerchiefs, muslins, soap, cordage,
flint-glass, and cudbear. Glasgow is also
noted for its ship-building and engi-
neering establishments, chemical works,
type-foundries, and almost every kind of
production in the mechanical arts. The
Clyde is navigable for vessels drawing 7
or 8 feet of water ; and the wharves and
docks afford extensive accommodation for
vessels of every description. The origin
of Glasgow is generally attributed to St.
Mungo, who is said to have here founded,
in 560, a bishopric, aftei-ward erected
into an archiepiscopal see. It was here
that Watt first commenced to improve
the steam engine; and on the Clyde, the
"Comet," the first boat in Europe suc-
cessfully propelled by steam, was
launched in 1812. Pop. (1918) 1,111,428.
GLASGOW, ELLEN ANDERSON
GHOLSON, an American novelist, born
in Richmond, Va., in 1874. While still a
young girl she began to attract at-
tention as a fiction writer, portray-
ing the change from the old order
to the new in the South. She wrote
"The Descendant" (1897) ; "Phases of
an Inferior Planet" (1898); "The
Voice of the People" (1900); "The
Miller of Old Church" (1911); "Vir-
ginia" (1913) ; "Life and Gabriella"
(1916); "The Builders" (1919).
GLASGOW. UNIVERSITY OF, a uni-
versity of Scotland. It was founded in
1450 by Bishop Turnbull, and is, both in
resnect to its age and for the number of
GLASGOW UNIVERSITY
327
GLASS
its students, the second university of
Scotland. Throughout the many years
of its existence it has gradually acquired
much property from grants made by
royalty as well as from gifts by private
individuals, James I. of England issued
a new charter to the institution. Parlia-
ment reorganized it by special acts in
1858 and 1889. In 1864 the buildings
then occupied by the university were
sold and new buildings were erected
overlooking Kelvin River. They were
opened in 1870 and many additions have
been made since then. The university
is now a corporation, consisting of a
chancellor, vice-chancellor, rector, prin-
cipal, dean of faculties, professors, and
students. The property of the institu-
tion is administered by the university
court, consisting of the rector, the prin-
cipal, the lord provost of Glasgow, and
various assessors representing both the
university and the city. This body also
appoints and regulates professors and
acts as a court of appeal from the sen-
ate. _ The latter body consists of the
principal and professors, who regulate
teaching and discipline. The general
council, consisting of a number of ex-
officio members and of all masters and
doctors, meets twice a year for the pur-
pose of revising the business of the uni-
versity, elects the chancellor, four of the
assessors, and, together with the general
council of Aberdeen University, one
member to Parliament. The Chancellor,
who in 1920 was the Earl of Rosebery,
is elected for life. The rector, whose
duties are entirely honorary, is elected
triennially by the students. He is
usually a man distinguished in politics
or letters, and the office in 1920 was held
by Rt. Hon. A. Bonar Law. At times
this office is conferred on foreigners, as
in 1915, when the students elected Presi-
dent Poincar^ of France. The university
has faculties of arts, science, medicine
and surgery, divinity and law. There are
many scholarships, exhibitions and fel-
lowships, some of great age and consid-
erable value. The university has an
important library of about 250,000 vol-
umes, botanical gardens, an observatory,
many special libraries and collections,
the most famous of the latter being the
Hunterian collection of coins, medals,
and anatomical preparations. Among
the graduates and teachers of the uni-
versity are to be found some of the most
illustrious Scotch names. Since 1893
women are admitted and in that year
Queen Margaret College for Women be-
came part of the university. In 1919-
1920 there were 164 teachers and 3,900
students. The principal was Sir Donald
MacAllister.
GLASPELL, SUSAN (MRS. GEORGE
CRAM COOK), an American author,
born in Davenport, la., 1882. After
graduating from Drake University, she
took a post-graduate course in the Uni-
versity of Chicago. In 1913 she married
George Cram Cook. For some time she
was State house and legislative reporter;
she then began to attract attention by
her short stories published in the maga-
zines. She was identified with the Little
Theater movement, through the Prov-
incetown Players, and wrote a number
of one-act plays. Her fiction is rather
emotional and sentimental. Among her
works are: "The Glory of the Con-
quered" (1909); "The Visioning"
(1911); "The Lifted Masks" (1912);
"Fidelity" (1915); "Trifles" (1917);
and, in collaboration with her husband,
"Suppressed Desires" (1917). Among
her plays the most noteworthy is "Ber-
nice" (1920).
GLASS, CARTER, an American public
official; born at Lynchburg, Va., Jan. 4,
1858. He received his education in pub-
lic and private schools in Lynchburg;
mastered the printing trade, and entered
CARTER GLASS
the field of journalism through the road
of the printing office, becoming owner of
the "Daily News"' and the "Daily Ad-
vance," morning and evening papers of
Lynchburg, after eight years as a print-
GLASS
328
GLASS
er. In 1899 he entered politics as a mem-
ber of the Virginia Senate; served suc-
cessively in that office until 1902 when
he became a member of the 57th Con-
gress for the unexpired term of P. J.
Otey, Re-elected to the 58th Congress,
he continued to serve in Congx-ess until,
in 1920, he was elected U. S. Senator
from Virginia, having previously been
appointed to the unexpired term of
Thomas S. Martin, deceased. His most
conspicuous public services include his
connection with the national banking
legislation, as co-sponsor of the Owen-
Glass Bill which became law in 1912. He
was Secretary of the Treasury from Dec.
1918-Nov. 1919, and was elected U. S.
Senator for the term 1919-1925.
GLASS, a hard, brittle, transparent
substance, formed by fusing together
mixtures of the silicates of potash, soda,
lime, magnesia, alumina, and lead in va-
rious proportions, according to the qual-
ity or kind of glass required.
Flint glass is used in making table
ware and many articles of domestic fur-
niture and fittings. Crown and flint
glass are combined in the manufacture
of achromatic lenses.
Plate glass is made by pouring it upon
a table which has a marginal edge of a
height equal to that designed for the
thickness of the glass. A roller travels
over the table, on the ledges, and flatten-
ing out the glass, which is thus made of
equal thickness throughout.
Toughened glass is made by heating
till it is about to soften, and then plung-
ing it into a bath of oil at a greatly
lower temperature. Usually, a mixture
chiefly of oily substances, such_ as oils,
tallow, wax, resin, and the like, is put in
the bath; and some manufacturers who
worked the process for a time dropped
the newly made glass vessels, while still
hot, into the oleaginous mixture, by
which plan neither reheating nor anneal-
ing by the ordinary process is required.
After the articles acquire the tempera-
ture of the bath, they are removed.
Painted or stained glass is of two
styles, enamel and mosaic glass. In en-
amel glass proper, certain fusible pig-
nents are painted on a sheet of white
glass, which is then fired, and the result
is a picture the tints of which even in
the high lights are not wholly transpar-
ent. A modification of this method pro-
duces its picture partly by enameling on
white glass partly by the use of pot-
metal glass, the color of which is height-
ened or modified by the use of enamels.
Mosaic glass is made from a design
wherein the drawing is given and the
colors indicated, which is the working
drawing of the glass painted. From this
working drawing a kind of map is made
which gives the various pieces of the
mosaic. The glazier cuts these pieces
out from sheets of glass of various col-
ors, and hands them back to the painter,
who proceeds first to paint the leading
lines with a solid opaque enamel, the
coloring matter of which is an oxide of
iron. This being done the pieces of glass
are stuck together temporarily (by
means of wax) on a glass easel, and the
painter slightly shades his bold traced
lines with the same opaque color; using
sometimes washes, and sometimes hatch-
ing of lightly laid-on lines, as in a black
and white drawing on paper. Sometimes
both washes and hatching are used, and
the washed shadows are stippled. In
any case the object of the method of
shading is to keep the shadows as clear,
and to dull the glass as little as the
explanation or expression of the subject
will admit of. Two or three or more
firings are necessary during the process
of this painting. This being done, the
glass goes back to the glazier's bench
again, and he leads it up, and the win-
dow, after having been solidified by a
stiff cement or putty rubbed into the
leaf of the leads, has then only to be put
in its place and strengthened by the due
iron stay bars.
Of the origin of glass manufacture
nothing is knovioi, but according to
Egyptologists, the Egyptians made sham
jewels of glass at least 5000 or 6000 B. C.
In some of the most ancient tombs scar-
abs of glass have been found imitating
rubies, emeralds, sapphires, and other
precious stones. It is probable that the
great center of the glass industry _ of
mediaeval and more recent times, Venice,
received its early impulse and lessons
from Constantinople. The art began
there with the beginning of the city in
the 7th century A. D., and there was a
marked improvement after the conquest
of Constantinople in 1204, and in 1291
the establishments were removed to the
island of Murano, the manufacturers
forming a guild with a register of nobil-
ity and guarding their secret with the
greatest jealousy. In 1436 their color
glass came into note, and continued so
till the close of the century; and in the
16th century lace patterns and mirrors
were introduced. In the 15th and 16th
centuries plain glass with tasteful orna-
ments in gilt and enamel; in the 16th,
crackled lace and reticulated glass; and
in the 17th century, variegated or
marbled glasses were produced.
The Venetian glass enjoyed for a long
time the monopoly of commerce, and
within recent years there has been a
marked revival of the skill and enter-
prise of Venetian craftsmen. In Ger-
many the oldest glass dates from the
QLASSITES
329
QLATZ
16th centui'y, and consists of goblets and
tankards of white color, enameled with
colored coats of arms and other devices,
millefiori, and schmeltz glass. Engraved
glass was first introduced by Casper Leh-
mann, at Prague, in 1609, under imperial
protection, and continued by his pupil
Schwanhard; and ruby glass by Kunckel
in 1679. Glass is said to have been made
in 1294 at Quinquengrone, in Normandy,
and a common kind was made later in
Dauphine and Provence. In 1665 20
Venetian glass workers were brought
by Colbert to Paris, where they set up
the blowing of glass and the silvering
of mirrors, the famous mirror hall in
Versailles having been furnished by
them. In 1688 an exclusive privilege of
making large plates of glass by casting
was conferred on Abraham Thevart. The
name Thevart was assumed by a syndi-
cate of capitalists formed to develop and
work the invention of Louis Lucas de
Nehon, who was the real inventor of
plate glass and the founder of the Gobain
works, one of the most extensive plate
glass works in the world. In France
oxide of lead flint glass was made at
St. Cloud in 1784; another manufactory
was subsequently established at St. Louis
in 1790; and the St. Cloud establishment
was removed to the vicinity of Mont
Cenis, where it flourished till 1827.
It is uncertain whether glass was
made in England before the 16th century,
as that mentioned may have been im-
ported from Flanders or Venice. In 644
Benedict Biscop inti'oduced makers of
glass windows into Northumbria; but
window glass was not in general use for
windows till the 15th century. Attempts
were made to establish glass works at
Jamestown, Va., in 1608-1622; at Salem,
Mass., in 1639-1640; in New York City
before 1664; and in Pennsylvania before
1683. Subsequently works were estab-
lished in 1780 at Temple, N. H.; in 1792
at Boston; and in 1797 at Pittsburgh.
Plate glass was first made there in 1853,
and it is also made at Baltimore and
New York. Pressed glass was invented
in the United States.
GLASSITES, a religious sect, which
sprang up in Scotland about 1729, and
was so called after its founder, the Rev.
John Glas, who was originally a min-
ister of the Church of Scotland, but was
deposed by the General Assembly. He
was opposed to all national establish-
ments for the support of relicrinn, and
advocated a system of independent
Church government. One of his princi-
pal disciples was Robert Sandeman, who
formed a congregation in London in
1762. This sect in England bears the
name of Sandemanians. The leading
tenets of the Glassites, or Sandemanians,
relate to the eflicacy of the atonement
and the nature of faith. They hold that
"the bare death of Christ, without a deed
or thought on the part of man, is suffi-
cient to present the chief of sinners spot-
less before God"; and that "faith is no
more than a simple assent to the divine
testimony, passively received by the un-
derstanding." They observe certain
peculiar practices, supposed to have been
prevalent among the primitive Chris-
tians; such as weekly sacraments, love-
feasts, washing each other's feet, the
kiss of charity, etc.
GLASS MOSAIC, an imitation of an-
tique mosaic work, formed of small cubes
of glass mixed with various coloring
matters, chiefly metallic oxides, so as to
form opaque colored enamels, which are
cast into slabs or flat cakes, the slab
being afterward cvit into very small
cubes or rectangular pieces. With these
little colored cubes a picture is built up
by inserting each one separately in a bed
of cement.
GLASSPORT, a borough of Pennsyl-
vania, in Allegheny co. It is on the
Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad, and
on the Monongahela river. It is the
center of an important coal-mining re-
gion, and its industries include the manu-
facture of axes, steel hoops, glass, foun-
dry products, etc. Pop. (1910) 5,540;
(1920) 6,959.
GLASSPOT, the pot in which the frit
is fused into glass. They are made of
pure refractory clay, mixed with about
one-fifth its weight of old pots pulverized
by grinding, are built up instead of being
formed on a mold, and baked by being
subjected to a white heat.
GLASS ROPE, a genus of siliceous
sponges, consisting of a cup-shaped body
affixed to a muddy part of the sea bot-
tom by means of a rope of long twisted
siliceous fibers.
GLASS SNAKE, a lizard, of the family
Zonuridse, or Chalcidfe. From the ab-
sence of feet, they look like serpents.
They are found i" this country. The
name glass snake is supposed to allude
to the brittleness of their tail.
GLASTONBURY, a to%vn of Somer-
setshire, England, 25 miles S. of Bath.
It was the seat of the most magnificent
and wealthy abbey in England, the last
abbot of which was hanged for refusing
to surrender it to Henry VIII. Its ruins
are still extensive.
GLATZ (glats) , a town of the province
of Silesia, Prussia, on the left bank of
the Neisse, 52 miles S. S. W. of Breslau.
It has four Catholic churches. Its manu-
factures before the World War included
GLAUBER'S SALT
330
GLEAVES
linen, damask, and woolen fabrics,
leather, and rose-garlands. During the
Thirty Years' and Seven Years' Wars,
Glatz was frequently besieged and taken.
Pop. about 17,000.
GLAUBER'S SALT, sulphate of so-
dium, so called because of the importance
attached to its chemical and medicinal
properties by Glauber.
GLAUCHAU, a manufacturing town
in Saxony, Germany, situated on the
Mulde, eight miles northwest of Zwickau.
Prior to the World War it ranked as one
of the chief textile manufacturing cen-
ters of all Germany, especially in the
production of high class woolen fabrics.
The local museum has a very complete
collection of old textiles, and one of the
best technical textile schools in Germany
is located here. Included in the town's
industrial establishments were twenty-
four dye factories. The population is
about 25,000.
GLAUCINE, the alkaloid contained in
the leaves of Glmicmm flavum. The
leaves are macerated with acetic acid,
then the juice is pressed out, boiled, fil-
tered, and the filtrate treated with lead
nitrate, which precipitates lead fumarate.
The filtrate is treated with HsS, then the
glaucine is precipitated with tannin, and
the precipitate decomposed by chalk.
GLAUCODOTE, an orthorhombic,
greenish, tin-white mineral of metallic
luster and white streak. It occurs in
chlorite slate in the province of Huasco
in Chile, also in Sweden.
GLAUCOMA (gla'ko-ma), an opacity
of the vitreous humor of the eye, charac-
terized by a bluish tint seen from with-
out, and the absence of the peculiar char-
acters of the cataract, which, in some
respects, it resembles.
GLAUCONITE, an amorphous green
opaque mineral, like earthy chlorite, with
a dull or glistening luster. There are
two varieties of it; the one the green
earth cavities in eruptive rocks, the other
the green grains in greens and forma-
tion, or anything similar.
GLAUCOPICRINE (-pl'krin), an al-
kaloid occurring in the root of Glaucium
flavum. The root is exhausted with
acetic acid, then precipitated with am-
monia, redissolved in acetic acid, then
precipitated with a solution of oak bark,
and decomposing the precipitate with
chalk, is crystallized out of ether.
GLAUCOPIN^ (-pi'ne), wattle-crows,
a sub-family of Corvidse. The bill is
short; the culmen elevated and curved
from the base; the upper mandible en-
tire; the wings short, rounded; the tail
lengthened, graduated, or cuneated.
GLAUX, a genus of plants, order
Prhnulaceoe, having a five-lobed calyx,
no corolla, and a five-valved capsule,
with about five seeds, G. maritima,
sometimes called sea milk-wort and
black salt-wort, is one of the most com-
mon plants of our sea-coasts, growing in
almost every muddy situation. It is a
small plant, with branching stems, often
procumbent, and small fleshy leaves. It
makes a good pickle.
GLAZE, a vitrifiable composition for
covering earthenware or porcelain. In
cookery the word is applied to the white
of eggs, or strong gravy or jelly boiled
down to the consistency of a thin cream,
and used to cover pastry, with a glossy,
shining coating. In painting it is used
for any kind of varnish intended to pre-
serve the picture from the effects of the
atmosphere, and to add brilliancy to the
colors.
GLAZIER, LAKE, a body of water in
Minnesota, S. of Lake Itasca, into which
it empties through a swift and perma-
nent stream about six feet wide; named
for Capt. Willard Glazier, who claimed
for it a geographical importance as the
true source of the Mississippi. Lake
Glazier is in lat. about 47° 34' N. and
Ion. 95° .02' W.; is Wz miles in greatest
diameter; and has an area of 255 acre^.
It is estimated to be 1,582 feet above the
Atlantic, and 3,184 miles from the Gulf
of Mexico. The Minnesota State His-
torical Society sent an expedition to the
region and published a refutation of
Glazier's claims.
GLEASON. ELLIOTT PERRY, an
American inventor; born in "Westmore-
land, N. H., June 27, 1821; received a
common school education; was one of the
fi.rst to manufacture gas burners; and
invented the regulating argand burner,
etc. He died in 1901.
GLEAVES. ALBERT, an American
naval officer, born in Nashville, Tenn., in
1858. He studied at the United States
Academy and was appointed ensign in
1881. He rose through the various
grades, becoming captain in 1909, rear
admiral in 1915, vice-admiral in 1918,
and admiral in 1919. He saw much serv-
ice, both on shore and at sea. In 1915
he was appointed commander of the
destroyer "Force" of the Atlantic Fleet
and in May, 1917, he was appointed com-
mander of convoy operations in the At-
lantic. In this capacity he convoyed the
first American Expeditionary Force to
France. He was commander of the
cruiser and transport force of the At-
lantic Fleet from July, 1917, to Septem-
ber, 1919. In the latter year he was
made a commander of the Asiatic Sta-
GLEB^ ADSCRIPTI
331
GLENDALE
tion. While on special service in com-
mand of the Dolphin, he discovered the
greatest depth in the North Atlantic
Ocean. In 1908 he established the first
government torpedo factory. He was
awarded the Victory medal with star,
and the Distinguished Service Medal,
and was commander of the French Legion
of Honor. He was the author of "Cap-
tain James Lawrence, U. S. N." (1904).
GLEBiE ADSCBIPTI (gle'be ad-skrip'
ti) , in the Roman empire, from the 4th
century onward, the cultivators of the
soil, who, though personally free, were
inseparably attached to the land they
cultivated. They paid a fixed rent in
kind to the owner of the domain, and,
when he retained any land in his own
hands, they were generally under the
obligation to render him free a deter-
minate amount of labor to till it. If the
land was sold, they still remained at-
tached to it. The Helots of Sparta were
also glebse adscripti.
GLEBE, in the established Churches
of England and Scotland, the land
possessed as part of the revenue of an
ecclesiastical benefice, usually along with
a dwelling house.
GLEDITSCHIA, a genus of plants,
order Fo.haceae. They are trees, with
supra-axillary, branched spines; leaves
abruptly pinnate and bi-pinnate, often in
the same specimen. G. triacanthus, the
honey locust, is a fine ornamental tree,
native from Pennsylvania to Missouri,
and now common in cultivation. Its
branches are armed with stout, triple
spines. In favorable circumstances it
attains the height of 70 feet. The
thorns, with which its branches are
armed in a most formidable manner, are
2 to 3 inches long. Foliage light and
elegant, the flowers are small, white, suc-
ceeded by flat, crooked hanging pods.
Seeds flat, hard, brown, imbedded in a
fleshy substance; at first sweet, but be-
comes sour.
GLEE, a musical composition for
voices in harmony, consisting of two or
more contrasted movements, with the
parts so contrived that they may be
termed a series of interwoven melodies.
It may be written for three or more
voices, either equal or mixed; but it is
necessary that there should be only one
voice to a part. It may be designed with
or without instrumental accompaniment,
and set to words in any style. As a com-
position the glee appears to have his-
torically followed the catch.
GLEEMEN, itinerant minstrels, so
called by the Anglo-Saxons; by the Latin
writers of the Middle Ages they are
termed joculatores. The name appears
to have been supplanted by the Norman
minstrels shortly after the Conquest.
GLENALMOND (-a'mond), a valley of
Perthshire, Scotland, much visited for its
scenery, and for Ossian's grave — the sub-
ject of Wordsworth's verses on the
"Narrow Glen." It is the seat of Trinity
College, Glenalmond (1847), whose build-
ings have been to some extent repro-
duced in those of Trinity College, Hart-
ford, Conn.
GLENCOE (-ko), a valley in the
county of Argyle, near the head of Loch
Etive, Scotland. It is bounded on both
sides by almost perpendicular mountains
over 3,000 feet high. The valley was the
scene of a tragedy known as the mas-
sacre of Glencoe. The state of the
Highlands after 1690 was a subject of
great anxiety to the government. Al-
though the Highlanders had ceased any
knportant operations since the death of
Dundee at Killiecrankie, they had not
laid down their arms. In 1691 a proc-
lamation was issued promising pardon
to all who should swear allegiance on
or before Dec. 31, 1691. All the chiefs,
with the exception of one Ian of Glencoe,
complied. The latter had unfortunately
exceeded the prescribed period, and a
certificate which he produced to prove
that he had offered to take the oaths at
Fort William was suppressed, as is
thought by Stair. The king's signature
was obtained to an order to extirpate the
MacDonalds. On Feb. 1 a party of
soldiers, 120 in number, commanded by
Captain Campbell of Glenlyon, marched
up the glen and took quarters as friends.
The soldiers belonged mostly to the clan
Campbell, enemies of the MacDonalds,
but they were well treated, and all went
merrily for 12 days. At 5 in the moi-n-
ing of the 13th Glenlyon and his men
suddenly fell on the MacDonalds. Thirty-
eight men were murdered, but many
who had escaped perished in the snow,
sank into bogs, or died for lack of food.
GLEN COVE, a city in Nassau county.
New York. It is on the Long Island
Railroad, and on Long Island Sound. It
is chiefly a residential city, but has some
manufactures. It has excellent public
schools and a public library. It is the
seat of a Friends' Academy. It was in-
corporated in 1918. Pop. (1920) 8,664.
GLENDALE, a city of California, in
Los Angeles co. It is on the Pacific Elec-
tric and the San Pedro, Los Angeles, and
Salt Lake railroads. Its public institu-
tions include a sanitarium, a public
library, and a high school. It is the
center of an important fruit-growing
district. Pop. (1910) 2,746; (1920)
13,536.
GLENDALOUGH
332
GLENROY
GLENDALOUGH (glen-dal'o),
in Leister, Wicklow co., Ireland, about 24
miles S. of Dublin; the vicinity is cele-
brated for its scenery and ruins.
G L E N D 0 W E R, or GLENDWB,
OWEN (glen'dor), a Welsh chief; born
in Montgomeryshire about 1359. He was
made esquire of the body to Richard II.,
and remained with him till his deposi-
tion by Henry IV. in 1399, after which
he retired into private life. Shortly
after the accession of the new king part
>f Glendower's lands were seized by his
aeighbor. Lord Grey of Ruthin. There-
upon the Welshman, being unable^ to
obtain redress from the English king,
took up arms in his own cause, and in
1400 commenced operations by seizing
the estates of Lord Grey. The king or-
dered his subjugation, and granted his
estates to his brother, the Earl of Som-
erset. Then for two years Glendower
carried on a guerrilla warfare against
the English marches. In 1402 he drew
Lord Grey into an ambush, and took him
prisoner. In this same year Sir Edmund
Mortimer, the uncle of the Earl of
March, was also captured by Glendower.
Both Grey and Mortimer married daugh-
ters of the Welsh chieftain and with him
formed the coalition with Harry Percy
(Hotspur) against Henry of England.
That coalition ended in the battle of
Shrewsbury in July, 1403, in which the
English king gained a decisive victory,
Hotspur being among the slain. In June
of the following year Glendower entered
into a treaty with Charles VI. of France,
who in 1405 sent a force to Wales to act
against the English. Meantime, in the
spring of 1405, Glendower had been
twice severely defeated by Prince Henry
of England. The Welsh prince neverthe-
less kept up a desultory warfare during
the remaining years of his life. He never
submitted to English rule, and is be-
lieved to have died peacefully in Mon-
mouthshire after 1416.
GLENFINNAN, a Highland glen in
Inverness-shire, Scotland; 18 miles W.
Df Fort William. Here, on Aug. 19, 1745,
ihe clans gathered under Prince Charles
Edward's banner, and here in 1815 was
erected to his memory a tower bearing
in inscription in Gaelic, Latin, and Eng-
•-ish.
GLENLIVET (-le'vet), the valley of
Livet Water in Banffshire, Scotland. The
Livet runs 14 miles N. W. till, at a point
5 miles S. of Ballindalloch station, it
falls after a total descent of 1,600 feet
into the A van, itself an affluent of the
Spey. In the battle of Glenlivet or All-
tacoileachan, Oct. 4, 1594, 10,000 Prot-
estants under the Earl of Argyll were
routed by the Catholic insurgents under
the Earl of Huntly.
GLENNON, JAMES HENKY, an
American naval officer, born in French
Gulch, Cal., in 1857. He graduated from
the United States Naval Academy in
1878. He was appointed ensign in 1882.
He rose through the various grades, be-
coming captain in 1909, and rear-ad-
miral in 1916. During the Spanish-
American War he served on the "Massa-
chusetts," and was acting captain of the
port of Havana in 1899. He commanded
at various times the Navy Yard of New
York, and other navy yards, and was a
member of the Panama Fortifications
Board. He was also president of the
Board of Naval Ordnance and the Joint
Army and Navy Board on gun forgings,
in 1915. He was commander of the
Navy Yard and superintendent of the
Naval Gun Factory at Washington in
1915-1917. In the latter year he was a
representative of the Navy Department
with the American special mission to
Russia. He was commander of Squadron
One, of the Battleship Force of the At-
lantic Fleet, in September, 1917, and was
commander of the 5th Division of the
Atlantic Fleet in 1918. In 1918-1919 he
was commandant of the 13th Naval Dis-
trict.
GLENNON, JOHN JOSEPH, an Amer*
ican Roman Catholic archbishop, born in
Kinnegad, County Meath, Ireland, in 1862.
He graduated from All Hallows College,
Dublin, in 1883, and in the following year
was ordained priest. He removed to the
United States and became assistant pas-
tor of St. Patrick's Church in Kansas
City. He was successively pastor of the
cathedral in Kansas City, vicar-general
of the diocese, administrator of the
diocese, and coadjutor-bishop of Kansas
City. He was consecrated bishop of
Pinara in 1896, and became coadjutor
archbishop of St. Louis in 1903. In the
same year he was created archbishop of
St. Louis.
GLENROY (-roi'), a valley in the
Highlands of Scotland, paralled to Glen-
more in Lochaber, Inverness-shire. It is
nearly 14 miles in length, and little more
than V2 mile in breadth, and is celebrated
for its so-called Parallel Roads which
are three parallel terraces running along
either side of the glen. Not only do the
lines on the same side run parallel to
each other, but on both sides they respec-
tively occupy the same horizontal level.
These terraces project, at some parts
only a few feet from the hillside, and at
others vdden out so as to be a number
of yards in breadth. The lowest terrace
is 850 to 862 feet above the sea-level; th©
GLEN FALLS
333
GLOBULIN
middle, 1,062 to 1,077 feet; and the high-
est 1,144 to 1,155 feet. Their origin was
much disputed, but according to Mac-
culloch, Agassiz, Buckland, and Geikie,
the roads are shore-lines of glacier lakes.
GLENS FALLS, a village in Warren
CO., N. Y., on the Hudson river, and on
the Delaware and Hudson railroad; 54
miles N. of Albany. The river, here
flowing through a ravine, descends 50
feet over a precipice 900 feet long, from
which the place derives its name, and
supplies enormous water power. The
city has extensive marble and limestone
quarries, lime works, sawmills, shirt,
paper, and collar factories, and lath and
planing mills. There are a Union High
School, Crandell Public Library, a sum-
mer school for teachers, Glens Falls Acad-
emy, electric lights and street railroads,
waterworks, daily and weekly news-
papers, and National banks. Pop. (1910)
15,243; (1920) 16,638.
GLENTILT, a valley in Perthshire,
Scotland; the deep narrow glen of the
Tilt, which issues from Loch Tilt and runs
16 miles S. W. receiving the larger Tarf
Water and Fender Burn, until at Blair-
Athole it falls into the Garry. Glentilt is
classic ground to the geologist, as having
furnished evidence for the Huttonian or
denudation theory.
GLINKA, GREGORY ANDREEVICH,
a Russian author; born near Smolensk
in 1774. He was in boyhood a page at
the imperial court. He entered upon a
distinguished career as an educator, and
accompanied Alexander L's brothers on
their Continental tour in 1811. His works
include: "The Ancient Religion of the
Slavs"; "Miscellanies in Prose and
Verse" and a play, "The Daughters of
Love." He died in Moscow in 1818.
GLINKA, MICHAEL IVANOVITCH,
a Russian composer; born in Smolensk,
May 20, 1804; studied under John Field
in St. Petersburg. Several songs and the
operas "Life for the Czar" and "Russian
and Ludmilla," all in Russian, have re-
ceived high praise from critics. He died
in Berlin, Feb. 15, 1857.
GLINKA, SERGIUS NICOLAIE-
VICH, a Russian poet; bom in Smolensk
in 1774. He entered the military service
and rose to the rank of major, when he
retired. His literary work was devoted
mainly to the young and their training.
"Readings for Children," "History of
Russia for the Use of Boys and Girls,"
and similar books, are highly esteemed.
He also composed a few plays in verse,
edited the "Russian Messenger," and
translated Young's ''Night Thoughts."
He died in Moscow in 1847.
Vol. IV— Cyc— V
GLISSON'S CAPSULE, in anatomy, a
sheath of areolar tissue surrounding the
branches of the portal vein, the hepatic
artery and the hepatic duct; first pointed
out by Glisson.
GLOBE, a city of Arizona, the county-
seat of Gila CO. It is on the Arizona
Eastern railroad. In the neighborhood
is the great Roosevelt reservoir, which
was erected at a cost of over $8,000,000.
It has a park, a library, and other public
buildings. It is the center of an impor-
tant mining region and its chief industry
is the smelting of copper. Pop. (1910)
7,083; (1920) 7,044.
GLOBE, a sphere, round solid body,
which may be conceived to be generated
by the revolution of a semicircle about
its diameter. An artificial globe in geog-
raphy and astronomy, is a globe of
metal, plaster, paper, pasteboard, etc.,
on the surface of which is drawn a map,
or representation of either the earth or
the heavens, with the several circles
which are conceived upon them, the for-
mer being called the terrestrial globe,
and the latter the celestial globe. In the
terrestrial globe the wire on which it
turns represents the earth's axis, the
extremities of it representing the poles.
The brazen meridian is a vertical circle
in which the artificial globe turns, divided
into 360 degrees, each degree being
divided into minutes and seconds. The
brass meridian receives the ends of the
axis on which the globe revolves. At
right angles to this, and consequently
horizontal, is a broad ring of wood or
brass representing the horizon; that is,
the true horizon of the earth which lies
in a plane containing the earth's center.
GLOBE FISHES, the family Gymno'
dontidfe, of which the chief genera are
Diodon and Tetraodon. They are so
called because by taking air into a large
sac, extending over the whole of the abdo-
men beneath the skin, they became nearly
globular as a result of this inflation.
GLOBIGERINA (-i'na) MUD, in geol-
ogy, a light-colored calcareous mud in
places in the Atlantic 3,000 fathoms deep,
and abounding in Globigerhias, rich in
siliceous sponges, and often supporting a
varied fauna of Mollusca, Crustacea, and
Echinoderyns.
GLOBULIN, crystallin, or vitellin, an
albuminous substance first obtained from
the crystalline lens of the eye. Globulin
thus obtained is a yellowish transparent
mass, which swells up and dissolves in
water; the solution becomes opaline at
73° and coagulates at 93°. It can be
obtained by treating the yolks of eggs
with ether, and treating the residue with
GLOCKEBITE
384
GLOUCESTER
chloride of sodium solution and precipi-
tating with water.
GIX)CKERITE, a brown, ocher-yellow,
brownish-black, pitch-black, or dull-
green mineral; massive, sparry, or earthy
and stalactitic. Found in Hanover; also
at Modum, in Norway.
GLOCKNEB, a mountain in Austria
belonging to the Noric Alps, on the fron-
tiers of the Tyrol, Carinthia, and Salz-
burg. It is 12,350 feet in height, and
takes its name from the resemblance of
the principal summit to a large bell.
GLOGAU, or GROSSGLOGAU, the
capital of a district in Prussian Silesia,
Germany, situated on the Oder, 60 miles
northwest of Breslau, on the Oder river.
Here is located a second class fortress,
built on an island in the river.
GLOMMEN, the largest river in Nor-
way, issuing from Lake Aursund, at
2,339 feet above sea-level, and winding
350 miles to the Skager Rack at Fred-
erikstad. Its course is interrupted by
frequent waterfalls, the last, with a de-
scent of 74 feet, being the Sarpsfos, 7
miles from the mouth. It is only navi-
gable a few miles above and below Sarps-
fos. Its most important affluent is the
Vormen from Lake Mjosen.
GLORY PEA, a leguminous plant,
native of the desert regions of Austra-
lia. It is a low straggling shrub with
light-colored, hairy, pinnate leaves, and
large, brilliant scarlet flowers, the stand-
ard or banner petal of which appears in
the form of an elongated shield with a
dark brown boss in the center.
GLOSS, the name is ^ven to the in-
terpretations or explanations of the Jus-
tinian code, which were generally written
between the lines of the text and on the
margin, and were hence called "glossae
interlineares" and "glossae marginales."
These glosses were sometimes held to be
of equal authority with the text itself.
Accursius, who died about 1260, collected
and arranged the glosses of his prede-
cessors. The practice of introducing
glosses was also adopted with the books
of the canon law.
GLOSSANTHRAX (-an'-), a disease
affecting herbivorous animals, especially
cattle and horses. It is characterized by
dark-colored carbuncles on the tongue.
GLOSSARY, a vocabulary or diction-
ary of glosses, or explanations of words
obsolete or rare, or occurring only in
works of a special class as technical
terms, or of provincial dialectal forms
of words.
GLOSSITIS (-s!-tis), inflammation of
the tongue. When it occurs, it is gener-
ally as a symptom of some other disease.
The tongue when inflamed often becomes
too large for the mouth.
GLOTTIS, the mouth of the wind-pipe.
It constitutes a narrow aperture covereo
by the epiglottis when one holds his
breath or swallows. It contributes by
dilatation and contraction to the modu-
lation of the voice. It is sometimes called
the rima glottis.
GLOUCESTER (glos'ter), a city and
parliamentary borough, river port and
county-seat of Gloucester co., England;
on the left bank of the Severn, here di-
vided into two channels inclosing the Isle
of Alney and crossed by two fine bridges,
95 miles N. W. of London. It carries on
a considerable shipping trade, the
Gloucester and Berkeley canal giving ac-
cess to the docks. The most remarkable
public edifice is the cathedral; it was
originally the church of a Benedictine
abbey, dating from 1058, and was con-
verted into a cathedral at the Reforma-
tion. It exhibits a great variety of
styles, the choir, with its roof of fan tra-
cery being a fine example of Perpendicu-
lar Gothic. Other buildings are several
handsome old churches, the shire hall, the
guildhall, the bishop's palace, and county
schools of art and science. The schools
include the collegiate school founded by
Henry VIII., the theological college, the
blue-coat school founded in 1666, now
known as Sir Thomas Rich's school, and
the grammar school of St. Mary de
Crypt, founded in the time of Henry
VIL Pop. (1919) 50,000.
GLOUCESTER, a city and port of en-
try of Essex CO., Mass., and Massachu-
setts Bay, near the extremity of Cape
Ann, and on the Boston and Maine rail-
road; 32 miles N. E. of Boston. It is
one of the most important fishing ports
and fish markets in the world, having
over 5,000 men engaged in the fisheries.
Cod, haddock, halibut, herring, and mack-
erel are the principal catches. The Cape
Ann granite quarries employ nearly
2,000 men, and supplied the granite for
the postoffices at Boston and Baltimore
and the East River bridge. The city is
a popular summer resort, and has con-
siderable historical interest. It was
founded in 1623, principally by settlers
from Gloucester, England, from which it
received its name; was incorporated as a
town in 1642 ; and became a city in 1874.
It has the oldest Universalist Church in
the United States, founded in 1770. There
are the Sawyer Public Library, electric
lights and street railroads, the Gilbert
Hospital, Gilbert Home, Huntress Home
for Aged Women, high school, daily and
weekly newspapers, waterworks, and 2
GLOUCESTER CITY
335
GLOVE
National banks. Pop. (1910) 24,394;
(1920) 22,947.
GLOUCESTER CITY, a city in Cam-
den CO., N. J.; on the Delaware river and
on the Atlantic City and Pennsylvania
railroad; 3 miles S. of Camden. It has
steam ferry connections with Philadel-
phia, and has electric lights and street
railroads, waterworks, cotton mills, iron,
terra cotta, and print works, the Wels-
bach gas mantle factory, and valuable
fishing interests. There are weekly news-
papers, and savings banks. Pop. (1910)
9,462; (1920) 12,162.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE, a county of
England, in the southwest part. It has
an area of 1,259 square miles. Its chief
industries are dairying and the raising
of cattle. It has also extensive manufac-
turing interests and some coal mining.
It contains the parliamentary boroughs
of Cheltenham and Gloucester, and a part
of the borough of Bristol. The capital
is Gloucester. Pop. of the county, about
740,000.
GLOUCESTER, DUKES AND EARLS
OF. (1) Robert, Earl of Gloucester
(died 1147), a natural son of Henry I.,
the principal supporter of his sister Ma-
tilda and her son Henry in their contest
against Stephen for the English throne.
(2) Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Gloucester
(1243-1295), one of the most influential
nobles during the reigns of Henry III.
and Edward I. At first he sided with
Simon de Montfort, and helped him to
gain the battle of Lewes (1264) ; but aft-
erward, quarrelling with Simon, he made
common cause with Prince Edward and
won for him the battle of Evesham
(1265). (3) Thomas of Woodstock,
Duke of Gloucester (1355-1397), the
youngest son of Edward III., was from
1386 to 1389 the virtual ruler of the
country. He was put to death by Rich-
ard II. at Calais in 1397, on the plea that
he was plotting against the king. (4)
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (1391-
1447), fourth son of Henry IV., acted as
protector of the realm during the
minority of Henry VI. He was arrested
for high treason on Feb. 18, 1447, and
five days later found dead in bed. He
Kras a patron of learning, but reckless
and foolish in his public conduct. (5)
Richard, Duke of Gloucester, became
King Richard III. (g. v.). (6) Henry
Duke of Gloucester (1639-1660), third
son of Charles I. (7) William, Duke of
Gloucester (1689-1700), eldest son of
Queen Anne. (8) William Henry (1743-
1805), George III.'s brother, created
Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh in
1764. (9) His son, William Frederick
(1776-1834).
GLOVE, an article of dress; a cover-
ing for the hand. Its use reaches back to
a remote antiquity, for we are told in the
Odyssey that Laertes, the farmer-king,
wore gloves to protect his hands from the
thorns. Xenophon also sneers at the Per-
sians for wearing gloves for keeping
tlieir hands warm. In their moi'e robust
days the Greeks and Romans scorned
the use of gloves; but in later times they
were used in Rome. The glove appears
to have become a well-known article of
dress in England about the 14th century,
and corporations of glovers were in exist-
ence in the 15th century.
Modern gloves are of two distinct
classes, woven and knitted gloves, and
those made of leather; and the making
of these constitute entirely separate
branches of manufacture. The manu-
facture of knitted or woven gloves is an
industry allied to the hosiery trade, and
the materials comprise all the ordinary
fibers, the most important being silk and
wool. In some cases these gloves are en-
tirely made and finished by knitting;
but in others the pieces are separately
fashioned and sewed together as in mak-
ing leather gloves. The manufacture is
widespread, but the headquarters of the
thread and cloth glove trade are now
Berlin and Saxony. The materials used
for making leather gloves is principally
the skins of deer, sheep and lambs, goats
and kids, the latter being the most impor-
tant, though far more "kid" gloves are
made of sheep than of kid leather. The
skins for military and other heavy
gloves — doe or buck leather — are pre-
pared by the ordinary process of tanning.
Kid gloves are of two principal kinds,
glace and su^de, according to the manner
of dressing and finishing the leather
used. Glace gloves are those which are
dressed, dyed, and polished on the hair or
outer side of the skin, while suede gloves
are carefully pared, smoothed, and dyed
on the inner side of the skin for their
purpose, and thus have the appearance of
fine chamois. Paris and Grenoble are the
chief seats of the French kid glove trade.
Military gloves are made at Niort and
Vendome. Brussels and Copenhagen are
also important glove-making centers. In
England, Worcester is the principal^ seat
of the glove industry; and in a specialty,
the so-called English dogskin gloves made
from the skins of Cape sheep, the Eng-
lish manufacturers are without rivals.
In feudal times the challenge to single
combat was given by the casting down
of the glove; and an ancient and more
pleasing ceremonial still observed con-
sists in the presentation of white gloves
to a judge presiding over an assize at
which no cases come up for trial.
GLOVEKSVILLE
336
GLUCOSE
GLOVEKSVILLE, a city in Fulton co.,
N. Y. ; on the Fonda, Johnstown and
Gloversville railroad, and on the Erie
canal; 50 mles N. W. of Albany.
It is celebrated for its manufacture
of gloves. It contains the Nathan
Littauer Hospital, the Parsons Free Li-
brary, a high school, business college, a
National bank, waterworks, electric
lights and railroads, and daily and
weekly newspapers. Pop. (1910) 20,642;
(1920) 22,075.
GLOW WORM, a beetle of which the
male flies and does not shine, while the
female shines and does not fly. It is from
the latter sex, therefore, that the name
glow worm has been derived. The phos-
phoric light is displayed at the tail of
the insect.
GLOXINIA, a genus of plants, order
Gesneraceoe. Some of the species are
among the more popular flowers, and are
well knov/n to gardeners by their fox-
glove-shaped flowers of varied colors,
each standing on a separate stalk — in
some forms with the opening of the tube
directed downward; in others standing
erect. The gloxinia generate buds from
fragments of their leaves, under the
hands of the cultivator.
GLUCHOV (glc-kov'), a town in the
government of Tchernigoff', Russia; 112
miles E. of Tchernigoff. It has manufac-
tures of soap, candles, and leather, and a
considerable trade in grain. In the vicin-
ity is the chief source for porcelain clay
in the empire. Pop. about 15,000.
GLTJCINUM (-si'num), an elementary
metal, the base of the earth glucina. It
resembles aluminum, and is prepared in
the same manner. It is not acted on by
water, fuses with difficulty, and when
heated in the air, burns, producing glu-
cina. It was discovered by Wohler in
1828.
GLITCK, ALMA, a soprano singer,
born in Bucharest, Rumania, in 1886. At
the age of three she was brought to the
United States, where she was educated in
the public schools and at Normal College
of New York. She studied music in that
city, and made her first appearance in
1909 in opera. She at once gained recog-
nition as an artist of unusual talent,
both in opera and on the concert stage.
In 1914 she married Efrem Zimbalist,
violinist.
GLITCK, CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD
(glok), a German composer; born in
V'eM^nwang, July 2, 1714 ; studied music
at M'lan, under San Martini, and pre-
sented soon af+^erwai'd several operas in
theaters in Italy. Judaing that his want
of success was partially due to the weak-
ness of the libretti, he conjoined with
himself in his labors the poet Ranieri di
Calzabigi, and his next subsequent opera,
"Helena and Paris," was received with
tumults of applause. In 1774 he went
to Paris, and presented there successively
CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD GLUCK
several masterpieces, as "Iphigenia in
Aulis," "Orpheus," "Armidas," "Iphi-
genia in Taurus," "Alcestes." He died
in Vienna, Nov. 15, 1787.
GLUCKSTADT (eliik'stat), a town in
the province of Schleswig-Holstein, Prus-
sia, on the Elbe river, 32 miles N. W.
of Hamburg. Founded in 1616 by
Christian IV. of Denmark, it is a pretty
town, regularly built, and intersected by
canals, its chief building the Rathaus
(1642; restored 1874). During the
Thirty Years' War Glvickstadt success-
fully withstood three sieges; its fortifi-
cations were demolished in 1815.
GLUCOSE, a fermentable sugar, Cs
HuOo, which occurs in two modifications,
called dextro-glucose, or dextrose, and
loevo-glucose (also called Levulose), ac-
cording as it turns the plane of polariza-
tion to the right or left. A solution of
cane-sugar warmed with dilute acids, or
left in contact with yeast, is converted
into dextrose and levulose, Ci2H220i] +
H,0=CoH,20»+C6H,20,:. These modifica-
tions can be separated, thus — 10 parts of
the mixture of sugar are dissolved in 100
GLUCOSURIA
337
GLYCERAMIC ACID
parts of water, and cooled with ice; then
six parts of powdered calcium hydrate
are added, the calcium compound of
levulose is precipitated and separated
from the soluble calcium compound of
dextrose by strong pressure, washed, and
decomposed by carbonic-acid gas. The
term "glucose" is generally applied to a
mixture composed of dextro-glucose, mal-
tose, dextrin and water prepared from
corn starch, by heating with dilute acids.
It is widely used in the manufacture of
candy, and was formerly an important
commodity in the brewing of malt
liquors.
GLUCOSimiA, a form of diabetes.
The name has reference to the fact that
the urine of persons affected with this
disease contains sugar.
GLUE, an impure gelatine. It is pre-
pared from the clippings of hides, hoofs,
and horns. Good glue is semi-transpar-
ent, and free from spots and clouds.
When wanted for use, it is broken in
pieces and steeped in cold water till it
softens and swells. It is then melted
over a gentle fire, or, what is better, in
a water bath, and applied in a liquid
state with a brush. Marine glue is a
composition used for cementing materials
that are exposed to moisture. It is made
by dissolving 1 part of india-rubber in
12 parts of mineral naphtha, and adding
20 parts of powdered shellac. It not only
resists wet, but cements glass and metals
as well as wood. White fish-glue, or
diamond cement, is made of isinglass dis-
solved in alcohol.
GLUME, or GLUMA, the exterior
series of scales constituting the flower of
a grass. It consists of empty bracts.
The name was given by Linnaeus and
adopted by Lindley.
GLUMELLA, a name given by De
Candolle and Desvaux to two bracts with-
in the glumes of a grass; the other name
being pale. In one of the bracts the
midrib quits the blade a little below the
apex, and is elongated into an awn,
arista, or beard, while the other bract
which faces the fruit has its back to the
rachis, is bifid at the apex, has no dorsal
veins, and has a rib on each side of its
inflexed edges. These two bracts are
called by Linnaeus the corolla of the
grass, by Jussieu the calyx, by Robert
Brown the perianth, and by Lindley and
others its paleae.
GLUTAMIC ACID, an acid obtained
by boiling vegetable gluten with dilute
sulphuric acid, or casein with hydro-
chloric acid and stannous chloride.
GLUTEN, an albuminous substance,
obtained by mixing 10 parts of wheat-
meal with 8 parts of water, and allowing
it to stand for half an hour; it is then
washed with water, and kneaded, till all
the starch is washed away, and the gluten
thus obtained is a tenacious, yellowish-
gray, elastic mass, which dries into a
horny, semi-transparent mass, resem-
bling glue.
GLUTEUS, or GLUTEUS, three
muscles of the hip, the G. maxirmis, the
G. medius, and the G. minimus. The
first is a very large and coarsely fasci-
culated muscle, which makes the buttock
prominent in man; its use is to extend
the thigh. The second is smaller; it is
partly covered by the muscle already
mentioned, and acts when one stands.
The third is the smallest; it is covered
by the second one, and acts as an abduc-
tor of the thigh.
GLUTIN, or GLUTINE, vegetable
gelatine. It is obtained along with mucin
by heating gluten in small fragments,
with alcohol of 80 per cent., and then
with alcohol of 70 per cent. ; the alcoholic
solutions are united, and the half of the
alcohol distilled off. On cooling it deposits
a mixture of glutin and mucin. The de-
posit is dissolved in 50 per cent, alcohol,
and filtered through calico while hot, and
then agitated till it is cold; most of the
mucin is precipitated, the filtered liquid
is evaporated in a water bath, and the
glutin dissolved in alcohol.
GLUTTON, in zoology, the popular
name for the wolverine, a carnivorous
mammal of the family Melidas (badgers).
Its length is from two to three feet. It
occurs in high latitudes in Europe, Asia,
and North America. Its motions are
slow, but it manages to feed on mice,
marmots, and other rodents, and, when
it can obtain them, on larger quadrupeds,
alive or dead. Its fur is of little value.
GLYCERALS, in chemistry, com-
pounds analogous to acetals, obtained by
heating glycerin with aldehydes for 30
hours at a temperature of 170° to 180°;
as acetoglycerale, CbHjoOs. It boils at
184°.
GLYCERAMIC ACID, in chemistry,
serin. C,H,N03 or C H3(0H) -NH.CO •
OH, a monobasic, triatomic, amido-acid,
obtained by boiling silk with water and
evaporating the filtered solution, adding
a quarter of its volume of sulphuric acid,
and boiling for 24 hours; then it is neu-
tralized with excess of calcium hydrate,
the filtrate is evaporated and a little
H2S0< added to neutralize it. Tyrosin and
calcium sulphate first separate out on
evaporation, then serin, and lastly a little
leucin. The serin is dissolved in 40 parts
of cold water, filtered, the filtrate neu-
GLYCERAMINE
338
GLYOXALIC ACID
tralized by ammonia, and the calcium
salt is then decomposed by carbon dio-
xide.
GLYCERAMINE (gli-ser'a-min) , in
chemistry, a base obtained by passing
ammonia gas into a solution of dibrom-
hydrin CHs'" (OH) Brj in absolute al-
cohol. Glyceramine is a liquid soluble
in water and in ether.
GLYCERIA, in botany, manna grass,
a genus of grasses, tribe Festucse,
family Broinidse. The glumes are con-
vex, five to seven nerved, the tip acute or
obtuse.
GLYCERIN, or GLYCERINE, a
triatomic alcohol of the fatty series,
CoHgOa, or CH2 (0H-)-CH(0H)-CH2
(OH). Glycerin was discovered in 1778
by Scheele, who obtained it in the prep-
aration of lead plaster by saponifying
lard with oxides of lead. Glycerin occurs
in most natural animal and vegetable
fats in combination with fatty acids,
from which it can be obtained by saponi-
fying with alkalies. It is also formed
during the alcoholic fermentation of
sugar. Pure glycerin is obtained by heat-
ing neutral fats in a still, with a con-
densing apparatus, and passing steam in
small jets through the melted fat, the
temperature being kept below 600° F.,
and above 550° F.; the fat acids separate
out in the receivers from the glycerin
and water; the glycerin is then concen-
trated by evaporation. Glycerin is a
thick, colorless, inodorous, neutral syrup,
which has a very sweet taste; it mixes
with water in all proportions, is soluble
in alcohol and in chloroform, but insolu-
ble in ether. Glycerin distilled with
phosphorous pentachloride, P2CIB, yields
acrolein. By the action of a mixture of
equal parts of concentrated nitric acid
and sulphuric acid, it is converted into
Nitroglycerin, CH^-O • (NO^-) • CH • O
(NO,) •CH.-0(NO.) {q. v.). Glycerin is
used for preserving fruits, also as a
solvent for various salts, and ir prepar-
ing copying-ink; also as a lubricator for
machinery and clockwork, and is placed
over water in gas meters to prevent
freezing, and is used for filling floating
compasses. It is employed in the form
of nitroglycerin in the preparation of
dynamite, and for mixing with soap to
form glycerin soap, which tends to soften
the skin.
Glycerin is used on account of its physi-
cal properties as an adjunct to lotions in
skin diseases to prevent the surface be-
coming dry. It can be used as a sub-
stitute for sugar in the diet of diabetic
patients.
GLYCERYL OXIDE, in chemistry,
glyceryl ether {CMo)zOz. It is obtained
by distilling glycerin with calcium chlo
ride. It is a colorless oily liquid, boiling
at 172°. It mixes with water, alcohol,
and ether.
GLYCINE (glis'i-ne), in botany, the
typical genus of the sub-tribe Glycerbieai
the species, all but one of which are de-
cumbent if not even twining, have alter-
nate leaves with axillary racemes or fas-
cicles of yellow flowers. Locality, the
warmer parts of the Old World. G. soja,
the erect species alluded to, is cultivated
in the East Indies for its beans. From
these the Japanese make a sauce called
sooja or soy.
GLYCOCHOLIC ACID, an acid occur-
ring as a sodium salt in the bile of most
animals. It is obtained by covering fresh
bile in a tall glass cylinder with a layer
of ether, and adding 1 c. c. of strong
HCl. to every 50 c. c. of bile; in a few
days a crystalline mass is formed, which
is filtered, washed with cold water, and
crystalled out of boiling water; it
forms fine nedles, which melt at 100°,
and are soluble in alcohol; when boiled
with barito water it is decomposed into
cholic acid and glycocine, C2aH4, N0o-|-
H.p = C24H40O5 -f C.HcNO^. Glycocholic
acid forms salts which are called glyco-
cholates, the glycocholates of the alkalies
and earth metals are soluble in water and
in alcohol. Glycocholate of sodium is pre-
cipitated from its alcoholic solution by
ether; acetate of lead gives a precipitate
which is soluble in alcohol.
GLYCODRUPOSE (gli-ko-dro'), in
chemistry, the strong concretions in
pears, produced by thickening and hard-
ening of the cell walls, consists of this
substance, together with a small quantity
of mineral matter, which is removed by
digesting them with dilute acetic acid.
GLYN, ELINOR, (MRS. CLAYTON),
an English novelist, the daughter of
Douglas Sutherland, of Toronto, Ontario.
In 1892, she married Clayton Glyn, of
Kent, England. Mrs. Clayton first at-
tracted wide attention by the publication
of her book, "Three Weeks" (1907), a
work which produced a sensation by its
suggestive qualities. Among her other
works are; "Visits of Elizabeth" (1900) ;
"The Damsel and the Sage" (1903) ; "De-
struction" (1919).
GLYOXALIC ACID, also called gly-
oxylic acid, C2H2O3 or CO -OH a dyad
compound, containing an aldehyde and
an acid radical. Obtained along with
glyoxal by oxidation of ethyl-alcohol with
nitric acid; also by heating at 140° one
part of dichloracetic acid, CHCU-COOH
with 10 parts of water for 24 hours:
Glyoxalic acid is a thick syrup, which
GLYOXALINE
339
GNATHODON
can be crystallized over HjSo*. It is very
soluble in water, and can be distilled in
a current of steam. It is a monobasic
acid, forming crystalline salts called gly-
oxalates. By oxidizing agents it is con-
verted into oxalic acid; by nascent hydro-
gen it is reduced to glycoUic acid. It
has also the properties of an aldehyde,
reducing ammoniacal solutions of silver
salts, forming a metallic mirror; also
unites with alkaline bisulphites. Glyox-
alic acid, when boiled with excess of lime
water, yields calcium glycollate and cal-
cium oxalate.
GLYOXALINE, in chemistry, a sub-
stance obtained by treating glyoxal, kept
cool on ice, with a slight excess of am-
monia, glycosine separates as a powder,
the filtered liquid is boiled with milk of
lime, evaporated to a syrup, and ex-
tracted with alcohol, and distilling the
alcoholic solution.
GLYOXYLIC ACID, CHO COOH or
OH (OH) 2 COOH, a thick liquid, readily
soluble in water, but can be prepared in
the crystalline condition by long stand-
ing over sulphuric acid, in which case the
compound has the second formula given
above. It is found in young beets, un-
ripe apples, plums, gooseberries, rhu-
barb, currants and grapes.
GLYPHIPTERYGID^ (glif-ip"te-rij'
i-de), a family of moths, group Tineina.
The larva has 16 legs or is apodal. It
generally mines in leaves.
GLYPTODIPTERINI (-i'ni), in the
classification of Professor Huxley, a
family of fossil ganoid fishes, sub-order
Crossopterygidse. There are two dorsal
fins, the scales are sculptured, the pec-
toral fins acutely lobate, dendition den-
drodont. There are two sub-families, the
one with rhomboidal, and the other with
cycloidal scales. Under the latter family
fall the genus Holoptychius, etc.
GLYPTODON, a huge fossil mammal,
family Dasypodidx (armadillos). It was
incased in armor, there being bony
plates on the head, and nearly hexagonal
bony scutes on the body. It belongs to
the Post-pliocene of South America. In-
cluding the tail, G. slavipes was more
than nine feet long.
GMELINA (me-li'na) (named after
Johann Georg Gmelin), a genus of Ver-
benaceas, tribe Viticese. The leaves of
G. parviflora render water mucilaginous.
It may then be employed as a ptisan for
the cure of ardor urinje.
GMELINITE (mel'i-nlt) (named after
Prof. Charles Gmelin), a colorless, yel-
lowish-white, greenish-white, or reddish-
white, fresh, transparent to translucent,
brittle mineral, crystallizing in rhombo-
hedrons. Sarcolite, lederevite, and hydro-
lite are varieties. Found at Andreas-
berg, in the Harz; at Montecchio, Mag-
giore, and Castel, in the Vincentine; in
Cyprus; near Cape Blomidon, in Nova
Scotia, etc.
GMUND, a city of Wurttemberg, Ger-
many, situated in the valley of the
Rems, 32 miles S. E. of Stuttgart.
It was famous prior to the World War
for its manufacture of jewelry and ar-
ticles of the precious metals, and was
also the site of important industries in
iron and bronze, notably scientific in-
struments. It became an Imperial free
city in the thirteenth century and re-
tained its independence until 1903. Pop.
about 21,000.
GNAT (nat) a genus of dipterous in-
sects represented by numerous widely
distributed species, and especially abun-
dant in marshy districts. There are nine
British species, of which the common
gnat (Culex pipiens) may be taken as
typical. The color of the middle portion
of the body on the upper surface is yel-
lowish-brown, marked with darker longi-
tudinal lines; the posterior part is light
gray. The antennae consist of 14 joints,
and bear circlets of hair, which, in the
male, may be so long and thick as to give
a feathery appearance. The female is
furnished with mandibles which are ab-
sent in the male. The male gnat sips
nectar from the flowers and passes his
days in dancing in the sunlight; the fe-
male spends her days and nights in pur-
suit of men and cattle from whom she
may suck her more nutritious, if less
delicate, diet. The proboscis, whose
double function of piercing and sucking
is an extremely complex structure com-
posed of representatives of the three
usual mouth appendages.
To strain at (an old misprint for out)
a gnat and swallow a camel (Matt, xxiii:
24, Authorized Version). To strain out
the gnat and swallow the camel. (Re-
vised Version) : Alluding to the care
with which the Jews strained small in-
sects out of the liquor they were about
to drink. To be punctilious about trifles
and careless in matters of importance.
GNATHODON (nath'o-don) , a genus
of birds, called also Didunculus (q. v.).
In zoology and palasontologj', a genus of
conchiferous mollusks, family Mactridx.
It is so called because one of the lateral
teeth connected with the hinge has a cer-
tain resemblance to a jawbone. Recent
species, one certain and three doubtful;
fossil three, from the Chalk onward. The
best-known recent species is G. cuneatus,
which was formerly eaten by the Indians.
It is found with Cyrena carolinensis at
GNEISENAir
340
GNOME
Mobile, on the Gulf of Mexico, which is
built on a shell bank consisting chiefly of
the two species.
GNEISENAXJ (gnl'ze-nou), AUGUST
WILHELM ANTON, GRAF NEIT-
HARDT VON, a Prussian general; born
in Schildau, Prussian Saxony, Oct. 27,
1760. In 1782 he accompanied the Ger-
man auxiliaries of England to the
American colonies. On his return he
joined (1786) the Prussian army, and 20
years later fought at Saalfeld and in the
battle of Jena. He gave convincing
proof of his military genius in the de-
fense of Colberg from April to July,
1807; and this led to his appointment on
the commission for the reorganization of
the Prussian army. In the war of libera-
tion he rendered distinguished service at
the battle of Leipsic (1813). But his
most meritorious work was his share in
the Waterloo campaign, in which he was
chief of Bliicher's staff, and principally
directed the strategy of the Prussian
army. He had been 15 years on the re-
tired list when, in 1831, on the outbreak
of the Polish rebellion, he was made
field-marshal and given command of the
Prussian army on the Polish frontier.
He died in Posen, Aug. 24, 1831.
GNEISS (nis), a metamorphic rock,
consisting of orthoclase, quartz, and
mica. It is akin to mica schist, which,
however, is distinguished by having less
orthoclase and more mica. It has ex-
actly the same materials as granite, but
is stratified or foliated. Sometimes hand
specimens are found, in which lamination
is so little traceable that they might pass
for granite. Fundamental gneiss, Lau-
rentian gneiss, the name given by Sir
Roderick Murchison to the oldest strati-
fied rock in Scotland. It is found in the
N. W. of Ross-shire and in Sutherland-
shire, besides forming the whole of the
adjoining island of Lewis in the Heb-
rides. It has a strike from N. W. to S.
E., nearly at right angles to the meta-
morphic strata of the Grampians. The
Lower Cambrian and various metamor-
phic rocks rest on it unconf ormably.
G N E I S T, HEINRICH RUDOLF
HERMANN FRIEDRICH VON (nist),
a German jurist; born in Berlin, Aug. 13,
1816. He entered official life as assessor
in the Superior Court (Kammergericht)
in 1841, and was successively assistant-
judge of the same court and of the su-
prems tribunal, till in 1850 he resigned
this position in order to devote himself
exclusively to teaching; for since 1844
he had held the chair of jurisprudence in
Berlin University. From 1858 he sat in
tha Prussian Lower House as a National
Liberal, and was also elected to the Im-
perial Parliament, of which he was a con-
servative member until 1884. He wrote:
"Organization of the German Jurv"
(1849); "Nobility and Knighthood 'in
England" (1853) ; "Present English
Constitutional and Administrative Law"
(3d edition, 1876-1884), his masterpiece;
"Government of the City of London"
(1867) ; "History of the English System
of Government" (1882); "The English
Parliament" (1886) ; etc. He was en-
nobled in 1888, and died July 21, 1895.
GNESEN (gna'zen) (Polish Gniezno),
a Polish town, in a region of hills and
lakes, 31 miles E. N. E. of Posen. It has
a Catholic cathedral, dating from 965,
and till 1320 was the coronation place of
the Polish kings. It passed to Prussia in
1814 and was ceded to Poland in 1920.
GNETACE-ffi (ne-ta'se-e) , in botany,
joint-firs; an order of gymnogens, with
repeatedly-branched jointed stems and
simple net- veined leaves, opposite and en-
tire, sometimes very minute and scale-
shaped; flowers in catkins, or heads; the
males with a one-leaved calyx, trans-
versely slit at the end; a monadelphous
filament, with one-celled anthers opening
by pores; females, altogether naked or
sheltered by a false calyx, consisting of
two scales, each surrounding two flowers;
ovary, none; ovule with a style-like proc-
ess. Known genera, two — viz., Gnetum
and Ephedra; species, 15, scattered over
the world.
GNETUM (ne'-) (Corrupted from
gnemon, the name given to the plant in
the island of Ternate), in botany, the
typical genus of the order Gnetaceie
{q. v.). The species are found in the hot-
test parts of India and Guiana. In Am-
boyna the seeds of G. gnemon are eaten
boiled, roasted, or fried, and the green
leaves, though tasteless, are used as spin-
ach.
GNOME (nom), in mediaeval mythol-
ogy, the name given by cabalistic writers
to one of the classes of imaginary beings
which are supposed to be the presiding
spirits in mysterious operations of na-
ture in the mineral and vegetable world.
They have their dwelling within the
earth, where they preside specially over
its treasures, and are of both sexes, male
and female. The former are often rep-
resented in the form of misshapen
dwarfs, of whom the well-known "Rube-
zahl," or "Number-nip," of German
legend is a familiar example. Pope, m
the "Rape of the Lock," and Darwm, m
the "Loves of the Plants," have drawn
on the more pleasing associations of this
curious branch of mythology. Also a
small and ill-favored person; a dwarf;
a misshapen being.
GNOSTICISM
341
GOAL
GNOSTICISM (nos'-), a system of
philosophy professedly Christian, devised
to solve the Kreat questions, such as the
origin of evil, which have perplexed the
ablest minds in every age. Gnosticism
accepted beliefs in an eternal God of in-
finite power, wisdom, and goodness. The
granting of this postulate at once
brought the gnostic face to face with the
question, Why then did this Great Being
allow evil to arise in the universe, when
it was in His power to have prevented it?
If He did not prevent it, was He not to
a certain extent responsible for its exist-
ence? The same difficulty had centuries
before created the dualist system of
Zoroastrianism, which, denying the om-
nipotence of the one Supreme Being, as-
sumed the existence of two, a good and a
bad one, about equal in power, and in
continual conflict. This view, derived
from Persia, was partially adopted by
some gnostics, while others of the sect,
or aggregation of sects, drew on the later
Platonism of Alexandria for their in-
spiration. There were then two classes
of them: the Syrian, and the Alexan-
drian, or Egyptian gnostics. In certain
tenets both agreed. Matter was eternal,
and from the first essentially evil; there
was then no bygone time when the "ori-
gin of evil" took place. Nor was the
world created by the Supreme Being; it
was framed by an exalted spirit, called
in consequence the Demtttroe (q. v.),
whom many identified with the God of
the Jews. He had shining qualities, but
was selfish and arrogant. He wished
men to worship, not the Supreme Being,
but himself. The former was the purest
Light, and pervaded t^at boundless sp'ice
which the Grepks called pleroma. He
did not remain forever alone, but brought
into pxiptence two holy and hf nny spirits
of diff'erent sexes, called Mnn^, from
whose marriage cam.e others of the same
order, till there was a whole family of
them in the pleroma. The chipf of these
j^ons was Jesus Christ, who wps srnt to
the woild to win it back from the Demi-
urge to its proner allegiance. Many
gnostics held what were called Docetic
views. The germs of gnosticism existed
in th^. 1st centurv; it did not. however,
reach maturity till the reign of Adrian
in the 2d. Of the Syrian gnostics there
were Saturninus of Antioch, Cerdo, Mar-
cian, Lui'iin, Severus, BHstes, Birde-
sanes, Tatian, etc.; of the Eervptian
Basilides of Alexandria, Valentinus, etc.
The system had a good deal declined by
the 3d century, but was not extinct till
about the 6th. It hns been disputed
whether there are allusions to either
nascent or fully developed gnosticism in
the New Testament. Some writers pro-
fess to find them in such passages as Col.
ii: 8; I Tim. i: 4, vi: 20: II Tim. ii: 16,
17; Titus iii: 9; and there appears to
be one to Doceticism in I John i: 1-3.
GNU (no), in zoology, Catoblepas gnu,
a species of antelope. The adult male is
about 5 feet 6 inches long, and 3 feet 10
inches high at the shoulder; horns, dark,
broad, upon the summit of the head,
tapering out sideways over the eyes, and
turning up into a pointed hook. Legs
long. The face is covered with black.
GNU
bristly hair, with white ones around the
eye and on the legs ; on the neck is a ver-
tical mane, blacx in the center and white
at the sides; a bushy beard on the under
.law; general color of the fur deep
brown, with long white hair on the tail.
Female smaller; calves pure white. A
gnu brought to bay or wounded turns on
its assailant.
GOA (go'a), a maritime city of India,
chief city of the district of the same
name, and formerly capital of all the
Portuguese settlements in India, on an
island of the same name, at the mouth
of the Mandona, 250 miles S. S. E. of
Bombay. Goa consists of Old Goa and
New Goa. The old city contains some
splendid churches and other specimens
of architecture. New Goa, or Panjin, at
the mouth of the river, is the residence
of the viceroy and of the principal in-
habitants. It carries on trade with
Portugal, China and the coast of Africa,
and is principally engaged in the salt
industry. Pop. of the district about
515,800.
GOA, an antelope found in the vicinity
of Tibet.
GOAL, the winning post in a race; the
point or mark set to bound a race. In
Football (q. v.), the space marked by
goal posts and a cross bar to define the
required path of the ball in order that
GOALANDA
342
GOAT MOTH
a "goal" may be scored. According to
Rug-by rules, the ball must be kicked
over the cross bar; according to associa-
tion rules, it must go under. Also the
act of kicking the ball through or over
the goal posts.
GOALANDA (go-a-lan'da) , a market-
town of Bengal, on a tongue of land at
the confluence of the main streams of
the Ganges and Brahmaputra, an im-
portant entrepot for the river trade,
the terminus of the Eastern Bengal
railway, and the starting point of the
Assam steamers. Busy markets are
held daily, and the river is crowded
with native craft, in which most of the
trade is carried on, and fishing boats.
GOA POWDER, a powder deriving its
name from the island of Goa, on the
Malabar coast; it is very bitter and is
the material from which chrysarobin is
obtained.
GOAB. See St. Goak.
GOAT, Capra hireus, the domestic
goat, which exists, in a wild or semi-wild
state, in all the European mountain
ranges. It is generally supposed that it
may be a descendant of the paseng of
Persia (C. asgagrus). The males fight
furiously with each other in the rutting
time. They have an offensive smell. A
most important variety, formed into a
breed by artificial selection, is the
Angora goat, where almost the whole
body is enveloped in that long, silky,
white hair. The Angora goat has been
introduced into Cape Colony, Australia,
and the United States. The Kashmir
ANGORA GOAT
goat, from Tibet and Bokhara, is almost
equally valuable, furnishing the white to
brown hair used in making Kashmir
wares. It has been successfully accli-
matized in France. A third variety, is
the Mamber goat from Asia Minor and
Tartary, distinguished by its long
pendent ears. The Syrian goat, which
also has long ears, is trained in the East
to all manner of tricks. The Alpine ibex
is a magnificent goat, without beard, but
with very strong, slightly divergent
much-ridged horns. It is now rare.
The goat is capable of the most perfect
domestication, and becomes extremely
attached and familiar. The flesh is
good; that of the kid, or young goat,
is in most countries esteemed a deli-
cacy. Requiring but little attention,
ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT
and able to subsist on rough diet,
the goat is in many countries "the cow
of the poor." The milk is very rich
and nuti'itious, more easy of digestion
than that of the cow, and often useful to
consumptive patients. Both cheese and
butter are made of goats' milk; they
have a peculiar but not disagreeable
flavor. Goats' milk is still very much
used in Syria and other parts of the
East. The skin of the goat was early
used for clothing, and is now dressed
as leather for making gloves and the
finer kinds of shoes (see Gloves). The
hair is used for making ropes which are
indestructible in water, and for making
wigs for judges, barristers, and other
functionaries. For the latter purpose
the hair of white goats is used. The
horns are used for making knife handles,
etc., and the fat is said to be superior to
that of the ox for candles. The Rocky
Mountain goat is an antelope rather
than a goat. See Angora Goat.
In Christian art the goat is an emblem
of impurity.
GOATFISH, Balistes capriscus, a fish
of a brownish-gray color, spotted with
blue, or greenish. Its flesh is little
esteemed. Its appropriate habitat is the
Mediterranean.
GOAT MOTH, Cossus ligniperda, a
large moth belonging to the family
Zenzeridx. The fore wings are pale
brown, clouded with whitish, and marked
with numerous short, irregular trans-
verse wavy black lines; hind wings pale-
smoky, with similar transverse dark
aOATSUCKER
343
GOD
lines, but less distinct. It feeds on the
wood of willows, poplars, and oaks,
sometimes perforating the wood in all
directions.
GOATSUCKER, one of the English
names of a remarkable migratory bird,
Caprimulgus europseus. The erroneous
belief that it sucks goats seems to have
arisen among the goatherds in ancient
Greece, who called it aigotheles, from
aix (genit. aigos) =a goat, and thele —
the nipple; and the Romans, falling into
the same error, denominated it capri-
mulgus.
GrOBBE, or VOANDZOU {Voandzeia,
subterranea) , a leguminous annual of
tropical Africa, sub-order Csesalpinese,
of which the young pod is thrust into
the ground in the same manner as that
of Arachis hypogxa (the ground bean),
thus at once protecting and planting the
seeds. The rich, oily seeds (Angola
peas) are wholesome and agreeable
when boiled. The young pods also are
used like French beans.
GOBELIN (gob-Ian'), a family of
French tapestiy-makers and dyers who
became famous for the exquisite tapes-
tries they manufactured. They were
descended from Jean Gobelin, who
founded the establishment in Paris and
died in 1476. About 1667 the manu-
factory was turned into a royal estab-
lishment under Louis XIV. The factory
still produces the finest tapestry in the
world.
GOBI (go'be), DESERT OF, the
Shamo or "sand-sea" of the Chinese, an
immense tract of desert country, occupy-
ing nearly the center of the high table-
land of eastern Asia, between lat. 35° and
45° N., and Ion. 90° and 110° E., and
extending over a large portion of Mon-
golia and Chinese Turkestan. Its length
is probably about 1,800 miles; mean
breadth, between 350 and 400 miles;
area, 300,000 square miles. Its general
elevation is over 4,000 feet above sea-
level. The East Gobi is occupied by dif-
ferent tribes of the Mongolian race,
who have numerous herds of camels,
horses, and sheep. In the West Gobi are
some nomadic tribes of the Tartar race.
This tract is supposed at one time to
have been a great inland sea. In 1917,
motor car service was inaugurated to
carry freight across the desert between
Kaljan and Urgi.
GOBIID-ffi (go'bi-i-de) , or GOBIOID^
(-oi'de), in ichthyology, gobies, a family
of Acanthopteri veri. The edges of the
operculum are unarmed, and its aperture
small; the ventral fins, whether united
or separated, constitute a funnel, and
are situated on the breast; the skin is
either naked or armed with large finely
ctenoid scales. Most of them are small
fishes, found among rocks or in tidal
rivers.
GOBONATED, in heraldry, an epithet
applied to a border, pale, bend, or other
charge divided into equal parts forming
squares, gobbets, or checkers. Called
also gobond, or gobony.
GOD, the Supreme Being. The form
god is used for any superior or imagin-
ary being, constituting an object of wor-
ship; or for (1) an emperor, king, or
any other person, yielding great and
despotic power; (2) any person or thing
greatly idolized.
Ethnic Religions. — Whether any sav-
age tribes exist with no belief in any
being higher than man is doubtful. Lub-
bock thus arranges the first great stages
in religious thought: Atheism, under-
standing by this term, not a denial of
the existence of a Deity, but an absence
of any definite ideas on the subject.
Fetichism, the stage in which man sup-
poses he can force the Deity to comply
with his desires. Nature-worship, or
totemism, in which natural objects, trees,
lakes, stones, animals, etc., are wor-
shiped. Shamanism, in which the
superior deities are far more powerful
than man, and of a different nature.
Their place of abode also is far away,
and accessible only to Shamans. Idola-
try or anthropomorphism in which the
gods take still more completely the
nature of men, being, however, more
powerful. They are still amenable to
persuasion; they are a part of nature,
and not creatures. They are represented
by images or idols. In the next stage
the Deity is regarded as the author, not
merely a part of nature. He becomes
for the first time a really supernatural
being. The last stage is that in which
morality is associated with religion.
Judaism. — Two leading names for the
Supreme Being continually occur in the
Hebrew Bible; the one generic, the other
specific. The generic term is El, or
Eloah, both singular, and Elohim (q. v.)
plural, the specific one is Yehovah, in
general written Jehovah (q. v.). It is
of the first that God is the appropriate
rendering. El, Eloah, and Elohim
signify Deity in general. Elohim is
much more common than the singular
forms. Among the epithets or titles used
of God in the Old Testament are Most
High (Gen. xiv: 18, etc.). Mighty (Neh.
ix: 32), Holy (Josh, xxiv: 19), Merciful
(Deut. iv: 31), God of Heaven (Ezra i:
2), God of Israel, etc. (Exod. xxiv: 10).
Anthropomorphic language occurs
chiefly, though not exclusively, in the
GODAVARI 344
poetic parts of the Old Testament (II
Chron, xxx: 12, Psa. xx: 3, Deut. viii:
3, Psa. xxix: 4, Isa. xl: 12, liii: 1, Ix:
13, Exod. xxxii: 23), but monotheism is
enjoined in the first commandment, and
idolatry forbidden in the second, while
in Isaiah and elsewhere there are most
scathing denunciations of the manu-
facture and worship of images (Isa. xl:
12-26, xlii: 17, xliv: 9-20, etc.). In the
New Testament, St. John gives the ever-
memorable definition of the Divine
nature. "God is love" (I John iv: 16).
The Latin Church, the Greek Church,
and the several Protestant denomina-
tions all essentially agree in their tenets
regarding God, See the Apostles',
Nicene, and Athanasian Creeds, the first
3f the Thirty-nine Articles, the
Jatechism of the Council of Trent, the
Confession of Faith (ch. ii.), and the
Shorter Catechism, question 4. See
Theology; Trinity.
The name of God in 47 languages:
Hebrew — Elohlm, Eloha.
Chaldaic — Eilah.
Assyrian — Eleah.
Syriac and Turkish — Alah.
Malay — Alia.
Arabic — Allah.
Old Egyptian — Teut.
Armorian — Teuti.
Modern Egyptian — Teun.
Greek — Theos.
Aeolian and Doric — IIos.
Latin — Deus.
Low Latin — Diex.
Celtic and Gallic — Diu,
French — Dieu.
Spanish — Dios.
Portuguese — Deos.
Old German — Diet.
Provengal — Diou.
Low Breton — Doue.
Italian — Dio.
Irish — Dia.
Olalu Tongue — Deu.
German — Gott.
Flemish — Goed.
Dutch — Godt.
English and Old Saxon — God.
Toutonic — Goth.
Danish and Swedish — Gut.
Norwegian — Gud.
Slav — Buch.
Polish — Bog.
Pollacca — Bung.
Lapp — Jubinal.
Cretan — Thios.
Finch — Jumala.
Runic — As.
Zemblain — Fetiza.
Pannonian — Istu.
Hindostanee — Rain.
Coromandel — Brama.
Tartar — Magatal.
Persian — Sire.
Chinese — Prussa.
•lapanese — Goezur.
Madagascar — Zannar
Peruvian — Puchecammae.
GODAVARI (go-da'va-re) , one of the
pnncipal rivers of India, and the largest
of the Deccan, rising within 50 miles of
the Indian Ocean, and flowing S. E.
across the peninsula into the Bay of
GODFATHER
Bengal, which it enters by seven mouths,
after a course of 898 miles, its total
drainage area being estimated at 112,000
square miles. It has been called the
Indian Rhine. The navigation of the
upper waters is impeded by three im-
passable rocky barriers or rapids within
a space of 150 miles. The Godavari is
one of the 12 sacred rivers of India, and
the great bathing festival, called Push-
karam, is held on its banks once in 12
years; each of its seven mouths is
esteemed holy, but especially the
Gautami mouth, the larger of its two
arms, which enters the sea not far from
Cocanada.
GODERICH, a port of entry of On-
tario, on Lake Huron, 160 miles W. N.
W. of Buffalo by rail, with a good har-
bor protected by a pier, also several
factories and mills, and eight salt wells.
GODESBERG, a watering place in the
Prussian Rhine province, Germany, situ-
ated near the left bank of the Rhine
four miles below Bonn. It is famous for
its medicinal springs and for its hydro-
pathic sanitarium. Brickmaking is an
important industry, but the town is
largely residential, inhabited by health
seekers from all over Europe. The popu-
lation is about 10,000.
GODFATHER and GODMOTHER
(also called sponsors), the persons who,
by presenting a child for the sacrament
of baptism, which is regarded as a new
spiritual birth, are reputed to contract
toward the newly baptized the relation of
spiritual parentage. In the Roman
Catholic Church this spiritual relation-
ship is regarded as a species of kindred
(whence the name gossip, or God-sib,
"spiritually akin"), and constitutes an
impediment of marriage between the
sponsors on the one hand and the bap-
tized and the parents of the baptized on
the other. Anciently, this impediment
arose also between the sponsors them-
selves; and it still extends much further
in the Eastern than in the Western
Church, though in the former it can arise
only from baptism, whereas in the Ro-
man Church the candidate for confirma-
tion also is presented by a sponsor,
though usually one of the same sex.
In the Anglican Church, by whose rule
two godfathers and a godmother are re-
quired at the baptism of a male, and two
godmothers and a godfather at that of a
female, no impediment of marriage
arises from the relation of the sponsors
to the baptized. The parents of the bap-
tized are not permitted to act as spon-
sors in the Roman Catholic Church, one
of the objects of the institution being to
provide instructors in case of the death
GODFREY
345
GODKIN"
of parents; but the present rule of the
Church of England, following the rubric
of the American Prayer Book, does so
allow.
GODFREY, EDWARD SETTLE, an
American soldier, born in Kalida, O.,
in 1843. He was educated in the public
schools and at Vermilion Institute. He
served throughout the Civil War as a pri-
vate and at the close entered the United
States Military Academy from which he
graduated in 1867. In the same year he
was appointed 2d lieutenant. He rose
through the various grades, becoming
colonel of the 9th Cavalry in 1901, and
brigadier-general in 1907. He saw much
service against the Indians in the West
and was awarded the Congressional
Medal of Honor in 1877. He took part
in all the campaigns under General Cus-
ter until the later's death. From 1879
to 1883 he was instructor of cavalry tac-
tics at the United States Military Acad-
emy. He saw service in Cuba and in the
Philippine Islands and was retired by
operation of the law, in 1907. He wrote
"Custer's Last Battle" (1892). He was
a member of many military societies.
GODFREY, HOLLIS, an American ed-
ucator and engineer, born at Lynn, Mass.
in 1874, He graduated from Tufts Col-
lege in 1895 and took post-graduate
courses at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology and at Harvard. From
1898 to 1905 he engaged in teaching en-
gineering, and from 1906 to 1910 was
head of the department of science at the
School of Practical Arts, in Boston. He
was consulting engineer to the cities of
Philadelphia, Atlantic City, and several
private corporations, from 1910-1917. In
1913 he was chosen president of the
Drexel Institute of Philadelphia. Dur-
ing the World War he was commissioner
of the advisory committee of the Council
of National Defense, and was in charge
of its section of engineering and educa-
tion. He was a member of many en-
gineering societies. He wrote "The Man
Who Ended War" (1908) ; "Elementary
Chemistry" (1909) ; and "The Health of
the City" (1910). He was a frequent
contributor to engineering and scientific
journals.
GODFREY OF BOUILLON (bo-yon') ,
leader of the first crusade, son of Eustace
II., Count of Boulogne; born near Ni-
velles, in 1061. He distinguished him-
self while fighting for the Emperor
Henry IV. in Germany and Italy, and
was made Duke of Bouillon. In order to
expiate his sin of fighting against the
Pope, he took the cross for the Holy Land
in 1095, and led 80,000 men to the East
by way of Constantinople. On May 1,
1097, they crossed the Bosporus, and be-
gan their march on Nice (Nicaea), which
they took in June. In July the way to
Syria was opened by the victory of
Dorylaeum (Eski Shehr),in Phrygia, and
before the end of 1097 the crusaders en-
camped before Antioch. The town of
Antioch fell into their hands in 1098,
and in the following year Godfrey took
Jerusalem itself, after five weeks' siege.
The leaders of the army elected him
king of the city and the territory; but
Godfrey would not wear a crown in the
place where Christ was crowned with
thorns; and contented himself with the
title of Duke and Guardian of the Holy
Sepulcher. The defeat of the Egyptians
at Ascalon placed him in possession of
all the Holy Land, excepting two or
three places. Godfrey now turned his
attention to the organization of his
newly established government, and pro-
mulgated a code of feudal laws called
the Assize of Jerusalem. Godfrey was a
favorite subject of mediaeval poetry, and
is the central figure of Tasso's "Jerusa-
lem Delivered." He died in Jerusalem,
July 18, 1100.
GODIVA (go-d!'va) the wife of Leo-
fric. Earl of Mercia and Lord of Coven-
try in the reign of Edward the Confessor.
Tradition says that, in 1040, she rode on
her palfrey naked through the town of
Coventry on her husband's promise that,
if she would do so he would relieve the
inhabitants of certain exactions which
bore heavily on them. She had first
proclaimed that no one should leave his
house before noon, that all windows and
other apertures in the houses should be
closed, and that no one should even look
out till noon was past. Only one person,
"Peeping Tom," the story says, at-
tempted to look out, and he was immedi-
ately struck blind. A yearly pageant, in
which a young woman enacted the part
of Godiva, was long kept up at Coventry,
and still occasionally takes place. Tenny-
son based one of his delightful poems on
this incident.
GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE, an
American journalist and essayist; born
in Moyne, Ireland, Oct. 2, 1831. He grad-
uated from Queen's College, and came
to the United States in early manhood.
After 1865 he was prominent in journal-
ism. In addition to a "History of Hun-
gary," and editorial work on the New
York "Nation" and "Evening Post," he
produced miscellaneous essays, the most
prominent of which appear in "The Prob-
lems of Modern Democracy" and "Re-
flections and Comments"; also "Unfore-
seen Tendencies of Democracy" (1898).
He died in 1902.
GODLESS MONTH
346
GODWIN
GODLESS MONTH, in comparative
mytholgy, the 10th month of the Japan-
ese year, so called because then the lesser
divinities were considered to be absent
from their temples, for the purpose of
paying the annual homage due to the
celestial Dairi.
GODMER, a British giant, son of
Albion, slain by Canutus, one of the com-
panions of Brute.
GODOLLO (ge-del-le), a market-town
of Hungary, 15 miles N. E. of Pest, with
a royal castle and park presented by the
Hungarians in 1867 to their king, the
Emperor of Austria-Hungary. Here,
April 7, 1849, the Austrian forces were
defeated by the Hungarians. Pop.
about 6,000.
GODOY, MANUEL DE (go-doi'), a
Spanish statesman; born in Badajoz,
Feb. 12, 1767. He went to Madrid at an
early age; in 1787 entered the company of
bodyguards; was called to the council
of state; in 1792 succeeded Aranda as
first minister, and immediately declared
war on France. At the peace in 1795
he was made a grandee of Spain of the
first class, and received the title of Prince
of the Peace. Signing, in opposition to
the general desire of the nation, the
treaty of St. Hdefonso, an offensive and
defensive alliance with France, in 1796,
he found all parties and classes in the
state his enemies and was forced to re-
sign office in March, 1798. Soon rein-
stated, he married, from political motives,
Donna Maria Thereza de Bourbon,
though he was already secretly married
to Donna Josefa Tudo. In 1800 he com-
manded an expedition against Portugal.
He attached himself to Napoleon; the
insurrection of Aranjuez, in March, 1808,
prevented his escape as purposed with the
royal family, and on the abdication of
Charles he was imprisoned. He was
present at Bayonne on the signature of
the new abdication, and he accompanied
the royal family to Marseilles and Rome.
On his wife's death he avowed his mar-
riage with Josefa Tudo; settled at Paris
in 1835, and died there Oct. 7, 1851.
GOD'S ACRE, a burying-ground at-
ta«hed to a church or place of worship.
GOD'S TRUCE, in the Middle Ages,
a means introduced by the Church to
check in some measure the hostile spirit
of the times, by establishing certain
days or periods during which all private
feuds were to cease. It seems to have
taken its rise about latter part of the
10th or beginning of the 11th century.
At first the Church forbade all feuds
on those days of the week which were
especially consecrated by the death and
resurrection of Christ; namely, from
Thursday evening to Monday morning.
Afterward the period was extended so
as to include the whole of Thursday and
from the beginning of Advent to the Epi-
phany, and certain other times and
saints' days. The precincts of churches,
convents, and graveyards were also in-
terdicted from any hostile encounters.
GODWIN, Earl of the West Saxons.
He was probably son of the South- Saxon
Wulfnoth, who was outlawed in 1009,
and regained his father's lands by his
conduct in the contest with Canute. By
1018 he was an earl, and the year after
he married the daughter of Ulf , and soon
became Earl of the West Saxons. In
1042 he took the foremost part in raising
Edward to the English throne, and was
rewarded by the marriage of his daugh-
ter Edith to the English king. Godvsdn
led the struggle against the worthless
king's fondness for foreign favorites, and
thus incurred the enmity of the court
party. The king heaped insults on Queen
Edith, seized her dower, and her money,
and closely confined her in the monas-
tery of Wherwell. Godwin and his sons
were banished, but they contrived to keep
alive the antipathy of the English to the
Norman favorites of Edward, and in the
summer of 1052 landed on the S. coast of
England. The royal troops, the navy,
and vast numbers of the burghers and
peasants went over to Godwin ; and final-
ly the king was forced to grant his de-
mands, and replace his family in all .
their offices. Godwin died April 14, 1053.
GODWIN, MARY, also known by her
maiden name of Mary Wollstonecraft,
an English author; born in London,
April 27, 1759. She set up a school in
conjunction with her sister, at Islington
in 1783. In 1786 she published "Thoughts
on the Education of Daughters." This
was followed by an answer to Burke's
"Reflections on the French Revolution."
the "Vindication of the Rights of Wom-
an," etc. She had peculiar ideas on mar-
riage, and formed a somewhat loose con-
nection with one Imlay, whose desertion
caused her to attempt suicide. Some time
after she fixed her affection on William
Godwin. As the bonds of wedlock were
deemed a species of slavery in her theory,
it was only to legitimize the forthcoming
fruits of the union that a marriage be-
tween the parties took place. She died in
giving birth to a daughter, who became
the wife of Shelley the poet. Among
her other works are: "Moral and
Historical View of the French Revolu-
tion"; "Letters from Sweden, Norway,
and Denmark." She died in London, Sept.
10, 1797. See Godwin, William.
GODWIN
347
GOETHALS
GODWIN, PARKE, an American
journalist and author; born in Pater-
son, N. J., Feb, 25, 1816; was graduated
at Princeton College in 1834; studied
law and was admitted to practice, but
preferreed literary pursuits. He married
a daughter of William Cullen Bryant,
and from 1837 was for many years con-
nected with the New York "Evening
Post." During the administration of
President Polk he was deputy collector
of New York. He edited in 1843-1844
"The Pathfinder," and was for some
years a contributor to the "Democratic
Review." Of "Putnam's Magazine" he
was for a considerable time the prin-
cipal editor. He published "A Popu-
lar View of the Doctrines of Fourier"
(1884); "Goethe's Autobiography";
translated and edited Zschokke's "Tales";
''Undine"; "Sintram and his Com-
panions"; "Handbook of Universal Biog-
raphy" (1851) ; "Constructive Democ-
racy"; "History of France" (1860);
"Out of the Past" (1870) ; "Biography of
William Cullen Bryant" (1883); "The
Sonnets of Shakespeare" (1900) ; etc. He
died Jan. 7, 1904.
GODWIN, WILLIAM, an English
political writer and novelist ; born in Wis-
beach, England, March 3, 1756. His
father (1723-1772) was a dissenting min-
ister. William was educated at Hoxton
Presbyterian College; preached as a dis-
senting minister, 1777-1782. He turned
radical, and devoted himself to literature.
He married Mary Wollstonecraft in
1797, though he had objections on prin-
ciple to marriage. He wrote "Inquiry
Concerning Political Justice, etc."
(1793) ; "History of the Commonwealth"
(1824-1828) ; the novels, "Caleb Wil-
liams" (1794) ; "St. Leon" (1799) ;
"Mandeville" (1817) ; etc. He also pub-
lished histories of Rome, Greece, and
England, a "Pantheon," and "Fables"
under the pseudonym of Edward Bald-
win. He died in London, April 7, 1836.
See Godwin, Mary.
GODWIN-AUSTEN, MOUNT, a peak
of the W. Himalayas supposed to be the
second highest in the world. Its height
is 28,250 feet.
GODWIT, a wading bird, Limosa
melanura, and the genus Limosa gener-
ally. They undergo a double moult, hav-
ing red plumage when young, and then,
after moulting, black with a base of
white; on the wings also is a white spot.
The female is larger than the male. The
godwit occurs in Europe, also in Africa
and India.
GOEMOT (go-e'mot), or GOEMAGOT
(-em'a-got), the giant who dominated
over the W. horn of England, slain by
Corineus, one of the companions of Brute.
^ GOERIUS, a genus of beetles, family
Staphylinidse. G. olens, which is some-
times called the Devil's coach-horse, is
now Ocypus olens.
GOETHALS, GEORGE WASHING-
TON, an American engineer; born at
Brooklyn, N. Y., June 29, 1858; received
his collegiate training at the College of
the City of New York, and entered the
United States Military Academy in 1876.
Upon his graduation in 1880, he was ap-
pointed second lieutenant in the Engineer
Corps. From which rank he continued
MAJOR-GENERAL GEORGE W. GOETHALS
to rise, until, in 1909, he l^came colonel,
and in 1916 retired with the rank of
Major-general. He saw service in the
Spanish-American War as lieutenant
Colonel and chief of engineers of the
United States Volunteers. Previous to
this, he had acted as assistant professor
of military engineering at West Point
from 1885 to 1887, and had been engineer
in charge of the important Mussel
Shoals canal construction on the Ten-
nessee river in 1888. In recognition of
his ability he was appointed to member-
ship en the Board of Fortifications and,
in 1903, was made a member of the gen-
GOETHE
348
GOETHE
eral staff. After President Roosevelt
had decided to undertake the construc-
tion of the Panama Canal (^. v.), as
a government operation entirely, he
appointed Colonel Goethals chairman
and chief engineer of a new commission
made up of army and navy technical ex-
perts, w^hich superseded the former
civilian commission. Colonel Goethals
brought to the work a wide familiarity
with the conduct of government engi-
neering operations, a practical knowledge
of large scale supervisory and adminis-
trative engineering, plus a thorough tech-
nical and theoretical equipment. Under
his leadership the business of building
the canal quickly assumed a systematic,
efficient aspect which permeated every
division of the great work. The giant
problems of machinery, excavation, labor
control, sanitation, developed a harmony
of organized effort under his control. In-
trusted with wide executive powers, Col-
onel Goethals succeeded in eliminating
points of friction which had so largely
delayed progress on the work pre-
vious to his appointment. In his selec-
tion of assistants he exhibited that rare
administrative insight which justified his
appointment. The social and sanitary
problems were satisfactorily solved under
the direction of Gen. William C. Gorgas,
and the total result was a degree of in-
dustrial efficiency which astonished the
engineering world, and which made the
completion of the canal a practical actu-
ality by 1914.
Highly honored for his services to the
world, Colonel Goethals received recogni-
tion from the University of Pennsylvania
which, in 1913, conferred the degree of
LL.D. upon him. In 1914 the Civic
Forum of New York, the National Insti-
tute of Social Sciences, and the National
Geographic Society awarded him medals.
After declining the office of Police
Commissioner of New York City, offered
to him by Mayor Mitchel, and refusing
the position of City Manager of Dayton,
0., he accepted the office of Civil Gover-
nor of the Canal Zone in 1914. He re-
signed as Governor of Canal Zone in
1916. During the World War he was a
member of the Shipping Board and ad-
viser to the Secretary of War and the
Council of National Defense. Upon the
conclusion of peace he retired to private
life as a consulting engineer.
GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG
VON (ge'te) a famous German poet,
dramatist, and prose writer, the regener-
ator of German literature; born in
Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany, Aug.
28, 1749. His father was a counsellor of
state, and young Goethe was reared amid
all the elemeiits conducive to a taste for,
and cultivation of, literature and the arts,
In 1764 he proceeded to the University of
Leipsic, and four years afterward to that
of Strassburg, in order to qualify himself
for the legal profession. In 1771, after
taking his doctor's degree, he went to re-
side at Wetzlai*. Here, in 1773, he pro-
duced his romantic drama of "Goetz of
Berlichingen," which excited great en-
thusiasm in the German literary world.
About this time he conceived a passion
for a lady who was already betrothed,
and who shortly after became the wife of
another; which incident, together with
the suicide of a student of his acquain-
tance— also a sufferer from misplaced
affection — he fused together to form the
plot of a novel, which, in 1774, he brought
out under the title of "The Sufferings of
Young Werther." This book, in its sub-
limity of maudlin sentimentalism, became
JOHANN W. GOETHE
at once the rage. In 1775 Goethe was in-
vited by the Duke of Saxe-Weimar to
take up his residence a his court. At
Weimar he became the central figfure of
a circle of eminent men that included
Wieland, Schiller, and Herder. Goethe
was also appointed a privy councillor of
legation and superintendent of the the-
ater, where he brought out with thorough
effect the splendid chefs-d'oeuvre of Schil-
ler, in addition to his own dramatic
works — "Goetz of Berlichingen," "Iphi-
genia in Tauris," "Faust," "Tasso,"
"Clavigo," "Stella," and "Egmont." In
1786 he visited Italy, where he remained
for two years, and in 1792, accompanied
the army of the King of Prussia and the
Duke of Brunswick in its French cam-
paign, of which he became the historiog-
GOFF
349
GOJAM
rapher. On his return, Goethe was ap-
pointed minister of state. In 1795 ap-
peared the first part of his "William
Meister," and in 1797 "Hermann and
Dorothea," the finest of his minor pro-
ductions. In 1805 the first portion of his
great masterpiece, "Faust," appeared
and raised him to the highest rank of
literary fame. In 1807, the Czar Alex-
ander of Russia conferred on Goethe the
order of St. Alexander Newski — an ex-
ample followed by Napoleon with the
grand cross of the Legion of Honor. In
1809 appeared his "Elective Affinities," a
work in which he advanced certain views
on the marital relation which disgusted
the moralists. The year 1818 beheld the
second part of his "William Meister,"
the "Wandering Years," and in 1831, the
second part of "Faust." Goethe died in
Weimar, March 22, 1832.
GOFF. NATHAN, United States sena-
tor from West Virginia, born in Clarks-
burg, W. Va., in 1843. He was educated
at Georgetown College and at the Uni-
versity of the City of New York. Dur-
ing the Civil War he served in the Union
Arney, rising to the rank of major. He
was admitted to the bar in 1866 and in
the following year he was elected to the
West Virginia House of Representatives.
He was an unsuccessful candidate for
governor of the State in 1876. President
Hayes appointed him Secretary of the
Navy in 1881. He was United States
district attorney in the following year,
and was a member of Congress from 1883
to 1889. From 1892 to 1911 he was
United States circuit judge, and was
judge of the United States Circuit Court
of Appeals in 1912-1913. In the latter
year he was elected United States sena-
tor for the term ending 1919. He died in
the latter year.
GOFFE, WILLIAM, an English par-
liamentary soldier, one af the judges of
Charles I.; born about 1605. He be-
came a major-general in the Parliamen-
tary army, sat in the House of Commons
and in Cromwell's "other house," and
was one of the judges who signed
Charles I.'s death-warrant. In 1660, with
his father-in-law, Edward Whalley, he
fled to America ; they lay in hiding about
.Vew Haven from 1661 to 1664, when they
vvent to Hadley, Mass. There they lived
for many years in seclusion. According
to tradition, when the townsmen were
called from the meeting-house to repel an
Indian attack, and were standing irreso-
lute, Goffe put himself at their head
and drove off the redskins, and then
disappeared as suddenly as he had
come. He died in Hadley, Mass., in
1679.
Vol. IV— Cyc— V
GOG and MAGOG, names several
times used in the Bible, and given to the
famous figures of giants in the Guildhall,
London. Magog is spoken of by the
writer of Genesis as a son of Japhet;
Ezekiel speaks of Gog, Prince of Magog,
as a terrible ruler in the far N., united
with the Persians, Armenians, and Cim-
merians against Israel; Gog and Magog
in the Apocalypse appear as co-ordinata
terms comprehending all future enemies
of the kingdom of God. The name
Magog was often applied generally
to all the unknown races N. of the
Caucasus.
GOGOL, NIKOLAI (go'gol), a Russian
novelist and miscellaneous writer; bora
in the government of Poltawa, March 31
(N. S.), 1809. He is the author of the
novels " Dead Souls" and "Taras Bulba";
of a comedy entitled "The Revisor," and
two collections of short tales illustrative
of rural life in Little Russia, his native
country. His works found great favor in
Russia, and in translation in Europe and
the United States. He died in Moscow,
March 4 (N. S.), 1852.
GOGRA (gog'ra),or GHAGBA (ghag'
ra) , one of the largest affluents of the
Ganges, joining that river from the N. at
the town of Chapra, after a generally S.
E. course of 600 miles. It rises in the
higher Himalayas, passes through Nepal,
and after reaching the level land be-
comes the great waterway of the North-
west provinces and Oudh. Its principal
tributary is the Rapti, also of commercial
importance.
GOIL, LOCH, a small but highly pic-
turesque loch in Argyllshire, Scotland, a
branch of Loch Long, 6 miles in length
and less than 1 mile in breadth. Its
shores are for the most part wild and
rugged. The mountains in the neighbor-
hood rise to the height of more than
2,000 feet. Lochgoilhead is a favorite
watering-place.
GOITER, or GOITRE (Latin, guttn7^=
the throat), or Bronchocele. A disease
which arises from a morbid enlargement
of the thyroid gland, causing an unsight-
ly, but painless, deformity. It is more
common among women than among men,
in the proportion of about 12 to 1. It pre-
vails chiefly, if not exclusively, in villages
situated on or close to limestone rocks.
GOJAM (go-jam'), a province of
Abyssinia, lying S. of Lake Dembea; lat.
10° to 11° N., Ion. 37° to 38° E. The
surface is, in many portions, mountain-
ous; in others it is diversified by hill and
dale, affording good pastures, which are
well watered by the various affluents of
the Abai river.
GOLD
860
GOLD
GOLD, a triatomic metallic element,
symbol Au; atomic weight, 196; specific
gravity, 19.26; melting point about
1240° C, forming a green fluid which vol-
atilizes at a higher temperature. Gold is
a metal of a bright yellow color. It is
very ductile; a grain of it can be drawn
into a wire 50 feet long, and will gild
two miles of fine silver wire. It is also
very malleable; one grain can be beaten
out to cover an area of 56.75 square
inches. Gold does not oxidize or tarnish
in the air, and is not acted upon by ox-
ygen or water at any temperature; it is
not dissolved by suli)huric, nitric, or hy-
drochloric acid, but is dissolved by aqua
regia, a mixture of nitric and hydro-
chloric acids. Gold crystallizes in cubes,
octahedra, and other forms belonging to
a regular system. Gold forms two series
of salts, aureus and auric; it has been
detected in sea water. Gold can be puri-
fied by melting it along with borax in a
clay crucible, glazed inside with borax,
and passing chlorine gas through the
melted metal by means of a tobacco pipe
stem; the other metals ■ are converted
into chlorides, which rise to the surface.
When the operation is finished, the gold
is allowed to cool, and the fused chlo-
M"^ DAV/OSOn
7eZ7feet
very poisonous, acting like corrosive
sublimate. Gold leaf is used by dentists
for filling teeth.
Mineralogy. — A metal crystallizing
isometrically in octahedrons or dodecahe-
drons, as well as acicular, filiform, re-
ticulated, arborescent, and spongiform
shapes. There are four varieties, (1)
Ordinary, and (2) Argentiferous gold or
electrum, (3) Palladium gold or por-
pesite, (4) Rhodium gold. The gold prod-
uct of the United States far exceeds
that of any other land. Almost every
State and Territory has yielded its share
of the precious metal. By far the largest
portions have come from California. Gold
in Alaska was first reported by Tebenkof
in 1848, but the first real important "find"
was that of Joseph Juneau in 1880, near
the site of the present town of Juneau. In
August, 1896, J. F. Butler, a California
miner, took out $10,000 in 10 days at a
point 4 miles above Dawson. About the
same time George W. Cormack dis-
covered a rich field on the Klondike, in
the Northwest Territory, reports of
which caused a great rush to that re-
gion in 1897-1898. Within two months
after the discovery, $5,000,000 were
taken out. Though the Klondike region
OBSERVATORT
CROSS SECTION OF COMSTOCK LODE AT SUTRO, NEVADA
rides poured off. Pure gold is prepared
by dissolving the metal in a mixture of
nitric and hydrochloric acids; the solu-
tion is evaporated to get rid of the ni-
tric acid, then diluted with water and
filtered; the gold is then precipitated by
ferrous sulphate. 2AuCl3-i-6FeSOi= Au2
+ Fe^CL + 2Fe2(S04)3. Pure gold is a
very soft metal, therefore it is alloyed
with silver, which gives it a greenish-
yellow tint, or with copper, which gives
it a yellowish-red color.
Pharmacy. — Gold has been used in
medicine for scrofulous diseases and for
chronic alcoholism. Gold terchloride is
attracted the most attention, it is a very
small portion of the gold«-bearing region
of Alaska and Canada. Colorado is also
a rich gold-producing State. The largest
gold production in the world is from
the Transvaal, and other provinces of
South Africa.
Geology. — Gold has been found in
slate, quartzite, sandstone, limestone,
granite, and serpentine. In many cases
it occurs in veins of quartz, but much
more accessibly in drifts, which the
breaking up of those quartz veins has
helped to produce. In the Ural Moun-
tains the drift is Newer Pliocene; in
GOLD
351
GOLD COAST
California it is of two different ages,
but both, geologically viewed, compara-
tively recent; when in veins, it is more
often found in the Palaeozoic than in the
Secondary or Tertiary strata. In most
cases the veins are near plutonic rocks.
Production. — The following table
shows the production of gold in the
Europe, $12,801,506; Australasia, $23,-
618,690; Africa, $193,780,666.
History. — Gold is mentioned in the
Bible as early as Gen. ii: 12. The He-
brew word is zahab, from zahab = to
shine, to be brilliant. As the names of
gold in the Aryan languages (Latin
aurum, Greek chrysos,) differ from this,
-f-f-j \ I I ii ra ra //dDm^
CROSS SECTION OF CYANIDE PLANT
United States and Alaska in the calendar
year 1920:
State or Territory-
Gold
Fine ounces
Value
Alaska ,
481,984
222,965
841,638
495,810
34
34,085
0
10
0
14
116,918
225,384
28,319
5
53,029
41,119
5
255.889
271
19
109,661
19
0
11,436
14
$9,963,500
4,609,100
17,398,200
10,249,300
700
California
Colorado
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Maine
704,600
0
200
Michigan
0
Missouri
300
Montana
2,416,900
4,659,100
585 400
Nevada
New Mexico
North Carolina
100
1,096,200
850,000
100
5,289,700
5,600
400
Philippine Islands. . . .
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
2,266,900
400
Vermont
Virginia
0
Washington
236,400
300
2,918,628
$60,333,400
The value of the gold production of the
world in 1920 was $365,166,077, divided
as follows: North America, $91,440,724;
Central and South America, $14,112,305;
gold may perhaps not have been dis-
covered till after the separation of the
Aryan and Semitic races. Gold was
first coined in England in 1257.
GOLD AMALGAM, a mineral com-
posed of mercury, 57.40; gold, 38.39; and
silver, 5. It is found in Colombia in
white grains about the size of a pea, and
in California in yellowish-white, four-
sided prisms.
GOLDBEATER'S SKIN, the prepared
peritoneal membrane of the caecum of the
ox. It is used to separate the leaves of
gold while under the hammer; thus it
is reduced to extreme thinness, and in
this state is used as an application to
cuts and wounds. Its manufacture is ex-
tremely offensive.
GOLDBERG (gold'berg), a town of
Prussian Silesia, on the Katzbach, 13
miles W. S. W. of Liegnitz. It owes
both origin and name to its former rich
gold mines: suffered much from Mon-
gols and Hussites, the Thirty Years'
War, the campaign of 1813, and finally
from great fires (1863-1874) ; and now
has manufactures of cloth, flannel, etc.
Pop. about 7,000.
GOLD COAST. See GUINEA.
GOLD COAST COLONY
862
GOLDEN EAGLE
GOLD COAST COLONY, a British
crown colony on the coast of west Africa.
Coast line about 350 miles; area about
80,000 square miles; pop. about 1,604,000,
of whom about 500 are Europeans. The
native state of Ashanti lies inland, at the
back of the central portion of the colony
and is now included in British Gold
Coast Territories. The products are
chiefly palm oil, gold, palm kernels, rub-
ber, timber, etc. Chief town, Accra.
Trouble arose between the King of
Kumassi, who had declared himself King
of Ashanti in 1894, and the British au-
thorities and in 1895 an expedition was
sent against him, under the command of
Sir Francis Scott, which resulted in the
submission of the king, who was after-
ward taken to the coast. The kings of
Bekwai and Abodom also made their sub-
mission, and the country was placed un-
der British protection, and a resident ap-
pointed at Kumassi. The Niger Conven-
tion drawn up by the Anglo-French Com-
mission sitting at Paris, and signed June
15, 1898, settled the boundaries of the
hinterland to the W. and the N. Bona
and Dokta were given up to France, and
the French had to concede Wa and other
points to the E. of the Volta which had
been occupied by them.
brassy-green C. polita and C. staphylea
commonly found on nettles in spring.
GOLDEN CHEESONESE, THE, the
Malay Peninsula; so called by Ptolemy
and Milton.
G 0 L D E N-C RESTED WREN or
GOLDEN-CRESTED REGXJLUS, or
KINGLET {Regulus cristatus) , a beau-
tiful bird belonging to the family Sylvia-
dse, distinguished by an orange crest. It
is the smallest of British birds, being
only about 3% inches in length. The
upper part of the body is yellowish olive
green, all the under parts pale reddish-
white, tinged with green. Its nest is
most commonly open at the top, but some-
times it is covered with a dome, and has
an opening on one side. It is always in-
geniously suspended beneath the branch,
being the only instance of the kind among
the birds of Great Britain. The eggs are
9 or 10 in number.
GOLDEN EAGLE, or RING-TAILED
EAGLE, a North American bird, Aquila
chrysaetus, sub-family Aquilnse. It is
32 to 40 inches long, and the wing 35.
The head and neck behind are light-
brownish fulvous, the tail at base white,
terminal portion glossy black, and all
GOLD DREDGE
GOLDEN BAY, the Bay of Rieselarke,
so named because its sands glitter like
gold.
GOLDEN BEETLE, the name popu-
larly given to many members of a genus
of coleopterous insects, Chryscrmela, and
of a sub-family, Chryscmielinas, belonging
to the tetramerous section of the order.
The body is generally short and convex,
some of the species are destitute of
wings. None are of large size, but many
are distinguished by their metallic splen-
dor of color. The finest species are trop-
ical, but some are found in Britain —
e. g., the golden C. cerealis with purple
stripes found on Snowdon, and the
other parts purplish-brown. It has great
power of flight, but not the speed of
many of the falcons and hawks, but its
keen sight enables it to spy an object of
prey at a great distance, and with
meteor-like swiftness and unerring aim
it falls on its victim. The nest of the
golden eagle is placed on a shelf of a
rugged and generally inaccessible preci-
pice. It is flat and very large, and con-
sists of dry sticks. The eggs are two in
number and dull white with undefined
patches of brown. The golden eagle
preys on fawns, hares, wild turkeys, and
other large birds. It does not attain its
full beauty of plumage till the 4th year.
GOLDEN-EYED FLY
353
GOLDFINCH
The so-called ring-tailed eagle is the
golden eagle before it has reached ma-
turity. The European golden eagle is so
nearly like the American one that there
is a question whether it is not the same
species.
GOLDEN-EYED FLY (C/ir|/sopa peWa),
or LACEWING FLY, a neuropterous in-
sect, common in Great Britain; pale
green, with long thread-like antennae,
long gauze-like wings, and brilliant
golden eyes. Its flight is feeble. The
female attaches her eggs, in groups of
12 or 16, by long hair-like stalks, to leaves
or twigs, where they have been mistaken
for fungi. The larvze are forocious-look-
ing, rough, with long hairs; they are
called aphis lions, and are very useful in
the destruction of aphides, on which they
feed. The pupa is inclosed in a white
silken cocoon. The general facts above
stated are also true of another very com-
mon species (Ch. vulgaris) — a delicate
green insect, with a body about half an
inch long. The species of Chrysopa emit
a very disagreeable odor. The nearly
allied genus Hemerobms is also abun-
dantly represented in Great Britain and
elsewhere.
GOLDEN FLEECE, in classical my-
thology, the fleece of gold in quest of
which Jason undertook the Argonautic
expedition to Colchis. The fleece was sus-
pended in an oak-tree in the grove of
Ares (Mars), and was guarded by a
dragon. When the Argonauts came to
Colchis for the fleece, Medea put the
dragon to sleep, and Jason carried the
fleece away. See Argonaut; Jason;
Medea.
GOLDEN FLEECE, ORDER OF THE,
the Toison d'or, a military order insti-
tuted by Philip the Good, Duke of Bur-
gundy, in 1429, on the occasion of his
marriage with the Portuguese princess,
Isabella. The order now belongs to both
Austria and Spain. The knights carry
suspended from their collars the figure
of a sheep or fleece in gold.
GOLDEN GATE, a channel two miles
wide, forming the entrance to the Bay of
San Francisco, and washing the N. shore
of the peninsula on which San Francisco
is built. It is defended by Fort Point, at
the N. W. extremity of the peninsula,
and by a fort on Alcatraz Island, inside
the entrance.
GOLDEN HORDE, originally the name
of a powerful Mongol tribe, but after-
ward extended to all the followers of
Genghis Khan, and of Batu, the grand-
son of Genghis Khan, who invaded Eu-
rope in the 13th century. Under Batu
tj^ Golden Horde advanced W. as far
as the plain of Mosi in Hungary, and
Liegnitz in Silesia, at both of which
bloody battles were fought in 1241. They
founded the empire of the Kiptshaks, or
the Golden Horde, which extended from
the banks of the Dniester to the Ural,
and from the Black Sea and the Caspian
to the mouth of the Kama and the
sources of the Khoper. This empire
lasted till toward the close of the loth
century, when it was overthrown by
Ivan III.
GOLDEN HORN, the harbor of Con*
stantinople, an inlet of the Bosporus, so
called from its shape and beauty.
GOLDENROD (Solidago), a genus of
Compositse, closely allied to aster. Only
the common S. Virgaurea is British, a
few others are European, but most (more
than 100) belong to North America,
where their bright coloring lightens up
the autumn scenery. Some — e. g., S.
canadensis, grandiflcyra, etc. — are found
in old-fashioned borders. S. Virgaurea
had at one time a great reputation as a
vulnerary. The leaves of this and a
fragrant North American species, S.
odora, have been used as a substitute
for tea.
GOLDEN SAXIFRAGE, the popular
name for plants of the genus Chryso-
sj)lenitim, a small genus of Saxifragaceae,
consisting of annual or perennial rather
succulent herbs, with alternate or op-
posite crenate leaves, and inconspicuous
greenish axillary and terminal flowers.
They are natives of central and north-
ern Europe, the Himalayas, and parts
of America.
GOLDEN TRUMPETER, a South
American bird, the agami, which emits
a deep, rough sound, suggesting that of
a trumpet.
GOLDEN WASPS, one of the popular
names for the hymenopterous genus
Chrysis, or the family of which it is the
type. They are not genuine wasps. The
wasps proper have a sting, and the
"golden wasps" only an ovipositor. See
Wasp,
GOLDEN WEDDING, the 50th an-
niversary of a wedding. The presents
given to the couple should all be of gold.
GOLDFINCH. Cardiielis elegans, a
well-known bird belonging to the family
Fringillidse, and the sub-family Fringil-
linie. Bill pale bom colored, the tip
black, the circumference at its base crim-
son, nape of the neck white; the top of
the head, carpal portions of the wing,
the smaller wing coverts, and part of the
surface of the primaries black; back and
rump dusky brown, greater wing coverts,
and part of the expanse of the others,
gamboge yellow; under surface of the
GOLDFISH
354
GOLDONI
body dull white. The eggs are four or
five, spotted with purple and brown.
GOLDFISH, the trivial name of a
beautiful species of carp, found in the
fresh waters of China. It is greenish
in color in the natural state, the golden
yellow color being found only in domes-
ticated specimens, and retained by ar-
tificial selection. These fishes are reared
by the Chinese and kept for ornament.
They are now distributed over nearly all
the civilized parts of the world.
GOLD FURNACE, a furnace for melt-
ing or reducing gold. It resembles a
brass furnace, but is usually built above
the floor, occupying one side or more of
the shop, and appearing like a dwarf
wall. The aperture for the fuel and
crucible in each furnace is 9 to 16 inches
square, and 11 to 20 inches deep. The
crucibles are usually of black lead.
GOLD HILL, a former village of
Nevada, 7,000 feet above the sea, and
about a mile S. of Virginia City, to which
it has been annexed. It has rich silver
mines, and several quartz mills. Here,
on Mount Davidson, is the famous Com-
stock lode.
GOLDLEAF, fine gold beaten into thin
leaves. A small percentage of silver and
copper is added to the gold for beating,
about 1^/^ per cent, of alloy. The ingot
is rolled into a ribbon by repeated
passage between rollers, and this ribbon
has a thickness of 1-800 of an inch, a sur-
face of 500 square inches to an ounce
of gold. It is then cut into pieces of
about 1 inch square, placed between
pieces of goldbeater's skin 4 inches
square, and beaten with a ponderous
hammer on a smooth marble slab till the
gold has thinned and expanded to the
size of the vellum. Each piece of gold is
then again divided into 4, placed between
pieces of goldbeater's skin as before, and
again beaten till it expands to the size
of the skin. A third and a fourth beat-
ing follow. An ounce of gold in the
form of a cube, 5Vi lines in length,
breadth, and thickness, can be so ex-
tended Ijy the goldbeaters as to cover a
surface of more than 1,466 1/^ square feet.
Wood, plaster, papier-mache, and
many other substances may be gilded
by covering them with goldleaf stuck on
with a kind of sizing or glue. The gold
leaf is not put on the wood, plaster, etc.,
itself, but on a mixture of whiting and
glue called size. In gilding picture
frames, for example, the wood is painted
with four or five coats of size put on hot.
This is carefully smoothed, when dry,
with pumice stone and fine sandpaper,
and another siz", made of clay, red chalk,
black lead, suet, etc., is then put on.
This, which is callprl gold size, is the
groundwork for the gold leaf. In gild-
ing on metals or surfaces to be much
in the open air an oil size is used.
GOLDMAN, EMMA, an American
anarchist; born in Russia about 1868;
emigrated to the United States and
joined various anarchist societies; was
arrested several times, and imprisoned
for a year in New York City because of
her destructive teachings. According to
CzoLGOSZ (q. V.) her speeches incited him
to assassinate President McKinley. In
1917 she was arrested for conspiracy and
sentenced to two years' imprisonment and
to pay a fine of $10,000. She appealed to
U. S. Supreme Court, which confirmed the
sentence in January, 1918. In February
of that year she began her term in the
prison at Jefferson City, Mo. Under the
Alien law a second conviction for con-
spiracy carries with it the sentence of
deportation and she was shipped to Rus-
sia with other Anarchists in 1920.
GOLDMARK, KARL, an Austro-Hun-
garian composer; born of Jewish parents
in Keszthely, Hungary, May 18, 1832.
He resided in Vienna. He became known
in the United States by his operas, "The
Queen of Sheba" and "Merlin," which
was performed for the first time on any
stage at the Metropolitan Opera House,
New York, in 1887, and by the very ef-
fective overtures, "Sakuntala" and "Pen-
thesilea," The "Country Wedding" sym-
phony is a great favorite. He died in
1915.
GOLD OF PLEASURE (Camelina), a
small genus of Cruciferse. The common
gold of pleasure (C sativa) is an annua]
plant of humble appearance, but with
abundant yellow flowers. It is most com-
monly known as a weed in lint fields,
though it is also cultivated alone or
mixed with rapeseed in parts of Ger-
many, Belgium, and the S. of Eui'ope for
the sake of the abundant oil contained
in its seeds. Its seeds and oil cake are,
however, inferior to those of lint, and its
oil is apt to become rancid and is less
valued than that of rape or colza. The
crop is cut or pulled when the pouches
begin to turn yellow. The stems are
tough, fibrous, and durable, and are used
for thatching and for making brooms;
their fiber is sometimes made into very
coarse cloth and packing-paper. The
seeds are used for emollient poultices.
C. dentata is of similar habit and prop-
erties, but is not cultivated.
GOLDONI, CARLO (gol-d5'ne), a cele-
brated Italian writer of comedies; born
in Venice, Italy, Feb. 25, 1707. He early
showed a taste for theatrical representa-
tions. A relative procured for him a
place in the Papal College at the Uni-
GOLDSBOBO
366
GOLDSMITH
versity of Pavia, from which he was ex-
pelled for writing scurrilous satires.
After his father's death he settled as
an advocate in Venice, but shortly took
to a wandering life with strolling players,
till in 1736 he married the daughter of
a notary and settled down in Venice.
Here he first began to cultivate that de-
partment of dramatic poetry in which he
was to excel; namely description of char-
acter and manners. In this he took
Moliere for his model. For five years he
visited various cities of Italy, composing
pieces for different theatrical companies,
and for a time renewing his legal prac-
tice. In 1761 the Italian players invited
him to Paris, where many of his pieces
met with uncommon applause. He be-
came reader and master of the Italian
language to the daughters of Louis XV.;
and received latterly a pension of 3,600
livres. At the breaking out of the revo-
lution the poet lost his pension, and the
decree of the National Convention of Jan.
7, 1793, restoring it and making up the
arrears found him on his death-bed. His
widow received the pension for herself.
Many of his pieces still appear on the
stage. He died in Paris, France, Jan.
6, 1793.
GOLDSBORO, a city of North Caro-
lina, the county seat of Wayne co. It is
on the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line,
and the Norfolk Southern railroads, and
on the Neuse river. It is the center of
an important agricultural and cotton-
growing region. It has also extensive
industries, including the manufacture of
cotton, oil, lumber, rice, furniture, agri-
cultural implements, brick, woolen goods,
etc. Its public institutions include a
park, an Odd Fellows' Orphan Home, the
Eastern Insane Asylum, a hospital, and
a sanitarium. Pop. (1910) 6,107; (1920)
11,296.
GOLDSCHMIDT, MADAME (gold'
shmit), maiden name Jenny Lind, a
famous Swedish vocalist; born in Stock-
holm, Sweden, Oct. 6, 1820. At 3 years
of age she could sing correctly any piece
she had once heard, and at 9 she was
placed under Croelius, a famous teacher
of music. Count Piicke, manager of the
court theater, after hearing her sing,
caused her name at once to be entered
at the Musical Academy, where she
made rapid progress. She acted re
peatedly in children's parts on the
Stockholm stage till her 12th year,
when her upper notes lost their sweet-
ness. For four years she studied music
theoretically. Her voice having re-
covered, she appeared at the Royal
Theater, Stockholm, as Agatha, in "Der
Freischutz," in 1838, and for lY- years
she continued the star of the opera at
Stockholm. A series of concerts in the
principal towns of Norway and Sweden
gave her the means to study in Paris
under Garcia. Declining Meyerbeer's
offer to go to Berlin, she returned to
her native city, where she enjoyed a
great triumph on her reappearance. In
1844 she went to Dresden, and after-
ward to Frankfort, Cologne, and Vienna.
She first appeared before a London audi-
ence in May, 1847, as Alice, in ''Robert
the Devil," followed by a series of un-
paralleled triumphs in "Sonnambula,"
"The Daughter of the Regiment," "Puri-
tani," etc. She visited New York in
1850, under the auspices of P. T.
Barnum, and was enthusiastically re-
ceived, but dissolved the engagement
prematurely in 1851, was married to M.
Otto Goldschmidt, a skillful pianist and
conductor, and retired from the stage.
She reappeared in 1855, in 1861, in 1863,
and in 1880, for a limited period. She
was Professor of Singing at the Royal
College of Music, 1883-1886. She died
in Wynd's Point, Malvern, England,
Nov. 2, 1887.
GOLDSMITH, OLIVER, a famous
English author; born in Pallas, Long-
ford CO., Ireland, Nov. 10, 1728. In 1745
he entered Trinity College, Dublin,
OLIVER GOLDSMITH
where he gave no indications of genius
or scholastic talents, and becoming in-
volved in some youthful irregrularities,
quitted the university, and led for some
time a sort of vagrant life. Returning to
GOLD TOOLING
356
GOLF
college, he was graduated B. A. in 1749,
after which he proceeded to Edinburgh
and Leyden universities to study medi-
cine. He set out on foot for a tour of
the European continent, supplied with
no other means than those afforded by
his good spirits, and a favorite flute.
After taking his degree in medicine at
Padua, he returned to England in 1756,
where he commenced practice as a
physician, in which he was unsuccessful.
He then entered the field of letters; and
after passing a period of obscurity and
privation as a "bookseller's hack," his
first work to attract attention was an "In-
quiry Into the Present State of Polite
Learning in Europe" (1759). To this
succeeded "The Citizen of the World,"
a "Life of Beau Nash," and a "History
of England." Becoming acquainted with
Dr. Johnson, in 1761, the latter intro-
duced Goldsmith to the Literary Club.
In 1764 appeared ''The Traveler," which
at once placed Goldsmith in the front
rank of English authors. Two years
afterward appeared the "Vicar of
Wakefield." Following in rapid succes-
sion came "The Good-natured Man"
(1767), "History of Rome" (1768), and
his exquisite poem, "The Deserted Vil«
lage" (1769). In 1773, his immortal
comedy of "She Stoops to Conquer" took
the public by storm. His other works
are "Grecian History" (1774), "Retalia-
tion," a serio-comic poem (1774), and
"History of Animated Nature," which
he did not live to finish. He died in
London April 4, 1774.
GOLD TOOLING, in bookbinding, orna-
ments impressed by the hot tool on gold-
leaf laid on book-covers, causing the
metal to adhere. In contradistinction to
blind tooling, which is the tool mark
without the leaf.
GOLETTA, the port of the city of
Tunis, from which it is 11 miles N. In
the new quarter are the bey's palace, a
large dock, and an arsenal defended by
a battery. Pop. usually about 3,000,
trebled during the visit of the bey in the
bathing season.
GOLF, a game of ball, in which the
bats are loaded sticks with a little curve
at the end for striking the ball on the
ground, or elevated on a little mound,
or tee, as it is called in the language of
the game. Golf clubs are of varying
weights and forms, according to the
taste and requirements of the players.
The balls are made of composition.
Golf is identified with Scotland, by
reason of its great popularity in that
country for upward of 500 years. As
early as 1457 the Scotch Parliament felt
called on to discourage golf because the
absorbing interest of the people in the
game diverted attention from the more
warlike sport of archery, and diminished
the power of the people to preserve their
national independence. The source of
the game is generally admitted to be
Dutch.
It may be played on any good stretch
of meadow where the grass is not too
rank, but the ground best suited for the
purpose is a reach of undulating country
with a sandy soil, short, crisp turf, and
plenty of holes or ruts. The latter,
which form the bunkers or obstacles, are
necessary to prevent the game from being
too easy. The course, called "links,"
should not be less than 3 miles round nor
more than 5. Throughout it are dis-
tributed 18 artificial holes at any dis-
tance from 1 to 500 yards apart. The
holes are 4*^ inches in diameter, and
each is surrounded with a "putting
green," a space 60 feet square and as
smooth as possible. The other requisites
are two small balls about two inches in
diameter and made of gutta-percha, and
a number of "clubs" adapted to the
various contingencies likely to arise. The
object of the game is to knock the ball
with the sticks into the series of holes
in the least number of strokes. The
game can be played either by two per-
sons, each having his ov\ti ball and count-
ing by holes, not by the strokes taken
for the whole round — this is called
singles, or foursomes, two persons play-
ing against another two, the partners
playing alternate strokes, each side hav-
ing its own ball. At the beginning of
the game the player puts a little pat of
sand down on the "teeing ground" (the
pat is the "tee"), sets the ball on the
top, and strikes it as far as he can in
the direction of the first hole. After
that, until he holes the ball, he must
play it strictly from the place it happens
to be. Here is where the bunkers come
in, for a ball may land in a ditch or
under a bank, where it may take him
many strokes to get it into open ground
again, and he may be called upon to use
many different kinds of clubs, according
to the nature of the ground and his
distance from his object. The object of
the putting green which surrounds the
hole is to give the player a smooth space,
enabling him to aim with accuracy. Hav-
ing "holed" his ball, the player takes it
out, tees it again, and starts out for the
next hole. A good driving stroke from a
tee would be 200 yards. But a record of
280 yards has been made at St. Andrews,
Scotland.
There are two styles of clubs, the
wood and the iron, the latter having the
head shod with steel. Altogether there
GOLIATH
357
GOMEZ
are 19 shapes of clubs, but six are usu-
ally sufficient for a man's needs. The
different clubs are used under different
circumstances; for example, a putter for
playing short strokes on the putting
green; a cleek for drives; the driving
iron when it is advisable to make a long
drive, lifting the ball moderately high,
the lifting iron when it is required to
pitch the ball very high; the niblic for
raising a ball out of ruts; the driver for
long drives from a tee.
GOLIATH (go-ll'ath), a giant of
Gath slain by David (1 Sam. xvii.). His
height was ''six cubits and a span,"
which, taking the cubit at 21 inches,
would make him a little over 11 feet. The
Septuagint and Josephus read, "four
cubits and a span."
GOLIATH BEETLE (GoUathus) , a
genus of tropical lamellicorn beetles, in
the subfamily Cetoniidm. They are dis-
tinguished by their large size, by the
horny processes on the heads of the
males, and by the toothed lower jaws or
maxillaa. Several species frequent tropi-
cal and south Africa, and related genera
occur in tropical Asia. The male of the
largest form, G. druryi, from the Gold
Coast, measures about four inches in
length. In color, as well as size, these
goliaths and their relatives are splendid
insects. The family Cetoniidse is famil-
iarly represented in Europe and Great
Britain by the rosechafer {Cetonia
aurata) .
GOLITZINE, NICHOLAS, PRINCE,
a Russian statesman, member of an il-
lustrious Russian noble family, born in
Wiesbaden, Prussia. He was known as
one of the most reactionary supporters
of the Czarist Government. In the fall
of 1916, when the Duma demanded a
more responsible form of government,
Trepoff, then Premier, was forced to re-
sign, and was succeeded by Golitzine as
Premier. Golitzine, however, played en-
tirely a subordinate part to that of the
Minister of the Interior, Protopopoff, the
latter being responsible for the activities
of the Cabinet, which finally led to the
revolution of March, 1917.
GOLOMYNKA {Comephoma or Cal-
lionymus baikalensis) , a remarkable fish,
found only in Lake Baikal, the only
known species of its genus. It is about
a foot long, is destitute of scales, and
is very soft, its whole substance abound-
ing in oil, which is obtained from it by
pressui'e.
GOLT-SCHUT, a name colloquially
used for a small ingot of gold. Also an
itzcbu; a silver coin in Japan, worth 44
cents.
GOLTZ, KOLMAR, BARON VON
DER, a German soldier, born in Bielken-
feld. East Prussia, and educated in the
Military Academy in Berlin. He saw his
first military service in the war between
Austria and Prussia in 1866 and also
participated in the Franco-Prussian War,
after which he was appointed instructor
in the Berlin Military Academy. In 1883
he entered the service of the Turkish
Government as chief of military educa-
tion, in which position he continued un-
til 1896. After this he re-entered the
German military service, becoming a
lieutenant-general in 1908, when he again
went to Turkey to superintend the re-
organization of the Turkish Army.
When the World War broke out, in 1914,
he was back in Germany, and, after
the German invasion of Belgium, was
appointed military governor of the con-
quered territory, but in November, 1914,
he was sent back to Turkey, where he
was appointed military commandant of
the capital and acting Minister of War.
He was chiefly responsible for the ex-
cellent defenses erected on the Gallipoli
Peninsula and the defeat of the Allied
expedition there. In April, 1915, he suc-
ceeded Simon von Sanders as chief of the
First Turkish Army.
GOMATO (go-mii'to), or GOMUTI
(go-mo'te) PALM, the Saguenis sac-
cliarifier, or Areng, a species of trees
found in the Moluccas and Philippines,
which supplies abundance of sugar.
Palm sugar is generally obtained from
the juice which flows from different
palms on wounding their spathes and ad-
jacent parts. It is commonly known in
India by the name of jaggery. The juice
of the gomuti palm, when fermented, pro-
duces an intoxicating liquid or toddy. In
Sumatra it is termed neva, and a kind
of arrak is distilled from it in Batavia.
From the trunk of this palm, when ex-
hausted of its saccharine juice, a good
deal of our commercial sago is obtained.
A single tree will yield from 150 to 200
pounds of sago. The stiff strong fiber
known under the name of gommuti, or
ejow fiber, is obtained from the leaf-
stalks, and is extensively used in the
manufacture of cables and various kinds
of ro,je.
GOMERA, one of the Canary Islands.
GOMEZ, JOSE MIGUEL, a Cuban
soldier and politician, born in the prov-
ince of Santa Clara in 1846. He served
during the Ten Years' War from 1868 to
1879 aiid took an active part in the revo-
lution of 1905, rising to the rank of
major-general. He was governor of the
province of Santa Clara during the_ First
American Intervention and served in the
OOIVIEZ
358
GOMPERS
same position under the presidency of
Estrada Palma. He was a candidate for
the presidency in 1905 but withdrew
pi'ior to the election. He was arrested
in 1906 on the charge of attempting to
foment a revolution, and he remained in
prison until the Second American Inter-
vention. He was elected President of
the Republic in 1908. His administration
was marked by financial and economic
difficulties and there were charges of
corruption on the part of the adminis-
tration. A revolution broke out in 1912
which was crushed. In the following
year President Gomez retired from of-
fice. He was again a candidate for the
presidency in 1920, but was defeated by
Alfredo Zayas.
GOMEZ, MAXIMO (go'meth), a
Cuban military officer; born in Bani,
San Domingo, in 1838; served as a
lieutenant of cavalry in the last Spanish
army sent to occupy that island. Dur-
ing the war with Haiti he won distinc-
tion at the battle of San Tome, in which
action at the head of 20 men he con-
quered a much superior number. When
the freedom of San Domingo was de-
clared he accompanied the Spanish force
to Cuba; but later, when General Villar
maltreated some Cuban refugees, he be-
came angry, and after personally as-
saulting that officer _ left the Spanish
army. In 1868 he joined the Cuban in-
surrection known as the Ten Years' War.
He aided in the capture of Jugnani,
Bayamo, Tunas, and Holguin, and was
a leading actor in many other success-
ful engagements; was promoted Major-
General and later succeeded General
Agramonte as commander-in-chief. At
the beginning of the war of 1895-1898 he
again took up arms with the Cubans and
fought with marked distinction till the
Americans occupied Cuba. On Feb. 25,
1899, after marching through Havana
with 2,500 of his soldiers, he was given
a reception and banquet in that city by
the United States military authorities.
Later he was of invaluable service to
General Brooke, the American governor-
general, in the work of reconstruction on
the island. In 1900-1901 he was con-
spicuously mentioned for the presidency
of the Cuban republic. Among his
sketches are "Panchito Gomez" and "Mi
Escolta." He died June 17, 1905, at
Havana.
GOMPEBS, SAMUEL, an American
labor leader, bom in London, Eng-
land, Jan. 27, 1850. He was apprenticed
to a cigar maker as a young boy and
came to the United States in 1863. In
spite of his youth he became in the fol-
lowing year, 1864, the first registered
member of the Cigar Makers' Interna-
tional Union, serving later as its secre-
tary and president and making it one of
most successful of all American trade
unions. He was one of the founders of
the American Federation of Labor (q.
v.), and the editor of its official maga-
zine. In 1881 he was elected its vice-
president, and from 1882 on he was an-
nually elected president with the single
exception of 1894, in which year he was
defeated by John McBride. Under his
influence and direction the American
Federation of Labor became one of the
most powerful and successful labor or-
ganizations in the world. Gompers^
though sponsoring and supporting many
movements and measures in favor of and
for the improvement of labor, has con-
sistently thrown his influence toward the
conservative elements of American labor.
His opposition to socialistic tendencies
.^/-^^Z^"^^
SAMUEL GOMPERS
within the ranks of American trade
unionists has been outspoken and unfal-
tering. In 1907 he came into special
prominence, together with other officers
of the American Federation of Labor, for
failing to observe an injunction granted
to the Buck Stove and Range Company
in the latter's complaint against the Fed-
eration for having been included in the
list of unfair concerns published in the
official magazine of the Federation. Mr.
Gompers was tried for contempt and sen-
tenced to a term of prison. Repeated
appeals eventually brought the matter
before the Supreme Court of the United
States in 1914, when this court decided
that the statute of limitations made
GONAIVES
359
GONZAGA
further actions impossible. As the presi-
dent of the American Federation of La-
bor, he was, of course, identified with,
and, indeed, frequently initiated this or-
ganization's policies, as in respect to the
eight-hour day, employers' liability laws,
etc. He has tried at various times, but
without any marked degree of success,
to control the labor vote on behalf of
candidates favorable to labor. During
the World War he was a member of the
Advisory Commission of the Council of
National Defense. At the Peace Confer-
ence in Paris in 1918-1919 he acted as the
representative of the American Federa-
tion of Labor. At the same time he
served as president of the International
Commission on Labor Legislation. In
1919 he was the chairman of the delega-
tion from the American Federation of
Labor to the convention of the Interna-
tional Federation of Trades Unions at
Amsterdam. He also served as 1st vice-
president of the National Civic Federa-
tion, He published "Labor in Europe
and America"; "American Labor and the
War"; "Labor and the Common Wel-
fare," as well as numerous pamphlets on
labor questions and movements.
GONAIVES, a harbor on the west
coast of the Island of Haiti, 67 miles
N. W. of Port-au-Prince. It was here
that the independence of the Repub-
lic of Haiti was proclaimed in 1804 by
Dessalines. In 1914 it was the center of
heavy fighting between the insurgents
and the government, which resulted in
temporary occupation of the country by
the United States naval forces. The popu-
lation is about 15,500.
GONCOURT, EDMOND and JULES
DE, French novelists and brothers; the
former born in Nancy, France, May 26,
1822, the latter in Paris, Dec. 17, 1830.
They became celebrated as the joint au-
thors of a number of famous writings,
including "History of the French Society
During the Revolution and Under the
Directory" (1865) ; "Weil-Known Por-
traits of the Eighteenth Century" (1878) ;
"History of Marie Antoinette" (1858);
"The Mistresses of Louis XV." (1860) ;
"The Art of the Eighteenth Century"
(1874); "Ideas and Sensations" (1866),
etc. Jules died in Auteuil, June 20, 1896;
Edmond in 1870.
GONDAR (gon'dar), the capital of
Amhara, in Abyssinia, on a basaltic hill
23 miles N. of Lake Tzana. It was for-
merly the residence of the emperor, and
at one time had about 50,000 inhabitants.
The hill is crowned by the ruin of the
old castle, built by Indian architects
under Portuguese direction; burned by
Theodore in 1867, and now left to the
bats and hyenas.
GONOLOBUS (nol'-) the typical genus
of the tribe Gonolohess. It consists of
twining or shrubby plants, common in
the United States, with racemes, or
corymbs of greenish or dingy purple
flowers. About 60 species are known.
The juice of G. macrophylliis is said to
be used by the North American Indians
to poison their arrows.
GONSALVO, or GONZALVO OF COR-
DOVA, HERNANDEZ Y AGUILAR, a
Spanish general, called "The Great Cap-
tain"; born near Cordova, Spain, March
16, 1453. He was of noble family, and
at an early age entered the army. He
first distinguished himself in the great
war of Ferdinand and Isabella with the
Moors, which ended with the conquest
of Granada in 1492. His next achieve-
ment was the recovery of the kingdom
of Naples from the French, who con-
quered it under Charles VIII. in 1495.
When Louis XII. renewed the invasion
of Italy, Gonsalvo was again sent there,
and, after a temporary division of the
country between France and Spain, he
again expelled the French, established
the Spanish rule, and was named viceroy
of Naples. Through the jealousy of Fer-
dinand, and the calumnies of the cour-
tiers, he was deprived of his office in
1507, when he retired to Granada, and
died there Dec. 2, 1515.
GONVILLE AND CAIUS (kez) COL-
LEGE, a college of Cambridge Univer-
sity, England, founded in 1348 by Ed-
mund Gonville, of Terrington, Norfolk.
In 1558 Dr. Caius obtained the royal
charter by which all the former founda-
tions were confirmed and his own foun-
dation was established. By this charter
the college was thenceforth to be called
Gonville and Caius College.
GONZAGA (gon-za'ga), a princely
family which gave a line of dukes to
Mantua and Montferrat. The sway of
this race over Mantua extended over a
period of three centuries. The Gonzagas
gradually monopolized all the chief posts
of command, both civil and military; in
1432 they were invested with the title
and jurisdiction of hereditary marquises,
and in 1530 with that of dukes or sov-
ereigns of the state. The house of Gon-
zaga and that of the Visconti Dukes of
Milan were perpetually at war. The
marquisate was granted to Giovanni
Francesco in 1433. The 10th and last
Duke of Mantua, Ferdinando Carlo, who
had countenanced the French in the War
of the Succession, was deprived by the
Emperor Joseph I. of his states, and
placed under the ban of the empire. He
died in exile in 1708, leaving no issue.
A branch of the family ruled Guastalla
till 1746.
GOOD HOPE, CAPE OF
360
GOOBKHAS
GOOD HOPE, CAPE OF, the cape at
the S. end of the narrow peninsula run-
ning S. from Cape Town, South Africa.
The name is a translation of the Portu-
guese Cabo da Boa Esperanga, the name
given by King John II., of Portugal,
because its doubling in 1487 by Bar-
tholomew Diaz, who called it Cabo Tor-
mentoso, or Stormy Cape, afforded good
hope of the discovery of the long-sought-
for sea-way to India.
GOODNOW, FBANK JOHNSON, an
American economist and educator; born
in Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1859. He gradu-
ated from Amherst College in 1879 and
took post-graduate studies at Columbia
and in Paris. He was on the faculty of
Columbia University and professor of
law and political science from 1883 to
1907. In 1913-1914 he acted as legal ad-
viser to the Chinese Government. He
was appointed president of Johns Hop-
kins University in the latter year. His
published writings include "Municipal
Problems" (1897) ; "City Government in
the United States" (1904) ; "Municipal
Government" (1910) ; "Social Reform
and the Constitution" (1911). He also
edited many works on the Constitution
and Government. He was a member of
many learned societies.
GOODRICH, CASPAR FREDERICK,
an American naval officer; born in Phila-
delphia in 1847. He graduated from
the United States Naval Academy in
1864. He was appointed ensign in 1866.
He saw service during the Civil War,
and served on several naval vessels from
1865 to 1871, when he again attended
the Naval Academy. He commanded a de-
tachment of sailors and marines, landed
at Alexandria in 1882 to police the burn-
ing city, and during the same year he
was naval attache on the staff of Sir
Garnet Wolseley during the Tel-el-Kebir
campaign. In 1884 he brought the Gree-
ley relief ship "Alert" to New York.
After serving on special duty he was ap-
pointed president of the Naval War Col-
lege in 1897-1898. During the Spanish-
American War he commanded the "St.
Louis" and "Newark" and the "Iowa."
In 1905-1906 he was commander-in-chief
of the Pacific squadron, and from 1907
to 1909 he was commandant of the Navy
Yard in New York. He was retired in
1909. In 1918-1919 he was commandant
of the Naval Unit of Princeton Univer-
sity. From 1914 to 1916 he was presi-
dent of the Naval History Society.
GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD,
pseudonym Peter Parley, an American
author; born in Ridgefield, Conn., Aug.
19, 1793. He edited the "Token," pub-
lished in Boston from 1828 till 1842.
From 1841 till 1854 he edited "Merry's
Museum and Parley's Magazine." His
"Peter Parley" books won great popu-
larity. Among the 200 volumes pub-
lished by him are: "The Poetical Works
of John Trumbull" (1820) ; "Tales of
Peter Parley About America" (1827) ;
similar books on Europe, Asia, Africa,
and other countries. He died in New
York City, May 9, 1860.
GOODWIN, MAUD WILDER, an
American writer; born in Ballston Spa,
N. Y., in 1856. Her novels include "The
Colonial Cavalier"; "White Aprons";
"Sir Christopher"; "Veronica Playfair."
She wrote "Dutch and English on the
Hudson," and was a co-editor of "His-
toric New York."
GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON, an
American educator; born in Concord,
Mass., May 9, 1831; was graduated at
Harvard College in 1851; became Pro-
fessor of Greek Literature in Harvard
in 1860-1901. He is the author of "Syn-
tax of the Moods and Tenses of the Greek
Verb"; "Greek Grammar"; etc. He died
in 1912.
GOODYEAR, CHARLES, an Ameri-
can inventor; born in New Haven, Conn.,
Dec. 29, 1800. He failed as an iron
manufacturer in 1830, but in 1834 turned
his attention to india-rubber, the manu-
factured products of which had hitherto
proved failures because of their liability
to soften in the heat of summer. Amid
poverty and ridicule, sometimes in prison
for debt, he patiently pursued the experi-
ments which, after he had obtained a
fresh idea from his assistant Hayward's
use of sulphur, ended, in 1844, in the
issue of his patent for vulcanized rubber.
This process he afterward perfected. It
required 60 patents to secure his inven-
tions. He received medals at London
(1851) and Paris (1855), as well as the
cross of the Legion of Honor; though
kept in continual litigation and conse-
quent poverty by shameless infringe-
ments of his rights, he yet lived to see
his material applied to nearly 500 uses.
He died in New York City, July 1, 1860.
GOONASS PASS, a pass in Bussahir,
across the S. range of the Himalaya,
16,000 feet above the sea.
GOORKHAS, or GURKHAS, the dom-
inant race in Nepal, descended from
Hindu immigrants and claiming a Raj-
put origin. They overran the Khat-
mandu valley, and extended their power
over Nepal in 1767-1768. Their advance
S. led to the Nepal or Goorkha War of
1814-1815, and General Ochterlony's
spirited campaign brought about the
treaty of Segauli, which still defines
English relations with Nepal, and which
ceded various tracts in the Himalayas.
GOOSE
361
GORDIANUS II.
The Goorkhas, who are a short, thick-set
race, are brave and faithful soldiers, and
lent valuable aid to the British in the
suppression of the mutiny and subse-
quently. They also fought in the World
War. Goorkha, or Gurkha, is about 53
miles from Khatmandu, the present capi-
tal of Nepal. It was formerly the chief
town. See Nepal.
GOOSE, a tailor's smoothing and press-
ing iron, from the handle being like the
neck of a goose. Also a game of chance
played on a card divided into small com-
partments, numbered from 1 to 62, and
arranged in a spiral form round an open
central space. It was played by two or
more persons, who moved their counters
over the compartments according to the
numbers which they threw on dice. In
ornithology, any bird of the genus Anser.
The domestic goose is believed to have
descended from Anser ferus, called in
books the greylag goose. It is valued
for the table and on account of its quills
and fine soft feathers. Geese=A«ser-
inae, a sub-family of Anatidas (ducks).
The body is large and heavy, the neck
long, the head small, and the bill conical,
GOOSE
A. Head of Canadian Goose
B. Snow Goose
C. Half Webbed Goose
D. Rough Billed Goose
E. Cape Barren Goose
the wings long and powerful. In sum-
mer they inhabit the polar regions, mi-
gn^ating S. in flocks on the approach of
winter.
GrOPHES,, a name given by the early
f rench settlers in the TTnited States to
various animals which honeycomb the
ground by burrowing in it. In Canada
and Illinois it was given to a gray bur-
rowing squirrel, Spermophilus Frank-
lini, W. of the Mississippi to S. Richard-
sonii, in Wisconsin to a otriped squirrel,
and in Missouri to a burrowing pouched
rat, Geomys bursarius. All these are
GOFHER
mammals; but in Georgia the term was
applied to a snake. Coluber ccnipen, and
in Florida to a turtle, Testudo polyphe-
mus.
GOPPINGEN, a town in Wiirttem-
berg, Germany, situated on the Fils, 26
miles by rail from Stuttgart. It is noted
for its production of textile goods, toys,
agricultural machinery, and enameled
ware. Pop. about 25,000.
GORAKHPUB, a division of the
United provinces of Agra and Oudh,
British India, with an area of about
10,000 square miles and a population of
about 7,000,000. Lying along the south-
ern slopes of the Himalayas, it is moun-
tainous in character and thickly covered
by forests. Cotton and rice are the chief
productions. The city of Gorakhpur is
the capital of the district; it is situated
on the Rupti river, 100 miles N. E. of
Benares. Fop. about 60,000.
GORPIANUS (I-a'nus) I., MARCUS
ANTOIsriUS, surnamed Africanus; Ro-
man emperor; born about 158 A. D. He
was descended by the father's side from
the famous family of the Gracchi. After
being asdile, he twice filled the ofiice of
consul. He was then appointed pro-
consul of Africa. The tyranny and in-
justice of the Emperor Maximinus at
length excited a rebellion in Africa, the
authors of which proclaimed Gordianus
emperor, though he was then (238) in
his 80th year. At the same time his son
was conjoined with him in the exercise
of imperial authority. The younger
Gordianus, however, was defeated and
slain in battle by Capellianus, viceroy
of Mauritania, before Carthage, where-
unon his father put an end to his own
' existence (having been emperor for little
more than a month) in 238.
GORDIANTTS II., MARCUS AN-
TONIUS, Roman emperor, son and
associate of the preceding; bom in
GORDIANUS III.
362
GORE
192 A. D. He died near Carthage,
Africa, in 238.
GORDIANUS III.. MARCUS AN-
TONIUS PIUS, Roman emperor, grand-
son of Gordianus I. ; born about 224 A. D.
He was raised to the dignity of Caesar
with Pupienus and Balbinus, who were
also elected emperors in opposition to
Maximinus; and, in the came year (238),
after the three last named had fallen by
the hands of their own soldiers, Gordi-
anus was elevated by the Praetorian
bands to the rank of Augustus. Assisted
by his father-in-law, Misitheus, whom he
made prefect of the Praetorians, Gordi-
anus marched in 242 into Asia against
the Persians, who under Shahpur (Sa-
por) had taken possession of Mesopo-
tamia and had advanced into Syria. He
relieved Antioch, which was threatened
by them ; drove back the Persians beyond
the Euphrates; and was just about to
march into their country when Misitheus
died. Philip the Arabian, who succeeded
Misitheus, stirred up the soldiery to
assassinate the emperor in 244.
GORDON. CHARLES GEORGE, called
"Chinese Gordon" and "Gordon Pasha,"
an English soldier; born in Woolwich,
England, Jan. 28, 1833. He entered the
Royal Engineers in 1852, and served in
the Crimea (1854-1856). The Taeping
rebellion in China he completely crushed
by means of a specially trained corps of
Chinese. On his return to England with
the rank of colonel, he was appointed
chief engineer officer at Gravesend. From
1874 to 1879 he was governor of the
Sudan under the khedive. For a few
months in 1882 he held an appointment
at the Cape, and had just accepted a
mission to the Kongo from the King of
the Belgians when he was sent to with-
draw the garrisons in the Sudan, which
were at the mercy of the insurgent
mahdi. He was shut up in Khartum by
the rebels, and gallantly held that town
for a whole year. A British expedition-
ary force under Lord Wolseley was dis-
patched iov his relief; an advance corps
of which sighted Khartum, Jan. 24, 1885,
to find that the town had been treacher-
ously delivered into the hands of the
mahdi two days before, and Gordon mur-
dered. His character was marked by
strong religious feelings, which made him
somewhat of a fatalist.
GORDON, CHARLES WILLIAM, a
Canadian author, writing under the name
"Ralph Connor"; born in Indian Lands,
Glengarry, Ont., Canada, in 1860. He
was graduated at Toronto University in
1883 and at Knox College in 1887; was
a missionary to Banff, etc.. Rocky Moun-
tains, 1890-1894. He wrote "Beyond the
Marshes"; "Black Rock"; "Given's
Canon"; "The Sky Pilot"; "Ould
Michael"; and "The Man from Glen-
garry" (1901) ; "The Foreigner" (1909) ;
"Corporal Cameron of the Northwest
Mounted Police" (1912).
GORDON, GEORGE ANGIER, an
American clergyman and writer; born
in Scotland in 1853. He attended the
common schools in Scotland and removed
to the United States in 1871. He gradu-
ated from Bangor Theological Seminary
in 1877 and from Harvard University in
1881. He was ordained to the Congre-
gational ministry in 1877, and was pas-
tor of churches in Maine and in Green-
wich, Conn., from 1881 to 1883. In the
following year he was appointed pastor
of the Old South Church, Boston. He
was university preacher at Harvard
from 1886 to 1890, and at Yale from
1888 to 1901. He was an overseer of
Harvard University from 1897 to 1916.
He was a member of the National Insti-
tute of Arts and Letters. His published
writings include "The Christ of To-day"
(1895) ; "The New Epoch for Faith"
(1901) ; "Through Man to God" (1906) ;
"Humanism in New England Theology"
(1920). He was president of the Har-
vard Alumni Association in 1918.
GORDON, JOHN BROWN, an Amer-
ican military officer; born in Upson co.,
Ga., Feb. 6, 1832; was graduated at the
University of Georgia; admitted to the
bar and began practice. When the Civil
War broke out he was appointed a cap-
tain of infantry in the Confederate
army; served with marked distinction
throughout the war, during which he was
wounded eight times; was promoted
Brigadier-General in April, 1863, and
later Major-General. In 1873 he was
elected to the United States Senate and
served in that body till 1880, when he re-
signed. In 1887-1900 he was governor of
Georgia. On May 31, 1900, he was chosen
commander-in-chief of the United Con-
federate Veterans. General Gordon was
widely known as an orator on events of
the Civil War. He died in Florida, Jan.
9, 1904.
GORDON BENNETT, MOUNT
(named from James Gordon Bennett), a
mountain seen in Africa by Stanley in
1875. It lies S. of Albert Nyanza, a little
N. of the equator and E. of Ion. 30° E.
It is a truncated cone, probably an ex-
tinct crater, and rises 14,000 or 15,000
feet in height. It is sometimes covered
with snow.
GORE, THOMAS PYROR, an Ameri-
can senator ; born in Webster co., Miss., in
1870. Although deprived of the sight of
both eyes by two accidents in his early
youth, he completed his education at the
GOBGAS
863
GOBILLA
Normal School at Walthall, Miss., in
1890, received the degree of B. L. from
Cumberland University in 1892, and vv^as
admitted to the bar the same year. He
removed to Texas in 1895 after active
participation in local politics. After
several years' connection with the
People's party, he allied himself with
the Democratic organization in 1899. He
took an active part in the presidential
campaigns of 1900 and 1904. Having
removed to Oklahoma in 1901, he was a
member of the Territorial Council 1902-
1905, and becamo Senator from Okla-
homa in 1907. He was re-elected in 1909
and 1915, but was defeated in 1920.
From 1912-1916 he was a member of the
executive committee of the Democratic
National Committee.
GORGAS, WILLIAM CRAWFORD,
an American physician; born at Mobile,
Ala., Oct. 3, 1854. He graduated from
the University of the South, in 1875, re-
ceived the degree of M. D. from the Belle-
vue Hospital Medical College in 1879,
and served as interne at Bellevue Hospi-
tal 1878-1880. Appointed a surgeon in the
United States Army in 1880, he rose
successively through the ranks of cap-
tain, assistant surgeon, major brigade
GENERAL WILLIAM C. GORGAS
surgeon of volunteers, and became chief
sanitary officer of Havana, Cuba, in
1898. He continued in charge of sanitary
administration at Havana until 1902, and
by his efficient methods of direction and
control in the fight against the yellow
fever he finally accomplished the prac-
tical elimination of that disease from the
port of Havana. Congi-ess, by special
act. Mar. 9, 1903, made him colonel as-
sistant surgeon-general in recognition of
his successful campaign against the
yellow fever plague. He was subse-
quently honored by the University of
Pennsylvania', and the University of the
South, Harvard, and Brown University
with honorary degrees in acknowledg-
ment of the extraordinary merit of his
achievements. In 1914 he was made
surgeon-general, U. S. A., with rank of
brigadier-general, and was advanced to
major-general in 1915. He retired from
the service in 1918, and became director
of the division of yellow fever research
of the Rockefeller Foundation, having
previously become a permanent director
of its International Health Board. As
chief sanitary officer (1904) in connec-
tion with the building operations of the
Panama Canal (q. v.), he did his most
distinguished public work, and brought
to a successful sanitary issue the difficult
task of cleaning up the fever-infested
isthmian territory. His work made pos-
sible the maintenance of the high record
of industrial efficiency which was a large
factor in contributing to the rapid com-
pletion of the canal. In 1907 he became
a member of the Isthmian Canal Com-
mission. He was honored by some of the
most exceptional national and foreign
awards for scientific achievement, and
was a member of many domestic and
foreign scientific societies. He died in
London, England, July 4, 1920, when
about to depart on a mission to west
Africa in behalf of the British Govern-
ment to investigate sanitary conditions.
GORGES, SIR FERDINAXDO,
styled "the father of colonization in
America"; born in Ashton, Somerset-
shire, England, about 1565. He founded
two Plymouth companies (1606-1620 and
1620-1635) for acquiring and planting
lands in New England, and in 1639 re-
ceived from the king a charter constitut-
ing him proprietor of Maine. He ad-
hered to the king in the civil war, and
died in 1647. His son neglected the prov-
ince, which finally placed itself under
the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, to
which colony Sir Ferdinando's grandson
sold his rights in 1677 for £1,250.
GORILLA, a celebrated anthropoid
ape, generally believed to come nearer
than any known one to man, though some
contend that the affinity of the Gibbon
(q. V.) is closer. The number of teeth in
the gorilla, and all the old world mon-
keys, except the lemurs, is 32, the same
as in man. The hand has the same bones
as in man. The height is about 5 feet.
The greatest capacity of the gorilla's
brain is only 34^/2 cubic inches, the least
GORIZIA
364
GORIZIA
23, against 62 in the least capacious
human skull, and 114 in the greatest.
The formidable canines are only sexual
characteristics, being of more moderate
size in the female. The low facial angle
also, and the abundant hair, with the ex-
traordinary breadth of the chest dimin-
ish the resemblance to man. The last
mentioned characteristic imparts to the
animal colossal strength. It is a native
of Lower Guinea and the interior of
equinoetial Africa. It has a congener in
the same region, the Chimpanzee (g. v.).
about 36 miles N. W. of Triest. The
situation is attractive, the buildings
being on an elevation which overlooks the
Isonzo valley, with castles, monasteries,
and churches, ancient and picturesque in
character, in the foreground. It is the
seat of an archbishopric, and contains a
cathedral of the 17tih century, archbish-
op's palace, college, barracks, and govern-
ment buildings. During the Austrian
occupation it was regarded as the center
of an Adriatic Riviera, and was much
frequented by Austrians for health and
A. Skull
Hand
GORIZIA or GORITZ or GORZ. A vacation. The establishments include
town which figured prominently in the schools of various kinds, libraries, hospi-
World War, in the former Austrian tals, seminaries and experiment stations,
crownland of Gorz and Gradisca, now an Its manufactures are considerable, in-
Italian possession on the river Isonzo, eluding silks, thread, pottery, leather,
GORIZIA
365
GORKY
watches, and it is a center of agricul-
tural produce. The population which
numbers about 30,000, is mainly German-
speaking and Ttalian-speaking, but in
race and history the town is more Italian
than Austrian. During the war Gorizia
was one of the most hardly contested
points of fhe Austro-Italian front. It
was strongly held by the Austrian forces.
On August 4, 1916, General Cadorna
opened fire along the Isonzo front, de-
livering a frontal attack on the forces
opposite Gorizia. The Italian forces
went forward with the utmost vehemence
and the heights of Monte Calvario and
Monte Podgora above Gorizia were car-
ried in the first rush. South of Gor-
izia the Italians also took Monte San
Michele, the key to the Gorizia position,
which had been a heavily contested point
from the first clash between Italy and
the Austrians. The Austrian forces met
the repeated attacks of the enemy with
great stubbornness ; nevertheless, after a
battle lasting two days, the heights west
of Gorizia were occupied, and King
Victor Emmanuel at the head of his in-
fantry entered Gorizia on August 9.
From that time forth the Italian com-
mander put forth all his efforts to con-
solidate his position around Gorizia, The
city was turned into a veritable strong-
hold, and was made a base of supply for
the advance toward the capture of
Trieste. But east of Gorizia were great
elevations well guarded by Austrian
guns, with whole labyrinthine intrench-
ments blocking the way. During the
Italian offensive in the early part of
August the Austrians had lost, accord-
ing to the Italian estimate, 65,000 men,
including 18,758 prisoners. In November,
Italian forces, attacking the heights east
of Gorizia, brought in 9,000 more Austri-
ans. During the winter the Italians made
preparations for a great offensive, start-
ing from Gorizia, which was intended
to capture Trieste, destroy Austrian
naval power in the Adriatic and open the
road to Vienna. The enemy was first to
be engaged all along the line, and then a
surprise attack was to be launched north
of Gorizia. An attempt of this sort was
made in May, 1917, and some initial suc-
cesses were obtained, Monte Cucco, Monte
Sa7ito, Lucati, and Bagni, being captured.
But the Austrians had also been making
preparations, and were re-enforced by
the collapse of Russia. In June they
launched a strong offensive, driving back
the Italians. Austrians and Italians
then for a time answered offensive with
offensive, and the Italians won some sig-
nal successes crossing the Isonzo in
August, after diverting the river by an
important engineering feat. Toward
Vol. IV— Cyc— X
the ena of 1917, however, the Austrian
forces staged a big surprise. Austro-
G©rman batteries on October 21 bom-
barded the Plezzo-Tolmino front with ex-
traordinary intensity, the infantry break-
ing through the Italian positions and
crossing the Isonzo. Advancing down
the Natisone and Indrio river valleys,
they forced the second and third Italian
armies to retire. In five days the
Austro-Germans were able to announce
that they had captured 60,000 men and
500 guns. Seizing Monte Matajar,
which overlooked the Italian rear, and
capturing the workers on the roads be-
hind the front, they forced the Italians
on the Carso plateau hastily to fall back
over the Isonzo, and menaced the entire
army in that region. On Oct. 28 rail-
way communication between the front
and Udine was interrupted by the cap-
ture of Cividale, and Gorizia fell simul-
taneously into the hands of the Aus-
trians. The Austrian advance did not
halt till the Piave river was reached.
Before the enemy reached the Taglia-
mento, Italy had lost 180,000 men, and
1,500 guns. At the Livenza the totals
had swelled to 250,000 and 2,300 guns.
At the Piave, German reports showed
a gain of 300,000 men, 2,700 guns, with
the occupation of 4,000 square miles of
Italian territory. From those positions
there was little charge to the end of the
war and Gorizia was made a powerful
base of supply behind the Austrian front.
GORKY, MAXIM, the pseudonym of a
Russian novelist and short story writer,
whose real name is Alexei Maximo\ntch
Pyeshkov, born in Nizhni-Novgorod, 1868,
He was of humble parentage, and, being
an orphan at nine, became a shoemaker's
apprentice. He did not remain long at
this trade, nor at any trade, in fact, but
wandered about the country doing odd
jobs and tramping between whiles. Thus
he became intimately acquainted with
the class of people, outcasts and beggars,
who are the chief characters of his
stories and novels. Gradually his ex-
periences found expression in literary
form and by 1905 Gorky was one of the
most popular writers of Russia. He
was in close sympathy with the Russian
revolutionary parties, and was twice ar-
rested for his revolutionary activities,
but his prominence as a literary man,
abroad as well as in Russia, made it in-
advisable for the Czar's Government to
punish him severely. In 1906 he visited
the United States to raise money for the
Russian revolutionary movement, but his
mission failed because of the fact that
the Russian Church had not legalized his
marriage to the woman who accompanied
him. For some years he l^ed in Italy,
GORLITZ
366
GOSHEN
in delicate health, but during the World
War he returned to Russia, to par-
ticipate in the general effort to crush
German Imperialism. He supported the
Russian Revolution of March, 1917, en-
thusiastically, but bitterly opposed the
Bolsheviki when they came into power
in the following November. Later he
co-operated with them, but continued his
criticism of their principles and tactics.
Gorky's fame as a writer is particu-
larly strong in this counti'y, and Eng-
land. His short sketches of the Russian
underworld are powerful, if crude, but
his novels and plays show less virility,
while his political and economic essays
betray his lack of early training and
education. Almost all his writings are
available in English. Among his best
known collections of short stories are:
"Orloflf and His Wife" (1901), and "The
Outcasts and Other Stories" (1902).
Among his best known novels are:
"Mother" (1907); "The Spy" (1908);
and "A Confession" (1910). His plays
are not popular in this country, but "A
Night's Lodging" (1905) has been much
commented upon.
GORLITZ (ger'lits), a town of Prus-
sian Silesia, on the left bank of the
Neisse, 49 miles W. of Liegnitz. Among
its beautiful Gothic churches is that of
St. Peter and St. Paul (1423-1497).
Outside the town is the Kreuzkapelle
(1481-1489)„ an imitation of the Holy
Sepulcher at Jerusalem. A railway via-
duct, upward of 2,720 feet in length and
118 feet high, here crosses the valley of
the Neisse. C^orlitz has manufactures of
cloth, its staple; cotton, linen, and fictile
wares, with iron foundries and machine
shops. Here Jacob Boehme spent most
of his life and died. Gorlitz was taken
and held alternately by the Swedes and
the Imperialists during the Thirty Years'
War. Pop. about 86,000.
GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM (go'
shen), an English statesman; born in
London, England, Aug. 10, 1831. He was
educated at Rugby and Oriel College,
Oxford. In 1863 he entered Parliament
as a Liberal for the city of London.
When Lord Russell, after Palmerston's
death, reorganized the Liberal ministry,
he appointed Goschen vice-president of
the Board of Trade, in November, 1865.
In the following January the latter en-
tered the cabinet as chancellor of the
Duchy of Lancaster. When Gladstone
became prime minister in 1868, Goschen
took office as president of the poor-law
board and in 1871 the head of the ad-
miralty, which post he retained till the
fall of the Gladstone ministry in 1874.
His next public work was the regulation.
In conjunction with Joubert» of the
Egyptian finances (1876). In 1878 he
represented Great Britain at the Inter-
national Monetary Conference held at
Paris, and two years afterward, as am-
bassador extraordinary to the Porte, en-
forced on Turkey the fulfillment toward
Gx'eece of the treaty of Berlin. He
strenuously opposed home rule; in 1887-
1892 was Unionist Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer, and in 1888 converted part of
the national debt. In 1895-1896, as First
Lord of the Admiralty, he made pro-
vision for increasing the navy. He pub-
lished "Foreign Exchanges" (16th edi-
tion, 1894), besides addresses, pam-
phlets, books on education, etc. ; and was
Lord Rector of Aberdeen and Edinburgh
Universities. He sat for London 1863-
1880; Ripon 1880-1885; East Edinburgh
1885-1886, and St. George's, 1887-1886.
He died in 1907.
GOSCHEN, SIR WILLIAM ED-
WARD, an English diplomat, bom in
London, in 1847. He was educated at
Rugby and entered the diplomatic serv-
ice in 1869. He served successively in
various capacities at Buenos Aires,
Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Peking, Copen-
hagen, Washington, and St. Petersburg.
From 1898 to 1900 he was Ambassador
at Belgrade and filled the same post at
Copenhagen from 1900 to 1905. After
three years of service as Ambassador at
Vienna, he was in 1908 made Ambas-
sador to Germany. He occupied this
post at the outbreak of the World War,
and took part in vain efforts to persuade
the German Government to refrain from
hostile measures.
GOSHAWK, or GOSH AUK (properly
goosehawk) , Astur palumbarius, a bird
of prey. It is brown above, white under-
neath, barred across with brown, with
five browner bands on the tail; the eye-
lids whitish. It is abundant in parts
of the European continent. It occurs
also in this country, in the N. of Africa,
in India, etc. It can be used, as it often
is in the East Indies, for falconry.
GOSHEN, a city and county-seat of
Elkhart co., Ind. ; on the Elkhart river
and the Lake Shore and Michigan
Southern, and the Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Chicago and St. Louis railroads; 25
miles S. E. of South Bend. It manu-
factures wool, rubber goods, condensed
milk, furniture, iron, flour, and farm-
ing implements; has a court house, high
school, several churches, Goshen College,
a library, a National bank, daily and
weekly newspapers. Pop. (1910) 8,514;
(1920) 9,525.
GOSHEN, a village and county-seat
of Orange co., N. Y., on the Erie, and
the Lehigh and New England railroads;
GOSLAR
367
GOSSE
59 miles N. W. of New York. It carries
on a large trade in cheese and butter,
which are widely celebrated for their
excellence. It contains a court house,
waterworks, churches, 2 National banks,
and several weekly newspapers. Pop.
(1910) 5,149; (1920) 5,016.
GOSHAWK
GOSLAR (gos'lar), an ancient town
of Hanover, on the N. slope of the Harz
Mountains, 27 miles S. E. of Hildesheim.
It was at one time a free imperial city,
and the residence of the emperors; has
several noteworthy old buildings, as the
tower called "Zwinger," with walls 23
feet thick, the late Romanesque Church
Neuwerk, of the 12th century, and the
Frankenberger Church (1108, restored
1880), both with ancient frescoes; the
emperor's house, built in 1050 by Henry
III., the dwelling-house of the emperors
till the middle of the 13th century, the
meeting place of more than 20 imperial
diets, restored in 1867-1880; the town
house, built in 1136-1184; and the
Kaiserworth an old building containing
statues of eight emperors. To the S.
of the town is the Rammelsberg, a
mountain formerly very rich in silver,
gold, copper, lead, sulphur, and green
vitriol. The mines have been worked
since 968. Goslar was founded by
Henry I. in 920. About 1350 it joined
the Hanseatic League. Its ancient pros-
perity began to depart from it in the mid-
dle of the 16th century; and it suffered
severely in the Thirty Years' War. In
1802 it ceased to be a free imperial town
and fell to Prussia, to whom it again
returned in 1866, after having in the
meantime belonged to Westphalia (from
1807) and Hanover (from 1816). Here
were born Henry IV. and Marshal Saxe.
The Wordsworths were here in 1798.
Pop. about 18,000.
GOSLARITE, an orthorhombic, white,
reddish, bluish, transparent or translu-
cent, brittle mineral of vitreous luster
and nauseous taste. Called aslo gallit-
zenite.
GOSPEL, a word used as the English
equivalent of the Greek evangelion, or
rather euaggelion, a good or joyful mes-
sage. In the New Testament it denotes
primarily the glad tidings respecting
the Messiah and His kingdom — this was
emphatically the Gospel (Anglo-Saxon,
godspell, good tidings). It was quite
naturally employed as a common title
for the historical accounts which record
the facts that constitute the basis of
Christianity.
GOSPORT (God's port), a market-
town and seaport of England, county of
Hants, on the W. shore of Portsmouth
harbor, and directly opposite Ports-
mouth, with which it is connected by a
floating bridge. There are an extensive
iron foundry for the manufacture of
anchors and chain cables, naval powder
magazines, barracks, the Royal Clar-
ence victualing yard, which contains a
brewery, a biscuit-baking establishment,
and numerous storehouses and Haslar
Hospital. Pop. (1917) 34,000.
GOSSE. EDMUND, an English author;
son of Philip Henry Gosse; born in Lon-
don, Sept. 21, 1849. As a poet he is
known by "Madrigals, Songs, and Son-
nets"; "On Viol and Flute"; "The Un-
known Lover." From 1904-1914 Libra-
rian of the House of Lords. Some of his
criticisms and biographies are contained
in "Seventeenth Century Studies" and
"From Shakespeare to Pope." He wrote
also in prose "Northern Studies'*
(1879); "Gossip in a Library" (1891);
"Questions at Issue" (1893); "History
of Modern English Literature" (1897)";
"Life and Letters of Dr. John Donne"
(1899) ; "Coventry Patmore" (1905) ;
"Father and Son" (1907) ; "Portraits
and Studies" (1912) ; "Collected Poem.s"
(1913).
GOSSE. PHILIP HENRY, an Eng-
lish naturalist; born in Worcester,
England. April 10, 1810. In 1827 he
went to Newfoundland as a clerk, and
GOTH
368
GOTHLAND
was afterward in turn farmer in Can-
ada, schoolmaster in Alabama, and pro-
fessional naturalist in Jamaica. Return-
ing to England, he published "Canadian
Naturalist" (1840). He wrote "Birds of
Jamaica" (1851) ; "A Naturalist's So-
journ in Jamaica" (1851) ; "Naturalist's
Ramble on the Devonshire Coast"
(1853) ; "Aquarium" (1854) ; "Manual
of Marine Zoology" (1855-1856) ; "Ro-
mance of Natural History" (1860-1862),
his best known work; "Actinologia
Britannica" (1860); "Popular British
Ornithology" (1853). In the year 1886
he placed in the hands of Dr. C. T.
Hudson the notes and drawings of a
lifetime on the microscopic study of the
Rotifera. He was elected a Fellow of the
Royal Society in 1856. He died in Tor-
quay, Devon, in 1888.
EDMUND GOSSE
GOTH, one of an ancient race belong-
ing to the Teutons, who originally oc-
cupied a great portion of European and
Asiatic Russia. Filmer, their king, con-
ducted a body of his nation to the coast
of the Euxine, where it afterward in-
creased into a numerous and formidable
people under the names of Visigoths and
Ostrogoths, the former occupying the
countries to the W. of the Dnieper, the
latter those to the E. The Visigoths
crossed the Danube, plundered Rome and
Italy, and fixed their residence in Spain,
while their kindred, the Ostrogoths,
took possession of Italy, which they held
till A. D 544, when they were overthrown
by Narses, general of Justinian. From
this time the Goths as a nation make no
figure in history except in Spain; but
traces of their language, manners, and
arts are still to be found in every coun-
try of the East. A branch of the Visi-
goths, settled in Moesia, the modern Bul-
garia, are known as Mcesogoths, and
the translation of a great portion of the
Bible by Wulfila, or Ulfila, a Christian
bishop, about A. D. 350, fragments only
of which have come down to us, is the
earliest known specimen of the Gothic
or Teutonic tribe of tongues. Figura-
tively, a barbarian; one deficient in or
utterly without taste; a rude, ignorant
person.
GOTHA (go'ta), a town of Germany,
alternately with Coburg the capital of
the former duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
31 miles W. by S. of Weimar, on the N.
outskirts of the Thuringian Forest. It
is a handsome, well-built town, with fine
parks. The principal public building is
the castle of Friedenstein, built in 1643,
78 feet above the town; it contains a
library of over 200,000 volumes and
6,000 MSS., and a very valuable nu-
mismatic collection. The museum
(1878), in the Renaissance style, con-
tains the picture gallery, in which
Cranach, Van Eyck, Holbein. Rubens,
and Rembrandt are represented; a very
excellent cabinet of engravings; a
natural history collection; collections of
Egyptian, Roman, Greek and German
antiquities; and a Japanese and Chinese
museum. A new observatory was built
in 1874. Gotha prior to the World War
was an active industrial town, the prin-
cipal manufactures being shoes, fire en-
gine pipes, sugar and toys. Gotha
sausages have a widespread celebrity.
Several hundreds of designers, engrav-
ers, printers, and map-colorers were em-
ployed here in the geographical estab-
lishment of Justus Perthes, who also
publishes the "Almanach de Gotha" (see
Almanac). Pop. about 39,500.
GOTTHARD, ST. See St. Gotthard.
GOTHLAND or GOTTLAND, a Swed-
ish island in the Baltic, 44 miles E.
from the mainland, and with Faro,
Gotsk Sando, and other smaller islands
constituting the province of Gottland
or Wisby; area, 1,219 square miles;
pop. (1918) 56,028. The island con-
sists mainly of terrace-like slopes of
limestone, encircled by cliffs, broken by
numerous deep fiords, more especially
on the W. coast; the E. parts are flat.
Next to agriculture, the chief occupa-
tions of the inhabitants are fishing, fov.I-
ing, and lime-burning. In the Middle
Ages the island belonged to the German
Hanseatic League, but was restored to
Sweden in 1645. Capital, Wisby.
GOTTENBURG
369
GOULBURN
GOTTENBURG. or GOTEBORG
(got'enborg), a seaport town in Sweden,
the second in importance, capital of the
Ian of the same name; at the mouth of
the Gota, in the Kattegat, 255 miles W.
S. W. of Stockholm, intersected by-
canals. It is one of the best built towns
in Sweden, and the seat of a bishopric.
It has manufactures of sail-cloth, cot-
ton, and other goods, and possesses ship-
building yards, tobacco factories, brew-
eries, sugar refineries, etc. The trade
is very extensive. Among social reform-
ers the town is noted for its manage-
ment of the liquor question. Pop. (1919)
197,421.
GOTTINGEN (get'ting-en) , a town in
the Prussian province of Hanover; 538
feet above sea-level on the Leine; 67 miles
S. of Hanover, and 36 N. E. of Cassel.
The celebrated university (Georgia Au-
gusta) was founded in 1734-1737. Con-
nected with it are the library of 600,000
volumes, the art museum, the splendid
botanic garden (laid out by Haller), the
observatory, the laboratory, the lying-in
hospital, etc. Longfellow, Motley, Tick-
nor, Bancroft, and other illustrious
Americans studied at Gottingen. The
Gottingen Poet-League was a small poet
band who in the "storm and stress" days
of 1770-1778 did much for the revival of
national feeling; by the "Gottingen
Seven" are meant the seven professors
(Albrecht, Dahlmann, Ewald, Gervinus,
the two GrimmiS, and Weber) who for
their liberal tendencies were in 1837 ex-
pelled by King Ernest Augustus. The
book trade is of more importance than
the manufactures — woolens, sugar, chem-
icals, etc. Raised to a town in 1210, and
a considerable member of the Hansa in
the 14th century, Gottingen suffered
much during the Thirty Years' War,
when it was taken by Tilly in 1626, and
recaptured by the Swedes in 1632. Pop.
about 38,000.
GOTTLIEBEN (got'le-ben), a small
tov.'n of Thurgau canton, Switzerland, 1
mile W. of Constance; its castle was the
prison of John Huss, Jerome of Prague,
and Malleobus.
GOTZ VON BERLICHINGEN (gets
fon ber'lich-ing-en), a German knight of
the 16th century; born in Jaxthausen,
Wiirttemberg, in 1480. Gotz is an ab-
breviation of Gottfried. At the siege of
Landshut (1505), he lost his right hand,
which was replaced by an artificial one of
steel, cunningly invented by himself; it
is still shown at Jagstfeld. He wrote an
account of his own turbulent life on
which Goethe grounded his drama of
"Gotz of Berlichingen." Died in his
castle at Hornberg on the Neckar, July
23, 1562.
GOUCHER COLLEGE, an institution
for the higher education of women,
founded in Baltimore, Md., in 1844, as
the Woman's College of Baltimoi'e. In
recognition of gifts made by Reverend
John F. Goucher, the name wai changed
in 1910 to Goucher College. In 1920
there were 793 students and 70 instruc-
tors. President, W. W. Guth, Ph. D.
GOUDA (gou'da), a town of South
Holland, on the right bank of the Hol-
laendsche Yassel, 13 miles N. E. of Rot-
terdam. The Church of St. John has a
suite of magnificent stained glass win-
dows (1560-1603) by the brothers
Crabeth, and a fine organ.
GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW, an
American temperance lecturer; born in
Sandgate, Kent, England, Aug- 22, 1817.
His father was a pensioner of the Pen-
insular war, his mother a village school-
mistress. At the age of 12 he was sent
to America, and worked on a farm in
Oneida co.. New York. In 1831 he went
to New York City, where he found em-
ployment in a book establishment; but
habits of dissipation lost him this em-
ployment, and reduced him to that of
giving recitations and singing comic
songs at low grog shops. He was mar-
ried in 1839; but his drunken habits re-
duced him to poverty. In 1842 a benevo-
lent Quaker induced him to attend a
temperance meeting and take the pledge;
and soon afterward, resolving to devote
the remainder of his life to the cause of
temperance, Gough attended temperance
meetings and related his experience with
such effect as to influence many others.
A few months later he had a short re-
lapse into drunkenness; but an eloquent
confession restored him to favor, and he
lectured with great pathos, humor, and
earnestness in various parts of America.
In 1853 he was engaged by the London
Temperance League, and lectured for two
years in the United Kingdom, where he
attracted large crowds to his meetings.
He was n"-ain in England in 1857-1860
and 1878. "Autobiography" (1846);
"Orations" (1854) ; "Temperance Ad-
dress" (1870) ; "Temperance Lectures"
(1879) ; and "Sunlight and Shadow, or
Gleanings from My Lifework" (1880).
He died'in Frankford, Pa., Feb. 18, 1886.
GOULBURN, a town of New South
Wales, 134 miles S. W. of Sydney; with
several tanneries, boot and shoe factories,
flour mills, and breweries, and a busy
trade in agricultural produce. The seat
of an Anglican and of a Roman Catholic
bishop, it contains a handsome Church
of England cathedral (Gothic, conse-
crated in 1884), and a Roman Catholic
cathedral. It has also a Catkolic col-
lege and a convent. Pop. (1917) 10,646.
GOULD
370
GOZO
GOULD, JAY, an American financier;
bom in Roxbury, N. Y., May 27, 1836;
was brought up on his father's farm; at-
tended Hobart College a short time, ac-
quired a taste for mathematics and sur-
veying; made surveys of Ulster, Albany,
and Delaware counties, and began his
railroad career directly after the panic
of 1857; invested in bonds of the Rutland
and Washington railroad, and became
president, treasurer, and superintendent
of the road. Soon afterward he effected
a consolidation of his road with the
Rensselaer and Saratoga road, withdrew
his capital, removed to New York, opened
a broker's office, and began dealing in
Erie stocks and bonds. In association
with James Fisk, Jr., he entered the di-
rectory of the company, and was elected
president, with Fisk as vice-president
and treasurer. On the reorganization of
the company, 1872, he lost official con-
nection with it. He then invested heavily
in the various Pacific railroads, secured
control of a number of important lines,
built branches, and effected combinations
which resulted in the establishment of
what is known as the "Gould system."
He died in New York City, Dec. 2, 1892,
leaving property valued at $72,000,000.
GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANCOIS
(go-no'), a French composer; born in
Paris, France, June 17, 1818. He studied
at the conservatoire under Halevy,
Lesueur, and Paer. Obtaining the first
prize in 1839, he was sent to Rome and
while there devoted himself chiefly to
religious music. A "Solemn Mass," was
the first work which brought him into
general notice. His first opera, "Sap-
pho," was produced in 1851. His comic
opera, "The Physician in Spite of Him-
self" (1858), was a great success; it was
followed in 1859 by "Faust," his chief
work, which raised its composer to the
foremost rank of contemporary musi-
cians. It was followed by "Philemon and
Baucis" (18G0); "The Queen of Sheba"
(1862); "Mireille" (1864); "Romeo and
Juliet" (1867); "Polyeucte" (1878);
"The Tribute of Zamora" (1881). He
also published much church music, and
was popular as a song-writer. From
1870 to 1875 he resided in England. He
was a niem.ber of the Institute (1866),
and a commander of the Legion of Honor
(1877). He died in St. Cloud, France,
Oct. 18, 1893.
GOUROCK, a watering place of Ren-
frewshire, Scotland, on the Firth of
Clyde, 3 miles W. N. W. of Greenock, by
a railway opened in 1889, since which
time it has become the starting point of
Irish and other steamers. At Kempoch
Point here, behind v/hich rises Barrhill
(478 feet), stands "Granny Kempoch."
a prehistoric monolith associated with
the witches of Renfrewshire (1662). In
1688 the first red herring ever cured in
Great Britain was cured at Gourock.
GOVERNMENT, the form of policy
in a state; the mode of system according
to which the legislature, executive, and
judicial powers are vested and exercised;
a system of laws and customs; a consti-
tution. There are numerous forms of
government; as aristocracy, democracy,
despotism, monarchy, oligarchy, repub-
licanism, etc. Also the council or body
of persons intrusted with the administra-
tion of the laws; the management of
home and foreign affairs, and generally
the public business of a state; the admin-
istration; the ministry; the executive
power.
GOVERNOR'S ISLAND, a small is-
land at the main entrance of Boston
Harbor; Fort Winthrop is built on it.
Also an island in New York harbor;
Fort Williams, the headquarters of the
Military Department of the East, U. S.
A., is built on it.
GOWER, JOHN, an early English poet,
a contemporary and friend of Chaucer;
born about 1330. His chief works are
his "Thinker's Mirror," "Voice of One
Crying," and "Lover's Confession," of
which the first was a moral tract rela-
tive to the conjugal duties, written in
French rhymes (now lost) ; the second
a metrical chronicle of the insurrection
of the commons under Richard II., in
Latin elegaic verse; and the third an
English poem in eight books, containing
30,000 lines, relative to the morals and
metaphysics of love, one of the earliest
products of the English press, being
printed by Caxton in 1483. He died
about 1408.
GOYAZ (go-yaz') , the central state of
Brazil, in the dry plateau region, rising
in the S. to an important range of moun-
tains; area 288,546 square miles; pop.
about 542,000. The Tocantins river trav-
erses most of the state from S. to N., and
receives the Araguay, which forms the W.
boundary; the S. frontier is mai'ked by
the Paranahyba. The climate in the S.
is healthy, but in the N. malignant fe-
vers are common, and the cattle are sub-
ject to goiter. Stock-raising is the chief
industry.
GOZO (got'so), an island in the Medi-
terranean, 4 miles N. W. of Malta and
belonging to Great Britain; v/ith the ad-
jacent smaller island of Comino, area 26
square miles; pop. over 20,000. The sur-
face is hilly, but the soil fertile. Chief
town Rabato, near the center of the
island.
GBACCHUS
871
GRAFTON
GRACCHUS, CAIUS SEMPRONIUS
(grak'-us), a Roman politician, younger
brother of Tiberius Gracchus, and like
him a reformer. The patricians artfully
proposed measures more popular than
those which he brought forward, and
turned the popular feeling away from
him, when they commenced the repeal of
all the reforms he had effected. On his
opposing this, they raised a faction fight,
and massacred thousands of his ad-
herents in the streets and in the prisons.
He had himself put to death by his own
slave, that he might not fall into their
hands, in 121 B. C.
GRACCHUS, TIBERIUS SEMPRO-
NIUS, a Roman politician, son of Tibe-
rius Sempronius Gracchus and Cornelia,
daughter of Scipio Africanus Major;
born about 168 B. c. He was already a
distinguished soldier when in 137 he
served as quaestor to the army of the
consul Manicus in Spain, where the re-
membrance of his father's honor, after
40 years, enabled him to gain better
terms for the 20,000 Roman soldiers who
lay at the mercy of the Numantines.
But the peace was repudiated at Rome,
and Mancinus was stripped naked and
sent back to the Numantines. Elected
tribune of the people in 133, he endeav-
ored to reimpose the agrarian law of
Licinius Stolo, and after violent opposi-
tion on the part of the aristocratic
party, who had bribed his colleague M.
Octavius Caacina, he succeeded in pass-
ing a bill to that effect. Tiberius Grac-
chus, his brother Caius, and his father-
in-law Appius Claudius were appointed
triumvirs to enforce its provisions.
Meantime Attalus, King of Pergamus,
died, and bequeathed all his wealth to
the Roman people. Gracchus proposed
that this should be divided among _ the
poor, to enable them to procure agricul-
tural implements and to stock their
newly acquired farms. It is said that he
also intended to extend the franchise,
and to receive Italian allies as Roman
citizens. But fortune turned against the
good tribune. He was accused of hav-
ing violated the sacred character of the
tribuneship by the deposition of Csecina.
In the midst of the next election for the
tribuneship, in 133 B. C, Tiberius Grac-
chus, with some hundreds of his friends,
was murdered.
GRACE, DAYS OF, in commerce, a
certain number of days immediately fol-
lowing the day, specified on the face of
a bill or note, on which it becomes due.
Till the expiry' of these days payment is
not necessary. In Great Britain the
days of grace are three: in the United
States they have been abolished gener-
ally in National bank operations.
GRADISCA (gra-dis'ka) , a town of
Italy, on the Isonzo, 25 miles N. W. of
Trieste. First fortified by the Vene-
tians in 1478. Gradisca, with its terri-
tory, came into the hands of Austria in
1511, and during the next century and
a half figured frequently in the wars
between Austria and Venice. In 1647
it became a principality of the empire,
but lapsed to the imperial crown again
in 1717, and in 1754 was united to Gorz.
It reverted to Italy as the result of the
treaty of St. Germain, following the
World War.
GRADY, HENRY WOODFEN, an
American journalist; bom in Athens,
Ga., in 1851 ; was educated at the Uni-
versity of Georgia ; served in the Con-
federate army during the latter part of
the Civil War; became one of the staff
of the Atlanta "Herald," and corre-
spondent of the New York "Herald" in
Georgia. His writings contributed
much to the growth and prosperity of
the "New South"; he was also one of
the editors of the Atlanta "Constitu-
tion." Among Southern editors he was
perhaps more widely known than any
other. He died in Atlanta, Ga., Dec. 23,
1889.
GRAFENBERG (gra'f en-berg), a
village of Czecho-Slovakia, 50 miles N.
of Olmiitz. It is celebrated as the spot
where the water-cure (see Hydropathy)
was introduced in 1826 by Vincenz
Priessnitz (1799-1851). It still is visited
yearly by many persons.
GRAFTING, in carpentry, a scarfing
or endwise attachment of one timber to
another, as in attaching an extra length
or false pile to one already driven. In
nautical language, the tapering of the
end of a rope, usually covered by weav-
ing yarns around it. In surgery, the
transplanting of a portion of skin to a
denuded surface.
In husbandry, the act or process of in-
serting a shoot or scion taken from one
tree or shrub in a vigorous stock of its
own or a closely allied species, so as to
cause them to unite and enable the graft
to derive a larger supply of nutritive
power than it could otherwise obtain.
GRAFTON, a tovm in Worcester co.,
Mass.; on the New York, New Haven
and Hartford railroad; 6 miles S. E. of
Worcestei'. It contains several villages,
high school and a public library; manu-
factures cotton goods, emery, thread,
shoes, soap, etc. Pop. (1910) 5,705;
(1920) 6,887.
GRAFTON, a city of West Virginia,
the county-seat of Taylor co. It is
on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad and
GBAFTON
372
GBAHAlt
on the Tygart's Valley rivBr. It is an
important railroad center and has the
terminals of four divisions of the Balti-
more and Ohio railroad. Its industries
include railroad shops, flour mills, ma-
chine shops, cigar factories, etc. It has
an important wholesale grocery trade.
There is a national cemetery within the
borders of the city. Pop. (1910) 7,563;
(1920) 8,517.
GRAFTON, AUGUSTUS HENRY
FITZROY, DUKE OF, an English states-
man, a descendant of Charles II.; born
Oct. 1, 1735. In 1757 he succeeded his
grandfather, the second duke (see
Charles II.). He first came to the
front in political life in 1763 in the op-
position to Bute, and in July, 1765, he
took office as Secretary of State under
Rockingham, but resigned in the follow-
ing May. Two months later Pitt became
premier and Earl of Chatham, making
Grafton First Lord of the Treasury; but
in consequence of Chatham's continued
illness Grafton was compelled to take on
his own shoulders the responsible duties
of head of the government from Septem-
ber, 1767. He resigned in 1770, accepted
the office of Lord Privy Seal under Lord
North in 1771, and filled it till Novem-
ber, 1775. When the new Rockingham
ministry was formed in March, 1782,
Grafton took his old post as Lord Privy
Seal, but resigned office 13 months later.
He was the target at which Junius
iq. V.) shot some of his sharpest invec-
tives. He died in Euston Hall, Suffolk,
England, March 14, 1811.
GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT
GEORGE, an English statesman; bom
in Netherby, Cumberland, England,
June 1, 1792. He was educated at West-
minster and Queen's College, Cambridge.
As private secretary to the British min-
ister in Sicily in 1813, he had a hand in
the negotiations with Murat at Naples.
After his return for Carlisle as a Whig
in 1826 he became a warm supporter of
Catholic emancipation and a zealous ad-
vocate of the Reform Bill. Earl Grey
thereupon offered him, in 1830, the post
of First Lord of the Admiralty, with a
seat in the cabinet. But in 1834 he se-
ceded from the government, disagreeing
with his colleagues on the appropriation
clause of the Irish Church Temporalities
Act; and, going over to the Conserva-
tives, became in 1841 Home Secretary
under Sir Robert Peel. In 1844 he is-
sued a warrant for opening the letters
of Mazzini, and caused the information
thus obtained to be communicated to the
Austrian minister, an act by which the
ministry, and Graham in particular, in-
curred great obloquy. He also encoun-
tered great displeasure N. of the Tweed
by his high-handed method of dealing
with the Scottish Church during the
troubles which ended in the Disruption
and the formation of the Free Church.
He gave Peel warm support in carrying
the Corn Law Repeal Bill, and resigned
office (1846) with his chief as soon as
that measure was carried. On the death
of Peel in 1850 he became leader of the
Peelite party in the Lower House, and
in December, 1852, took office in the
Coalition Ministry as First Lord of the
Admiralty. He retired from official life
in February, 1855, and died in Netherby,
Oct. 26, 1861.
GRAHAM, JOHN, VISCOUNT DUN-
DEE, commonly known as Claverhouse,
a Scottish soldier, eldest son of Sir Wil-
liam Graham, of Claverhouse; born
about 1650. He was educated at St.
Andrews. He went abroad and entered
the service of France and afterward of
Holland, but returned to Scotland in
1677, where he was appointed captain of
a troop of horse raised to enforce com-
pliance with the establishment of Epis-
copacy. He distinguished himself by an
unscrupulous zeal in this service. The
Covenanters were driven to resistance,
and a body of them defeated Claverhouse
at Drumclog, June 1. On June 22, how-
ever, the Duke of Monmouth defeated the
insurgents at Bothwell Brig, and Claver-
house was sent into the W. with absolute
power. In 1682 he was appointed sheriff
of Wigtonshire, and, assisted by his bro-
ther David, continued his persecutions.
He was made a privy-councillor, and re-
ceived the estate of Dudhope, with other
honors from the king, and though on the
accession of James his name was with-
drawn from the privy-council it was
soon restored. In 1686 he was made
Brigadier-General, and afterward Major-
General; and in 1688, after William had
landed, he received from James in Lon-
don the titles of Lord Graham of Claver-
house and Viscount Dundee. When the
king fled he returned to Edinburgh, but
finding the Covenanters in possession he
retired to the N., followed by General
Mackay. After making an attempt on
Dundee, Claverhouse finally encountered
and defeated Mackay in the Pass of
Killiecrankie, July 17, 1689, but was
killed in the battle.
GRAHAM, STEPHEN, an English
author. He was born in 1884 and after
leaving school engaged in journalism in
London, and then went to live with peas-
ants and students in Little Russia and
Moscow, tramping in the Caucasus,
Crimea, Ural Mountains, and on pil-
grimage to Jerusalem, crossing Atlantic
with emigrants, tramping from New
York to Chicago, later in central Asia,
GRAHAME
373
GRAIN ELEVATOR
Egypt, Bulgaria, Rumania and Nor-
way. Served in World War and con-
tributed articles to "London Times." His
works include: "A Vagabond in the
Caucasus"; "Undiscovered Russia"; "A
Tramp's Sketches"; "Changing Russia";
"Through Russian Central Asia"; "Priest
of the Ideal"; "Private in the Guards."
GRAHAME, KENNETH, an English
author, born in Edinburgh, in 1859. He
was educated in England. He began his
literary career as a contributor to news-
papers and won wide notice through his
"Pagan Papers," published in 1893. His
best known works, however, are those
dealing with childhood, including "The
Golden Age" and "Dream Days," the
first published in 1895 and the second in
1898. In 1908 he published "The Wind
in the Willows." He was Secretary of
the Bank of England.
GRAHAME-WHITE, CLAUDE, an
English aviator and designer of aero-
planes, born in 1879. He was educated
at the Bedford Grammar School and at
Crondall House College. After some ex-
perience in the manufacture of motors,
he organized an aviation school at Pau,
France. In 1910 he made several not-
able flights with a Farman biplane, and
in the same year he made a tour of
America. He won the Gordon Bennett
Trophy. On his return to England he
formed the Grahame- White Aviation
Company. He wrote "The Story of the
Aeroplane"; "Air Power"; "The Air-
plane in War," "Aviation" and several
boys' books dealing with aviation. He
was also a frequent contributor to maga-
zines on the same subject.
GRAHAM ISLAND, or FERDINAN-
DEA, a volcanic island which in July,
1831, rose up in the Mediterranean,
about 30 miles S. W. of Sciacca, in Sicily.
It attained a height of 200 feet, with a
circuit of 3 miles, but disappeared in
August. It reappeared for a short time
in 1863.
GRAHAM'S LAND, an island^ of the
Antarctic Ocean, discovered by Biscoe in
1832 between 65° and 67° S. lat. In
front, toward the N., are a number of
islets, called Biscoe's Chain.
GRAHAMSTOWN, the capital of the
former E. province of Cape Colony, now
a part of the Union of South Africa, near
the center of the maritime division of
Albany, 1,728 feet above sea-level, 106
miles N. E. of Port Elizabeth. It is the
seat of two Bishops — Anglican and Ro-
man Catholic; and in its Anglican cathe-
dral is a monument to Colonel Graham,
after whom the city is named. Leather
is manufactured, and among the institu-
tions of the place are its museum, St.
Andrew's College, a public library, etc.
Pop. (1918) 7,087.
GRAIL, a term properly applied to
the legendary dish used at the Last Sup-
per, said to have been stolen by a serv-
ant of Pilate, used by him to wash his
hands in before the multitude, afterward
given to Joseph of Arimathea as a mem-
orial of Christ, and finally used by Joseph
to collect the blood which flowed from our
Lord while hanging on the cross.
_ GRAIN ELEVATOR. A structure de-
signed for the manipulation and storage
of grain awaiting transportation. It is
usually a high rectangular or cylindrical
edifice, built of steel, enforced concrete,
or some other suitable material. The
bins containing the grain may form with
the elevators and machinery a single
large building or the machinery and the
bins may be in separate establishments.
GRAIN ELEVATOR
There is in the larger establishments a
working house connected with the bins or
actually containing them. Other forms of
elevators are those situated on railroad
tracks, where a hopper receives the grain
from the farmers' wagons whence it is
scooped by belted buckets and conveyed
to the bins. In the ordinary elevator
the machinery and working rooms sur-
mount the main building, where the
storage bins are grouped. Over this
main building usually lies the distribu-
ting floor, and over this again the floor
containing the weighing hoppers and ma-
chinery for cleaning, and surmounting
this again are the garners, leg-driving
machinery and turnhead spouts. The
grain is carried upward by belted buckets
to the turnhead spouts and so conveyed
to the garners. From the garners it
passes to the main building, being cleared
or otherwise treated, in the course of
passage. The elevator legs are usually
separated by the length of a railroad
car so that the operation of transferring
from the car to the elevator or from the
elevator to the car may be carried oa
GBAIN ELEVATOR
374
GRAMME
simultaneously. With similar ends in
view elevators are often built over
freight railroad tracks, generally they
have the track running alongside.
Power shovels remove the grain from the
car to the hoppers, whence the grain
is carried upward to the topmost story
to be submitted to the manipulation be-
fore described in its journey through the
various floors to its proper bins. The
principle is similar in the transference
of grain from vessels to railroad cars,
and from railroad cars to vessels. The
elevator legs are so placed on the water-
side that they come in connection with
the vessel's hatches. The larger kind
of these elevators are made of concrete,
but in the smaller kind wood is largely
used, and steel, brick and tile enter large-
ly into the construction. The bins are
V-V. V
DRIMIN6 \£i ET
GEAR. J fttZ.
OAKNERS
tV£l6HIN0
HOPP£/?i
GRAIN ELEVATOR — CROSS SECTION
usually of steel or concrete with the
main building of brick, while the upper
stories may be of steel frame. Floating
elevators are used to facilitate the trans-
fer of grain from vessels at different
points in the dock. The largest elevator
is at Montreal, Canada. The elevators
in Chicago have a capacity for handling
grain to the extent of over 50,000,000
bushels, the Armour Company having
an elevator capable of handling 5,000,000
bushels.
GRAINGER, PERCY ALDRIDGE, an
Australian pianist and composer. He
was born in Melbourne, Australia, in
1883, and studied music with his mother
till the age of ten and then was educated
at Frankfort-on-Main. He went to Lon-
don when 17. His compositions for piano,
voice, chorus, orchestra, and chamber
music have laeen performed in many
cities. His publications include: "British
Folk-music Settings" (16 numbers) ;
"Room-music Tit-bits" (3 numbers) ;
"Kipling Settings" (5 numbers) ; "Father
and Daughter," dance-ballad for chorus
and orchestra; several songs and piano
pieces; "Journal of the Folksong Soci-
ety, No. 12."
GRAIN PRODUCTION. See tables
under Agriculture.
GRAINS. (1) A residuum of fiber and
insoluble matters after infusion or decoc-
tion ; as the grains of malt after the wort
is decanted. (2) A bating solution of
birds' dung, used in destroying the ef-
fect of lime, and in improving the flexi-
bility of leather. (3) Pieces of sheet-
metal, cast-iron, or tinned iron inserted
into a mold for the purpose of supporting
an accessory portion, such as a core, in
position.
GRAMMAR, the science which treats
of the words of which language is com-
posed, and of the laws by which it is
governed. It is of two kinds, descriptive
and comparative. Descriptive grammar
classifies, arranges, and describes words
as separate parts of speech, and notes
the changes they undergo under certain
conditions. Comparative grammar, which
is based on the study of words, goes
further; it analyzes and accounts for the
changes they have undergone, and en-
deavors to trace them back to their
origin; it thus deals with the growth of
language.
GRAMME (gram), the standard unit
of French measures of weight, and is
the weight of a cubic centimeter of dis-
tilled water at 0° Centigrade; the other
weights have received names correspond-
ing to the number of grammes they con-
tain, or the number of times they are
contained in a gramme. A gramme=
15.43248 grains troy, from which the
equivalents in English measure for the
other weights can easily be found; thus:
Grains
Pounds
Troy.
Avoirdupois
Centigramme =:
.1543234 =
.0000220462
Decigramme =
1.543284 =
.000220462
Gramme =
15.4.^234 =
.00220462
Decagramme =
154(5234 =
.0220462
Hectogramme=:
1543.234 =
.220462
Kilogramraa =
154.^.2.34 =
2.20462
i\Ivriagramme=
154323.4 =
22.0462
Quintal(g.r.) =
1543234 =
220.462
GRAMONT
375
GRAN
GRAMONT (gra-mon'), the name of
an illustrious French family, the best
known of whom are : Gabriel, a cardinal
and diplomatist, in the time of Louis XII.
and Francis I.; died in 1534. Anthony,
duke of Gramont, marshal of France,
and viceroy of Navarre, author of
"Memoirs," died in 1678, Armand, son of
the latter, and Count de Guiche, whose
"Memoirs" also exist, 1638-1674; Phili-
BERT, Count de Gramont, son of An-
thony, known by his memoirs, written
by his brother-in-law Anthony, Count
Hamilton, died in 1720; Anthony, Duke
de Gramont, a French marshal and am-
bassador, known as Count de Guiche,
1671-1725; Louis, Duke de Gramont,
lost the battle of Dettingen, and was
killed at Fontenoy, 1745. The last Duke
of Gramont, father of the Duke of
Guiche, and the countesses of Tanker-
ville and Sebastiani. He died in 1836.
GRAMOPHONE, or "DISC TALKING
MACHINE," a mechanism for reproduc-
ing sound, differing in construction, but
not in principle, from the phonograph.
It was invented in 1888 by Emile Ber-
liner, a German-American inventor, who
was chief instrument inspector of the
Bell Telephone Co., and also inventor of
the telephone transmitter.
The gramophone differs from the
phonograph principally in that its rec-
ords are engraved on discs instead of on
cylinders. On the cylinder of the phono-
graph the vibrations reproducing the
sounds are caused by winding grooves of
uneven depths, the variation of depth
causing the needle to vibrate up and
down. The records on the discs of the
gramophone are spiral grooves radiating
outward from the center, and zig-zag-
ging, so that the I'ecording needle vi-
brates laterally, while the disc revolves
in a horizontal position. In the gramo-
phone, also, the needle, or stylus, is not
propelled by a feed screw, the disc itself
causing the stylus, or needle, to move, at
the same time that it causes it to vi-
brate. Gramophone records were first
made by photo-engraving sound tracings,
or by direct etchings in copper or zinc.
Later wax surfaces were employed. From
the original record a disc, or matrix,
was made, by electrotyping. This, in
turn, is used for making impressions in
celluloid, rubber or composition. Cellu-
loid was first used, in a semi-heated state,
but later it was found better to use hard
rubber discs, on which the reversed rec-
ords of the electrotypes were reproduced,
in reverse, by heavy pressure. It was
this improving process, perfected in 1895,
which made the gramophone a commer-
cial possibility. A further improvement
followed by substituting for the rubber
discs a composition of shellac, in which
the records could be more sharply repro-
duced, resulting in clearer and more
distinct sounds. Another substitute still
is a fibrous die, faced with a thin layer
of shellac on both sides. This gives a
disc much lighter in weight, less suscep-
tible to changes of climate or tempera-
ture and capable of harder usage. The
motive power of the gramophone was at
first applied by hand, but later a mechan-
ism on the principle of a clock, driven by
a spring, was invented by Eldridge R.
Johnson, which not only supplied motive
power but acted as a speed regulator.
In more recent years the etching process
of producing the records has been aban-
doned, the expiration of the regular
gramophone patents enabling the various
gramophone manufacturers to utilize
the wax cutting process, while still re-
taining the principle of horizontal mo-
tion. This latter change, besides various
other qualities of the phonograph, which
were also incorporated, brought the
phonograph to its present high degree of
perfection. For the reproduction of sing-
ing and music the gramophone is consid-
ered the better instrument, the disc lend-
ing itself to infinite repetition, without
deterioration of the records.
GRAMPIANS, a mountain range in
Scotland. They commence in W. Scot-
land from the extremity of the lowest
arm of the Frith of Clyde, between the
counties of Argyle and Dunbarton, and
running S., sweep round in a deep semi-
circle to the E., till they nearly impinge
on the German Ocean, in the county of
Kincardine. Before reaching this tei*-
minus a branch is thrown off, which,
trending in a N. W. direction, forms a
lesser curve, which, passing throueh Ab-
erdeen, Banff, and Elgin, is^ finally lost
on the skirts of Inverness-shire. In this
extended course it sends up several lofty
peaks that form the highest eminences
in Scotland. Of these the most impor-
tant are Ben Lomond, Ben Ledi, Ben
More, Ben Lawer, and Ben Voirlich. Also,
the name of a mountain chain in the
colony of Victoria, South Australia,
whose highest point is Mount William,
which is 4,500 feet above the level of the
sea.
GRAN, a town of Hungary, on the
Danube, here crossed by a bridge of
boats, 25 miles N. W. of Pest, and oppo-
site the mouth of the Gran river. The
town is the see of the primate of Hun-
gary, and its great domed cathedral
(1821-1856), on the castle hill, reveals in
its magnificent proportions St. Peter's
at Rome. The palace of the prince-arch-
GBANADA
376
GRAND ARMY
bishop, who was formerly primate of
Hungary, is the chief of many buildings
in connection with the cathedral. Gran
was the cradle of Christianity in Hun-
gary; here St. Stephen, the first king,
was born in 979, and baptized and
crowned in 1000. In the next two cen-
turies it became the greatest commercial
town in the kingdom. Pop. about 20,000.
GRANADA, an ancient kingdom, and
one of the old provinces in southern
Spain, bounded by Andalusia, Murcia,
and the Mediterranean. It is now di\'ided
into the provinces of Granada, Almeria,
and Malaga, the united areas of which
amount to 11,063 square miles. The sur-
face of Granada is mountainous and pic-
turesque in a high degree. The mountain
ranges, the chief of which are Sierra
Nevada, the Sierra de Ronda, and the
Alpuj arras, run parallel with the coast.
The principal rivers are the Almanzora,
Almeria, Genii, Guadalhorce, and Gua-
diaro. The province is on the whole fruit-
ful and highly cultivated. The moun-
tains are rich in silver, copper, lead, and
iron. Granada was part of the Roman
province of Boetica; but after the Arab
invasion it formed an independent Moor-
ish kingdom. It was the last possession
of the Moors in Spain, and was con-
quered by Ferdinand and Isabella in
1492.
GRANADA, city and capital of the
above province, was the ancient metropo-
lis of the Moors in Spain, and stands
on the Genii, 120 miles from Seville. The
town exhibits the form of a half -moon, its
streets rising above each other, with a
number of turrets and gilded cupolas,
the whole crowned by the Alhambra, or
palace of the ancient Moorish kings. It
is built on two adjacent hills, and divided
into four quarters. The Darro river
runs between the two hills and traverses
the town, after which it falls into the
larger stream of the Genii, which flows
outside the walls. The principal build-
ines are the cathedral, the archbishop's
palace, the mansion occupied by the cap-
tain-general of the province, the univer-
sity; but the grand ornament of Granada
is the Alhambra, the wonder of Arabian
architecture. Its remains sufficiently
evince its original splendor. It com-
mands _ a beautiful prospect ; but a still
finer is afforded by another Moorish
palace, called the "Generalife," built on
the opposite hill, and the retreat of the
court during the heats of summer. Pop.
about 78,000.
GRANADA (gra-na'da), a depart-
ment and city of Nicaragua. The depart-
ment, lying between the Pacific and Lakes
Nicaragua and Managua has an area
of nearly 2,600 square miles; is mostly
a level savannah, but contains the vol-
cano of Masaya and the Mombacho peak
(4,500 feet). The city is on the N. W.
side of Lake Nicaragua, and is connected
with Managua by rail. Founded in 1522,
it was formerly the chief town of the
republic, but has suffered greatly from
the civil wars. It is still an important
trading center. Pop. about 17,100.
GRAN CHACO (gran cha'ko), an ex-
tensive central tract of South America,
extending from the S. tropic to 29° S. lat.,
and bounded on the E. by the Paraguay
and Parana, and on the W. by the Ar-
gentine provinces of Santiago del Estero
and Salta; area, about 180,000 square
miles. The portion S. of the Pilcomayo
belongs to Argentina, and the remaining
third to Paraguay; but the possession of
the upper section of the Pilcomayo is dis-
puted by Bolivia. The country rises grad-
ually from the Parana toward the N. W.
as far as 25° 40' S. lat., when it dips
to the valley of the San Francisco — part
of a great depression extending through
Bolivia nearly to the frontier of Peru,
and subject to annual inundations. The
Chaco is watered principally by two long,
narrow, and tortuous streams, the Ber-
mejo and the Pilcomayo, flowing S. E.
in courses generally parallel, and about
180 miles distant from each other. The
bed of the Bermejo oscillates backward
and forward, and in 1870-1872 the river
opened up a new channel (known as the
Teuco) for nearly 200 miles. The most
N. part of the Chaco is an extremely arid
zone, but the banks of the upper Pilco-
mayo are fertile and its sands auriferous,
while S. of the Bermejo the primeval
forest extends into Salta. Much of the
region is of modern alluvial formation,
and exceedingly fertile. Since 1537,
when the first explorer. Captain Juan de
Ayolas, marched with 250 men into the
wilderness from which none ever re-
turned, numerous expeditions have been
sent out from the surrounding countries;
but the savage tribes, swamps, lagoons,
and floods defeated all early attempts to
open up the country. In 1884 garrisons
were established along the Bermejo, and
since 1885 permanent settlements have
been made.
GRAND ARMY OF THE REPUBLIC,
a patriotic organization in the United
States composed of the National veterans
of the Civil War. It was organized in
Decatur, 111., April 6, 1866, by Dr. B. F.
Stephenson, of Springfield, formerly sur-
geon of the 14th Illinois Infantry. The
establishment of Post 1 in Decatur was
soon followed by Post 2 in Springfield,
and in a few months other posts sprang
GRAND CANON
877
GRAND JUNCTION
tip in Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Iowa,
Missouri, and othei" States. The first
National Convention was held in Indian-
apolis, Ind., Nov. 20, 1866, with delegates
from 10 States and the District of Co-
lumbia. Gen. Stephen A. Hurlbut, of
Illinois, was chosen commander-in-chief
and Dr. B. F. Stephenson, adjutant-gen-
eral. The next National Convention was
held in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 15, 1868,
when it was enacted that annual sessions
should be held. The main purpose of
the Grand Army of the Republic and the
qualifications of its members are given
in the sixth rule of the organization,
which is as follows: "To maintain true
allegiance to the United States of Amer-
ica, based on a paramount respect for,
and fidelity to, its Constitution and laws,
to discountenance whatever tends to
weaken loyalty, incites to insurrection,
treason, or rebellion, or in any manner
impairs the efficiency and parmanency of
our free institutions; and to encourage
the spread of universal liberty, equal
rights, and justice to all men. Soldiers
and sailors of the United States army,
navy, or marine corps, who served be-
tween April 12, 1861, and April 9, 1865,
in the war for the suppression of the
rebellion, and those having been honor-
ably discharged therefrom after such ser-
vice, and of such State regiments as were
called into active service and subject to
the orders of the United States general
officers between the dates mentioned,
shall be eligible to membership in the
Grand Army of the Republic. No person
shall be eligible to membership who has
at any time borne arms against the
United States." In 1919 there were about
4,700 posts, with a total membership of
about 100,000.
GRAND CANON (kan'yon), a gor^e
through which the Colorado river flows an
Arizona; 65 miles from Flagstaff. It is
one of the natural wonders with which
that country abounds. The caiion is a
gorge 217 miles long, or with the addition
of Marble Canon, connected with it, 286
miles. It is from 9 to 13 miles wide and
6,300 feet below the level of the plateau.
This depth is maintained for about 50
miles and surpasses that of any other
caiion in the world.
GRANDCOURT, village of France,
on the Ancre, which was the scene of
much fighting in the battle of the Ancre
in November, 1916. The Germans had
constructed in the vicinity a labyrinth of
trenches. The western outskirt was
taken by the British but they were ex-
pelled by the Germans. Battle fluctuated
over the region till the final retreat fol-
lowing on the arrival of Americans.
GRAND FORKS, a city and county-
seat of Grand Forks co., N. D.; on the
Red River of the North and the Great
Northern and the Northern Pacific rail-
roads; 25 miles N. W. of Crookston. It
is the seat of the University of North
Dakota, St. Bernard's Academy, and
Grand Forks College; and contains a
high school, 2 National banks, and daily
and weeky newspapers. There are flour
and lumber mills, large agricultural and
lumbering industries. Pop. (1910)
12,478; (1920) 14,010.
GRAND GULF, a locality in Missis-
sippi, on the Mississippi river, S. of
Vicksburg. The Confederate batteries
at this place were attacked by the forces
under Farragut, March 31, 1863, and
frequent shelling and bombarding oc-
curred from that time until May 3, when
the place surrendered to the land and
naval forces under Grant and Porter.
GRAND HAVEN, a city of Michigan,
the county-seat of Ottawa co. It is
a port of entry and is situated at the
mouth of the Grand River. It is on the
Grand Trunk, Grand Haven, and Mus-
kegon, and the Pere Marquette railroads.
It has an excellent harbor and is con-
nected by steamship lines with the prin-
cipal lake ports. It has an important
fishing industry and is the center of ex-
tensive fruit and celery-growing inter-
ests. Its industries include the manu-
facture of engines, printing presses,
baskets, barrels, shoes, etc. Its institu-
tions include a public library, Akeley
College for girls, a United States
custom house, and a county court house.
In the vicinity are Highland Park and
Spring Lake, which are attractive
summer resorts. Pop. (1910) 5,856;
(1920) 7,205.
GRAND ISLAND, a city of Nebraska,
the county-seat of Hall co. It is on the
Union Pacific, the Burlington Route, and
the St. Joseph and Grand Island rail-
roads. Its industries include a heet-
sugar factory, cement-block factory,
candy factory, wire factories, broom fac-
tories, etc. It has the railroad shops
of the Union Pacific. Its notable insti-
tutions include a public library, St. Fran-
cis Hospital, and the Nebraska Soldiers'
and Sailors' Home It is the seat of
Grand Island College. Pop. (1910)
10,326; (1920) 13,947.
GRAND JUNCTION, a city of Colo-
rado, the county-seat of Mesa co. It is
on the Denver and Rio Grande, the Colo-
rado Midland, and the Grand Junction
and Grand River Valley railroads, and
at the junction of the Grand and Gun-
nison rivers. It is the center of an im-
portant agricultural region and is espe-
GBANO
378
GRANITE CITY
cially noted for its fruit growing. There
are extensive coal mines in the neigh-
borhood and its industries include ma-
chine shops, lumber yards, railroad shops,
brick works, and a beet-sugar factory.
Its public buildings include a public
library. Pop. (1910) 7,754; (1920) 8,665,
GRAND, MME. SARAH, an English
novelist; born (Frances Elizabeth
Clarke) in Ireland. She married a Brit-
ish naval officer almost immediately on
leaving school, and traveled widely-
"The Heavenly Twins" made her famous.
"Singularly Deluded" and "Ideala";
"Babs the Impossible" (1900) ; Emo-
tional Moments" (1908); "Adam's Or-
chard" (1912), are among her other
works of fiction. She lectured in the
United States in 1901.
GRANDPRE, a village of France,
in Ardennes, on the Aire, 36 miles
S. E. of Mezieres. It was at first taken
by the Germans but relinquished by them
following the battle of the Marne. Some
of the fiercest battles of the war with
the French troops were fought in the
region.
GRAND PRIX DE ROME, a prize
given annually by the Academy of Fine
Arts in Paris to the most successful com-
petitor in painting, music, sculpture,
etc. The winners of the prize become
the charge of the government for four
years and are sent to Rome to reside.
GRAND RAPIDS, a citj, port of
entry, and county-seat of Kent co.,
Mich.; on both sides of the Grand river,
and on the Pere Marquette, the Michi-
gan Central, the Lake Shore and Michi-
gan Southern, and several other rail-
roads; 60 miles N. W. of Lansing. There
is direct steamboat communication with
Chicago, Milwaukee, and other cities. It
IP +he second largest city in the State
in population and commercial impor-
tance. ^ Area, 18 square miles.
Business Interests. The Grand river
at this point has a fall of 18 feet, sup-
plying excellent water power for the ex-
tensive manufacture of school furniture,
bicycles, brass goods, flour, brushes, felt,
carpet sweepers and refrigerators. The
gypsum quarries of Grand Rapids have
the largest output in the world. In 1919
there were 3 National banks and several
])rivate banking institutions. The ex-
change at the United States clearing-
house here amounted to $272,016,000.
Public Interests. — The city has an ex-
cellent system of streets and electric
\ighting and waterworks plants, both
owned by the city. The noteworthy
buildings include the City Hall, St. Ce-
celia and Peninsular Club Houses,
Briggs and Blodgett Blocks, Pythian
Temple, County, Federal and Y. M. C.
A. buildings and numerous churches.
There are many public schools and the
Central High School. Among the chari-
table institutions are the Michigan State
Soldiers' Home, Union Benevolent Home,
Masonic Home, and Catholic Home.
The city has a splendid system of pleas-
ure grounds and public parks.
History. — Grand Rapids was settled in
1833 on the site of an Indian village, and
incorporated as a city in 1850. Pop.
(1910) 112,571; (1920) 137,634-
GRAND RAPIDS, a city of Wisconsin
the county-seat of Wood co. It is on
the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul,
the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste.
Marie, the Chicago and Northwestern,
and the Green Bay and Western rail-
roads, and on the Wisconsin river, which
is spanned by a fine bridge. Its industries
include foundry and machine shops, and
manufacture of paper, etc. Water power
is furnished by the river. There is a hos-
pital, a library, and several parks. The
name of the city was changed to Wis-
consin Rapids on August 4, 1920. Pop.
(1910) 6,541; (1920) 7,243.
GRAND VIZIER (vi-zer'), the prime
minister of the Turkish Empire.
GRANGE, see Husbandry. Patrons
OF.
GRANICUS (gra-ne'kus). a river of
Bithynia, famous for a battle fought on
its banks between the troops of Alex-
ander the Great and those of Darius, 334
B. c, when 600,000 Persians were de-
feated by 30,000 Macedonians.
GRANITE, an unstratified rock, nor-
mally consisting of three simple min-
erals, feldspar, quartz, and mica, or, in
Dana's nomenclature of orthoclase,
quartz, and mica. For a long time the
universally accepted view, which is still
the prevalent one, was that it is an "ig-
neous" rock, of a "plutonic" type. The
difl^culty has, however, to be encountered
that it is not seen in process of forma-
tion on the earth's surface. This has
been met by the hypothesis that it orig-
inates beneath the surface and under
high pressure, produced in most cases
by earth, but in some instances by a
weight of incumbent water.
The production of granite in the United
States in 1919 was about 4,000,000 short
tons, valued at about $23,000,000. The
leading States in its production are
Maine, Massachusetts, Vermont, and
Delaware.
GRANITE CITY, a city of Illinois, in
Madison co. It is opposite St. Louis,
Mo., and is on the Chicago and Alton,
the Chicago, Peoria, and St- Louis, the
Cleveland, Cincinnati Chicago, and St.
Louis, and other railroads. It is an in*-
GKANSON
379
GRANT
portant industrial city and its manufac-
tures include iron, steel, tin plate, and
granite ware. It has also a large corn-
products refinery, and bridge works.
Among its institutions is a public hos-
pital. Pop. (1910) 9,903; (1920) 14,757.
GRANSOIJ, or GRANDSON (gion-
son'), a village in the canton of Vaud,
Switzerland, on the Lake of Neuchatel,
21 miles S. W. of Neuchatel. Here March
3, 1476, the Swiss defeated the Bur-
gundians, under Charles the Bold.
GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER, a Scotch
educator; born in New York, Sept. 13,
1826; educated at Harrow and Balliol
College, Oxford; graduated B. A. in
1848; and was elected to an Oriel fellow-
ship. Here he edited the "Ethics of Aris-
totle" (1857). He succeeded as baronet
in 1856, was appointed inspector of
schools at Madras in 1858, and became
Professor of History in Elphinstone Col-
lege there; then its principal; and after-
ward vice-chancellor of Elgin College,
Bombay. On the death of Sir David
Brewster he was in 1868 chosen as prin-
cipal of the University of Edinburgh.
His "Story of the University of Edin-
burgh" (1884) was published in connec-
tion with the latter event. He died in
Edinburgh, Nov. 30, 1884.
GRANT, ANNE, a Scotch author;
born in Glasgow, Feb. 21, 1755. She
was the daughter of a British officer,
Duncan McVicar, who became barrack-
master of Fort Augustus, She married
in 1779 the Rev. James Grant, formerly
chaplain of the fort, minister of Laggan.
Left a widow in destitute circumstances
in 1801, Mrs. Grant published by sub-
scription a volume of "Poems" (1803),
which were well received; "Letters from
the Mountains" (1806), a highly popu-
lar work; "Memoirs of an American
Lady" (1808) ; and "Essays on the Su-
{)erstitions of the Highlanders of Scot-
and" (1811). She died in Edinburgh,
Nov- 7, 1838.
GRANT, HEBER J., First President
of the Mormon Church, born in Salt Lake
City, Utah, in 1856. He was educated in
private schools and the University of
Utah. He was engaged in business and
became an officer and director of many
important financial institutions. He was
a member of the First Presidency of the
Mormon Church and was president of the
Prohibition and Betterment League, Salt
Lake City.
GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE, a British
military officer; born in Kilgraston,
Perthshire, Scotland, July 22, 1808. He
first saw service in the Chinese war of
1842, and next distinguished himself at
Sobraon, Chillianwalla, and Gujerat in
the two Sikh wars. During the opera-
tions of the Indian mutiny Grant, who
had risen to the rank of lieutenant-
colonel, took a leading part, assisting in
the recapture of Delhi, in the relief of
Cawnpur, and in the retaking of Luck-
now, and he commanded the force which
effected the final pacification of India.
In 1859 he conducted the war against
China, defeating the enemy three times
under the walls of Peking, assaulting
the Taku forts, and finally capturing the
capital of the empii'e, for which work he
was created G. C. B. After command-
ing the army of Madras from 1861 to
1865, he returned to England, and was
made general in 1872. He died in Lon-
don, March 7, 1875.
GRANT, ROBERT, an American au-
thor; born in Boston, Mass., Jan. 24,
1852; was graduated from Harvard in
1873 and the Harvard Law School in
1879. From 1893 he was a judge of pro-
bate and insolvency for Suffolk co., Mass.
Among his most popular works are : "The
Little Tin Gods on Wheels" (1879);
"Confessions of a Frivolous Girl"
(1880) ; "An Average Man" (1883) ;
"The Reflections of a Married Man"
(1892); "Unleavened Bread" (1900);
"The Orchid" (1905) ; "The Law Break-
ers" (1906) ; "The Chippendales" (1909) ;
"The High Priestess" (1915); "Their
Spirit" (1916) ; "Law and the Family"
(1919). He also wrote the well-known
boys' stories, "Jack Hall" (1887) ; "Jack
in the Bush" (1888).
GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON, an
American statesman; 18th president of
the United States; born in Point Pleas-
ant, 0., April 27, 1822, entered West
Point Academy in 1839, graduated in
1843, received a commission in the United
States Army in 1845, and served un-
der Generals Taylor and Scott in Mexico.
In 1852 he was ordered to Oregon, and
in August, 1853, became full captain.
He resigned his commission in July,
1854, and soon after settled in business
at Galena, 111. From this privacy he was
drawn out by the Civil War, and having
acted first as aide-de-camp to the gover-
nor of his State in 1861, and afterward
as colonel of the 21st Illinois Volunteers,
was appointed a Brigadier-General in
July of the same year. While in corn-
man'^ at Cairo, he secured Paducah, and
with it the State of Kentucky. In No-
vember, 1861, he fought and gained the
battle of Belmont, and in January of the
following year conducted a reconnois-
sance to the rear of Columbus. After
capturing Fort Henry, on the Tennessee,
General Grant pursued the Confederates
to Fort Donelson. There a severe battle
raged almost without interruption for
GRANT
380
GRANT
three days and three nights, when, Feb.
15, the fort was surrendered uncon-
ditionally. This brilliant feat elevated
General Grant to the rank of Major-
General. Having been appointed to the
command of the district of western Ten-
nessee, Grant advanced up that river to
Pittsburg Landing, where he had to con-
tend against a force of nearly 70,000
men. The National lines were over-
whelmed, crushed, dispersed; but Gen-
eral Grant, undismayed, formed new
lines, planted new batteries, and thus
held the Confederates in check till dark,
when the long expected arrival of his
rear-guard of 35,000 men, under General
Buell, enabled him to fight, April 6 and
7, the glorious battle of Shiloh, whence
the Confedftrates, abandoning the field,
ULYSatS S. GRANT
retreated to Corinth. General Grant was
second in command to General Halleck
at the siege of Corinth, and when the
latter was ordered to Washington, he
was appointed to take command of the
Department of Tennessee, in which ca-
pacity he marched against Vicksburg,
the so-called "Gibraltar" of the Confed-
erates on the Mississippi. After a long
and memorable siege, this important
place was surrendered unconditionally,
and 37,000 prisoners, 150 cannons, with
an immense amount of military stores,
fell into the hands of the victors.
Upon the defeat of General Rosecrans
at Chickamauga, Grant was sent to re-
pair the disaster, and on Nov. 25, 1863,
he defeated General Bragg at Lookout
Mountain. This great victory, by which
eastern Tennessee was reduced and Ken-
tucky saved, was perhaps the most bril-
liant strategic and tactical movement of
the war; it placed General Grant on a
footing with the ablest generals of any
country or of any age. A few months
after, March 1, 1864, Grant was raised
to the highest military position in the
land — under the title of Lieutenant-
General he was constituted commander-
in-chief of all the armies of the United
States. Invested with this authority,
the plan of General Grant was to destroy
Lee's army. Washington was to be
covered from raid, through the Shenan-
doah, by General Sigel. General Butler
was to menace Richmond from the S.
Sherman, in Georgia, was to press his
campaign in that department with all
vigor, that no re-enforcements might be
sent to the aid of Lee. General Grant,
with Meade's army of 150,000 N. of the
Rapidan, was to draw Lee's army out
of their intrenchments and either destroy
them, or compel them to rush from the
menacing of Washington to the protec-
tion of their own capital. On the night
of Tuesday, May 3, General Grant
crossed the Rapidan, and entered what
is called The Wilderness- By a fiank
movement. Grant was getting into the
rear of his foe. Lee rushed from his in-
trenchments, and endeavored to over-
whelm Grant. Then began the most
gigantic and terrific campaign recorded
in history.
After 11 days of bloody and almost
uninterrupted battles, the two armies,
on the 12th day of this unparalled
struggle, were still confronting each
other, both on the defensive, sternly
looking face to face, both prepared for
another round ! With the first dawn the
battle was renewed by a tremendous but
vain assault upon the Confederate lines.
General Lee, nevertheless, fearing Grant
might get between him and Richmond,
cutting off his supplies, decided to retire,
and Grant succeeded in crossing the
North Anna, and reached the famous
banks of the Chickahominy. Finding
the intrenchments of the enemy in his
front too formidable to be carried by
direct assault. Grant moved his troops to
join General Butler at Bermuda Hun-
dred. The performance of this movement,
in the presence of Lee's army, who at
many points were but a few rods from
him, is perhaps one of the most brilliant
pages of General Grant's military career.
Slowly wore away long months of ex-
pectation on the part of an impatient
people.
Impenetrable to jealousy, he had but
one aim, one thought — the grasping of
Richmond; but the time was not yet
come. With the coming of the spring
GBANT
381
GRANTHAM
of 1865, Lee, whose position and re-
sources were quite exhausted by the self-
possession and strategy of the Union
commander-in-chief, now determined to
assume the offensive, and on the night
of March 27, 1865, he massed three
divisions of his troops in front of Fort
Steadman, and on Grant's right, and by
a sudden rush at daybreak on the follow-
ing morning, succeeded in surprising and
capturing that important position. Be-
fore noon of the same day, however, it
was retaken by the Union troops, with
all its guns and 1,800 Confederate
prisoners. At this time a battle, which
continued until evening, was raging at
Hatcher's Run. Three corps were massed
under General Sheridan below Peters-
burg, and on Sunday morning, April
2. flanked the Confederates at Big
Five Forks, capturing their intrench-
ments with 6,000 men. The attack,
under General Grant's direction, then
commenced along the whole line, and the
assault was so successful that on the
same night his forces held the Confeder-
ate intrenchments from the Appomat-
tox, above Petersburg, to the river below.
At 3 o'clock that afternoon General Lee
telegraphed to Jefferson Davis that he
had been driven from hia intrenchments,
and that Petersburg and Richmond must
be abandoned, which operation was per-
formed that night; and on the next day,
April 3 1865, the National army entered
Petersburg, and General Weitzel occu-
pied Richmond. By rapid movements.
General Grant cutting off Lee's retreat
to Lynchburg and Danville, came up with
him at Appomattox Courthouse, and de-
manded his immediate surrender. The
two chiefs met and arranged the details,
and on Sunday, April 9, the Army
of Northern Virginia capitulated. The
whole of General Lee's army, officers
and men, were paroled, with permission
at once to return to their homes. The
former were granted the privilege of re-
taining their side-arms, and each of the
field-officers one horse. All other prop-
erty belonging to the Confederate
government within the department was
surrendered to the United States.
In 1866 General Grant was promoted
to the rank of General, that honor being
created specially for him. In August,
1867, on the suspension of Mr. Stanton
by President Johnson, General Grant
consented to fill the office of Secretary
of War ad interim, but the Senate hav-
ing refused to approve the suspension.
General Grant, Jan. 13, 1868, surren-
dered the office to Mi'. Stanton. On June
20, 1868, General Grant was unani-
mously nominated by the Republicans
as a candidate and elected the following
November President of the United
Vol. IV— Cyc— Y
States, in which capacity he served till
1877, being re-elected at the end of his
first term.
On May 17, 1877, accompanied by his
wife and one son, he sailed from Phila-
delphia, Pa., for a tour around the world.
Not only did he receive a grand farewell
from his own countrymen, but when he
arrived in the Mersey River, England,
the ships of all nations gathered there
displayed their flags to greet him. In
England a grand reception was accorded
him in every city he visited. He was re-
ceived by Queen Victoria and the Prince
of Wales in London, and later visited
the Queen at Windsor Castle. After
visiting the other countries of Europe
and being entertained by all the crowned
heads, the United States man-of-war
"Vandalia" was placed at his service
and on board her he made a cruise of the
Mediterranean Sea. He then visited
Bombay and Calcutta in India, Hong
Kong, Canton and Peking in China, and
finally Japan. On Sept. 20, 1879, he
arrived at San Francisco, where a mag-
nificent demonstration was made in his
honor, and during his route E. he was
given public receptions and greeted with
every mark of honor wherever he
stopped.
He was placed on the retired list of
the army by a special act of Congress in
March, 1885, with the rank and pay of
General. During the last few months
of his life he wrote his "Memoirs," which
was published soon after his death, on
Mount McGregor, near Saratoga, N. Y.,
July 23, 1885. The construction of a
magnificent mausoleum for his remains
was begun in Riverside Park, New York
City, on April 27, 1891, and it was dedi-
cated on April 27, 1897, in the presence
of one of the greatest concourses of
people and with one of the greatest
parades ever witnessed in the United
States. The mausoleum exclusive of
steps and portico projections is about 100
feet square at the base and the height
160 feet from the ground and nearly 300
feet from the level of the Hudson river.
There is an outer gallery 130 feet above
the base from which the country may
be seen for miles around.
GRANTHAM (grant'am), a parlia-
mentary borough of Lincolnshire, Eng-
land, on the Witham river, 25 miles S.
S. W. of Lincoln. It lies on the ancient
Ermine street; is an important junction
on the Great Northern railway; and a
canal, 30 miles long, connects it with the
Trent near Nottingham. Among the
notable buildings is the St. Wolfran's
Church, in style, mainly Early English
of the 13th century- The quaint Angel
Inn is still standing, in which Richard
GBANVILLE
382
GBASS
III. signed Buckingham's death warrant.
Oliver Cromwell here, May 13, 1643,
won his first success; but the town's
greatest glory is Sir Isaac Newton, who,
during 1655-1656, attended its grammar
school. A bronze statue of him by
Theed was erected in 1858. The school
was founded by Bishop Fox in 1528.
The manufacture of agricultural im-
plements, malting, and brick-making are
the chief industries. Grantham was in-
corporated by Edward IV. in 1463. The
borough boundary was largely extended
in 1879. Pop. about 20,000.
GRANVILLE (gvon-vel'), a seaport
in the department of La Manche, France,
on a rocky promontory on the English
Channel, 23 miles N. E. of St. SJalo. The
15th-century church and a hydrographic
college are the principal institutions.
The town was captured by the French
in 1450, and the English in 1695, and un-
successfully besieged by the Vendeans in
1793, and the English in 1803. Pop.
about 12,000.
GRANVILLE, EARL See Carteret.
GRANVILLE, GEORGE LEVESON-
GOWER, 2nd EARL, an English states-
man; born in London, May 11, 1815; edu-
cated at Eton and Oxford, and entered
Parliament in 1836 as member for Mor-
peth, exchanging that seat for Lichfield
in 1840. He succeeded to the peerage
in 1846, and five years later entered the
cabinet of Lord John Russell, holding
the seals of the Foreign Office. From
that time forward he held office in every
Liberal ministry. He became president
of the Council in 1853, and leader of the
House of Lords in 1855. He labored
arduously in connection with the great
exhibitions of 1851 and 1862. Lord
Granville was charged to form a min-
istry in 1859; but having failed to do so
he joined Lord Palmerston's second ad-
ministration. He retired with Earl
Russell in 1866, having the preceding
year been made Lord Warden of the
Cmque Ports. In December, 1868, he
was appointed Colonial Secretary in Mr.
Gladstone's first ministry, and on the
death of Lord Clarendon in 1870 became
Secretary for Foreign Affairs. He ar-
ranged the treaty between England,
France, and Prussia guaranteeing the in-
dependence of Belgium; and confirmed
with Prince Gortchakoff the agreement
that Afghanistan should form an in-
termediary zone between England and
Russia. In 1880 he again became foreign
secretary under Mr. Gladstone, and dis-
played considerable diplomatic skill in
matters relating to the Berlin treaty, the
occupation of Tunis, and the revolt of
Arabi Pasha in Egypt- He retired with
his chief in 1885, but returned once
more to office as colonial secretary in
1886, resigning again with his colleagues
in August of the latter year. He died
in London, March 31, 1891.
GRAPE, the fruit of Vitis vinifera, or
the plant itself. The native country of
the vine is the region round the Caspian
Sea, extending through Armenia as far
W. as the Crimea. It has been cultivated
from the remotest antiquity (Gen. ix:
20). It flourishes in Turkey, Greece,
Italy, Spain, France, Germany, Great
Britain, and the United States. Bear's
grape is Vacciniuni arctostaphylos, also
Arctostaphylos tiva iirsi; the Corinth
grape is the black Corinth variety of
Vitis vinifera, the one which furnishes
dried currants; the sea-grape is Ephe-
drr. distachya, also Sargassum bacci-
fenan; and the seaside grape Coccoloba
uvifera.
GRAPHITE, a hexagonal mineral,
crystallizing in flat six-sided tables.
Color, iron-black to dark steel gray, with
a metallic luster and a black shining
streak. Composition: Carbon, either
pure with an admixture of iron, or oc-
casionally of silica, alumina, and lime.
It is popularly called black lead, though
there is no lead in its composition. The
product is used for the manufacture of
pencils, lubricants, paint, stove black-
ing, crucibles, and foundry facings. The
chief sources of supply are Ceylon, and,
prior to the World War, Austria-Hun-
gary. It is also found in the United
States, Canada, Mexico, Japan, and
other countries. The production in the
United States in 1919 was about 7,434.-
000 pounds, valued at $696,000. This
came chiefly from Alabama, New York,
and Pennsylvania.
GRAS, FELIX, a Provencal poet; born
in Malemort, France, May 3, 1844; be-
came a lawyer and "juge de paix" in
the department of Vaucluse, and one of
the leading Provencal writers, standing
next in popular estimation to Mistral.
His most famous works are: the "Th^
Reds of the Midi," and its sequel, "The
Terror," stories of the French Revolu-
tion, translated into English by Mrs. T.
A. Janvier: "Li Carbounie" (1876);
"Toloza" (1882), epic poems; "Lou Rou-
mancero Prouvengau" (1887), shorter
poems; "Li Papalino" (1891), Avignon
stories. He was editor of the "Armana
Prouvengau," a literarv annual; and
after 1891, the "Capoulie," or official
head, of the "Fdlibrige," the society of
Provencal men of letters. He died in
Avignon, March 4, 1901.
GRASS, the botanical order Grami-
naceas, a very extensive and important
GRASS HEMP
383
GRATZ
order of endogenous plants, comprising:
about 250 genera and 4,500 species, in-
cluding many of the most valuable pas-
ture plants, all those which yield grain,
the sugar-cane, bamboo, etc. In its popu-
lar use the term grass is chiefly ap-
plied to the pasture grasses as distinct
from the cereals, etc.; but it is also ap-
plied to some herbs, which are not in
any strict sense grasses at all, e. g., rib-
grass, scurvy, and whitlow grass.
GRASS HEMP. See SiSAL,
GRASSHOPPER, the name of various
leaping insects of the order Orthoptera
nearly akin to the locusts. They are
characterized by very long and slender
legs, the thighs of the hinder legs being
large and adapted for leaping, by large
and delicate wings, and by the wing-
covers extending far beyond the ex-
tremity of the abdomen. Grasshoppers
form an extensive group of insects, and
are distinguished by the power which
they possess of leaping to a considerable
distance, and by the stridulous or chirp-
ing noise the males produce by rubbing
their wing covers together.
GRATIAN (gra'shan), a Roman em-
peror; eldest son of Valentinian I., by
his first wife Severa; born in Pannonia
359 A. D.; elected by his father to the
rank of Augustus, 367. On the death
of Valentinian, 375, the troops elevated
Gratian to the throne, giving him at
the same time as a colleague his half-
brother Valentinian II. During the first
part of his reign, a fierce warfare was
carried on against the tribes who pos-
sessed the Danubian provinces and
lUyricum; and he was on the point of
marching into Thrace, to assist his uncle
Valens against the Goths, when he was
suddenly called upon to defend his do-
minions against the Lentienses, a tribe
of the Alemanni. After the invaders
had been defeated, Gratian advanced
toward the Eastern Empire, but while on
the way he learned that his uncle Valens
had been defeated and killed by the
Goths near Adrianople, 378. The sov-
ereignty of the Eastern Empire then
devolved on Gratian, but feeling his in-
adequacy to the task of ruling the whole
e?npire, he recalled Theodosius from
Spain, and appointed him his colleague,
379. Gratian possessed some admirable
virtues; but his fondness for frivolous
amusements and unworthy associates
excited the contempt of the army, so
that when Maxim.us was proclaimed em-
peror by the legions in Britain crowds
of the disaffected flocked to his standard.
Gratian was defeated by him near Paris,
and afterward fled to Lyons, where he
was overtaken and killed, 383.
GRATTAN, HENRY, an Irish states-
man; born in Dublin, July 3, 1746;
graduated at Trinity College, and went
to London to study and practice law. In
1772 he was called to the bar in his
native country, and three years after
entered the Irish House of Commons,
where his brilliant eloquence soon raised
him to distinction. In 1780, the British
Parliament having attempted to frame
laws for the sister country, to the humil-
iation of the Irish Parliament and ex-
ecutive, Grattan moved the resolution,
"That the King's most excellent Majesty,
and the Irish House of Lords and Com-
mons, are the only competent powers to
make laws to govern Ireland." So en-
thusiastic was the national feeling on
this occasion that he was voted the sum
of $500,000. Of this, however, Grattan
refused to accept more than $250,000.
On the union of the two crowns, at the
opening of this century, Grattan took
his seat in the Imperial Parliament,
first for Malton, and afterward for
Dublin; but, like most of these great
orators, the change from College Green
to St. Stephen's seemed fatal alike to
his eloquence, his prestige, and his pow-
er. He died in London, June 4, 1820.
GRATZ (grats) , a city and capital of
Styria, Austria, 141 miles S. S. W. of
Vienna. It is a picturesque old town,
built on both sides of the Mur. Of the
former fortress, erected on a hill in the
center of the town, and dismantled in
1809 by the French, two towers and
other remains still exist. The town itself
contains several old buildings, as the
Late Gothic cathedral (1462), two other
Gothic churches (one built in 1283), the
ancient castle of the Styrian dukes, the
Landhaus, where the nobles of the duchy
held their meetings, the university, orig-
inally founded in 1586, an armory, pal-
aces of the Styrian nobles, and four
monasteries dating from the 16th and
17th centuries. There are also national
archives, a cabinet of coins and an-
tiquities, a technical school (Johan-
neum), and a botanic gfarden. Prior to
the World War the most important of
its many industries were the manufac-
ture of machines, steel goods, rails and
railway carriages, sugar, \\'ine, pei'fum-
ery, s'tearine candles, soap, etc. Fat
capons, biscuits, and chocolate figured
prominently as articles of trade. Gratz
was a favorite place of residence foi'
Austrian oflicials retired from service.
The town is mentioned in the annals
as early as 881. In 1481 it repulsed the
Hungarians from its walls, and in 1532
the Turks. In 1797, and again in 1809,
it was occupied by the French. Pop.
about 152,000.
GBAUDENZ
384
GRAY
GBAUDENZ (grou'dents), a town in
the province of West Prussia, Germany;
on the Vistula, 37 miles N. of Thorn.
It carries on a trade in corn, wool, and
cattle, and has iron foundries, brew-
eries, and tapestry and cigar manufac-
tories. About a mile N. of it on a hill is
the fortress of Graudenz, built in 1776,
and successfully defended against the
French in 1807. It was maintained as a
fortress till 1874, and now serves as
a barrack and military prison.
GRAVEL, small pebbles, stones, ov
fragments of stone, intermixed with
sand loam, clay, flints, etc., formed by
the action of water upon disintegrated
portions of rock.
In pathology, the presence of minute
concretions in the urine. It is usually
owing to the presence of uric acid,
urates, oxalates, and phosphates. Am.ong
exceptional urinary calculi are carbonate
of lime, cystine, xanthine, fatty and
fibrinous concretions. The chief symp-
toms are dull, aching pains over the
renal regions, extending to the thighs.
GRAVELINES (grav-len') , a town in
the department of Nord, France; at the
mouth of the Aa, 13 miles E. N. E. of
Calais. Considerable historical interest
is attached to the place, as the scene of
Egmont's victory over the French (1558),
and the place off which the English dis-
persed the Armada (1588). It was
taken by the French in 1644, retaken by
the Austrians after a 10 weeks' siege in
1652, and finally recaptured in 1658 by
Louis XIV., who had it fortified by Vau-
ban. Pop. about 6,000.
GRAVELOTTE (grav-lof), a village
of Lorraine, 7 miles W. of Metz. There,
on Aug. 18^ 1870, the French under
Bazaine sustained a severe defeat by the
Germans.
GRAVESEND, a port and borough of
Kent, England, on the Thames, 24 miles
E. S. E. of London. It consists of the
old town, with narrow, irregular streets,
and of the handsome new town on the
high ground. In the vicinity are exten-
sive m.grket gardens; and many of the
inhabitants are employed in fishing.
Gravesend forms the limit of the port of
London; and here pilots and custom-
house officers are taken on board of ves-
sels going up the river. It carries on
some shipbuilding, iron-founding, soap-
making, and brewing, and a consider-
able trade in supplying ships' stores.
Gravesend was incorporated under Eliza-
beth; was originally a hythe, or landing-
place; and is mentioned as such in
Domesday. Here the fleets of early voy-
agers, as that of Sebastian Cabot in
1553, and of Martin Frobisher in 1576,
assembled, and here the lord mayor;
aldermen, and city companies of London
were wont to receive all strangers of
eminence and to conduct them up the
river in state. Pop. about 30,000.
GRAVITY, in physics, the terrestrial
gravitation, the operation of the law of
gravitation on the earth, specially in
making heavy bodies fall in all parts of
the planet in the direction of its center.
Newton and Bessel have shown that in a
vacuum a sovereign and a feather will
fall with equal speed, though the rate
will be very different in the atmospheric
air. The attraction of the whole earth,
considered as a sphere, on a body at its
surface, is the same as if the whole
matter of the earth were collected at
its center. The attraction of the earth
on a body within its surface is the same
as if the spherical shell situated between
the body and the earth's surface was re-
moved; or is the same as if all the
matter situated nearer to the earth's
surface than the body was collected at
the center, and all the matter situated
at a greater distance was removed.
The weight of a body is proportioned
to the attraction which it exerts, hence
gravity in many cases means simply
weight.
GRAVITY, CENTER OF. See CENTER
OF Gravity, under Center.
GRAVITY, SPECIFIC, in physics, the
relative density of a substance; the
weight of a body compared with that of
another body having the same magni-
tude. To obtain this, it is first weighed
in air, which shows its absolute weight.
Next it is weighed in water, to show how^
much it loses in this element. There
have now been ascertained the absolute
weights of two bodies of equal bulk — viz.,
the one experimented on, and water, and
the ratio of these weights is that also
of their specific gravities. Let 1 be the
weight of water, and first let the body
be heavier than that liquid, then the
weight which it loses in water is to the
absolute weight as 1 to the specific grav-
ity required. If lighter than water,
then as the weight of the body in air,
plus the weight needful to make it sink
in water, is to its weight in air, so is 1
to the specific gravity. On this prin-
ciple are constructed such instruments
as Nicholson's portable balance. In solids
and liquids the standard is generally dis-
tilled water; for the gases, atmospheric
air. Specific gravity is proportionate to
density, and the words may be used al-
most interchangeably.
GRAY, a town in the department of
Haute-Saone, France, on the Saone, here
crossed by a stone bridge of the 13th cen-
GRAY
383 GRAY OWL
tury; 25 miles N. W. of Besangon. It
has remains of an ancient castle ot the
dukes of Bur^ndy, some trade in corn,
flour, and iron, and iron industries and
boatbuilding.
GRAY, ASA, an American botanist;
born in Paris, Oneida co., N. Y., Nov.
18, 1810. He took his degree of M. D.
1 in 1831, but soon relinquished the prac-
tice of medicine, and devoted himself to
botany. In 1834 he received the appoint-
ment of botanist of the United States ex-
ploring expedition to the S. seas; but,
as a long delay took place before it was
ready to sail, he resigned his post in
1837. He was aftei*ward elected Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of
Michigan, but declined the appointment,
and in 1842 became Fisher Professor of
Natural History at Harvard. In 1873
he retired from the chair, but still re-
tainel charge of the great herbarium he
had presented to the university in 1864;
and in 1874 he succeeded Agassiz as a
regent of the Smithsonian Institution.
He ranked among the leading botanists
of his age, and became an influential sup-
porter of the Darwinian theories of evo-
lution. He wrote: "Flora of North
America" (begun with Dr. Torrey, in
1838) ; "Flora of North Eastern Amer-
ica, Illustrated" (1848-1850) ; memoirs
on the botanical results of several gov-
ernment exploring expeditions; a num-
ber of text-books; "A Free Examination
of Darwin's Treatise" (1861); "Dar-
winia" (1876) ; and "Natural Science
and Religion" (1880). He died in Cam-
bridge, Mass., Jan. 30, 1888.
GRAY, ELISHA, an American in-
ventor; boi'n in Barnesville, O., Aug. 2,
1835; was educated at Oberlin College.
He designed a self-adjusting telegraph
relay in 1867 and a little later invented
the telegraphic switch and annunciator
for hotels, the telegraphic repeater, the
private telegraph line printer, etc. In
1876 he claimed the invention of the tele-
phone, but after a notable contest the
courts decided in favor of Alexander
Graham Bell. In 1893 Professor Gray
brouffht out his telautograph, by which
written messages could be transmitted
over the telephone and the telegraph.
He was the founder of the Gray Electric
Company in Highland Park, III., and in
1893 organized and was chairman of
the Congress of Electricians at the
World's Columbian Exposition. His pub-
lications include "Experimental Re-
searches in Electro Harmonic Telegi'aphy
and Telephony" (1878) and "Elementary
Talks on Science." He died in Ne\\i;on-
ville, Mass., Jan. 21, 1901. See Bell,
Alexander Graham.
GRAY, HORACE, an American jurist;
bom in Boston, Mass., in 1829; was
graduated at Harvard in 1845, and its
law school in 1849; admitted to the bar
in 1851; appointed reporter of the Mas-
sachusetts Supreme Court in 1854, and
served tiU 1862; associate-justice of the
Massachusetts Supreme Court, 1864-
1873, and chief-justice, 1873-1881, when
he was appointed successor to Judge Clif-
ford in the United States Supreme Court.
He died in 1902.
GRAY, THOMAS, an English poet;
born in London, England, Dec. 26, 1716.
He was educated at Eton, and Peter
House, Cambridge, and entered at the
Inner Temple, with a view of studying
for the bar. Becoming intimate, how-
ever, with Horace Walpole, he accom-
panied him in his tour of Europe; but
they parted at Reggio, and Gray re-
turned to England in 1741. In 1747 his
"Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton Col-
lege" appeared; and it was only in con-
sequence of the printing of a surrepti-
tious copy, that, in 1751, he published his
"Elegy Written in a Country Church-
yard." He declined the office of laureate
on Gibber's death, in 1757; and the same
year published his odes "On the Progress
of Poesy" and "The Bard." In 1768 the
Duke of Grafton presented him with the
Professorship of Modern History at Cam-
bridge. He was a man of extensive ac-
quirements in natural history, the study
of ancient architecture, etc.; his corre-
spondence places him among the best
English epistolary writers. He died in
Eton, England, July 30, 1771.
GRAY FIBERS, in anatomy, pale gray
fibers found with or without white ones
in the sympathetic or other nerves; they
were first discovered by Remak, and are
often called after his name.
GRAY FRIARS. See FRANCISCAN.
GRAYIilNG. a genus of fresh-water
fishes of the salmon family, distinguished
from trout, etc., by the smaller mouth
and teeth, and by the long, many-rayed
dorsal fin. The genus is represented by
five species, inhabiting clear streams in
north Europe. Asia, and North Amer-
ica. The British graylinsr has a wide
but local distribution. The back and
sides are silvery gray, with longitudinal
dusky streaks; the dorsal fin is crossed
by rows of spots. Another well-known
species is Th. sigyiife); a beautiful fish
from the affluents of the Mackenzie river,
called "Hewlukpowak." or "fish with the
win-like fin," by the Eskimos, and "pois-
son bleu" by the Canadian voyageurs.
GRAY OWL. the tawny-owl of north-
ern Europe and of North America.
GRAYSON
386
GREAT BRITAIN
GRAYSON, GARY TRAVERS, an
American naval officer, born in Culpeper
CO., Va., in 1878. He studied at William
and Mary College and at the University
of the South. In 1904 he graduated
from the United States Naval Medical
School. He served as surgeon in the
Navy and acted as personal physician to
President Wilson. He was appointed
medical director with the rank of rear
admiral, in 1916. During the World War
he was a member of many important
organizations, including the Council of
National Defense. He accompanied
President Wilson to Paris at the meet-
ings at the Peace Conference.
GRAY'S PEAK, a peak in the Colorado
range, in Colorado, and one of the high-
est in the Rocky Mountains. Its height is
14,341 feet.
GREASE, in mineralogy, a term used
in relation to luster; fat quartz has a
greasy luster. In farriery, a swelling and
inflammation of the legs of a horse, at-
tended with the secretion of oily matter
and cracks in the skin.
GREAT AMERICAN DESERT, a
term formerly used to designate the
arid parts of the West. It is now used
only in historical reference. A large
part of the region which formerly bore
this designation has been reclaimed
through the construction of railroads,
the development of its abundant min-
eral resources, the foundation of per-
manent agricultural communities, and
the irrigation of vast stretches of waste
land.
The topography, scenery, and geolog-
ical structures are extremely varied.
The climate, though excessively hot in
many parts, is, generally speaking,
healthful and enjoyable, as the exces-
sive heat is much tempered by the dry
atmosphere. The boundaries of the
Great American Desert, of course, can
be indicated only in a general way. They
are the Rockies, and the mountain
ranges continuing from the Rockies in
New Mexico and Texas on the east, and
the Sierra Nevadas and Cascade ranges
on the west. Roughly speaking, the
country included between these, some
700 miles across at its greatest width,
and extending from British Columbia in
the north to the Mexican border in the
south, forms the Great American Desert,
although a region of similar aspect is
to be found south of the Mexican fron-
tier. However, only a part of the re-
gion thus indicated actually consists of
avid country, and the total area is es-
timated at about 550,000 square miles
within the United States, and a some-
what smaller area in Mexico. The
desert parts He at various altitudes,
ranging from below the level of the sea
to the extreme elevations of 13,000 feet,
but averaging between 2,000 and 4,000
feet. The most extensive stretches of
waste lands are included within the
Great Basin, possessing an area of
210,000 square miles and containing the
larger part of the State of Nevada aiid
parts of California, Utah, Idaho, and
Oregon. Perhaps the best known part
of the Great American Desert is the so-
called Colorado Plateau, with its famous
Colorado caiiyon. Other well known
deserts are Death Valley in eastern Cali-
fornia, the Salton Desert in southern
California, the Black Rock Desert in
northwestern Nevada, etc. The water
resources of the region are very limited,
considering its vast extent. Such re-
sources, however, as are available, have
been extensively developed for irrigation,
especially in recent years, yegetation
is comparatively limited. Various kinds
of grasses known as bunch grass, as a
result of their habit of growing in tufts,
are to be found in most of the deserts.
Numerous members of the cactus family
are abundant, especially the prickly pear.
In the south the giant cactus abounds,
frequently reaching a height of 30 to 40
feet. Sagebrush, yucca, and mesquite
are other characteristic desert forms.
GREAT HARRINGTON, a town of
Massachusetts, in Berkshire CO. It is on
the New York, New Haven and Hart-
ford railroad, and on the Housatonic
river. The town includes the villages
of Housatonic and Van Deusen. It is
situated in the Berkshires and is notable
for its picturesque scenery. It is a
popular summer resort. It has pu^lk-
libraries, several schools, and _ oth»vr
public buildings. Its industries include
the manufacture of cotton, electrical ap-
paratus, paper, etc. Pop. (1910) 5,926;
(1920) 6,315.
GREAT BEAR LAKE, a large sheet
of water in the basin of the Mackenzie
rivei', northwest Canada. It derives
its name from the fact that it lies partly
within the Arctic Circle, beneath the
Great Bear constellation. It is about
250 miles east of the Rockies, covers an
area of about 12,000 square miles, and
has very irregnilar shores. Its surface
is frozen during six months of the year,
but in summer it is peculiarly clear and
abounds with many varieties of fish.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,
UNITED KINGDOM OF, a kingdom of
western Europe, consisting of the is-
lands of Great Britain, including Eng-
land, Scotland, and Wales, Ireland, the
Isif of Man, Shetland and Hebrides,
GREAT BRITAIN
387
GREAT BRITAIN
Orkney, Scilly and other groups of small
islands; area, 120,979 square miles;
capital, London; pop. (1911) 45,370,530;
(1919 est.) 45,267,000.
Topography. — The N. of the island of
Great Britain is mountainous, the re-
gion N. of the Clyde being known as the
Highlands. This is divided into two
sections by the hollow of Glenmore, S.
of which are Ben Nevis (4,406 feet) and
Ben Macdhui (4,296 feet), the highest
mountains of the islands. S. of the High-
lands and separated from them by the
plain of the Forth and Clyde are the
Southern Highlands and the Cheviot
Hills on the border between Scotland
and England. Running S. through Eng-
land are the Cumberland and Cambrian
ranges terminating beyond the Peak of
Derby. The Cambrian range extends
into Wales with its highest peak, Mount
Snowdon (3,571 feet). The surface of
the remainder of England consists of
undulating hills. In Ireland the most
marked feature is the expanse of bogs
which stretches over its interior. This
flatness of the interior is caused by the
fact that most of the mountain masses
attain their greatest elevation near the
coast and rapidly decline as they recede
from it. Carn Tual, in the S. W., the
culminating point of the island, is 3,404
feet high. With the exception of the
Clyde and Severn, the rivers of the W.
part of Great Britain are of little im-
portance. These two rivers run through
valleys parallel to the coast. There are
several important rivers entering the
sea on the E. coast. The most important
river in England, if not in the world,
commercially, is the Thames, 215 miles
long. Other notable streams in the E.
are the Spey, Don, Tay, Dee, Forth,
Tweed, Tyne, Ouse, and Trent. The
rivers of Ireland have winding courses
and with the exception of the Shann>>
(225 miles) are unimportant. The lakes
of the British Isles are distinguished
for beauty rather than size; the largest,
but among the least interesting, is Lough
Neagh, in the N. of Ireland. While
both Great Britain and Ireland are pro-
vided with numerous streams, which are
either themselves navigable or act as
the feeders of canals, the coasts, with a
development of over 3,000 miles, supply
a number of excellent harbors invaluable
to the commerce of the country.
Geology. — The surface of Great Brit-
ain exhibits deposits of nearly all geo-
logical periods. The Palaeozoic strata
covers nearly one -third the entire area,
the oldest rocks being the granites and
gneisses of the Hebrides. Cambrian
deposits exist in the sandstones, slate
and grit stones of Scotland, England
and Wales, the Silurian in the Cambrian
Mountains and in Wales, and the De-
vonian, in Devonshire and Central Scot-
land. The Carboniferous series occupies
a belt extending from the Bristol Channel
to the Cheviot Hills, thence into Scot-
land, with 14 distinct coal fields. Per-
mian deposits of magnesium limestone,
red sand, tin and marble exist in Dur-
ham, Devon, and Cornwall. Triassic
measures, including beds of rock salt,
may be traced as a ribbon from Hartle-
pool in the N. to the mouth of the Exe
in the S. In the S. E. are many Creta-
ceous rocks rich in fossils, with chalk
hills from Flamborough Head in York-
shire to Hants, then toward the British
Channel, forming the well-known cliffs
of Dover. Tertiary formations are
found along the S. coast, consisting of
clays, marls, and ferruginous sands.
Granites, syenite, basalt and other erup-
tive rocks, are found in Devon, Corn-
wall, the N. of Scotland, and on the
Irish coast.
Agriculture. — The total amount of
arable land in Great Britain in 1918
was 21,221,000 acres. There were
planted in 1919 in corn, 10,093,243
acres, in green crops (vegetables), 3,-
894,590 acres; in flax, 115,039 acres; in
hops, 16,780 acres; and in small fruit,
84,632 acres. The land lying fallow was
658,443 acres. The land planted to
clover and other grasses is about 5,000,-
000 acres, and the permanent pasture
land amounts to about 25,000,000 acres.
There were in 1919 1,914,933 horses,
12,491,427 cattle, 25,119,220 sheep, and
2,925,093 pigs. In England and Wales
the Board of Agriculture makes grants
for the supervision of vocational educa-
tion, of scientific research, and agricul-
ture. There are eight Development
Commissioners appointed to advise the
treasurer in the administration of a
national fund for the development of
agriculture, fisheries, forestry, and sim-
ilar resources of the United Kingdom.
In 1918 there were imported 57,947,610
cwt. of wheat. Of this 24,757,610 CR-t.
were from the United States and 15,-
968.700 cwt. from Canada. There were
in 1918, in England and Wales, 420,126
farms; in Scotland, 75,982; and in Ire-
land, 572,574. The greater number of
farms were from 5 to 50 acres in extent.
Fisheries. — Fishing is one of the most
important industries of the United
Kingdom. In 1918 the fish, excluding
shell fish taken, amounted to 431,351 tons,
valued at $21,019,000. The value of the
shell fish was $543,082. The total num-
ber of fishing boats is about 25,000, with
a tonnage of about 400,000. Over 100.-
000 persons are employed in the fishing
industry. In 1919 there were imported
GREAT BRITAIN
388
GREAT BRITAIN
147,000 tons of fresh, cured or salted
fish, while the exports of fish amounted
to 136,000 tons.
Mineral Production. — The total min-
eral production in 1918 was 273,988,449
tons, valued at $257,079,792. Coal is the
most valuable of the mineral products.
The coal production in 1918 was 227,-
748,654 tons, valued at $238,240,760,
Iron production is second in value.
There were produced in 1918 14,613,032
tons of iron ore, valued at $7,106,656.
Other important minei'al products are
limestone, chalk, clay and shale, oil
shale, salt, and tin. The total number
of persons employed in the mines in
1918 was 1,029,688. The total number of
mines was 3,277. The principal coal
fields of the United Kingdom are in
Durham, Yorkshire, Glamorgan and
Scotland. The greatest production is
from the York, Derby, and Nottingham
coal fielJs, which run along the eastern
flank of the Southern Pennines. There
were exported in the first nine months of
1919, 32,100,000 tons of coal, valued at
$71,800,000. There were imported in
1919, 5,202,707 tons of iron ore valued
at $11,207,244. The greatest part of
this came from Spain. There were in
1918 318 blast furnaces in operation.
The ore smelted amounted to 22,544,064
tons, and the pig iron made amounted
to 9,107,384 tons. The output of pig
iron in 1919 was 7,370,000 tons, and of
steel ingots 7,880,000 tons.
Manufactures. — There were consumed
in the three-year period 1917 to 1919,
in textile manufactures, 1,623,000,000
pounds of cotton, 835,000,000 pounds of
wool, 121,000,000 pounds of flax, or a to-
tal of 2,579,000,000 pounds. The value of
the products exported was: cotton, 189.-
000,000 pounds; woolen goods, 68,800..
000 pounds; linen goods, 14,100,000
pounds; or a total of 271,900,000
pounds. The home production of wool
in 1919 was 116,000,000 pounds; that of
flax, 31,000,000 pounds. The exports in
1919 were: cotton, 3,611,000 yards;
woolens, 175,000,000 yards; linen, 77,-
000,000 yards; cotton yarn, 163,000,000
pounds; woolen yarn, 29,000,000 pounds,
and linen yarn, 13,000,000 pounds. The
metal industry ranks next in importance
to the textile. Engineering and metal
working schools are, generally speaking,
in the neighborhood of the coal fields,
especially on the northeast coast and
at Sheffield, London, Birmingham, and
Coventry, in England; on the Clyde, in
Scotland; and in Belfast, in Ireland.
The leather industry is important at
Bristol, Leicester, Northampton, and
Nottingham. The earthen and china dis-
trict is in the South Staffordshire coal
fields, where there are also supplies of
coarse clay and iron stone. Paper mak-
ing, printing and brewing are of great
importance, and distilling is carried on
on a large scale in Scotland and Ire-
land.
Commerce. — The value of the imports
of merchandise in 1919 was £1,631,901,-
864, compared with £1,316,150,903 in
1918, and with £768,734,739 in 1913.
The total exports in 1919 amounted to
£962,694,911, compared with £532,364,-
078 in 1918, and £634,820,326 in 1913.
The imports in 1919 may be divided as
follows: food, drink and tobacco, £712,-
439,000; raw materials, £646,451,000;
manufactured articles, £266,746,000. The
largest class of exports was in the latter
class, manufactured articles. The total
imports from the countries of the Brit-
ish dominions in 1918 amounted to £423,-
034,971, and the total exports to British
dominions amounted to £183,453,454.
The imports from other countries in the
same year amounted to £893,115,932.
The exports to other countries were
£348,910,621. The countries from which
the largest number of imports were re-
ceived were the United States, Argen-
tina, France, Norway, Spain, Sweden,
Japan, Cuba, and Chile. The chief ex-
ports were to France, Italy, United
States, Argentina, Netherlands, China,
and Brazil.
Shipping a7id Navigation. — There were
in 1917 7,186 sailing vessels of 625,428
net tons, and 11,534 steam vessels meas-
uring 9,606,601 tons, registered as be-
longing to the United Kingdom. The
output of merchant shipbuilding in 1918
was 1,310,741 tons. The total loss to
the United Kingdom merchant shipping
fx'om the outbreak of the World War in
August, 1914, to the end of October,
"918, was 9,031,828 gross tons. New
construction during that period amount-
ed to 4,342,296 gross tons; purchases
numbered to 530,000 gross tons and
enemy tonnage captured, to 716,520
gross tons, making a net loss of 3,443,-
012 gross tons.
Transportation. — The total length of
railways at the end of 1915, the latest
date for which statistics are available,
was 23,709 miles. The total capital of
English railways at the end of 1917 was
£1,122,655,000; of Scottish railways,
£187,801,000; and of Irish railways,
£309,678,000. In 1918 there were 1,202
miles of waterway in England, and 304
miles in Ireland, under the Canal Con-
trol Committee. In addition, the Rail-
way Executive Committee controlled
1,025 miles in England and Wales. The
total traffic conveyed by canals is about
35,000,000 tons per year. The most im-
GREAT BiRITAIN
389
GREAT BRITAIN
portant canal is the Manchester Ship
Canal, which is SbVz miles in length.
The gross revenue of this canal in 1919
was £1,976,591. There are about 25,000
post offices in the United Kingdom. The
total mileage of telegraph wire in 1917
was 3,375,247. The total nui-nber of
telegraph offices open in that year was
14,035.
Education. — In England and Wales
parents are required to compel their
children to receive sufficient elementary
education or to attend school from 5 to
14 years of age. In Scotland efficient
education is required up to 15 years, and
in Ireland from the ages of 6 to 14.
Local authorities are in power to make
free accommodation, attendance of
pupils, and teaching staffs, while the
State supplies nearly one-half of the
maintenance funds, conditional upon
receipt of satisfactory reports from
government inspectors. There are about
33,000 local schools. The teachers num-
ber about 200,000. The number of schol-
ars in the local schools in 1918 was
about 6,000,000 in England and Wales.
The average attendance in Scotland in
1917 was 743,725, and in Ireland, 488,-
785, Secondary and technical education
is provided under the Education Act of
1918, by which county and borough
councils are required to provide for the
progresaive development and compre-
hensive organization of education. Con-
tinuation schools are to be established,
and courses in physical training and
vocational education are made availble.
There were in 1918, 1,061 secondary
schools in England and Wales, with
238,314 full time pupils. Higher educa-
tion is given in the Universities of Ox-
ford and Cambridge, the University of
Durham, Victoria University at Man-
chester, Birminc:ham University, Liver-
pool University, Leeds University,
Sheffield University, and Bristol Uni-
versity. There are also special and
technical colleges in other cities. The
University of Wales has three coUeares
at Cardiff, Aberystwyth, and Bangor.
There are four universities in Scotland,
at St. Andrew, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and
Edinburgh. In Ireland are the Uni-
versity of Dublin, Queens University of
Belfast, and the National Univprsity of
Ireland. There were in the colleges of
England in 1919-20, 28,010 students,
in Scotland, 10,140 stud-ents; in Ireland,
4,200; and in Wales, 2,500; or a total
of 44,850.
Finances. — The revenue for the fiscal
year onding March 31, 1920, was £1,339,-
571,381, and the expenditure was £1,-
665,772,928. The estimated revenue for
1921 was £1,418,300,000, and the esti-
mated expenditure, £1,184,102,000. The
chief sources of revenue are customs,
excise, taxation, and the sale of stamps.
The chief expenditures are for the army
and navy, and civil service. Included
in the latter are about £56,000,000 for
public education, about £26,000,000 for
old age pensions, and about £123,000,000
for pensions. The national debt on
November 30, 1919, was approximated
£7,976,900,000. The estimated tota'l
national debt on March 31, 1920, was
about £8,075,000,000. This debt was in-
curred chiefly for expenses in the World
War. and against the total is about £2,-
626,000,000 due from the Allies for re-
payment of loans and from the domin-
ions of the Empire. The total charges
on the debt amounted to about £316,-
000,000 annually.
Army and Navy. — See Army and
Navy, The.
Government. — The supreme legislative
power is vested in Parliament, which in-
cludes the House of Coinmons and the
House of Lords. Parliament may be
summoned by the writ of the sovereign
and may be dissolved by his will. The
House of Lords consists of peers who
hold their seat either by hereditary
right, by creation of the sovereign, by
virtue of office, as bishops, by election
for life, as in the case of Irish peers,
by election for the duration of Parlia-
ment, as with the Scottish peers. The
full House of Lords consists of about
700 members. The House of Commons
consists of members representing
county, borough, and university con-
stituencies in the three Divisions of the
United Kingdom. No one under 21 years
of age can be a member of Pai'liament.
Clergymen of the Church of England,
ministers of the Church of Scotland, and
Roman Catholic clergymen are disquali-
fied from sitting as members. Under the
Parliament Act of 1918, women are
eligible to sit in the House, and the
first woman took her seat in December,
1919. Members of the House of Com-
mons are paid £400 per year. The total
membership of the House of Commons
is 707. The executive power of the gov-
ernment is vested nominally in the sov-
ereign, but practically in the Cabinet,
whose existence is dependent on the sup-
port of the majority in the House of
Commons. Prior to December, 1916, the
Cabinet consisted of the political chiefs
of the principal government depart-
ments, and numbered about 20. With
the formation of the Lloyd George Gov-
ernment, in 1916, the Cabinet was re-
duced to about six in number. This was
known as the War Cabinet and was
gradually expanded into an Imperial
GREAT EASTERN
390
GREAT SALT LAKE
War Cabinet by the inclusion of the
Prime Ministers, and other representa-
tive ministers, of the various parts of
the Empire. In July, 1918, the Prime
Minister of each Dominion was given
the right to nominate a Cabinet Min-
ister either as a resident or a visitor
in London, to represent him at the meet-
ings of the Cabinet held between full
meetings. In October, 1919, the War
Cabinet was dissolved and a full Cabinet
with about 20 members constituted. The
head of the Ministry is the Prime Min-
ister, and it is usually held in conjunc-
tion with some other high office of State,
usually that of First Lord of the Treas-
ury. The other members are appointed
on the recommendation of the Prime
Minister, and he dispenses the greater
part of the patronage of the Crown.
History. — The history of the United
Kingdom is practically identical with
that of England (q. v.). For the col-
onies of the United Kingdom, see
British Empire.
GREAT EASTERN, an English iron
steamship, before the "Celtic" the larg-
est vessel constructed, built (1854-1858)
at Millwall, on the Thames, for the East-
ern Steam Navigation Co., by Scott Rus-
sell, from plans by I. K. Brunei; length,
680 feet; breadth, 82l^, or, including
paddle-boxes, 118 feet; height, 58 feet
(70 to top of bulwarks). She had 6
masts, 5 of iron and one of wood, and
could spread 7,000 yards of sail, besides
having 8 engines, divided between her
screws and paddles, and capable of work-
ing at 11,000 horse power. From the
first her career was unfortunate, the
launching process alone lasting three
months and costing $300,000. After sev-
eral unremunerative trips to New York
she was employed first as a troopship,
and then as a cable-laying ship, for
which her size and steadiness specially
qualified her. Various attempts were
afterward made to utilize her, but she at
last came to be a mere holiday spectacle,
and was broken up in 1888.
GREAT FALLS, a city of Montana,
the county-seat of Cascade co. It is
on the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul,
and the Great Northern railroads, and
on the Missouri river. It is the center of
an important mining region, and has ex-
tensive smelting works for the reduction
of copper, gold, and silver ores. Lead,
iron, zinc, and coal are also mined in the
vicinity. The industries include the
manufacture of flour, mining machinery,
etc. It has an important trade in wool
and is the center of an important agri-
cultural region. The river here is spanned
by two steel bridges, each over 1,000
feet long. The notable buildings include
a public library, a city hall, and a hotel.
There are seven parks. The neighboring
country is of great scenic beauty. Water
power is developed from Rainbow and
Great Falls, which produces more than
200,000 horse power. Pop. (1910) 13,-
948; (1920) 24,121.
GREAT FISH RIVER. (1) In Cape
Colony, a river rising in the Sneeuwberg
Mountains, and, after a generally S. E.
course of 230 miles, entering the Indian
Ocean in latitude 33° 25' S. and longitude
27° E. The Midland railway which con-
nects Port Elizabeth and Port Alfred
with Kimberley skirts part of the river;
there is an iron bridge at Cradock, and
Fish River Station is 207 miles from
Port Elizabeth. (2) Great Fish river,
or Back's river, in North America, enters
an inlet of the Arctic Ocean in long. 95°
W., after passing through Lake Pelly.
Sir George Back traced its course to the
ocean.
GREAT KANAWHA (ka-na'wa), an
affluent of the Ohio river called New
river in the upper part of its course, and
rising in the Blue Ridge of North Caro-
lina ; it has a course of 450 miles, and is
navigable to a fall 30 miles above Charles-
ton, and about 100 miles from its mouth.
GREAT LAKES, the name given to
that chain of lakes lying on the N. bor-
ders of the United States; they include
Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie,
and Ontario.
GREAT SALT LAKE, in Utah, a sheet
of water stretching along the W. base of
the Wahsatch Mountains, about 4,200
feet above the sea, forming a principal
drainage center of the Great Basin. The
lake has well-marked shore lines on the
mountains around, reaching 1,000 feet
higher than the present level, show that
the lake had formerly a vastly greater
extent; this prehistoric sea has been
named Lake Bonneville. Great Salt Lake
is over 80 miles long and from 20 to 32
broad, but for the most part exceedingly
shallow. It contains several islands, the
largest, Antelope Island, about 18 miles
long. Its tributaries are the Bear,
Ogden, Jordan, and Weber, the Jordan
bringing the fresh waters of Lake Utah ;
but Great Salt Lake has no outlet save
evaporation, and its clear water conse-
quently holds at all times a considerable
quantity of saline matter in solution; in
1850 the proportion was 22.4 per cent.,
in 1869 it was only 14.8. Between these
dates the annual tribute exceeded the
evaporation, and the area of the lake
increased from 1,700 to 2,360 square
miles; more recently, it has again been
GREAT SEAL
391
GBECO-TURKISH WAB
slowly receding. Several species of in-
sects and a brine-shrimp have been found
in its waters, but no fishes; large flocks
of water-fowls frequent the shores. The
first mention of Great Salt Lake was by
the Franciscan friar Escalante in 1776,
but it was first explored and described
in 1843 by Fremont. A thorough survey
was made in 1849-1850 by Capt. Howard
Stansbury, U. S. A. See Salt Lake
City; Utah.
GREAT SEAL, the official signature
royal seal for the United Kingdom, held
in charge by the Lord Chancellor for
Crown Documents.
GREAT SLAVE LAKE a body of
water in the Canadian Northwest Terri-
tory (62° N. lat.) ; greatest length about
300 miles, gi-eatest breadth 50 miles. By
the Slave river it receives the surplus
waters of Lake Athabasca; and it dis-
charges by the Mackenzie river into the
Arctic Ocean. See Athabasca.
GREAT SLAVE RIVER, a river in
Canada flowing from Alberta into the
Northwest Territories, carrying the sur-
plus waters of Athabaska Lake into
Great Slave Lake. After leaving the
former, it is joined by the Peace river.
Its total length is about three hundred
miles, practically all of which is naviga-
ble for river steamers during the open
season. The valley through which it
flows is remarkable for its fertility, but
still largely unsettled.
GREAT SOUTH BAY, an arm of the
Atlantic Ocean on the S. coast of Suffolk
CO., Long Island, N. Y.; 50 miles long,
from 1% to 5 miles wide. Great South
Beach, which is about 35 miles long, and
has Fire Island Lighthouse on the W.
extremity, separates it from the ocean.
GRECO-TURKISH WAR, THE, a
war which took place between Greece
and Turkey in 1897. On Feb. 3, 1897,
the Turkish troops in Crete wantonly
pillaged and massacred a large number
of Christians. About 15,000 Greek
women and children fled to Greece, where
the people had to provide for them. In
the meantime the Cretans proclaimed
their independence of Turkey, their union
with Greece, and appealed to that coun-
try for help. This action led King
George of Greece to send a small army
to occupy the island, a movement which
was opposed on the part of the Powers
by whom the island was blockaded March
17, 1897. After a demand was made
that the Greek troops be withdrawn from
Crete, which was not complied with, the
Powers landed soldiers and occupied the
island. Soon afterward a body of Greejc
"irregulars" invaded Macedonia, where-
upon the Turkish Cabinet declared on
April 17 that a state of war existed with
Greece, and Edham Pasha, commander
of the Turkish army, was ordered to take
the offensive.
This issue was promptly accepted by
Greece, and hostilities were at once be-
gun on the Grecian frontier, which soon
developed into a general cannonading
along the entire frontier of Thessaly,
while operations were likewi.se initiated
on the sea. The Greeks, fighting their
way northward, invaded Turkey and
threatened Alassona, while the Turks
swept down from Salonika through the
mountain passes and invaded Greece,
thus forcing the Greeks to abandon La-
rissa, their principal source of supplies.
In the meanwhile the Greek navy was ac-
tive, having bombarded and destroyed a
number of important towns along the
Gulf of Salonika. During the latter part
of April and the beginning of May the
Greeks were mainly victorious. A Gre-
cian army of 12,000, under General Smol-
enski, repulsed a Turkish force of 14,000,
with heavy loss, near Velestino, on April
30, and held in check another movement
May 2.
The tide, however, was soon turned,
for on May 5 the Turks, with 50,000 men,
compelled an army of 23,000 Greeks to
withdraw from Pharsalos. The Greeks
now became aware that they could not
cope with the constantlv increasing Tur-
kish army, and this conviction, with the
knowledge thati the country was without
funds, disheartened the soldiers and
caused the army to collapse. On May 8
the Powers were informed that the
Greek troops would be recalled from
Crete, thus signifying that Greece was
ready to be guided by the Powers.
On May 11 a joint note was sent t<
the Greek minister of foreign affairs of-
fering mediation, and on May 12 a re-
quest for an armistice was sent to the
Turkish Government. Four days later
that country replied that it would not
allow an armistice except on the follow-
ing conditions: Annexation of Thessaly;
an indemnity of £10,000,000: abolition of
the canitulations or treaties conferring
privileges on Greeks in the Turkish em-
pire; and a treaty of extradition with
Greece. These harsh terms met with a
protest from all Europe. The Czar of
Russia now wrote a personal letter to
the Sultan, with the result that hostili-
ties immediately ceased, and on May 20
an armistice for 17 days was concluded.
The question of the cession of Thessaly
was referred to a military commission,
which recommended no cession beyond
the mountain summits on the Turkish
frontier, which gave to Turkey a stra-
GREECE
392
GBEECE
tegic boundary. Negotiations were finally
concluded on Sept. 18, when a treaty
was submitted to Turkey and Greece.
The principal terms of this treaty were
that Greece should pay Turkey about
$15,000,000; permit a strategic recon-
struction of the Thessalian frontier in
Turkey's favor ; and accept international
control in financial matters. This treaty
was signed at Constantinople, Dec. 4, 1897.
GREECE, a kingdom of southeastern
Europe; bounded by Albania, Jugoslavia,
Bulgaria, Turkey, the Black, ^gean,
Ionian, and Mediterranean Seas; cap-
ital, Athens, with a population of about
300,000 (including Piraeus). Greece
gained greatly in territorial area as a
result of the redistribution of territory
at the Peace Conference in Paris. In
addition to the acquisition of Thrace and
numei'ous islands in the ^gean Sea,
Greece also assumed the administration
of the Smyrna district of Asia Minor,
with a proviso that a plebiscite be held
at the end of five years to determine
whether or not it shall remain perma-
nently in Greek hands. The acquisition
of new territories obtained as a result
of the war with Turkey, from October
17, 1912, to May 30, 1913, and with Bul-
garia, from June 30 to August 10, 1913,
gave the country a total area of 41,933
square miles. There were added as a
result of the World War, Bulgarian or
western Thrace, Macedonia, and the
^gean Islands, with the exception of
Imbros, Tenedos and Caste '^orizzo, which
according to the terms of the Peace
Treaty are to be returned to Turkey.
The population of the added territory is
about 2,000,000 and of the old territory
about 2,700,000; population of the king-
dom about 4,821,300.
Topography. — Greece forms the S. ex-
tremity of the Balkan peninsula and
numerous outlying islands. The coast
line is very extensive, being formed by
numerous gulfs and bays, of which the
Corinthian and Saronic gulfs nearly
meet at the Isthmus of Corinth, separ-
ating northern Greece from Morea. The
surface is very mountainous. In the N.
are the Cambunian Mountains, with
Mount Olympus (9,754 feet) at the E.
extremity, A range called Mount Pin-
dus runs N. and S. parallel to both
coasts, with many smaller ranges
branching off in all directions. The riv-
ers are small, and as a rule mere moun-
tain torrents, none of them being nav-
igable.
Production and lnd%istry. — Greece is
mainly an agricultural country, al-
though only about one-fifth of the total
area is suitable for cultivation. The de«
forestation of the country has gone on
steadily for years, and this has greatly
decreased the area that could profitably
be devoted to agriculture. The land is
to a large extent in the hands of peasant
proprietors, and metayer farmers. Agri-
culture on the whole is in a backward
state. The chief cereals grown are
wheat, barley, rye, maize, and mezlin.
The total area under cultivation in 1919
was 2,029,000 acres. The favorite crop
is currant, the yield of which in 1919
was 145,000 tons. Olives are also of
great importance. The production of
olive oil in 1918 was 31,702,800 gallons,
and the tobacco crop in the same year
amounted to 48,699,000 pounds. In 1919
the tobacco crop was 57,198,455 pounds.
The yield of wine in 1918 was 10,566,800
gallons, while the nut crop was about
5,000,000 pounds. The principal fruits
grown are figs, oranges, mandarins, and
lemons. Rice is cultivated in Macedonia.
Cheese and other dairy products also
form part of the agricultural industry.
There were in 1917 2,218 factories,
employing 36,124 wage earners, with
products valued at 260,363,647 drach-
mai. (A drachma! equals $0,193.) The
production of cotton goods is the leading
industry. There were in 1917 128,225
spindles and 16,965 looms.
Mineral Prodtiction. — There is a con-
siderable variety of mineral deposits
which include iron, copper, zinc, lead,
silver, manganese, aluminum, antimony,
tin, nickel, etc. The laurium district of
Thessaly and the .^gean Islands yield
a large output of ores and earth. The
chief mineral products in 1917 were
as follows: iron, 63,364 tons; magnesite,
162,938 tons; salt, 45,560 tons; lead,
36,558 tons; zinc, 14,290 tons. The
production of lignite coal in 1917 was
157,956 tons.
Co^nmerce. — The total imports in 1917
were valued at $39,440,692, compared
with a value in 1916 of $77,091,696. The
chief articles of import are agricultural
products, chemical products, cotton
yarns and fabric, paper products and
sugar. The exports in 1917 amounted to
$21,191,911, compared with $32,852,564
in 1916. The chief exports are agri-
cultural products, metals and minerals,
oil and oil substances, and animal prod-
ucts. The chief trade was with the
United Kingdom, France and Italy. The
imports of Greece from the United
States for the fiscal year 1920 were
valued at $48,707,778, while the exports
to the United States amounted to $1,-
953,756.
Communicationi. — There are in Greece
about 1,400 miles of railway. Prior to
the war with Turkey in 1912-13, Greece
GREECE
393
GREECE
was completely isolated by land from
the rest of Europe, but in 1916 a rail-
road was completed between Gida on the
Saloniki-Monastir line, and Papapuli on
the Thessalian frontier, a distance of 56
miles, by which Greece was joined with
the European railroads. In 1920 projects
for nev/ lines to the extent of 400 miles
were under consideration. There are
about 17,347 miles of telegraph wire and
about 7,002 miles of telephone.
Finance. — The revenue in 1919 was
£45,908,000, and the expenditure £61,-
656,000. The external debt of Greece in
December 31, 1919, was £41,916,520. In
1918 the governments of Great Britain,
United States, and France agreed to
advance to Greece about £30,000,000, the
control of which was lodged in a
financial and military commission. Prac-
tically all this sum was loaned to Greece.
years, and in the Council of State. The
Boule meets annually for a term of not
less than three nor more than six
months.
History. — The Greek nation boasts of
the highest antiquity, and in the early
and mythic period of their history it is
almost impossible to separate fable from
fact. The Pelasgi were the first in-
habitants, succeeded by the Hellenes.
Having gained the advantage over the
Pelasgi, and driven them to the islands,
they peopled the continent with their
own nation, who were divided into four
tribes, viz., .^olians, Dorians, lonians,
and Achaians. The Hellenes spread in
different directions over the country,
and were soon joined by colonists from
Egj-pt and Phoenicia. The first consti-
tution of Greek cities is beyond the
reach of exact history; but it seems
THE ACADEMY AT ATHENS
Education. — Education is compulsory
for children between the ages of 6 and
12 years, but the law is not well en-
forced. The percentage of illiteracy is
high. There are about 7,000 primary
schools and about 9,000 teachers. For
secondary education there are about 75
high schools and about 425 middle
schools, with about 60,000 pupils. There
are agricultural schools, trade schools,
and commercial schools. The univer-
sities are those of Athens, the National
University, and the Capodistria Univer-
sity. The annual appropriation for
education is about 10,000,000 drachmai.
Government. — The government is a
constitutional monarchy, the present
constitution dating from 1864. The ex-
ecutive power is vested in the king and a
ministry of 9 departments, Interior, For-
eign Affairs, Communication, Education,
Economy, Agriculture, Assistance, Fi-
nance, and Justice. The legislative au-
thority is vested in a chamber, called the
Boule, consisting of 316 members, elected
by universal suffrage for a term of four
that monarchy was the earliest form;
and Sicyon is stated to have founded
2000 B. c. Athens, Thebes, Sparta, Cor-
inth, and Argos. Of the mythic or heroic
period, the principal events are the siege
of Thebes, and the Trojan war, com-
mencing 1198 B. c. The confusion aris-
ing from the latter event deprived many
kingdoms of their princes, and en-
couraged the ambition of the Dorian
hei'aclidae to such an extent that they
enslaved or expelled the inhabitants of
the Peloponnesus. A fresh impulse was
given thereby to emigration ; large bodies
of people crossed the -^gean, and
colonized the shores of Asia Minor; and
as the governments changed with the
rulers, the states of Greece now began
to partake of that republican form
which was aftenvard their peculiar
characteristic. The civil policy of
Sparta and Athens, the growing power
of which latter now began to lessen the
influence of the other states, military
knowledge, the arts of refinement ar.>J
politics, advanced rapidly, and the quick
GREECE
394
GREECE
and sensitive Greeks carried refinement
of manners to an extent not yet ex-
ceeded in modern times. They had at
the same time an extensive commerce
with Gaul, Italy, and Sicily. Their en-
terprise and love of liberty bore them
successfully through all the troubles of
the Persian war, 469 B. c. ; but from the
same reasons they became involved in
intestine feuds. The Peloponnesian war,
which lasted 30 years (ending 404 B. c),
destroyed their union, and paved the
way for Philip of Macedon, who (338
B. c.) gained the decisive battle of Cher-
onaja, and thus became master of Greece.
The brilliant conquests of Alexander
engaged them for a few years; but their
courage was now enervated, and their
love of liberty almost extinguished.
When the Achaian league proved a vain
defense against the kingdom of Mace-
don, Greece was utterly unable to con-
tend with the arms of Rome; and after
a brief contest, ending with the battle
of Corinth (146 B. c), the entire coun-
try became an integral portion of the
Roman empire.
From the Roman conquest in 146 B. C,
Greece was held as a dependency of the
Byzantines {q, v.), the Franks, and
the Turks till 1821, when the war of
independence began with a revolt in the
Danubian provinces. In January, 1822,
the first National Assembly met in Epi-
darus and framed a provisional consti-
tution. In the same year occurred the
massacre in Scio, by the Turks, re-
ducing the population from 100,000 to
1,800. The Greek navy was exceedingly
successful under the two daring Ad-
mirals Miaoulis and Canaris, the latter
of whom set fire to the Turkish ad-
miral's flagship in the midst of the night
at Tjesme, opposite the island of Chios,
and destroyed several other Turkish
men-of-war. In 1823 the Greeks cap-
tured the Turkish camp at Carpenesion,
but in 1826 the Turks captured Misso-
longhi, its starving garrison having cut
its way through the Turkish camp, and
besieged Athens, receiving its surren-
der in -June, 1827. About this time Eng-
land, France, and Russia decided to in-
tervene and sent their fleets, composed
of a dozen vessels of each nation, to
the port of Navarino, in the W. part of
the Morea, to enforce an armistice. The
Turkish and Egyptian fleets, composed
of about 120 men-of-war, were anchored
in that port. The Turks having fired
on a boat with a flag of truce, killing a
British officer, Oct. 20, 1826, the allied
fleet opened fire on the Turko-Egyptian
fleet and destroyed it completely, with
a fearful loss of life. After this the
Sultan became more pliable, and nego-
tiations began among the Great Powers
about the final status of Greece, which
resulted in the establishment of the
Greek kingdom by the treaty of London
in 1830.
At the close of the war Prince John
of Saxony was offered the throne of
Greece; on his refusal it was accepted
conditionally by Leopold of Saxe-Coburg
(later on King of the Belgians), who
soon resigned because he insisted on
more extended frontiers of the new
kingdom. In 1833 Prince Otho, second
son of King Ludwig, of Bavaria, was
appointed king, and for 10 years the
country was under Bavarian rule with-
out a constitution. On Sept. 15, 1843,
an insurrection of the garrison of
Athens, under General Kallergis, forced
the king to gi'ant a constitution, and a
National Assembly was convoked to
frame one, which was finally adopted
March 16, 1844, enacting the establish-
ment of a House of Representatives,
called Boule, whose members were
elected by universal suffrage, and a Sen-
ate, whose members were selected by the
king for life. But this charter, snatched
thus by force from the king, was not
honestly carried out, and great dissat-
isfaction ensued. In 1862, while the king
and queen were making a tour in the
provinces, a rising took place at Athens,
a provisional government composed of
three members was elected, and the
throne was declared vacant. The royal
couple returned to Germany.
In December following. Prince Alfred,
the second son of Queen Victoria, wag
elected king by universal suffrage. He
was ineligible on account of being of
the house of one of the protecting pow-
ers. In 1863 Prince George, second son
of King Christian of Denmark, was ap-
pointed king by the protecting powers,
and accepted by the people. He arrived
in Greece in October, 1863. During his
veign the development of Greece in
every direction has been rapid. In 1897,
owing to the massacres by the Turks in
the island of Crete, the Greek Govern-
ment announced its intention to inter-
vene and landed surreptitiously a regi-
ment of regulars. A war between Tur-
key and Greece followed, in which
Greece was defeated in Thessaly, and
for a whole year that province was
occupied by the Turks, but was evacu-
ated finally by the latter on a payment
by Greece of a war indemnity of $19,-
000,000. Later Turkey was forced by
the Great Powers to evacuate Crete, and
Prince George of Greece was installed
by them as high commissioner for
governing the island. He resigned
in 1906 as a result of internal
GREECE
395
GREECE
political disputes in the island and
M. Zaimis, foi-merly Greek Premier,
was appointed High Commissioner.
Greece, in 1908, following the overthrow
of Abdul Hamid, Sultan of Turkey, de-
clared for union with Crete. This was
not permitted, however, by the Great
Powers. A political crisis was narrowly
averted over the Cretan question in
Greece, where the people disapproved of
the failure of the government to insist
on the inclusion of Crete into Greek
territory. Following the Balkan War in
1912-1913, Crete was finally ceded to
Greece. Greece came into political con-
flict with Bulgaria and Rumania over
the question of Macedonia, and in 1905
diplomatic relations between Greece and
Rumania were severed and were not re-
sumed until 1912.
treaty with Serbia obligated Greece to
support the Serbians against any
foreign aggression. It was known that
Venizelos, the Prime Minister, was in
favor of adhering to this treaty when
Serbia was attacked by Austria. The
King, however, had married a sister of
the German Emperor, and his sym-
pathies were strongly with Germany.
The Greek Government, at the beginning
of the war, assumed a neutral attitude.
Bulgaria was negotiating with both
sides and agreed to throw her fortunes
with the Allies if the territory taken
from her as a result of the Second Bal-
kan War should be returned. Venize-
los was willing to consider these terri-
torial concessions. The pro-German
elements in Greece, however, refused to
consider such action. They were fur-
THB PARTHENON
Largely through the effective diplo-
macy of Venizelos, who for many years
was practical political ruler of Greece,
the Balkan League was formed in 1912
which successfully prosecuted war
a2:"inst Turkey. The Greek armies per-
foxmed excellent service in the cam-
paign of this war, especially in the cap-
ture of Saloniki. King George, while
on a tour of inspection, was assassinated
in Saloniki on March 18, 1913, and was
succeeded by the Crown Prince Constan-
tine. Greece received, as a result of this
war, all of Thessaly, part of Epirus, and
the most valuable portions of Macedonia
and Thrace, including Saloniki. She re-
ceived also Crete, as noted above. These
additions to her territory nearly doubled
the area and population of Greece.
The outbreak of the World War in
1914 placed the government of Gi'eece
in an especially difficult position. The
ther strengthened by the entrance of
Italy into the war on the side of the
Entente. For the interests of Italy and
Greece clashed in Albania and the is-
lands of the JEgean, and the Greeks be-
lieved that some promises had been made
to Italy which could be fulfilled only at
the cost of Greek ambitions. In January,
1915, the islands of Tenedos and Lernnos
were occupied as a base of operations
against the Dardanelles. This was
done with the consent of Venizelos.
This brought the issue sharply to a point
in Greece. The general staff declined
to suppoi-t Venizelos, and the King,
through the Royal Council, refused to
indorse Venizelos' action. He thereupon
resigned and was succeeded by Gou-
naras, who was strongly pro-German, In
June, 1915, Venizelos received a popular
majority to the National Assembly of
120 sea"t.«!, and in August the Guonaras
GREECE
396
OBEECE
Cabinet resigned and the King was
obliged to invite Venizelos back into pow-
er. In September the final invasion of
Serbia by Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian,
and German armies began and the Allies
wished to send aid through Saloniki.
This was done with the consent of Veni-
zelos, who was supported by the National
Assembly. The King, however, de-
clared that he could not support this
pro-Ally policy and demanded Venizelos'
resignation, which was given. He was
succeeded by Zaimis and a policy of
strict neutrality was again announced.
Zaimis was also forced to resign in
November as a result of a vote of lack
of confidence in the government. The
King appointed another of his support-
ers premier in the person of M. Skoulou-
dis. He at once dissolved the National
Assembly, announcing that a general
election would be held to indicate the
sentiment of the people of Greece. As
the soldiers mobilized were not allowed
to vote, it would have been impossible to
ascertain the will of the people by this
method. In the meantime, the Greek
authorities, both civil and military, were
hampering in every possible way the
activities of the Allies, who were pre-
paring to relieve Serbia from the
South. On Nov. 19, 1915, French and
British warships began a blockade of
Greek ports with the object of bringing
Greece to terms through economic pres-
sure. The strict embargo established
quickly brought the Greek people to the
verge of starvation and raised the dan-
ger of popular revolution in Athens.
Finally the King and the government
surrendered, and the Greek army, which
had been concentrated around Saloniki,
was withdrawn, and the railroad running
from Saloniki to the Macedonian front
was turned over to the Allied authorities.
The sympathy of the Greek Government,
however, continued to be strictly pro-
German, and Venizelos was again in re-
tirement. A general election was held,
but the supporters of Venizelos refused
to vote. The Bulgarian army on May
26, 1916, crossed the Grecian frontier.
The Greek forces offered no resistance
and either surrendered to the Bulgarians
or retired. It was the belief among the
Allied governments that this was the re-
sult of a secret agreement between the
Greek Premier and Germany. In June,
another partial blockade of Greek ports
was instituted. This resulted in the
partial demobilization of the Greek army.
Finally, on June 23, 1916, the Allies de-
manded complete demobilization, a new
cabinet, and the dissolution of the Na-
tional Assembly. The cabinet resigned
and Alexander Zaimis became Prime
Minister. The conditions exacted by the
Allies were not fully kept. Among the
people, Allied sentiment continued to
grow, but the government remained
fii'm in its pro-German policy. On Oct.
11, 1916, the Allied warships suddenly
seized the larger part of the Greek fleet.
This was followed by an attack, on
Dec. 2, by Greek soldiers upon French
marines stationed at Athens. Venizelos
now declared himself in revolt against
the King and established himself in Sa-
loniki. The situation remained estranged
until during the spring of 1917, on June
12, it was suddenly announced that Con-
stantine had abdicated in favor of his
second son, Alexander. This was the re-
sult of an ultimatum presented by the
Entente nations. On the following day
Constantine embarked on a British war-
ship to Italy, going thence to Switzerland,
where he remained in retirement until
December, 1920. He was accompanied
by members of his family.
The hostile attitude of Greece now
came to an end. Venizelos returned to
Athens and was invited by King Alex-
ander to form a new cabinet. On June
29 the Greek Government severed diplo-
matic relations with the Central nations
and prepared to take part in active
hostilities. The Greek army rendered
valuable service in the operations which
followed in the Balkans,
In the person of Venizelos, Greece was
one of the most active participants at
the Peace Conference, and as a result of
his policy Greece was awarded large
concessions in Macedonia and Thrace.
These are described in an earlier por-
tion of this article. A great peace cele-
bration was held in Athens following the
deliberations of the Peace Conference,
but propaganda to restore Constantine
to the throne was already under way.
On Aug. 12 an attempt was made to
assassinate Venizelos in Paris. On Oct.
25 King Alexander died as the
result of a bite from a pet monkey.
Three days later Parliament proclaimed
as King his brother Paul, who was at
that time with his father at Lucerne.
Paul declined the throne, thereby
strengthening the conspiracy to bring
back the deposed sovereigrn. An election
was held on Nov. 14 and a special
plebiscite on Dec. 5, both of which
were strongly in favor of the return of
Constantine. Despite the protest of the
Allies, he returned and was received
triumphantly as King. Greece ratified
the Bulgarian, Austrian, and German
treaties on Feb. 28, 1920. Turkey re-
fused to abide by the conditions of the
Sevres Treaty, by which Greece was
awarded portions of former Turkish
GREEK CHURCH
397
GREELEY
territory in Asia Minor. The so-called
Turkish Nationalists, under the com-
mand of Mustapha Pasha, began a cam-
paign in Asia Minor, and the Greek
Government undertook to suppress this.
Operations were carried on throughout
the latter part of 1920 and in 1921, with
little definite results. The Allied Su-
preme Council met in London in March,
1921, and endeavored to compromise the
difficulties between Turkey and Greece.
GREEK CHURCH, the Eastern
Chui'ch, that of the old Eastern Empire,
which, prior to the Turkish conquest, had
its metropolis at Constantinople, as dis-
tinguished from the Western Church,
which had its capital at Rome ; the
church of the people speaking the Greek
language rather than that of the Roman
nation.
History. — That the Eastern and West-
ern Churches would first disagree, and
then separate, was insured from the first
by the difference in their mental con-
stitution. The Greeks were notable for
intense intellectual acuteness, which they
used to frame hair-splitting subtleties of
doctrine. The Romans, on the contrary,
who had the imperial instinct employed
the new faith as a means of building up
again a world-embracing dominion, with
the "eternal city" as its capital. The
first variance between the East and the
West arose in the 2d century regarding
the time of keeping Easter. The dis-
putes which succeeded were chiefly as to
personal dignity. As long as Rome was
the metropolis of the empire, the Bishop
of Rome had indisputably the most im-
portant see in the Church; but when, on
May 11, 330, Constantine removed the
seat of government to Byzantium (Con-
stantinople), the bishop of the new me-
tropolis became a formidable rival to his
ecclesiastical brother at Rome. In the
second General Council, that of Constan-
tinople, 381, the Bishop of Constantinople
was allowed to sit next to the Bishop of
Rome; by the 28th canon of the Synod
of Chalcedon, 403, he was permitted to
enjoy an equal rank. In 588, John,
Patriarch of Constantinople, assumed the
title of oecumenical or universal bishop,
for which he was denounced by Pope
Gregory the Great, Disputes in the 8th
century about image-worship widened the
breach, as did the continued rejection by
the Greek Church of the word Filioque,
asserting the procession of the Holy
Ghost from the Son as well as from the
Father, introduced by the second Council
of Constantinople, 381. The last General
Council in which the Churches of the
East and the West were united was the
Seventh, or Second Council of Nice, 787.
The feud continued through the 9th and
Vol. IV— Cyc— z
on to the 11th century. In the 13th an
effort was made by Michael Palaeologus
to promote a reunion of the two great
Churches at the Council of Florence, but
all was in vain. They have remained
separate till now. Efforts are said to be
on foot looking to the union of the Greek
and Roman Churches.
GREELEY, a city of Colorado, the
county-seat of Weld co. It is on the
Union Pacific, the Denver, Laramie and
Northwestern, and the Colorado and
Southern railroads, and on the Cache la
Poudre river. It is the center of an
important agricultural and cattle region.
It has a large trade in potatoes, flour,
wheat, etc. Its industries include lumber
yards, flour mills, and a beet-sugar fac-
tory. The city is the seat of the State
Teachers' College, and has a public li-
brary and two parks. It was the site of
the "Greeley Colony," named after Hor-
ace Greeley, which was the first agricul-
tural community in Colorado. Pop.
(1910) 8,179; (1920) 10,883.
GREELEY, HORACE, an American
journalist; born in Amherst, N. H., Feb.
3, 1811. About 1825, his parents having
removed to Vermont, Horace obtained
employment as an apprentice in a print-
ing office, and in August, 1831, arrived
at New York, where he secured occa-
sional work as a journeyman printer in
HORACE GREELEY
various offices. In 1834, in partnership
with Messrs. V/inchester and Gibbett,
he started "The New Yorker," a weekly
literary journal, which proving unprofit-
able, was abandoned, and in 1841 he com-
menced the publication of the New York
"Tribune." In 1848 he became a mem-
ber of the 30th Congress; in 1851 he
GBEELY
398
GREENBACK PARTY
visited Europe, and was chosen chair-
man of one of the juries of the Great Ex-
hibition in London. He wrote: "Hints
Toward Reforms," "History of the
Struggle for Slavery Extension" (1856) ;
"The American Conflict" (1864-1866);
"Recollections of a Busy Life" (1868).
He ardently supported the Union cause
during the Civil War. In 1872 he was
nominated by the Democratic party a
candidate for the presidency in opposi-
tion to General Grant, but he failed to
be elected. He died in Pleasantville,
Westchester co., N. Y., Nov. 29, 1872.
GREELY, ADOLPHUS WASHING-
TON, an American Arctic explorer; born
in Newburyport, Mass., March 27, 1844.
He served as a volunteer through the
war of 1861-1865, and shortly after its
conclusion entered the regular army as
lieutenant, and in 1868 was placed on
the signal service. In 1881 he was se-
lected to conduct the American expedition
to the head of Smith Sound, for the
purpose of carrying on observations in
pursuance of the international scheme
arranged at Hamburg in 1879. He and
the sui'vivors of his pai'ty were rescued
in June, 1883, when at the point of per-
ishing from starvation, after spending
three winters in the Arctic regions.
Lieutenant Lockwood of this expedition
traveled to within 396 miles of the geo-
graphical pole, the farthest point N.
hitherto reached. In 1887 Greely was
appointed chief of the signal service,
with the rank of a Brigadier-General.
In 1906 he was promoted Major-General
for completing the Ute campaign. He
accomplished a great relief work when
400,000 people in San Francisco were
made homeless by the earthquakes. He
retired in 1908. He published "Three
Years of Arctic Service" (1886). He
died in 1920.
GREEN, ANNA KATHARINE, the
maiden name and pseudonym of Mrs.
RoHLFS, an American author; bom in
Brooklyn, N. Y., Nov. 11, 1846. She
graduated at Ripley (female) College,
Poultney, Vt., 1867. Her novels are de-
tective stories, and enjoy great popular-
ity. "The Leavenworth Case" (1878)
is one of her best. Included in her pub-
lications are: "Risifi's Daughter" (1866),
a dramatic poem; "The Sword of Damoc-
les"; "A Strange Disappearance";
"Hand and Ring"; "The Mill Mastery";
"That Affair Next Door": "Lost Man's
Lane" (1898); "Agatha Webb" (1899);
"The Circular Study" (1900); "Dark
Hollow" (1914); "Mystery of the Hasty
Arrow" (1917), etc.
GREEN, JOHN RICHARD, an Eng-
lish historian; born in Oxford, Ensrland,
in December, 1837. He was educated at
Magdalen College School and at Jesus
College, Oxford, He took orders, and
was in succession curate and vicar of
two East End London parishes. In 1868
he became librarian at Lambeth, and next
year he was struck down with consump-
tion, a disease which made any kind of
active work thereafter impossible. He
published his "Short History of the Eng-
lish People" in 1874. It was the tirst
complete history of England from the
social side. The work attained an un-
paralleled success, as many as 150,000
copies having been sold within 15 years.
He wrote also a larger and independent
edition of the work as "A History of the
English People" (4 vols. 1877-1880) ;
"Stray Studies from England and Italy"
(1876) ; "Short Geography of the British
Islands" (1879), written in conjunction
with his wife; "Making of England"
(1882); "The Conquest of England"
(1883). In 1879 he received the degree
of LL. D. from the University of Edin-
burgh. He died in Mentone, France,
March 7, 1883.
GREEN, THOMAS HILL, an English
philosopher; born in Birkin, Yorkshire,
England, April 7, 1836. He was educated
at Rugby, and Balliol College, Oxford,
taking there in 1859 a first-class in
litterse humaniores, later a third in law
and modei'n history, and in November,
1860, being elected to a fellowship in his
college, to which he was re-elected in
1872, becoming also its first lay tutor in
1866. He married a sister of John Ad-
dington Symonds in 1871, and was ap-
pointed in 1877 to be Whyte's Professor
of Moral Philosophy. He wrote "Pro-
legomena to Ethics"; "Works" (3 vols.
1885-1888) ; etc. He died March 26, 1882,
leaving £1,000 to the university for a
prize essay in the department of moral
philosophy, £1,000 to found a scholarship
at the Oxford High School for boys, and
£3,500 to Balliol College for the promo-
tion of higher education in large towns.
He died in 1882.
GREENAWAY, KATE, an English
artist; especially famous for her pictures
of child life. Her first book was "Under
the Window," followed by illustrations
for "Pied Piper of Hamelin," "Marigold
Garden," "Mother Goose," etc., and two
books of her own, "A Painting Book for
Boys and (Srls," and "Kate Greenaway's
Alphabet." She died in London, Nov. 8,
1901.
GREENBACK PARTY, in the United
States, called by its members the Inde-
pendent National party, was organized
in 1876, and was the outgrowth of the
Granger and Labor Reform movements.
Its convention at Indianapolis in May,
1876, demanded "the unconditional repeal
GREEN BAY
399
GREENE
of the Specie Resumption Act on Jan.
14, 1875"; urged the issue of United
States notes as a circulating medium, and
the suppression of bank paper; and pro-
tested against the further issue of gold
bonds, and the purchase of silver to re-
place the fractional currency. Peter
Cooper was nominated for President,
and received 81,740 votes. In 1880 its
candidate was James B. Weaver, who re-
ceived 306,305 ballots. It has never
gained any electoral votes. In 1884 the
party indorsed the nomination of Ben-
jamin F. Butler by the People's party,
which polled 175,370 votes.
GREEN BAY, a city and county-seat
of Brown co.. Wis.; on Green bay, the
Fox river, and the Chicago and North-
western, the Chicago, Milwaukee and
St. Paul, the Green Bay and Western,
and the Kewaunee, Green Bay and West-
ern railroads; 65 miles N. N. E. of Fond
du Lac. It is at the head of lake and
the foot of river navigation; has an am-
ple harbor, and carries on a large trade
in lumber, coal, grain, flour, cheese, etc.
It has waterworks, electric lights and
street railroads. National banks, public
library, high school, several Roman Cath-
olic and Lutheran parochial schools. The
United States Government constructed a
ship canal to connect the Mississippi
river with Lake Michigan, using the Wis-
consin and Fox rivers, the cost of which
was over $10,000,000. Pop. (1910)
25,236; (1920) 31,017.
GREENE, FRANCIS VINTON, an
American military officer; born in Provi-
dence, R. I., June 27, 1850. He grad-
uated from West Point in 1870, and
served till 1886, when he resigned with
the rank of captain. He was assistant
astronomer on the Northwest Boundary
Survey from 1872 to 1876, and was at-
tached to the headquarters of the Rus-
sian army during the Russo-Turkish
War of 1877-1878. In the American-
Spanish War (1898), he was commis-
sioned a Major-General of volunteers
and served principally in the Philippines.
His chief works are: "The Russian Army
and its Campaigns in Turkey" (1879) ;
"Army Life in Russia" (1880); "The
Mississippi" (1882); "Life of Nathanael
Greene" (1893), and a detailed report on
the Philippine Islands (1889). He was
Police Commissioner in New York City
in 1902. Author of "The Revolutionary
War and Military Policy of the U. S."
(1911), etc.
GREENE, NATHANAEL, an Ameri-
can military officer; bom in Warwick co.,
R. I., May 27, 1742. His school educa-
tion was of the simplest and most
limited character; but by industry he
acquired a knowledge of the principal
branches of English education, and made
some progress in law. On the commence-
ment of the troubles between the colonies
and Great Britain, he volunteered as a
private (1774) ; but the following year
he was chosen, by the Assembly of Rhode
Island, general of the contingent fur-
nished by that colony to the army near
Boston. He was made Major-General in
the Continental army in 1776, and ac-
companied Washington on his brilliant
expedition into New Jersey near the close
of the same year. He performed a
prominent part in the disastrous battle
of Germantown (1777), on which occa-
sion his courage and skill did much to-
ward retrieving the reputation of the
American arms. In 1778 he was ap-
pointed quartermaster-general. After the
defeat of General Gates (1780) at the
battle of Camden, S. C, he was appointed
to the command of the S. army, which
ho found demoralized, and in a state of
utter destitution. His presence soon re-
stored the confidence of the troops. In
March, 1781, he was defeated by Lord
Cornwallis in the hard-fought battle of
Gu-ilford Court House, but the English
general derived no permanent advantages
from this success. Cornwallis having re-
treated into Virginia, Greene defeated,
after a severe action (September, 1781),
the forces of Colonel Stewart at Eutaw
Springs, and thereby put an end to
the British power in South Caro-
lina. This was the last battle in which
General Greene was engaged, though
he held his command till the end of the
war. He died from the effect of a sun-
stroke at Mulberry Grove on the Savan-
nah river, June 19, 1786.
GREENE, ROBERT, an English poet
and dramatist; born in Norwich, Eng-
land, in 1560. He took his degree of A.
B. at Cambridge University in 1578. He
afterward traveled in Spain and Italy.
On his return he re-entered the Univer-
sity, and took his degree of A. M. in
1583. On leaving Cambridge he pro-
ceeded to London, where he supported
himself by writing plays and romances.
One of the latter, "Pandosto: The Tri-
umph of Time,"' supplied Shakespeare
with hints for the plot of "The Winter's
Tale." The most popular of his plays
was "Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay."
His literary fame rests on the poetry
which he scattered through his ro-
mances— some of his pastoral songs be-
ing unsurpassed for tenderness and nat-
ural grace. He died in London, Sept. 3,
1592. After his death appeared the sin-
gular pamphlet entitled "The Repentance
of Robert Greene, Master of Arts," in
which he lays bare the wickedness of his
former life.
GREENFIELD
400
GBEENOCK
GREENFIELD, a town and county-
seat of Franklin co., Mass.; on the Bos-
ton and Maine railroad; 56 miles W. of
Fitchburg. It contains Factory and
North Parish villages; manufactures
principally shoes, cutlery, silverware, ma-
chinists' tools, snow shovels, cement
blocks, paper boxes, rakes, and baby car-
riages; and has electric lights, water-
works, public library, high school, a Na-
tional bank, the county hospital and
weekly newspapers. Pop. (1910) 10,427;
(1920) 15,462.
GREENLAND, an island situated in
the N. E. of North America, from which
it is separated by Davis Straits, Baffin
Bay and Smith Sound; area about
849,000 square miles. A part of the
island belongs to Denmark; its area is
46,740 square miles. A greater part of
coast is yet unknown; but it does not ex-
tend farther than about lat. 83°. Like
the N. parts of North America generally,
Greenland is colder than the correspond-
ing latitudes on the E. side of the At-
lantic. In June and July the sun is con-
stantly above the horizon, the ice on the
coast is broken up and floats S. and a
few small lakes are opened ; but the short
summer is followed by a long and dreary
winter. The interior, which is lofty, is
uninhabitable, and all the villages are
confined to the coasts, which are lined
with numerous islands, and deeply pene-
trated by fiords. The Danish colony ex-
tends N. on the W. coast, to the Bay of
Discq, in lat. 69°. N. Cultivation is con-
fined to the low shores and valleys,
where grassy meadows sometimes occur
with stunted shrubs and dwarfed birch,
alder, and pine trees. Attempts to raise
oats and barley have failed, but potatoes
have been grown toward the S. extrem-
ity. Turnips attain the size of a pigeon's
egg, and cabbages grow very small. The
radish is the only vegetable which grows
unchecked.
The inhabitants are largely dependent
on hunting and fishing. Whale blubber
and seal oil are used as fuel. The land
animals are the Esquimaux dog, the rein-
deer, the polar bear, the Arctic fox (blue
and white), the ermine, the Arctic hare,
and the musk ox. Among the amphibia
the walrus and several species of seal
are common. The seas abound in fish,
the whale and cod fisheries being of spe-
cial importance. Seafowl are abundant
in summer, and largely killed. The chief
mineral product is cryolite, but graphite
and miocene lignite coal are also found.
Oil, eider down, furs, and cryolite are
exported. For administrative purposes
Greenland, or rather its coast, is divided
into two inspectorates of North and
South Greenland. The residences of the
inspectors are at Disco Island and God-
haab, but the most populous district is
Julianshaab.
Greenland was discovered by an Ice-
lander named Gunnbjorn about 876 or
877, and was colonized from Iceland
about the end of the 10th century. In
the reign of Elizabeth, Frobisher and Da-
vis rediscovered the coast, but nothing
was done to explore it till the Danish
Government in 1721 assisted Hans Egede,
a clergyman, to establish a European
mission settlement. Good Hope (God-
haab), which was successfully carried on
by him and his son. Whale fisheries
were established on the coast by the Eng-
lish and Dutch about 1590. The interior
of the country was first crossed from E.
to W. by Nansen in 1888. Pop. about
14,000.
GREENLET, in ornithology, Vireoni-
nse, a sub-family of Musoicapidse (fly-
catchers). They are so called from hav-
ing much green or olive in the colors of
their plumage. They are small birds ar-
riving in the United States from South
America and the West Indies about the
month of May, and departing again in
August. Some of them sing sweetly.
GREEN MOUNTAIN BOYS, a name
applied to the male inhabitants of Ver-
mont, from, the chief range of mountains
in the State^ and used especially in refer-
ring to regiments from Vermont in the
Revolution and the Civil War.
GREEN MOUNTAINS, a considerable
mountain range commencing in Hartford
CO., Conn., and extending N. through
Massachusetts and Vermont into Lowrr
Canada. Length, about 240 miles. Their
greatest elevation is in Vermont, where
Mount Mansfield, or North Peak, rises
to a height of 4,389 feet. Their geolog-
ical formation is the metamorphic slates,
gneiss, quartz rock, limestone, etc., of
the Laurentian epoch, the general range
of which is about N. 15° E., with a pre-
vailing dip of 30° to 55°. The slopes are
covered on the disappearance of the snow
in spring with fine pastures of rich green
grass, which may have given to the
mountains their name, though this is
commonly referred to the growth of ever-
green forest trees.
GREENOCK, a seaport of Renfrew-
shire, the fifth largest town in Scotland,
on the S. shore of the Firth of Clyde,
3% miles by water S. of Helensburgh,
and 221/2 by rail W. N. W. of Glasgow.
The W. end of the town, with its elegant
villas of every style of architecture, its
esplanade 1^^ miles long, its wide and
well-paved streets, planted with trees, is
attractive. The public buildings are
many of them handsome; chief among
GBEENOUGH
401
GREENVILLE
them is the town hall and municipal
buildings (1886), Renaissance in style,
with a tower 245 feet high; the county
buildings (1867), the custom house
(1818), and the Watt Institution (1837),
containing a marble statue of Watt by
Chantrey. There are several handsome
churches. To Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart
the town is indebted for the Well Park
(1851), the Wellington Park (1872), and
the Lyle Road (1880). The new ceme-
tery, 90 acres in extent, with its Watt
cairn, and fine waterworks (1827-1883)
also deserve mention. The harbor works
date from 1707. The annual trade ex-
ceeds $15,000,000. Shipbuilding has
been carried on since 1760; sugar re-
fining began in 1765, and there are also
manufactures of steam engines, anchors
and chain cables, ropes, sailcloth, paper,
wool and worsted, etc. Besides being the
birthplace of Watt, of Spence the mathe-
matician, and of Principal Caird, it
has memories of Rob Roy, John Wilson,
and Gait, and contains the grave of
Burns' "Highland Mary." Pop. about
70,000.
GREENOTJGH, HORATIO, an Amer-
ican sculptor; born in Boston, Mass.,
Sept. 6, 1805. He studied for two years
at Harvard, and from 1825 spent the
greater part of his life in Italy. His
principal work was the colossal statue
of Washington, in front of the National
Capitol. Other important sculptures are
his "Medora," "Venus Victrix," and a
group of four figures, "The Rescue," for
the purpose of placing which he returned
to the United States in 1851. He died
in Somerville, Mass., Dec. 18, 1852.
GREEN RIVER- (1) Rises in western
Wyoming, flows S. E. into Colorado, and
then S. W. and S. through Utah, joining
the Grand river, a branch of the Colo-
rado, after a course of 750 miles. (2)
Green river, Kentucky, rises near the
center of the State, flows W. and N. W.,
passing near the Mammoth Cave, and
crosses the N. boundary, entering the
Ohio 9 miles above Evansville, Ind. It
is about 350 miles in length; and is navi-
gable for small steamers for 150 miles;
its lower course is through the coal-fields
of western Kentucky. At Tebb's Bend,
on this river, a smart action of several
hours took place, July 4, 1863, between
a body of Confederate raiders under Mor-
gan, the famous cavalry leader, and
about 200 Michigan troops under Colonel
Moore, in which the former were re-
pulsed with a loss of more than 200 killed
^nd wounded. Moore, being intrenched,
lost only 6 killed and 23 wounded.
GREENSBORO, a city of North Car-
olina, the county-seat of Guilford co. It
is on the Southern raih'oad. It has an
important trade in tobacco, cotton, coal,
and iron. Its industries include cotton-
mill supplies, cotton goods, saw-mill ma-
chinery, furniture, fertilizers, etc. It is
the seat of the Greensboro Female Col-
lege, the State Normal and Industrial
College for white women, the State Agri-
cultural and Mechanical College for col-
oi'ed students, and the Bennett and Lu-
theran colleges for negroes. Its public
buildings include a Masonic Home, a pub-
lic library, several hospitals, and 2 parks.
Pop. (1910) 15,895; (1920) 19,861.
GREENSBURG, a city of Indiana, the
county-seat of Decatur co. It is on the
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St.
Louis railroad. The city is the center of
an important agricultural and natural
gas region. In the neighborhood are im-
portant limestone quarries. Its indus-
tries include flour mills and a wire fac-
tory. It is the seat of the State Odd
Fellows' Home, and has a park and a
public library. Pop. (1910) 5,420;
(1920) 5,345.
GREENSBURG. a town and county-
seat of Westmoreland co., Pa.; on the
Pennsylvania railroad; 31 miles E. S. E.
of Pittsburgh. It is in a coal-mining, cok-
ing and natural gas region; and contains
a steam-heating apparatus factory, steel
works, glass works, nut and bolt works,
and has 3 National banks. Fop. (1910)
13,012; (1920) 15,033.
GREEN SEA, the Persian Gulf, so
named from a remarkable strip of water
of a bright green color along the coast of
Arabia.
GREENVILLE, a city of Mississippi,
the county-seat of Washington co. It
is on the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley,
and the Southern in Mississippi rail-
roads. The city has river connection
with various ports. It has a large trade
in cotton. Its industries include cotton-
seed oil mills, cotton compresses, and
lumber mills. Its public institutions in-
clude parks and playgrounds, a public
library, and the King's Daughters' Home.
Pop. (1910) 9,610; (1920) 11,560.
GREENVILLE, a city of North Caro-
lina, the county-seat of Pitt co. It is on
the Tar river, and on the Norfolk South-
ern and the Atlantic Coast railroads. It
is the center of an important tobacco,
cotton, and corn-growing district, and its
industries include tobacco factories, cot-
ton mills, and cottonseed-oil mills. It is
the seat of the East Carolina Teachers'
Training School. Pop. (1910) 4,101;
(1920) 5,772.
GREENVILLE, a city and county-
seat of Darke co., O., on Greenville
cx'eek, and the Cincinnati Northern, Day-
GREENVILLE
402
GBEEB
ton and Union, and the Pittsburgh, Cin-
cinnati, Chicago and St. Louis railroads;
35 miles N. of Dayton. It is noted as
the site of Anthony Wayne's treaty with
the Indians. There are waterworks, elec-
tric lights, grain elevators, 3 National
banks, a public library, daily and weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1910) 6,237; (1920)
7,104.
GREENVILLE, a borough of Pennsyl-
vania, in Mercer co. It is on the She-
nango river and on the Pennsylvania, the
Erie, and the Bessemer and Lake Erie
railroads. Its industries include rail-
road shops, bridge works, gristmills,
automobile factories, foundry and ma-
chine shops, steel works, etc. It is the
seat of Thiel College. Pop. (1910) 5,909;
(1920) 8,101.
GREENVILLE, a city and county-seat
of Greenville co., S. C; on the Southern
and the Charleston and West Carolina
railroads; 153 miles N. W. of Columbia.
It is the seat of Furman University,
Greenville College for Women, Chicora
College, Greenville Female College, a
military institute, and a business college.
Its industries include the manufacture
of cotton, wagons, underwear, etc. It
has waterworks, electric lights, several
newspapers, and 2 National banks. Pop,
(1910) 15,741; (1920) 23,127.
GREENVILLE, a city of Texas, the
county-seat of Hunt co. It is on the
Missouri, Kansas and Texas, the Texas
Midland, and the St. Louis Southwest-
ern railroads. It is the center of an
important agricultural region. Its in-
dustries include cottonseed-oil mills, cot-
ton compresses, etc. It is the seat of
Burleson College, Wesley College, and
Holiness University. Pop. (1910) 8,850;
(1920) 12,384.
GREENWICH (grin'ij), a borough of
the city of London, England, on the right
bank of the Thames, 6 miles S. E. of
London bridge. It contains a magnifi-
cent hospital for invalid seamen, built
by Sir Christopher Wren (1696). The
Royal Observatory, erected by Charles
II., is under the charge of the Astrono-
mer Royal, a position that has been filled
by Flamsted, Halley, Bradley, Bliss,
Maskelyne, Pond, Airy, etc. The longi-
tude of all English charts and maps is
reckoned from this observatory, and the
captains of ships take their time, as
given at 1 P. M. Pop. of borough about
96,000.
GREENWICH, a borough of Connecti-
cut, in a town of the name name, in Fair-
field CO. It is entirely a residential
place and contains many beautiful pri-
vate residences. lop. borough, (1910)
3,886; (1920) 5,939. Pop. town, (1910)
16,463; (1920) 22,123.
GREENWOOD, a city of Mississippi,
the county-seat of Leflore co. It is on
the Southern and the Yazoo and Missis-
sippi Valley railroads. The city is the
center of an important cotton-growing
district and its industries include the
manufacture of oil, cotton compresses;
furniture, wagons, ice, lumber, etc. The
notable buildings include a Carnegie li-
brary, Elks' Home, a court house, and
school buildings. Pop. (1910) 5,836;
(1920) 7,793.
GREENWOOD, a city of South Caro-
lina, the county-seat of Greenwood co. It
is on the Seaboard Air Line, the Pied-
mont and Northern, the Southern, and
the Charleston and West Carolina rail-
roads. Its industries include the manu-
facture of lumber, cottonseed-oil, cotton,
spools, bobbins, etc. The city is the seat
of the Brewer Normal School for negroes,
the Lander Female College, and the
Bailey Military Institute. Pop. (1910)
6,614; (1920) 8,703.
GREER, DAVID HUMMELL, an
American Protestant Episcopal bishop,
born at Wheeling, W. Va., in 1844. He
BISHOP GREER
graduated from Washington College in
1862 and studied theology at the Protes-
tant Episcopal Seminary at Gambler, O.
He was ordained priest in 1868, and was
GREGORIAN CHANT
403
GREGORY
rector of churches in Kentucky and
Rhode Island. In 1888 he was appointed
rector of St. Bartholomew's Church in
New York and served until 1904. He
was elected Bishop Coadjutor for New
York in 1903; and in 1908, following the
death of Bishop Potter, he was made
Bishop of New York. He died in 1919.
He wrote "Moral Power of History"
(1890) ; "The Preacher and His Place"
(1895); "Visions" (1898).
GREGORIAN CHANT, or TONES
(Latin cantus Gregoriantis) , the name
given to certain choral melodies intro-
duced into the service of the early Chris-
tian Church by Pope Gregory the Great,
and still forming the basis of cathedral
music. By the Gregorian tones, or modes
{toni, modi) of Gregory, must be under-
stood a certain melodious formula, made
out of the union of a perfect fifth and a
perfect fourth, or their inversion, to
give the Church song greater variety.
All the old writers agree as to the dia-
tonic genus of the Gregorian tones, but
they do not all agree as to the number of
the tones: some counting 14, others 12,
while in some old Roman choral books
there are only 11.
GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND
(greg-o-ro've-6s) , a German historian
and poet; born in Neidenburg, East
Prussia, Jan. 19, 1821. He studied at
Konigsberg and at home, and wrote es-
says of deep scholarship; "Socialistic
Elements in Goethe's Wilhelm Meister";
a tragedy, "The Death of Tiberius";
"Corsica"; books of travel and descrip-
tion, based on close personal study; also
"Euphorion," an epic, and other poems
of high repute. But his historical works,
of unsurpassed learning and vivid reali-
zation of the spirit of their time, are the
most commanding monument of his
genius. "The City of Rome in the Mid-
dle Ages," "Lucretia Borgia," "Urban
VIII.," "The Monuments of the Popes,"
and "Athenais," need but be named. He
died in Munich, May 1, 1891.
GREGORY, the name of a number of
popes.
Gregory I., surnamed the Great, a
Pope; born in Rome, about 544. He
showed such abilities as a senator that
the Emperor Justinus appointed him pre-
fect of Rome, after which he embraced
the monastic life in a society founded by
himself. Pope Pelagius II. sent him as
nuncio to Constantinople, and on his re-
turn made him apostolical secretary. He
was elected successor to that pontiff in
590. Pope Gregory was pious and chari-
table, had lofty notions of the papal au-
thority, was a reformer of the clerical
discipline, and after his death was can-
onized. His works are comprised in four
volumes. He died in 604.
Gregory II., St., succeeded Constan-
tine in the pontificate in 715, and died in
731.
Gregory III., a native of Syria, suc-
ceeded Gregory II. He sent legates to
Charles Martel to demand succor against
the Lombards, which embassy is con-
sidered to be the origin of the apostolical
nuncios in France. Died in 741.
Gregory IV,, a Roman, succeeded Val-
entine in 828, and was greatly esteemed
for his learning and piety. Died in 844.
Gregory V., a German, and a kinsman
of the Emperor Otho, succeeded John
XV., in 996. An anti-pope, named John
XVI., was set up against him by Cres-
centius, a consul of Rome, but was ex-
pelled by the emperor. Died in 999.
Gregory VI., a Roman, succeeded John
XIX., who finding the lands and revenues
of his church greatly diminished by usur-
pations, and the roads infested by rob-
bers, acted with such vigor that a power-
ful party was raised against him by those
who had been accustomed to live by plun-
der. At a council held at Sutri in 1046
Gregory abdicated the pontificate. Died
in Cologne, about 1048.
Gregory VII., Hildebrand, son of a
carpenter; born in Soano, Tuscany, about
1020. He was the friend and counsellor
of Leo IX. and the four succeeding Popes,
and on the death of Alexander II. was
elected to succeed him in 1073. He ob-
tained confirmation in his election from
the Emperor Henry IV., and immediately
applied himself zealously to reform sim-
ony and the licentiousness of the clergy.
In his view, however, marriage, no less
than concubinage, was a sin in them. He
menaced the emperor and the King of
France, the latter without effect. In
1074 he assembled a council, by which
it was forbidden the prelates to receive
investiture of a layman; and this was
the first step in the quarrel with the em-
peror, which lasted so many years.
Henry, disregarding the papal authoi-ity,
was summoned to Rome; but he held a
diet at Worms, and pronounced the depo-
sition of the Pope. To this Gregory
replied by procuring the deposition of
the emperor and the election of an-
other, Rudolph of Suabia. ^ Henry now
promised submission; and in the early
winter of 1077 went with his wife and
child to Italy. The Pope was at the cas-
tle of Canossa, and there, after keeping
the penitent Emperor of Germany three
days waiting at the gate, he received him
and gave him absolution. The terms im-
posed on him were intolerable, and he
soon broke them, made war on Rudolph,
and defeated him, set up a rival Pope in
GREGORY
404
GREGORY, ST.
Guibert, Archbishop of Ravenna, with
the title of Clement III., and after sev-
eral unsuccessful attempts entered Rome
in 1084, had himself crowned emperor
by his own Pope, and besieged Gregory
in San Angelo. The Pope was delivered
by Guiscard, and retiring to Salerno,
died there May 25, 1085.
Gregory VIII., born in Benevento, suc-
ceeded Urban III., 1187, and died the
same year, after having exhorted the
Christian princes to undertake a new
crusade.
Gregory IX., Ugolino, Count of Segni,
a native of Campania, and a near rela-
tive of Innocent III.; born about 1147.
He became bishop of Ostia, and cardinal,
and in 1227 succeeded Honorius III. His
coronation surpassed in magnificence any
which had preceded it, and the ceremony
lasted three days. The principal events
of his pontificate were the various inci-
dents of his contest with the great Em-
peror Frederick II., whom he repeatedly
excommunicated, absolving his subjects
from their allegiance, and proclaiming a
crusade against him. In 1229 Gregory
levied a tithe on all movables in England
toward the expenses of his war with
Frederick. He established, a few years
later, the inquisition at Toulouse and
Carcassonne, excited by his haughty de-
meanor a revolt at Rome in 1234, and
was driven from the city, to which he did
not return for three years. St. Anthony
of Padua, St. Dominic, and St. Elizabeth
were canonized by Gregory, who died in
Rome, Aug. 21, 1241.
Gregory X., of the illustrious family
of Visconti, was elected Pope in 1271,
after an interregnum of two years, at
which time he was in the Holy Land.
He assembled a council at Lyons, to pro-
mote a union between the Eastern and
Western Churches, and other objects.
Died in 1276.
Gregory XI., Peter Roger, a native of
Limousin, in France, was a nephew of
Clement VI., and son of the Count of
Beaufort. He was elevated to the pontif-
icate in 1370, after the death of Urban
v., was a patron of learning, and en-
deavored to reconcile the princes of
Christendom and to reform the religious
societies. He transferred the papal see
from Avignon to Rome, where he died in
1378,
Gregory XII., Angelo Cornaro, a na-
tive of Venice, was raised to the ponti-
ficate in 1406, during the schism in the
East, Benedict XIII. being the other
Pope. Both were deposed by a council
held at Pisa, and Alexander V. elected in
their stead. Gregory submitted, and laid
aside the pontifical dignity. Died in
1417.
Gregory XIII., Buoncompagni, a na-
tive of Bologna, and succeeded Pope Pius
V. in 1572. He was deeply versed in the
canon and civil law, and had distin-
guished himself at the Council of Tx'ent.
He ornamented Rome with many fine
buildings and fountains; but his pontif-
icate is chiefly memorable for the refor-
mation of the calendar which took place
under his auspices and bore his name
(see Gregorian Calendar). Died in
1585.
Gregory XIV., Nicholas Sfondrato,
succeeded Urban VII., in 1550. He was
the son of a senator of Milan, and in-
volved himself in an unsuccessful war
against Henry IV. of France. Died in
1591.
Gregory XV., Alessandro Ludovico,
was a native of Bologna, and descended
from an ancient family. He succeeded
Paul V. in 1621, and was the founder of
the College of the Propaganda. It was
this Pope who, in 1622, canonized Igna-
tius Loyola, Francis Xavier, and Philip
de Neri. He was author of several
works, one of which is entitled "Letter
to the King of the Persians," etc. (1627) .
He died in 1623.
Gregory XVI., Mauro Cappellajri,
born in Belluno in 1765, and succeeded
Pius VIII., 1831. His pontificate was a
period of no ordinary interest and diffi-
culty in the history of the Church, and
in the relations of the Vatican with the
temporal powers of Christendom. Simple
in his habits, though narrow in his ideas
and timid in his manners, he neverthe-
less displayed great energy in conducting
the affairs of the Church. He died in
1846 and was succeeded by Pius IX.
GREGORY, AUGUSTA (LADY).
Irish authoress, nee Persse. In 1880 sho
married Sir W. H. Gregory, whose auto-
biography she edited in 1894. She be-
came interested in the Irish literary
movement and finally published "Cuchu-
lain of Muirthemne" and "Gods and Fight-
ing Men," translations and paraphrases
of old Irish epics which created much stir,
by their idiom modeled on old Gaelic and
the powerful breath of romance contained
in them. She helped to establish in
1899 the Irish Literary Theater, now the
Abbey Theater. Her chief books, includ-
ing plays are: "The Kiltartan History
Book"; "Poets and Dreamers"; "Visions
and Beliefs"; "The White Cockade"; "The
Full Moon"; "Seven Short Plays"; "Irish
Folk History Plays"; "New Comedies."
GREGORY, ST., surnamed H'umina-
tor, the founder of the Armenian
Church; born in Valarshabad, Armenia,
about 257. He was of the royal Parthian
race of the Arsacidae, and son of Anak,
)PubUsliers' Photo Seizice
THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS
GREGORY OF TOURS
405
GRENADA
murderer of Chosrov I., King of Ar-
menia. For this crime the whole family
was slain save himself. He owed his
escape to a Christian nurse, who secretly
conveyed him, when he was 2 years old,
to Caesarea, in Cappadocia, her native
town. He there married a Christian,
who bore him two sons, and soon after-
ward became a nun. Gregory proceeded
to Rome, and entered the service of Ter-
dat, Chosrov's son. After Terdat (Tiri-
dates III.) had, with the help of the
Romans, recovered his father's kingdom
(286), Gregory, for his refusal to crown
with garlands the statue of Anahit, tute-
lary goddess of Armenia, was thrown by
Terdat into a deep pit, where a pious
widow nourished him for 14 years. About
the end of that time Terdat was visited
with the punishment of Nebuchadnezzar.
Healed and baptized by Gregory, he be-
came a zealous Christian, and established
Christianity by force throughout his
dominions. Gregory was consecrated
bishop and head of the Armenian Church
by Leontius, Archbishop of Caesarea.
Having resigned the patriarchate in
favor of his second son Aristaces, Greg-
ory in 831 retired to a cave at the foot
of Mount Sebuh in Upper Armenia,
where he died in 332.
GREGORY OP TOURS, a Prankish
historian; born in Arverna (now Cler-
mont), Auvergne, France, about 540.
He belonged to one of the most distin-
guished Roman families of Gaul. Origin-
ally called Georgius Florentius, he as-
sumed the name Gregory out of respect
for his mother's grandfather, Gregory,
Bishop of Langres. He was educated by
his uncle, Gallus, Bishop of Clermont,
and after his death by Avitus, a priest
of his native town. Upon his recovery
from a severe sickness Gregory resolved
to devote himself solely to the service
©f the Church, and by the choice of the
clergy and people and favor of Sigbert,
King of Austrasia, to whom Auvergne
had fallen on the death of Clothan I. in
561, he became Bishop of Tours in 573.
He gave himself zealously to his sacred
office and the public good. In the strug-
gles between Sigbert and his wife Brun-
hilda on the one side against Chilperic
and his wife Fredegond on the other he
took the side of the former, and in the
vicissitudes of a conflict in which Tours
frequently changed masters had to suffer
many persecutions. After the death of
Chilperic he enjoyed great influence over
his successors, Guntram and Childebert
II. His fame rests on his "History, or
Annals," the chief authority for the his-
tory of Gaul in the 6th century. He died
in Tours, France, Nov. 17, 594.
GREGORY, THOMAS WATT, an
American lawyer and public official; born
at Crawfordsville, Miss., in 1861. He
was educated at the - Southwestern
Presbyterian University of Clarksville,
Tenn., the University of Virginia, and
the University of Texas. Admitted to
the bar in Texas in 1885, he practiced
alone until 1900 when the firm of Greg-
ory and Butts was formed. As special
counsel for the State of Texas and as
special assistant Attorney General of the
United States, he took part in many of
the government cases of prosecutions
under the Sherman Act. In 1914 he
was appointed Attorney-General of the
United States by President Wilson, and
served until 1919 when he resumed pri-
vate practice in New York City.
GREIFSWALD (grifs'valt), a town
of Prussia, in the province of Pomerania ;
2% miles from the mouth of the Ryck
and 25 miles S. E. of Stralsund. The
university (founded in 1456) is equipped
with medical museums, laboratories, etc.;
the library contains about 135,000 vol-
umes. There is a considerable shipping
trade. The chief industries include the
making of machinery, chains, and rail-
way wagons, the curing of herrings, and
iron-founding. Shortly after being made
a town (1250) Greifswald joined the
Hanseatic League. At the peace of West-
phalia (1648) it came into the possession
of Sweden; but together with the whole
of Swedish Pomerania was ceded to
Prussia in 1815. Pop. about 25,000.
GREIZ (grits), a capital of the Ger-
man republic of Reuss-Greiz, and foi--
merly seat of its prince; on the White
Elster, 47 miles S. S. W. of Leipsic. It
contains three castles and a 13th-century
church, and manufactures cotton and
woolen goods, also cashmere and shawls,
and possesses dyeworks and linen-print-
ing establishments. The town was se-
verely ravaged by fire in 1494, and again
in 1802. Pop. about 23,000.
GRENADA (gre-na'da), an island of
volcanic origin in the British West
Indies, lying N. by W. from Trinidad;
area, 133 square miles; pop. 67,000.
Some of the craters in the central ridge
of mountains, rising to 3,000 feet, have
been transformed into large lakes;
streams and mineral springs abound;
there are several good natural harbors.
The inhabitants, who are almost all ne-
groes, cultivate cocoa, coffee, and oranges;
a little rum is manufactured, and spices
and fruits are grown. Capital and head-
quarters of the government of the Wind-
ward Islands, St. George's. Grenada has
been a crown colony since 1885; previous
GRENTALL
40C
GRESHAM
to that date it had a constitutional gov-
ernment. Columbus was the discoverer
of the island in 1498.
GRENFELL, SIR WILFRED THOM-
ASON, an English medical missionary,
born near Chester, England, 1865, of an
influential family and graduated from
Oxford. He then studied medicine at
London Hospital. In 1889, under the
auspices of the Royal National Mission
to Deep Sea Fishermen, he equipped a
hospital ship to accompany the fishing
fleets from the North Sea ports to Ice-
land. Three years later he went to Lab-
rador and New Foundland, where he es-
tablished hospitals at many points along
the coast, making his headquarters at
Saint Anthony. A large part of his
time, however, is spent on the large
steam hospital ship, "Strathcona," on
which he visits all parts of the coast.
He has also instituted a chain of co-
operative stores among the fishermen
making for their economic betterment.
He wrote many books, chief of which are
"Off the Rocks" (1906); "Down to the
Sea" (1910) ; "Down North on the Lab-
rador" (1911) ; "The Adventures of
Life" (1912) ; etc.
GRENOBLE (gre-n5'bl), a fortified
town of France; capital of the depart-
ment of Isere, on the Isere, 60 miles S.
E. of Lyons. Grenoble occupies both
sides of the river, which is crossed by
three bridges, and lined by fine quays.
It has a cathedral, and a more note-
worthy church (Saint- Andre), with the
tomb of Bayard; a public library of 170,-
000 volumes; a college, museum, bishop's
palace, court house, arsenal, and exten-
sive public gardens. The manufactures
consist of gloves, which may be con-
sidered the staple, linen and hemp goods,
liquors, leather, etc. Grenoble existed in
the time of Csesar; and Gratian, who
had improved it, changed its name from
Cularo to Gratianopolis. Pop. about
80,000.
GRENVILLE. GEORGE, an English
statesman; born Oct. 14, 1712; was
younger brother of Richard Grenville,
Earl Temple, and brother-in-law of the
Earl of Chatham. He entered Parlia-
ment in 1714, and from 1744 to 1762
filled several government offices. In 1757
he introduced a bill for the regulation of
the payment of the navy. In 1762 he
became Secretary of State, and then
First Lord of the Admiralty; and in the
following year he succeeded Lord Bute
as prime minister, uniting in himself the
offices of Chancellor of the Exchequer
and First Lord of the Treasury. The
most prominent facts of his administra-
tion were the prosecution of Wilkes and
the passing of the American Stamp Act,
which first drove the American colonies
to resistance. He resigned the premier-
ship in 1765, and died in London, Eng-
land, Nov. 13, 1770.
GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD, an
English naval officer; born about 1541;
cousin of Sir Walter Raleigh. In 1585
he was given command of a fleet of seven
vessels to aid in the colonization of Vir-
ginia. His most brilliant exploit occurred
in 1591, when he attempted to cut his
way through a Spanish fleet of 53 ships.
His ship was becalmed and attacked by
15 of the largest Spanish vessels. Not
till after 15 hours of battle and when
only 20 out of his 150 men were left alive
did he strike his colors. He died in Sep-
tember, 1591, from wounds received in
the engagement.
GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS, an Eng-
lish financier; born in 1519; only son
of Sir Richard Gresham. Apprenticed
to his uncle. Sir John Gresham, a wealthy
London mercer, and then sent to study
at Gonville Hall, Cambridge, in 1543 he
was admitted a member of the Mercers'
Company, and in 1551 was employed as
"king's merchant" at Antwerp. In two
years he paid off a heavy loan, entirely
restored the king's credit, and introduced
a new system of finance. As a Protes-
tant, he got his dismissal from Queen
Mary, but on presenting a memorial of
his past services, was soon reinstated.
By Queen Elizabeth he was in 1559
knighted and appointed for a short time
English ambassador at the court of the
regent at Brussels. The troubles in the
Netherlands compelled him, in 1567, to
withdraw finally from Antwerp. In 1569,
by his advice, the State was induced to
borrow money from London merchants,
instead of from other foreigners, to the
great advantage of the mercantile body.
Having in 1564 lost his only son, Richard,
in 1566-1571 he devoted a portion of his
great wealth to the erection of an Ex-
change in imitation of that of Antwerp,
for the London merchants, who were
wont to meet in the open air. Renowned
for his hospitality and liberality, he fre-
quently entertained foreign personages of
distinction, and erected a magnificent
mansion at Osterly Park, near Brent-
ford, where he was visited by Queen
Elizabeth. For the endowment of a col-
lege in London he directed by his will
that his town mansion in Bishopsgate
street should be converted into a resi-
dence and lecture rooms for seven pro-
fessors, to be salaried out of the royal
exchange revenues. He also provided
for the erection and support of eight
almshouses, and made many other chari-
GRESHAM
407
GBEY
table bequests. He died in London, Eng-
land, Nov. 21, 1579.
GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTON, an
American jurist; bom near Lanesville,
Harrison co., Ind., March 17, 1832. He
became a member of the Indiana State
Legislature in 1861; served in the Civil
War, rising to Brigadier-General of vol-
unteers ; at its close resumed the practice
of law, and in 1869 was appointed by-
President Grant United States District
Judge for Indiana ; in 1883 was appoint-
ed Postmaster-General by President Ar-
thur; in 1884 became Secretary of the
Treasury, and later was appointed one
of the judges of the United States Cir-
cuit Court. He died in Washington, D.
C, May 28, 1895.
GRETNA, a city of Louisiana, the
parish-seat of Jefferson parish. It is
on Morgan's Louisiana and Texas, the
Texas and Pacific, and the New Orleans,
Southern and Grand Isle railroads. The
industries include manufactures of cot-
ton seed oil, barrels, lard and soap,
fertilizers, etc. The city is the seat of
a Catholic college. Its notable buildings
include a fine court house. It was in-
corporated in 1913. Pop. (1920) 7,197.
GRETNA GREEN, a village in Dum-
friesshire, Scotland; near the head of
the Solway Firth; 10 miles N. N. W.
of Carlisle. After the abolition of Fleet
marriages by Lord Hardwicke's Act
(1754), English persons wishing to
marry clandestinely had to get out of
England, to which alone that act had
reference. Thus the practice arose of
crossing the border into Scotland, where
Gretna Green, or Springfield, as the first
village, had by 1771 become, a goal for
runaway lovers. At the toll house nearly
200 couples were sometimes united in a
year. (5ne of the earliest Scottish run-
away matches on record is Richard
Lovell Edgeworth's (1763) ; among his
successors were Lords Brougham, Dun-
donald, Eldon, and Erskine, besides nu-
merous scions of the noble families of
Villiers, Fane, Beauclerc, etc. In 1856
all irregular marriages were rendei'ed
invalid unless one of the parties had been
residing in Scotland for three weeks
previously; this proviso observed, a
Gretna Green marriage is still possible.
GREVY, FRANCOIS PAUL JULES
(gra-ve'), a French statesman; born in
Mont-sous-Vaudry, in the Jura, France,
Aug. 15, 1813. He attended school and
college near his native place. When not
yet 20 he began to study law in Paris,
and, becoming interested in politics, took
part in the revolution of 1830, which
drove Charles X. from the French throne
Possessing fine oratorical talents, he ap-
plied them to the defense of such radical
republicans as were brought to trial for
their share in this political outbreak. In
this way he gained a reputation as an
able republican orator, and when, in
1848, Louis Philippe was dethroned, and
a republican government set up, Grevy
became prominent. He was deputy to the
Constituent Assembly in 1848, where he
took a prominent part in the organiza-
tion of the government. Being opposed
to Louis Napoleon he was obliged to kv.ep
out of public affairs from 1852 to 1869,
devoting these years to his profession.
In 1869 the Jura again sent him to the
national legislature. Napoleon's down-
fall revived republican activity. Grevy
was chosen president of the National
Assembly which met in 1871. In 1873,
when the young republic seemed to be
headed toward another monarchy, he ad-
vocated democracy as the only hope of
France. In 1876, 1877, and 1879 he again
represented the Jura in the French
Parliament, and in the latter year he
was chosen president of the republic by
an enormous majority. In 1886 he was
re-elected, but on account of a scandal in
which his son-in-law was implicated was
forced to resign Dec. 2, 1887. He died
in Mont-sous-Vaudry, Sept. 9, 1891.
GREY, CHARLES, 2D EARL, an
English statesman; born in Falladon,
near Alnwick, Northumberland, England,
March 13, 1764. He became in 1786 a mem-
ber of Parliament, and in 1792 was one of
the founders and most active members
of the "Society of the Friends of the
People." In 1797 he brought forward a
motion for parliamentary reform, for
which he continued to labor strenuously,
though he was for many years unsuc-
cessful in carrying the object of his
wishes. When Lord Grenville, in 1806,
came into office. Grey, as Lord Howick,
became First Lord of the Admiralty, and,
as one of the leaders of the House of
Commons, carried the act for the aboli-
tion of the slave trade. In the following
year the cabinet was broken up, and he,
in the same year, succeeded to the title by
the death of his father. In the House of
Lords he became one of the leaders of
the opposition. For many years he re-
mained out of office; but in 1830 he was
called on by William IV. to form a new
cabinet. He accordingly became prime
minister, and announced "peace, re-
trenchment, and reform" as the objects
of his policy. In 1831 the Reform Bill
was introduced by Lord John Russell
into the House of Commons; but in the
following year the ministers resigned, on
account of a motion of Lord Lyndhurst.
They were restored to power, however,
GREY
408
GHEY
and in the same year the bill was
passed. In the succeeding year Earl
Grey resigned, and, after about two
years, retired from public life. He died
July 7, 1845.
GKEY, EDWARD, VISCOUNT OP
FALLADON, a British statesman, born
in Northumberland in 1862. He re-
ceived his education at Winchester and
at Balliol College, Oxford. His political
career began in 1885, when he entered
Parliament as the member for Bei-wick-
on-Tweed, which constituency he con-
tinued to represent thereafter as a
Liberal. In 1892 he became Under-
secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
and held that post until 1895. He was
prominent thereafter by his opposition
to the continuance of the Liberal party's
alliance with the Irish Nationalist
group, in which attitude he followed the
EDWARD GREY, VISCOUNT OF FALLADON
leadership of Lord Rosebery. He was
made Privy Councilor in 1902. He be-
came Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs in December, 1905, which position
he held until 1916. During his tenure of
office he rose, in the estimate of his
political intimates and opponents, to a
degree of dominance in the field of inter-
national diplomacy that marked him as
the foremost diplomatist of his day. His
continuance in office and the facility
.with which he pressed his policies to
successful conclusion and commanded
the confidence of the diverse domestic
political factions was effected in spite of
an attitude of reticence unknown to the
traditions of the Foreign Office previous
to his time. No British statesman, since
the Crimean War, has commanded such
complete influence in the councils of
Europe. He united Great Britain,
France, and Russia in the Triple
Entente, although his efforts to develop
more cordial relations between Great
Britain and the German Empire definite-
ly failed, due to incompatibility of na-
tional aspirations which his diplomacy
was powerless to overcome. His action
in 1908, when Austria annexed Bosnia
and Herzegovina, strained the relations
between Great Britain and Austria and
subjected his country to a diplomatic de-
feat in consequence of the failure of
other European Powers to acquiesce in
his demand that the action of Austria be
submitted to a conference of the Powers,
His position became plainer in 1911, dur-
ing the affair between Germany and
France over Morocco, when the firmness
of his stand against any expansion of
German influence into the region of
north Africa led to a definition of the
British attitude in response to the pro-
test of the German Foreign Office that
Great Britain had no right to interfere
as an interested party to the settlement
of the dispute. Hereafter, Great Brit-
ain stood committed to the policy of
preserving the status quo in so far as
concerned those spheres of influence then
existing and subject to the control of the
leading national states. In 1912 Russia
gained some slight advantage in Persia
in consequence of the Anglo-Russian en-
tente of 1907. He displayed his mastery
as an international diplomatist in the
Balkan crisis in 1912 when, as pro-
tagonist, he assembled the conference of
European ambassadors in London and
directed their deliberations to a success-
ful, if temporary peace. Although the
strength of his influence had enabled him
to avert the European conflict in 1912,
he was powerless to prevent the affair
between Bosnia and Austria from involv-
ing the nations in 1914, and the elaborate
diplomacy of years left him, in that
event, with only one alternative to
commit Great Britain to war against
the Central Empires in defense of the
declaration of 1911 and the presei-va-
tion of national limitations. Following
the World War, he visited the United
States upon a special mission to promote
understanding and cordiality between the
two nations.
GREY, LADY JANE, the "nine days*
queen" ; born in Bradgate, Leicestershire,
GREY
409
GBIGGS
England, in October, 1537 ; was the eldest
daughter of Henry Grey, Marquis of
Dorset and Duke of Suffolk, and great-
granddaughter of Henry VII. of Eng-
land. As a girl she made extraordinary
progress, especially in languages — Latin,
Greek, French, Italian, and Hebrew. In
1553 the Duke of Northumberland, fore-
seeing the speedy death of the boy-king,
Edward VI., determined to change the
succession and secure it to his own fam-
ily. Lady Jane, not 16 years old, was
therefore married, strongly against her
wish, to Lord Guilford Dudley, North-
umberland's fourth son, on May 21, 1553;
and July 9, three days after Edward's
death, the council informed her that his
"plan" had named her as his successor.
On July 19, the brief usurpation over,
she found herself a prisoner in the
Tower; four months later, pleading
guilty of high treason, she was sentenced
to death, and was beheaded on Tower
Hill, Feb. 12, 1554.
GREY, ZANE, an American novelist,
born at Zanesville, Ohio, in 1875. He
graduated from the University of Penn-
sylvania in 1896. After practicing den-
tistry from 1898 to 1904, he abandoned
this to follow a literary career. He wrote
"Betty Zane" (1904) ; "The Last Trail"
(1907); "The Heritage of the Desert"
(1910) ; "Riders of the Purple Sage"
(1912); "Wild Fire" (1917); "Desertof
Wheat" (1919); and "Man of the
Forest" (1920).
GRIDLEY, CHARLES VERNON, an
American naval officer; bom in Logans-
port, Ind., in 1845; entered the United
States navy in September, 1860; was pro-
moted midshipman July 16, 1862; com-
mander, March 4, 1868; and captain,
March 14, 1897; and shortly after was
ordered to the Pacific station. When he
reached Hong Kong, China, he was placed
in command of the cruiser "Olympia,"
the flagship of the Asiatic fleet. On the
morning of May 1, 1898, after the Ameri-
can fleet entered Manila Bay, Captain
Gridley took his position in the conning
tower of the "Olympia" and Commodore
Dewey stood on the bridge. As soon as
the American ships drew within range
of the Spanish fleet Commodore Dewey
gave the brief command: "You may fire
when you are ready, Mr. Gridley," and
in a few minutes the battle began. Cap-
tain Gridley skillfully managed the
"Olympia" during the engagement and
delivered the broadside whioh destroyed
the flagship of the Spanish fleet. Though
very ill, he commanded his ship through-
out the fight. Shortly after his sickness
became more serious, and he was or-
dered home, but died on reaching Kobe,
Japan, June 4, 1898.
GRIEG, EDVARD (greg), a Scandi-
navian composer; born in Bergen, Nor-
way, June 15, 1843; entered the con-
servatory at Leipsic in 1858, where he
remained for four years; then continued
his studies at Copenhagen. He went
to London in 1888, where he both
played and conducted. Among the best
known of his compositions are "Hu-
moresken" (for the piano); "Songs";
the "Peer Gynt" suite; "Norwegian
Folk-Songs"; "Ligurd Jorsalfa"; "Nor-
wegian Dances"; etc. He died Sept.
4, 1907.
GRIFFIN, a city of Georgia, the
county-seat of Spaldmg co. It is on the
Central of Georgia and the Southern
railroads. Its industries include cotton
mills and towel manufactories. It is
the seat of a State agricultural experi-
ment station. Pop. (1910) 7,478; (1920)
8,240.
GRIFFIS, WILLIAM ELLIOTT, an
American clergyman; born in Phila-
delphia, Pa., Sept. 17, 1843; was grad-
uated at Rutgers College in 1869 and at
the Union Theological Seminary in 1877;
spent several years in Japan teaching
and organizing schools; became pastor
of the First Congregational Church
of Ithaca, N. Y., in 1893. He is the
author of "The Mikado's Empire";
"Corea, the Hermit Nation"; "Japan:
In History, Folklore, and Art"; "Brave
Little Holland and What She Taught
Us"; "The Religions of Japan"; "First
American Envoy in Japan"; "The
Japanese Nation in Evolution" (1907) ;
"Story of New fJetherland" (1909) ;
"Belgium" (1912) ; "The Mikado"
(1915); "Dutcn P'airy Tales" (1918).
GRIGGS, EDWARD HOWARD, an
American lecturer and author, born at
Owatonna, Minn., in 1868. He gradu-
ated from Indiana University in 1889,
and took special courses at the Univer-
sity of Berlin. For several years he
was instructor, assistant professor, pro-
fessor, and lecturer on ethics at Leland
Stanford Jr. University. In 1899 he be-
came public lecturer on economics and
ethical subjects. His writings include
"The -New Humanism" (1900) ; "Self-
Culture Through the Vocation" (1914) ;
and "The Soul of Democracy" (1918).
He was a member of many learned so-
cieties.
GRIGGS, JOHN WILLIAM, an Amer-
ican lawyer and public official, born in
Newton, N. J., in 1849. He graduated
from Lafayette College in 1868. After
studying law, he was admitted to the
bar in 1871, and engaged in practice at
Paterson, N. J. He was a member of
the State Assembly and Senate from
GRILLPARZER
410
GRINDING MACHINERY
1875 to 1888. In 1896 he was elected
Governor of New Jersey, but resigned in
1898 to become Attorney-General in the
cabinet of President McKinley. He re-
signed his post in 1901 to become a mem-
ber of the Permanent Court of Arbitra-
tion at The Hague. In this capacity he
served until 1908, when he again en-
gaged in the practice of law.
GRILLPARZER, FRANZ (gril'parts-
er), an Austrian poet and dramatist;
born in Vienna, Jan. 15, 1791. "Blanche
of Castile," a tragedy, written at 17, and
"Spartacus," a tragedy, showed genius;
l)ut "The Ancestress," first called popu-
lar attention to him. "Sappho," a
tragedy, made him eminent in scholar-
ship also. "The Golden Fleece," "The
Argonauts," and "Medea" constitute a
trilogy. "The Career and End of King
Ottokar," "A True Servant of His Mas-
ter," and "Woe to Him Who Lies" de-
mand mention; but his poem "Waves of
Ocean: Thrills of Love" is the supreme
manifestation of his art. "In Thy Camp
Is Austria," a poem of the times, created
a sensation. Later works of note are
"The Jewess of Toledo," "Fraternal
Strife in the House of Hapsburg," and
"Libussa," plays published posthumous-
ly; and a story, "The Poor Minstrel."
He died in Vienna, Jan. 21, 1872.
GRIMALDI, JOSEPH, a noted Eng-
lish pantomimist; born in London, Eng-
land, Dec. 18, 1779. He first appeared
on the boards of Drury Lane at two
years old, and in his third year he had
his first engagement at Sadler's Wells
Theater, where he regularly performed
(except for one season) till his retire-
ment from the stage, prematurely worn
out by hard work, in 1828. Charles
Dickens edited his "Memoirs" (1838).
He died in London, May 31, 1837.
GRIMM, JAKOB, a German philolo-
gist; born in Hanau, Hesse-Cassel, Jan.
4, 1785. He was educated at the Uni-
versity of Marburg, and in 1805 spent
some months at Paris as assistant to
Savigny. Three years later he was ap-
pointed librarian to Jerome Bonaparte,
King of Westphalia. On the overthrow
of the new kingdom of Westphalia, in
1813, he was made secretary of legation
under the restored electorate, and in that
capacity was present at the Congress of
Vienna. He held the office of sub-libra-
rian to the elector from 1816 till 1829, his
younger brother, Wilhelm, being also em-
ployed in the library. In the latter year
he became first librarian to the Univer-
sity of Gottingen, which post, with a pro-
fessorship, he held till 1837. In that
year he was dismissed, as was also his
brother, from his similar office, for pro-
testing against the violation of the con-
stitution of the King of Hanover. In
1841 they both settled in Berlin, as pro-
fessors in the university, and members
of the Academy of Sciences, where they
were commonly known as the Brothers
Grimm. Under that name also they
have a certain immortality in the affec-
tions of the children of the civilized
world. Jakob wrote: "German Gram-
mar"; "German Mythology"; "History
of the German Language." The great
"German Dictionary," their joint produc-
tion, was left unfinished by them. The
well-known "Children's and Family
Tales" was also their joint work. Jakob
died in Berlin, Sept. 20, 1863.
GRIMM, WILHELM, a German philol-
ogist, brother of the preceding; born in
Hanau, Hesse-Cassel, Feb. 24, 1786. For
the facts of his life, see Grimm, Jakob.
He edited many old German texts, and
collaborated with his brother Jakob in
several of his works. His own most im-
portant book is "German Heroic Leg-
ends" (1829). His "Minor Writings"
(1881-1886) contain an autobiography.
He died in Berlin, Dec. 16, 1859.
GRIMSBY, or GREAT GRIMSBY, a
parliamentary and municipal borough
and seaport of Lincolnshire; on the right
bank of the Humber, 20 miles E. S. E.
of Hull and 41 N. E. of Lincoln. The
parish church, a good cruciform edifice
in the Early English style, was restored
in 1859. A statue of the prince consort
was unveiled in 1879, and a public park
of 27 acres opened in 1883. The town is
the largest fishing port in Great Britain,
being mostly engaged in the cod, herring,
and whelk fisheries. The industries in-
clude shipbuilding, tanning, brewing,
cordage-making, and flax-dressing. Pop.
about 78,813.
GRINDELWALD (-valt), one of the
most beautiful valleys (3,468 feet) of the
Bernese Oberland in Switzerland, about
12 V^ miles long and 4 broad; it forms
the approach to the two Grindelwald
glaciers; it is recommended as a winter
health resort.
GRINDING, CRUSHING AND PUL-
VERIZING MACHINERY. The proc-
ess of reducing solids from large frag-
ments to small particles may be accom-
plished by various means which may be
classified as under:
(1) Breaking, as when a stone is
broken by a sledge-hammer.
(2) Crushing, exemplified by the
crushing of sugar with a rolling pin.
(3) Grinding, accomplished by intro-
ducing the material between two sur-
faces, of which one may be stationary
and the other rotating, or both of which
may rotate but in opposite directions.
GRINDING MACHINERY
411
GRINDING MACHINERY
The surfaces may be smooth, as in the
pestle and mortar; abrasive, as in some
dise machines; or one or both surfaces
may be corrugated and so exert a cut-
ting action, as in the ordinary household
coffee mill.
On a large scale, all these methods of
reducing material to a more or less fine
state of division are utilized, and the
various mechanical devices on the mar-
ket merely carry out these processes on
a lar^e scale, the particular merit of any
machine depending upon the efficiency
with which it accomplishes its purpose
and the amount of energy it absorbs in
doing so. For reducing rocks, coal and
similar material from large lumps to
fragments of 1 inch mesh breakers are
used. These are of various types, the
simplest being the Jaw Breaker, which,
as the name implies, consists of two
jaws, one fixed and the other movable.
The movable jaw is attached to an
eccentric, and moves backward and for-
ward as the eccentric revolves. When
the jaw moves backward a V-shaped
opening is formed, the rock is fed in,
and then the V closes, crushing the rock
between the heavy jaws.
The Gyratory Breaker consists of a
gyrating head on to which the rock is
fed and crushed against stationary con-
caves. The gyrating head is attached
to a vertical shaft, fixed to an eccentric
at the base. When the eccentric re-
volves, the resulting action is similar to
that of a pestle being moved around a
mortar by the hand, except that both
pestle and mortar are inverted. A
modification of the same principle is
shown in the Symons Disc Breaker. In
this machine, two discs are employee', of
very hard steel. The discs are concave,
and are set at an angle to each other,
with their hollow sides facing. Both
discs are rotated in the same direction
and at the same speed, but a gyrating
motion is imparted to one of them by
means of an eccentric, and owing to the
angle at which they are set their outer
edges are wider apart at one point, and
close together at another. The rock is
fed through the center of one disc, and
as the discs come together it is crushed
and discharged.
Crushers are usually of the roller type
and are much used for reducing ores
from 2 inch to ^/4 inch size, or even
smaller. The crushers are heavy steel
rollers, both of which revolve, but one of
which is on fixed bearings while the
other is supported on bearings which are
held in place by heavy springs and there-
fore have a certain amount of "give."
The earliest type of pulverizing ma-
chine was the "stamp mill," and even to-
day it is commonly used. The prin-
ciple upon which it works is the raising
of a heavy weight by means of a cane,
and then letting it fall by gravity on to
the material to be crushed. The stamps
sometimes weigh as much as a ton and
are usually arranged in a battery of five,
or more. Some of the modern stamping
machines impart crushing force to the
stamps by means of steam instead of re-
lying on gravity.
At the present time the commonest
form of pulverizer is the Ball Mill or
Tube Mill in one or other of its many
modifications. The principle of all these
mills is the same. The mil! consists of
a revolving cylinder, partially filled with
steel balls or flint pebbles. The material
to be pulverized is fed into the mill, and
as the cylinder revolves the balls or
pebbles are carried round and continu-
ally fall over one another. The crush-
ing action is partly due to the impact of
one ball falling against another, partly
to the grinding action of the constantly
moving surfaces of the balls. Ball mills
are of the intermittent or "batch" type;
tube mills are continuous, the coarse ma-
terial being fed in one end, and the fine
material discharged at the other. The
Hardinge Conical Mill is a special type
of tube mill, and consists of two cones
connected by a short cylinder. The feed
cone is of very wide angle, the discharge
cone of much smaller angle. Pebbles of
mixed sizes are commonly used in this
mill, and the conical shape brings about
a segregating action on the pebbles, the
larger sizes being carried to that part of
the mill having the greatest diameter,
and vice versa. The same segregation
occurs, of course, with the material being
ground, and the result is that the coarse
particles automatically collect in that
part of the mill where grinding action is
the greatest. The Raymond Pulverizer
is of an entirely different type. It de-
pends for its grinding action on revolv-
ing rollers, which themselves rotate
alx»ut a central axis. It also makes use
of the principle of air-separation, the
finer particles being continuously carried
away oy a circulating current of air, and
collected in a dust collector, while the
coarser particles fall back for further
grinding. By this device a very finely-
ground product can be obtained, and
high grinding efficiency is also claimed
for the machine.
Another type of mechanical grinder
which finds application in the paint and
drug trade is the Buhr Stone Mill, which
consists of two horizontal stone discs,
the lower one of which revolves, while
the upper one is stationary. The sur-
faces of the stones are furrowed, and the
material is fed through the center of the
upper stone and is collected at the pe-
GRINGORE
412
GBISI
riphery. The stones are commonly water-
cooled. These mills are very successful
in grinding liquid or semi-liquid mix-
tures.
GRINGORE (gran-gor'), or GRIN-
GOIRE (gran-gwar'), PIERRE, a
French dramatist and satiric poet; born
between 1475 and 1480. He early be-
came known as a writer of moral and
allegorical poems, next of satirical farces
abounding in allusions to the social and
political circumstances of the time. He
is an important figure in literary history
as one of the creators of the French
political comedy. In later life he entered
the service of the Duke of Lorraine as
a herald, and confined his muse to re-
ligious poetry alone. He wrote: "The
Game of the Prince of Blockheads"
(1511), directed especially against Pope
Julius II.; "The Foolish Undertakings,"
"The Hunt for the Stag of Stags," and
the famous "Mystery of St. Loys"
(about 1524). He died in 1544.
GRINNELL, a city of Iowa, in Powe-
shiek CO. It is on the Chicago, Rock
Island and Pacific and the Minneapolis
and St. Louis railroads. Its industries
include the manufacture of gloves, wash-
ing machines, aeroplanes, carriages, etc.
The notable public buildings include a
Carnegie library, and the city is the
seat of Grinnell College. Pop. (1910)
5,036; (1920) 5,362.
GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD, an
American editor and author; born in
Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1849. He was the
editor of "Forest and Stream." His
works deal principally with Indian life
and folklore. Among the best known
are: "American Game Bird Shooting";
"The Story of the Indian": "Pawnee
Hero Stories and Folk Tales"; "The
Fighting Cheyennes."
GRINNELL LAND, a barren, moun-
tainous Polar tract, in lat. 80° N., sepa-
rated from Greenland by Smith Sound
and Kennedy Channel. It was discov-
ered by Lieut. E. J. De Haven, and
named after Henry Grinnell, of New
York. Lieut. A. W. Greely thoroughly
explored it. N. and S. it is covered with
ice-caps; between them lie valleys that
lose their snow in summer, and support
herds of musk oxen and the usual Arctic
fauna. In the interior Greely discovered
Lake Hazen, 65 miles long, and two
ranges of mountains, one containing a
peak (Mount Arthur), 5,000 feet high.
GRIP, or LA GRIPPE, a disease
which frequently becomes an epidemic
in different parts of the United States
and_ Europe and in the East and West
Indies. It is believed to be contagrious
and is somewhat similar to influenza.
The symptoms are fever, headache,
swelling and pain in the smaller joints,
eruption of the skin, etc. It is also
known as "dengue," and, in the Southern
States, as "break-bone fever." The dis-
ease is produced by bacilli which, when
magnified, appear somewhat like goose
eggs in form and substance. They are
usually discovered in pairs, and where
the disease has attacked a person are
abundant in the lung and bronchial tis-
sues, and in the nasal and salivary secre-
tions. They are imbibed in breathing,
and will not breed except in a tempera-
ture of at least 80°, yet no degree of
natural cold can kill them. When in a
temperature below that mentioned they
remain in a dormant state. In 1892,
the grip germ was discovered in Berlin
by Prof. Robert Pfeifer, who observed
that it breeds by lengthening itself and
then dividing in the middle. This opera-
tion requires about 20 minutes, and won-
derful as it may seem, is continued until
it produces 16,500,000 germs in 24 hours.
GRIQTJALAND (gre'kwa-) WEST and
EAST, two British districts of south
Africa, part of the colony of Good Hope,
named from the Griquas or Bastaards, a
mixed race sprung from Dutch settlers
and native women. Griqualand West lies
to the N. E. of Cape Colony, is bounded on
the S. by the Orange river, on the N.
by Bechuana territory, on the E. by
the former Orange Free State, now
called Orange River Colony, on the W.
by the Kalahari country; area, 15,197
square miles; pop. about 110,000. Por-
tions of the country are suitable for
sheep farming and agriculture, but the
chief source of wealth is the diamond
fields. The first diamond was discov-
ered in 1867. Diamonds to the value of
$75,000,000 were found there between
1883 and 1887. Kimberly (q. v.), which
has had railway connection with the
Cape since 1885, is the chief center of
the diamond industry and the seat of
government. The chief towns are De
Beers, Du Toit's Pan, Bultfontein, Bark-
ly, and Griqua Town, Griqualand West
is now incorporated in the Cape and con-
stitutes four of the 71 divisions. Gri-
qualand East, area, 7,594 square miles ;
pop. about 225,000. This territory was
annexed to the Cape in 1875, and is now
under colonial rule, having one chief
magistrate and nine subordinates. Chief
village, Kokstadt.
GRISI, GIULIA (gre'se), an Italian
singer; born in Milan, May 22, 1812.
Her father (Garcia) was an officer of
engineers in the army of Napoleon I.,
and her aunt the once famous cantatrice
GRIS-NEZ
413
GRODNO
Josephine Grassini. She made her debut
at Bologna in a contralto part, appeared
in "Romeo and Juliette" at Florence and
at Milan, and made her first appearance
in Paris and London in 1834, as Ninetta
in "La Gazza Ladra," where she achieved
a decided success. Every part which
she assumed afterward steadily in-
creased her reputation, which may be
f.aid to have been established by her im-
personation of the queen in "Semira-
mide," and of Donna Anna in "Don
Giovanni." Her fame reached its climax
in her rendition of the roles of "Norma"
and "Lucrezia Borgia," in which char-
acters her singing and dramatic acting
have never been surpassed. She was
twice married; on the second occasion
ti the unrivaled tenor Signor Mario
Marquis de Candia, with whom she vis-
ited the United States in 1854, singing
in the principal cities. She died in Ber-
lin, Nov. 29, 1869.
GRIS-NEZ (gre-na'), CAPE, a head-
land 164 feet high, in the department of
Pas-de-Calais, France, opposite Dover,
is the point of land nearest to the Eng-
lish shore, the distance being barely 20
miles. About equally distant from Calais
on the N. E. and Boulogne on the S., the
cape marks the dividing line between the
North Sea and the English Channel. It
is surmounted by a lighthouse.
GRISONS (gre-zon'), or GRAUBUN-
DEN, a canton of Switzerland; the
largest and the most thinly peopled;
bounded by Tyrol and Lombardy; area,
2,773 square miles; capital, Chur. The
whole canton is an assemblage of moun-
tains intersected by narrow valleys. These
last form three groups, of which the first
and most important lies along the course
of the Rhine, and stretches N., occupying
nearly the whole of the W. portion of the
canton; the second, forming the Enga-
dine, extends N. E. along the course of
the Inn ; and the third comprises several
smaller valleys, whose streams run S.,
belonging to the basins of the Ticino and
the Adige. Pastui-es and forests oc-
cupy a large portion of the canton;
cattle and timber are the principal ex-
ports. Numerous mineral springs are
found within the canton ; also the health
resorts of Davos, the Upper Engadine,
Seewis, etc. Iron, lead, copper, zinc, and
silver occur. Within the Grisons, too,
are several passes leading to Italy, such
as the Spliigen, St. Bernardino, Bernina.
The country was anciently inhabited by
the Rhaetii, who are supposed to have
been of Etruscan race. It was conquered
by the Romans under Augustus, and
added by Charlemagne to his empire in
807. During the Middle Ages the Bishop
Vol. IV— Cyc— AA
of Chur was the most powerful of the
numerous nobles who sought to oppress
the people, till they in self-defense
formed themselves into leagues. One of
these leagues, formed in 1424, was called
the gray league from the gray home-
spun worn by the unionists, and henco
the German and French names of the
canton — Graubiinden and Grisons, _ In
1471 these separate unions entered into
a general federation, which then (1497-
1498) formed an alliance with the Swiss
cantons. Pop. about 125,000.
GRISWOLD, ALEXANDER VIETS,
an American clergyman ; born in Sim-
bury, Conn., April 22, 1766; ordained
in the Protestant Episcopal Church in
1795; made bishop over "The Eastern
Diocese," including all of the New Eng-
land States except Connecticut, in 1811.
His publications include "The Reforma-
tion and the Apostolic Office" (1843);
"Discourses on the Most Important Doc-
trines and Duties of the Christian Re-
ligion" (1830) ; etc. He died in Boston,
Mass., Feb. 15, 1843.
GRIZZLY BEAR, a huge bear, some-
times 9 feet from the nose to the end
of the very short tail, and weighing 800
pounds. The hair, which varies between
gray and blackish brown, is more or less
grizzled, whence the animal's English
name. It inhabits North America, espe-
cially the Rocky Mountains. It feeds
partly on fruits and roots, and partly
on animal food.
GROAT, a name given in the Middle
Ages to all thick coins, as distinguished
from the "bracteates" or thin coins of
silver or gold-leaf stamped so as to be
hollow on one side and raised on the
other. The silver groat current in Eng-
land, introduced by Edward III., was
equal to four pence. The coin was re-
vived in 1836-1856 in the modem four-
penny piece. Groschen, the German
equivalent of groats, were till 1873-1876
current in the N. of Germany, and equal
in value to one-thirtieth of a thaler,
worth 2M: cents, United States currency.
GRODNO (grod''n6),a town of Poland ;
on the Niemen, 148 miles N. E. of War-
saw. It has a medical academy and prior
to the World War had manufactures in
cloth and tobacco. The palace erected by
Augustus III. of Poland, is a handsome
edifice. At first a Russian town, Grodno
fell to Lithuania in 1241. Here Stephen
Bathori died in 1586; here in 1793 the
Polish diet ratified the second partition
of Poland; and here, too Stanislaiis
Augustus, the last King of Poland, ab-
dicated in 1795. The city was succes-
sively captured by Russians and Aus-
GROIN
414
GROSVENOR
tiians during the World War and was
also in the field of the Russo-Polish cam-
paigns of 1920. Pop. about 64,000.
GROIN, in anatomy, the hollow in the
human body where the thigh and the
trunk unite. In architecture, the angle
or angular curve foraied by an intersec-
tion of vaults; most of the vaulted ceil-
ings of the Middle Ages were gi'oined,
and therefore called groined ceilings.
During the early part of the Norman
style the groins were left purposely
plain, but afterward they were invari-
ably covered with ribs.
GROMWELL, the name of plants of
the genus Lithospe^'tnum, natural order
Boraginacex, containing a number of
widely distributed species, several of
which are natives of America. The seeds
of L. officinale are occasionally used as
a diuretic.
GRONINGEN (gro-ning'gen) , a city
and capital of the province of Gronin-
gen (area, 881 square miles; pop.
(1918) 859,950), Netherlands, 25 miles
S. W. of Delfzihl, on DoUart Bay. The
university, founded in 1614, possesses a
library, a botanic garden, an observa-
tory, a collection of Teutonic antiquities,
a hospital, and a museum of natural
history. A celebrated deaf and dumb in-
stitution was founded by Guyot in 1790.
Groningen, already an important place
in the 9th century, joined the Hanseatic
League in 1282. From the 11th century
it fought hard to maintain its independ-
ence against the bishops of Utrecht,
nor did it submit until 1493, and then
only to escape being handed over by the
emperor to the Duke of Saxony. During
the 16th century it had a very stormy
history, being finally won for the United
Netherlands by Maurice of Nassau in
1594. Pop. (1918) 87,594.
GRONNA, ASLE J., an American pub-
lic official; born at Elkader, Clayton co.,
Iowa, in 1858; raised on a farm, he
received his education in the schools of
Houston CO., Minn., and at Caledonia
Academy. In 1879 he went to South
Dakota, became a banker and acquired
wide agricultural interests. He was a
member of the Territorial Legislature
in 1889 and later served in the House
of Representatives in the 59th, 60th, and
61st Congresses. Elected United States
Senator in 1911 for the unexpired term
of Martin N. Johnson, he was re-elected
to the Senate for the full term in 1915.
During his service in the Senate he
allied himself with the progressive group
of Republican Senators and in 1917 be-
came one of the most determined op-
ponents of the entrance of the United
States in the World War, as well as
of other policies of President Wilson.
He was a regent of the University of
North Dakota.
GROSBEAK, or GROSSES AK, in
ornithology, the English name of Cocco-
thraustina:, a sub-family of Frmgillidir.
The cardinal grosbeak, an American
bird. The pine grosbeak is Loxia env-
cleator, called also pine bullfinch; and
the social or republican grosbeak is
Philastertis socius. It is from south
Africa, and belongs to the sub-family of
Plocehix, or weaver birds.
GROSSMITH, GEORGE. An Engli.=h
actor. He was born in 1874 and was
educated at University College, London,
and at Paris. First acted in London in
"Haste to the Wedding" operetta, and
made his first hit in the "Morocco Bound,"
after which he appeared in "Go Bang,"
"The Gaiety Girl," and other musical
plays in England and the United States.
Played in the United States with Mrs.
Langtry in "The Degenerates," after
appearing in its successful production
in London. Has played at the Gaiety
Theater, London, since 1900, with the
exception of some appearances in New
York and Paris. Part author of the
"Spring Chicken," "Havana," "The Girls
of Gottenburg," and "Peggy." He first
popularized the "revue" in England.
GROSSWARDEIN (gros'var-din) , or
NAGY-VARAD (nody'va-rod), a town of
Bihar co., Hungary; on the Sabes Koros,
152 miles S. S. E. of Pest. Formerly
a fortress, it is now the seat of a Roman
Catholic and of a Greek bishop, has
several churches, and prior to the World
War manufactured spirits, oil, vinegar,
tiles, matches, pottery, and wine. In the
neighborhood is the Bishop's Bath, with
alkaline sulphur springs. At Grosswar-
dein peace was concluded between Fer-
dinand I. of Austria and John Zapolya
of Transylvania in 1538. It was taken
and pillaged by Turks in 1660, and re-
mained in their hands till its recapture
by the Austrians in 1692. Pop. about
65,000.
GROSVENOR. EDWIN AUGUSTUS,
an American educator, born at Newbury-
port, Mass., in 1845. He gi-aduated from
Amherst College in 1867, and from 1873
to 1890 he was professor of history at
Robert College. He afterward served
on the faculty of Amherst College as
professor of history and modern govern-
ment, from 1892. He traveled much in
Europe and Asia and was widely known
as a lecturer on historic and diplomatic
subjects. He contributed many articles
to encyclopedias, magazines, and re-
GBOSVENOR
415
GROUCHY
views. He wrote "The Hippodrome of
Constantinople and Its Still Existing
Monuments" (1899) ; "Constantinople"
(1895) ; "Contemporary History of the
World" (1899). He was the editor of the
"Reference History of the World"
(1909).
GROSVENOR, GILBERT HOVEY, an
American editor, born at Constantinople,
Turkey, in 1875. He was educated at
Robert College, Constantinople, and
graduated from Amherst College in
1897. After teaching for two years in
Englewood, N. J., he became associate
editor of the "National Geographic Mag-
azine." He was appointed managing edi-
tor in 1900 and editor-in-chief in 1903.
In 1899 he was director of the National
Geographic Society, and was made its
president in 1920. He wrote "The Ex-
plorations of the 19th Century" (1900) ;
"The Land of the Best" (1916); and
"Flags for the World" (1917). He con-
tributed numerous articles to magazines.
He was appointed associate editor of
the "Proceedings of the 8th International
Geographical Congress" in 1905.
GROTE, GEORGE, an English his-
torian; born in Clayhill, Kent, Nov. 17,
1794; died in 1871; educated at Seven-
oaks and at the Charterhouse, he en-
tered in 1810 his father's banking
establishment. In 1832 he was elected
a member of Parliament for the city of
London, and his subsequent parliamen-
tary career, until his retirement in 1841,
was principally devoted to the advocacy
of vote by ballot. He was also a leader
of the "Philosophic Radicals." In 1846
appeared the first two volumes of his
"History of Greece"; the 10th and final
volume being published in 1856. In 1865
he published "Plato and the Other Com-
panions of Socrates," and was engaged
at the time of his death on "Aristotle and
the Peripatetics." In the latter part of
his life he was concerned in the manage-
ment of University College, the London
University, and the British Museum. He
died in London, June 18, 1871.
GROTIUS (gro'shi-us) , or DE GROOT,
HUGO (grot), a Dutch statesman; born
in Delft, Holland, April 10, 1583. In
1599 he commenced his career as advo-
cate; and he was successively appointed
historiographer, advocate-general of
Holland and Zealand, a member of the
states-general, and envoy to England. In
1613 he became cyndic, or pensionary, of
Rotterdam, and declaring himself on the
side of Barneveldt, he supported him and
the cause of the Arminians. But he
narrowly escaped the fate of Barne-
veldt, who suffered on the scaffold, and
received sentence of imprisonment for
life in the fortress of Loewestein. From
this, however, at the expiration of 18
months, which he had employed in writ-
ing his celebrated "Treatise on the Truth
of the Christian Religion," he succeeded
in escaping. This was effected by the
management of his wife, who contrived
to have him carried out of the castle in
a chest. Grotius at first sought an
asylum in France where he composed his
great work, "The Justice of War and
Peace." After an absence of 12 years,
he returned to his native country, but
was condemned to perpetual banishment.
He passed the remnant of his life in the
diplomatic service of Sweden.
GROTON, a town in New London co..
Conn., on the Thames river and Long
Island Sound, opposite New London.
There still may be seen Fort Griswold,
memorable for the massacre of an Amer-
ican garrison by the British in 1781.
The British having captured the fort
after a desperate resistance, Colonel
Ledyard, the American commander, sur-
rendered to the officer of the detachment,
and was immediately killed with his own
sword, most of his men being also butch-
ered. A granite monument, to commem-
orate that event, was erected in 1830.
Pop. about 2,000.
GROUCHY, MARQUIS EMMANUEL
DE (gro-she'), a French military officer;
born in Paris, Oct. 23, 1766; entered the
army at 14; threw in his lot with the
Revolution, and had his first taste of
serious work in helping to suppress the
Vendean revolt. After being nominated
second to Hoche for the abortive expedi-
tion to Ireland, though Grouchy did
enter Bantry Bay, he proceeded to join
Joubert in Italy in 1798. Under Moreau
he greatly distinguished himself in Pied-
mont, and at Novi was taken prisoner
but subsequently exchanged in 1799.
Later he fought with conspicuous gal-
lantry at Hohenlinden, Eylau, Friedland,
Wagram, and in the Russian campaign
of 1812, being appointed during the
memorable retreat leader of the body-
guard of Napoleon. After the disastrous
battle of Leipsic, Grouchy covered the
retreat of the French on the W. side
of the Rhine. Among the first to wel-
come Napoleon after his escape from
Elba, Grouchy destroyed the Bourbon op-
position in the S. of France, and then,
hastening N., routed Bliicher at Ligny.
After the defeat at Waterloo and the
second abdication of Napoleon, Grouchy,
appointed by the provisional government
commander-in-chief of the broken armies
of France, led them skillfully back to-
ward the capital; then, resigfning, he
went to the United States. He returned.
GBOUSE
416
GUADALAJABA
from exile in 1819, and was reinstated
as marshal in 1831. He died in St.
Etienne, May 29, 1847.
GROUSE, in ornithology, various
game-birds, specially the Tetrao tetrix,
called the black grouse, and Lagojms
acoticus, the red gi'ouse. The male of
the former is called the black cock, and
the female the gray hen. The red, called
also the common grouse, inhabits moors.
Besides Tetrao, the grouse family con-
tains the genus Lagopus (Ptarmigan),
etc., the ruffled grouse is the genus Bon-
asia; sand grouse are the family Ptera-
clidx; and the wood grouse is the Ca-
percailzie. They are well known to be
large plump birds, with beautifully varie-
SAGE GROUSE
gated plumage, which must often be pro-
tective. They are especially abundant in
the N. parts of both Old and New World.
The male is famous for his habit of
drumming, or beating stiffly downward
with his wings. The largest American
grouse is the cock of the plains or sage
cock.
GROVE, in comparative religion, a
group of trees under which religious
worship is held.
GROVE, SIR GEORGE, an English
author; born in Clapham, England, in
1820; was trained as a civil engineer,
and erected in the West Indies the first
two cast-iron lighthouses built. As a
member of the staff of Robert Stephen-
son he was employed at the Chester
general station and the Britannia tubu-
lar bridge. He was secretary to the
Society of Arts from 1849 to 1852, and
secretary to the Crystal Palace Com-
pany from 1852 to 1873, where he sub-
semiently became a director. He was
editor of "Macmillan's Magazine," a
large contributor to Smith's "Dictionary
of the Bible," and editor and part author
of the "Great Dictionary of Music and
Musicians." D. C. L. from Durham Uni-
versity in 1872, and LL. D. of Glas-
gow in 1886. He was knighted in 1883
on the opening of the Royal College of
Music, Kensington Gore, of which he
was made Director by the Prince of
Wales. He also assisted Dean Stanley
in some of his works on the Bible and
the East, and was founder of the Pales-
tine Exploration Fund. He died in Lon-
don, England, May 28, 1900.
GROVE CITY COLLEGE, a non-
sectarian coeducational institution in
Grove City, Pa.; founded in 1876; re-
ported at the close of 1919: Professors
and instructors, 54; students, 859; presi-
dent, W. C. Ketler.
GROW, GALUSHA AARON, an Amer-
ican legislator; born in Eastford, Conn.,
Aug. 31, 1822; was graduated at Am-
herst College in 1844; was admitted to
the bar in 1847; settled in Towanda, Pa.,
and there practiced; was a member of
Congress in 1851-1863 and speaker dur-
ing the last two years. In 1871-1876 he
was president of the International and
Great Northern railroad of Texas. In
1894 he was elected Representative-at-
Large by a plurality of 297,446 over De-
Witt, the Democratic nominee, and a
majority of 269,778 over all other can-
didates, these being the largest numbers
of votes ever given in any State of
the Union to any candidate for any
office up to that time. He was re-elected
in 1896, 1898, and 1900. He died March
31, 1907.
GUADALAJARA (g\^'a"da-la-ha'ra),
a town of Guadalajara province, Spain;
on the Henares, 35 miles N. E. of Mad-
rid. It has manufactures of flannel and
serge, and a royal college of engineering.
Here is the quaint, neglected palace of
the Mendozas.
GUADALAJARA, city and capital of
the State of Jalisco, Mexico, and the
second city of the republic ; in a valley by
the Rio Grande de Santiago, here crossed
by a fine bridge of 26 arches, 280 miles
W. N. W. of Mexico City, with which the
place is connected by rail. Though most
of the houses are of only one story, the
town presents a pleasing appearance.
Guadalajara is the seat of an archbishop,
and possesses a handsome cathedral, be-
sides the government palace, a mint, uni-
versity, hospitals, and school of art. Its
industries are important; it is the chief
seat of the cotton and woolen manufac-
tures of the country, and the Guadala-
jara pottery and metal wares, like the
confectionery, have a reputation all over
Mexico. Pop. about 120,000.
GUADALQUIVIR
417
GUANAJUATO
GUADALQUIVIR ffwa - THal - ke -
ver'), a river known to the ancients by
the name "Baetis," rises in the Sierra de
Cazorla, Spain, on the borders of Jaen
and Murcia, 15 miles E. S. E. of Ubeda,
and passes Andejar, Cordova, Seville,
and San Lucar-de-Barameda. The Guad-
alquivir receives on the right the
Guadalimar, Campana, Guadamelleto,
Guadabarbon, Guadiato. and Biar; on
the left, the lesser Guadiana, Guadalen-
tin, Jaen, Guadajoz, Xenil, and Corbones.
It falls into the Atlantic at San Lucar,
after a winding course of about 250
miles.
GUADALUPE (ga-da-16pO, a river
rising among the mountains in Kerr co.,
Tex,; flows a general E. and S. E.
course through Blanco, Comal, Guada,
Gonzales, De Witt, and Victoria counties,
and enters Espiritu Santo Bay between
Calhoun and Refugio counties.
GUADALUPE-HIDALGO (gwa-tha-
lo'pa-e-dal'go), a village of the Federal
District in Mexico, at the foot of Guada-
lupe mountain; 5 miles N. of Mexico
City. It has a famous brick cathedral,
the richest in all Mexico. Here is pre-
served a miraculous picture of a brown
Virgin, painted on a peasant's coarse
cloak. The treaty which ended the war
with the United States was signed here,
Feb. 2, 1848. Fop. about 6,000.
GUADELOUPE (gwad-lop'), one of
the Leeward Islands; a French colony.
It is divided into two distinct parts by a
narrow arm of the sea called Riviere
Salee. The larger portion, or Guadeloupe
proper, has an area of about 305 square
miles, and is of volcanic origin. A ridge
of hills traverses it N. and S., the
highest points of which are La Souf riere,
an active volcano, about 5,108 feet in
height, and the extinct volcanoes La
Grosse-Montagne, Les Deux Mamelles,
and Le Piton-de-Bouillant. The other
portion, Grand-terre, has an area of
about 300 square miles, and is generally
low, never rising to more than 115 feet
above the sea-level. The principal ex-
ports are sugar, coffee, dye, cabinet
woods, tafia, hides, copper, etc. The
principal town, St. Louis, or Point-a-
Pitre, was destroyed by an earthquake
in February, 1843. Guadeloupe was dis-
covered by Columbus in 1493, and named
by him Santa Maria de la Guadalupe,
In 1635 it was taken by the French, who
held it till 1759, when the English gained
possession of it, after which it changed
owners several times, till the peace of
1814 restored it to the French. Pop.
(1918) 117,219.
GUAIACUM, a genus of Zygophyl-
lacex, tribe Zygophylleae. Guaiacum offi-
cinale is an ornamental tree with blue
flowers, growing in Jamaica. The wood
furnishes Ligmim vitae; its resin is called
gum guaiacum. The leaves of G. sanction
are used in the West Indies as a sub-
stitute for soap. The bark and wood of
both species are used as sudorifics, dia-
phoretics, or alteratives.
GUALEGUAYCHU (-cho'), a town
of Entre Rios, Argentine Republic, on
the Gualeguaychu river. Besides slaugh-
tering and salting works, it has an ex-
tract of beef factory.
GUAM (gwam), an island in the
Pacific Ocean, the largest of the Mari-
anne or Ladrone group; area, 200 square
miles; capital, Agana. The island is
fertile and to a great extent covered with
valuable timber lands. There are 18
schools and about 90 per cent, of the
natives can read and write. At the be-
ginning of the American-Spanish War
the Ladrone group belonged to Spain,
and on June 20, 1898, the United States
cruiser "Charleston," on its way to Ma-
nila, opened fire on Agana. The Spanish
garrison, not knowing that war existed,
and thinking the attack was a salute,
sent an oflacer to the "Charleston" apolo-
gizing for not returning it, owing to lack
of ammunition. When they learned the
state of afFaii'S, the place was sur-
rendered in less than 30 minutes. Captain
Leary, of the United States navy, was
appointed the first American governor,
and under his direction important re-
forms were instituted. Slavery was
abolished, and a break-water and forti-
fications were built at the harbor of San
Luis d'Apra, to establish a coaling sta-
tion there. United States money has
been in circulation since 1909. Pop.
13,275. See Agana,
GUANAJUATO (gwa-na-hwa'to) , a
State of Mexico; area, 11,370 square
miles. The greater part of the surface
belongs to the lofty plateau of Anahuac,
and is traversed by the Sierra de Gorda
in the N. and the Sierra de Guanajuato
(11,030 feet) in the center; the S. W.
portion belongs to the fertile plain of
Bajio. The riches of Guanajuato consist
chiefly in its valuable mineral products;
there are large numbers of gold, silver,
lead, copper, and quicksilver mines
worked. Stock-raising is of some im-
portance, but agriculture is little pur-
sued, although the soil yields most
products of both the temperate and
tropical zones; a noteworthy article of
export is chillies. Large cotton _ and
woolen factories have been established
by foreigners. Pop. State, 1,086,000.
GUANAJUATO, city and capital of
Guanajuato, Mexico, on both sides of a
GUANO
418
GUATEMALA
deep ravine, traversed by a mountain
stream that in the rainy season is
swelled to a foaming torrent. The
streets are steep and tortuous, the
houses frequently of four or even five
stories. The public buildings include a
large government palace, a mint, bar-
racks, a cathedral, several convents and
colleges, an art school, and the Alhon-
diga, a public granary. It is a mining
town; its handsomest private houses be-
long to the wealthy proprietors of mines,
and it contains several amalgamation
works, others lining the caiion for sev-
eral miles. There are also blanket
factories and cotton printing works,
electric lights and telephones. Pop.
about 36,000.
GUANO (gwa'no), a grayish-white,
yellowish, dark brown, or reddish sub-
stance. It is a bone phosphate of lime
or osteolite with some impurities. Found
in islands off the Peruvian and other
South American coasts, also in those off
the coast of Africa and elsewhere.
Guano from different localities has been
differently named. It has been called
pyroclasite, pyroguanite, sombrerite, and
glaubapatite. Guano is formed by the
droppings of multitudinous birds, in se-
cluded places where they have been un-
disturbed for ages.
GUANTANAMO (gwan-tan-a'm5)
BAY, a harbor of southern Cuba, 38
miles E. of Santiago. To the right of
the entrance is a range of rocky hills;
on the left the shore is low and swampy.
It was just outside of this bay that
United States war vessels, during the
early part of the war with Spain, tried
to cut the cables which extended from
Santiago to Guantanamo and thence to
Spain. On May 18, 1898, the "St. Louis"
and the tug "Wampatuck" endeavored
to get into the mouth of the harbor, but
the Spanish batteries and a gunboat in
the bay opened up such a severe fire that
the "Wampatuck" was forced to with-
draw, after grappling a cable about 800
yards from the shore. On June 10, the
Ilnited States cruiser "Marblehead"
shelled the hills on the right of the bay
where the enemy had erected earth-
works, and the next day the transport
"Panther" landed 600 marines at Cai-
manera, Cuba. In July, 1901, Guan-
tanamo Bay was selected by the United
States Government as the site of one
of four projected naval stations on the
Cuban coast. The construction was
completed in 1916. Pop. of district
about 51,100.
GUAPORE (gwa-po-ra') , a river of
South America, rises in Brazil, and for
some distance forms the boundary be-
tween Bolivia and Brazil. It unites with
the Mamore to form the Madeira.
GUABDAFUI (gwar-da-fwe') CAPE,
the extreme E. point of the African con-
tinent, and the extremity of an immense
promontory, the Somali country, stretch-
ing seaward in an E. N. E. direction,
and washed on the N. W. by the Gulf of
Aden and on the S. E. by the Indian
Ocean.
GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA
(gAva-re'ne), an Italian poet; born
in Ferrara, Dec. 10, 1537; studied at
Pisa, Padua, and Ferrara, and was ap-
pointed to a chair at Ferrara. At the
age of 30 he accepted service at the
court of Ferrara, and was intrusted by
Duke Alfonso II. with various diplomatic
missions. His chief and most popular
work, "The Faithful Swain," passed
through 40 editions in the author's life-
time, though it is really an imitation of
Tasso's "Aminta." He died in Venice,
Oct. 4, 1612.
GUATAVITA (gwa-ta-ve'ta), a vil-
lage of the republic of Colombia, 20
miles N. E. of Bogota. Previous to the
Spanish conquest it was a town of gi-eat
importance, and on the banks of the
Lake of Guatavita near it are the ruins
of many once magnificent and venerated
Peruvian temples.
GUATEMALA (gwa-ta-ma'la) , a re-
public of Central America, bounded by
Mexico, Belize, Honduras, San Salva-
dor, Gulf of Honduras, and the Pacific
Ocean; area, 48,290 square miles; pop.
about 2,000,000. Number of depart-
ments, 22; and capital, Guatemala la
Nueva. Pop. 90,000.
Topography. — The counti^y is exceed-
ingly mountainous and elevated, the
main chain of the continuation of the
Andes traversing it S. E. to N. W.,
and sending off numerous branches.
Along the main chain are a number of
volcanoes, among which are Fuego,
over 12,000 feet high, which sends forth
torrents of water, and Tajumulco, 14,-
403 feet high. The country is well wa-
tered by numerous streams, none of
much importance. There are several
lakes, the most important being Duke,
through which a gi-eat part of the
foreign trade of the state is carried
on, Amatitlan, Atitlan, and Peten.
Climate and Productions. — On the
tableland, of which a considerable por-
tion of the state is formed, the climate
is mild; but in more elevated situations
the cold is intense. There is much valu-
able timber. The soil generally is of
great fertility, producing, according to
altitude, soil, etc., maize, wheat, rice,
GUATEMALA
419
GUATEMALA
coffee, cotton, tobacco, sugar, cochineal,
cacao, indigo, vegetables, and tropical
fruits in great variety. Fiber plants are
numerous, including ramie, henequen,
and others. In the altos or mountainous
parts of the N. W. considerable flocks of
sheep are raised, the wool of which is
manufacture 1 into coarse fabrics. There
were in 191 J about 1,500 coffee planta-
tions under cultivation, producing about
100,000,000 pounds annually. Over 50
per cent, of the coffee plantations of the
country were owned by Germans. The
yield of sugar, which is next after coffee,
the most important product, is about
45,000 pounds annually. Other impor-
tant agricultural products are bananas,
beans and wheat. The department of
Peten is rich in mahogany and dye
woods of which there is a considerable
trade in the United States. The chicle,
or gum industry, also has its center in
this province. About 500,000 pounds are
obtained annually. Cotton is grown in
small quantities. There are deposits of
silver, gold, copper, iron, and lead, but
these are little developed on account of
the lack of transportation.
Commerce. — The total imports in 1918
amounted to £1,326,800, and the exports
to £2,263,800. The most important im-
ports are cotton, foodstuffs, linen, hemp
and jute, paper, iron and steel, and
leather. The most important exports are
coffee, bananas, sugar, hides, timber,
and rubber. The greater part of the
trade is with the United States. The
exports to the United States for the
fiscal year 1920 amounted to $16,347,-
595, and the exports from the United
States amounted to $10,309,233. In 1919
600 vessels, with about 700,000 tons,
entered the ports of the republic.
Commvnciations. — The Guatemala
railway, 195 miles in length; the Guate-
mala Central railway, 139 miles; the
Occidental railway, 51 miles; and the
Ocos railway, 22 miles, were incorpo-
rated in 1912 as the International Rail-
way of Central America. The main line
extends from Puerto Barrios to Guate-
mala City, a distance of about 194 miles,
then to San Jose de Guatemala on the
Pacific Ocean, a distance of about 75
miles. A further addition to the rail-
road was purchased in 1914 and an ex-
tension was built in the same year. Ad-
ditional railway construction was under
way in 1920. There are about 5,000
miles of telegraph wire and about 535
miles of telephone wire.
Education. — Education is free and
compulsory for all children between the
ages of 6 to 14. There are about 2,000
government schools, including primary
schools, training schools, night schools,
and rural schools, and about 60,000
pupils in the elementary schools. The
University of Guatemala was estab-
lished in 1918. The total expenditure
for education is about $160,000 annually.
Fiimnce. — The revenue in 1919 was
$110,937,325, and the expenditure $77,-
666,023. The external debt was about
$7,000,000 and the internal debt $135,-
799,843.
Government. — The country is governed
under a constitution by which the legis-
lative power is vested in a National As-
sembly, consisting of representatives
chosen by universal suffrage for four
years, and a council of state of 13 mem-
bers, partly elected by the National
Assembly and partly appointed by the
president. The president is elected for
a term of six years. There are depart-
ments of foreign affairs, government
and justice, hacienda and public credit,
public construction, fomento, and war.
History. — Ancient Guatemala was oc-
cupied by a race of Indians who had
reached a high state of civilization at
the time of the early Spanish invaders.
It was conquered by Alvarado, a lieu-
tenant of Cortez, and until 1824 was
under Spanish rule, although independ-
ence was declared in 1821. Guatemala
was a member of the Central Ameri-
can Confederation from 1824 to 1839,
and several times since has attempted
to bring all the Central American re-
publics into a union, but without suc-
cess, until 1897, when she signed a
treaty of union with Costa Rica, and
the Greater Republic of Central Amer-
ica, which was, however, soon after dis-
solved.
Manuel Estrada Cabrera was elected
president in 1898. During his adminis-
tration much was done to improve edu-
cational and economic conditions. He
was re-elected in 1905, but shortly after-
ward was accused of endeavoring to
become dictator and a revolt was organ-
ized by General Barillas. This threat-
ened to involve all the Central American
countries in war, but by the intervention
of President Roosevelt and Diaz an
armistice was arranged in 1906 which
was later incorporated into a treaty be-
tween the Central American countries.
Guatemala in 1907 joined in the Central
American peace conference which pro-
vided for a Central American court of
justice. Cabrera was elected for a third
term in 1910. Difficulties arose with
Great Britain in regard to the debt owed
to British citizens by Guatemala, and in
1913 the United States undertook to ar-
range matters with Great Britain and
took over the supervision of the finances
of the country. Guatemala broke oflp
GUAYAQUIL
420
GUEBIN
diplomatic relations with Germany in
April, 1917. The British minister to
Guatemala had been active in stirring
up plots and intrigues against the United
States in all of the Central American
States. President Cabrera was re-elected
in 1917 for an additional six-year term.
Guatemala City was almost completely
destroyed in January, 1918. A treaty
of peace was approved by Congi'ess on
Oct. 7, 1919. President Cabrera was de-
posed in a revolution which broke out in
April, 1920. Dr. Carlos Herrera be-
came provisional president. Cabrera was
accused of being a dictator and en-
deavoring to use his office for personal
ends. He had been in power for 22
years. The new government was rec-
ognized by the United States on June 24,
1920. Herrera was chosen permanent
president on Aug. 29.
GUAYAQUIL (gwl-a-kel'), a city and
capital of Guayas province, Ecuador; in
the valley of the Guayas, 30 miles above
its mouth. Most of the houses are built
of bamboo or wood and earth, and cov-
ered with creepers. The custom house
is the most noteworthy of the public
buildings, which include a cathedral and
a townhall. In 1889 a statue to Boli-
var was erected. The leading manufac-
turing establishments are combined
steam sawmills, foundries, and machine
shops; and the place is noted for its
straw hats and hammocks. Cocoa rep-
resents five-sixths of the exports, which
include coffee, ivory nuts, rubber, hides
and specie. The city has gas lights,
street railways, and an improved water-
works system. It was founded by Ore-
liana in 1537, and removed to its pres-
ent site in 1693. Pop. (1919), 93,851.
GUAYMAS, a well-sheltered port of
Mexico, on the Gulf of California, the
terminus of the Sonora railway (353
miles S. by W. of Benson, an Arizona
station on the Southern Pacific rail-
I'oad). It is a small place, excessively
hot, surrounded by barren mountains,
and mostly inhabited by Indian fisher-
men; but already it exports precious
metals, wheat, flour, etc., in considerable
quantities, and its trade is increasing.
GUBBIO, the ancient Iguvium or Eu-
gubium, a city of central Italy, on the
S. W. declivity of the Apennines, 20
miles N. N. E. of Perugia. It has a
13th century cathedral, several mediaeval
palaces, the Brancaleoni with a valuable
picture-gallery, and remains of an an-
cient theater. The celebrated Eugubine
Tables are preserved in the town house.
Gubbio was noted for its majolica ware,
which was brought to perfection by
Giorgio Andreoli in 1517-1537, by his
delicate use of a beautiful ruby luster.
Two celebrated yellow lusters were also
used on Gubbio majolica.
GUBEN (go'ben), a town and river-
port in the province of Brandenburg,
Prussia, at the head of the navigable
portion of the Neisse, 28 miles S. of
Frankfort-on-the-Oder. The town was
destroyed by the Hussites in 1434 and
1437, and was twice occupied by the
Swedes during the Thirty Years' War.
Pop. about 38,600.
GUELDERLAND (gel'der-lant), or
GUELDERS (gel'derz), a province of
the Netherlands, between the Zuider Zee
on the N. W. and the Prussian domin-
ions on the S. E.; area, 1,965 square
miles. It is watered chiefly by the
Meuse, the Yssel, the Rhine, and the
Waal. It was originally inhabited by
the Batavi and Sigambri, and after them
by the Franks. In 870 it passed to
Germany; and in the end of the 11th
century became a territorial power, its
ruler bearing the title of count. This
was exchanged for the higher title of
duke in 1383, and in 1483 the duchy was
taken possession of by Maximilian of
Austria. Yet it was not till 1543 that
the power of the Duke of Guelders was
finally broken and his land definitely in-
corporated with the Austrian Nether-
lands. By the peace of 1814 Guelders
was finally divided between Holland and
Prussia. Pop. (1918) 727,165.
GUELF, or GUELPH (gwelf), the
name of a family, which in the 11th cen-
tury was transplanted from Italy to
Germany, where it became the ruling
race of several countries. The family,
until the World War, continued in the
two lines of Brunswick, the royal in
England, and the ducal in Germany.
For their history, see Ghibellines.
GUELPH, a city, port of entry, and
capital of Wellington co., Ontario; on the
Speed river, 45 miles W. by S. of To-
ronto. It is the seat of the Ontario
Agricultural College, and has several
flour mills, woolen mills, and manufac-
tories of sewing machines, the Speed
supplying abundant motive power. Pop.
about 15,200.
GUERILLA (ge-ril'la), an irregular
mode of carrying on war by means of
small, independent bands of armed men,
self-constituted and ordered, unconnected
with a regular army, and entitled to dis-
miss themselves at any time. Guerilla
warfare is mainly carried on in a coun-
try occupied by an enemy.
GUERIN, JULES, an American artist,
born in St. Louis, in 1866- He studied
GUERNSEY
421
GUEUX
art in Paris and was awarded the silver
medal at the St. Louis Exposition in
1904. He was director of color and
decoration at the Panama-Pacific Expo-
sition. He painted decorations for the
Lincoln Memorial at Washington, and
for the Pennsylvania Station in New
York City. He was an associate of the
National Academy, and was a member
of the National Institute of Arts and
Letters.
GUERNSEY (gem'zi), the second-
largest and most W. of the Channel
Islands, lying off the N. coast of France,
46 miles from Cherbourg, and about 68
miles from Start Point in Devonshire.
It is of a triangular form, area 19 square
miles. The N, part is level, the S. more ele-
vated, coast lofty and abrupt, the island
being almost entirely of granite forma-
tion. The climate is extremely healthy.
The soil is fertile. The breeding of cattle
and the dairy are the principal objects
of attention; and the butter made is
highly esteemed. Horticulture and flori-
culture also receive much attention, and
fruit, especially figs and grapes, is very
abundant. The grape-houses are further
utilized for the raising of early vege-
tables and tomatoes, which are sent to
the London market. The principal ex-
ports are cattle, fruits, vegetables in the
early spring; granite for paving, etc.
The dialect of the island is the pure Nor-
man of some centuries ago; but a knowl-
edge of English is general. The prin-
cipal educational institution is Eliza-
beth College, at St. Peter's Port, the
capital, and only town in the island.
Steamers ply regularly between Guern-
sey and London, Southampton, Ply-
mouth and Weymouth. The island is
under a lieutenant-governor, who repre-
sents the sovereign in the assembly of
the states, a kind of local parliament.
It is strongly fortified, and has a well-
organized militia. Pop. (1919) 45,000.
GUERRERO (ger-ra'ro), a State of
Mexico, on the Pacific Ocean; area, 24,-
996 square miles; capital Chilpancingo.
It is a broken mountainous country, rich
in minerals, fertile in the upland valleys,
and enjoying a favorable climate ex-
cept on the coast. Pop. (1917) 620,416.
GUESCLIN, BERTRAND DU (ga-
klan'). Constable of France; born near
Dinan in the district of Rennes, about
either 1314 or 1320. From his boyhood
upward he excelled in all martial exer-
cises. In the contests between Charles
de Blois and Jean de Montfort for the
dukedom of Brittany he took part with
the former, especially distinguishing
himself at Vannes (1342). After King
John had been taken prisoner by the
Black Prince at the battle of Poitiers in
1356, Du Guesclin contended success-
fully against the English, his valor and
military skill being especially shown at
Rennes (1356) and Dinan (1357). Then,
entering the service of the Dauphin,
afterward Charles V., he took Melun
(1359) and several other fortified towns,
and freed the Seine from the English.
On Charles* accession to the throne in
1364 Du Guesclin was created governor
of Pontorson, and in May of the same
year gained the battle of Cocherel
against Charles the Bad of Navarre.
But on Sept. 29 following he was de-
feated and taken prisoner by the Eng-
lish, under Sir John Chandos, at the
battle of Auray, and only liberated on
payment of a ransom of 100,000 livres.
He next supported Henry, Count of
Trastamare, against Pedro the Cruel,
King of Castile, but was defeated and
taken prisoner by the Black Prince near
Najera (1367). Being again ransomed
on payment of a large sum, Du Guesclin
renewed the contest, and in 1369 de-
feated and captured Pedro at Montiel,
and placed the crown of Castile on the
head of Henry of Trastamare. Immedi-
ately afterward he was recalled by
Charles V. of France, at that time hard
pressed by the English, and was raised
to the dignity of Constable of France.
In the year 1370 Du Guesclin opened his
campaigns against the English, and in
a few years the whole of their posses-
sions were in the hands of the French,
with the exception of a few fortified
towns. While assisting at the siege of
Chateauneuf de Randon, in Languedoc,
Du Guesclin was taken ill, and died July
13, 1380.
GUEUX (ge), or "The Beggars," the
name assumed by the confederated no-
bles who opposed the introduction of the
Inquisition into the Low Countries by
Philip II. of Spain. Forming themselves
into an association, November, 1565,
they presented a formal protest to the
regent, Margaret of Parma, April 5,
1565. Their distinctive party name they
adopted from an abusive epithet applied
to them on that occasion by one of Mar-
garet's courtiers. The "beggars," who
represented the national feeling of the
country, maintained a long and vigor-
ous contest against the despotic proceed-
ings of Philip and his advisers, but were
ultimately compelled to succumb to su-
perior force. A branch of them, "the
Beggars of the Sea," under the leader-
ship of the bold Count de la Marck,
seriously harassed the Spanish fleet, cap-
tured transports with supplies for Al-
GUIANA
422
GUILD
va's army, seized several fortresses, and
succored besieged places along the coast.
Their capture of Briel in April, 1572,
was the beginning of the war which ter-
minated in the independence of the
Netherlands in 1648.
GUIANA (ge-a'na), BBITISH, a
British colony in the N. E. part of
South America; bounded by Dutch
Guiana, Brazil, Venezuela, and the At-
lantic Ocean; area, 89,480 square miles;
capital, Georgetown. The surface of the
country is diversified with low savannahs
near the coast and mountainous toward
the S., the highest mountain being Mt.
Roraima, 7,500 feet. The chief products
are gold, sugar, molasses, balata, rum,
and rice. There are railroads, stearn-
ship communications with Great Britain
and telegraph and telephone systems.
Columbus is said to have discovered the
Guianas in 1498. The Dutch made set-
tlements in 1650 and the English in 1630.
In 1804 the Guianas were divided be-
tween the English, French, and Dutch,
as they now stand. In 1895 there was
trouble between Great Britain and Vene-
zuela, concerning the Guiana boundary.
Pop. (1918) 460,000.
GUIANA, DUTCH, or SURINAM, a
colony of the Netherlands in the N. E.
part of South America; bounded by
Brazil, British Guiana, French Guiana,
and the Atlantic Ocean; area, 46,050
square miles; capital, Paramaribo. The
surface is low along the coast, grad-
ually increasing in elevation toward
the mountains in the S. The prin-
cipal products and exports are sugar,
cocoa, bananas, coffee, rice, maize, rurn,
molasses, and gold. There are public
schools, savings banks, and steamship
lines. In 1667 Dutch Guiana was ceded
to the Netherlands by Great Britain
in exchange for New Netherlands. It
was held by the British in 1799-1802,
and again in 1804-1816, when it was
returned to the Netherlands with sev-
eral other Dutch colonies. Pop. (1919)
167,827.
GUICOIARDINI, FRANCESCO (gwe-
char-de'ne), an Italian historian ; born in
Florence, March 6, 1482. The combined
studies of law and literature engrossed
his attention at first; and at the age
of 23 he was elected Professor of Law
at Florence, where he also practiced as
an advocate. His apprenticeship served
in Spain (1512-1514), he became papal
ruler of Modena and Reggio under Leo
X. and Clement VII., and afterward of
Parrna in 1521, the Romagna in 1523,
and Bologna in 1531. Retiring from
the service of the Pope in 1534, he was
instrumental in securing the election of
Cosmo de' Medici as duke of his native
city, Florence. But, being disappointed
in his ambitious design of acting as
mayor of the palace to this young
prince, Guicciardini withdrew to Arce-
tri, and busied himself with the composi-
tion of an analytical history of Italy be-
tween 1494 and 1532. He died in Arce-
tri, in May, 1540.
GUIDO ARETINUS (gwe'd5 a-ri-tl'
nus), or GUY OF AREZZO (a-ret'so),
a French musician; born near Paris in
990; went to Arezzo as a Benedictine
monk. He greatly influenced musical
studies, and almost every discovery made
in music for 150 years has been attrib-
uted to him, including that of descant,
counterpoint, and the spinet. He is
said to have invented the principle on
which the construction of the stave is
based, and the hexachord, solmisation,
and the "Harmonic or Guidonian Hand,"
a mnemonic method of indicating the
order of the musical sounds on the finger-
joints of the left hand. Guido left writ-
ings explanatory of his musical doc-
trines, especially the "Micrologus" and
the "Antiphonarium." He died in Avel-
lana in 1050.
GUIDO RENI, an Italian painter;
born in Calvenzano, Nov. 4, 1575. He
studied under Calvaert, and entered the
school of the Caracci. His earliest
works, of which the "Coronation of the
Virgin," in the National Gallery, Lon-
don, is an example, are marred by
rather harsh and violent coloring; but
coming under the influence of Carava-
ggio, he adopted many of the qualities
of his art. About 1596 he settled in
Rome, where he worked for some 20
years, adopting a graceful style, of
which the famous "Aurora and the
Hours," painted on the ceiling of the
pavilion of the Rospigliosi Palace, is a
typical example, as is also the "Na-
tivity," in the choir of San Martino at
Naples. He died at Bologna Aug. 18,
1642.
GUIENNE (ge-enO, one of the old
French provinces, comprehending the
present departments of Gironde, Lot,
Dordogne, Aveyron, with portions of
Tarn-et-Garonne and Lot-et-Garonne. It
formed with Gascony what was origi-
nally the country of Aquitania, of which
name Guienne is a corruption.
GUILD, a society or body of individ-
uals associated together for carrying on
commerce, or some particular trade or
business. There existed at Rome vari-
ous fraternities of tradesmen, which
bore a considerable resemblance to our
modern guild, and were permitted to
GUILDFORD
423
GUINEA
regulate their affairs by their own laws;
but it is usual to trace the origin of
guilds to the Middle Ages. As soon as
the citizens acquired an influence in the
administration, the guilds became the
basis of the municipal constitutions, and
everyone who wished to participate in
the municipal government was obliged
to become a member of a guild. Guilds
introduced the democratic element into
society, and in their progress became the
bulwarks of the citizen's liberty and the
depositaries of much political power. By
the close of the 12th century merchants'
guilds were general throughout the cities
of Europe. The Drapers' Company of
Hamburg dates from 1153, and that of
the Shoemakers of Magdeburg from
1157. With the increase of their wealth
and strength, the guilds either pur-
chased or extorted from their rulers priv-
ileges which, once obtained, they were
careful never to give up. By the 13th
century they had acquired considerable
power, and in the course of two suc-
cessive ages they counterbalanced the
power of the nobles.
GUILDFORD (gil'ford), a town and
county-seat of Surrey, England, in a
break of the chalk ridge of the North
Downs, on the navigable Wey, 30 miles
S. W. of London. Its houses are still
rich in quaint gables, projecting fi'onts,
and long latticed windows. The square
Norman keep of its royal castle is 70
feet high with walls 10 feet thick; on
St. Catherine's Hill is a ruined chapel
(1313) ; Abbot Hospital, founded in
1619 by Archbishop Abbot for 12 breth-
ren and 8 sisters, is a picturesque red
brick pile; and other buildings are the
churches of St. Nicholas, St. Mary, and
the Holy Trinity, the guildhall (1687),
county hall (1862), county hospital
(1868), and grammar school (1509-
1550). Guildford is famous for its grain
market, the "Surrey wheats" being cele-
brated. It was bequeathed in 901 by
Alfred the Great to his nephew Ethel-
wald, and in 1036 was the scene of the
decimation by King Harold's men of the
Norman followers of Alfred the Athel-
ing, a crime that led up to the Norman
conquest of England. The Dauphin
Louis took the castle in 1216; and in
1685 Monmouth was temporarily con-
fined in Abbot Hospital. Pop. about
23,000.
GUILDHALL, a building in London,
the place of assembly of sevei'al courts,
and the scene of the civic banquets of
the city corporation; originally built in
1411, but almost wholly destroyed by
the gi'eat fire of 1666. It was rebuilt in
1789 in its modern form.
GUILFORD COLLEGE, a coeduca-
tional institution in Guilford, N. C;
founded in 1837 under the auspices of
the Society of Friends, reported at the
close of 1919: Professors and instructors,
15; students, 177; president, Raymond
Binford.
GUILFORD COURT-HOUSE, a vil-
lage in Guilford co., N. C; about 5
miles from Greensboro; noted for a
battle fought between the Americans
under General Greene and the British
under Lord Cornwallis, on March 15,
1781. The Americans numbered about
4,400 and the British 2,400. Both
armies lost heavily, and the engagement
was indecisive.
GUILLOTINE (gi-lo-ten') , an appara-
tus for beheading persons at one stroke,
adopted by the National Assembly of
France during the first revolution, on
the proposal of a Dr. Guillotin, after
whom it is named. It was made by a
German mechanic, named Schmidt,
under the direction of Dr. Antoine Louis,
secretary of the Academy of Surgery,
and was at first called Louison, or Louis-
ette. It was used the first time April
25, 1792, for the execution of a high-
wayman named Pelletier.
GUINEA (gin'i), the name formerly
given a large section of the W. coast of
Africa, from the Senegal, in about 14°
N. lat., to Cape Negro, in 16° S. lat. It
was divided into two parts. Upper and
Lower Guinea, the dividing line being
taken variously as the equator, the Ga-
boon, and the Ogoway. The states and
political territories comprised within
this long stretch of coast-line, commenc-
ing from the N., were as follows: the
French colony of Senegal, the English
settlements on the Gambia, the Portu-
guese territory of Bissao or Bissajos, the
coastal fringe before Futa-Jallon, Sierra
Leone, the free negro republic of Liberia,
the Ivory and Gold Coasts, the Slave
Coast, the Niger delta, and the Kame-
runs in Upper Guinea; and in Lower
Guinea, the Spanish settlements on Co-
risco Bay, Gaboon, the Kongo Free State,
and the Portuguese territories of Am-
briz, Angola, and Benguela. The coast-
line is throughout tolerably uniform, and
everywhere flat, with numerous shallow
lagoons separated from the ocean by
narrow spits of sand, lying parallel to
the coast. Proceeding inland, the coun-
try rises to the central plateau of the
continent by a series of broad terrace-
like steps, down which the longer rivers
are generally precipitated in cataracts
and rapids. The Genoese claim to have
been the first European navigators to
reach, in 1291, the coasts of Guinea.
GUINEA FOWL
424
QUISE
They were, however, first regularly
visited by merchant adventurers from
Rouen and Dieppe from 1364 onward,
but not colonized till the end of the 15th
century, when the Portuguese, under the
enterprising Prince Henry the Naviga-
tor, sent out, in 1481, the first colonies
to this part of the world.
GUINEA FOWL, a genus of African
birds in the pheasant family. The
plumage is dark gray, with round spots
of white, generally larger on the back
and under the surface. Some sj>ecies
are adorned on the head with a helmet
or horny casque, while others have
fleshy wattles on the cheeks and a tuft
or top-knot on the crown. The genus
is represented by nine species, in the
Ethiopian region — E. to Madagascar, S.
to Natal. The best known is the com-
mon guinea fowl or pintado (N. rnelea-
gris) , also popularly known as "Come-
back," from its cry, with naked head,
and slate-colored plumage, everywhere
speckled with round white spots of vari-
ous sizes. It is common in Guinea and
S. to the Cape of Good Hope. It is
found also in more N. parts of Africa,
and was known to the ancient Romans,
by whom it was called Meleagris and
Gallina Numidica, and highly prized. In
their wild state the birds occur in flocks,
sometimes of 50 to 60. They are not so
polygamous as many of the gallinaceous
birds, and even in domestication show a
tendency to pair. The guinea fowl is
now common in the poultry yards of most
parts of the world.
GUINEA, GULF OF, that portion of
the Atlantic which washes the shores of
Upper Guinea, between Cape Palmas
and Cape Lopez, and including the
bights of Bein and Biafra. The isl-
ands of Fernando Po, Prince's, and St.
Thomas are within this gulf.
GUINEA PIG, the common name of
the genus Cavia, family Hystricidse. The
common guinea pig, C. cobaia, is indig-
enous to South America, but is now
found domesticated in all parts of the
world. It has ears large and broad, the
upper lip divided in two, the hair or fur
erect, and somewhat resembling that of
a pig. Its color is generally white, with
black spots, although this is somewhat
variegated by orange blotches on the
coat. It has five toes on the fore legs,
and three on the hind ones and has no
tail. In their habits guinea pigs are
extremely neat.
GUINEGATE (gen-gaf) , a village of
Hainault, Belgium; the scene of two
French defeats. On Aug. 17, 1479, they
were beaten by Maximilian L ^^ Aus-
tria; and on Aug. 16, 1513, by Henry
VIII. and the Emperor Maximilian.
This battle was called the Battle of the
Spurs, the French knights having made
more use of their spurs than of their
swords.
GUINES (gen), formerly GUISNES,
a small town in France, 8 miles S. of
Calais; the scene of "the Field of the
Cloth of Gold."
GUINEY, LOUISE IMOGEN (gl'
ni), an American poet; born in Boston,
Jan. 7, 1861. Among her volumes of
verse may be mentioned: "Verse";
"Songs at the Start"; "A Roadside
Harp"; "Martyr's Idyl"; etc. She has
also published: "Goose-Quill Papers";
"Brownies and Bogles"; "Monsieur
Henri"; "A Little English Gallery";
"Lovers' Saint Ruths"; "Patrins"; "The
Secret of Fougereuse"; "Hurrell Froude"
(1904) "The Blessed Edmund Campion"
(1908), etc. She died in 1920.
GUISBOROUGH (giz'bur-o), a town
of the North Riding of Yorkshire, Eng-
land, at the foot of the Cleveland Hills,
in the midst of the iron mining district,
9 miles E. S. E. of Middlesborough. The
earliest alum works in England were
established here about the year 1600.
Here too are the remains of a priory
built in 1119 by Robert de Brus, and at
the time of the Reformation one of the
wealthiest monastic institutions in the
kingdom.
GUISCARD, ROBERT (ges-kar'),
Duke of Apulia and Calabria; born near
Coutances, Normandy, about 1015; won
great renown in south Italy as a soldier,
and after the death of William and Hum-
phrey was proclaimed Count of Apulia.
Guiscard next captured Reggio and Co-
senza (1060), and thus conquered Cala-
bria, in the possession of which he was
confirmed by Pope Nicholas II. Robert
now became the Pope's champion, and
along with his younger brother Roger
waged incessant war against Greeks and
Saracens in south Italy and Sicily, both
of which gradually fell under their
arms, the latter being, however, given to
Roger as count. The closing years of
his life were occupied in fighting against
Alexius Comnenus, who had deposed
Michael VII. from the throne of Con-
stantinople. He died in Cephalonia,
July 17, 1085.
GUISE (giiez), a town of the depart-
ment of Aisne, France, on the Oise, 25
miles E. N. E. of St. Quentin. Within
the town are the ruins of a castle, from
which the famous Dukes of Guise de-
rived their title. The iron works are
OX7ISE
425
GUITAR
conducted on a profit-sharing scheme;
and the workmen are provided with
dwellings on the associated plan. This
"Familistere," of which the first portion
was erected by the initiator of the ex-
periment, M. Godin, in 1859-1860, cost
about $400,000, and provides accommo-
dation for 2,000 persons. Within the
buildings are a cafe, theater, nursery,
schools, covered playgrounds, co-opera-
tive store, and a library and reading
room. The town was occupied by Ger-
man forces in 1914 in their drive on
Paris.
GUISE, the name of a branch of the
ducal family of Lorraine, which it de-
rives from the town of Guise, in the de-
partment of Aisne.
Claude op Lorraine, first Duke of
Guise, fifth son of Rene II., Duke of
Lorraine; born at the chateau of Conde,
Oct. 20, 1496. Attaching himself to
Francis I., he fought with distinction at
Marignano in 1516; but after that cam-
paign remained at home to defend
France against the English and Ger-
mans (1522-1523). During the captivity
of Francis I., after Pavia, Claude of
Guise suppressed the peasant revolt in
Lorraine (1527), for which Francis,
after his return home, created him Duke
of Guise. He died April 12, 1550.
His daughter, Mary op Lorraine,
born Nov. 22, 1515; in 1538 became the
wife of James V. of Scotland. By his
death in 1542 she was left a widow with
one child, Mary, Queen of Scots. Under
the regency of Arran which followed,
war broke out between England and
Scotland, partly on account of the claims
which Henry VIII, made with regard to
the infant Mary's marriage, and partly
on religious grounds. Mary of Lorraine
during those years acted with much wis-
dom and moderation; but after her own
accession to the regency in 1554, she al-
lowed the Guises too much to influence
her policy, the result being that the
Protestant nobles combined against her
in 1559. This rebellion, which she was
assisted by French troops to repress,
continued almost to the time of her
death, which took place in Edinburgh
Castle, June 10, 1560.
Francis, second Duke of Guise, son of
the first duke; born in Bar, Feb. 17,
1519; became one of the greatest gen-
erals of France. At the siege of Bou-
logne in 1545 he gained the nickname
of Balafre from a severe wound in his
face. Seven years later he held Metz
gloriously against Charles V. of Ger-
many and thus prevented an invasion of
Finance. He added to his reputation at
Renti in 1554, fighting against the
troops of Charles V., and in 1556 took
command of the expedition against
Naples. Recalled in the following year
to defend the N. frontier against the
English, he took Calais in 1558 and other
towns, and brought about the treaty of
Chateau Cambresis in 1559. He and his
brother Charles, the cardinal, probably
the most capable man of the Guises, who
afterward played a prominent part at the
Council of Trent, then managed to pos-
sess themselves of all real power during
the reign of the weak King Francis II.
Putting themselves at the head of the
Roman Catholic opposition to the Re-
formation, they repressed Protestantism
with a strong arm. In the war between
Huguenots and Catholics Guise and
Montmorency won a victory at Dreux in
1562, and the former was besieging Or-
leans when he was assassinated by a
Huguenot nobleman, on Feb. 18, 1563.
Henry I., third Duke of Guise, son of
Francis; born December 31, 1550. Filled
by the murder of his father with bitter
hatred of the Protestants, he fought
fiercely against them, at Jarnac in
March, 1569, and Moncontour in October,
1569, and in the same year forced
Coligny to raise the siege of Poitiers.
He was one of the contrivers of the mas-
sacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24,
1572, in which he personally made sure
that Coligny should be slain; and sub-
sequently he put himself at the head of
the Catholic League. He had, however,
a greater ambition, that of succeeding
to the throne of France, for in respect
of real povv^er he was already the equal,
or rather the superior, of the feeble
King Henry III., whose commands he
set at naught and whom he so deeply
humiliated that the king procured his
assassination at Blois, Dec. 23, 1588.
Henry II., fifth Duke of Guise, grand-
son of Henry I.; born in Blois, April 4,
1614. He was destined for the Church,
and at the age of 15 became Archbishop
of Rheims, but in 1640, on the death of
his elder brother, he succeeded to the
dukedom. Having joined the league
against Richelieu, he was condemned by
the parliament of Paris to capHal
punishment, but found refuge in Flan-
ders. He put himself at the hfad of
Masaniello's revolt in Naples as the rep-
resentative of the Anjou family, but was
taken prisoner by the Spanish forces in
1647, and carried to Madrid, where he
remained five years. After another
fruitless attempt to win Naples in 1654,
he settled at Paris and lived the life of
a courtier. He died in Paris, June 2,
1664.
GUITAR Cei-tar'). a musical strineed
instrument, somewhat like the lute, par-
ticularly well adapted for accompany-
GUITEAU
426
GXTLF OF ST. LATJKENCE
ing the human voice, and much esteemed
in Spain and Italy. It was first intro-
duced into the former country from the
East by the Moors. It has six strings,
and the sound is produced by the fingers
of the right hand twitching the strings,
while the fingers of the left hand make
the notes of the music on the finger-
board, which has frets across it. The
three highest strings of the guitar are
always of gut, and the three lowest are
of silk spun over with silvered wire.
The greatest virtuosi on the guitar have
been Giuliani, Sor, Zocchi, StoU, and
Horetzsky.
GUITEAU, CHARLES JULIUS (ge-
to'), an American assassin; born about
1840; became a lawyer in Chicago. In
1880, after the election of James A.
Garfield to the presidency, Guiteau went
to Washington presumably to secure the
office of United States consul at Mar-
seilles, but did not succeed. Owing to
this failure and the fact that the new
President was opposed to the "Stal-
warts," led by Roscoe Conkling, Guiteau
became greatly incensed. On July 2,
1881, he shot the President in the wait-
ing room of the Baltimore and Potomac
Railroad station in Washington; and on
Sept. 19 the President died from the ef-
fect of his wound. Letters taken from
Guiteau after his arrest showed that he
had planned to "remove" the President.
He was indicted for murder on Oct. 7,
was found guilty after trial on Jan. 25,
1882; and was hanged in the District of
Columbia jail, June 30, following.
GUITRY, LUCIEN. A French ac-
tor. He was born in Paris in 1860, and
after receiving his education in the Paris
schools, went on the stage and had con-
siderable success from the beginning. An
opportunity offering for work in Russia
he went there and spent nine years at
the Theatre Michael, Petrograd. The
roles in which he has won success are
numerous, the most noted being in
"L'Assommoir," "La Veine," "L'Adver-
saire," "Le Mannequin-d'osier," "La
Griffe," "Le Voleur," "Sampson," "L'Em-
igre," "Chantecle." He is Manager of
Porte St. Martin and Director of the
Renaissance Theatre.
G U I Z 0 T, FIIAN9OIS - PIERRE -
GUILLAUME (ge-z6'), a French his-
torian; born in Nimes, Oct. 4, 1787; edu-
cated at the gymnasium of Geneva, Swit-
zerland. In 1805 he commenced legal
studies at Paris, but gradually drifted
into the literary profession. In 1812
he married Mile, de Meulan, editor of the
"Publiciste," and became Professor of
History at the Sorbonne. On the fall of
the empire he obtained several public
offices, such as councillor of state, and
director-general of the department and
communal administration. In 1816 he
published "The Representative Govern-
ment, and the Real Condition of France"
and "An Essay on Public Instruction."
In 1820 the Due de Barry was assassi-
nated, and Guizot's party fell before an
ultra-royalist reaction. In 1825 he was
deprived of his chair on account of the
political character of his lectures, but it
was restored to him in 1828. In 1829 he
again became councillor of state, and in
1830 was elected deputy for the arron-
dissement of Lisieux. After the July
revolution he was appointed minister of
the interior, but resigned in 1831. After
the death of Perier, Guizot, along with
Thiers and De Broglie, formed a coali-
tion ministry, and he rendered great
service as minister of public instruction.
He became ambassador at the British
court in 1840, and next year he became
the real head of the government of which
Soult was the nominal chief. He re-
tained the office of minister of foreign
affairs until 1848, and during that period
opposed all measures of reform. After
the fall of Louis Philippe, Guizot es-
caped and fled to England. Henceforth
he practically retired from public life.
Among his numerous works may be men-
tioned: "History of Civilization in
France"; "General History of Civiliza-
tion in Europe"; "History of the Eng-
lish Revolution"; "Meditations and Moral
Studies"; "Memoirs in Regard to the
History of My Time"; "Meditations on
the Actual State of the Christian Re-
ligion"; "Biographical and Literary Mis-
cellanies"; "History of France, told by
My Small Children"; "William the Con-
queror"; and "Washington." He died in
Val-Richer, France, Oct. 12, 1874.
GUJARAT (guzh-ratO , or GUZERAT,
the chief town of Gujarat district, in the
Punjab, India; a few miles N. of the
present bed of the Chenab; is a place of
some military and political importance,
as well as the center of a considerable
trade. Here, in 1849, a decisive battle
was fought, which finally broke the Sikh
power, and brought the whole Punjab
under British rule.
GUJRANWALA (guzh-ran-wa'la) ,
chief town of Gujranwala district in the
Punjab, India; 40 miles N. of Lahore.
It was for a time the capital of the Sikh
power, and Ran jit Singh was born here.
GULDEN (gold'en), a silver coin of
Austria-Hungary and also of Holland,
worth about 40 cents ; also called a florin.
GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE, a W. in-
let of the North Atlantic Ocean, touching
GULFPORT
427
ctdm: ababic
all the British provinces of North Amer-
ica, Newfoundland, Canada, New Bruns-
wick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward
Island. It has three communications with
the ocean, the Strait of Belle Isle, be-
tween Newfoundland and Labrador; the
Gulf of Canso, between the island of
Cape Breton and the peninsula of Nova
Scotia; and a far wider passage than
either, with the island of St. Paul in the
middle, between Cape Breton and New-
foundland; while in the opposite direc-
tion it narrows, at the W. end of Anti-
costi, into the estuary of the St. Law-
rence river.
GULFPORT, a city of Mississippi, the
county-seat of Harrison co. It is on the
Mississippi Sound and on the Louisville
and Nashville and the Gulf and Ship
Island railroads. The city is a port of
entry and has an excellent harbor, acces-
sible to large vessels. It has an impor-
tant trade in lumber, naval stores, cotton,
etc. Its industries include fertilizer
works, canning factories, and saw
mills. Among the notable buildings are
a United States custom house, Gulf
Coast Military Academy, and a post
office building. Pop. (1910) 6,386; (1920)
8,157.
GULF STREAM, a well-defined cur-
rent in the Atlantic Ocean. As all ocean
currents are so continuous as to be really
but one current connected at the two
ends, so that the movement of one part
is the movement of all, the Gulf stream
cannot strictly be said to begin anywhere.
It is due to the reflux of the equatorial
current. The condensation and super-
heating of the last-named current takes
place mainly in the Caribbean Sea and
the Gulf of Mexico, whence arises the
name Gulf stream. Its temperature
there is about 50°. It emerges as a de-
fined hot current through the Straits of
Florida, and courses in a N. E. direction
at a little distance from the coast of the
United States, so affecting the Bermudas
as to make their climate semi-tropical.
Between these islands and Halifax the
Gulf stream is about 60 miles broad, 100
fathoms deep, and moves at the rate of
3 knots an hour. It is of a deep blue
color, in marked contrast to the dull
green of the Arctic reflux. The Gulf
stream moves in a N. E. direction to-
ward Europe. It is generally believed to
be through its influence that the W.
coast of the European continent is so
much milder than the corresponding lati-
tudes of America.
GULL, the English name of Lams, a
genus of natatorial birds. They are wide-
ly distributed along the shores of the
several seas and oceans, feeding vora-
ciously on fish. They breed on rocky
headlands, making a rude nest in which
they lay from two to four eggs. Many
of the species are migratory, and all are
powerful of wing, which enables them to
fly against a storm. They are slaugh-
tered by thousands to provide plumes for
ladies' hats. The flesh of the gull is rank
and coarse, but that of the young birds
is salted for winter use on many N.
coasts. The eggs are much sought after
for food. Gulls: (1) The sub-family
Larinse, one of three into which the fam-
ily Laridse is divided. It contains the
genus Lestris (Sktia) , in addition to the
gulls proper. (2) The family Laridae^
It comprehends not only the gulls, but the
terns, petrels, etc.
GUM, in anatomy, the soft covering
of the dental arches. The gums consist
of a dense connective tissue, covered by a
scaly and stratified epithelium.
GUM, a vegetable secretion, sometimes
occurring in intercellular spaces, formed
by the separation of the walls of cells;
it is viscid, but not oily. The most typi-
cal kind of gum is Gum Arabic {q. v.).
In pharmacy gum is used as a demulcent
to allay the irritation of the mucous
membrane, also for suspending heavy
powders, when they ai'e given in a liquid.
The word is sometimes used synony-
mously with the term gumming. Gum
from the spruce tree is extensively used
as a confection and as a chewing-gum.
Doctor's gum is said to be furnished by
Rhus vietopinm, a Jamaica plant, to
which, as well as to some other plants.
Hog gum has been attributed.
GUM ARABIC, a gum obtained from
the Acacia arabica, which grows abun-
dantly in India and Arabia. It is yielded
also by A. speciosa in India, A. nilotica
and A. seyal in Arabia, A. tor tills and A.
ehrenbergiava in ti'opical Africa, A.
moUissima and affinis supply a similar
gum in Australia. Gum arable can be ob-
tained also from VachelUa farnesiana of
India, a small tree closely allied to the
true acacias; a gum akin to it is derived
from Terminalia belerica, a Myrobalan.
Gum arable occurs in transparent white
tears, which are often colored yellow
or brown by impurities. It dissolves in
water, and the solution gives a precipi-
tate of arabin on the addition of hydro-
chloric acid. Gum arable contains about
70 per cent, of arabin, 2Cc;H,oOs-f H:0,
and 17 per cent, of water; the rest con-
sists of potash and lime, which were com-
bined with the arabin. Gum is insoluble
in alcohol. By the action of nitric acid
it is converted into mucic, saccharic, and
oxalic acids.
GTJMMERE
428
GUN POWDER
GUMMERE, ERAITCIS BARTON
(gum'e-re) , an American teacher and
author; born in Burlington, N. J., March
6, 1855. He was instructor in Harvard
College from 1881 to 1882; and in 1887
became Professor of English at Haver-
ford College, Pa. Besides miscellaneous
papers in Germanic philology and Eng-
lish literature, he has written: "The
Anglo-Saxon Metaphor" (1881) ; "Hand-
book of Poetics" (1885) ; "Germanic
Origins" (1892) ; "Old English Ballads"
(1904); "The Popular Ballad" (1907).
GUN. See Automatic Gun; Firearms;
Ordnance; Artillery; Machine Gun;
Explosives.
GUN BATTERY, in fortification, the
emplacement of two or more pieces of ar-
tillery, destined to act on the offensive or
defensive. It may be: En echarpe, hav-
ing a line of fire oblique with the object.
En revers, playing on the rear of the
enemy. Crossfire, several batteries hav-
ing a converging fire on an object. Case-
mate, when protected by a bomb-proof
chamber, and firing from embrasures.
Barbette, firing over a parapet. Ricochet
(smooth bores only) , when the balls, with
a low charge, traverse the inner face of
the enemy's work, and rebound and roll
along the same. Mountain, light pieces
adapted to be dismounted and, with their
dislocated carriages, carried on mules.
Some of these have been made in two
pieces, which unscrew for ease in trans-
port. In field-artillery, the tactical unit
of field-artillery, consisting of six or
eight field guns under one command, to-
gether with the oflicers, men, horses,
wagons, and stores.
GUN COTTON, pyroxylin. Trinitro-
cellulose, C,,H7(NO-.)305, more probably a
nitric ether of cellulose, Ci2H,4(ONOl.)o04,
as by the action of reducing agents as
hydric potassium sulphide, KHS, and
iron and acetic acid, it is converted into
cellulose. Boiled with ferrous sulphate
and concentrated hydrochloric acid, it
gives off all its nitrogen as N2O2. Gun
cotton was discovered by Schonbein in
1845. It is prepared by drying cotton-
wool at 100° and then leaving it for
24 hours in a mixture of one volume of
nitric acid, specific gravity 1.5, and
three volumes of sulphuric acid, specific
gravity 1.85, the mixture being cooled to
10°. It is then washed with water, and,
if required pure, again with a mixture of
one part alcohol and three parts ether
to remove the lower nitrates. Gun cot-
ton finely divided explodes between 160°-
170°. It keeps best if it is washed with
soda. Compressed gun cotton burns like
tinder, but is exploded by mercuric-ful-
minate. See Explosives.
GUNNERY, See GuN POWDER, Ar-
tillery, Machine Gun, Rifle, etc.
GUNNISON, a river in Colorado, a
tributary of the Grand river, and which
passes through a remarkable canon 15
miles in length.
GUN POWDER, like many other so-
called "modern inventions," gun powder
appears to have been known to the Chi-
nese several centuries before its invention
in Europe, whether we ascribe the in-
vention to Roger Bacon in the 13th cen-
tury or to Friar Schwartz in the 14th.
Its earliest well-authenticated use in war-
fare was at the battle of Crecy in 1346.
Its use was rapidly extended and within
a century after Crecy it had driven the
bow and arrow from the field and rele-
gated the lance and the battle axe to the
secondary position of weapons for special
emergencies only.
It is rather surprising that for more
than five centuries, the ingredients first
used remained unchanged. These were
saltpeter, charcoal and sulphur; — char-
coal to furnish the fuel for burning, salt-
peter to furnish the oxygen needed to
combine with the carbon of the charcoal,
and sulphur to accelerate the rate of
burning. The products of combustion are
carbon dioxide and nitrogen, both
gases, and the sulphate and carbonate of
potassium, both solids. The expansive
force of the gases is due not alone to the
change from the solid to the gaseous
state, but to the further expansion from
the heat released by the change. The
solids, being finely divided, produce the
dense smoke which marks the firing of
a gun loaded with what is now commonly
called "black powder" as distinguished
from the more modern smokeless powder.
Not every explosive substance is suit-
able for use as a "propellant" in a gun.
To be available for such use, not only
must the explosive develop great power
but it must develop this power gradually,
so that the projectile shall be started
from its seat slowly and driven down the
bore more and more rapidly as the pres-
sure behind it rises to a maximum. If
the full pressure were developed instan-
taneously, the gun would be ruptured be-
fore the projectile was started from its
seat. Here we touch upon the difference
between "explosion" and "detonation."
The explosion of a charge of powder in a
gun, sudden as it is, is slow compared with
the detonation of the "high explosives,"
nitro-glycerine, gun-cotton, etc. In one
case we have an actual burning, the flame
of which passes from grain to grain of
the powder, occupying an interval which
is perfectly appreciable and can be
measured. In the other case we have a
GUN POWDER
429
GUNTER
shattering of the chemical structure and
a re-arrangement of the atoms in a new
structure, which is as nearly instanta-
neous as any process known to nature.
It has been stated that for several
centuries after the introduction of gun
powder, its composition remained prac-
tically unchanged. This does not mean
that no improvements were made. There
are several factors besides the nature of
the ingredients of the powder which in-
fluence its behavior. Of these, the most
important are the size, shape and density
of the grains. A large grain burns more
slowly than a small one, and a dense
grain more slowly than a light one. And
slow burning means less violence of ex-
plosion and more gradual and progres-
sive development of pressure. The rate
of burning is still further affected by the
shape of the grain — a grain which ex-
poses a large surface to ignition burning
more rapidly than one of smaller sur-
face. Taking advantage of these facts,
artillerists designed many forms of pow-
der grains of varying degrees of effec-
tiveness, but hampered always by the
limitations of expansive power inherent in
the chemical composition of black powder.
It was early recognized that certain of
the high explosives would be ideal for
gun powders if they could be tamed into
the slow and regular burning needed for
a propellant. It was realized not only that
their power was enormously in excess of
the maximum to be hoped for from black
powder, but that, as the products of their
combustion were entirely gaseous, a pow-
der made from them would be practically
smokeless. Many plans were tried for
bringing them under control, but the
problem was not solved until, toward
the end of the last century, the French
chemist and artillerist Vielle discovered
that the burning of gun-cotton could be
perfectly controlled by making it into a
colloid. A colloid is a hard, horn-like
substance, entirely homogeneous, and
free from the cellular structure which,
in simple gun-cotton, allows the flame of
ignition to flash instantaneously through-
out the mass. Singularly enough, it was
found that one of the substances in which
gun-cotton could be dissolved for colloid-
ing was another of the most violent of
high, explosives, nitro-glycerine. When
these two extremely sensitive and tre-
mendously powerful explosives are
treated together by suitable processes,
their combined power is preserved but
their sensitiveness almost completely
eliminated. The resultant substance is the
well-known British "Cordite", one of the
most efficient of the modern smokeless
powders. Another of the substances hav-
ing the power of colloiding gun-cotton
Vol. IV— Cyc— BB
is acetone, used in American and French
smokeless powders. As has been already
stated, none of these powders are abso-
lutely smokeless, but such smoke as they
produce is largely water-vapor, which
dissipates quickly. The point should be
emphasized, however, that smokelessness
is a matter of altogether secondary im-
portance, the real value of gun-cotton
powders lying in their power, which is
enormously greater than that of black
powder, and in the facility with which
they lend themselves to variations of
size and shape suitable for guns of vari-
ous calibers. This point is forcibly
brought out in the variegated shapes
and sizes of smokeless powders used in
the United States Army and Navy. See
Explosives.
GUNPOWDER PLOT, a plot, formed
in England about A. D. 1604, by Robert
Catesby, various Roman Catholics of
rank, goaded into excitement by the penal
laws directed against their faith and its
professors, joining as accomplices. Their
aim was to blow up the House of Parlia-
ment by gunpowder Nov. 5, 1605, and
destroy king, lords, and commons by one
blow. An anonymous letter of mysteri-
ous warning, sent to Lord Monteagle,
having led to the discovery of the plot,
various conspirators were executed Jan.
30 and 31, 1606, and one May 3 following.
Among those put to death was Guy
Fawkes, who had been caught in the
vault below the House of Lords with
matches and touchwood on his person
ready to fire the train. Since 1605 all
places connected with the House of Lords
and Commons where explosives could be
stowed away are annually searched at
the opening of Parliament.
GUNS, a town of Hungary, on the
Giins, 20 miles S. of Oedenburg. This
town was the first that successfully re-
sisted Solyman the Magnificent, when in
1532 that monarch threatened to con-
quer all Europe.
GUNTER. ARCHIBALD CLAVBR-
ING, an American author; born in
Liverpool, England, Oct. 25, 1847. When
five years old he was taken to California
by his parents. He was a mining and
civil engineer in the West from 1867
until 1874, when he became a stock
broker. In 1877 he removed to New
York, where he devoted himself to writ-
ing plays and novels. The best known of
the former are: "Prince Karl"; and "The
Deacon's Daughter." His most popular
novels are : "Mr. Barnes of New York"
(1887) ; and "Mr. Potter of Texas"
(1888) : both successfully dramatized;
"That Frenchman" (1889) ; "Miss No-
body of Nowhere" (1890) ; "Baron Mon-
GUNTOWN
430
GUSTAVUS IV.
tez of Panama and Paris" (1893); "A
Florida Enchantment" and "The Man
Behind the Door'* (1904). He died Feb.
23, 1907.
GUWTOWN", a village in Lee co.,
Miss.; where on June 10, 1864, a Na-
tional force of 12,000 men, commanded by
General Sturgis, was utterly routed by
the Confederates, under General Forrest,
losing about 3,500 men, and everything
except arms.
GITRGES, or GORGES, in heraldry, a
charge meant to represent a whirlpool.
It takes up the whole field; and when
borne properly, is azure and argent.
GURNEY, JOSEPH JOHN, an Eng-
lish philanthropist; born in Earlham
Hall, England, Aug. 2, 1788; became a
Quaker clergyman. He was very active
in prison reform, and was closely identi-
fied with Wilberforce and Clarkson in
the anti-slavery movement. He was the
author of "Notes on Prison Dicipline"
(1819); "Evidences, Etc., of Christi-
anity" (1827) ; etc. He died in Earlham,
England, Jan. 4, 1847.
GTTSSET, in engineering, an angular
piece of iron inserted in a boiler tank,
etc., where it changes from a cylindrical
to a square form, etc., as in the junction
of the barrel and fire box of a locomo-
tive.
GUSTAVUS I., commonly called
"Gustavus Vasa," King of Sweden; born
in Lindholm, May 12, 1496. He was the
son of Eric Johansson, a Swedish noble,
served under Svante Sture, the admin-
istrator of the kingdom, was treacher-
ously carried off with other noble Swedes
by the King of Denmark, and kept a
prisoner in Jutland for more than a
year, but at length escaped, reached, af-
ter many dangers, Dalecarlia, where he
roused the peasants to resist Danish op-
pression, defeated the Danes, took Up-
sala and other towns, and in 1523 was
elected king. In 1529 he procured the
abolition of the Roman Catholic relig^ion
in Sweden, and established Protestant-
ism. During his long reign Sweden
made great progi-ess in commerce and
civilization. He died in Stockholm, Sept.
29, 1560.
GUSTAVUS II., GUSTAVUS ADOL-
PHUS, King of Sweden, a gi-andson
of Gustsfvus Vasa; born in Stockholm,
Dec. 9, 1594; and received a careful
education. He was trained to war under
experienced generals, took his place in
the state councils at the age of 16, and
was in command of the army in his 17th
y^ar during the war with Denmark,
which was concluded in 1613, and by
which Sweden recovered important pos-
sessions on the Baltic. He then turned
his arms against the Russians, drove
them from Ingria, Karelia, and a part
of Livonia, which were secured to him
by the peace of Stolbova in 1617. He
was then engaged in a war with Poland,
which lasted nine years, and was con-
cluded on advantageous terms for Gus-
tavus in September, 1629, he being al-
lowed to retain important conquests in
East Prussia. His attention was nov/
diverted from N. wars by the affairs of
Germany. He embarked for Germany
in 1630 with about 20,000 men, landed
near the mouth of the Oder, and in a
short time had seized nearly all Pomera-
nia. After taking many fortified towns,
repeatedly defeating the imperial gen-
erals at Leipsic and Wiirzburg in 1631
Passage of the Lech in 1632, and con-
quering a great part of Germany, he was
killed in the battle of Liitzen, against
Wallenstein, Nov. 16, 1632.
GUSTAVUS III., King of Sweden,
born in Stockholm, Jan. 24, 1746; suc-
ceeded his father, Adolphus Frederick,
in 1771. Finding the country weary
of the misrule of the nobles, he gained
the good-Avill of the army, surrounded
the assembly of the states-general, and
forced them to accept a new constitu-
tion which much restricted their priv-
ileges. In 1788 he took command of the
army against Russia and Denmark, and
stormed the defenses of Frederikshald,
destroying a great number of vessels.
In 1789 he executed another coup d'etat,
arresting the opposition leaders, and
passing a law extending the royal pre-
rogative. On the outbreak of the French
revolution he made strenuous exertions
to form a coalition betv/een Russia, Den-
mark, Sweden, and Spain, but while
preparations were making a conspiracy
of the nobles was formed against him,
and he was shot at a masquerade by
Ankarstroem, a disbanded officer, March
16, 1792. He died March 29, 1792.
GUSTAVUS IV., ADOLPHUS, King
of Sweden, born in Stockholm, Nov. 1 ,
1778; and succeeded his father, March
29, 1792. On assuming power Gustavus
showed that he had inherited his father's
hatred of the principles of the French
Revolution, which he carried to the ex-
tent of fanaticism. After the Peace of
Tilsit he exposed himself to a war with
Russia while he was at war with France
by refusing to join the continental
blockade and opening his ports to Eng-
land; and in 1808 he quarreled with
England, his only ally. Finland was lost
to Sweden, and in 1809 a revolution took
place. Gustavus was dethroned, and hi"=
GUSTAVUS V.
431
GUTTENBERG
uncle, the Duke of Sudermania, pro-
claimed king under the title of Charles
XIII. Gustavus died in St. Gall, Feb.
7, 1837.
GUSTAVUS V. (GUSTAVUS ADOL-
PHUS), King of Sweden; born in 1858.
He was the son of Oscar II. and Queen
Sofia Wilhelmina. After completing his
education, he entered the army in 1875
and in 1892 became lieutenant general.
He married in 1881 Victoria, the daugh-
ter of the Grand Duke of Baden. He
acted as regent during his father's ab-
sence, in 1899 and 1900. In December,
1907, following the death of his father,
he succeeded to the throne.
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS COLLEGE,
a coeducational institution in St. Peter,
Minn.; founded in 1862 under the aus-
pices of the Lutheran Church; reported
at the close of 1919: Professors and in-
structors, 25; students, 361.
GUTENBERG, JOHANNES, or
H E N N E (go'ten-berG) , a German
printer; born in Mainz, about 1400. In
1434 he was living in Strassburg, and
seems to have been well known as a man
of considerable mechanical skill, who
taught stone cutting, mirror polishing,
and similar arts. When and where he
made his first attempts in the art of
printing cannot with certainty be ascer-
tained. Some time between 1444 and 1448
he returned to Mainz, where, in 1449 or
1450, he entered into partnership with
Johannes Fust or Faust, a wealthy gold-
smith, who furnished the money required
to set up a printing press. This partner-
ship was, however, dissolved after the
lapse of a few years, Fust bringing an
action at law against Gutenberg to re-
cover the sums he had advanced. In
consequence of the legal verdict. Fust
retained the printing concern, and car-
ried it on in conjunction with Peter
Schoffer of Gernsheim. Gutenberg, with
the assistance of a Dr. Homery, after-
ward set up another printing press. He
is considered the inventor of movable
type. He died in Mainz, Feb. 24, 1468.
GUTHRIE (guth'ri), a city, until 1911
State capital of Oklahoma, and county-
seat of Logan co.; on the Cottonwood
river and the Atchison, Topeka, and
Santa Fe Railroad. It contains St. Jo-
seph's Academy, a high school, several
denominational schools, waterworks, elec-
tric lights, 2 National banks, cotton gins,
flour and planing mills, furniture and
carriage factories, etc. Pop. (1^10) 11,-
654; (1920) 11,757.
GUTHRIE. THOMAS, a Scottish
clergyman; born in Brechin, Forfar-
shire, July 5, 1803; educated at the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, and was licensed
as a preacher in connection with the
Church of Scotland in 1825. For some
time he was employed in his father's
banking office. In 1830 he was presented
to the parish of Arbirlot, and he ac-
cepted a call to Greyfriars, Edinburgh,
in 1837. In 1843 the Disruption took
place, and Guthrie took an active part
with Chalmers and Candlish in organiz-
ing the Free Church. He himself be-
came minister of Free St. John's, Edin-
burgh. The work with which his name
is chiefly identified in Scotland was
the introduction into Edinburgh of the
ragged school system. His "Plea for
Ragged Schools" (1847) is one of the
most celebrated of his productions. He
became editor of the "Sunday Magazine"
in 1864. His chief works ai'e, "Thei
Gospel in Ezekiel" (1855) ; "A Flea
for Drunkards" (1856) ; "Christ and
the Inheritance of the Saints" (1858) ; etc
He died in St. Leonard's, Feb. 24, 1873.
GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY,
pseudonym F. Anstey, an English
humorist,
GUTIERREZ, ANTONIO GARCIA
(go-te-er'reth) , a Spanish dramatist;
born in Chiclana, Cadiz, in 1812. He
gave up medicine for the profession
of letters; living at first in great desti-
tution, until the play "El Trovador"
made him famous and immensely popu-
lar. He visited the United States in
1844. Later he became a theatrical man-
ager in Madrid, writing "The Campaign
of Huesca," "The Page," and other noble
tragedies. He died in Madrid, Aug. 26,
1884.
GUTTA-PERCHA, the inspissated
juice of Isonandra gutta, the gutta-
percha tree. It occurs in tough, flexible
pieces of light-brown color, which are
soluble in benzene, chloroform, and bi-
sulphide of carbon, insoluble in water,
and only slightly soluble in alcohol and
ether. The raw gutta-percha comes in
lumps weighing from five to six pounds.
These are cut into slices, torn to shreds,
and then thrown into cold water, when
the impurities sink and the pure gum
rises to the surface. Gutta-percha is
used for making soles of boots imper-
vious to water, for door handles, ear
trumpets, golf balls, etc. Above all it is
employed for coating submarine tele-
graph ^vires.
GUTTENBERG, a town of New
Jersey, in Hudson co. It is on the Hud-
son river. Its chief industry is the
quarrying of stone. It has also a lard-
refining and a button factory. Pop.
(1910) 5,647; (1920) 6,726.
GUY
432
GUY OF WARWICK
GUY, THOMAS, an English philan-
thropist; founder of Guy's Hospital,
Southwark, London; bom in London, in
1644. He began business in 1668 as a
bookseller, dealing extensively in the im-
portation of English Bibles from Hol-
land, and, on this being stopped, he con-
tracted with the University of Oxford
for the privilege of printing Bibles. By
this means, and by selling out his origi-
nal shares in South Sea stock at a great
advantage, he amassed a fortune of
nearly £500,000. In 1707 he built and
furnished three wards of St. Thomas'
Hospital. For the building and endow-
ment of the hospital in Southwark which
bears his name he set apart over $1,-
000,000. He built and endowed alms-
houses and a library at Tamworth, for
which he became one of the members
about 1694. Besides bestowing $2,000 a
year on Christ's Hospital, and giving to
various other charities, he left $400,000
to be divided among those who could
prove any degree of relationship to him.
He died Dec. 27, 1724.
GUYNEMER, GEORGES, a French
aviator. During the World War he was
recognized as France's most famous avi-
CAPTAIN GEORGES GUYNEMER
ator, and rose to the rank of captain
before he died. It was declared that in
the course of his flying career he had
downed 52 enemy machines. He wan
accustomed to operate his aeroplane
alone, piloting it and using the gun at
the same time. He was killed Sept. 11.
1917, while flying over Flanders, having
met in combat five machines of the Alba-
tross type, other machines descending
suddenly upon him. He is declared to
have been surrounded by something
above 40 machines at the time of his
death.
GUY OF WARWICK, the hero of one
of the most ancient and popular of early
English metrical romances. It is a pure-
ly English story of the 13th century, re-
lated to the Dano-Saxon romance of
"Havelok" by its allusions to Danish
wars in England, and to the French
"King Horn" by its adoption of some of
the more striking incidents in that story.
Its authorship may be due to Walter of
Exeter, a 13th-century Franciscan monk,
but it has undoubtedly been improved by
some French or Norman minstrel. The
story has close affinity with that of
Guido Tyrius in the "Gesta Romano-
rum." The hero, Sir Guy of Warwick,
is son of Segard, steward of Rohand,
Earl of Warwick; his instructor in the
exercises of chivalry, the famous H^rand
of Ardenne. Having fallen deeply in
love with Felice, the daughter of the
earl, he was promised her hand when
he earned it by knightly deeds. In the
tournament at Rouen he vanquished
every competitor and was equally suc-
cessful in Spain and Lombardy. In Eng-
land he overcame the famous Dun Cow,
but his haughty mistress was still un-
satisfied. He went to Constantinople to
save the Emperor Emis from the Sara-
cens, slew the mighty Coldran, and scat-
tered his huge army. The grateful em-
peror pressed on him the hand of his
lovely daughter and heiress Loret, but,
faithful to Felice, Sir Guy tore himself
away, and returned to his native country,
■when he heard of a dragon ravaging
Northumberland. He hastened to meet
the monster, slew him, and carried his
head to King Athelstan, at Lincoln. The
fair Felice had now no scruple to marry
the hero. But remorse for all the
slaughter he had done merely for a
woman's love began to seize him, and
after 40 brief days of wedded happiness
he left his home in the dress of a palmer
to visit the Holy Land. Here he rescued
Earl Jonas from his dungeon, and slew
the ferocious giant Amiraunt, after
which he returaed to England to find
Athelstan besieged in Winchester by the
Danish Anlaf, of whose army the main-
stay was the terrible Colbrand. Sir
Guy, still in his disguise, after a pro-
longed and awful struggle, succeeded in
GVOSDEVI
433
GYMNASTICS
striking off the champion's head. He
now visited his wife all unknown in his
palmer's weeds, and then retired to a
hermitage at the place still called Guy's
Cliff, near Warwick. Before his death
he sent her parting ring as a token to
Felice, and she arrived in time to close
his eyes, survived him for but 15 days,
and was buried in the same grave.
GVOSDEVI (gvos-da've), a group of
islands in Bering Strait, between North
America and Asia, lat. 65° 40' N., Ion.
173° 50' E. Imaglin, the largest, is 25
miles in length. They are low and des-
titute of vegetation.
GWALIOR (gwa'le-6r), a native
state of central India, the dominions of
^he Mahratta Maharajah Sindhia; area,
25,041 square miles; pop. about 3,100,-
000. Lying partly in the basin of the
Jumna and partly in that of the Ner-
budda, it divides its drainage between
the bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
The principal export is opium. Since
1803 the country has been under British
protection. In 1843 the British were
compelled, on the death of the sovereign,
to send an armed force, which, after se-
vere fighting, succeeded in restoring his
adopted successor to the throne; and
during the troubles of 1857 the young
Maharajah remained faithful to the
British Government, though deserted by
his troops.
GWALIOR, a town and capital of
the state of Gwalior, 65 miles S. of
Agra. Its nucleus is an isolated rock
of about 340 feet in height, perpendicu-
lar on all sides; it measures 1% miles by
300 yards, and its citadel, said to date
from the 8th century, whose guns sweep
the only approach, is virtually impreg-
nable against any native force. Along
the E. base of this eminence lies the old
town of Gwalior, containing little worthy
of notice but a beautiful mausoleum of
white sandstone; and to the S. W. there
extends for several miles the new town
called Lashkar, where the Maharajah re-
sides. Nearly 4 miles to the N. E. is
Morar, the British cantonment from
1858 to 1886, when its fine sandstone
barracks were handed over, along with
the fortress, to Sindhia, and the Euro-
pean headquarters removed to Jhansi.
Gwalior possesses two remarkable Hindu
temples, and one of the most interesting
examples of Hindu palace architecture
in India; while Jain caves and rock
sculptures abound on all sides. Pop.
about 120,000.
GWYNN, ELEANOR, better known
by the name of "Nell," a celebrated mis-
tress of King Charles II.; born in Lon-
don about 1650. She was at first an
orange girl, and also gained her bread
by singing from tavern to tavei'n. About
1667 she became the mistress of Lord
Buckhurst, who surrendered her about
1670 to the king. As mistress of the
king she had an establishment, and was
made lady of the privy chamber to
Queen Catharine. She was merry and
open-hearted, is said to have been faith-
ful to Charles, mindful of old friends,
and a liberal patroness of the poets Dry-
den, Lee, Otway, and Butler. From her
are sprung the dukes of St. Albans. She
died about 1690.
GYMNASIUM, a public place or build-
ing where the Greek youths exercised
themselves, fitted up with running and
wrestling grounds, baths, and rooms or
halls for conversation and discussion.
These were the favorite resorts of youth,
and for this reason were frequented by
teachers, especially philosophers. The
three great gymnasia of Athens were the
Academy, where Plato taught; the Ly-
ceum, where Aristotle labored; and the
Cynosarges. In this connection it is
easy to understand the transference of
the name to educational institutions.
The German gymnasium is an upper
school where instruction is carried on
largely by means of the classical
tongues, preparing its pupils for the uni-
versity, and corresponding roughly to the
grammar and public schools of England
and the grammar and high schools of
Scotland.
GYMNASTICS, exercises of the body
and limbs which tend to invigorate and
develop their power. Gymnastic games
are of very ancient origin. They are
mentioned in the second book of the
"Iliad," where playing at quoits and
javelin hurling are mentioned. Later on
games of this kind were dedicated to the
gods, and the rewards being called
"athla," gave origin to the name "ath-
letes," applied to those who contend for
them.
Shortly before the time of Hippocrates,
gymnastics were made a part of medi-
cine, and gradually they were reduced
into a complete system. Public buildings,
called "gymnasia," were erected for the
purpose, and officers for their superin-
tendence were appointed by the state.
Among the exercises practiced in these
gymnasia were dancing, wrestling, box-
ing, running, leaping, quoit-throwing,
hurling, riding, driving, swimming, row-
ing, climbing ropes, swinging, mock
fights of various kinds, etc. It is only
since the commencement of the 19th cen-
tury that gymnastic exercises have been
revived as a science.
GYNiECOLOGY
434
GYROSCOPE
GYNECOLOGY (jin-e-kol'o-ji or gi-
ne-), that branch of medicine which
treats of the diseases of women.
GYPSEOUS SERIES, in geology, the
lower freshwater limestone and marl
constituting the Upper beds of the
Middle Eocene in the vicinity of Paris,
France. They are of white and green
marls with subordinate beds of gypsum.
At the Hill of Montmartre is a quarry
of gypsum valuable for the manufacture
of plaster of Paris. Splendid fossil re-
mains of Eocene mammals have been
found in it. Similar gypseous marls are
worked for gypsum at St. Romain, on
the right bank of the Allier.
GYPSUM, calcium sulphate crystal-
lized with two molecules of water Ca-
So4*2H20. It is often found by the decom-
position of pyrites when lime is present.
Gypsum calcined is called plaster of
Paris, and is used for taking casts of
statues. Gypsum is used as a manure;
it facilitates the decomposition of rocks
containing alkaline silicates.
Technically gypsum is regarded as a
mineral deposit, in some places constitut-
ing rock masses. It may be of any age.
Near Paris it is Middle Eocene. Frapoli
eays that some gypsums were originally
carbonates instead of sulphates of lime,
and that they underwent metamorphism
by the action of volcanic sulphurous or
Bulphurohydrous vapors. The produc-
tion of gypsum in the United States
in 1919 was about 3,430,000 short tons,
valued at about $16,000,000.
GYPSY MOTH, the Bombyx dispar
an insect abounding in central Europe,
where it does much damage to trees.
Linnaeus was the first to describe it. The
eggs are laid in August and hatch in the
spring in the trunks of trees, and on
rocks and fences, the caterpillars feeding
on plants and trees. After a few months
the caterpillars, having attained their
full growth, pupate, the moths emerging
from the cocoon some weeks after. The
insect was brought to America by Leo-
pold Trouvelot, who was experimenting
at Medford, Mass., with silkworms, and
the specimens escaped. Twenty years
later the damage caused by the cater-
pillars attracted public notice, and since
that time, despite public measures taken
to cope with the ravage, the gypsy moth
has become a pest in many localities in
Massachusetts. An effort was made by
the Massachusetts State Board of Agri-
culture to exterminate the insect, and
was carried on over a period of ten
years, at an expenditure of over a mil-
lion dollars. The work was not thorough,
however, and in recent years the pres-
ence of the moth has become so notice-
able that public measures have had to be
resumed to counteract the injury to
plants, shrubs, and trees caused by it.
The Massachusetts Board of Agricul-
ture has issued bulletins giving the re-
sults of the methods originated by it,
and, in so far as these methods have
been followed by the various municipali-
ties that have been obliged to deal with
the insect, they have borne fruit.
GYROGONITE (ji-rog'5-mt), the
sporangium, or seed-vessel, of the flower-
less plant-genus Chara. It is very rough
and hard, consisting of a membranous
nut, covered by an integument, both of
which are spirally streaked or ribbed.
The integument is composed of fine spiral
valves of a quadrangular form.
GYROSCOPE (jir'o), an instrument
constructed by M. Foucault, to make the
rotation of the earth visible. The prin-
ciple on which it proceeds is this — that,
unless gravity intervenue, a rotating
body will not alter the direction in which
its permanent axis points. In the gyro-
scope there is a rotating jnetallic disk,
the middle point of whose axis is also the
center of gravity of the machine. By this
GYROSCOPE
A. Gyroscope.
B. Gyroscope as used in torpedo.
device the action of gravity is eliminated.
The instrument, moreover, is so con-
structed that the axis of rotation can be
made to point to some star in the sky.
Then, as the heavy disk whirls round, it
is found that the axis continues to point
to the moving star, though, in conse-
quence of this, apparently altering its
direction relatively to bodies on the
earth. If, again, the axis be pointed to
the celestial pole, which is fixed, no
alteration in its position relative to bodies
on the earth takes place. The only fea-
sible explanation of these appearances is
that the earth is revolving on its axis.
The gyroscope has been a valuable ad-
junct as a stabilizer in the making of
aeroplanes.
H
H, h, the eighth letter of the English
alphabet, commonly classed among the
consonants, though not strictly such. It
is frequently called the aspirate, though
other letters are also aspirated in Eng-
lish. Its distinctive or proper sound is
that which it has at the beginning of Sl
word, as help, hard, hope, etc. This
sound it also has when following w, as
in whither, where, in which cases it
originally preceded the w, as in Old Eng-
lish, hwidir, hwser. H has disappeared
from many words, especially before 1, n,
r: as. Old English, /iZa/=loaf; Old Eng-
lish /twecca=neck; Old English hring=z
ring; Old English feoh=ziee. It has been
intruded into some words as wharf,
whelk, whelm. H is commonly joined to
other consonants to form digraphs repre-
senting sounds for which there are no
symbols in the alphabet; as, ch in child,
chill; sh in shin, ship; th in this, that,
thine; joined with p it forms the sound
of f ; with g it sometimes forms the sound
of f, as in enough, tough; sometimes the
digraph is silent, as in bough, plough.
The combination rh is found only in
words derived from the Greek, where the
h represents the rough breathing of the
original rh. Ch is common in words
derived from the Greek, and in such cases
is generally hard, as chemistry, chyle,
etc. It sometimes represents the Latin
c, Greek k, as in English horn=Lat.
cornu, Gr. keras.
HAAKON VII, king of Norway, first
exclusively Norwegian king since 1380,
He was born in 1872, a grandson of
Christian IX. of Denmark and was called
Prince Charles. He married Princess
Maud, daughter of Edward VII., in 1896.
A son, Olaf, was born in 1903. On the
separation of Norway and Sweden he
was tendered the Norwegian throne and
took the coronation oath Nov. 27, 1905.
Crowned at Trondhjem in June, 1906.
HAAN, WILLIAM GEORGE, an
American soldier, born at Crown Point,
Ind., in 1863. He graduated from the
United States Military Academy in 1889,
and in the same year was appointed 2d
lieutenant of the 1st Artillery. During
the Spanish-American War he acted as
captain and acting quartermaster of vol-
unteers, and was honorably discharged
from the volunteer service in 1901. In
the same year he was appointed captain
of the Artillery Corps. He was pro-
moted through the various grades, becom-
ing colonel in 1916. In 1917 he was
appointed brigadier-general of the Na-
tional Army, and commander of the 57th
Field Artillery Brigade. He was com-
mander of the 32d Division in January,
1918, having been appointed temporary
brigadier-general in the previous year.
He was made permanent brigadier-gen-
eral^ in 1918. He commanded the 32d
Division in three major offensives, the
Marne to Vesle, the Oise-Aisne, and the
Meuse-Argonne. He commanded the 7th
Army Corps, as part of the Army of
Occupation in Germany, from November,
1918, to April, 1919. In the latter year
he was assigned as assistant chief of
Staff^ and as director of the war plans
division. He was awarded the Distin-
guished Service Medal and the Croix de
Guerre. He was promoted to major-
general in 1921.
HAABLEM (har'lem), a town of Hol-
land; 10 miles W. of Amsterdam; is in-
tersected, like most Dutch towns, with
canals and avenues of trees. Its prin-
cipal church is the Great or St. Bavon's,
a Late Gothic basilica, built in the 15th
century, one of the largest churches in
Holland, and specially noted for its lofty
tower and its organ (1738). Before the
church stands a statue of Laurens Cos-
ter, to whom his countrymen ascribe the
invention of printing. The town hall,
formerly the residence of the Counts of
Holland, has portraits by Franz Hals,
and a valuable collection of early printed
works. The Teyler Institution promotes
the study of theology, natural science,
435
HAASE
436
HABIBULLAH KHAN
and the fine arts. Though Haarlem is
no longer celebrated, as in the 17th cen-
tury, for its flourishing trade, it still
weaves cotton, casts type, bleaches linen,
and carries on an extensive trade in
flowers, especially in tulips, hyacinths,
and other bulbs. It was a flourishing
town as early as the 12th century, when
it took an important part in the wars
between the Hollanders and West Fri-
sians. At the close of the 15th century it
was deprived of its privileges by Albert
of Saxony, and it suffered severely dur-
ing the revolt of the peasantry (1492).
During the war of independence, it
underwent a seven months' siege (1572-
1573) from the Spaniards, in which the
citizens displayed the noblest heroism.
The wood of Haarlem is a favorite place
for recreation; in it stands the pavilion,
which contains the colonial and industrial
museums and a collection of modern pic-
tures. Pop. (1918) 75,280.
HAASE, HUGO, a German statesman.
He was born in 1863 and soon became
prominent in the Socialistic party. After
Bebel's death he succeeded him as presi-
dent of the German Social Democratic
party. Beginning with 1897 he served
continually in the Reichstag with the
exception of 1907, when he, together
with most of the Social Democratic
members, was defeated. At the out-
break of the war he refused to foUow
the majority of his party in their sup-
port of the government's policy, and in
1915 he formed the Independent Socialist
party, taking, together with his fol-
lowers, the stand that war credits should
be refused, even at the risk of a German
defeat. The stand taken by Haase and
his group undoubtedly was one of the
principal factors in bringing about the
German revolution, an4 the naval mutiny
in August, 1918, was ascribed to their
propaganda. Throughout the entire war
he courageously attacked the imperial-
istic policies of Germany. Upon the fall
of the Imperial Government in Novem-
ber, 1918, he became a member of the
first coalition cabinet, but after a month's
service resigned as a result of con-
tinuous conflicts with the more conserva-
tive members of the Social Democratic
party. After his resignation he at-
tacked the coalition between the Social
Democrats and the Center party, and
although not willing to go quite as far
as the Sparticides, he co-operated with
the latter to some extent. He strongly
opposed the aggressive policy of the Min-
ister of Defense, Noske, in putting down
strikes and revolts. He was assassinated
on Oct. 8, 1919, by an Austrian, and died
in Berlin, Nov. 7, 1919.
HABAKKUK (ha-bak'uk or hab'a-
kuk), in the Old Testament, the eighth
of the minor prophets. It was composed
when the Chaldean invasion was im.mi-
nent, probably in the early part of the
reign of Jehoiakim. about 610 b. c. The
prophet's poetic genius is of a high
order, the third chapter of the work
being one of the finest compositions in
the whole Old Testament. Nothing is
known of the writer's history. Sev-
eral passages are quoted in the New
Testament, the thrice repeated doctrine
that "the just shall live by faith" (Rom.
i: 17; Gal. iii: 11; and Heb. x: 58),
which excited so powerful an influence on
Luther's mind, being derived originally
from Hab. ii: 4. Hab. i: 5, is quoted in
Acts xiii: 40, 41.
HABANA. See HAVANA.
HABEAS (ha^be-as) CORPUS, in law,
a writ (more fully habeas corjnis ad sub-
jiciendum) directed to the person detain-
ing another, and commanding him to pro-
duce the body of the prisoner, with the
day and cause of his caption and deten-
tion, ad faeiei^idum, subjiciendum, et re-
cipiendum, to do, submit to, and receive
whatsoever the judge or court awarding
such writ shall consider in that behalf.
It is applicable in all cases where a per-
son in custody claims to be illegally de-
tained, or wrongfuly refused bail, or
who desires to be removed from one
couii; to another. The Habeas Corpus
Act has been substantially incorporated
into the jurisprudence of every State in
the Union, and the right to the writ has
been secured by the constitutions of most
of the States, and the United States.
The Constitution of the United States,
art, 1, sec. 9, par. 2, provides, that "the
privilege of the writ of habeas corpus
shall not be suspended, unless when, in
cases of rebellion or invasion, the public
safety may require it." A similar provi-
sion is contained in many of the State
constitutions.
HABIBULLAH KHAN, a former
Ameer of Afghanistan, born in Samar-
kand, 1872, assassinated in Afghanistan,
Feb. 24, 1919. His father, Abdur Rah-
man, Vv'as in exile at the time of his
birth. On his father's death, in 1901,
who meanwhile had been reinstated as
Ameer, the young prince ascended the
throne. Although previously known as
anti-British, he visited India soon after
his rise to power, and ever after main-
tained friendly relations with the Brit-
ish Viceroy, During the World War he
maintained strict neutrality, and shortly
before his death was arranging an anti-
Bolshevik alliance _ with neighboring
rulers of central Asia.
HACKENSACE
487
HADEN
HACKENSACE, a city and county-
seat of Bergen co., N. J., on the Hack-
ensack river, and on the New York,
Susquehanna and Western, and the
New Jersey and New York railroads;
14 miles N. W. of New York City.
It is a residential city, but has brick.
Bilk, and other manufacturing inter-
ests. There are a court house, public
library, public high school, daily and
weekly newspapers, gas and electric
lights, waterworks, and electric street
railways connecting with surrounding
towns and cities, and with New York.
Hackensack was settled by the Dutch
in the latter part of the 17th cen-
tury, and during the Revolution was oc-
cupied in turn by the British and Ameri-
can armies. Pop. (1910) 14,050: (1920)
17,667.
HACKETT, JAMES HENBY, an
American actor; born in New York City,
March 15, 1800. He was particularly
successful in impersonating Yankees and
Westerners, but was best known by his
Falstaff, which he played first about
1832. He wrote "Notes and Comments
on Shakespeare" (1863). He died in
Jamaica, N. Y., Dec. 28, 1871.
HACKNEY, a parish of Middlesex,
England, now forming a suburb of Lon-
don, and 3 miles N. N. E. of St. Paul's.
It was at one time a favorite suburban
residence cf Li^ndon citizens. In its
earlier and fashionable days it is by
some said to have given its name to
hackney coaches. See Cabs.
HACO (ha^ko) V., sumamed the Old,
King of Norway. He acceded to the
throne in 1217, and during his reign
Greenland and Iceland were added to
Norway. On his way home from
Scotland, where he had fought the
battle of Largs against Alexander III.,
he died in the Orkneys, about 1263.
See Norway.
HADDINGTON, the county-town of
Haddingtonshire, Scotland, at the S. base
of the Lammermuir Hills, on the Tyne,
17 miles E. of Edinburgh. Its Abbey
Church, the Lucerna Laudoniae or "Lamp
of Lothian," is a cruciform Decorated red
sandstone pile, with a central tower 90
feet high, and ruinous all but the nave,
which serves as the parish church.
There are also the county buildings
(1833), the large corn exchange (1854),
the town hall (1748-1831), the county
lunatic asylum (1866), and a school, the
Knox Memorial Institute (1880). Had-
dington's worthies have been Knox, John
Brown and Samuel, his grandson, Samuel
Smiles, and Jane Welsh Carlyle. Here
the English endured a great siege by the
Scotch in 1549. Pop. 4,200.
HADDINGTONSHIRE, or East Lo-
thian, a county of Scotland, in the south-
eastern part. It has an area of 267
square miles. The southern part con-
tains the Lammermuir Hills, which rise
to a height of over 1,700 feet. The prin-
cipal river is the Tyne, which flows in a
northeasterly direction across the county
into the sea of Tyningham. It has im-
portant agricultural interests and is the
center of a coal mining region. The
chief towns are Haddington, the capital,
Dunbar, and North Berwick. Pop. about
45,000.
HADDOCE (Gadus seglefinus) , a fish
of the same genus with the cod, and
much resembling it in general appear-
ance. The number of fins are the same,
there being three dorsals and two anals.
The haddock, like the cod, has a barbule
at the point of the lower jaw. The had-
dock is brown on the back, silvery on the
belly; the lateral line is black, and there
is a black spot behind each of the pec-
torals, these spots sometimes extending
so as to meet on the back. An ancient
legend ascribes these spots to the finger
and thumb of St. Peter, and states the
haddock to be the fish from the mouth of
which he took the tribute money. The
haddock is not found in the Mediterra-
nean. Nor does it enter the Baltic,
though plentiful in the N. parts of the
Atlantic Ocean, both on the European
and the American coasts. On the British
coasts it is abundant almost everywhere.
Those of Dublin Bay are remarkable for
their large size. It is taken both by
trawl nets and lines. In March and
April the haddock is out of season; in
October, November, December, and Jan-
uary it is in finest condition. See
Finnan.
HADDONFIEIjD, a borough of New
Jersey, in Camden co. It is on the West
Jersey and Seashore railroad. It is a
residential suburb of Philadelphia, but
has important industrial and agricultu-
ral interests. It is the site of the Shep-
herd's Homei, Bancroft Training School,
and has two parks and a library. Pop.
(1910) 4,143; (1920) 5,646.
HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR,
an English etcher and surgeon; born in
London, England, Sept. 16, 1818. In
1857 he was elected a Fellow of the Col-
lege of Surgeons. "Etched Work of F.
S. Haden" contains 185 plates from his
hand; others have been published. The
chief qualities of his work are vigor and
breadth. He was president of the So-
ciety of Painter Etchers, and wrote
"Etched Work of Rembrandt" (1879-
1880), "Lectures" and "About Etching"
(1881). He died June 1, 1910.
HADES
438
HAECKEL
HADES (ha'dez), in Homer the Greek
word Ades figures as the name of a god,
in large measure corresponding to the
Roman Pluto. After Homer it becomes
a place to which the dead go. Both
Greeks and Romans supposed the infer-
nal regions to be in the center of the earth.
To enter these, in the Roman opinion,
the river Styx had to be crossed
by the spirits of the dead, Charon, the
ferryman, for a small sum, rowing the
boat. If, by any misfortune the body
had been unburied, the soul had to wan-
der 100 years on the banks of the Styx
before it was taken across. Pluto was
the king of the spirit world. Rhada-
manthus its most noted judge.
In the Jewish belief, the place of the
dead; the Hebrew sheol, which occurs
65 times in the Hebrew Bible, and in 61
of them is rendered in the Septuagint
Hades. In the Authorized Version of the
English Bible it is translated in the Old
Testament 31 times by "grave," 31 times
by "hell," and 3 times by "pit." The an-
cient Hebrews conceived of Sheol as sit-
uated below, so that souls had to "go
down" or descend before entering it.
In Christian doctrine, one of the two
words rendered in the Authorized Ver-
sion by the ambiguous term Hell (g. v.).
HADING, JANE (a-dan'), a French
actress; born in Marseilles, France, Nov.
25, 1859. She went on the stage in early
childhood, and toured the United
States in 1885 and 1896. Her best roles
are in such pieces as "The Forge Mas-
ter"; "Marriage"; etc.
HADLEIGH (had'li), a quaint old
market-town of Suffolk, England, on the
Bret, QVz miles W. of Ipswich. Its chief
buildings are the brick Rectory Tower
(1495) and the noble parish church, with
a spire 135 feet high. Formerly, from
1331, an important seat of the cloth
trade, Hadleigh was the scene of the
death of the Danish king Guthrum
(889), of the martyrdom of Dr. Rowland
Taylor (1555), and of the great confer-
ence (1833) out of which grew the
"Tracts for the Times," and at which
Newman, Hurrell Froude, Trench, and
Rose, the then rector, were present.
HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING, an
American educator; born in New Haven,
Conn., April 23, 1856; was graduated at
Yale College in 1876; studied at the Uni-
versity of Berlin; was Professor of Po-
litical Science at Yale University in
1886-1899 and was then elected its presi-
dent. He resigned in 1920. He is the
author of "Economics, an Account of
the Relations Between Private Property
and Public Welfare"; "Railroad Trans-
portation, Its History and Laws"; and
"Report on the System of Weekly Pay-
ments"; "Freedom and Responsibility"
1903) ; "The Standard of Public Moral-
ity" (1907) ; "Undercurrents in Ameri-
ARTHUR TWINING HADLEY
can Politics" (1915). Chairman of Rail-
road Securities Commission (1910).
HADLEY, HENRY K., an American
musician and composer, born at Somer-
ville, Mass., in 1871. He studied music in
Boston and in Europe. In 1895 he was ap-
pointed instructor in music in St. Paul's
School, Garden City, L. I. He composed
over 150 songs and pieces of music for
the piano, as well as overtures, sym-
phonies, chamber music, and other mu-
sical forms. He won many prizes for
excellence in musical composition, and
composed the operas "Azora" and Bi-
anca." He was a member of the Na-
tional Institute of Arts and Letters.
HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH, a
distinguished German naturalist; born
in Potsdam, Prussia, Feb. 16, 1834. He
studied natural science and medicine at
Wiirzburg, Berlin, and Vienna under
Miiller, Virchow, and KoUiker. After
working for a while at Naples and Mes-
sina, he became a privatdocent in the
University of Jena in 1861, a professor
extraordinary in 1862, and an ordinary
Professor of Zoology in 1865. His
fmrely scientific works have been trans-
ated into many languages. His popular
books include: "On the Division of La-
bor in Nature and Human Life" (1869) ;
"On the Origin and Genealogy of the
Human Race" (1870); "Life in the
Great Marine Animals" (1870); "The
Calcareous Corals," (1873); "The Sys-
tem of the Medusa" (1880) ; "The Rid-
dle of the Universe" (1902). A supple-
HEMATITE
4S0
HAGGARD
msntary volume to this work called
(English translation) "The Miracles of
Life" appeared in 1910, Thoughts on
the war —"Eternity" (1916). He died
Aug. 9, 1919.
HiEMATITE, a mineral consisting
chiefly of peroxide of iron; a valuable
iron ore. There are two principal va-
rieties, red haematite and brown haema-
tite. See Iron.
HEMOGLOBIN (-glo'bin), an al-
buminoid substance which forms the
chief part of the red corpuscles of the
blood of vertebrata. The defibrinated
blood is mixed with dilute alcohol; after
24 hours the haemoglobin separates out
in violet-red rhombic octohedra. It is
soluble in water, forming a red solution,
and is reprecipitated by alcohol. The
aqueous solution of haemoglobin has two
absorption bands in its spectrum, by
which the presence of blood can be de-
tected.
H.fflMORIlHAGE, bleeding from the
heart, arteries, capillaries, or veins,
capillary haemorrhage being the com-
monest form. Generally, though not in-
variably the vessels are ruptured. In a
solid organ it is called an extravasa-
tion, haemorrhagic infraction (in em-
bollism), or apoplexy. Haemorrhage
from the nose is known as epistaxis;
from the lungs, haemoptysis; from the
stomach, haematemesis ; from the female
genitals, menorrhagia; from the urine,
haematuria; from the bowels, melaena.
The general indications for treatment
are to stop the bleeding and prevent its
recurrence.
HAFF, an extensive bay or gulf of
Pomerania, Prussia, 10 miles N. of Stet-
tin, at the mouth of the Oder, separated
from the Baltic by a strip of land.
HAFIZ (ha-fiz'), the poetical name
of Khwaja Shams-ad-din Muhammad,
Persia's famous lyric-poet; born in
Shiraz, about 1300. The most complete
English edition of his works is that of
H. Wilberforce Clarke: "The Divan i
Hafiz, Translated" (1891). Hafiz seems
to be most characteristic in his many
"Ghazels" or odes, whose themes are his
own emotions. Sir William Jones was
one of the first English translators.
Other English translations include:
"Persian Poetry for English Readers"
(privately printed, 1883), by S. Rohin-
iSon; "Ghazels from the Divan of Hafiz"
(1893), by Justin Huntley McCarthy.
He died in Shiraz, in 1389.
HAGADA (ha-gii'da), in Hebrew
literature, a branch of the Midrash, or
most ancient Jewish exposition of the
Old Testament; extends over the whole
of these sacred books and is homiletic
and poetical,
HAGEN (ha'gen), an industrial town
of Prussia, in the Ruhr coal district of
Westphalia, 12 miles N. E. of Elberfeld-
Barmen. Prior to the World War it car-
ried on a great deal of puddling and iron
founding, and has manufactures of iron,
steel, and tin goods, cotton, cloth,
leather, paper, beer, and tobacco. Pop.
about 90,000.
HAGEN AU (ha'ge-nou), a town of
Alsace-Lorraine; in the Hagenau forest,
on the Moder, 21 miles N. by E. of
Strassburg. It manufactures porcelain
stoves, and has cotton and woolen spin-
ning. The chief trade is in hops and
wine. The Romanesque church of St.
George dates from the 12th century, and
the Gothic church of Nicholas from the
13th. Pop. about 19,000.
HAGERSTOWN, a city and county-
seat of Washington co., Md., on Antietam
creek, and on the Baltimore and Ohio, the
Cumberland Valley, the Norfolk and
Western, and the Western Maryland rail-
roads; 22 miles N. W. of Frederick. It
has extensive manufactures of knit goods,
pipe organs, automobiles, silk, machinery,
steam engines, lumber, sashes, doors,
blinds, etc. It is the trade center of
Western Maryland and contains a court
house, the male high school, and electric
lights and street railways, daily and
weekly newspapers, 3 National banks.
Pop. (1910) 16,690; (1920) 28,064.
HAGGAI (hag'i), in the Old Testa-
ment, the 10th of 12 minor prophets.
Of the seer himself nothing is known.
His book has always been regarded as
canonical. The several dates are all in
the second year of Darius the king — i. e.,
of Darius Hystaspes, B, C. 520. The
prophet aims at inducing the people with-
out delay to resume the rebuilding of the
temple which had been commenced in
53.5, the second year of Cyrus, but had
been discontinued, owing to Samaritan
and other opposition.
HAGGARD, SIR HENRY RIDER, an
English novelist; bom in Norfolk, Eng-
land, June 22, 1856. He was a barrister
by profession. At the age of 19 he
accompanied Sir H. Bulwer as secretary
to Natal, and served on the staff of Theo-
philus Shepstone during his mission to
the Transvaal, He wrote: "Cetywayo
and His White Neighbors" (1882) ;
"King Solomon's Mines" (1886) ; "She"
(1887) ; "Beatrice"; (1890) ; "History of
the Transvaal" (1900) ; "Rural England"
(1902) ; "Fair Margaret" (1907) ; "The
Morning Star" (1910); "Red Eve"
(1911); "Child of the Storm" (1913);
HAGIOLOGT
440
HAGUE
"The Holy Flower" (1915) ; "Finished"
(1917) ; "Love Eternal" (1918) ; "When
the World Shook" (1919).
SIR HENRY RIDER HAGGARD
HAGIOLOGY, relating to the saints,
or holy persons deceased and accepted
as saints. This is a sacred branch of
religious teaching in the Roman and in
the Greek Catholic Churches and is
hardly less sacred and solemnly taken in
the Anglican and Lutheran Churches.
HAGUE, THE (hag), the capital of
the Netherlands, 2 miles from the North
Sea and 15 N. N. W. of Rotterdam. It is
one of the handsomest cities in the coun-
try, being intersected by canals and
shady avenues of lime-trees, and having
many fine public buildings and private
houses. In the center of the city is the
Vijver, or fish pond, to the S. of which
stands the old castle of the counts
of Holland. It consists of two courts,
an outer and an inner; in this latter
are the 13th-century Gothic knight's
hall and the chambers in which the
Dutch parliament holds its sittings. On
one side of the outer court stands
the gate tower, which was formerly a
state prison, in which the brothers De
Witt were confined till torn to pieces
by the populace (1672). The most
noteworthy public buildings and institu-
tions are the picture gallery, with a
splendid collection of works by native
painters (Paul Potter's "Bull" and Rem-
brandt's "Lesson in Anatomy") ; the
royal library, with 200,000 volumes, 4,000
MSS., and collections of coins and gems;
the municipal museum, with several
Dutch pictures ; the Museum Meermanno-
Westreenen, containing a collection of
early printed books; the ethnographic
museum, rich in Chinese and Japanese
objects; the town-house; and the royal
palaces. The church of St. James is the
most important ecclesiastical edifice; it
dates from the 14th century, and is
Gothic in style. The Hague is the seat
of several learned societies, as the Indian
Society and the Institute for the Lan-
guage, Land, and People of the Dutch
Indies. Among the numerous statues are
those of William I. (two in number),
William II., Spinoza, Bernhard of Saxe-
Weimar, and the monument which com-
memorates the deliverance from the
French. Near the town is the beautiful
pleasure park called "The Wood" in which
stands a royal residence (1647) with the
magnificent so-called "Orange Hall."
Ryswick, where the treaty of 1697 was
signed, is in the immediate vicinity. The
Hague is connected by beautiful roads
with Scheveningen, a fashionable bathing
place on the coast of the North Sea,
which is incorporated municipally with
The Hague, The city owes its impor-
tance mainly to the fact that it is the resi-
dence of the court and the capital of the
country; but it has also considerable
manufacturing industry, as iron found-
ing, copper and lead smelting, cannon
founding, printing, furniture and car-
riage making, and the manufacture of
gold and silver lace. From 1250 a hunt-
ing lodge of the Counts of Holland, The
Hague did not acquire importance till
the 16th century; in 1527 it became the
seat of the supreme court in Holland, in
1584 the place of assembly of the States
of Holland and of the States-general; and
it was also the residence of the stadt-
holders. There, too, numerous treaties
have been signed and diplomatic con-
ferences held, especially the Triple Alli-
ance of 1668 and that of 1717. Here
also was held the International Peace
Congress of 1899, and 1907, and the
Hague Conference of 1907. A magnifi-
cent Peace Palace was erected for the
meetings of the Peace Conference by
Andrew Carnegie. Pop. (1918) 352,079.
HAGUE. ARNOLD, an American
geologist; born in Boston, Mass., Dec. 3,
1840; was graduated at the Sheffield
Scientific School of Yale College in 1863
and then studied abroad. Returnmg to
the United States he spent about 10 years
in the West investigating the Comstock
lode. In 1877 the government of Guate-
mala appointed him geologist, and he
visited the centers of volcanic activity
and the chief mining districts of that
country. In the following year he waB
HA-HA BAY
441
HAHNEMANN
employed by the Chinese government to
study the gold, lead and silver mines in
northern China. In 1879, when the
United States established the geological
survey, he accepted a place in that
bureau. His publications include "The
Volcanoes of California, Oregon, and
Washington Territories"; "The Volcanic
Rocks of the Great Basin" (1884) ; "On
the Development of Crystallization in the
Igneous Rocks of Washoe" (1885) ;
"Nevada, with Notes on the Geology of
the District" (1885) ; "Atlas of the Yel-
lowstone National Park" (1904), etc.
of the uselessness, but also of the in-
jurious character of the prevailing
methods of treatment. Six years of study
and investigations proved to him that in
all instances the medicine which had
cured produced a very similar condition
in healthy persons to that it had re-
lieved. This conclusion he published in
an essay in "Hufeland's Journal" in 1796.
It is in this essay that the principle
of similiu similibus curantur (similar
things are cured by similar things) is
first put forward by him, not as a theory
but as a fact. His views at once met
THE HAGUE PEACE PALACE
HA-HA BAY, an inlet of Saguenay
river, in Chicoutimi eo., Quebec, Canada,
midway between Lake St. John and the
St. Lawrence river; known also as
Grande Bay. It is connected with Great
and Little Ha-Ha Lakes by the Ha-Ha
river; the bay is about 7 miles long, 1
mile wide, and 600 feet deep.
HAHNEMANN, CHB,ISTIAN
FRIEDRICH SAMUEL (ha'ne-man) ,
the founder of Homceopathy {q, v.) ;
born in Meissen, Saxony, April 10, 1755.
He entered the University of Leipsic at
the age of 20; from Leipsic he proceeded
to Vienna for clinical study; he then
passed two years as physician and
Kbrarian to a nobleman residing in Tran-
sylvania; after which he entered and, in
1779, graduated at the University of
Erlangen. During the following 10
years he practiced medicine and held sev-
eral public appointments in Dresden and
elsewhere, and then settled in a small
village near Leipsic. His observation
and practice had convinced him, not only
with vehement opposition. Apothecaries
refused to dispense his prescriptions, and
he was forced to give his medicine to
his patients free of charge. This was
an infringement of the privileges which
German law had conferred on the apothe-
caries, and hence he was prosecuted in
every town in which he attempted to
settle from 1798 till 1810, when he re-
turned to Leipsic. Two years afterward
he was appointed a privat-docent of the
university. At Leipsic he remained till
1821, when a successful prosecution by
the apothecaries drove him from the city.
Under the protection of the Duke of
Anhalt-Kothen he retired to Kothen,
where he became a center of attraction
to numerous invalids in all parts of the
world. He became known as one of the
earliest advocates of hygiene. His book
entitled "The Friend of Health" (1792)
proves him to have been far in advance
of his time in preventive medicine.
Equally so was he in the treatment of the
insane. He was also the author of sev-
eral valuable papers on chemistry. He
HAIFA
442
HAINAN
died in Paris, July 2, 1843. _A statue of
him was erected in Leipsic in 1851.
HAIFA (hl'fa), a seaport of Syria;
at the foot of Mount Carmel. A little
distance to the N. W. a settlement of the
Wiirttemberg "Society of the Temple"
was founded in 1869, who now form a
flourishing agricultural colony, chiefly en-
gaged in cultivating the vine and grow-
ing fruits. Grain is exported. Gordon
Pasha paid visits to Haifa, and here
Laurence Oliphant settled in 1882.
HAIG, DOdGLAS, 1st Earl, British
Commander-in-Chief in the World War.
He was born in 1861, and was educated
at Clifton and Brasenose College, Oxford.
In 1885, he joined the 7th Hussars and
FIELD-MARSHAL HAIG
served in the Soudan in 1898, distin-
guishing himself at Atbara and Khar-
toum, being mentioned in despatches,
Brevet-Major, British medal, Khedive's
medal with two clasps. When the war
against the Boer Republic broke out in
1899, he went to south Africa and com-
manded cavalry in Natal, being C. S. O.
to General French during the Colesberg
operations; A. A. G. Cavalry Division,
1900. In 1901-1902 he commanded a group
of columns and was mentioned in des-
patches, becoming A. D. C. to the King,
Brevet-Colonel, Commander of the Bath,
receiving also the Queen's medal with
seven clasps and the King's medal. Dur-
ing 1901-1903 he was Lieutenant-Colonel
Commander of the 17th Lancers and dur-
ing 1903-1906 Inspector-General of the
Cavalry in India. He became Major-
General in 1904, and Lieutenant-Gen-
eral in 1910, becoming in 1914, General
for distinguished service, following the
outbreak of the World War. Up to that
period his military experience had been
varied. During 1906-1907 he had been
Director of Military Training and during
1907-1909 Director of Staff Duties at
Army Headquarters. In 1909-1912 he was
Chief of Staff in India, and was Gen-
eral Officer Commanding at Aldershot in
1912-1914. In the World War he com-
manded the 1st Army in 1914-1915, and
from 1915 to the end of the war was
Commander-in-Chief of the Expedition-
ary Forces in France and Flanders. It
was during the great retreat toward
Amiens in 1917, when the renewed energy
of the Germans made it appear that the
British Army was about to be routed
and the French Atlantic ports were to
fall into their hands, that Haig uttered
his call to America, declaring that he and
his men had "their backs to the wall."
He continued as Commander-in-Chief of
the British Army till 1919. He was
made Lord Rector of St. Andrew's Uni-
versity in 1917, and, among the other
honors that were showered on him dur-
ing the war, received the Grand Cordon
Legion of Honour, Grand Cross Order of
Leopold, Grand Cross St. Maurice and
St. Lazarus, Obolitch Gold Medal (Monte-
negro), 1st Class Order of Danilo, and
4th Class of St. George (Russia). He
was present at the negotiations with the
Germans and at the Council of Versailles.
Following the war he spent much of his
time on the Haig property in Fife and
Midlothian. In 1907, he wrote a book
called "Cavalry Studies."
HAIL, the fall of aerial moisture in
the form of ice. Hail occurs in two un-
like forms, of different origin, which are
now distinguished as hard, or true hail,
and soft hail. The latter, often also
known as sleet, denotes the fine, light
rains that frequently fall in winter,
rarely in summer, and seem an accom-
paniment of snow. True hail occurs in
hard, compact, irregular masses of ice,
either clear or opaque, both kinds often
occurring in alternate layers in a hail-
stone.
HAILEYBURY COLLEGE, an Eng-
lish public school at Hailey, Hertford-
shire, 19 miles north of London. The
present school which is frequently known
as New Haileybury, is a continuation of
Old Haileybury or the East India Col-
lege.
HAINAN, an island of China, in the
province of Kwang-tung, E. of the Gulf
of Tonquin, separated from the mainland
of China by a channel of but 10 miles in
width; lat,*18° 10' to 20° N., Ion. 108° 25'
HAINAULT
443
HAITI
to 111° E.; area 16,000 square miles.
Fop, about 2,000,000. The E. coast is
steep and rocky; the N. W. coast is unap-
proachable because of sand-banks; but
the S. coast is indented with several com-
modious and safe harbors. The interior
of the island is mountainous and barren,
but the low lands near the sea are fer-
tile and well cultivated. Products, sugar,
pearls, coral, wax, gold, and silver. The
metropolis of the whole island is Kiang-
chow. Pop. over 50,000. Though the
Chinese have possessed this island since
108 B. C, yet there are in the interior
some wild and hitherto unsubdued tribes.
HAINAULT, a frontier province of
Belgium, bounded E. by Namur, N. by
Brabant, E. and W. by Flanders, and on
the S. W. by France; area, 1,437 square
miles. Products, wheat, flax; excellent
breeds of horses, horned cattle ; and sheep
are also reared. Extensive coal fields,
iron mines, marble and limestone quar-
ries. Pop. (1918) 1,214,093. Manufac-
tures, linen, porcelain, and pens. Prin-
cipal rivers, Haine (whence the name),
Sambre, Meuse, and Scheldt. Chief
towns, Mons (the capital, pop. about 27,-
000), Tournay, Ath, Soignies, Charleroi,
and Thuin. Hainault was governed by a
regular succession of counts from the
time of Regnier I., who began to reign
about 860. In 1436 it passed into the
hands of Philip the Good, Duke of Bur-
gundy, and by the treaties of the Pyre-
nees, Nov. 7, 1659, and of Nimeguen,
Sept. 17, 1678, part was ceded to France,
forming the province of French Hai-
nault. In 1814 it was allotted to the Low
Countries, and in 1830 was incorporated
with Belgium. The province was over-
run by the Germans and occupied by them
in the first months of the World War.
At Charleroi and Mons the French and
British suffered reverses that forced
their retreat to the Marne.
HAINBURG (hln'borc), a walled
town of Austria; on the Danube; 27
miles E. S. E. of Vienna, with a royal
tobacco factory. It is usually identified
with the ancient Carnuntum; and a
Roman aqueduct still supplies its market
place with water. In the "Nibelungen-
lied" the castle of Hainburg is called
Heimburc, the border fortress of the
country of the Huns. It was taken from
the Hungarians in 1042 by the Emperor
Henry III., and afterward became a resi-
dence of the Austrian princes. In 1482
it was stormed by Matthew Corvinus, in
1683 by the Turks; and in 1827 it was
burned to the ground. Pop. about 15,-
200.
HAINICHEN (hi'nich-en), a town of
Saxony, the center of the German flannel
manufacture; 13 miles N. E. of Chem-
nitz. Besides its staple product, it al.so
manufactures cloth, leather, chenille, and
plush. Here Gellert was born in 1715.
HAIR, a small filament issuing from
the skin of an animal, and from a bulb-
ous root; or the collection or mass ol
filaments growing from the skin of an
animals, and forming an integument or
covering.
HAITI, a republic on the island of
Haiti, W. I. ; bounded by the Dominican
Republic, Atlantic Ocean, and Caribbean
Sea; area 11,072 square miles; Pop.
about 2,500,000; Port-au-Prince, capital
(1919) 101,272; other important towns
are: Cape Haitien (19,000), Cayes (12,-
000), Gonaives (30,000), Port de Paix
(10,000).
Topography. — The country is moun-
tainous, being traversed by a volcanic
range, which sends out lateral spurs, ter-
minating in headlands on the doast.
Cibao, the loftiest peak, reaches an alti-
tude of 7,000 feet. The rivers are small
and few in number and unnavigable.
The lakes are quite numerous, and the
salt lake of Henriquillo, near the S.
shore, is remarkable for showing, by
its tides, subterranean connection with
the Caribbean Sea.
Climate and Productions. — The climate
is semi-tropical, but tempered by the sea
breezes, and this, with its well-watered
soil, makes Haiti the most fertile of the
West Indies. The industries of Haiti
are mainly agricultural, coffee being the
principal product. Cocoa, cotton, sugar,
and tobacco are grown, and considerable
rum, and other spirits distilled. The
mineral resources are undeveloped, but
are known to be of considerable impor-
tance. Copper, iron, nickel, gypsum, lime-
stone, and porphyry are found in the N,
Cotntnerce. — Imports in 1918 were
valued at $10,500,000; exports $11,000,-
000. The exports consist principally of
coffee, cocoa, logwood, cotton, hides, skins,
corn, mahogany, and honey. The import
trade is carried on principally with the
United States, Great Britain, France,
and Spain. In 1917 the external debt of
Haiti was 120,912,060 francs, the inter-
nal debt 3,368,705 francs.
Govet-nment. — The government is that
of a republic. The constitution dating
from June 14, 1867, was revised in 1918.
The legislative authority rests in a Na-
tional Assembly, divided into two cham-
bers, the Senate and the House of Rep-
resentatives. The deputies are elected
for 2 years, 1 for every 60,000 popula-
tion. The Senate consists of 15 member*
elected by popular vote for a term of
six years. The executive power is vested
HAKE
444
HALBERSTADT
in the president, elected by the National
Assembly for a term of four years. The
administration is carried on under the
president by 5 secretaries. President in
1919 (elected in 1915), M. Philippe S.
Dartiguenave.
Religion and Education. — The author-
ized religion is nominally Roman Catho-
lic. Instruction in elementary grades is
free, and supported by the government to
the extent of $1,000,000 annually. Edu-
cation was made compulsory in 1910. In
1918 there were 886 schools with about
66,500 students.
History. — Haiti was a French colony
previous to 1804 when it was proclaimed
independent. Several insurrections have
taken place, and attempts have been made
to annex it to the United States. The
inhabitants are mostly negroes or mulat-
toes, speaking either French or a dialect
known as Creole French. An armed con-
stabulary was established in 1910 con-
sisting of 110 officers and 26,888 men.
In 1912 the United States Government
used its influence to prevent a war be-
tween Haiti and the Dominican Republic.
In 1914 owing to insurrections and
threatened international complications
the United States landed marines, occu-
pied the fort, took charge of the customs
and practically assumed a protectorate
over Haiti. In July, 1918, the republic
declared war against the Central Powers.
HAKE, a genus of fishes of the cod
family (Gadidse) , having a flattened
head, an elongated body, two dorsal fins,
of which the first is short, and the second
very long, one very long anal fin, and
the mouth destitute of barbels. One
species, the common hake (M. vulgaHs),
is found in the British seas, in those of
the N. of Europe, and in the Mediter-
ranean. It is sometimes 3 or 4 feet in
length; and is of a whitish color, grayish
on the back. It is a very voracious fish,
devouring great numbers of herrings
and pilchards; hence it is frequently
called the herring hake. It is important
as an article of human food and of com-
merce, being ^Ited and dried in the
same manner as cod and ling. It is gen-
erally taken by lines, like cod and ling.
One other species is known, M. gayi,
which is common in the Strait of Magel-
lan and on the coasts of Chile, and also
occurs in New Zealand.
HAKE, THOMAS GORDON, an Eng-
glish poet and physician; born in Leeds
in 1809. He took his medical degree at
Glasgow University in 1831, and prac-
ticed his profession in East Anglia, later
becoming the physician and friend of
Dante Gabriel Rossetti. His poetry is
thoroughly original, but quaint, vague,
and subtly philosophical. His works in«
elude: "Poetic Lucubrations" (1828);
"Vates: A Prose Epic" (1839); "New
Symbols," verse (1875) ; "Maiden Ec-
stasy," verse (1880) ; "A Divine Pas-
toral" (1883). He died in London, Jan.
11, 1895.
HAKLUYT, RICHARD (hak'lot), an
English author; born about 1553; was
educated at Oxford University. He was
the author of "Four Voyages Touching
the Discovery of America and Islands
Adjacent to the Same" (1582) ; "Four
Voyages to Florida" (1587) ; "The Prin-
cipal Navigations, Voyages, and Discov-
eries Made by the English Nation"; etc.
He died Oct. 23, 1616.
HAKODATE (ha-ko-da'ta), the chief
port of Yezo, Japan, situated on a
peninsula in the Strait of Tsugaru. The
town is built partly on the inner slope of
the Gibraltar-like hill (1,200 feet) which
dominates the strait, partly on the low,
sandy peninsula connecting the hill with
the main island. The climate is severe.
Hakodate, which has a magnificent har-
bor, is (since 1859) one of the open ports
of Japan, and carries on a brisk export
trade in seaweed, sulphur, beche de mer,
salted salmon, matches, etc. Pop. about
102,400.
HAL (hal), a town in South Brabant,
Belgium; 9 miles S. S. W. from Brussels.
The church of St. Mary (1341-1409) is
much resorted to by pilgrims on account
of a black miracle-working wooden image
of the Virgin, which during a bombard-
ment in 1580 caught 33 cannon-balls in
her lap — they lay piled up in the tower.
Pop. about 14,300.
HALBERSTADT (hal'ber-stat) , a
quaint old town of Prussian Saxony; in a
fertile plain extending from the N. foot of
the Harz Mountains, 25 miles S. W. of
Magdeburg. The cathedral, containing
fine painted glass, and valuable antiqui-
ties and objects of art, restored in
1850-1871, is the most notable building
in the town. It was erected in the 13th
and 14th centuries in the Pointed style.
Other buildings of interest are the
church of Our Lady (1146), with antique
reliefs and wall-paintings; the town
house (1360-1381), before which stands
a Roland pillar; the wine cellar beneath
the town house; and the Peterhof,
formerly the residence of the bishops.
The chief industries of the town are
gloves, cigars, machines, sugar, leather,
paper, spirits, etc.; and there are also
large workshops for railway repairs.
Halberstadt dates from 820, the year in
which the see was transplanted from
Osterwieck to the site of the town OE
HALDANE
445
HALE
Halberstadt. It received town rights in
998; was twice burned down in the 12th
century ; and was held alternately by the
Swedes and Imperialists during the
Thirty Years' War, In 1684 it was
given to Brandenburg. Pop. about 46,500.
HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON
HALDANE, 1st VISCOUNT, a British
statesman. He was born in 1856 and
was educated at Edinburgh Academy;
Edinburgh and Gottingen universities,
receiving the M, A, degree, 1st Class
Honors in Philosophy, Edinburgh; be-
coming Gray Scholar and Ferguson
Scholar in Philosophy of Four Scottish
Universities, 1876. He became also Gif-
ford Lecturer in St. Andrew's Univer-
sity, 1902-1904. In 1885 he was elected
to represent Haddingtonshire as a liberal
in the House of Commons, continuing
to represent the same seat till 1911,
During 1905-1912 he was Secretary of
State for War, becoming Lord High
Chancellor of Great Britain in 1912 and
holding the office till 1915. He is a mem-
ber of the Judicial Committee of Privy
Council; LL. D.; Rector of Edinburgh
University; and Chancellor of the Uni-
versity of Bristol. He has written much,
his works including: "Essays in Philo-
sophical Criticism" (with Professor
Seth); "Life of Adam Smith"; "Educa-
tion and Empire"; "The Pathway to
Reality," He translated, with the co-
operation of Mr. Kemp, Schopenhauer's
"World as Will and Idea,"
HALE, EDWARD EVERETT, an
American author and Unitarian clergy-
man; born in Boston, Mass., April 3,
1822. He was graduated at Harvard
College in 1839, studied theology and
ecclesiastical history privately, was li-
censed to preach in 1842, and after sup-
plying various congregations was pastor
of the Church of the Unity, Woi'cester,
1846-1856, and was then called to the
South Congregational (Unitarian)
Church, Boston, During his ministerial
career he was active in social, educa-
tional, and philanthropic enterprises; or-
ganized the Harry Wadsworth Club,
which has numerous branches in the
United States and Europe, and the Look-
Up Legion among American Sunday-
schools; edited "The Christian Exami-
ner," "The Sunday-school Gazette," "Old
and New" (1869-1875), and "Lend a
Hand, a Journal of Organized Charity,"
besides "Original Documents from the
State Paper Office, London, and the Brit-
ish Museum, Illustrating the History of
Sir W, Raleigh's First American Colony
and the Colony of Jamestown" (1860) ;
John Lingard's "History of England," 13
volumes, and many historical works. He
Vol, IV — Cyc— CC
was popular as a lecturer. He is best
known as a writer of fiction and history.
He died June 10, 1909.
HALE, EUGENE, a United States
Senator from Maine, born at Turner,
Me,, in 1836. He studied law and was
admitted to the bar in 1856. He served
in the Maine Legislature in 1867, and
in the following year was elected to
Congress. He was four times re-elected.
In 1881 he was elected to the Senate to
succeed Hannibal Hamlin, and was re-
elected for four successive terms. Dur-
ing the first two years of the adminis-
tration of President Taft he shared with
Senator Aldrich of Rhode Island the ma-
jority leadership of the Senate. He was
recognized as one of the foremost mem-
bers of that body. He retired in 1911,
after a longer service than that of any
other Senator then in office. He died in
1913.
HALE, FREDERICK. United States
Senator from Maine; born in Detroit,
Mich., 1874; graduated from Harvard in
1896; practiced law in Portland, Me. In
1904 he was elected to the Maine House
of Representatives, and from 1912 to
1918 he was a member of the Republican
National Committee, He was elected to
the United States Senate for the term
1917-1923.
HALE, HARRY CLAY, an American
soldier, born in Knoxville, 111., in 1861. He
graduated from the United States Mili-
tary Academy in 1883 and was appointed
2d lieutenant of the 12th Infantry in the
same year. In 1898 he was appointed
major to the assistant adjutant-general
of volunteers. In the following year he
was honorably discharged from the vol-
unteer service, and was transferred to
the 15th United States Infantry. He was
appointed adjutant-general in 1907, In
1911 he became lieutenant-general and in
1915 he was promoted to be colonel of
the 20th Infantry, He was successively
brigadier-general and major-general of
the National Army in 1917, and was
appointed commander of Camp Zachary
Taylor, He commanded the 84th Divi-
sion of the American Expeditionary
Force in France in 1918, and was for
a short time commander of the 26th
Division.
HALE. LOUISE CLOSSER, an Amer-
ican actress and writer, born in Chicago,
in 1872. She was educated in the pub-
lic schools of Indianapolis, and in 1899
married Walter Hale. Her first appear-
ance on the stage was made in Detroit,
in 1895, Her published writings include
"A Motor Car Divorce" (1906) ; "The
Actress" (1909); "The Married Miss
Worth" (1911); "We Discover New
HALE
446
HALES
England" (1915) ; "We Discover the Old
Dominion" (1916). She was a frequent
contributor to magazines,
HALE, LTJCRETIA PEABOBY, an
American author, sister of E. E. Hale;
bora in Boston, Mass., Sept. 2, 1820.
She published among other works: "The
Lord's Supper and Its Observance"
(1866); "The Service of Sorrow"
(1867); "The Wolf at the Door" in the
"No Name Series" (1877) ; "The Peter-
kin Papers" (1882); "The Last of the
Peterkins" (1886). She also wrote "The
New Harry and Lucy" (with E. E.
Hale). Her chief fame is as the creator
of the Peterkins, who have become popu-
larly recognized types of character. She
died in Boston, Mass., June 12, 1900.
HALE, SIR MATTHEW, Lord Chief-
justice of England; born in Alderly,
Gloucestershire, England, Nov. 1, 1609.
Intended for the Church, he was sent to
Oxford University in his 16th year. But
suddenly he abandoned his studious
habits, and joined a company of stroll-
ing players. He was on the point of
becoming a soldier when induced to adopt
the legal profession. Accordingly, in
1629, Hale entered the Society of Lin-
coln's Inn, and was called to the bar in
1637. In the quarrel between king and
Parliament he refrained from identify-
ing himself with either side. When,
however. Parliament got the upper hand,
he signed the Solemn League and Cove-
nant, sat in the Assembly of Divines at
Westminster, tried to bring about a set-
tlement between the king and Parlia-
ment, and ultimately taking his engage-
ment to the Commonwealth, was made
judge under Cromwell in 1653. He acted
as a puisne judge of the Common pleas
till Cromwell's death, but refused to
have his commission renewed by Rich-
ard Cromwell. After the Restoration he
was made Chief-Baron of the Court of
Exchequer, and 11 years later was
transferred to the Chief-justiceship of
the Court of King's Bench. He wrote:
"History of the Pleas of the Crown"
(1736) ; "History of the Common Law of
England" (1713) ; "Moral and Religious
Works," etc. He resigned his office in
February, 1676, and died Dec. 25 of the
same year.
HALE, NATHAN, an American pa-
triot; born in Coventry, Conn., June 6,
1755. He rose to the rank of captain in
the Continental army, and, having vol-
unteered to penetrate the British lines
and procure intelligence for Washing-
ton, was detected, and executed as a spy
in New York City, Sept. 22, 1776. A
statue was erected to his memory in New
York in 1893.
HALES, STEPHEN, an English phi-
losopher; born in Beckesbourn, Kent,
England, Sept. 7, 1677. He entered Cor-
pus Christi College, Cambridge, in 1696,
was elected Fellow in 1702, and having
taken holy orders was presented, about
1710, to the perpetual curacy of Tedding-
ton, in Middlesex. His first important
publication was "Vegetable Staticks, or
Experiments on the Sap of Vegetables"
(1727), which may be regarded as the
starting point of our true knowledge of
vegetable physiology. In "Hasma-
staticks" (1733), a second part of this
NATHAN HALE
work, treating of the circulation of the
blood. Hales gives results obtained by
experimental methods of investigation
like those now in use in studying physiol-
ogy. Besides other independent works,
including "The Means of Dissolving the
Stone in the Bladder," he contributed
numerous memoirs to the "Philosophical
Transactions" on ventilation, electricity,
the analysis of air, etc. His ventilating
machines were introduced into the Lon-
don prisons. His improvements in the
mode of collecting gases did much to
facilitate the subsequent labors of Black,
Priestley and Lavoisier. He also in-
vented machines for distilling sea-water,,
jtALEVY
447
HALICZ
preserving meat, etc. He died in Ted-
dington, Middlesex, England, Jan. 4,
1761.
HALEVY, LUDOVIC, a French dra-
matist; son of Leon; born in Paris,
France, Jan. 1, 1834. In 1861 he became
secretary to the Corps Legislatif. He
first made himself known as the writer
of the librettos to Offenbach's burlesques
(partly in collaboration with Meilhac) ;
"Orpheus in Hades" (1861) ; "Beautiful
Helen" (1865); "Parisian Life" (1866);
"Grand Duchess of Gerolstein" (1867) ;
and "The Brigands" (1870). He wrote
besides a large number of vaudevilles
and comedies, among them "Froufrou"
(1869) ; "Tricoche and Cacolet" (1872) ;
"The Debutante's Husband" (1878) ; and
"The Little Mother" (1880); "Madame
and Monsieur Cardinal" (1873), and
"The Little Cardinals" (1880). His "The
Invasion" (1872) are personal recollec-
tions of the war. In 1882 he published his
charming idyllic story "Abbe Constan-
tin," which has been well followed by
"Criquette" (1883) and "Deux Mari-
ages" (1883). Halevy was admitted to
the Academy in 1886. He died May 8,
1908.
HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHAND-
LER, a Canadian-American jurist and
author; born in Windsor, Nova Scotia,
in December, 1796. He was called to
the bar in 1820 and became a member of
the House of Assembly. He was raised
to the bench as chief -justice of the Com-
mon Pleas in 1829, and in 1842 became
judge of the Supreme Court. In 1856
he retired from the bench, and took up
his residence in England. In 1858 he
received the degree of D. C. L. from the
University of Oxford, and in 1859 en-
tered Parliament as Conservative mem-
ber for Launceston. He is best known
as the author of "Sam Slick," the name
of a Yankee clockmaker and peddler,
whose quaint drollery has given him a
fair chance of immortality. The series
of newspaper sketches in which this
character had first been introduced was
published in 1837 as "The Clockmaker,
or Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick
of Slickville"; two later series followed
in 1838 and 1840, and "The Attache, or
Sam Slick in England"; in 1843. Hali-
burton's other works include "A Histori-
cal and Statistical Account of Nova
Scotia"; "The Old Judge, or Life in a
Colony"; "Yankee Stories, and Traits of
American Humor"; "Nature and Human
Nature"; and "Wise Saws and Modern
Instances." He died in Isleworth, near
London, England, Aug. 27, 1865.
HAIilBUT, or HOLIBTJT, Hippoglos-
sns vulgaris, one of the Pleuronectidx
(flat fishes). It is a fish much akin to
the turbot. The genuine turbot, Rhom-
bus maximus, is, however, a different
fish. The halibut is the larger of the
two. It sometimes weighs from 300 to
400 pounds.
HALIBUT ISLAND, an island in the
North Pacific Ocean, near the S. W. ex-
tremity of the peninsula of Alaska; lat.
54° 48' N., Ion. 164° 15' W. Circum-
ference 22 miles. This island was dis-
covered by Captain Cook, the celebrated
navigator, who named it from the im-
mense numbers of halibut taken off its
shores.
HALICARNASSITS (-nas'sus) (origi-
nally called Zephyria), a Greek city of
Caria, Asia Minor, on the Ceramic Gulf.
It was founded by Dorian colonists from
Troezen, and defended by several cita-
dels, one of which, Salmacis, was deemed
impregnable. Early in its history it be-
came one of the cities of the so-called
Dorian Hexapolis, from which confed-
eracy, however, it was eventually ex-
cluded. When the Persian power spread
W. Halicarnassus readily submitted to
the dominion of the conquerors. During
this period, however, about 500 B. c, a
domestic tyrant Lygdamis, rose to su-
preme power as a vassal of Persia; and
his descendants, without forfeiting the
Greek character or ceasing to cultivate
the Greek literature and arts, gradually
extended their sway over all Caria.
Among them was Mausolus, whose wife
and sister Artemisia, to commemorate
him after his death (353), erected the
magnificent Mausoleum (g. v.), which
was accounted one of the seven wonders
of the world. It was under this king
that the city attained its highest degree
of splendor and prosperity. About 20
years later Alexander the Great de-
stroyed the city by fire; but the inhabit-
ants took refuge in the citadel, which
successfully resisted his arms. "The city
was afterward rebuilt, but it never re-
covered its ancient importance or pros-
perity. In the days of the Roman em-
pire it had sunk into comparative insig-
nificance. Halicarnassus was the birth-
place of the Greek historians Herodotus
and Dionysius. The site of the city is
occupied by the modern Budrun.
HALICZ (ha'lich), a town of Poland,
in the province of Galicia ; on the
Dniester, 69 miles S. E. E. of Lemberg.
On a hill in the vicinity are the ruins
of the once strongly fortified castle of
Halicz, built in the 12th century, and
the residence of the rulers of what was
formerly the grand principality and
kingdom of Halicz. From this word the
name Galicia (g. v.) is derived. Be-
HALIDON HILL
448
HALIFAX
cause of its strategic position as the key
to Lemberg the town was much fought
over in the World War (1914-1918). The
Russians captured it in August, 1914.
The Austrians regained it June 28, 1915.
The Russians made an effort that failed
to take the town in 1916, but were suc-
cessful July 1, 1917. These were the last
important operations made by the Rus-
sians in the World War. On July 22
they abandoned Halicz and began a dis-
orderly retreat.
HALIDON HILL, an eminence about
a mile to the N. W. of Berwick, the
scene of a disastrous defeat of the Scots
by the English, July 19, 1333. Edward
III. of England had laid siege to Ber-
wick, the governor of which promised to
surrender July 20, if not previously re-
lieved. On July 19, Archibald Douglas,
regent of Scotland, led a Scotch army
to the relief of the town, and attacked
the English at Halidon Hill, but was to-
tally routed with the loss of 10,000 men.
HALIFAX, a municipal and parlia-
mentary borough of England, in York
county (West Riding), on the Hebble,
36 miles W. S. W. of York. It is built
on a rising slope, and has a very pic-
turesque appearance. The more modern
streets are spacious and well paved.
Among the principal buildings are the
parish church of St. John the Baptist
(restored 1879), All Souls' Church, the
Square Church, the town hall, market
hall, theater, assembly rooms^ infirmary,
etc. There are several charitable insti-
tutions, three public parks, and two
grammar schools. Halifax commands
abundant supplies of coal and water, and
an extensive inland navigation connect-
ing it with Hull and Liverpool. It is
one of the centers of the woolen and
worsted manufactures in Yorkshire, a
great variety of goods being produced.
There are also iron, chemical and ma-
chine-making works. Pop. about 101,800.
HALIFAX, a city, port of entry, capi-
tal of the Province of Nova Scotia, and
county-seat of Halifax co., on Halifax
Harbor ; and on the Intercolonial and the
Dominion Atlantic railroads. It is the
largest community and only city in the
province. The harbor of Halifax is one
of the best in the world, 6 miles long,
with an average width of a mile, and
protected by 11 fortifications. At the N.
end of the bay is a narrow channel con-
necting with Bedford Basin, a sheet of
water, 6 miles long, by 4 miles wide,
capable of sheltering all the navies of
the world. Halifax is the chief British
naval station in North America, and in
1901 was the only station on the Atlan-
tic coast occupied by British troops.
Public Interests. — The city is well laid
out, the streets are spacious, and cross
each other at right angles. Many of
the houses are of wood, but many also
are handsome brick and stone edifices.
The most notable buildings include Gov-
ernment House (official residence of the
lieutenant-governor), the Academy of
Music, City Hall, tlie Masonic Temple,
Y. M. C. A. Buildings, the Wellington
Barracks, Roman Catholic and Church
of England Cathedrals, St. Paul's
Church (one of the oldest churches in
North America), Provincial Building,
the Armory, Admiralty House, Military
Hospital, Dalhousie College, Free Li-
brary, Provincial Hospital, and Court
House. The Citadel, a fortress of earth
and granite, occupies the summit of the
hill commanding the city, is over a mile
in circumference, is the strongest fortifi-
cation in America, and one of the strong-
est in the world, and the work of many
years. The city is lighted by gas and
electricity, and is the seat of the see of
the Anglican Bishop of Nova Scotia and
Prince Edward Island, and of the Ro-
man Catholic Archbishop of Halifax.
The Public Gardens, covering some 17
acres, are considered the finest public
gardens on the Continent, and the mili-
tary band concerts given there form one
of the chief attractions for visitors to
the Maritime Provinces of Canada.
Point Pleasant Park, a handsome nat-
ural woods, chiefly of spruce and pine,
and the "Dingle," a private natural
park of great extent, thrown open to
the free use of the public, are among the
chief pleasure grounds. The North West
Arm, an inlet of the sea, on the W. side
of the city, is a charming bay, on the
shores of which are many of the villas of
the merchants.
Business Interests. — Most of the com-
merce of the province is carried on in
Halifax, and the city has considerable
West Indian trade, exporting lumber,
fish and agricultural products, and re-
ceiving in exchange sugar, rum, molasses
and other sub-tropical products. The
chief industry of the inhabitants is di-
rected to manufactures, shipbuilding,
commerce and fisheries. The principal
manufactures are iron castings, machin-
ery, agricultural implements, nails, gun-
powder, cordage, leather, boots and
shoes, soap and candles, cotton and
woolen goods and wooden ware. There
are also sugar refineries, distilleries and
breweries.
History. — Halifax harbor was origi-
nally known as Chedabucto or Chebucto
bay, but in 1749 the city was founded on
the W. shore by Lord Comwallis, ma^e
the capital of Nova Scotia, then fnclud-
HALL
449
HALL
ing New Brunswick, and named in honor
of the Earl of Halifax. It was incor-
porated as a city in 1842, It is governed
by a mayor, elected annually by the citi-
zens, and 4 controllers and 12 council-
men, elected for tvro years. The city
sends two members to the Canadian
House of Commons, and three to the
Provincial Legislature. Pop. about 46,-
600. On Dec. 6, 1917, the collision of
two munition vessels off the harbor
caused an explosion and conflagration
that destroyed property over 2% square
miles, and was followed on the next day
by a severe blizzard. The catastrophe
caused the death of 1,158 persons, while
upward of 4,000 were injured and 20,-
000 were made homeless.
HALL (hal), or SCHWABISCH
HALL, a town of Wiirttemberg, in the
deep valley of the Kocher, 33 miles E.
by S. of Heilbronn. Like other places
in whose names the word Hall or Salz
occurs. Hall has considerable saltworks,
the brine being obtained from Wilhelms-
gliick, 5 miles distant. There are also
cotton-spinning and weaving, silk and
machine manufactures and tanneries.
The Gothic church of St. Michael (1427-
1525) has excellent wood-carvings. In
1276 Hall was made a free imperial
town ; it had enjoyed since 1228 the right
of minting money; here were coined the
first silver heller (hdller) or farthings.
In 1802 it was added to Wiirttemberg.
Pop. about 10,000.
HALL. CHARLES CTJTHBERT. an
American educator; born in New York,
Sept. 3, 1852; was graduated at Wil-
liams College in 1872, and studied theol-
ogy at the Union Theological Seminary
and in London and Edinburgh; was pas-
tor of Presbyterian church till 1897,
when he was elected president of Union
Theological Seminary. In 1902-1903 he
lectured in India and the Far East.
Author: "Universal Elements of the
Christian Religion" (1902) ; "Christian-
ity and the Human Race" (1906) ;
"Christ and the Eastern Soul" (1909).
He died in 1908.
HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS, an
American Arctic explorer; born in Roch-
ester, N. H.. in 1821. He was successive-
ly a blacksmith, journalist, stationer and
engraver, and, becoming interested in
the fate of the Franklin expedition, he
made two search expeditions, in 1860-
1862 and 1864-1869, living alone among
the Eskimo, and bringing back some
relics and the bones of one of Franklin's
company; and in 1871 he sailed in com-
mand of the government ship "Polaris,"
on an "expedition to the North Pole."
He took his vessel for 250 miles up the
channel leading from Smith's Sound, and
on Aug. 29 reached 82° 16' N.— at that
date the highest N. latitude ever reached;
then turning he went into winter-quar-
ters at Thank God Harbor, Greenland
(81° 38' N.). Here, on his return from
a sledge expedition to the N., he was
taken suddenly ill, and died Nov. 8,
1871; over his grave a grateful epitaph
was placed by the British polar expedi-
tion in 1876. Among the valuable re-
sults of Hall's work were the explora-
tion of the West Greenland channel, and
the extension of Greenland and Grinnell
Land 1'^^° N. Hall published "Arctic
Researches, and Life Among the Esqui-
maux" (1864) ; and from his papers
largely was compiled the "Narrative of
the Second Arctic Expedition" (1879).
HALL. GRANVILLE STANLEY, an
American educator, born at Ashfield,
Mass., in 1846. He graduated from Wil-
liams College in 1867, and studied at the
Union Theological Seminary in the fol-
lowing year. He then took post-grad-
uate courses in Germany and in Lon-
don. From 1872 to 1876 he was pro-
fessor of psychology at Antioch College,
and was instructor in English at Har-
vard in 1876-7. From 1881 to 1888 he
was professor of psychology at Johns
Hopkins University. In the latter year
he was president and professor of psy-
chology at Clark University. He was
editor of several psychological maga-
zines and was a member of many
learned societies. He wrote "Aspects of
German Culture" (1881) ; "Adolescence"
(1904) ; "Educational Problems"
(1911) ; "Founders of Modern Psychol-
ogy" (1912) ; "Jesus the Christ, in the
Light of Psychology" (1917) ; and "Psy-
chology" (1917).
HALL. LYMAN, one of the signers
of the Declaration of Independence;
born in Connecticut, about 1731. He
was graduated at Yale College in 1747,
commenced the study of medicine at
Sunbury, Ga., in 1752, represented the
latter State in Congress 1775-1780, was
appointed governor of his State in 1783,
and died in 1791.
HALL. ROBERT, an English clergy-
man; born in Arnsby, Leicestershire,
England, in 1764. He studied at the
Baptist College at Bristol, and after-
ward at Aberdeen. In 1783 he became
assistant pastor of Broadmead Church
in Bristol, suffered for a time from
mental alienation, recovered and became
pastor of the Baptist Church at Cam-
bridge, where he soon acquired a great
reputation by his preaching and his wTit-
ings, such as "Apology for the Freedom
of the Press" (1793)'; "Modern Infidel-
HALLAM
450
HALLECK
ity^ (1800); "Reflections on War"
(1802). He again became insane and
resigned his charge, but recovering mar-
ried and settled at Leicester in 1808, till
in 1820 he was again called to Bristol.
He died in 1831.
HALLAM, HENRY, an English his-
torian; born in Windsor, England, July 9,
1777. His father was dean of Bristol.
After studying at Eton he was sent to
the University of Oxford, where he dis-
tinguished himself by his classical at-
tainments. He afterward settled in Lon-
don, and entered on his career of literary
labor as one of the first contributors to
the "Edinburgh Review." His "View of
the State of Europe during the Middle
Ages" (1818) was the first great result
of his studies and researches. His mas-
terly work on the "Constitutional His-
tory of England" was given to the world
in 1827. Hallam belonged to the Whig
party in politics, but he wrote with an
impartiality which is rarely rivaled. In
1833 a very heavy blow fell on him in the
death of his eldest son, a young man of
high promise, and the chosen friend of
Alfred Tennyson, whose love and sorrow
are recorded in "In Memoriam." The
next great work of Hallam, published in
1837-1839, was his "Introduction to the
Literature of Europe in the 15th, 16th,
and 17th Centuries." After losing his
daughter, his wife, and his second son
(the last in 1850), the aged and mourn-
ing father himself died in Penhurst,
Kent, England, Jan. 21, 1859.
HALLE (hal'le), a city of Prussian
Saxony, known as Halle an der Saale, to
distinguish it from other places of the
same name in Germany; on the right
bank of the Saale and on several small
islands of the river; 20 miles N. W. of
Leipsic. As an important railway cen-
ter, Halle has rapidly increased in size,
industry, and prosperity. Its famous
university was founded in 1694 by Fred-
erick I. of Prussia; after having been
suppressed by Napoleon in 1806, and
again in 1813, it was re-established in
1815 and incorporated with the Univer-
sity of Wittenberg, which had been dis-
solved during the war. The Francke
Institutions rank among the most impor-
tant establishments of the place. The
noteworthy buildings and institutions em-
brace St. Mary's Church (1529-1554);
the Gothic church of St. Maurice, dating
from the 12th century, with fine wood-
carvings and sculptures; the red tower,
276 feet high, in the market-place, with
a Roland statue in front of it; the town-
hall ; the remains of the Moi'itzburg,
built in 1484, the ancient residence of the
archbishops of Magdeburg; a deacon-
esses' home; a large penitentiary; the
medical institutes and clinical hospitals;
the agricultural institute; the university
library (220,000 vols.) ; a provincial mu-
seum; an art collection; and an archseo-
logical and other museums. The most
important industrial product of Halle is
salt, obtained from brine springs within
and near the town, which have been
worked from before the 7th century. The
industries next in importance prior to the
World War, were sugar-refining, print-
ing, brewing, the manufacture of mineral
oil, and fruit cultivation. A very active
trade was carried on in machines, rav7
sugar, mineral oil, grain, and flour. Halle
is the birthplace of Handel, the com-
poser. Originally a border fortress
against the Slavs, it became in the 10th
century an appanage of the Archbishop
of Magdeburg, and by the 12th century
was famous as a commercial city. In
that and the 13th century Halle was a
powerful member of the Hanseatic
League, and successfully withstood a
fierce siege by the Archbishop of Magde-
burg in 1435, but finally fell into his
hands in 1478. Terribly impoverished
during the Thirty Years' War, it was in-
corporated with Brandenburg at the
peace of Westphalia. Pop. about 180,000.
HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE, an Amer-
ican poet; born in Guilford, Conn., July
8, 1790. By his mother he was descended
from John Eliot, "the apostle of the In-
dians." He became a clerk in a bank in
New York in 1811, and in 1832 the pri-
vate secretary of John Jacob Astor;
in 1849 he retired, on an annuity
of $200 left him by Astor, to his
native town, where he spent the re-
mainder of his days. From his boy-
hood Halleck wrote verses, and in
1819 he contributed, with Joseph Rodman
Drake, a series of humorous satirical
papers in verse to the New York "Even-
ing Post." In the same year he pub-
lished his longest poem, "Fanny" (2d
edition, enlarged, 1821), a satire on the
literature, fashions, and politics of the
time. He visited Europe in 1822, and in
1827 published anonymously an edition
of his poems (3d edition, enlarged, 1845).
In 1865 he published "Young America,"
a poem of 300 lines. His complete
"Poetical Writings" was published in
1869. He died in Guilford, Conn., Nov.
19, 1867.
HALLECK, HENRY WAGER, an
American military oflficer; born in West-
ernville, N. Y., Jan. 16, 1815. He was
graduated at the United States Military
Academy in 1839. During the Mexican
War he was employed in the operations
on the Pacific coast, and for services was
HALLEY
451
HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS
breveted captain in 1847. He took a
leading part in organizing the State of
California, became captain of engineers
in 1853, left the service in 1854, and for
some time practiced law in San Fran-
cisco. On the outbreak of the Civil War
he re-entered the army, and in November,
1861, was appointed Commander of the
Department of the Missouri, which in a
few weeks he reduced to order. In
March, 1862, the Confederate first line
had been carried from end to end, and
Halleck's command was extended so as
to embrace, under the name of the De-
partment of the Mississippi, the vast
stretch of territory between the Rocky
Mountains and the Alleghenies. His
services in the field ended with the cap-
ture of Corinth, with its 15 miles of in-
trenchments, in May, 1862. In July he
became General-in-Chief of the armies
of the United States; and henceforth he
directed from Washington the move-
ments of the generals in the field, till,
in March, 1864, he was superseded by
General Grant. Halleck was chief of
staff till 1865, commanded the Military
Division of the Pacific till 1869, and that
of the South till his death, Jan. 9, 1872.
His "Elements of Military Art and
Science" (1846; new edition 1861) was
much used during the Civil War; and he
also published books on mining laws, etc.
HALLEY, EDMUND, an English as-
tronomer and mathematician; born in
Haggerston, near London, England, Oct.
S? *=5^' s^^' i®li
EDMUND HALLEY
29, 1656. He received his education at
St. Paul's School, and Queen's College,
Oxford, whei'e he attained so great a
proficiency in mathematical studies, that
in 1676 he published observations on a
spot in the sun, by which the motions of
that body on its axis were determined.
The same year he went to St. Helena,
where he determined the positions of
350 stars. In 1680 he made the tour of
Europe with Mr. Nelson; and on the pas-
sage to Calais was the first to observe
the great comet — the same which visited
the Western hemisphere again in 1835
(see Comet), After his return, he gave
his attention to the theory of the plane-
tary motions, which made him acquainted
with Sir Isaac Newton, who intrusted to
him the publication of his "Principia."
To ascertain exactly the cause of the
variation of the compass, he made several
trips to the Western Ocean. In 1703 he
was appointed Savilian Professor of
Geometry at Oxford; in 1705 he made
public his valuable researches on the
orbits of comets; in 1713 he became
secretary to the Royal Society; and in
1719 he succeeded Flamsteed as Astrono-
mer Royal. The remainder of his life
was chiefly spent in completing the
theory of the motion of the moon. His
principal works are: "Catalogue of the
Southern Stars," "Astronomical Tables,"
"An Abridgment of the History of
Comets," etc. He died in 1742.
HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS. JAMES
ORCHARD, an English Shakespearean
scholar and antiquary; born in Chelsea,
London, June 21, 1820; the son of
Thomas Halliwell. He was educated at
Jesus College, Cambridge. His studies
embraced the whole field of earlier Eng-
lish literature, plays, ballads, popular
rhymes and folklore, chap-books, and
English dialects, and its fruits remain in
the publications of the old Shakespeare
and Percy societies. In 1839 he was
elected Fellow of the Royal and Anti-
quarian societies. Gradually he came to
concentrate himself on Shakespeare alone
and more particularly on the facts of his
life, the successive editions of his "Out-
lines of the Life of Shakespeare" (1848;
8th ed. 1889) recording the growing re-
sults of his discoveries. In 1872 he took
over the management of the property
his wife (died 1879) inherited from her
father, Thomas Phillipps, and assumed
his father-in-law's name. Apart from
Shakespeare, his "Nursery Rhymes and
Nursery Tales of England" (1845) and
"Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial
Words" (1847; 6th ed. 1868) will keep
his name from being forgotten. His
magnificent edition in folio of the "Works
of Shakespeare" (16 vols. 1853-1865)
was published at a price prohibitive to
most students. He died in Hollingbury
Copse, near Brighton, England, Jan. 3,
1889.
HALLOWE'EN
452
HAM
HALLOWE'EN, the name popularly
given to the eve or vigil of All Hallows,
or festival of All Saints, which being
Nov. 1, Hallowe'en is the evening of Oct.
31. In England and Scotland it was
long consecrated to harmless fireside
revelries, with many ceremonies for
divining a future sweetheart.
HALLTJE (a-lii'), a French river,
noted for the battle on its banks in 1870
between the French and Germans.
HALO, PARHELION, or CORONA,
various meteorological phenomena. For
corona as a solar phenomenon, see under
Sun.
HALOGEN, the electro-negative radi-
cal of a haloid salt. This term is also
used for the monad elements chlorine,
bromine, iodine, and fluorine, as their
sodium salts resemble sea salt, which is
chloride of sodium, NaCl. Chloride is a
gas, bromine a liquid, and iodine a solid
at ordinary temperatures. Chlorine has
the greatest chemical affinity for hydro-
gen, and iodine for oxygen, that of bro-
mine being intermediate.
HALPINE, CHARLES GRAHAM
(pseudonym) Miles O'Reilly, an Irish-
American author; born in Ireland in
November, 1829. He came to the United
States at 23 and became a New York
journalist. He served through the Civil
War, attaining the rank of colonel. His
writings include: "Lyrics"; "Poems";
"Miles O'Reilly Papers"; "Life and Ad-
ventures of Private Miles O'Reilly";
"Baked Meats of the Funeral"; "Poetical
Works" ; etc. He died in New York City,
Aug. 3, 1868.
HALS, FRANS (hals), the Elder, a
Dutch portrait and genre painter; born
probably in Antwerp, in 1580 or 1581.
He studied under Karel van Mander and,
according to some accounts, under Ru-
bens. Hals is usually regarded as the
founder of the Dutch school of genre-
painting. Of his portrait groups eight
noble examples are preserved in the mu-
seum of Haarlem. The "Mandoline
Player" (1630), in the gallery of Amster-
dam, is a typical example of his treat-
ment of single figures. As a teacher he
exercised a marked influence on the de-
velopment of Dutch art, Jan Verspronck,
Van der Heist, Adrian van Ostade,
Adrian Brouwer, and Wouwerman hay-
ing been his pupils. A replica of his
"Hille Bobbe" (Berlin Gallery) is in the
N. Y. Metropolitian Museum of Art. He
died in Haarlem, Netherlands, in August,
1666.
His brother. Dirk Hals (before 1600-
1656), a pupil of Abraham Bloemaert,
■Vas also an excellent genre painter; and
several of Frans' sons were artists, the
most celebrated being Frans Hals, the
Younger, who flourished from about 1637
to 1669.
HALSEY, FRANCIS WHITING, an
American editor and author, born in
Unadilla, N. Y., 1851; died in New York
City, 1919. Shortly after finishing his
education at Cornell, he joined the staff of
the New York "Tribune," in 1875. Five
years later he went over to the New
York "Times," becoming editor of the
"Times Saturday Review," continuing as
such until 1902. Shortly before his death
he completed a compiled "History of the
World War," in ten volumes. Among
his original writings are, "Our Literarv
Deluge" (1902); "The Pioneers of
Unadilla Village" (1902) ; a historical
and biographical introduction to Mrs.
Rowson's "Charlotte Temple" (1905).
Among his editorial achievements are;
"American Authors and Their Homes"
(1901); "The World's Famous Orations"
(in association with Wm. J. Bryan
(1906); and "Seeing Europe with Fa-
mous Authors" (10 vols., 1914).
HALSTEAD, MITRAT, an American
journalist; born in Ross, Butler co., O.,
Sept. 2, 1829. He spent his minority on
a farm. At 18 he began writing for news-
papers. In 1851 he finished his schooling
at Farmers' College, near Cincinnati,
and then decided to study law. He did
local newspaper reporting on several
Cincinnati papers; in 1853 became man-
ager of a department on the Cincinnati
"Commercial," and subsequently part
owner. In 1866 it was considered one
of the most potent newspapers in the
West. In 1890 he removed to Brooklyn,
N. Y., and edited the "Union" newspaper.
He wrote: "The Story of Cuba"; "Life
of William McKinley"; "The Story of the
Philippines"; "History of American Ex-
pansion"; "Life of Admiral Dewey";
"The Boer and British War"; etc. He
died July 2, 1908.
HAM (Hebrew, burnt, swarthy,
black), a son of Noah. The impiety re-
vealed in his conduct toward his fathe"
drew on him, or, leather, according to the
Bible statement, on his son Canaan, a
prophetic malediction (Gen. ix: 20-27).
Ham was the father of Cush, Mizraim,
Phut, and Canaan, that is the ancestor
of the Canaanites, southern Arabians,
Ethiopians, Egyptians, and the Africans
in general (Gen. x: 6-20).
HAM (am), a town in France, de-
partment of Somme, on the river of that
name, 12 miles S. W. of St. Quentin. Its
ancient fortress or castle was rebuilt by
the Comte de Saint Pol in 1470. and now
HAM, WEST
453
HAMBURG
is used as a state prison. It is memorable
as the place of confinement of Joan of
Arc, Moncey, and others; of Polignac,
Peyronnet, and Guemon de Ranville
from 1831 to 1836; of Louis Napoleon
from 1840 till 1846; and after the coup
d'etat, of the republican generals Ca-
vaignac, Lamoriciere, Changarnier, etc.
HAM, WEST, a suburb of East Lon-
don, and a parliamentary and county
borough of Essex, England, on the
Thames, opposite Greenwich. Pop. 133,-
500. It is a busy industrial parish, and
has silk printing, ship-building, distilling,
and chemical manufactures.
HAMADAN (ha-ma-dan') , a town of
Persia, in the province of Irak Ajemi,
situated at the N. base of Mount Elwend,
160 miles W. S. W. of Teheran. It con-
tains Avicenna's tomb, and others
affirmed to be those of Mordecai and
Esther. Being the center of converging
routes from Bagdad, Erivan, Teheran,
and Ispahan, it is the seat of a large
transit trade; and it carries on extensive
manufactures of leather, and in a less
degree of coarse carpets and woolen and
cotton fabrics. Hamadan is generally
believed to occupy the site of the Median
ECBATANA {q. v.). Pop. between 30,000
and 40,000.
HAMAN (ha'man), a favorite of
Ahasuerus, King of Persia. In order to
revenge himself on Mordecai the Jew,
he plotted the extermination of all the
Jews in the kingdom; but in the provi-
dence of God he was thwarted by Esther,
fell into disgrace with the king, and
wrought his own ruin and the upbuild-
ing of the Jews, B. c. about 485.
HAMBOURG, MARK, a Russian
pianist and composer. He was bora at
Bogutchar, south Russia, in 1879, and
was educated by Lis father and subse-
quently by Professor Leschetitzky, Vi-
enna, where he obtained the Liszt
scholarship in 1894. He made his first
public appearance in Moscow in 1888,
and later appeared in London, Vienna,
Australia, Paris, Berlin. He made his
first American tour during 1899-1900,
and the second American tour during
1902-1903. He toured Australia and New
Zealand in 1903, south Africa in 1905,
Holland in 1906, returning in subsequent
years. He made his first Canadian tour
in 1910. His publications include: "Va-
riations on a Theme by Paganini";
"Volkslied"; "Espieglerie"; "Romance."
HAMBURG (ham'borg), a city of
Germany, one of the three formerly in-
dependent Hansa towns, and the greatest
commercial port on the continent of Eu-
rope; 80 miles from the Noi'th Sea, on
the N. branch of the Elbe. The town of
Altona adjoins it on the W. From the
Elbe proceed canals which intersect the
E. and lower part of the city in all
directions, and it is also intersected by
the Alster, which here forms two fine
streams, the Binnenalster and Aussen-
alster. The quays and harbor accommo-
dation are very extensive. After the
destructive fire of 1842 whole streets
were rebuilt in a magnificent and
expensive style. The most important
public buildings are the church of St.
Nicholas, a noble Gothic structure with a
lofty tower and spire, built between
1845 and 1874; St. Peter's, another
lofty Gothic edifice; St. Michael's, the
largest of the churches; St. Catharine's,
an ancient edifice; St. James', erected
in 1354, but surmounted by a modern
tower; an elegant Jewish temple; an
exchange, a noble edifice, consisting
chiefly of a magnificent hall, surrounded
by a fine colonnade. There are also the
Johanneum institution, containing an
ancient college, museums, and the city
library, with about 300,000 volumes;
several well-endowed hospitals; zoolog-
ical and botanic gardens; the Kunst-
halle, a large collection of pictures and
sculpture, theaters, etc. Hamburg was
prior to the World War of most impor-
tance on account of its great shipping
trade and the business of banking, ex-
change, marine assurance, etc., carried
on in connection with that. It was the
first commercial city on the continent of
Europe, and ranked only below London
and New York in the value of its trade.
Its manufactures, though large, are less
important, including shipbuilding, tobac-
co and cigar making, iron-founding,
brewing, etc. The city owes its founda-
tion to the emperor Charlemagne, who
(808-811) built a citadel and a church
on the heights between the Elbe and the
E. bank of the Alster, as a bulwark
against the neighboring pagans. It be-
came important as a commercial city
in the 12th century, and in the 13th it
combined with Liibeck in forming the
Hanseatic League. In 1618 Hamburg
was formally acknowledged a free city
of the Empire. During the Thirty Years'
War its population and prosperity con-
tinued to increase on account of the im-
munity of its position, and in the follow-
ing century it obtained a large share of
the trade with North America. In 1810
it was formally incorporated in the
French empire along with the N. W.
part of Germany. In 1815 it joined the
Germanic Confederation as a frpe city.
In 1888 the city was included in the
Zollverein or German Customs Union.
In the World War (1914-1918) Ham-
HAMELN
454
HAMILTON
burg, which lived by its shipping in-
terests, suffered heavily owing to the
blockade. Vessels rotted in the docks and
desolation marked the once flourishing
port. Since the Peace of 1919 Hamburg
is fast regaining her old supremacy
among German ports.
HAMELN (ha'meln), a town and
formerly a fortress of Hanover, Prussia,
on the We^er; 25 miles S. W. of Han-
over. It presents a mediaeval appear-
ance, having many houses and buildings
surviving from the Gothic and Renais-
sance periods of architecture. The chain
bridge which here crosses the Weser was
completed in 1839, and is about 840 feet
in length. The chief employments of the
people are machine making, iron found-
ing, wool spinning, fish breeding, brew-
ing, and the manufacture of leather,
paper, artificial manure, and chemicals.
In the earliest times Hameln belonged
to the Abbey of Fulda, and was a mem-
ber of the Hanseatic Confederation. It
suffered severely during the Thirty
Years' War. With this town is con-
nected the well-known legend of the
Piper (or Ratcatcher) of Hameln, who
in 1284 freed the town from rats
through the mystic charm of his pipe.
Pop. about 22,000.
HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT, an
English writer on art; born in Laneside,
Lancashire, England, Sept. 10, 1834. He
commenced his career as an art-critic by
contributing to the "Fine Arts Quarter-
ly," the "Fortnightly" and the "Satur-
day Review." He produced a volume of
poems on "The Isles of Loch Awe"
(1855), and "A Painter's Camp in the
Highlands, and Thoughts About Art"
(1862). In 1868 he published "Etching
and Etchers" and "Contemporary
French Painters," and a continuation,
"Painting in France After the Decline
of Classicism." After 1869 he edited the
"Portfolio," an art journal. Other pub-
lications are: "The Intellectual Life"
(1873) ; "Human Intercourse" (1884) ;
"The Graphic Arts" (1882); "Land-
scape" (1885); "Portfolio Papers"
(1889); "French and English" (1889),
and a couple of novels. He died Nov.
6, 1894.
HAMES. an old Lincolnshire, Eng-
land, name for a flail, an instrument
for threshing or beating grain from the
ear by hand. The old saying, "to set
the thames on fire," takes its origin
from this word, and has nothing what-
ever to do with the river Thames.
HAMILCAR (ha-mil'kar) , the name
of several Cathaginian generals, of
vhoro the most celebrated was Hamilcar,
surnamed Barca (the lightning), the
father of the great Hannibal. While
quite a young man he was appointed to
the command of the Carthaginian forces
in Sicily, in the 18th year of the first
Punic War, 247 B. c, when the Romans
were masters of almost the whole island.
For two years he defied all the efforts
of the Romans to dislodge him; but the
Carthaginian admiral, Hanno, having
been totally defeated off the Agates,
241 B. c, he reluctantly consented to
evacuate Sicily. A revolt of the returned
troops, joined by the native Africans,
was successfully repressed by Hamilcar.
He then entered on a series of campaigns
in Spain, where he founded a new em-
pire for Carthage. Here he passed nine
years, and had brought the whole south-
ern and eastern part of the country
under Carthaginian rule when he was
slain in battle against the Vettones, 229
B. C. His great design of making Spain
a point of attack against Rome was ably
carried out by his son Hannibal.
HAMILTON, a town in the Bermu-
das, of which it is the capital. It is
on the Great Bermuda, and was founded
in 1790. Pop. (1918) 2,627.
HAMILTON, a city and county-seat
of Butler co., O.; on both sides of the
Great Miami river and on the Miami and
Erie canal, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati,
Chicago and St. Louis, and the Cincin-
nati, Hamilton and Dajrton and the
Ohio Electric railroads; 25 miles N. of
Cincinnati. The river affords extensive
water power for the manufacture of
railroad supplies, machinery, wagons
and carriages, boots and shoes, flour,
iron, bank-vaults, ropes, saws, etc., be-
sides paper, woolen, cotton, and sawmills.
The city has 2 National banks, and
its institutions include Notre Dame
Academy, the Hamilton Children's Home,
the Mercy Hospital, a court house, public
schools, electric lights, and street rail-
ways, daily and weekly newspapers, and
public high school. Pop. (1910) 35,279;
(1920) 39,675.
HAMILTON, a city of Ontario,
Canada, the capital of Wentworth co.
It is on the Burlington Bay, and on the
Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, and
the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo rail-
roads. It has an excellent harbor and
has steam communication with lake
ports, and an important trade with the
Maritime Provinces. It is the center of
an important fruit growing region of
west Ontario. Abundant water power
is furnished from the Decew Falls, 35
miles southeast of the city. It is also
supplied with natural gas from the Wei-
HAMILTON
466
HAMILTON
land field. It has over 500 manufactur-
ing establishments, 33 banks and
branches, over 80 churches, and many
public and private institutions. Pop.
(1918) about 110,000.
HAMILTON, a town of Lanarkshire,
Scotland, on the Clyde; 10 miles S. E.
of Glasgow. The principal edifice is the
burgh building (1863), with a clock-
tower nearly 130 feet high; and there
are also the county buildings, large bar-
racks, and a good race-course. The
former manufactures of lace, tamboured
bobinette, and cambric have declined;
and mining is now the chief industry of
the district. Hamilton was made a royal
burgh in 1548, and one of the five Fal-
kirk parliamentary burghs in 1832.
Hamilton Palace, successor to Cadzow
Castle, is the seat of the Duke of Ham-
ilton. Dating partly from 1594, but
greatly enlarged in 1705 and 1822, it is
a sumptuous classical structure, though
its choicest art collections were sold in
1882 for nearly $2,000,000. Within its
policies are a superb mausoleum (1852),
the ruins of Cadzow Castle, the herd of
wild white cattle, and some primeval
oaks. Pop. about 39,531.
HAMILTON, metropolis of the W.
part of Victoria, Australia, on Grange
Burn Creek, 224 miles W. of Melbourne.
Two pastoral and agricultural exhibi-
tions are held here annually, and two
race-meetings. Pop. (1918) 4,700.
HAMILTON, FAMILY OF, a family
long connected with Scotland, though
probably of English origin, the name
being evidently territorial. The first
person of the name in Scotland of whom
we have reliable information was Wal-
ter FlTZ-GlLBERT OP HAMILTON, who, in
1296, swore fealty to Edward I. of Eng-
land. In 1445 the family was ennobled
in the person of Sir James Hamilton of
Cadzow, who was created Lord Hamil-
ton of Cadzow. At first he adhered to
the Douglases against the crown; but,
deserting them opportunely, he was re-
warded by large grants of their forfeited
lands, and at a later period by the hand
of the Princess Mary, eldest daughter
of King James II., and widow of Thomas
Boyd, Earl of Arran. He died in 1479.
James, the 3d Marquis of Hamilton,
one of the ablest and most distinguished
of the family, created Duke of Hamilton
in 1643 by Charles I., was taken pi'isoner
by the parliamentary forces soon after
the battle of Preston, and beheaded in
March, 1649. William Alexander
Louis Stephen Douglas Hamilton,
12th Duke of Hamilton in the peerage of
Scotland, and 9th Duke of Brandon in
the peerage of Great Britain, is premier
peer of Scotland, and hereditary keeper
of Holyrood House. The ennobled off-
shoots of the main branch of the Ham-
iltons are numerous and distinguished.
Among these are the Dukes of Abercorn,
the Earls of Selkirk, Orkney, and Had-
dington, and the Viscounts Boyne.
HAMILTON, ALEXANDER, an
American statesman; bom in Nevis, W.
I., Jan. 11, 1757. In 1772 he was sent to
Elizabethtown, N. J., to a grammar
school, and in 1773 entered King's Col-
lege (now Columbia University). When
the Revolution broke out he was ap-
pointed (1776) captain of artillery, and
in 1777 was made a member of Washing-
ton's staff, with the rank of lieutenant-
4\
ALEXANDER HAMILTON
colonel. In 1780 be married a daughter
of General Schuyler. Being reproved by
Washington for some slight matter, he
resigned his commission, but the next
year was in command of a battalion of
infantry, engaging in the battle of York-
town. The war being ended he studied
law, and was sent to Congress in 1782,
and again in 1787. He served in the
convention that framed the National
Constitution, where he led the sentiment
in favor of a strong Federal government,
as against a mere union of States. He
wrote the greater number of papers col-
lected in "The Federalist," that exerted
HAMILTON
456
HAMILTON
great influence in bringing the States
to accept the Constitution, and became
the leader of the Federalist party. He
was made the first Secretary of the
Treasury under Washington. He was
by this time ranked with Washington,
Jefferson, and Franklin, as one of the
four great Americans of his day. His
position as the leader of the Federalist
party brought him into conflict with
Jefferson and Monroe, but he neverthe-
less supported Jefferson in the election
contest between him and Burr in the
House of Representatives, and partly by
his influence Burr was defeated. He
became inspector-general of the army in
1798. He was one of the founders of
the Society of the Cincinnati, of which,
in 1800, he became President-General.
In 1804 he exerted his influence to de-
feaft Aaron Burr, who was a candidate
for governor of New York. Burr chal-
lenged Hamilton to a duel, in which he
was mortally wounded by Burr's first
fire, and died the following day, July
11, 1804.
HAMILTON, COSMO, an English
dramatist and novelist. His first ap-
prenticeship was in journalism, and
after holding various positions became
editor of the "London World." When the
war broke out he was gazetted as sub-
lieutenant, R. N. A. S. His works in-
clude: Novels — "Adam's Clay"; "Brum-
mell"; "The Blindness of Virtue";
"Duke's Son"; "The Miracle of Love";
plays— "The Wisdom of Folly"; "A
Sense of Humor"; "The Mountain
Climber"; "Bridge"; "Arsene Lupin";
"Mrs. Skeffington"; "The Blindness of
Virtue."
HAMILTON, LADY EMMA, born
Amy Lyon, an English adventuress;
born probably in Ness, Cheshire, Eng-
land, April 26, 1763. She had had three
places in London, had boi-ne two children
to a navy captain and a baronet, and
had posed as Hygeia in a quack-doctor's
"Temple of Health," when in 1782 she
accepted the protection of the Hon.
Charles Greville (1749-1809), to ex-
change it in 1786 for that of his uncle,
Sir William Hamilton (1730-1803).
After five years at Naples, in 1791 she
was married at Marylebone Church to
her elderly ambassador, and, returning
to Italy, was straightway admitted to
the closest intimacy by Maria Caroline,
the queen of Ferdinand I. Her "emi-
nent services" to the British fleet during
1796-1798 in furnishing information and
procuring supplies were extolled by
Lord Nelson and vaunted by herself.
Nelson had first met her in 1793; and
gradually Platonic friendship ripened
to guilty passion, till, four ror^nths after
the trio's return to England, she gave
birth to a daughter (1801-1881), "our
beloved Horatia," so Nelson writes of
her in a holograph letter to "my own
dear Wife, in my eyes and the face of
Heaven." Her credulous husband's
death, followed four years later by Nel-
son's, left Emma mistress of $10,000 a
year; but by 1808 she was owing $90,000,
and in 1813 was arrested for debt.
Next year she escaped to Calais, where
she died in penury, Jan. 15, 1815.
HAMILTON, FRANK HASTINGS,
an American surgeon; born in Wilming-
ton, Vt., Sept. 10, 1813. He was grad-
uated from the medical department of
the University of Pennsylvania in 1833,
and first practiced in Auburn, N. Y. In
1844 he went to Buffalo, and, with Dr.
Austin Flint and Dr. James Piatt White,
established the medical department of
the University of Buffalo. He removed
to Brooklyn in 1860, and was the first
Professor of Surgery in the Long Island
College Hospital. In 1861 he went to the
war as surgeon of the 31st New York
Volunteers and was made brigade sur-
geon after the battle of Bull Run, and
surgeon of General Keyes' corps in
1862. A year later he was made medical
inspector of the United States army. He
was one of the founders of Bellevue Hos-
pital Medical College in 1861, and was
Professor of Surgery there till he re-
signed in 1875. Dr. Hamilton was as-
sociated with Drs. Agnew and Bliss in
the care of President Garfield. He wrote
extensively on the principles and prac-
tice of surgery. He died in New York
City, Aug. 11, 1886.
HAMILTON, SIR IAN STANDISH
MONTEITH, an English soldier, born in
Corfu, in 1853. He was educated at Wel-
lington and entered the army in 1873.
He saw active service in the Afghan War
in 1878 to 1880, and in the Boer War of
1881. He took part in the Nile expedi-
tion of 1884-1885, and in the Burmese ex-
pedition of 1886-1887. He was promoted
to be colonel in 1891, and general in 1899,
when he fought before Ladysmith. In
1901 he was appointed chief of staff to
General Kitchener. From 1910 to 1915
he was chief in command of the Mediter-
ranean Expeditionary Force, and had
general charge of the land operations at
the Gallipoli peninsula. The failure of
his enterprise I'esulted in severe criti-
cism against his plan of campaign. He
defended himself in an elaborate report,
made public in 1918.
HAMILTON, PATRICK, usually con-
sidered as the first Scotch reformer, the
second son of Sir Patrick Hamilton of
Kincavel and Stanehouse, and of Cath-
HAMILTON
457
HAMLIN
erine, daughter of the Duke of Albany,
second son of James 11. ; bom probably
in Glasgow, in 1504. He was educated
partly at St. Andrews and partly at
Paris, where he took his degree in 1520.
While still a boy he had been appointed
Abbot of Feam, in Rosshire, but never
"went into residence, settling instead at
St. Andrews in 1523. Here he began to
announce his convictions in the prin-
ciples of the Reformation, and was sum-
moned in 1526 by Archbishop Beaton to
stand his trial for heresy. He fled to
Germany, where his education as a re-
former was completed by an intimate ac-
quaintance with Luther and Melanch-
tnon. After six months' absence he re-
turned to Scotland, and began to preach
the Gospel openly at Linlithgow, but
was allured by Beaton to St. Andrews
under pretense of a friendly conference,
put on his trial, convicted of various
heresies, and burned at the stake, March
1, 1527. His death did perhaps more to
extend the principles of the Reformation
in Scotland than even his life could have
done.
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM, a dis-
tinguished Scotch metaphysician; bom
in Glasgow, Scotland, March 8, 1788.
His father and grandfather held in suc-
cession the chairs of anatomy and botany
in Glasgow University. Having studied
with distinction at Glasgow, in 1809, he
entered Baliol College, Oxford, where he
gained first-class honors. In 1813 he
was admitted to the Scottish bar, but
never acquired a practice in his profes-
sion, his taste lying much more toward
the study of philosophy. In 1820 he be-
came a candidate for the chair of moral
philosophy in Edinburgh, but, being de-
feated by Prof. John Wilson, he took
the chair of universal history. In
1829 the publication in the "Edinburgh
Review" of his celebrated critique
of Cousin's system of philosophy gave
him at once a first place among the
philosophical writers of the time. This
was followed in 1830 by his criticism of
Brown, and in 1831 by his article on the
authorship of "Letters of Obscure Men."
In 1836 he was appointed to the chair of
logic and metaphysics in Edinburgh Uni-
versity. In 1846 he published an anno-
tated edition of the works of Thomas
Reid, and in 1854 the first volume of a
similar edition of the works of Dugald
Stewart. His lectures on logic and meta-
physics were collected and edited by
Dean Mansel and Professor Veitch.
Hamilton's most important contributions
to philosophy are connected with his doc-
trine of the Quantification of the Predi-
cate in his system of logic; his theory of
the "relativity of knowledge," in the
Kantian sense, held along with an ap-
parently incompatible doctrine of imme-
diate perception of the non-ego; and his
definition of the infinite or unconditioned
as a mere negation of thought. He died
in Edinburgh, Scotland, May 6, 1856.
HAMILTON COLLEGE, an educa-
tional non-sectarian institution in Clinton,
N. Y., founded in 1812; reported at the
close of 1919: Professors and instruc-
tors, 27; students, 298; volumes in the
library, 84,000; productive funds, $1,-
478,000; income, $177,883; president,
Frederick Carlos Ferry, Ph. D.; Sc. D.,
LL. D.
HAMLET, the hero of Shakespeare's
greatest tragedy, but without a figure
originally historical, mythological, or
partly both, still remains uncertain. The
legend of Amleth is first found in the 3d
and 4th books of the Latin history of
Denmark by Saxo Grammaticus, written
about the end of the 12th century, but
first printed at Paris in 1514. The story
of Hamlet was freely translated in the
fifth volume of Francois de Belleforest's
"Tragic Histories" (1570), and a rough
but literal English translation of this
exists in a single copy (once Edward
Capell's) in the library of Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, entitled "The Hystorie
of Hamblet" (London, 1608; reprinted
in Collier's "Shakespeare Library,"
1841).
HAMLIN. ALFRED DWIGHT
FOSTER, an American architect, born
in Constantinople, Turkey, in 1855, son
of Cyrus Hamlin, founder and president
of Robert College. He graduated from
Amherst College in 1875 and studied ar-
chitecture in the United States and in
Paris. In 1883 he was appointed spe-
cial assistant of architecture in Colum-
bia University, and became successively
instructor, assistant professor of archi-
tecture, adjunct professor, and full pro-
fessor in that institution. He was a
member of several architectural societies.
He was the author of "A History of Ar-
chitecture" (1896); "History of Orna-
ment, Ancient and Medieval" (1916);
and was a frequent contributor to archi-
tectural periodicals, and to various dic-
tionaries and encyclopedias.
HAMLIN, CYRUS, an American mis-
sionary; born in Waterford, Me., Jan.
5, 1811; was graduated at Bowdoin Col-
lege in 1834 and at Bangor Theological
Seminary in 1837; went to Turkey in
the following year. From 1860 to 1876
he was president of Robert College,
which he had founded after a long con-
flict with the Turkish Government. Presi-
dent Hamlin belonged to the group of
American educators in the Levant whose
HAMLIN
458
HAMMERFEST
influence did much in molding the char-
acter of modern Bulgarian leaders, and
producing autonomy for Bulgaria. He
returned to the United States and be-
came a professor in the Theological
Seminary in Bangor; was president of
Middlebury College, Vt., in 1880-1885,
when he removed to Lexington, Mass.
Part of his works are in the Armenian
language; those in English include
"Among the Turks" (1877) and "My
Life and Times" (1893). He died in
1900.
HAMLIN, HANNIBAL, an Ameri-
can statesman; born in Paris, Me., Aug.
27, 1809; was admitted to the bar in
1833; and began practice in Hampden;
was elected to the United States Sen-
ate in 1848 to fill an unexpired term;
re-elected in 1851 and again in 1857; re-
signed in 1861, after being elected Vice-
President on the ticket with Abraham
Lincoln; was again a United States Sen-
ator in 1869-1881, and then accepted the
post of minister to Spain, but in the fol-
lowing year resigned and returned to
the United States. He died in Bangor,
Me., July 4, 1891.
HAMLINE UNIVEBSITY, a coedu-
cational institution in St. Paul, Minn.;
founded in 1854 under the auspices of
the Methodist Episcopal Church; re-
ported at the close of 1919: Professors
and instructors, 32; students 550; presi-
dent, Samuel F. Kerfoot, D. D.
HAMMER, a tool used for applying
the force of impact, either for the pur-
pose of beating malleable materials into
a required form, or for driving nails,
wedges, etc. The common hand hammer
consists of an iron head, usually faced
with steel, fixed crosswise on a wooden
handle. When one side of the head is
thinned out to a wedge form or to a
point this is called the "pane" of the
hammer. The "face" is the flat disk
which strikes the work. Carpenters' and
joiners' hammers have a bent pane with
a V-shaped notch, which is used as a
bent lever for drawing nails, etc. The
pane is sometimes sharpened so as to
form an adz or chisel. There are also
many other modifications in the form of
hammers.
A great variety of power-hammers
are used. These, for the most part, are
masses of iron raised by steam or other
power, and then allowed to fall by their
own gravity on the work. The "helve"
or "shingling" hammer, used for com-
pressing the mass of iron drawn from
the puddling-furnace, and the "tilt"
hammer, used in the manufacture of
shear-steel, are important examples of
such hammers. The tilt hammer is sim-
ilar, but much lighter, and is adapted for
striking more than 300 blows per min-
ute. These, when worked by steam, as
they are usually, are, of course, steam
hammers ; and when the term steam ham-
mer is used without qualification it ap-
plies to a more elaborate machine of
very different construction, invented by
James Nasmyth, 1842, and subsequently
improved in minor details. In this th~e
hammer is attached to the bottom of a
heavy mass of iron, the "hammer-block,"
capable of rising and falling between
upright bars or "guides"; this, again,
is fixed to the rod of a piston, which
works in a cylinder placed perpendicu*
STEEL HAMMER
larly over the hammer-block, hammer
and anvil. As the piston rises in the
cylinder it lifts the attached mass, which
is then allowed to fall from varying
heights, according to an adjustment
which can be made by an attendant
simply touching a handle. The adjust-
ments are so perfect that it may be made
to crush a mass of iron, and at the
next blow to crack a nut held in the
fingers without damaging either ker-
nel or fingers.
HAMMERFEST (ham'mer-fest) , the
extreme N. town of Europe; in lat. 70°
40' N. and Ion. 23° 30' E., on the island
of Kvalo, in the Norwegian province of
Finmark. It is the rendezvous of the
fishing fleets of the Kara sea and the
waters along the Spitzbergen coasts. It
imports coal, salt, hemp, flour, etc., in
exchange for fish and fish-oil, with some
reindeer hides, eider down, and fox-skins.
During the two summer months the sun
is continually above the horizon. The
winter is mild enough to allow of the
fisheries being carried on. The town
HAMMOND
459
HAMMURAPI
was burnt July 21, 1890. Pop. about
2,700.
HAMMOND, a city in Lake co., Ind.;
on the Grand Calumet river, and on the
Pennsylvania Company, the Chesapeake
and Ohio, the Pere Marquette, the Michi-
gan Central, and several other impor-
tant railroads; 18 miles S. E. of Chi-
cago, 111. It has numerous railway
supply shops, foundries, tanneries, chem-
ical works, nail mills, packing houses,
etc. There are electric lights, and
street railways, public high school,
2 National banks, daily and weekly
newspapers, and an assessed valuation
of $5,000,000. Pop. (1910) 20,925;
(1920) 36,004.
HAMMOND, JOHN HAYS, an Amer-
ican engineer; born at San Francisco in
1855. He received his preliminary engi-
neering training at the Sheffield Scien-
tific School, Yale University, and took his
advanced work at the Royal School of
Mines, Freiberg, Grermany. He received
honorary degrees from Stevens Institute
of Technology and St. John's College.
In 1880, as special expert Avith the United
States Geological Survey, he was en-
gaged in the work of mapping the Cali-
fornia gold deposits. As an expert on
JOHN HAYS HAMMOND
mining properties, he was retained as
consultant by the Union Ii-on Works of
San Francisco and the Central and
Southern Pacific railroads. His wide
knowledge of mining opei*ations and min-
ing geology led to his connection with
Cecil Rhodes in south African gold de-
velopment. Active in the Transvaal in
1895-1896, he was arrested, sentenced to
death and released upon payment of
$125,000 fine. He returned to the United
States in 1900 and became interested in
the promotion of large-scale mining ven-
tures and various hydro-electric and irri-
gation works. He became widely known
as a University lecturer and was Presi-
dent of the Panama Pacific Exposition
Commission, 1912, President of the Amer-
ican Institute of Mining Engineers, 1907-
1908, and a member of several scientific
societies.
HAMMOND, WILLIAM ALEX-
ANDER, an American surgeon; born
in Annapolis, Md., Aug, 28, 1828; was
graduated at the University of the City
of New York in 1848; joined the United
States army in 1849 as assistant
surgeon; became surgeon-general in
April, 1862; was found guilty of misde-
meanor by court-martial and discharged
from the army in 1864; practiced in New
York till 1878, when the proceedings of
the court-martial were reviewed and he
Vv'as restored to his former rank in the
army and retired. His publications in-
clude ''Military Hygiene"; "Sleep and
Its Derangements"; "Nervous Derange-
ments"; "Diseases of the Nervous Sys-
tem"; etc.; also several novels, includ-
ing "Robert Severne"; "A Son of Perdi-
tion"; etc. He died in Washington,
D. C, Jan. 5, 1900.
HAMMONTON, a town of New Jer-
sey, in Atlantic co. It is on the At-
lantic City and the West Jersey and
Seashore raih-oads. It is the center of
an important fruit-growing and poultry-
raising region. Its industries include
the manufacture of shoes, cut-glass
ware, under^vear, hosiery, optical in-
struments, etc. Pop. (1910) 5,088;
(1920) 6,417.
HAMMUBAPI, a King of Babylon
(2124-2081 B. C). The sixth ruler of
the first dsmasty of Babylon of the line
of Sumuabu the Amorite (2232-2217
B. c). It is believed that at an early
period of his rule he recognized the
overlordship of the Elamite King,
Kudur Mabtrk, his immediate and war-
like neighbor. The passage in Gen.
xiv: 1 is suggestive of a possible
northerly raid by Hammurapi with an-
other King of Elam. Kudur Lagamar
by name. It is likely that this event
took place subsequent to Hammurapi's
operations against the Mesopotamian
cities which he is known to have con-
ducted during the early half of his
reign. In 2094 he extended his con-
quests and achieved his independence
HAMMURAPI, CODE OF
460
HAMPSTEAD
over Elam. From this date, his ag-
gressive policy against the outer bor-
ders of the Fertile Crescent sent his
conquering armies to wrest submission
from the Assyrians. Hammurapi pos-
sessed a genius for organization, rare
among the tribal Kings of the Valley
lands. His methods of centralization,
communication by writing and delega-
tion of power to properly instructed
military sub-lords, together with his
vise and economic encourgement of
igriculture, building and the arts of
peace which brought his kingdom
sconomic prosperity marked him as a
great ruler. Perhaps his most valuable
contribution from the standpoint of
civilization was his codification of the
laws of his realms.
HAMMURAPI, CODE OF, the re-
corded collection of the body of rules
governing the procedure of courts, the
administration of justice, the positive
and negative rules of conduct ordered to
be observed in the daily social and com-
mercial life of Babylon in the 22d century
B. c. The Code of Hammurapi is con-
tained upon a block of black diorite, a
stone of peculiarly high resisting power
to weather. This block, about eight feet
in height, was discovered on the
acropolis at Susa, a former capital, by
De Morgan in 1901. Originally found
in three pieces, it has been restored, and
exhibits beneath a bas-relief of the
King receiving the Code from Shamash,
the sun-god, 16 columns of engraved
text. There were originally 28 of these
columns. The authenticity of this
block has been established by the later
discovery of fragments of copies made
from the original text. Among the
laws appearing in the Code are recitals
of punishment for witchcraft, including
trial by ordeal. There were sections
devoted to the rights, obligations and
duties due to and from owners of private
property. There was a considerable
section devoted to commercial law,
covering loans, pledges and the debtor's
position. The law governing injuries to
the person or torts provided a graduated
scale of damages or reparation which is
granted upon the basis of ability of the
injured party to stand the loss. The
Code is strictly a civil code and there
are no religious injunctions. The whole
fabric of the Code indicates the state of
social flux between an absolute im-
position of penalties and a fixed law, and
a fixed law with a gradation of greater
and lesser offenses with corresponding
punishment.
land, in 1594. He was cousin-german by
the mother's side to Oliver Cromwell. In
1609 he was entered a gentleman com-
moner at Magdalen College, Oxford. He
began the study of law in the Inner
Temple, but inheriting a fortune on his
father's death he lived the usual life of a
country gentleman. He entered Parlia-
ment in the beginning of Charles I.'s
reign as member for Grampound, and
continued to sit in the House of Com-
mons three times as member for Wen-
dover, and finally for Bucks. Though
for years opposing arbitrary practices
in Church and State, it was not till 1636
that his resistance to Charles' demand
for ship-money made him the argument
of all tongues. Though the decision in
the Court of Exchequer was given
against him by seven voices to five, the
victory, as far as regarded public
opinion, was his. In the following year
(1637) he was one of those who medi-
tated emigration to America, which they
were prevented from carrying out by an
order in council detaining them. Hence-
forward he took a prominent part in the
great contest between the crown and the
Parliament, and was one of the five mem-
bers whom the king, in 1642, so impru-
dently attempted, in person, to seize in
the House of Commons. When the ap-
peal was made to the sword, Hampden
accepted the command of a regiment in
the parliamentary army under the Earl
of Essex, and was fatally wounded on
Chalgrove Field, June 24, 1643.
HAMPDEN-SIDNEY COLLEGE, an
institution of learning in Hampden-Sid-
ney, Va.; founded in 1775 by the Pres-
byterian Church of Hanover and incor-
porated by the Legislature of Virginia
in 1783. It is located on a tract of land
given by Peter Johnson in 1773, and
which has been increased by purchases
and gifts, so that the college now owns
about 250 acres. In 1919 it reported:
Professors and instructors, 8; students,
159; president, A. W. McWhorter, A. M.
HAMPSHIRE, SOUTHAMPTON, or
HANTS, a county of England on the
southern coast. It includes the Isle of
Wight, and has an area of 1,645 square
miles. The surface is irregular and is
traversed by the North and South
Downs. The chief rivers are the Test,
the Anton, the Itchen, and the Avon. It
is an important agricultural county.
Hops are an important crop and exten-
sive truck farming is carried on. The
chief centers of trade are Southampton
and Portsmouth. The capital is Win-
chester. Pop. about 1,000,000.
HAMPDEN, JOHN, a celebrated Eng- HAMPSTEAD, a parliamentary
lish statesman; bom in London, Eng- borough of London, England, situated
HAMPTON
461
HAMPTON INSTITUTE
on a range of hills 4 miles N. "W. of Lon-
don. It was formerly famous for its
medicinal springs, and is still a favorite
place of residence and of holiday resort
among Londoners. On the summit of
the hill (430 feet), above the village, is
the Heath, which affords extensive and
pleasant prospects of the surrounding
country. A house on the Heath was at
one time the place of resort of the fa-
mous Kit-Cat Club, at which Steele, Ad-
dison, Richardson, Walpole, and others
used to assemble. Hampstead is asso-
ciated with many names in literature
and art, as those of Pope, Gay, Johnson,
Byron, Romney, Coleridge, Keats, Shel-
ley, Leigh Hunt, and Landseer. Pop.
85,500.
HAMPTON, a town and county-seat
of Elizabeth City co., Va., on the James
river, and on the Chesapeake and Ohio
railroad, and several steamship lines; 15
miles N. W. of Norfolk. It is the seat of
the Hampton Normal and Agricultural
Institute for Indians and Negroes, and
a National Soldiers' Home. It is a fash-
ionable resort, having a good bathing
ground at Old Point Comfort, and being
within 2 miles of Fortress Monroe. It
carries on considerable trade in fish and
oysters, and manufactures brick and fish
oil. The town hag weekly newspapers,
and a State bank, library. Soldiers'
Home and a National Cemetery. Pop.
(1910) 5,505; (1920) 6,138.
HAMPTON, a village of Middlesex,
England, on the Thames, 15 miles S. W.
of London. In the vicinity are many fine
mansions and beautiful villas, including
Garrick's villa. Pop. about 7,000.
HAMPTON COURT PALACE, long a
royal residence, and now partially occu-
pied by persons of good family in re-
duced circumstances, standing about a
mile from the village of Hampton, Eng-
land, in the midst of grounds that ex-
tend to the Thames. The original palace
was erected by Cardinal Wolsey, and by
him presented (1526) to Henry VIII.,
who enlarged it and formed around it a
royal deer park. Here Edward VI. was
born, his mother. Queen Jane Seymour,
died, and Charles I. underwent a portion
of his confinement. Here, too, was held
the famous Hampton Court Conference.
The court continued to be a royal resi-
dence down to the time of George II. A
considerable portion of it was rebuilt by
William III., from designs by Wren, and
he also laid out the park and gardens in
the formal Dutch style. The picture gal-
lery contains several Italian works,
Lely's Beauties of the Court of Charles
II., and valuable specimens of Holbein,
Kneller, West. etc. The gardens have
among other attractions a "maze" or
Vol. IV— Cyc— DD
labyrinth. Damage, estimated at $100,-
000, was caused by fire in November,
1886.
HAMPTON, WADE, an American
military officer; born in South Carolina
in 1754; fought in the Revolutionary
War under Sumter and Marion ; was a
member of Congi'ess, 1795-1797 and
1803-1805. He was commissioned Col-
onel in the United States army in 1808;
promoted Brigadier-General in 1809, and
Major-General in 1813; served in the
War of 1812; and resigned his commis-
sion in April, 1814. He died in Colum-
bia, S. C, Feb. 4, 1835.
HAMPTON WADE, an American
military officer; born in Charleston, S.
C, March 28, 1818; grandson of Wade
Hampton {q. v.) ; was graduated at
South Carolina College. At the outbreak
of the Civil War he was believed to be
one of the richest of Southern planters
and owned the greatest number of slaves.
He entered the Confederate army; raised
and in part equipped the Hampton Le-
gion, and was chosen its commandant;
was wounded in the first action at Bull
Run and also at Gettysburg. He was
promoted Major-General May 11, 1864,
and in August of the same year ap-
pointed commander-in-chief of the Con-
federate cavalry in northern Virginia;
was promoted Lieutenant-General in
1865. He greatly distinguished himself
in several important actions, including
the defeat of Sheridan's cavalry at Tre-
villians, Va. After the conclusion of
peace he was a stanch advocate of con-
ciliation between the North and South;
was elected governor of South Carolina
in 1876 and 1878; held a seat in the
United States Senate in 1878-1890; and
was appointed United States Commis-
sioner of Railroads in 1893. He died in
1902.
HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRI-
CULTURAL INSTITUTE, a school
opened in 1868 in Hampton, Va., under
the auspices of the American Mission-
ary Association. In 1870 the school
received a charter from the General As-
sembly of Virginia. The farm land, and
the workshops where trades are taught,
furnish occupation for the boys, while
the girls are similarly instructed and
employed in sewing and cooking classes,
doing all the domestic duties of the
school, and wherever possible learning
trades side by side with the boys. At
the end of 1919, the institute reported
1,222 students and 111 professors and
instructors, President, James E. Gregg,
D. D. In 1878, 15 Indians, who had been
in charge of Capt. R. H. Pratt, at St.
Augustine, Fla., as prisoners of war,
HAMPTON ROADS
462
HANCOCK
were admitted as students, and from this
be^nning the Indian Department has
increased.
HAMPTON ROADS, a broad, deep
arm of Chesapeake Bay at the mouth of
James river, between Hampton and Nor-
folk, Va.; with Newport, Old Point Com-
fort, Fort Monroe, Fort Wool, and Thim-
ble Shoal Lighthouse at or near the
entrance to the bay. Since the Civil
War the locality has become popular as a
summer and winter resort and as a stop-
ping place for Northern invalids on their
way to and from Florida. Its attractions
include the beach, bathing places, and
promenades of Old Point Comfort, the
famous Fort Monroe, the old village of
Hampton, National Home for Disabled
Soldiers and Sailors, United States
National Cemetery, and unsurpassed
facilities for short excursions, fishing
and yachting. In 1861 the Confederates
seized the United States frigate "Mer-
rimac" at Norfolk, covered her hull with
railroad iron, and under the name of
"The Virginia" sent her to attack the
United States vessels lying in Hampton
Roads in 1862. She rammed the frigate
''Cumberland," which sank in 45
minutes; forced the "Congress" on the
Shoal, where she was disabled, set on
fire, and blown up, but was prevented by
her draught from getting within strik-
ing distance of the "Minnesota." On the
following morning she reappeared to at-
tack the "Minnesota," but was suddenly
confronted by the new Union iron-clad
"Monitor," just arrived from New York,
which fought her so effectually that she
withdrew from the fight, steamed up the
river, and refused to come out a second
time to meet the "floating Yankee
•cheese-box."
HAMSTRING. At the back of the
knee-joint the tendon of the biceps
muscle forms the outer hamstring*, and
the sartorius (tailor's muscle), with the
tendons of the gracilis, semi-tendinosus,
and semi-membranosus, the inner ham-
string, with the two heads of the
gastrocnemius muscle between. The
hamstring muscles extend the hip and
flex the knee.
HAN, a Chinese dynasty, reigning
from 20 b. c. to A. D. 25. It was founded
by Lew Pang, and was succeeded by the
Eastern Han Dynasty, which lasted till
A. D. 237.
HANAU (ha'nou), a town in the
Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau; at
the confluence of the Kinzig and the
Main; 13 miles E. by N. of Frankfort.
It is divided into the Old and the New
Town; the latter was founded in 1597 by
Protestant refugees from Holland and
Belgium, who introduced the manu-
facture of woolen and silk goods, which
still flourishes. The town of Hanau
stands pre-eminent in Germany for its
jewelry and gold and silver wares. Be-
sides these it carries on manufactures
of carpets, chocolate, leather, cards,
paper, hats, tobacco, and gunpowder, and
has breweries and an iron foundry.
Here the brothers Grimm were born. In
the neighborhood is the watering-place
of Wilhelmsbad. Hanau dates as a
town from 1393. It had a very cheauei'ed
history during the Thirty Years' War.
Near the town was fought one of Na-
poleon's last battles in Germany, Oct.
30 and 31, 1813, when he defeated the
allied forces under Wrede. Pop. about
37,500.
HANBALITES, a Mohammedan sect;
a branch of the Sunnites.
HANCOCK, a village of Michigan,
in Houghton co. It is on Lake Portage
and on the Copper Range and the Min-
eral Range railroads. A ship canal gives
transportation facilities to Lake Su-
perior, and within its limits are several
important copper mines. It has also
smelting works, foundries, machine
shops, and other industries. It has a
park and a Finnish college. Pop. (1910)
8,981; (1920) 7,527.
HANCOCK, JOHN, an American rev-
olutionary patriot and president of
Congress; born in Quincy, Mass., Jan.
12, 1737. In the inception of the Re-
volutionary struggle he was a leading
spirit. The attempt to arrest Hancock
and Samuel Adams led to the battle of
Lexington. Hancock was a member of
the Continental Congress from 1775 to
1780, also from 1785 to 1786, serving as
president of the body from 1775 to
1777. The Declaration of Independence
as first published bore only his name.
He served as governor of Massachusetts
12 years. As an orator he was eloquent;
as a presiding officer, dignified and im-
partial. He died in Quincy, Mass., Oct.
8, 1793.
HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT, an
Amercan military officer; born in Mont-
gomery Square, Montgomery co., Pa.,
Feb. 14, 1824; was graduated at the
United States Military Academy in 1844,
and received his commission of 2d lieu-
tenant; served during the Mexican War,
was promoted for gallantry, and, having
filled several subordinate posts, made as-
sistant quartermastei'-general ; in 1861
was appointed a Brigadier-General of
volunteers, and attached to the Army of
the Potomac, accompanied General Mc-
Clellan to the peninsula in 1862, and
distinguished himself before Yorktown
HAND
463
HANDICAP
and Williamsburg; at the battle of Fred-
ericksburg, in December, 1862, command-
ed a division of the 2d Corps, which
suffered most severely, and for his serv-
ices on this occasion received his com-
mission as Major-General; took part in
the battles of Chancellorsville and Get-
tysburg in 1863, and in one of the many
struggles of that campaign was severely
wounded; in 1868 was appointed by
President Johnson to the command of
the S. W. military district, but his ap-
pointment was not indorsed by the
Senate. In June, 1880, he became the
unsuccessful Democratic nominee for
President. He died in New York City,
Feb. 9, 1886.
HAND, the part of the body which
terminates the arm, consisting of the
palm and fingers, connected with the
arm at the wrist; the principal organ of
touch and prehension. The human hand
is composed of 27 bones, namely eight
bones of the carpus or wrist arranged in
two rows of four each, the row next the
fore-arm containing the scaphoid, the
semilunar, the cuneiform, and the pisi-
form, and that next the metacarpus, the
trapezium, the trapezoid, the os mag-
num, and the unciform. The metacar-
pus consists of the five bones which
form the palm, the first being that of
the thumb, the others that of the fingers
in succession. Lastly, the fingers proper
contain 14 bones called phalanges, of
which the thumb has but two, all the
other digits having three each.
HANDBALL, a game of ball, played
without any instrument for striking, the
bare hand only being used. The game is
indigenous to Ireland, but has been
transplanted to America, where are the
most expert players. Two or four men
can play, one or two on a side. As far
as is known the game of handball came
to the United States about 1840.
HANDEL (han'del), properly HAEN-
DEL (hen'del), GEORGE FREDERICK,
a great German composer; born in Halle,
Prussia, Feb. 23, 1685. The passion
which he early showed for music over-
came his father's opposition to training
him as a musician, and at the age of 7
he was placed under the tuition of
Zachau, organist of Halle Cathedral. In
1696 he was sent to Berlin, where he
heard the music of Bononcini and Ari-
osti. He returned to Halle, was ap-
pointed organist of the cathedral in
1702, but soon left to visit Hanover and
Hamburg. At Hamburg he played
second violin in the orchestra, and
brought out in 1704 his first work, an
oratorio on the Passion, and his first
opera, "Almira," followed in February
by his "Nero," and subsequently by his
"Florinda and Daphne." In 1706 he
went to Italy, visiting Florence, Venice,
Naples, and Rome. On his return to
Germany he entered the service of the
Elector of Hanover, afterward George
I. of England, as musical director. He
visited England twice, and ultimately
having received a pension from Queen
Anne, settled down there. He was placed
at the head of the newly founded Royal
Academy of Music, and accumulated a
large fortune. Among the operas
which he had composed up to this
date (1735) are "Rhadamistus," "Ju-
lius Caesar," "Flavius," "Tamerlane,"
"Richard I.," "Orlando," "Ariadne,"
etc. His last opera was performed in
1740. By this time he had begun to de-
vote himself chiefly to music of a serious
nature and he produced successfully
"Esther" (1731), "Deborah" (1732),
"Athalia" (1733), "Israel in Egypt,"
"L'Allegro and II Penseroso," "Saul,"
and "The Messiah," his chief work
(1741). In 1742 the "Samson" ap-
peared, in 1746 the "Judas Maccabaeus,"
in 1748 the "Solomon." and in 1752 the
"Jephthah." In 1752 he became blind,
continuing to perform in public and even
to compose. He died in London, April
13, 1759, and was buried in Westminster
Abbey.
HAND GRENADES. Offensive and
defensive implements of warfare, widely
used in the World War. The first de-
vices were extremely crude and consisted
of tin cans filled with stones which, on
exploding, would cause death or damage.
The grenade, however, was quickly de-
veloped into a weapon of great destruc-
— SAFETY PIM
CI\iTIRON BODY
-STRIKER Ir Pin
-EXPLOilVE
OETVNt^TOR
rose
fEKCUSilONCAP
GRENADES — MILLS HAND GRENADE
tive power by all belligerents. Although
differing somewhat in details, the prin-
ciples of the gi-enade were practically
the same. The one chiefly used by the
American force was the so-called Mills
grenade, which was thrown by hand.
Hand grenades were widely used by raid-
ing parties in quick and sharp attacks.
HANDICAP (for hand i(n) cap, for
the drawing of lots out of a hat or cap),
an old game at cards, not unlike loo, but
HANFOED
4^4
HANNAY
•with this difference: the winner of one
trick had to put a double stake into the
pool, the winner of two tricks a triple
stake, and so on. In a race or contest
in which the competitors are brought as
nearly as possible to an equality by the
allowance of time, distance, etc., or the
imposition of extra weight.
HANrORD, a city of California, the
eounty-seat of Kings co. It is on the
Southern Pacific and the Gulf, Colorado
and Santa Fe railroads. It is the center
of an important agricultural and oil-
producing region, and its industries In-
■ plude fruit-canning factories. It has a
public library and two sanitariums. Pop.
(1910) 4,829; (1920) 5,888.
HANGCHOW, capital of the Chinese
province of Chekiang, and since the Jap-
anese treaty of Shimonoseki (1895), a
treaty port, at the mouth of the Tsien-
tang in the Bay of Hangchau, 110 miles
S. W. of Shanghai. The city, one of the
great commercial, I'eligious, and literary
centers of China, has clean, well-paved
streets and many magnificent temples, is
a principal seat of the silk manufacture,
of gold and silver work, and is noted for
the beauty of its surroundings. From a
remote period, many spots in the en-
virons have been the resort of pilgrims;
and here several thousands of candidates
assemble every year for the public ex-
aminations. It was formerly a naval
port. The river is subject to a danger-
ous bore or eager. Previous to the
Taiping rebellion, the city had about
2,000,000 inhabitants; but it was then
(1861) laid in ruins by the rebels. Pop.
about 600,000 of whom about 100,000
are engaged in silk-making.
HANGING GARDENS. The Hang-
ing Gardens of Babylon were anciently
reckoned among the wonders of the
world. Their construction is variously
ascribed to Queen Semiramis and to Ne-
buchadnezzar. Diodorus and Strabo have
given descriptions of them. They are
said to have formed a square, with an
area of nearly four acres, and rose in
terraces, supported on masonry arches,
to a height of 75 feet. They were irri-
gated from a reservoir built at the top,
to which water was lifted from the
Euphrates by a screw.
HAN-HAI (han-hi') , an ancient dried-
up sea in central Asia, now represented
only by Lake Lob-nor.
HAN-KIANG (han-kyang'), a river
in China, 1,300 miles long. Traffic is
considerable and the region watered is
in some places styled the ''Garden of
China."
HANKOW (-kou) ("Mouth of the
Han"), a town and river-port in China,
in the province of Hupeh, at the junction
of the Han with the Yang-tse-kiang;
Hanyang being on the opposite bank of
the Han, and Wuchang on the other side
of the Yangtse. The port was opened
to foreign trade in 1862, and has become
the chief emporium for the green-tea
districts in the central provinces, which
formerly sent their produce for export to
Canton. Large steamers ascend to the
town. In 1857 Hankow fell into the
hands of the Taiping rebels, and was al-
most completely demolished by them.
Pop. about 830,000.
HANLI, a Kashmir altitude, one of
the highest inhabited places . on the
globe; a noted cloister occupies the
spot.
HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO, an
American legislator; born in New Lis-
bon (now Lisbon), Columbiana co., 0.,
Sept. 24, 1837. He removed with his
father's family to Cleveland in 1852;
was educated in the common schools of
that city and the Western Reserve Col-
lege, Hudson, 0.; was engaged as an
employe in the wholesale grocery house
of his father, then in coal and iron. The
firm of M. A. Hanna & Co. was impor-
tant in the lake-carrying business, with
interest in lake vessels and their build-
ing. He was President of the Union
National Bank, Cleveland, and of city
railway and mining companies. He was
government director of the Union Pa-
cific R. R. in 1882 by appointment of
President Cleveland; a delegate to the
National Republican Conventions of
1884, 1888 and 1896; elected chairman
of the National Republican Committee
in 1896; appointed to the United States
Senate as a Republican by Governor
Bushnell, March 5, 1897, to fill vacancy
caused by the resignation of John Sher-
man, who resigned to accept the position
of Secretary o? State in President Mc-
Kinley's cabinet; took his seat March 5,
1897. His term of service under the ap-
pointment expired in January, 1898, and
he was elected for a second full term.
He died Feb. 15, 1904.
HANNAY, JAMES, a British critic
and novelist; bom in Dumfries, Scot-
land, Feb. 17, 1827. A few years of boy-
hood were spent in the navy, from
which he was dismissed at 18 by a court-
martial sentence, afterward quashed as
irregular. He early devoted himself to
a life of letters. For several years he
edited the Edinburgh "Courant," and
was afterward British consul at Barce-
lona. Of his novels the best are "Single-
ton Fontenoy" (1850) and "Eustace
Conyers" (1855). Other works were
"Lectures on Satire and Satirists" (1854) ;
"Essays from the Quarterly Review"
HANNIBAL
465
HANOVEB
(1861); "Three Hundred Years of a
Norman House" (1866) ; and "Studies
on Thackeray" (1869). He died in Bar-
celona, Spain, Jan. 3, 1873.
HANNIBAL, a city in Marion co.,
Mo., on the Mississippi river, here
spanned by an iron railroad bridge, and
on the Burlington, the Missouri, Kansas
and Texas, and the St. Louis and Hanni-
bal railroads; 110 miles N. W. of St.
Louis. It has steamship communications
with all important river ports, and manu-
factures lime, lumber, machinery, flour,
planing mill products, foundry products
and supplies, etc. The city has a public
library, public high school, the St.
Mary's Academy, Riverview^ Park
School, electric lights, and street rail-
ways, and daily and weekly newspapers.
Pop. (1910) 18,341; (1920) 19,806.
HANNIBAL, the great Carthaginian
general; born in 247 B. c. He was the son
of Hamilcar Barca and when nine years
of age swore, by his father's command,
eternal enmity to the Romans, as the
condition of accompanying him to Spain.
He learned the art of war under his
father there, and was present at the
battle in which he fell. Hannibal was
then 18, and after serving six years
under Hasdrubal, who was assassinated
221 B. C, he became commander-in-chief
of the Carthaginian army. To complete
the conquest of all Spain S. of the
Ebro, he besieged the city of Saguntum,
which held out for eight months. The
city being in alliance with Rome, its fall
was the occasion of the great war be-
tween Rome and Carthage known as the
Second Punic War. Hannibal at once
prepared for the invasion of Italy, and
in the spring of 218 B. c. he set out
on his arduous march from the Ebro,
through hostile countries, across great
rivers and mountain chains, to the Po.
His army, composed of Africans and
Spaniards, was greatly reduced in num-
bers by losses and withdrawals, but he
crossed the Pyrenees, forced the passage
of the Rhone before Scipio arrived to
oppose it, and in October made the pas-
sage of the Alps in 15 days. The first en-
gagement took place near the Ticinus,
and resulted in the defeat of the Ro-
mans. The battle of the Trebia resulted
in another Roman defeat. Hannibal was
joined by the Gaulish tribes, and took
up his winter quarters among them. In
the spring of 217 he defeated the consul
Flaminius on the shores of Lake Thrasi-
menus, and destroyed the Roman army.
Hannibal advanced S. and passed the
Apennines into Apulia, harassed, how-
ever, by the new policy of the cautious
Fabius, who avoided fighting. In the
spring of 216 Hannibal won the great
victory of Cannae, and again destroyed
the Roman army. After this victory
almost all south Italy declared for him,
and he went into winter quarters at
Capua. From that time the war changed
its character, and it is not possible here
to give even a summary of its progress.
The conquest and loss of Tarentum, the
loss of Capua, the defeat and death of
Hasdrubal at the battle of the Metau-
rus in 207, still left Hannibal strong
enough to hold his ground in the S. ex-
tremity of Italy for four years longer;
but in 203 the scene of war was changed
to Africa, and in the following year
Scipio finally defeated Hannibal at the
battle of Zama, and peace was concluded.
The great Carthaginian did not lose
hope, but began preparations for a fresh
war. His enemies, however, accused
him at Rome, and he fled to the court of
Antiochus, King of Syria, who was just
entering on a war with the Romans,
After three years, the war ending with
the defeat of Antiochus, Hannibal, to
avoid being given up to Rome, took
refuge with Prusias, King of Bithnyia,
190 B. C. And finally, when his surrender
was demanded in 183, he put an end to
his life by poison.
HANNO, a king or magistrate of
Carthage who undertook a celebrated
voyage of discovery along the W. coast
of Africa between 570 B. c. and 470 B. C.
His expedition is said to have consisted
of 60 ships; he founded numerous colo-
nies or trading-stations, and proceeded
as far S. as a point that has been
variously identified with places between
Cape Nun and the Bight of Benin. On
his return to Carthage he inscribed an
account of his voyage on a tablet, and
placed it in the temple of Moloch. It
seems to have been written in the Punic
language; the version of it which re-
mains, entitled the "Periplus of Hanno,"
is only a Greek translation.
HANOVER, formerly a kingdom in
the N. W. of Germany, now a province
of Prussia; area 14.870 square miles;
pop. about 3,000,000. It is of very
irregular shape, and is divided by inter-
vening territories into three distinct por-
tions, besides some small territories to
the S., and a range of sandy islands
lining the coast. It is divided into six
districts — Hanover, Hildesheim, Liine-
burg, Stade, Osnabriick, Aurich. The
surface in the S. is covered by the Hartz
Mountains, but the rest of the country
is a low, monotonous flat, with a gentle
slope to the North Sea. The Ems, the
Weser (with its tributaries, the Leine
and Aller), and the Elbe flow through
fertile districts industriously cultivated
for corn and flax. Near the coast the
HANOVER
466
HAPSBURG
land is marshy, but feeds large numbers
of very superior cattle.
The Harz Mountains are rich in min-
erals, the working of which is an im-
portant industry. Hanover was long
connected with the Brunswick family,
and latterly more especially with the
line of Brunswick-Liineburg. Ernest
Augustus, a prince of the latter line, be-
came, in 1692, the first Elector of Han-
ovei", married a granddaughter of James
I. of England, and was succeeded in 1698
by his son, George Louis, who in 1714
became George I. of England. Hence-
forth it was ruled in connection with
England. In 1814 the Congress of
Vienna raised Hanover to the rank of a
kingdom, the crown of which was worn
by George IV. and William IV., but, on
the accession of Queen Victoria, passed
by Salic law to Ernest Augustus, Duke
of Cumberland. In 1851 he was suc-
ceeded by his son, George V., but in
1866, Hanover having become involved
in the Austro-Prussian contest, his
kingdom was absorbed by Prussia.
HANOVER, capital of the Prussian
province of Hanover, situated in an ex-
tensive plain on the Leine, which here
receives the Ihme and becomes navi-
gable. The old town, irregularly built
with many antiquated buildings, is sur-
rounded by the handsome new quarters
which have arisen to the N„ E., and S.
E. The principal buildings are the Mar-
ket Church, the Old Town House, the
Theater, one of the finest in Germany,
the Royal Palace, the Museum of Art
and Science, the Royal Library, the
Waterloo Monument, etc. About a mile
to the N. W. is Schloss Herrenhausen,
the favorite residence of George I.,
George II., and George V. Near the
town is the colossal Welfenschloss, or
palace of the Guelphs. Hanover prior
to the World War was a manufacturing
town of some importance, had cotton-
spinning, machine works, iron foundries,
chemical works, tobacco and cigar fac-
tories, etc. Hanover is first mentioned
in 1163. It joined the Hanseatic League
in 1481. It became the residence of the
dukes of Brunswick-Liineburg, and capi-
tal of the principality in 1636. Pop.
aborut 313,000.
HANOVER, a borough of Pennsyl-
vania, in York co. It is on the Pennsyl-
vania and the Western Maryland rail-
roads. It is in the center of an impor-
tant agricultural and iron-ore region.
Its industries include the manufacture of
cigars, gloves, silks, water wheels, flour,
f^hoes, furniture, wire cloth, etc. The
borough has a public library, and a
bandsome high school, and two parks.
Pop. (1910) 7,057; (1920) 8,664.
HANOVER COLLEGE, a coeduca-
tional institution in Hanover, Ind.,
founded in 1828 under the auspices of
the Presbyterian Church, reported at the
close of 1919: Professors and instruc-
tors, 14; students, 224; president, AY.
A. Millis, LL. D.
HANSEATIC LEAGUE, a celebrated
confederacy formed in the 13th century
between certain commercial towns, with
the view at once of restraining the
rapacity of kings and nobles, and clear-
ing the Elbe, the German Ocean, and
other places from the pirates and rob-
bers by which they were then infested.
Becoming powerful, the League con-
cluded treaties with monarchs, raised
troops, and made war, as if it had been
an independent political power. At the
time when the League flourished most, it
consisted of 85 confederate towns. It
gave a powerful impulse to commerce,
and when in 1631 it in large measure
fell to pieces, it left behind various free
republics which continued for a long
period of time.
HAPGOOD. ISABELLA FLpRENCE,
an American translator and writer; born
in Boston, Mass., Nov. 21, 1851. She
published "The Epic Songs of Russia,"
"Russian Rambles," "A Survey of Rus-
sian Literature" (1902) ; "Service Book
of the Orthodox Catholic Church"
(1906), etc. Is well known as a trans-
lator of the v/orks of Gogol, Hugo, and
other great European writers.
HAPGOOD, NORMAN, an American
journalist; born in Chicago, 111., March
28, 1868. He was graduated at Har-
vard, the Harvard Law School, and
studied literature in Europe. He be-
came dramatic critic for the New York
"Commercial Advertiser" and "Book-
man," and published "Literary States-
men" (1897) ; "Abraham Lincoln"
(1899)', "Daniel Webster" (1899); "The
Stage in America" (1901) ; "Industry
and Progress" (1911). In 1903 he be-
came editor of "Collier's Weekly" and
subsequently of "Harper's Weekly." He
served as Minister to Denmark in 1919,
HAPSBURG, or HABSBURG (haps'
bore), (properly Habichtsburg or
Habsburg, the hawk's castle), a small
place in the Swiss Canton of Aargau,
on the right bank of the Aar. The castle
was built about 1027 by Bishop Werner
of Strassburg. Werner II., who died in
1096, is said to have been the first to
assume the title of Count of Hapsburg,
After the death, about 1232, of Rudolph
II., the family divided into two branches,
the founder of one of which was Albert
IV. In 1273 Rudolph, son of Albert IV.,
HABAR
467
HARBORD
was chosen Emperor of Germany, and
from him descended the series of Aus-
trian monarchs, all of the Hapsburg
male line, down to Charles IV. inclusive.
After that the dynasty, by the marriage
of Maria Theresa to Francis Stephen
of Lorraine, became the Hapsburg-Lor-
raine. Francis II., the third of this line,
was the last of the so-called "Holy
Roman Emperors," this old title being
changed by him for that of Emperor of
Austria. From the Emperor Rudolph
was also descended a Spanish dynasty
which began with the Emperor Charles
V. (Charles I. of Spain), and terminated
with Charles II. in 1700. The castle of
Hapsburg is still to be seen on the Wul-
pelsberg. In 1881 the Austrians proposed
to purchase the castle of Hapsburg and
give it as a wedding gift to the Crown-
prince of Austria; but the people of
Aargau refused to hear of the sale.
HARAR (ha-rar'), a city of Africa,
in the country of the Gallas, about 200
miles W. S. W. of Berberah; on the
slopes of the mountains which surround
it, Mount Hakim on the W. rising to
8,400 feet. It is fenced with a low wall
and forts, the wall being pierced by five
gates. The streets are simply water-
channels crossing the uneven surface;
the houses are partly stone edifices,
partly huts. In the neighborhood are
fine banana groves and coffee gardens.
Coffee, hides, cattle, and a dyestuff called
wars, are the principal objects of com-
merce, Harar, which was converted to
Islam in 1521, was formerly the capital
of an independent state. In 1875 it was
conquered by the Egyptians, who, how-
ever, handed it back to its native emir
the same year. Pop. composed of native
Harari (nearly one-half), Gallas, Somali
and Abyssinians.
HARBIN, or KHARBIN, a city of
Manchuria, China, in the province of
Kirin, situated on the Sunsari river,
615 N. E. of Port Arthur and 350 miles
N. W. of Vladivostok. The city is not
the result of natural development, but
was the built-up headquarters of the
military and railroad administration of
the Russian Imperial Government in
Manchuria. The first buildings were
erected in 1896, the larger part being
the residences of the Russian officials
while the native quarter was largely
made up of the railroad workers and
other manual laborers. During the
Russo-Japanese War, in 1904, the city
was an important base for the Russian
forces. In 1907, in accordance with the
terms of the Chino-Japanese Treaty of
1905, the city was officially thrown open
to the trade of the world. Consulates
were established here by Germany, Great
Britain, France, and the United States.
As the central point of railway admin-
istration, it was natural that many ex-
tensive railway repair machine shops
should be established here, but there
were also 18 flour mills, meat packing
establishments, brick yards, sugar re-
fineries, candle factories. During the
World War Harbin was active as a
central depot of supplies along the route
by which Russia received munitions of
war from her allies. After the fall of
the Czar's Government and the tem-
porary Revolutionary regime under
Kerensky, the Bolsheviki attempted to
establish a soviet government here, in
1918, but the intervention of the United
States and other Allied forces drove the
influence of the Bolsheviki out of Man-
churia. Nominally the Russian Govern-
ment, as represented by various anti-
Bolshevik Cossack leaders, still is in pos-
session, but actually it is occupied by the
Japanese. The total population before
the World War was about 60,000.
HARBOR GRACE, a port of entry
and the second town of Newfoundland,
on the W. side of Conception Bay, 84
miles W. N. W. of St. John's. It has a
large but somewhat exposed harbor, with
a revolving light, and carries on a con-
siderable trade. It is the seat of a
Roman Catholic bishop, and contains a
Catholic cathedral and convent. Pop.
about 4,300.
HARBORD, JAMES GUTHRIE, an
American soldier, born in Bloomington,
111., in 1866. He graduated from the
Kansas State Agricultural College in
1886. He entered the army as a private
in 1889, and became 2d lieutenant in
1891. During the Spanish-American
War he served as major of the 2d
Volunteer Cavalry, and at the close of
that war he was appointed 1st lieutenant
of the 10th United States Cavalry. He
rose through successive grades, becom-
ing maior in 1914, and lieutenant colonel
of the General Staff in 1917. In the same
year he was appointed brigadier-general
in the National Army, and in the follow-
ing year was appointed major-general
of the National Army. He was chief of
staff of the American Expeditionary
Force in France, from May, 1917, to
May. 1918. In the latter year he com-
manded the Marine Brigade near
Chateau-Thierry. He was commander of
the 2d Division, and following this had
charge of the Service Supply until May,
1919. In May of that year he was re-
appointed chief of staff of the American
Expeditionary Force. From August to
November, 1919, he was Chief of the
HARBXJBG
468
HARDING
American Military Mission to Armenia,
and made a detailed report of conditions
in that country. He was awarded the
Distinguished Service Cross.
HARBURG (har'borc), a seaport of
Prussia, in the province of Hanover,
5 miles S. of Hamburg, on the Elbe. Its
industries prior to the World War in-
cluded gutta-percha goods, palm-oil,
cotton-seed oil, saltpeter and other chem-
icals, artificial manure, walking sticks,
leather, mineral water, machines, beer,
and jute. After the deepening of the
Elbe the commerce of Harburg greatly
increased. It is a place of holiday resort
for the Hamburgers. Pop. about 67,000.
HARCOTTRT, SIR WILLIAM
GEORGE GRANVILLE VENABLES
VERNON, a British lawyer and poli-
tician, son of the Rev. William Vernon
Harcourt; born Oct. 14, 1827. He was
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge,
was called to the bar in 1854, became
Queen's Counsel in 1866; contributed
frequently to the press; was returned
for Oxford city in 1869 in the Liberal
interest; distinguished himself by his
powers of satire and ridicule in debate;
was made solicitor-general in Mr. Glad-
stone's ministry, November, 1873; home
secretary in 1880, when he lost his seat
for Oxford, but was returned for Derby.
He introduced the Arms Bill (Ireland),
1881; Prevention of Crimes Bill, 1882;
an Explosives Bill, 1883. In February,
1886, he was made chancellor of the
exchequer; and after the resignation of
Mr. Gladstone's ministry became a prom,
inent leader of the Gladstonian section;
in 1892 was reappointed chancellor of
the exchequer. Died Oct. 1, 1904.
HARDEE, WILLIAM J., an Ameri-
can military officer; born in Savannah,
Ga., Oct. 10, 1815; was graduated at
the United States Military Academy in
1838; served with distinction in the
Mexican War; in the Civil War entered
the Confederate army with the rank of
colonel; commanded a corps at Shiloh;
promoted to lieutenant-general in 1862;
commanded the left wing of the Confed-
erate army at Periyville; defended
Savannah against General Sherman in
December, 1864. He died in Wytheville,
Va., Nov. 6, 187S.
HARDEN, MAXIMILIAN FELIX
ERNST, a German editor and journalist,
bom in Berlin, 1861, son of a Jewish mer-
chant named Witowski. He was educated
in the French Gymnasium in Berlin, then
began his life vocation as a journalist,
first attracting attention by his political
articles, written under the pseudonym
"Apostata." In 1892 he founded and
began to edit his famous weekly paper,
"Die Zukunft" (the Future). His pun-
gent and critical editorials soon gained
for him national prominence. With
bitter invective and satire he pointed
out the evils of the government and
German society which made his paper
the most feared of all German publica-
tions by the ruling classes. He showed
himself bitterly opposed to the war
when Germany attacked France in 1914.
Many editions of his paper were con-
fiscated or suppressed by the Govern-
ment during the war. Harden was espe-
cially strong in his denunciation of the
Government's anti-American policy, and
referred to the United States as "a great
storehouse of idealism." Much capital
was made of Harden's many exposures
by the Socialists, but Harden himself
was never a Socialist, and wrote as bit-
terly against Bolshevism as he had
against German Imperialism.
HARDERWIJK (har'der-wik) , a fish-
ing town of the Netherlands, on the S.
E. shore of the Zuider Zee, 31 miles N.
E. of Utrecht. From 1648 to 1811 it was
the seat of a university. It is now a
depot for recruits for the Dutch East
Indian army.
HARDICANUTE (-nut'), a king of
England, son of Canute the Great and
Emma of Normandy, the widow of
Ethelred II.; born about 1019. At the
time of his father's death (1035) Hardi-
canute was in Denmark, and the throne
was given to Harold, his younger
brother; Wessex, however, was reserved
for the absent prince, whose claims to
the kingdom were upheld by Godwin and
Emma. On the death of Harold, in 1040,
Hardicanute was elected king in his
place. In the short space of two years
he' provoked the discontent of his sub-
jects by the imposition of a very heavy
danegeld. He died in Lambeth, near
London, June 8, 1042.
HARDING, WARREN GAMALIEL,
an American statesman, elected Presi-
dent of the United States, on Nov. 2,
1920. He was born in the village of
Blooming Grove, O., on Nov. 2, 1865,
on a farm belonging to his grandfather,
Charles Harding, who was one of the
pioneers in the settlement of Ohio. The
boy was the oldest of eight children.
His father, George Tyron Harding, was
a village physician and cultivated a
small farm to aid in the support of the
large family. His mother was Phebe
Dickerson, who was descended from an
old-time Holland-Dutch family, the Van
Kirks. His first education was obtained
in the country school of the neighbor-
hood, and at the age of 14 he entered
X/y>.
n'' 3.
(ij) Underwood & Underwood
PRESIDENT WARREN GAMALIEL HARDING Enc. Vol. 4- p. 46S
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PREPARING HEMP FOR ROPE MAKING, MANILA, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
HABDINO
469
HARDINGE
th« Ohio Central College at New Iberia,
and completed the course, which was
hardly more than a high school course
of the present day. He showed consid-
erable aptitude in study and graduated
with distinction. As an editor of the
college paper, he showed a marked bent
for the profession in which he after-
ward engaKed, that of journalism. At
about the time of his graduation from
college, his father removed to Marion,
Hardin co., O., a town of 4,000 people.
Young Harding at once secured em-
ployment in a newspaper office of the
city, and there learned all the practical
details of the printer's trade. Although
he was not at this time active in politics,
he ardently supported James G. Blaine.
As the newspaper on which he was work-
ing was Democratic in its political prefer-
ences, Harding was discharged. He soon
found the opportunity for realizing his
ambition of owning himself a newspaper,
and when the "Star," published in
Marion, was about to be sold by the
sheriff, Harding and a friend borrowed
the few hundred dollars necessary and
began its publication in November, 1884.
After several years of financial dif-
ficulties, the paper became a success,
due in no small measure to the editorial
policy of the paper and the editorials
contributed by its editor. Harding soon
became known as a forceful writer and
a man of rapidly developing personality.
His first entrance into active politics was
his election to the State Senate in 1900.
He was re-elected and at the expiration
of his second term was chosen lieuten-
ant-governor of Ohio. He declined the
renomination for this office. In 1910 he
was the Republican candidate for gov-
ernor, but was defeated. Following this
he publicly announced his withdrawal
from politics. Two years later found
him in the thickest of the political fight
in the support of the Republican candi-
date for the presidency. He declared
himself a candidate for the Senate in
1914 and was nominated, defeating Sen-
ator Foraker. He was elected to the
Senate by over 100,000 majority. He
was the first Senator elected from Ohio
under the system of direct elections. In
the Senate, although not a frequent
speaker, he was admitted to be one of
the strongest members, and, when he
did address the Chamber, he was listened
to with closest attention. He supported,
on the whole, all the important measures
adopted by the progri'essive element of
the party, including the woman's suf-
frage amendment, the legislation in be-
half of labor, child labor law, and
measures of like character. He was a
member of the Committee on Foreign
Relations, and as such took an impor-
tant part in the deliberations on the
peace treaty, to the ratification of
which, in the form in which it appeared
before the Senate, he was opposed.
The struggle between the radical and
the progressive elements of the Republi-
can party for the nomination for the
presidency in June, 1920, naturally
brought into consideration Senator Har-
ding, who had not been aggressively
identified with either section. He was,
moreover, from Ohio, which was con-
sidered to be one of the doubtful States.
His strength in the Convention grew
from the beginning, although he had no
organization and had not declared him-
self to be a candidate before the Con-
vention met. His principal opponents
were General Leonard Wood, Governor
Lowden of Illinois, and Hiram John-
son of California. The delegates, unable
to compromise on any of these, selected
Senator Harding. He was elected on
November 2 by the largest majority ever
given a presidential candidate. For an
account of the presidential election, see
United States History. Following his
election, Senator Harding made a brief
trip to the Panama Canal and the Canal
Zone, where he was received with great
enthusiasm. On his return he devoted
himself to the selection of his cabinet
officers and to conferences with prom-
inent representatives of the policy to be
followed during his administration.
HARDINGE (-ding) , HENRY
HARDINGE, VISCOUNT, a British
soldier and governor-general of India;
born in Wrotham, Kent, England, March
30, 1785. Gazetted an ensign in 1798,
he served through the Peninsular war,
being wounded at Vimiera and Vittoria.
and taking a decisive part in the san-
guinary contest at Albuera. From 1809
to 1813 he was also attached to the Por-
tuguese army as a deputy quartermaster-
general. On the renewal of hostilities
after Napoleon's escape from Elba, he
hastened to join Wellington, who ap-
pointed him commissioner at the Prus-
sian headquarters. In consequence of a
severe wound received at Ligny he was
unable to take part in the battle of
Waterloo. From 1820 to 1844 he was
active in Parliament, holding the office
of Secretary of War under Wellington
in 1828, and afterward the chief secre-
taryship of Ireland under the same duke
and under Peel, In 1844 he was ap-
pointed governor-general of India, He
was present at the battles of Mudki,
Firozshah, and Sobraon in the first Sikh
war, as second in command to Lord
Gough. After the peace of Lahore
(1845) he was created a viscount, and
HARDY
470
HARFLEUR
granted a pension of $25,000 by the
East India Company as well as one of
$15,000 for three lives by Parliament.
Four years after his return to England
he succeeded (1852) Wellington as com-
mander-in-chief of the British army. In
1855 he was made field-marshal. In
July of the following year he resigned
the office of commander-in-chief, and
died in South Park, near Tunbridge,
England, Sept. 24, 1856.
HARDY, ARTHUR SHERBURNE,
an American novelist; born in Andover,
Mass., Aug. 13, 1847. He was graduated
from the United States Military Aca-
demy and commanded a military post in
the South for two years. His poetry
consists mainly of lyrics and sonnets,
while his novels are full of interest and
charm. He was a skilled musician. In
1897 he was appointed minister to
Persia. "But Yet a Woman" and "The
Wind of Destiny" and "Passe Rose" I'ep-
resent his earlier style. His later nov-
els include: "His Daughter First"
(1903); "Aurelie" (1912); "Diane and
Her Friends" (1914); "No. 13 Rue du
Bon Diable" (1917). His poems were
published in numerous magazines, and
some of his mathematical studies took
shape in a volume on "Quaternions."
"Songs of Two" appeared in 1900.
HARDY, THOMAS, an English
novelist; born in Dorset, England, June
2, 1840. He was brought up as an archi-
tect, and practiced some time at Dor-
chester, next prosecuted his studies in
design at London, gaining professional
distinction. His intention was now to
become an art critic, but the experiment
of a not wholly unsuccessful work of
fiction, "Desperate Remedies" (1871),
shaped his destiny otherwise. His next
novels, "Under the Greenwood Tree"
(1872) and "A Pair of Blue Eyes"
(1873), prepared the way for his first
great work, "Far from the Madding
Crowd," published in the "Cornhill
Magazine" in 1874. Its immediate suc-
cess secured its author an audience for
a series of novels : "The Hand of Ethel-
berta" (1876); "The Return of the Na-
tive" (1878) ; "The Trumpet-major"
(1880); "A Laodicean" (1881); "Two
on a Tower" (1882) ; "The Mayor of
Casterbridge" (1886) ; "The Wood-
landers" (1887) ; "Tess of the D'Urber-
villes" (1891) ; and "Jude the Obscure"
(1895); "Wessex Tales" (1888); "A
Group of Noble Dames" (1891); "Life's
Little Ironies" (1894) ; "The Three Way-
farers" (1893) ; "Wessex Poems"
(1898); "Times' Laughing Stock"
(1910); "Satires of Circumstance"
(1915) ; "The Dynasts," etc.
HARE, in zoology, various species of
Lepus, specially L. tiTnidus. It does not
make a burrow like the rabbit, but lurks
in a seat or form, which it varies ac-
cording to the season, and in severe
weather betakes itself to the woods. It
is, properly speaking, a nocturnal animal
and is very prolific. Modem science
places it among the rodents, vdth which
its anatomical construction entirely
agrees. In astronomy Lepus, one of the
15 ancient S. constellations.
HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTH-
BERT, an English descriptive writer;
born in Rome, Italy, March 13, 1834. He
was a graduate of Oxford. The son of
a rich father, he was enabled from his
earliest youth to gratify a taste for
travel, on descriptions of which his fame
chiefly rests. Among his happiest ef-
forts are: "A Winter at Mentone"
(1861); "Walks in Rome" (1870);
"Wanderings in Spain" (1872) ; "Walks
in London" (1877) ; "Days Near Paris"
(1887) ; and a narrative of travel in
southern France. A volume of personal
recollections (1895) has been widely
read. Died 1903.
HARE, SIR JOHN, an English actor;
born in London, England, May 16, 1844.
Traveled largely in the United States at
the head of his own company, and was
celebrated in comedy, emotional and
quaint character roles. He appeared in
"The Profligate"; "The Gay Lord Quex,"
"Notorious Mrs. Ebbsmith"; "Pair of
Spectacles"; and other important plays.
He was knighted in 1907.
HAREM (hii-rem') (Arabic, the pro-
hibited), a word used by Mussulmans to
signify the women's apartments in a
household establishment, forbidden to
every man except the husband and near
relations. The women of the harem may
consist simply of a wife and her attend-
ants, or there may be several wives and
an indefinite number of concubines or
female slaves, with black eunuchs, etc.
The gi'eatest harem is that of the Sultan
of Turkey. The women of the imperial
harem are generally Circassians or
Georgians. The women of other Turks
enjoy the society of their friends at the
baths or in each other's houses, and ap-
pear in public accompanied by slaves and
eunuchs; but the women of the sultan's
harem have none of these privileges.
Only a comparatively few wealthy Turks
now maintain harems. They have gen-
erally but one wife.
HARFLEUR (ar-fler') (called in the
Middle Ages Hareflot), a town of
France, department of Seine-Inf erieure ;
on the estuary of the Seine ; 4 miles E.
of Havre. Formerly Harfleur was an
HARI-RUD
471
HARMONY
important seaport and maritime for-
tress, but the rise of Havre, coupled with
the sanding up of its harbor, led to its
decay. It was taken after a six weeks'
siege by the English under Henry V. in
1415, and during the next 25 years
changed hands three times. It was pil-
laged by the Huguenots in 1562.
HARI-RUD (ha-re-rod') , or HERI-
RUD (her-e-), a river of Asia, which
rises in the Hindu Kush about 150 miles
W. from Kabul, pursues a W. course
through - Afghanistan for nearly 250
miles; then, bending suddenly to the N.,
it forms the boundary between Persia
and Turkestan, and, after a further
course of about 250 miles, loses itself in
several arms in the Tekke Turkoman
oasis.
HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL, an
American jurist; born in Boyle co., Ky.,
June 1, 1833, was graduated at Centre
College in 1850; became a lawyer;
served in the Civil War; was attorney-
general of Kentucky; a member of the
Louisiana Investigation Commission of
1877, and in the same year was made
associate justice of the Supreme Court
of the United States. In 1892 he was
an arbitrator on behalf of the United
States before the Bering Sea tribunal.
He died in 1911.
HARLAND, HENRY, pseudonym Sid-
ney LuSKA, an Anglo-American novel-
ist; born in St. Petersburg, Russia, in
March, 1861. He removed to London,
where he edited the "Yellow Book." He
wrote: "As It Was Written" (1885),
"Mrs. Peixada" (1886) ; "The Land of
Love" (1887); "My Uncle Florimond"
(1888) ; "The Yoke of the Thorah"
(1887) ; "Mr. Sonnenschein's Inherit-
ance" (1888); "A Latin-Quarter Court-
ship"; "Comedies and Errors" (1898);
"Cardinal's Snuff-box" (1900); etc. He
died in 1905.
HARLAND, MARION. See TeRHUNE.
HARLAW, a place 18 miles N. W. of
Aberdeen, the site of a battle fought
July 24, 1411, between the Highlanders,
led by Donald, Lord of the Isles, and the
Lowlanders of Mar, Garioch, Buchan,
Angus, and Mearns, under Alexander
Stewart, Earl of Mar. The battle was
long and bloody, but the Highlanders
were at last defeated.
HARLEM, a part of New York City
above 106th street. See New^ York City.
HARLEM RIVER, a tidal channel
which separates Manhattan Island from
the mainland of the State of New York.
It communicates with the Hudson river
on the W. by means of Spuyten Duyvil
creek, and with the East river at Hell
Gate. It is about 7 miles long. The
Harlem canal, which connects with the
East river, was opened June 17, 1895.
HARLINGEN (hiir'ling-en) , a sea-
port of the Netherlands, in the province
of Friesland, on the Zuider Zee, 14 miles
W. by S. from Leeuwarden. It has a
good harbor, protected from the sea by
dykes. The manufacture of woolen
sacks and machines and shipbuilding
are the chief industries. Butter and
cattle are exported to England. Pop.
about 11,000.
HARMON, JUDSON, an American
public official, born in Newton, O., in
1846. He graduated from Denison Uni-
versity in 1866, and from the Cincinnati
Law School in 1869. He was elected
Mayor of Wyoming, 0., in 1875, and
from 1876 to 1877 he was judge of the
Court of Common Pleas, and was judge
of the Superior Court from 1878 to 1887.
He was appointed attorney-general of
the United States by President Cleve-
land, in 1895, serving until 1897. He
was governor of Ohio from 1909 to 1911,
and from 1911 to 1913. In 1912 he was
a Democratic candidate for the nomina-
tion for the presidency.
HARMONIC, in mathematics, applied
to numbers, terms of certain ratios, pro-
portions, etc., which have certain rela-
tions or properties resembling those of
musical concords. In music, applied to
the sounds produced by a vibrating
string or column of air, when it is sub-
divided into its aliquot parts. Also (1)
One of the sounds produced by a vibrat-
ing string or column of air, when it is
subdivided into its aliquot parts. (2)
An artifical tone produced in a stringed
instrument («) by varying the point of
contact with the bow, or (6) by slightly
pressing the string at the nodes or di-
visions of its aliquot parts iV2, 1-3, M,
etc.). In wind instruments, harmonics
are produced by varying the intensity of
the air current from the mouth. See
Harmony.
HARMONY, a union of sounds which
individually appear different, but when
heard together form a collective sound
called a chord. All musical compositions
can be reduced to a fundamental har-
mony of successive chords, which, in
their progression, are regulated by the
rules of the theory of music. Dissonant
as well as consonant chords are included
as forming harmony, as they are a union
of several sounds that have but one
fundamental sound or bass note in com-
mon. The harmony of chords can either
be close or open, which the position or
distance of the sounds or intervals from
HABNACK
472
HAROLD I.
one to another, forming the chords, de-
termines. Close harmony is when the
sounds composing each chord are placed
so near to each other that no sound be-
longing to the chord could again be in-
terposed between any of those already
present. Open harmony is when the
sounds of a chord are placed at a greater
distance from each other, so that some
of them might be again interposed be-
tween the parts of those sounds already
present. The common chord of a third,
fifth and octave to a bass note is the
most pure and perfect harmony; after
which follow the chord of the seventh
and the chord of the ninth.
HARNACK, ADOLF, a German theo-
logian, born in Dorpat, Russia, in 1851.
He was educated at Dorpat University
and at Leipzig. He served as profes-
sor of Church history in several Ger-
man universities, including Berlin and
Marburg. His lectures in Berlin were
attended by hundreds of students of both
Europe and America. He edited many
important theological works and wrote
much on theological subjects. The work
best known to the English-reading pub-
lic is "What Is Christianity?" translated
in 1901. Other works translated in-
clude "The Expansion of Christianity"
(1905) ; "New Testament Studies"
(1907) ; and "Bible Reading in the Early
Church" (1912).
HARNED, VIRGINIA, an American
actress, born in Boston in 1868. She
made her first appearance on the stage
at the age of 16, and after several en-
gagements, became leading woman for
E. H. Sothern, whom she married in
1896. The marriage was dissolved in
1910. She played leading parts in sev-
eral well-known plays and created the
title role of "Trilby."
HARO, or SAN JUAN (san hwan')
ARCHIPELAGO, a cluster of islets
owned by the United States, lying off the
S. end of Vancouver Island.
HARO, THE CRY OF, an old form
of appeal in Normandy and the Chan-
nel Islands, equivalent to a demand
either for protection against bodily harm
of for assistance to arrest an adversary.
The word was anciently understood to
be an appeal to Rolf, Rollo, or Rou, the
first Duke of Normandy; a better deri-
vation seems to be from the Old High
German hera or hara, here, making haro
simply a cry for aid.
HAROLD I., surnamed Harefoot,
Danish king of England, succeeded his
father Canute in 1035 as king of the
provinces N. of the Thames, and became
kmg of all England in 1037. His coun-
trymen, the Danes, maintained him upon
the throne against the efforts of Earl
Godwin in favor of Hardicanute; and
Harold latterly gained the earl over.
After a reign of four years Harold died
in 1040.
HAROLD II., King of England; born
about 1022, was the second son of God-
win, Earl of Kent. On the death of
Edward the Confessor, Jan. 5, 1066, he
stepped without opposition into the va-
cant throne, without attending to the
claim of Edgar Atheling or the asserted
bequest of Edward in favor of the Duke
of Normandy. The latter immediately
called upon him to resign the crown,
and upon his refusal prepared for inva-
sion. He also instigated Harold's broth-
er, Tostig, to infest the N. coasts of
England in conjunction with the King
of Norway. The united fleets of these
chiefs sailed up the Humber and landed
a numerous body of men; but at Stam-
ford Bridge, in Yorkshire, were totally
routed by Harold, whose brother Tostig
fell in the battle. Immediately after
he heard of the landing of the Duke of
Normandy at Pevensey, in Sussex. Has-
tening thither with all the troops he
could muster, a general engagement en-
sued at Senlac near Hastings, Oct. 14,
1066, in which Harold was slain, and
the crown of England passed to William.
HAROLD I., surnamed Haarfager
(Fair-haired), the first king of all Nor-
way. He was the son of Halfdan the
Black, the most powerful of the jarls or
petty kings of southeastern Norway.
According to the popular story, he loved
a high born maiden named Gyda, but she
declared she would not be his wife till
he was sole king of Norway; he in his
turn thereupon took an oath that he
would neither cut nor comb his hair till
he had accomplished her bidding. After
a severe struggle of some years' dura-
tion (863-872) he subdued, first the
chiefs between Throndhjem and the
Sogne Fjord, and finally the kings of
the S. W., whom he defeated in a naval
battle near Stavanger. The conquered
districts he placed under the rule of his
own jarls, or such as were devoted to
his service. This led many of the old
nobles to emigrate to the Orkneys, the
Hebrides, and to Iceland, whence they
conducted a series of piratical expedi-
tions against Norway, till at length Har-
old was constrained to sail W. and chas-
tise them in their own seas. In his old
age Harold divided his territories among
his sons, and died at Throndhjem, which
he had made his capital, in 930, leav-
ing the supreme power to his son Eric,
surnamed Bloody-Axe.
HAROLD III.
473
HARPER'S FERRY
HAROLD III., surnamed Haardraabe,
or Hardrada (stern in council), a king
of Norway. He was one of the most
famous of the old Viking chiefs, and a
descendant of Harold I. While still a
boy he was present at the battle of
Stikklestad (1030), in which his brother,
St. Olaf, King of Norway, was slain.
Harold himself sought an asylum at the
court of his relative, Yaroslaff, Prince of
Novgorod. Thence, going on to Constan-
tinople, he became captain of the Varan-
gians or Scandinavian bodyguard of the
Greek emperors, and in command of
them defeated the Saracens in several
battles in Sicily and Italy. On his re-
turn to Constantinople he drew upon
himself the vengeance of the Empress
Zoe, whose proffered love he rejected,
and with difficulty made good his escape
to Russia, where he married the daugh-
ter of Duke Yaroslaff. But he did not
remain in Russia. He returned about
1045 to Norway, where his nephew,
Magnus (the son of St. Olaf), agreed to
divide the supreme power with him, in
exchange for a share of his treasures.
The death of Magnus in 1047 left Har-
old sole king of Norway, and Svend
King of Denmark; but with Svend Har-
old waged unrelenting war till 1064.
This king changed the capital of Nor-
way from Throndhjem to Opslo, now a
suburb of Christiania. Two years later
he landed in England, to aid Tostig
against his brother Harold, King of Eng-
land, but was slain in battle at Stamford
Bridge, where also the flower of his war-
riors fell.
HAROUN (har-6n') surnamed Al-Ras-
CHID (more properly Harun er Rashid
the orthodox), the most renowned of the
Abbaside caliphs; born in 763. He suc-
ceeded his elder brother. El Hadi, in the
caliphate, in the year 786. He owed his
peaceful accession to the sagacity of the
Barmecide Yahya, whom he at once made
his grand vizier. To him and his four
sons he left the entire administration of
his extensive kingdom, and the prosper-
ity of the country proved that his confi-
dence was not misplaced. Meantime Ha-
roun gave himself up to the pleasures of
life, and made his court at Bagdad a
brilliant center of all the wit, learning
and art of the Moslem world. Toward
the end of his reign a strange and deeply
rooted hatred toward the Barmecides
filled his mind, and in 803 he caused the
vizier, his four sons, and all their de-
scendants, save one, to be executed, not
even excepting his favorite Jaafer (Gia-
far), who had been his constant compan-
ion in his famous but apocryphal noc-
turnal rambles through the streets of
Bagdad. But the retribution of heaven
quickly followed; his affairs fell into ir-
retrievable confusion; treason and rebel-
lion showed themselves in every corner
of the empire; and, when it was too late,
Haroun repented bitterly his ferocious
cruelty. To quell a formidable rising
in Khorassan, in the N. E. of the em-
pire, Haroun marched in person against
the rebels, but an attack of apoplexy
obliged him to remain behind, in Tus,
where he soon afterward died, in the
month of March, 809. Haroun the Mag-
nificent is the hero of many of the
stories in the "Arabian Nights."
HARPER, GEORGE McLEAN, an
American educator, born at Shippens-
burg, Pa., in 1863. He graduated from
Princeton in 1884. After several years
of newspaper work he became instructor
of romance languages at Princeton Uni-
versity, in 1889. He was assistant pro-
fessor in 1891, and professor in 1894.
He was appointed professor of English
literature in 1900. He was the author
of "The Legend of the Holy Grail"
(1896) ; "Masters of French Literature"
(1901) ; "William Wordsworth, His Life,
Works and Influences" (1915). He also
edited and translated works of foreign
authors. In 1918 he edited the addresses
of President Wilson. He was a member
of the National Institute of Arts and
Letters, and was the delegate of the
American Commission for Relief in Bel-
gium, in 1919.
HARPER, WILLIAM RAINEY, an
American educator; born in New Con-
cord, 0., July 26, 1858; was graduated
at Muskingum College in 1870; Profes-
sor of Hebrew at the Baptist Union
Theological Seminary, Chicago, in 1879-
1886; of Semitic Languages at Yale Col-
lege in 1886-1891 ; was then chosen presi-
dent of the University of Chicago. He
is the author of "Elements of Hebrew";
"Elements of Hebrew Syntax"; "Hebrew
Vocabularies" and "An Introductory
New Testament, Greek Method" (with
Revere F. Weidner) ; "The Prospects of
the Small College"; "Elements of Latin"
etc. He died Jan. 10, 1906.
HARPERS FERRY, a town in Jeffer-
son CO., W. Va.; at the confluence of
the Shenandoah and Potomac rivers, and
on the Baltimore and Ohio railroads; 81
miles W. of Baltimore, Md. The place
has considerable historical interest. It
was the site of a United States govern-
ment foundry, arsenal and armory, and
the scene of John Brown's raid in Vir-
ginia in 1859. The government build-
ings were burned in 1861, to prevent
their falling into the hands of the Con-
federates. In 1862 a Union army under
Gen. D. H. Miles surrendered to Stone-
HARPY
474
HABmS
wall Jackson at this point. It is the seat
of Storer College, and has considerable
local trade. Pop. about 1,000.
HARPY, a fabulous creature in Greek
mythology, considered as a minister of
the vengeance of the gods. Various ac-
counts are given of the numbers and
parentage of the Harpies. Homer men-
tions but one, Podarge; Hesiod enumer-
ates two, Aello and Okypete, daughters
of Thaumas by the Oceanid Electra,
fair-haired and winged maidens, very
swift of flight. Three are sometimes rec-
ognized by later writers, who call them
variously daughters of Poseidon or of
Typhon, and describe them as hideous
monsters with wings, of fierce and loath-
some aspect, with their faces pale with
hunger, living in an atmosphere of filth
and stench, and contaminating every-
thing that they approached. Vergil lo-
cates them in the Strophades. A harpy
in heraldry is represented as a vulture,
with the head and breast of a woman.
HARRADEN, BEATRICE, an Eng-
lish novelist, daughter of an East India
agent in London; born about 1864. Af-
ter private schooling and a season in
Germany, she took her degi'ee at London
University at 21. She was then em-
ployed in a publishing house, but ill
health compelled her to leave. Her first
novel, "Ships That Pass in the Night,"
was instantly successful. This was fol-
lowed by "In Varying Moods," "Things
Will Take a Turn," "Hilda Strafford,"
"The Fowler," "The Scholar's Daughter"
(1906) ; "Interplay" (1908) ; "Out of the
Wreck I Rise" (1912); "Where Your
Heart Is" (1918).
HARRIGAN, EDWARD, an Ameri-
can actor and playwright; born in New
York, in 1845. He formed a partnership
with Tony Hart (1871-1885), when the
two opened in New York their first The-
atre Comique (1876), bringing out there
the "Mulligan Guard" series of plays.
Among his dramas, which are all of
humble New York life, strong in char-
acter drawing, though weak in a liter-
ary sense, may be named "Squatter Sov-
ereignty" and "Cordelia's Aspirations."
In 1903-1904 he produced "Under Cov-
er." He died in 1911.
HARRIMAlSr, EDWARD HENRY,
an American financier and railroad offi-
cial, born at Hempstead, N. Y., in 1848.
He was educated in the public schools
and at Trinity School, New York City.
Entering commercial life at the age of
fourteen, he advanced rapidly, and was
a member of the Stock Exchange when
barely past his majority. He was the
founder of the banking and brokerage
house of Harriman & Co. In 1883 ha
became identified with the Illinois Cen-
tral railroad as a director, proceeding,
in 1887, to the vice-presidency. From
this position, he began his organizing
and consolidating operations, which ex-
tended to the acquisition of the Central
and Southern Pacific roads in 1897-1898
and of the connecting lines to the Pacific
Coast. His next step was thwarted by
J. J. Hill and resulted in the Stock Ex-
change panic in 1901, after Harriman
had failed to gain control of the Great
Northern. Harriman was, if not the
originator, at least one of the most note-
worthy exponents of the use of "watered
stock," as the subsequent investigations
of the Interstate Commerce Commission
revealed, notably in the Chicago and Al-
ton railroad deal in 1901. He was ac-
tively interested in politics, and although
a heavy contributor to the Roosevelt
campaign fund of 1904, his financial
methods led Roosevelt to break with him
later. Many times prosecuted by the
Federal government under the Sherman
Act, Harriman was able to maintain his
operations and actually increase his grip
upon the railroad system of the country.
He died in 1909, leaving an estate of
over $200,000,000 to his wife.
HARRIS, SIR AUGUSTUS GLOS-
SOP, an English actor, manager, and
dramatist; born in Paris, in 1852. Ap-
pearing on the stage in 1873, in 1879 he
became lessee and manager of Drury
Lane Theater, where he produced popu-
lar pantomimes and melodramas written
in collaboration — among them: "The
Woi;ld"; "Youth"; "Human Nature";
"Rifn of Luck"; "Prodigal Daughter":
"Life of Pleasure"; "Derby Winner.*^
He induced the revival of grand opera
at Covent Garden. He was made sheriff
of London and knighted in 1891. He
died in Folkestone, England, Jan. 22,
1896.
HARRIS, CORRA MAY (WHITE),
an American writer, born at Farm Hill,
Ga., in 1869. In 1887 she married Rev.
Lundy Howard Harris. She began writ-
ing in 1899. Her published books in-
clude "The Jessica Letters" (1904) ; "A
Circuit Rider's Wife" (19i0) ; "Eve's
Second Husband" (1910) ; and "In
Search of a Husband" (1913). She vis-
ited Europe during the World War and
contributed articles to the "Saturday
Evening Post."
HARRIS, FRANK, an editor and
writer, born in Galway, Ireland, 1854.
In 1870 he came to the United States
where he studied in the University of
Kansas. Later he was also a student
in half a dozen European universities,
HARRIS
475
HARRISON
but took no degrees in any of them. In
1875 he was admitted to the Kansas bar,
but did not practice, returning to Europe
shortly after. He became editor of the
London "Evening News" and the "Fort-
nightly Review," and later owner and edi-
tor of the "Saturday Review." He was in-
timately acquainted with the most promi-
nent literary celebrities of Great Britain
and wrote one of the most enlightening
books on the life of Oscar Wilde (Life
and Confessions of Oscar Wilde, 1916).
Later he returned to the United States
and took over the ownership and editor-
ship of "Pearson's Magazine," of New
York City. Among his works are: "The
Bomb" (1886-1909); "The Man Shakes-
peare" (1909); "Unpathed Waters"
(1913); and "Great Days" (a novel,
1914),
HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER, an
American journalist and story writer;
born in Eatonton, Ga., Dec. 8, 1848. He
began life as a printer's apprentice, and
afterward studied law, drifting finally
into journalism. He had a thorough
familiarity with the negro of the post-
bellum period, and while editing an At-
lanta paper he produced for it the series
of "Uncle Remus" sketches and songs
which immediately made him known.
"The Folk-Lore of the Old Plantation"
appeared in 1880, followed by "Nights
with Uncle Remus" (1883) ; "Mingo and
Other Sketches" (1883) ; "Daddy Jake,
the Runaway" (1889) ; "On the Wings of
Occasion" (1900); "Told by Uncle
Remus" (1905) ; "Uncle Remus and Br'er
Rabbit" (1907). He died in 1908.
HARRISBURG, a city of Illinois, the
eounty-seat of Saline co. It is on the
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St.
Louis and the Southern Illinois Railway
and Power Company railroads. It is
the center of an important agricultural
and coal mining region. Its industries
include flour mills, wagon shops, saw-
mills, etc. It has a library, a post office,
and other important public buildings.
Pop. (1910) 5,309; (1920) 7,125.
HARRISBURG, a city, capital of the
State of Pennsylvania, and county-seat
of Dauphin co.; on the Susquehanna
river, the Pennsylvania canal, and on the
Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia and
Reading, the Cumberland Valley, and the
Northern Central railroads; 160 miles
W. of Philadelphia. It is a railroad
center with direct connections with the
coal and iron resources of the State, and
is an extensive lumber depot.
Pxihlic Interests. — The city is well laid
out, lighted with electricity, and sur-
rounded by magnificent scenery. The
State capitol buildings are located in the
midst of a beautiful park of 10 acres on
a gentle rise of ground. The Capitol is
one of the most magnificent buildings in
the world. Other points of interest are
Fort Washington, just across the Sus-
quehanna river, marking the most north-
ern point of the Confederate advance;
Gettysburg, with its famous battlefield,
46 miles to the south; the Executive Man-
sion, 313 North Front street; the Rock-
viUe four-track railroad bridge, five miles
to the north, the largest stone arch bridge
in the wox'ld; Hershey Park and the
model town of the Hershey Chocolate
Company, 12 miles to the east, and the
beautiful Masonic Home at Elizabeth-
town, 17 miles away. The educational
institutions include 35 public schools, two
junior high schools, and many private
schools. The total enrollment in 1920
was over 13,000. Harrisburg is the seat
of a Roman Catholic bishop, and its
charitable organizations include several
hospitals, the Home of the Friendless,
and the Children's Industrial Home. It
has electric street railway connections
with neighboring towns.
Business Interests. — The iron, steel,
and lumber industries are of great im-
portance. The leading manufactures are
machinery, boilers, bricks, castings,
brooms, cars and coaches, tanned leather,
lumber, cotton goods, iron, steel, tin plate,
shoes, clothing, and flour. Much trade is
carried on in butter, hay, and other farm
products. In 1919 there were 4 National
banks and several private banking houses
with total resources of $31,000,000. The
clearings in 1919 were $154,767,943. The
assessed property valuation in 1919 was
$62,500,000.
History. — Harrisburg was founded by
John Harris in 1785; was incorpoi'ated aV
a borough in 1791; became the State
capital in 1812; and received its charter
as a city in 1860. Pop. (1910) 64,186;
(1920) 75,917.
HARRISON, a city in Hudson co., N.
J., on the Passaic river, opposite Newark,
with which it is connected by severs!
bridges; and on the Pennsylvania, the
Lackawanna, and the Erie railroads. It
has extensive manufactures of cotton,
thread, electric supplies, wire cloth, har-
ness, trunks, leather goods, steam
launches, iron and steel ordnance, and
furniture, foundries, breweries, slaughter
houses, etc. There are electric lights,
and street railways, daily and weekly
newspapers, public library, high school,
and an assessed property valuation cf
$4,000,000. Harrison was settled in 1668,
and incorporated in 1873. Pop. (1910)
14,498; (1920) 15,721.
HARRISON
476
HARRISON
HARRISON, BENJAMIN, an Ameri-
can patriot; born in Berkeley, Va., about
1740. He was elected to the House of
Burgesses soon after attaining his ma-
jority. In 1773 he was chosen a member
of the committee which united the colo-
nies against Great Britain. Shortly
afterward he was elected to Congress and
five times re-elected. On July 4, 1776, he
reported, as chairman of the committee
of the whole House, the Declaration of
Independence, of which he was one cf
the signers. He opposed the ratification
of the Federal Constitution, but, on its
adoption, supported the National govern-
ment. He died in April, 1791.
HARRISON, BENJAMIN, an Amer-
ican statesman, 23d President of the Uni-
ted States; born in North Bend, O., Aug.
20, 1833. He was a great-grandson of
Benjamin Harrison, signer of the Decla-
ration of Independence, and grandson of
William Henry Harrison, 9th President
of the United States. He was graduated
at Miami University; studied law in
Cincinnati; removed to Indianapolis,
Ind., in 1854, and laid the foundation of
a fine legal practice; entered the Union
army in 1862, serving with conspicuous
gallantry in the Atlanta campaign, final-
ly returning to civil life at the close of
the war with the rank of brevet Briga-
dier-General; was the Republican candi-
date for governor of Indiana in 1876, but
was defeated; was elected to the United
States Senate in 1881, where he added
to his reputation as a sound thinker and
a polished debator; at the Republican
Convention held in Chicago, June, 1888,
he was nominated for the presidency of
the United States; elected in the ensuing
November; and inaugurated March 4,
1889. His administration was quiet, suc-
cessful, and measurably popular. It was
marked by the amicable settlement of the
trouble with Chile and by the passage of
the McKinley Tariff Bill._ In 1892 he
received again the nomination in the Na-
tional Republican Convention, but by this
time the able and persistent attacks of
the Democracy on the high tariff policy
led to a general revulsion against it, and
he was defeated at the election by Cleve-
land. He thereupon pursued a private
law practice, occasionally giving public
addresses. He died in Indianapolis, Ind.,
March 13, 1901.
HARRISON. MRS. BURTON (CON-
STANCE CARY), an_ American novelist
and miscellaneous writer; born in Vau-
cluse, Va., April 25, 1846. She wi'ote:
"Woman's Handiwork in Modern Homes"
(1881) ; "Old-Fashioned Fairy-Book"
(1884) ; "Bar Harbor Days" (1887) ; and
the novels "The Anglomaniacs"; "An
Errant Wooing"; "A Bachelor Maid";
"A Son of the Old Dominion" (1897);
"A Princess of the Hills" (1901) ; a
play, "The Unwelcome Mrs. Hatch"
(1901) ; "Recollections Grave and Gay"
(1911).
HARRISON, CARTER HENRY, an
American public official, born in Chicago
in 1860. He graduated from St. Igna-
tius College in 1881 and afterward
studied law at Yale. He engaged in the
real-estate and publishing business in
Chicago and was elected mayor of that
city for 5 terms from 1897 to 1905 and
from 1911 to 1915. During the World
War he was in charge of the American
Red Cross activities in 12 hospitals in
France.
HARRISON, FRANCIS BURTON, an
American public official, born in New
York City in 1873. He graduated from
Yale in 1895. He served during the
Spanish-American War as a member of
the New York Volunteer Cavalry. In
1903 he was elected to Congress and was
re-elected in 1906 and in 1913. He re-
signed in the latter year to become gov-
ernor-general of the Philippine Islands.
HARRISON, FREDERIC, an English
writer; born in London, Oct. 18, 1831.
He was educated at King's College
School, London, and Wadham College,
Oxford. A Positivist in religion and an
advanced Liberal in politics, he argued
his opinions in many vigorous and well-
written articles in the magazines and
reviews. Of his works the chief are "The
Meaning of History" (1862); "Order
and Progress" (1875) ; "The Present and
the Future" (1880) ; "Lectures on Edu-
cation" (1883) ; "On the Choice of
Books" (1886); "Oliver Cromwell"
(1888); "The Meaning of History"
(1894) ; "Literary Essays" (1895) ; and
"William the Silent" (1897) ; "Creed of
Layman" (1907) ; "Among My Books"
(1912) "The German Peril" (1915) etc.
HARRISON, MARY ST. LEGER
(LUCAS MALET), an English novelist,
daughter of Charles Kingsley, born in
Eversley, Hampshire, married to the
Rev. William Harrison. Her books ac-
quired a wide popularity in England and
in the United States. Among the best
known are: "(Dolonel Enderby's Wife"
(1885); "The Wages of Sin" (1891);
"The Golden Galleon" (1910) ; and The
"Wisdom of Damaris."
HARRISON, WILLIAM HENRY, an
American statesman, 9th President of
the United States; born in Berkeley, Va.,
Feb. 9, 1773. He served in the Indian
War on General Wayne's staff, 1791-
1792, and in 1797 was appointed captain.
HARROW
477
HARTFORD
in command of Fort Washington, on the
present site of Cincinnati, 0. On the
conclusion of the war, he became Secre-
tary of the Northwest Territory (1798),
resigning the next year to enter Congress
as delegate from that Territory. In
1801 he was appointed governor of
Indiana Territory, and made superintend-
ent of Indian Affairs. He made im-
portant treaties with the Indians, and
won considerable fame by a victory over
a force of Indians, in the battle of Tippe-
canoe, in 1811. In 1812 he was intrusted
with full military command on the
Northwest frontier, with the rank of
Brigadier-General, and the following
year was promoted to Major-General.
During this year he distinguished him-
self by his defense of Fort Meigs, and in
the battle of the Thames. After the
War of 1812, he was sent to Congress,
1816; to the Ohio State Senate, 1819; to
to United States Senate, 1825; and as
United States minister to Columbia,
1828. After a retirement of 12 years, he
was nominated for the presidency by the
Whig party, against Van Buren, in the
famous "log-cabin" and "hard cider"
campaign. Harrison was said by his op-
ponents to live in a log cabin and to be
given to the habit of drinking hard cider.
These reproaches were turned into
watch-words by the Whigs, and aroused
unprecedented enthusiasm. He died
April 4, 1841, just a month after his in-
auguration, leaving the presidency to the
Vice-President, John Tyler.
HARROW, or HARROW-ON-THE-
HILL, an English town in Middlesex.
Its "visible church," which crowns the
hill-top, was founded by Lanfranc, and
rebuilt about the middle of the 14th cen-
tury.
HARROW SCHOOL was founded in
1571 by John Lyon, a wealthy yeoman,
who died in 1592; but the original red
brick school house (now the Fourth
Form School) was not built till 1608-
1615. New buildings have been added
since 1819, the chief of these being the
Second-pointed chapel (1857), the
Vaughan Memorial Library (1863), and
the semicircular Speech-room (1877).
The school was primarily intended
to afford a free education to 30 poor
boys of the parish; but the statutes;
drawn up by the founder two years be-
fore his death, provided also for the
admission of "so many foreigners as the
place can conveniently contain" and it
is to that provision that Harrow, though
not richly endowed, owes its proud posi-
tion among the great schools of England.
The age of admission is 12 to 14; and
there are six or seven entrance scholar-
Vol. IV— Cyc— EE
ships, of from $150 to $400 per annum,
offered every Easter. Of leaving schol-
arships, the most valuable are Baring's
three of $500 a year for five years to
Hertford College, Oxford. Under the
Public Schools Act of 1868 the govern-
ing body comprises six members, elected
respectively by the Lord Chancellor, the
universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and
London, the Royal Society, and the un-
dermasters.
HART, ALBERT BUSHNELL, an
American educator; born in Clarksville,
Pa., July 1, 1854; became Professor of
History at Harvard University. He
wrote "Coercive Powers of the United
States Government" (1885); "Introduc-
tion to the Study of Federal Govern-
ment" (1890) ; "Studies in Education";
"Life of Salmon P. Chase"; "Practical
Essays on American Government";
"Essentials of American History"
(1905); "The Southern South" (1911);
"The War in Europe" (1914); "Na-
tional Progress" (1918). Edited "Epochs
of American History," etc. Exchange
professor of Harvard with University
of Berlin (1915).
HARTE, FRANCIS BRET, an Amer-
ican novelist and poet; born in Albany,
N. Y., Aug. 25, 1839. He went to Cali-
fornia in 1854, and figured as a coal
dealer, a teacher, and a typesetter on the
"Golden Era," in which appeared some
of his earliest literary efforts. He next
became editor of the "Californian," and
in 1864 secretary to the United States
Mint at San Francisco; in 1868 he be-
came editor of the "Overland Monthly,"
in which appeared, in 1869. the humor-
ous poem of "The Heathen Chinee." In
1878 he became United States consul at
Crefeld, whence he was transferred to
Glasgow in 1880, and remained there till
1885. Among his best known works ai-e
"The Luck of Roaring Camp"; "The
Outcasts of Poker Flat"; "The Argo-
nauts of '49"; "Two Men of Sandy Bar";
"Gabriel Conroy"; "Mrs. Skagg's Hus-
bands"; "East and West Poems"; "In
the Carquinez Woods"; "Maruja, a
Novel"; "Crusade of the Excelsior"; "A
Waif of the Plains"; "A Ward of the
Golden Gate"; "A Sappho of Green
Springs"; "Susy"; "Three Partners";
"Tales of Trail and Town"; "Under tl^
Redwoods"; etc. He died May 5, 1902.
HARTFORD, a city, capital of the
State of Connecticut, port of entry and
county-seat of Hartford co. ; on the Con-
necticut river and on the New York, New
Haven and Hartford, and the New Eng-
land and New York railroads; 36 miles
N. E. of New Haven. It is an important
commercial and manufacturing city, and
HAETFOED
478
HAETY
besides it is noted for its many
insurance companies. Area, 17 square
miles.
Public Interests. — The city is lighted
by electricity, has a waterworks system
with 115 miles of mains owned by the
city, 115 miles of streets, of which 84
miles are paved, and 89 miles of sewers.
It is the seat of Trinity College, Hart-
ford Congregational Theological Semi-
nary, American Asylum for the Deaf,
Insane Retreat, Old People's Home, and
the High School, Young Men's Christian
Association building. There are a Roman
Catholic Cathedral (St. Joseph's), and
many elegant churches, a large free pub-
lic library, and several valuable libraries
connected with the educational institu-
tions of the city. The City Hall and
Capitol Buildings are the two most fa-
mous buildings in Hartford. The former
was used as a State House for nearly
100 years and housed the famous Hart-
ford Convention. Near the City Hall is
tlie Center Church, which was con-
structed in 1807, and has adjoining a
burying ground which was in use from
1640 to 1803. Opposite is the Wadsworth
Atheneum, containing the Connecticut
Historical Society, the Hartford Pub-
lic Library, and the Morgan Memorial.
These three are noted buildings in Hart-
ford, and contain many works of art,
rare collections of paintings and books.
A few blocks away from the center of
the city is a tablet which marks the site
of the Charter Oak, a famous old tree,
in the hollow of which was hidden the
Connecticut Charter to save it from
Sir Edmund Andros. The State House
is an imposing structure completed in
1880 at a cost of $3,100,000, having its
main approach by way of a bridge over
Park ri-ver, on which bridge a soldiers'
memorial arch has been built.
Business Interests. — The city's manu-
factures are varied and extensive, in-
cluding machinery, tools, firearms, bi-
cycles, carriages, sewing machines, type-
Avriters, nails, boilers, engines, hosiery,
brass goods, woolens, tobacco, silver and
plated ware, stoneware, etc. In 1919
there were 4 National banks. The ex-
changes at the United States clearing
house during 1919 amounted to $427,-
118,000.
History. — The first settlement was
made by the Dutch in 1623, but it was
not till 1636 that a permanent settle-
ment, called Newton, was made by the
English. The name was changed to
Hartford in 1637. The Dutch were ban-
ished from Connecticut in 1654, and in
1687 an attempt was made by the English
Governor Andros to seize the Charter,
which was thwarted by hiding it in the
Charter Oak. The city was incorporated
in 1784 and became the State capital in
1873. Pop. (1910) 98,915; (1920)
138,036.
HAETFOED CITY, a city of Indiana,
the county-seat of Blackford co. It is
on the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago
and St. Louis, and the Lalie Erie and
Western railroads. It is the center of
an important natural gas and oil region
and has manufactures of paper, tile,
brick, wagons, and glass. Pop. (1910)
6,187; (1920) 6,183.
HAETFOED THEOLOQICAL SEM-
INAEY, an institution for theological
education, founded in 1834, at East
Windsor Hill, Conn., as The Theological
Institute of Connecticut. It was removed
in 1865 to Hartford, and its name was
changed to Hartford Theological Semi-
nary. It was affiliated in 1902 with the
Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy.
It includes a department of missions,
known as the Kennedy School of Mis-
sions in memory of John Stewart Ken-
nedy. The library contains over 100,000
volumes. In 1919 there were 12 instruc-
tors and 48 students. President, W. D.
MacKenzie, D. D.
HAETLEPOOL, an English seaport in
the North Sea, consisting of Hartlepool
proper and former West Hartlepool,
separated by Hartlepool Bay. A par-
liamentary borough of Durham County.
The first harbor was constructed at
West Hartlepool in 1847, of 12 acres,
and has since been greatly enlarged.
The dock area of Hartlepool and West
Hartlepool together, including the tim-
ber and shipbuilding yards, etc., is over
300 acres in extent. Extensive iron
shipbuilding yards, cement works, wood
pulp works, and marine engine building
establishments have been established.
Governed from 1854 by a local commis-
sion, the town was created a municipal
borough in 1887. Pop. of municipal
borough about 85,300. Hartlepool was
bombarded by the Germans in 1914.
HAETMANNSWEILEEKOPF, a vil-
lage of Alsace, situated on a hill, which
was a center of fighting during the
World War. Following the French thrust
into Alsace at the beginning of the war
it was captured by the Germans Jan.
21, 1915, and recaptured by the French,
March 27, who lost it again on April 25
only to retake it three days later. It
changed hands repeatedly, but was per-
manently held by the French after Oct.
16, 1915.
HAETY, JEEEMIAH J., a Roman
Catholic archbishop, born in St. Louis,
Mo., in 1853. He was educated in St.
Louis University, and St. Vincent's Col-
lege. He was ordained to the priesthood
HABTZ
479
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
in 1878. He served as rector in churches
in St. Louis and organized the parish of
St. Leo's in that city. He served as
pastor in that church until his appoint-
ment as Archbishop of Manila in 1903.
He afterward became bishop of Omaha.
HARTZ. See Hakz Mountains.
HARUN AL-RASCHID. See Haroun.
HARVARD, JOHN, an American
clergyman; born in England in 1607. He
was graduated at Emmanuel College,
Cambridge, England, and came to the
United States in 1637. He was made a
citizen of Massachusetts and given a
tract of land in Charlestown, where he
began preaching as a Congregational
minister, and in his will bequeathed
$3,750 and 320 volumes from his library
for the establishment of a college. A
granite monument was erected over his
remains in Charlestown in 1828, and a
memorial statue on the Delta at Harvard
University was unveiled in 1884. See
Harvard University.
HARVARD OBSERVATORY, in
Cambridge, Mass., founded in 1843,
equipped with a 15-inch Merz & Mahler
equatorial in 1847, with an 8 ^^ -inch
Troughton & Simms meridian-circle in
1870, with various photometers by Pro-
fessor Pickering since 1876, and with
a large number and variety of photo-
graphic telescopes, a part of the largest
of them being loaned to the observatory
by Mrs. Henry Draper since 1835. It is
the richest endowed and in some respects
(especially photographically) the best
equipped observatory in the world.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY, the oldest
institution of learning in the United
States, founded in Cambridge, Mass., 3
miles from Boston, in 1636. At a meet-
ing of the General Court of the Colony
of Massachusetts Bay convened on Sept.
8, only six years after its first settlement,
it was voted to give £400 toward a
"schoale or colledge," and the ensuing
year 12 of the most eminent men of the
colony, including John Cotton, and John
Winthrop, were authorized "to take or-
der for a college at Newtown." The
name of Cambridge was soon afterward
adopted in recognition of the English
University, where many of the colonists
had been educated. In 1638 John Har-
vard, a young non-conformist minister,
died in Charlestown, leaving to the col-
lege £750, and his entire library of 300
volumes. The institution was immedi-
ately opened, and was named after its
benefactor. Its first president was the
Rev. Henry Dunster.
Between 1636 and 1782 Harvard Col-
lege conferred only the degrees of Bach-
elor and Master of Arts, but in 1780 the
term University was applied to it in the
constitution of Massachusetts. In 1782
and 1783 three professorships of medi-
cine were established and the first de-
gree of Bachelor in Medicine was con-
ferred in 1788. In 1810 the lectures in
medicine were transferred to Boston, and
there the first medical college was built
in 1815. The Law School was established
in 1817, and has the distinction of being
the earliest school in the country con-
nected with a university and authorized
to confer degrees in law. The Divinity
School was a gradual outgrowth of the
college; the Hollis professorship of Di-
vinity was established in 1721, but the
divinity faculty was not formally organ-
ized till 1819. It is undenominational — ■
no assent to the peculiarities of any de-
nomination of Christianity being re-
quired of any instructor or student.
These were the three oldest additions to
the college, and justified the wider title.
The Scientific School instituted in 1847,
and at first announced as an advanced
school in science and literature, was
named after Abbott Lawrence, who pre-
sented it with $50,000. It confers the
degree of Bachelor of Science. The
Graduate School, established in 1872, and
placed in 1890, together with the Law-
rence Scientific School, under the Fac-
ulty of Arts and Sciences, confers also
the degrees of Master of Arts, Master of
Science, Doctor of Philosophy, and Doc-
tor of Science. The Dental School, sit-
uated in Boston, was instituted in 1867,
its course being three years; it gives the
degree of Doctor of Dental Medicine.
The School of Veterinary Medicine was
established in 1882, has a free clinic, a
hospital, a pharmacy and shoeing forge,
and its course of three years leads to the
degree of D. V. M. The Arnold Ar-
boretum was founded in 1872 as the out-
come of the will of James Arnold, and
is practically a public park of great
beauty and an experiment station in Ar-
boriculture, Dendrology and Forestry.
The school of Agriculture and Horticul-
ture was established in 1870 in accord-
ance with the will of Benjamin Bussey,
and is known as the Bussey Institution.
It confers the degree of Bachelor of
Agricultural Science. The Astronomical
Observatory was established in 1843 by
means of a public subscription ; the Sears
Tier was built in 1846, and two years
later Edward Bromfield Phillips be-
queathed to the university the sum of
$100,000 for the observatory. A branch
station is established on a mountain 8,000
feet high, near Arequipa, Peru. Among
the more important instruments are the
15-inch and 6-inch equatorial telescopes,
the 8-inch transit-circle, the 11-inch
Draper photographic telescope, the 8-
HABVEST MOON
480
HARZ MOUNTAINS
inch photographic telescope, and the me-
ridian photometer. In 1914 the univer-
sity was divided into the Faculty of
Arts and Sciences, the Faculty of Divin-
ity, the Faculty of Law, the Faculty of
Medicine and the Faculty of Applied
Science,
Among the other establishments be-
longing to the university are the Muse-
um of Comparative Zoology (1850) ; the
Botanical Museum; the Mineralogical
Museum; the Natural History Labora-
tories; tne Peabody Museum of Ameri-
can Archaeology and Ethnology, founded
in 1866 and transferred to the univer-
sity in 1897; the Semitic Museum
founded in 1889; the William Hayes
Fogg Art Museum, founded in 1895,
and containing, among other treasures
the Gray engravings and the Randall en-
gravings; the Botanic Garden, founded
in 1807, and the Gray Herbarium, pre-
sented to the University in 1864; and
Radcliffe College, brought into official re-
lation with the university in 1894. Be-
sides the various department libraries,
more than a dozen in number, there is
a University Library kept in Gore Hall,
numbering 700,000 volumes, and as many
maps and pamphlets. In 1764 the li-
brary was destroyed by fire, the only
works saved being an Oriental collection
bequeathed by Dr. Lightfoot, and the
Greek and Roman classics presented by
Bishop Berkley.
The university buildings number more
than 60, including the ereat Memorial
Hall, built in honor of the alumni who
perished in the Civil War. In 1909
Charles W. Eliot retired after 40 years
as president, and was succeeded by A.
Lawrence Lowell. In 1919 the faculty
numbered 827, and the students 4,891.
HARVEST MOON, the moon near its
full at the time of harvest, or about the
autumnal equinox, when it rises at
nearly the same hour for several days,
owing to the small angle of the ecliptic
and the moon's orbit.
HARVEY, a city of Illinois, in Cook
CO. It is on the Illinois Central, the
Grand Trunk, the Baltimore and Ohio,
and other railroads, and on the Calumet
river. The city is a residential suburb
of Chicago. It is, however, an important
industrial center. It has manufactures
of mining machinery, gas stoves, auto-
mobiles, cement, railroad supplies, etc.
It has a public library and other impor-
tant public buildings. Pop. (1910)
7,227; (1920) 9,216.
HARVEY, GEORGE BRINTON
McCLELLAN, an American publisher
and editor, born in Peacham, Vt., 1864.
He was successively connected with the
ireportorial staffs of the "Springfield Re-
publican," the "Chicago News," and the
New York "World." He was also the
promoter and the president of a number
of electrical railway corporations. At one
time he was president of the publishing
firm of Harper & Bros. In 1899 he be-
came editor of the "North American Re-
view." He was appointed ambassador
to Great Britain in March, 1921. He
was the author of "Women" (1908);
and "The Power of Tolerance" (1911).
HARVEY, WILLIAM, an English
physician; born in Folkestone, Kent,
April 1, 1578. He took his degree in
arts at Caius College, Cambridge, in
1597 and after five years' study at Pa-
dua, he obtained his diploma as doctor
of medicine in 1602. After receiving
his doctor's degree from his original
university, Cambridge, he settled in Lon-
don as a physician. In 1609 he was ap-
pointed physician to St. Bartholomew's
Hospital, and in 1615 Lumleian Lecturer
at the College of Physicians — an office
then held for life; and it is generally
supposed that in his first course of
lectures (in the spring of 1616) he ex-
pounded those original and complete
views of the circulation of the blood with
which his name is indelibly associated.
It was not till the year 1628 that he gave
his views to the world at large, in his
celebrated treatise entitled, "Anatomical
Study of the Movement of the Heart and
the Blood." He was appointed successive-
ly physician to James I. and Charles I.
Harvey's first step was to prove that the
arteries contained not air but blood. He
attended the king in his various expedi-
tions, and was present with him at the
battle of Edgehill (Oct. 23, 1642). On
the surrender of Oxford to the Parlia-
ment July, 1646, he left the university
and returned to London. In 1654 he was
elected president of the College of
Physicians, but he declined the office on
account of his age and infirmities. In
July, 1656, he resigrned his Lumleian lec-
tureship (held for more than 40 years) ;
and in taking leave of the college pre-
sented to it his little patrimonial estate
at Burmarsh, in Kent. He died at
Hampstead, June 3, 1657.
HARZ MOUNTAINS (harts), a
mountain range of Germany, extending
between the rivers Weser and Elbe, S.
of Brunswick, with a length of 57 miles,
a breadth of 20, and a superficial area of
900 square miles. It forms an elevated
plateau, rising on most sides somewhat
steeply from the plains. The range,
which is divided into Upper and Lower
Harz, the average elevations of which are
2,100 and 1,000 feet, respectively, is com-
posed for the most part of rocks be-
longing to the Devonian and Lower Car'
HASDBUBAL
481
HASTINGS UPON HUDSON
boniferous formations, and broken
through in a few places by granite, as
in the Brocken, the highest peak (3,740
feet) of central Germany. The Harz
are exceedingly rich in metals and
minerals, as silver, iron, lead, copper,
zinc, marble, alabaster, and granite.
These mountains form a natural line of
division between the Low German and
the High German races. Industries con-
nected with the mines and the forests, as
well as some cattle-breeding and agri-
culture, afford employment to the in-
habitants. The rearing of singing birds
is also a source of profit. The region is
rich in historic and legendary interest.
HASDRUBAL (haz'dro-bal) , the name
of several Carthaginian generals, of
whom the most famous was the son-in-
law of Hamilcar Barca. In 237 B. C. he
accompanied Hamilcar into Spain, and
gave that general most effective aid in
the work of building up a Carthaginian
dominion in the Peninsula. On the
death of Hamilcar in 228 B. c. the task
of administering and extending the new
empire devolved on Hasdrubal, who ad-
vanced the Carthaginian frontier from
the Baetis (the Guadalquivir) to the
Tagus, and founded a new capital, Nova
Carthago (the modern Cartagena), a
city with the best harbor on the S. E.
coast of Spain, and situated in the
vicinity of rich silver mines. Hasdrubal
proved himself an admirable administra-
tor. He was remarkably successful in
conciliating the Iberian tribes, and ex-
tended his rule mainly by peaceful
means. So independent was he of the
home government that the Romans made
a treaty in which the Ebro was fixed on
as the frontier line, not with Carthage,
but with Hasdrubal. In the eighth year
of his command, 221 B. C, he was assassi-
nated by a Celtic slave. Another Has-
drubal was the son of Hamilcar Barca
and the brother of Hannibal. He de-
feated Cneius Scipio in Spain in 212 B.
C, and in 208 marched through Gaul, to
join his brother Hannibal in Italy. He
crossed the Alps in favorable weather,
but, instead of pushing S. made a fatal
delay at Placentia, and was surprised
and slain on the Metaurus in 207 B. c.
A third Hasdrubal was one of Hanni-
bal's principal officers in the Italian cam-
paigns. He made a brilliant charge at
the battle of Cannae, which contributed
greatly to decide the fate of the day. A
fourth general of the same name de-
fended Carthage against the Romans
during the siege which ended in the city's
destruction in 146 b. C. He is accused of
cowardice and cruelty, and of having
starved the citizens while himself living
in revelry.
HASSAM, CHILDE, an American
artist, born in Boston, in 1859. He was
educated in the public schools and
studied art in Boston and in Paris. He
was awarded a bronze medal at the
Paris Exposition of 1889, and was after-
ward awarded many medals and prizes
at other exhibitions. He was recognized
as one of the most talented of modern
American artists. He was a member of
the American Water Color Society, and
the American Institute of Arts and
Letters.
HASSELT, capital of the Belgian
province of Limburg, 18 miles N. W. of
Maastricht, has several distilleries,
manufactures linen fabrics, lace, and
tobacco, and cultivates tobacco, madder,
and chicory. In 1831 the Dutch defeated
the Belgians here.
HASTINGS, a maritime town of Eng-
land, in Sussex, 54 miles S. E. of Lon-
don. It had formerly a good trade, now
declining, but is resorted to as a fashion-
able watering place. Here the battle of
Hastings, one of the most memorable
events in the annals of English history,
was fought between William, Duke of
Normandy, and Harold II., King of Eng-
land, on Oct. 14, 1066. Pop. about
65,000.
HASTINGS, a city of Michigan, the
county-seat of Barry co. It is on the
Thornapple river, and on the Michigan
Central and the Chicago, Kalamazoo,
and Saginaw railroads. It is an impor-
tant industrial community and has flour
mills, cigar factories, and manufactories
of pumps, carriages, wagons, etc. Ita
public institutions include a public
school library, and a city hall. Pop.
(1910) 4,383; (1920) 5,132.
HASTINGS, a city in Adams co.. Neb.;
on the Burlington Route, the Chicago &
Northwestern; the St. Joseph & Grand
Island, and the Missouri Pacific rail-
roads; 96 miles W. of Lincoln. It is the
seat of Hastings College, the Chronic
Insane Asylum, the Bethany Home and
Hospital, and the Mary Lanning Hospi-
tal. It is an important gram shipping
center and has vinegar works, foundries,
flour mills, and other manufacturing
industries. There are electric lights,
waterworks, public library, high school,
daily and weekly newspapers, and three
National banks. Pop. (1910) 9,338;
(1920) 11,647.
HASTINGS UPON HUDSON, a vil-
lage of New York, in Westchester co. It is
a residential suburb of New York, but
has important industries, including the
manufacture of copper-wire cable, cop-
per, brass, paving bricks, dyestuffs.
HASTINGS
482
HAUPTMANN
chemicals, etc. Pop. (1910) 4,552;
(1920) 5,526.
HASTINGS, WARREN, first Gover-
ernor-general of India; born in Dayles-
ford, Worcestershire, in 1732. He was
educated at Westminster School, and in
1750 he set out for Bengal in the capac-
ity of a writer in the service of the East
India Company. When stationed at Cos-
«imbazar he was taken prisoner by
Surajah Dowlah on the capture of the
place (1756). Having made his escape,
he served as a volunteer under Clive in
1757, He was representative of the com-
pany at Moorshedabad from 1758 to
1761. In the latter year he removed to
Calcutta, having obtained a seat in the
Bengal Council, but returned to England
in 1764. As he lost the bulk of his
means by unfortunate Indian invest-
ments, he again entered the company's
service, and sailed for India in 1769. In
consequence of the misgovernment of the
Nabob of Bengal the company had de-
prived him of all real power, and now
wished to have the country more directly
under their control. Warren Hastings
was its chief instrument in this under-
taking, and in 1772 became president of
the Supreme Council of Calcutta. His
administration during the succeeding
twelve years aroused much criticism in
England, and a motion for his recall was
passed by the House of Commons. Fox's
India Bill was thrown out in 1783, but
next year Pitt's bill, establishing the
board of control, passed, and Hastings
resigned. He left India in 1785, and was
impeached by Burke in 1786, being
charged with acts of injustice and op-
pression, with maladministration, receiv-
ing of bribes, etc. This celebrated trial,
in which Burke, Fox, and Sheridan thun-
dered against him, began in 1788, and
terminated in 1795 with his acquittal,
but cost him his fortune. The company
in 1796 settled on him an annuity of
$20,000 a year, and lent him $250,000 for
18 years free of interest. He died in
1818.
HAT, the principal head covering of
the human family, distinguished from
the cap or bonnet by having a brim
around it. The hat, as a roomy brimmed
head-covering, is the direct descendant of
the petasus of the ancient Greeks, which
was distinguished from the other Greek
head-gear, the pileus, by the posses-
sion of a brim, useful for protecting its
wearer from the rays of the sun.
HATCHEE, or HATCHIE, a river,
rising in Tippah co., Miss., passes
through part of Tennessee, and enters
the_ Mississippi river near Randolph. An
action occurred at Davies' Bridge on
this river, Oct. 6, 1862, between a Con-
federate force under General Van Dorn,
and one of National troops under Gen-
eral Ord, in which the former were de-
feated with the loss of 300 prisoners and
two batteries. Ord and Veatch were
wounded during this battle.
HATCHERY, a house for hatching
fisk etc.
HATTERAS, CAPE, a low point of
North Carolina, forming part of a sand-
bank, in lat. 35° 15' N. and Ion. 75° 31'
W. The coast line here turns from the
direction of N. E. to that of due N.; vio-
lent storms are frequent, and render
navigation dangerous and the island is
marked by a light raised 190 Jeet above
the sea.
HATTIESBURG, a city of Mississippi,
the county-seat of Forrest co. It is
on the New Orleans and Northeastern,
the New Orleans, Mobile, and Chicago,
the Mississippi Central, and the Gulf
and Ship Island railroads, and on the
Leaf river. It is the center of an im-
portant lumbering region. Its other in-
dustries include railroad shops, wood-
working plants, machine shops and man-
ufactui'e of fertilizers, mattresses, etc.
It is the seat of the Baptist Woman's
College. Pop. (1910) 11,733; (1920)
13,270.
HAUCK, MINNIE, an American op-
era singer; born in New York City Nov.
16, 1852. Her first appearance was in
concert in New Orleans when only 13
years old. She aftei-ward studied with
Errani in New York and made her oper.
atic debut in "La Somnambula" in 1868.
She was uniformly successful both in
the United States and European coun-
tries. She married the Chevalier de
Hesse-Wartegg and retired in 1896.
HAUPTMANN, GERHART (houpf
man), a German dramatist and poet;
born in Salzbrunn, Silesia, Nov. 15, 1862.
He was a scholar of solid attainments at
Jena and Berlin. His taste for practi-
cal sociology comes out strongly in his
intense and powerful poems and dramas;
he settled on a small Silesian farm sole-
ly to study peasant life. He traveled
widely, visiting the United States in
1894. His first play, "Promethidenlos"
(1885) was conventional; but under Ib-
sen's inspiration he soon broke away
from the old lines, producing "Before
Sunrise" and "A Family Catastrophe,'*
tragedies of labor. These and subse-
quent plays gave him world-vdde repute.
He later turned to comedy, but "The
Weavers" and its successors represent
his forte. Among his later plays may
be mentioned "Mathilde" (1902); "Ein-
HAUBAKI
483
HAVANA
hart der Lachler" (1907) ; "The Apostle,"
a novel (1902).
HAURAKI (ho-ra-'ke), a gulf and a
gold-bearing peninsula of New Zealand,
opposite Auckland.
HAURAN (ha-ran'), a large district
in Syria, E. of the Sea of Galilee. The
name is sometimes restricted to one fer-
tile plain there.
HAUSSA, or HOTJSSA (ho'sa), a
people of the Sudan, who have been con-
quered by the Fulbe, and now constitute
the larger part of the population in
Sokoto, Adamawa, and Gando. Whether
they are of pure Negro race, or an immi-
grant wave of ancient Hamitic stock,
now indistinguishable from the Negroes,
is not yet fully determined. Their lan-
guage is allied in its grammatical forms
with the Hamitic tongues to the E. and
N., while its vocabulary resembles in
many points that of the neighboring
Negro tribes. At any rate the Haussa
language is the common medium of com-
munication in the commercial world of
central Sudan. The Haussa themselves
are keen traders, and also occupy them-
selves with agriculture and industrial
pursuits (weaving, dyeing, tanning, etc.,
and the making of baskets, pottery, and
iron impements). They have adopted
Islam from their conquerors.
HAUSSONVILLE, GABRIEL PAUL
OTHENIN DE CLERON^ COMTE D'
(dos'Sn-vel), a French litterateur; born
in Gurcy-Ie-Chatal, Seine-et-Marne, Sept.
21, 1843. tie became a member of the
French Academy, and one of the leading
contributors to the "Review of the Two
Worlds." His reputation rests on literary
monographs among which are "Sainte
Beuve, His Life and Works" (1875);
"George Sand"; "Prescott," etc. (1879-
1888) ; and works like "Across the
United States" (1883), notes and im-
pressions; "Social Studies" (1886) ;
"Madame de La Fayette" (1891) ; "La-
cordaire" (1896) ; "Duchesse de Bour-
gogne" (1901) ; "Paris Charitable et
Bienfaisant" (1912), etc.
HAUTE-GARONNE. See GARONNE.
Haute.
HAUTE-LOIRE. See LOIRE, Haute.
HAUTE-MARNE. See Marne.
HAUTES and BASSES ALPES. See
Alpes.
HAUTE-SAONE. See Saone, Haute.
HAUTE-SAVOIE. See Savoy.
HAUTE-VIENNE. See ViENNE,
Haute.
HAVANA, a province of Cuba, in the
western part of the island, from the
Gulf of Mexico to the Caribbean Sea,
bounded on the west by the province of
Pinar del Rio, and on the east by the
pi-ovince of Matanzas. Although the
smallest of the provinces of Cuba (area
31.74 square miles), it is the second
largest in the point of population, which
in 1919 was 697,583. It is also commer-
cially the most important province of
the Republic, having many large cigar
and cigarette factories, sugar and saw
mills, distilleries, tanneries, and foun-
dries. Its surface is low and undulating.
Besides valuable cabinet timber from its
many forests it produces bananas, corn,
pineapples, sugar cane, tobacco, vege-
tables, and yucca. The capital is Hav-
ana {q. v.).
HAVANA, a city and capital of the
island of Cuba, on Havana Bay, on the
N. coast. It is one of the most impor-
tant commercial points in the Western
hemisphere, and its harbor is one of the
finest in the world, well sheltered, and
entered through a deep and narrow
channel, opening into a large basin, ca-
pable of sheltering 1,000 vessels. The
harbor is provided with excellent cov-
ered wharves, and a dry dock. The city
is divided into two sections, the older one
of which has narrow, crooked streets,
while the modern Havana has broad and
beautiful avenues. The parks and prom-
enades of Havana are among the most
beautiful in the world; among them are
the Plaza de Armas, in front of the gov-
ernor's palace; the Alameda de Paula,
along the bay; and the Parque de Isabel.
Among the notable buildings are the
Opera House; the Cathedral, built in
1724; the Government Buildings; and
the celebrated fortresses, Morro Castle
and Punta, at the mouth of the harbor;
and La Cabana, a fortress S. E. of Morro.
The city has a university, botanical gar-
dens, scientific, educational and benevo-
lent societies, gas and electric lights, and
an excellent water supply, from the
Chorrera. From 1761 till after the
American occupation yellow fever was
epidemic every summer, often very
severe, but improved sanitary condi-
tions, due to the rigid rule of the Ameri-
can military authorities, have stamped
out the disease. The manufactures of
the city include cigars and cigarettes,
sugar, rum, straw hats, molasses, honey,
and preserved fruits. It has railroad
communications with Cabanos, Matan-
zas, Santiago, and other cities, and
steamship lines to the United States,
France, Spain, and Great Britain. Ha-
vana was for years the seat of Spanish
power in Cuba. The city was formally
evacuated bv the Spanish on Jan. 1, 1899.
Pop. (1918) 360,500. See Cuba.
HAVELOCK
484
HAWAII
HAVELOCK, SIB HENRY, an Eng-
lish general; born in 1795. In 1856 he
commanded a division of the army which
invaded Persia, In 1857, upon the break-
ing out of the Sepoy mutiny, he made
a forced march from Allahabad to Cawn-
pur, but reached the latter city too late
to prevent the massacre which occurred
there. After defeating the rebels in
three different engagements, he contin-
ued his march toward Lucknow, then
beleaguered by a formidable force of
mutineers. After victoriously fighting
eight more battles with the enemy, he
fought his way through the besieging
army around Lucknow, and accomplished
the relief of its exhausted garrison. For
this service he received general rank,
was created a baronet, and decorated
with the cross of the Bath. He died in
1857.
HAVERFORD COLLEGE, an educa-
tional institution in Haverford, Pa.;
founded in 1833, by the Society of
Friends, under the name of Haverford
School, and was made a college in 1856.
It possesses a well-selected library, a
chemical laboratory, philosophical ap-
paratus, mineralogical and geological
cabinets, an astronomical observatory
and a gymnasium. It was the first col-
legiate institution founded and con-
ducted entirely within the Society of
Friends, and since 1849 others besides
the sons of Friends have been admitted.
In 1919 it reported: Professors and in-
structors, 25; students, 200; volumes in
the library, 80,000; president. William
Wistar Comfort, Ph. D.; Litt. D., L.L. D.
HAVERGAL, FRANCES RIDLEY, an
English author; boni in Astley, Wor-
cestershire, Dec. 14, 1836. She began to
write hymns and letters in verse at the
age of 7, but did not publish anything
till 1860. She was a frequent contribu-
tor to "Good Words." Among over 30
publications, which once enjoyed consid-
erable popularity, may be noticed: "The
Four Happy Days" (1873) ; "Under the
Surface" (1874), poems; "Royal Graces
and Loyal Gifts" (6 vols. 1879) ; "Under
His Shadow** (1879) ; and a number of
posthumous works by various editors.
She died in Swansea, Wales, June 3,
1879.
HAVERHILL, a city in Essex co.,
Mass.; on the Merrimac river, and on
the Boston and Maine railr'oad; 33 miles
N. of Boston. It is connected by bridges
with the towns of Groveland and Brad-
ford on the opposite side of the Merri-
mac, and has extensive manufactures of
boots and shoes, hats, cotton and woolen
goods, leather, lumber and brick. It
is the trade center of a large farming
district, and has gas and electric lights,
electric street railways, waterworks,
public high school, public library, daily
and weekly newspapers, 4 National
Banks and many notable public build-
ings. The city, originally the Indian
village of Pentucket, was settled in 1640,
incorporated as a town in 1645, and was
chartered as a city in 1869. The birth-
place of John Greenleaf Whittier. Pop.
(1910) 44,115; (1920) 53,884.
HAVERSTRAW, formerly Warren, a
city in Rockland co., N. Y.; on the Hud-
son river, and on the West Shore, the
New Jersey and New York, and the
New York, Ontario and Western rail-
roads; 35 miles N. o2 New York City. It
is the largest brick manufacturing city
in the world. Other manufactures are
brick-making machinery, dynamite, and
baskets. The city has several parks, and
points of interest, electric lights and
street railways, daily and weekly news-
papers. National bank. Pop. (1890)
5,070; (1900) 5,935; (1920) 5,226.
HAVRE, or LA HAVRE (avr). for-
merly Havre de Grace, a fortified town,
and the principal seaport on the W. coast
of France. It is built on a low alluvial
tract of land recovered from the sea, and
is divided into unequal parts by its out-
ward port and basins. The town has
wide thoroughfares, and is clean and
well-built, but presents few architectural
features of interest. The port, which is
the best and most accessible on the coast,
consists of three basins separated from
each other, and from the outer port, by
locks. There are two roadsteads; the
great, or outer, is about a league from
the port, and the little, or inner road-
stead, about half a league. Havre, being
the seaport of Paris, most of the colonial
and other products destined for its con-
sumption are imported thither. The
manufactures are chemicals, furniture,
earthenware, oil, tobacco, rope, etc. Ship-
building is also extensively engaged in.
When the Germans invaded Belgium in
1914 Havre became the seat of the Bel-
gian Government. Pop. about 136,000.
HAWAII, a territory of the United
States of America, consisting of a group
of islands in the middle of the Pacific
Ocean; 2,000 miles from San Francisco;
area, 6,449 square miles; capital Hono-
lulu.
Topography. — The surface of the is-
lands is exceedingly mountainous and of
volcanic origin, with numerous active
and quiescent volcanoes. The most
prominent physical features of the group
are the mountain peaks of Mauna Kea,
and Mauna Loa, both 14,000 feet in
height. Kilauea, on the Mauna Loa
HAWAII
485
HAWAII
mountain in Hawaii, is the largest active
volcano in the world, and has an oval-
shaped crater, 9 miles in circumference,
and 6,000 feet above sea-level. On the
island of Maui is the dormant crater of
Mount Haleakala, from 25 to 30 miles
in circumference, and 3,000 feet deep,
standing 10,000 feet above sea-level. On
account of its insular formation the
coast line is extensive, but there are
few good harbors, Pearl Harbor at
Honolulu being the only important one.
The rivers are few and unimportant,
being mere mountain streams.
Climate, Soil and Productions. —
Though the islands are entirely within
the tropics the climate is mild, tem-
pered by the N. E. trade winds,
blowing nine months of the year.
The rainfall in the mountain region
is quite abundant, but on the coast
slopes rain seldom falls. The soil
is very fertile, being formed by the dis-
integration of the volcanic rocks and
decay of vegetable matter. There is
abundance of good pasturage, and cattle
and sheep raising are important indus-
tries. The N. E. mountain slopes are
covered with dense forests, and sugar
cane, Indian corn, coffee, and wheat are
cultivated on the plains. Tropical and
semi-tropical fruits are grown on a large
scale.
The two chief crops of the islands
are sugar and pineapples, and the pro-
duction of these has been greatly in-
creased in recent years. The sugar
yield in 1919 was about 600,000 tons,
and the yield of pineapples, about 5,-
000,000 cases. The yield of sugar for
the year 1920 was estimated at 568,671
tons, and that of pineapples, 6,000 cases.
A large area has been made available
for crops by irrigation. Extensive ir-
rigation systems have been developed on
the four main islands. A considerable
area has been set aside as forest reserve.
There were in 1920 about 74 of these
reservations with a total area of 818,-
739 acres.
Commerce. — The imports for the fiscal
year ending March 31, 1920, amounted
to $63,283,647, compared with $50,743,-
899 for 1919. The exports amounted to
$104,799,804, compared with $88,250,021
for 1919. The greater part of trade
has been done with the United States.
The imports to the United States in 1920
amounted to $53,669,174, and the ex-
ports to $101,194,733. The chief ex-
ports were sugar valued at $78,589,467;
fruits and nuts, $18,509,028; and raw
coffee, $521,316.
Communications. — Traffic with the
mainland is conducted through lines of
steamships operating direct passenger
service in San Francisco and Honolulu.
Five steamers were employed in 1920.
This was augmented in 1921 by the
addition of two additional steamers for
service between New York and Honolulu,
by way of the Panama Canal and San
Francisco. The Pacific Mail Steamship
Company operates three large steamers
between San Francisco and Oriental
ports, with stop-overs at Honolulu. Ten
large freight steamers have also been put
on this service. There is also a Manila-
East India service with two passenger
and freight steamers which stop at
Honolulu. Preparations were made in
1920 to greatly increase this service by
the addition of more boats. The Jap-
anese company operates a fleet of vessels
between China, Japan, Honolulu, and
San Francisco. The Oceanic Steamship
Company operates steamers between San
Francisco and Australia, touching at
Honolulu. There are other lines oper-
ating from Canada to Australia and
Australasia, and from China to San
Francisco, touching at Honolulu. Most
of the inter-island traffic is conducted
by the Inter-island Steam Navigation
Company, which operates a fleet of 11
steamers. There are about 350 miles of
steam railway in the islands. These
carried in 1920, 2,054,568 passengers.
Many of the large plantations operate
their own railroads. In addition to the
cable system across the Pacific, which
has been in operation for a number of
years, there are three wireless plants in
operation.
Educatio7i. — In 1920 there were main-
tained on the islands, 173 public schools
with 1,161 teachers and 38,295 pupils,
and 59 private schools, with 384 teachers
and 7,406 pupils. The number of pupils
of all races in private and public schools
was 45,701, compared with 43,271 in
1919. The University of Hawaii was
established in 1920. This institution de-
veloped from the College of Hawaii.
There were registered in 1920 242 stu-
dents. There are in the territory two
industrial schools, one for boys and one
for girls.
Finance. — The total revenue collected
by the Territory in 1920 amounted to
$10,925,406, and the total expenditures
aggregated $10,949,897. There was a
balance on hand June 30, 1920, of $506,-
334. The assessment of personal and
real property in 1920 aggregated $287,-
006,792. The total bonded debt in 1920
was $9,394,000.
Banking. — There were in 1920 two
banks in operation. The total deposits
amounted to $52,783,114, of which $15,-
807,778 were savings deposits.
Population. — The population of Ha-
HAWAII
486
HAWKINS
waii, according to the census of 1914,
was 255,912, compared with 191,909 in
1910. According to the 1921 census, the
population was 255,912, divided as fol-
lows: American, British, German, and
Russian, 25,000; Chinese, 22,600; Fili-
pinos, 23,400; Hawaiian, 22,000; Japa-
nese, 113,500; and Portuguese, 24,800.
The remainder was made up of Coreans,
mixed Hawaiians, Porto Ricans, Spanish,
and others.
History. — The Hawaiian Islands were
discovered by the Spaniards under Gae-
tano in 1549, and examined by Captain
Cook in 1778, and during the greater
part of the 19th century formed an in-
dependent kingdom, recognized as such
by the United States, Great Britain,
France, and other governments. In 1893
the reigning queen, Liliuokalani, was de-
posed and a provisional government
formed. This provisional government
resolved itself into a Republic in 1894,
with two Houses and a President. Sev-
eral attempts were made toward the an-
nexation of Hawaii to the United States,
and on July 7, 1898, the Congress of the
United States passed a resolution to that
effect. On Aug. 12, 1898, Hawaii was
formally annexed to the United States.
The islands, now known as the Territory
of Hawaii, are governed by a governor
appointed by the President. All whites,
natives of Hawaii, and persons of Afri-
can descent who were citizens of Hawaii
before the annexation, are citizens of the
United States. The president of the
provisional and republican governments,
and also the first governor after annex-
ation was Sanford B. Dole.
On June 14, 1900, Hawaii was organ-
ized as a Territory. Mr. Sanford B. Dole
was succeeded as Governor by George R.
Carter. He served until 1907, In 1909
the United States Government decided to
establish a large military station at Ha-
waii and work was begun on the forti-
fications and other necessary work. The
organic act was amended in important
details in 1910. Especially important
changes were made in the land laws.
Dredging of Pearl Harbor Channel,
which had gone on for many years, was
completed in 1912, The legislature of
1913 adopted measures of electoral re-
form,
Hawaii is the largest military outpost
of the United States and was much af-
fected by the declaration of war between
the United States and Germany. The
National Guard was brought to the max-
imum point of enlistment and efficiency
and took over the policing of the islands.
Eight German vessels and gunboats,
which had been interned at Honolulu at
the outbreak of the war, were seized by
the United States Navy, following the
declaration of war with Germany, On
June 1, 1918, the first and second regi-
ments of the National Guard were
drafted into Federal service. The Terri-
tory suffered the greatest storm in its
history during 1918. Much damage was
done to property. A special session of
the Legislature provided for the rebuild-
ing of bridges and other public works.
The great Pearl Harbor dry dock was
opened in August, 1919. The Secretary
of the Navy and others were present.
In 1920 the islands were unusually
prosperous, due largely to the high price
of sugar. A commission was appointed
by the Legislature to ask Congress to
amend the Territorial Organic Act in
relation to the land laws. There were
strikes during 1920 which lasted from
Feb, 1 to June 30, These affected
the large plantations. In April, 1920,
there was celebrated the centennial of
the landing in Hawaii of the first Chris-
tian missionaries. During the cere-
monies the Prince of Wales was a guest
for several days.
HA WARDEN (har'den) , a small mar-
ket-town of Flintshire, North Wales.
There are some manufactures of tiles,
pottery, etc. Lady Hamilton passed her
girlhood here, Hawarden Castle, Glad-
stone's home, dates from 1752,
HAWK, the name of the several
species of the genera Accipiter and
Astur. The sparrow hawk is Accipiter
nisus, the goshawk, Astur paluTnbarius.
Nauclerus furcatus is sometimes called
the swallow-tailed hawk ; it is, however, a
kite. Also the name of the sub-family
Accipitrinse, called more fully sparrow
hawks. The bill is short, suddenly
curved from the base, with a large fes-
toon in the upper mandible. The wings
are short. The male is often much smaller
than the female. Hawks are generally
distributed over the globe. Their prey
consists of small birds and mammals.
They build in trees.
HAWKESBURY, a river of New
South Wales, Australia, rises in the Cul-
larin Range, and enters the Pacific at
Broken Bay, It has a total length of
330 miles. The Hawkesbury is crossed
by a steel girder bridge (1886-1889) on
the railway between Sydney and New-
castle. It carries a double line of rails,
and is one of the largest structures of
its kind in the world, having seven spans
of from 410 to 416 feet, and a total length
between abutments of 2,900 feet.
HAWKINS, ANTHONY HOPE, an
English novelist; writing under the name
"Anthony Hope"; born in London, Febj
HAWKWOOD
487
HAWTHORNE
9, 1863. He was admitted to the bar in
1887. Among his best-known works are :
"A Man of Mark" (1800) ; "Father Staf-
ford"; "The Prisoner of Zenda"; "The
Indiscretion of the Duchess"; "Phroso";
"Heart of the Princess Osra"; "Rupert
of Hentzau"; "The King's Mirror";
"The Great Miss Driver" (1908);
"Young Man's Year" (1915) ; "Lucinda"
(1920).
HAWKWOOD, SIR JOHN, in Italian,
L'AcuTO or L'Aguto, an English captain
who won renown in Italy in the wars of
the 14th century. He distinguished him-
self at the battles of Crecy and Poitiers.
After peace was signed at Bretigny
(1360) he gathered a band of mercenary
soldiers and led them to Italy, where he
at first took sei'vice with Pisa against
Florence. Then, after fighting in most
of the petty Italian wars of the period,
notably for the Visconti and for Pope
Gregory XL, he agreed to fight the bat-
tles of Florence in return for an annual
pension. He died in 1394.
HAWTHORNE, HILDEGARDE, an
American writer, born in New York, the
daughter of Julian Hawthorne. She was
educated privately and abroad. Her pub-
lished writings include "A Country In-
terlude" (1904) ; "Poems" (1904) ; "Es-
says" (1907); "Old Seaport Towns of
New England" (1916); "Rambles
Through College Towns" (1917) ; and
"Girls in Bookland" (1917). She was a
frequent contributor to magazines and in
1918-1919 was engaged in war work in
France for the Y. M. C. A. and the
American Red Cross.
HAWTHORNE, JULIAN, an Ameri-
can novelist and journalist, son of Na-
thaniel; bom in Boston, June 22,
1846. On leaving Harvard University
he studied civil engineering in Dresden,
but took to authorship: "Idolatry,"
"Fortune's Fool," "Sinfire," "Beatrix
Randolph," "Archibald Malmaison," "A
Fool of Nature," "Garth"; "A History
of the United States" (1899-1912);
"Hawi;horne and His Circle" (1903) ;
"The Subterranean Brotherhood" (1914).
HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL, an
American writer, born in Salem, Mass.,
July 4, 1804, from a long New Eng-
land ancestry. When he was four
years old, his father, a sea-captain,
died in a distant land, and from that
time his mother lived in complete seclu-
sion. Thus home influences as well as an
inborn disinclination for action made
Hawthorne something of a recluse. The
happiest time of his childhood was a
period spent on Lake Sebago, in Maine,
from which he was sent back to Salem to
complete his preparation for college. At
seventeen he entered Bowdoin, where he
made only an average record, his main
interests being not in his studies but in
the reading in all fields of literature that
he carried on by himself. For twelve
years after he left college (1825-1837)
he lived in the utmost seclusion, reading
much and writing much, but destroying
the greater part of his compositions. He
saw little of his mother and sisters dur-
ing this time, had no intimate friends,
and published little. It was a period of
self-training not unlike that of Milton
at Horton. He sent a collection of
seven tales to various publishers, who
promptly returned them. Largely with
his own funds he published "Fanshawe"
in 1828, but afterward destroyed the
greater part of the edition. "The Gentle
Boy," and three other tales appeared in
an annual in 1832, anonymously, and a
few other tales appeared in the same
way in succeeding years. Thus he pre-
pared the way for "Twice-Told Tales,"
in 1838. Though its circulation was
small, Hawthorne was encouraged by the
favorable comments it called forth and
came out of his hermit-like seclusion,
got a position in the Boston Custom
House, fell in love with Sophia Peabody,
and in 1841 joined a communistic ex-
periment at Brook Farm. In 1847 he
married and went to live, for three
years, in the Old Manse at Concord.
Here he came to know Emerson, Alcott,
Thoreau, and helped to make Concord a
community of authors. A second series
of "Twice-Told Tales," appeared in
1842; "Mosses from an Old Manse," in
1846, and "The Scarlet Letter'; in 1850.
Meantime, President Polk appointed him
to the custom house at Salem, 1846.
By 1851 he had moved again, this time
to the Berkshires, where he virrote "The
House of the Seven Gables," (1851), and
two collections of tales for children, "The
Wonder Book" and ''Tanglewood Tales."
President Pierce, who had been his class-
mate at Bowdoin, appointed him consul
at Liverpool, and before his return to
America he spent some time on the
continent. In Italy he planned "The
Marble Faun," which was written while
he was still abroad and appeared in
1860. Various other romances were
planned and partly written, but his
health failed rapidly after his return to
Concord in 1860, and he died May 19,
1864.
Besides his tales and romances,
Hawthorne left voluminous note-books,
written in America and abroad, which
constitute a record of his reading and
meditation. These afford valuable clues
to his view of life, show the germs out of
which his masterpieces grew, and illus-
HAY
488
HAYDON
trate the way in which he used simple
incidents as symbols of truth. His
:naterial comes most often from legends
and incidents of colonial New England.
In the "Twice-Told Tales'* we iind simple
descriptive sketches, which have little
narrative but suggest types and symbols
of experience, as yet without interrreta-
tion. We also find stories and legends of
early colonial history, without signifi-
cance except as simple narratives, but
giving promise of the deeper study of
Puritan character that was to follow.
A third group is made up of tales, main-
ly legendary, which have symbolic or
allegorical meaning, such as "The
Minister's Black Veil," "The Wedding
Knell," "The Lily's Quest." The pursuit
of happiness is an illusion; there is a
veil that separates one personality from
anothei'. In such a tale as "The May-
pole of Merrymount," two racial ideals,
the pagan tradition of old England and
the Puritan tradition, are brought into
collision, the more dramatic because the
setting is the primeval forest of New
England, with an untamed nature, the
beasts of the forest, and the Indians as
a backg:round.
Hawthorne's work suggests the al-
legory of medieval and Elizabethan
times. He uses symbols constantly as
a means to perception of spiritual truth.
The riddle of the soul's growth is his
theme, in "The Minister's Black Veil"
and in the series of the great romances,
— in Dimmesdale, in Pyncheon, in the
Faun. These symbols he worked out
with exquisite skill. He described him-
self as a man sitting by the wayside of
life and looking upon it as if under en-
chantment. Sitting thus, he observes
the pilgrimage of the life of man and
paints it for us with a careful realism
that is also conscious of the spiritual
truth which these realities reveal to the
seeing eye.
HAY, the stems and leaves of grasses
and other plants cut for fodder, dried in
the sun, and stored usually in stacks.
The time most suitable for mowing grass
intended for hay is that in which the
saccharine matter is most abundant in
the plants, viz., when the grass is in full
flower. For the operation of mowing,
dry weather, and, if possible, that in
which sunshine prevails, is chosen. Care
must be taken to avoid haymaking either
under a scorching sun or during the
prevalence of rain, and the heaps should
never be opened in the morning till the
disappearance of the dew. On large
farms the work is performed by haymak-
ing machines in conjunction with other
agricultural implements.
The total hay crop in the United
States for 1920 was estimated at 108,-
233,000 tons, with a farm value of
$1,809,162,000, and the total acreage at
72,830,000 acres. The greatest hay pro-
ducing States were New York, Nebraska,
Wisconsin, Ohio, Illinois, Minnesota,
Missouri, South Dakota, Kansas, Penn-
sylvania, Iowa, and California.
HAY, JOHN, an American states-
man ana writer, born in Salem, Ind.,
Oct. 8, 1838. He was graduated from
Brown University, and settled in Illi-
nois as a lawyer, but went to Washing-
ton in 1861 as one of Lincoln's private
secretaries, acting also as his aide-de-
camp. He served under Generals Hunter
and Gillmore with the rank of major and
assistant adjutant-general. He was sub-
sequently in the United States diplomatic
service, stationed at Paris, Vienna, and
Madrid. In 1897 he was made ambas-
sador to England, and in 1898 Secretary
of State. His literary reputation rests
upon "Pike County Ballads," the best
known of which are perhaps "Little
Breeches" and "Jim Bludso"; "Casti-
lian Days" and "Life of Abraham Lin-
coln" (with J. G. Nicolay). He died
July 1, 1905.
HAYDN, JOSEPH, a German mu-
sical composer; bom in Rohrau, on the
borders of Hungary and Austria, in
1732. On account of the excellence of
his voice he was appointed a choir-boy
at St. Stephen's Church, Vienna. Hav-
ing made the acquaintance of Metastasio,
Porpora, and Gluck, Haydn gradually at-
tracted public attention, was appointed
organist to two churches, and obtained
many pupils. From 1761 to 1790 he
was musical director to Prince Ester-
hazy, and composed during this period
some 120 symphonies for the orchestra,
12 operas, etc. In 1791 and 1794 he vis-
ited England, staying there nearly three
years altogether, and writing his opera
"Orpheus and Eurydice." In 1798 he
published his oratorio of the "Creation,"
and in 1800 that of the "Seasons." His
last public appearance was at a perform-
ance of his "Creation" in 1808. He may
be said to be the originator of the sym-
phony and of the stringed quartette. He
died in 1809.
HAYDON, BENJAMIN ROBERT, an
English historical painter; born in 1786.
He produced many pictures of merit;
among them the "Judgment of Solomon ;
"Christ's Entry Into Jerusalem"; 'The
Raising of Lazarus"; "The Mock Elec-
tion in the King's Bench"; "Napoleon
at St. Helena"; "Alexander and Bu-
cephalus"; "Alfred and the Trial by
Jury"; "Uriel and Satan"; "The Burn-
ing of Rome"; etc. He died in 1846.
HAYES
489
HAYS
HAYES, PATBICK JOSEPH, an
lAmerican prelate of the Roman Catholic
Church, born at New York in 1867. He
Was educated at De la Salle Institute
and Manhattan College, New York City;
St. Joseph's Seminary, Troy, and the
Catholic University of America. In 1892
he was ordained a Roman Catholic priest
and did his first parish service under
Mgr. Farley at St. Gabriel's in New
York City. He served as secretary to
Bishop, subsequently Archbishop and
Cardinal, Farley. Appointed Chancellor
of the Diocese of New York in 1903, he
was further honored by being made first
president of the Cathedral College in the
same year. He became domestic Prelate
to His Holiness, the Pope, in 1907, and
Was consecrated Auxiliary Bishop of New
York in 1914; pastor of St. Stephen's
1915-1919; Bishop-Ordinary of the U. S.
Army and Navy, 1917; member of the
National War Council in same year, and
Archbishop of New York in 1919.
HAYES, RUTHERFORD BIRCH-
ARD, an American statesman; 19th
President of the United States; born in
Delaware, O., Oct. 4, 1822. His father
died before his birth, leaving the family
in comparative poverty. He was able,
however, to be educated, first at the com-
mon schools, then in Latin and Greek
with Judge Sherman Finch, of his native
town, later in an academy at Norwalk,
O., and in a school at Middletown, Conn.
From here he entered Kenyon College at
Gambier, O., and was graduated as vale-
dictorian in 1843. He then took a course
in Harvard Law School, and in 1845 was
admitted to the Ohio bar. In 1852 he
married Lucy, daughter of James Webb,
of Chillicothe, O., a physician of repute.
In 1858 he was elected city solicitor of
Cincinnati. His affiliations were with
the Whig party till the Republican party
arose, after which he was steadily a Re-
gublican. On the outbreak of the war
e received a commission as major of the
28d Ohio regiment of infantry, and was
soon promoted to the rank of lieutenant-
colonel. He distinguished himself at the
battles of South Mountain, of Cloyd
Mountain, the first battle of Winchester,
at Berryville, Fisher's Hill, and Cedar
Creek. After the latter engagement he
was promoted to the rank of Brigadier-
General. In 1864, while still serving in
the field, he was elected to Congress from
Ohio and re-elected in 1866. He sup-
ported the impeachment of Andrew
Johnson.
In 1867 he was elected governor of
Ohio and re-elected 1869, in which ofllice
his administration attracted national at-
tention for its sound and progressive
measures. In the greenback contest of
1875 he was nominated and elected as
the sound-currency candidate for the
governorship. This victory determined
the Republicans of his State to present
him as their candidate at the National
Convention of 1876, where he was nomi-
nated for the presidency against J. G.
Blaine, O. P. Morton, B. H. Bristow, and
other popular candidates. The election
came into dispute, both parties claiming
the electoral votes of Louisiana, Florida,
Oregon, and South Carolina. The con-
test was left to a special commission of
15, who decided by a vote of 8 to 7 that
all of the votes in question should be
counted for Hayes, and for his colleague
for Vice-President, Wheeler, thus giving
him the presidency. The popular plural-
ity, however, was against him. His ad-
ministration was characterized by the
resumption of specie payment, the in-
auguration of civil-service reforms, the
restriction of Chinese immigration, and
reconstruction measures for the South.
The satisfaction of the country in gen-
eral with his administration was mingled
with much criticism, especially as to his
attitude relative to the employment of
military force at elections, and for his
appointment to office of members of the
Louisiana returning boards. On his re-
tirement he served on the boards of vari-
ous benevolent societies and educational
institutions, and was honored with de-
grees from Kenyon College, Harvard,
Yale, and Johns Hopkins. He died in
Fremont, O., Jan. 17, 1893.
HAYES RIVER, or HILL RIVER, a
river of British North America, rising
near Lake Winnipeg, and flowing N. E.
through lakes Holy, Knee, and Swampy,
enters James Bay at York. Length,
about 300 miles.
HAYS, WILL H., an American pub-
lic official; bom in Sullivan, Ind., in
1879. He gi-aduated from Wabash Col-
lege in 1900, and in the same year was
admitted to the bar. From 1910 to 1913
he was city attorney of Sullivan, Ind.
He entered politics early in life and from
1904 to 1908 was a member of the Re-
publican State Advisory Committee from
Indiana. In the campaigns of 1906 and
1908 he was chairman of the Speakers'
Bureau of the Republican State Com-
mittee. He served in other capacities in
the State Committee, from 1910 to 1914.
In 1917-1918 he was chairman of the
Indiana State Council of Defense. He
was appointed chairman of the Republi-
can National Committee in February,
1918. In this capacity he did much
toward uniting the Progressive and
regular elements of the Republican
party, and thus brought about a unified
party in the campaign of 1920. He was
HAZELTON
490
HEALTH INSURANCE
a. warm friend of President Roosevelt,
and also of President Harding, who ap-
pointed him Postmaster-General in his
cabinet,
HAZELTON, a city in Luzerne co..
Pa., on the Pennsylvania, the Wilkes-
Barre and Hazelton, and the Lehigh
Valley railroads; 115 miles N. W. of
Philadelphia. It is the center of the Le-
high anthracite coal region, with 40
mines in the vicinity. Besides its coal
mining and shipping interests, the city
has railroad shops, iron works, and ex-
tensive manufactures of flax, brooms,
silk, macaroni, chewing gum, and coffins.
It is the seat of the Miners' State
hospital; has electric lights and street
railways, public high school, Hazelton
Seminary, daily and weekly newspapers,
and 2 National banks. Pop. (1910)
25,452; (1920) 32,267.
HAZLITT, WILLIAM, an English
author and critic; born in 1778. Edu-
cated for the clerical profession, Hazlitt,
after a brief attempt at an art career,
decided to enter literature, and in 1805
produced his "Principles of Human Ac-
tion." This was the germ of a long and
successful literary career, during which
he gave to the world his "Lectures on
the Literature of the Elizabethan Age";
"Table Talk"; "Lectures on the English
Poets"; "The Spirit of the Age," and
"Life of Napoleon Bonaparte." He died
in 1830.
HEAD, in anatomy, the skull, or crani-
um. Part of the head consists of an os-
seous ovoidal capsule for the protection
of the brain. The face proper consists
of the upper and lower jaws. The skull
in old age becomes composite like the
sacrum in the adult. The margins, or
sutures, of the cranial bones, 22 in num-
her excluding the hyoid bone, correspond
to the articular processes in the trunk.
In youth the flat cranial bones are con-
nected by a double lamina of cartilage;
notwithstanding the junction of the mar-
gins, they grow by the increase of one
cartilage and the ossification of the
other. Like the arch in the movable
vertebrae, we have the arch in the head;
in the lower part there are bones phy-
siologically connected with the head
bones of the neck. There are three seg-
ments in the head: (a) The posterior,
' beginning from the cervical vertebrae
below the occipital segment, consisting
of a single bone, in reality four bones;
a part of it lies in the base of the cra-
nium at the back of the face, but the
greater part extends up the back of the
cranium. It consists of a ring, lateral
sides, and an arch, (b) The anterior,
consisting of the frontal and ethmoid
bones. The only vestige here of the ver-
tebral foramen is the foramen caecum,
(c) The central segment; in the middle
line below, and cut in two halves by the
moesial plane, is the sphenoid bone, but
along with it are two bones, the tem-
poral, attached to its outer portions or
great wings, composing the basis of the
arch completed by the two parietal bones.
These segments are divided by the lamb»
doidal sutures and coronal. The head
is divided into a base and a vault, or cal-
varium; the inner aspect is called the
cerebral, the other the superficial, ex-
ternal, etc., aspect. The bone on the
outside of the cranium is not so dense aa
it is on the inside, in accordance with a
law of construction in all animal and
vegetable bodies, a law of part, and a
law of place. Some anatomists count
four segments, the two temporal bones
constituting the fourth. The vertebrata
have a head homologous in its anatomy
with that of man. That of the A^imdosa
is homologous in functions, but not in
parts. The cephalopodous and gasterop-
odous mollusks have heads, the Conchif-
era, sometimes called Acephala, want
them. Most animals of lower organiza-
tion than these are destitute of heads.
HEALTH ASSOCIATION, AMERI-
CAN PUBLIC, an association of public
officials and other individuals interested
in the promotion of sanitary science in
its relation to municipal government.
The organization had its origin in 1872,
when, on April 18, an informal con-
ference was held in New York City, at
which were represented five States and
five cities. A committee was appointed
to draw up a constitution for a national
institute of sanitary science. In the fol-
lowing September the constitution was
formally adopted and officers were
elected. The association has since pub-
lished a great deal of literature on
public sanitation and has devoted much
energy to education along these lines.
Its official organ is "The American Jour-
nal of Public Health."
HEALTH INSURANCE, a form of
insurance which insures its beneficiaries
against need in time of illness and com-
pensates for the loss of employment
during periods of illness. It is one of
those departments of the general field of
insurance which was taken up reluc-
tantly by private enterprise, on account
of the difficulty of protecting the insur-
ance companies against fraud. Health
insurance may be divided now into three
distinct classes; commercial, mutual, and
social. Commercial health insurance
has developed only to a limited extent,
and that only within the past few years,
being generally connected with the busi-
ness of casualty companies. Mutual
HEALTH INSURANCE
491
HEARST
health insurance, commonly known as
"sick and death benefit," has acquired
vast dimensions in all civilized countries.
It had its origin in the early "friendly
societies" of Great Britain and the
fraternal orders of this country. Mutual
health insurance is based on distinctly
co-operative principles. These co-oper-
ative enterprises in their turn, obviously,
had evolved from the still earlier forms
of mutual benefit associations, the
guilds, which assured their members
support during illness. Some historians
find traces of such organizations having
existed in Anglo-Saxon England. After
the institution of the factory system of
employment in England and this country,
with its precariousness of livelihood, the
mutual societies sprang up spontaneously
all over both these countries among
the working classes. As modern indus-
trialism appeared in other countries, and
in the order of its appearance, these also
developed similar working-class organi-
zations.
The objects that these societies first
contemplated were the securing, in return
for small weekly payments by the mem-
bers, of a weekly sum during sickness
and a pension after a certain age. At
first these weekly payments by the mem-
bers were uniform in amount, but with
the accumulated experiences which fol-
lowed, the system of collecting higher
payments in proportion to the ages of the
members began to be adopted, it being
recognized that liability to sickness in-
creased with age. On account of the
disinclination of private enterprise to
enter the field of health insurance, the
British Government very soon began to
interest itself in the welfare of the
friendly societies, and assisted them in
formulating scales of payments, based
on statistics gathered by the Government
itself, a task which was at that time be-
yond the capacity of any working-class
organization. This government protec-
tion became all the more necessary be-
cause of the many fraudulent societies
which, initiated by private individuals,
preyed on the ignorance of the working
people. Eventually the Government,
through the Registrar of Friendly So-
cieties, made itself responsible for the
reliability of all genuine mutual aid so-
cieties, based on the principles which the
Government itself had formulated.
Social health insurance is of much
more recent origin than the mutual aid
class of insurance, and generally implies
state backing. On a broad scale, this
form of health insurance had its origin
in Germany, where it was instituted in
1884, largely through the sponsorship of
Bismarck, who saw in this type of gov-
ernment paternalism an antidote to the
growth of revolutionary Socialism. The
idea was then adopted in other countries,
in the following order: Austria, 1888;
Hungary, 1891; Luxemburg, 1901; Nor-
way, 1909; Serbia. 1910; Great Britain,
1911; Russia, 1912; Rumania, 1912, and
the Netherlands, 1913. In the above
countries the system is compulsory,
within the limits of certain industries,
and on employees whose yearly incomes
fall below a certain set minimum. In all
these cases the government assumes only
a part of the cost, amounting to various
percentages in the different countries.
Great Britain assumes two-ninths of the
cost, but adds various other supplemen-
tary subsidies, which bring it up to one-
third. The beneficiaries are obliged to
pay: men ten shillings a year, women
eight shillings. Other countries base
their subsidies on the wages of the policy
holders, ranging from a third to one-
half. In all the employers are also com-
pelled to contribute, ranging from a third
in Germany to a half in Hungary. The
average period of the benefit is for
twenty-six weeks.
In this country there has also been a
rapid extension of social insurance as an
idea, since 1911, in connection with the
workmen's compensation movement in
the various States. In 1915 the Ameri-
can Association for Labor Legislation
drafted a tentative bill for State insur-
ance, which was brought up in the fol-
lowing year in the legislatures of Mas-
sachusetts, New Jersey and New York.
In each case the bill failed being passed,
but the result was to create wide public
discussion in the press. The idea is now
being pressed strongly by such organiza-
tions as the American Medical Associa-
tion, the American Public Health As-
sociation, the National Conference of
Charities and Correction, and by many
labor organizations, notably by the State
federations of labor.
HEARN, LAFCADIO. an American
journalist; born of an English father
and a Greek mother, in Santa Maura,
Ionian Islands, June 27, 1850. He was
educated in England and France, and
resided in the United States and in
Japan. He wrote "Some Chinese Ghosts"
(1887) ; "Two Years in the French West
Indies" (1890); "Youma" (1890):
"Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan," and
several other books on Japan, including
"Kokoro: Hints and Echoes of Japanese
Inner Life"; "Gleanings in Buddha
Fields" (1897) ; "In Ghostly Japan"
(1899); "Shadowings" (1900); etc. He
died at Tokio, Sept. 27, 1904.
HEARST. WILLIAM RANDOLPH,
an American newspaper owner and poli-
tician, born in San Francisco, Cal., 1863,
HEART
492
HEAT
son of George Hearst, former United
States Senator. He graduated from
Harvard in 1885, and taking up his
father's interests in San Francisco, be-
gan to develop the "San Francisco Ex-
aminer." Gradually he established news-
papers in other American cities, until he
became one of the most povi^erful news-
paper owners in the country. He was
the owner of the "Los Angeles Exam-
iner," the "Chicago Examiner," the
"Chicago American," the "Atlanta Geor-
gian," the "Boston American," the "Bos-
ton Advertiser," the "New York Eve-
ning Journal," the "New York Amer-
ican" and a number of daily papers in
smaller communities. All are notable for
their sensational treatment of the daily
news. Mr. Hearst was also the owner of
the "Cosmopolitan Magazine," "Hearst's
Magazine," "Good Housekeeping," "Har-
pers Bazar," the "Motor Magazine" and
the "Motor Boating Magazine." He was
elected to the 58th and 59th United
States Congresses (1903-1907), from the
Eleventh New York Congressional Dis-
trict. In 1905 he was the candidate of
the Independence League for Mayor of
New York, and candidate for Governor
of New York in 1906, but was in both
cases defeated.
HEART, in human anatomy, the cen-
tral organ of circulation, inclosed in a
membrane, the pericardium, and lying
between the two layers of pleura, the
mediastinum, with the base directed up-
ward and backward to the right shoul-
der, and the apex downward and foi-
ward between the fifth and sixth ribs,
and to the left. The under side is flat-
tened and rests on the diaphragm, the
upper rounded and convex, formed by
the right ventricle and partially by the
left; above these are the auricles whose
appendages project forward, overlap-
ping the root of the pulmonary artery,
the large anterior vessel at the root of
the heart, crossing obliquely the com-
mencement of the aorta. The right is the
venous side of the heart, the left arte-
rial. The right auricle is larger than the
left, and more complex in structure; it
has tvvo valves, the eustachian and the
coronary. There is not the same pyra-
midal form in the left ventricle as in
the right; the apex of the heart is also
the apex of the left ventricle, and there-
fore larger than the right. The valves of
the right ventricle are the tricuspid and
semilunar; of the left the mitral (bi-
cuspid) and semilunar. The auriculo-
ventricular opening connects the auricles
and ventricles, and in connection with
the ventricular valves we have the
columnse cornese, of which there are three
sets, and the chordae tendinex. There are
three layers of fibers in the ventricles —
the external, middle, and internal — their
peculiar spiral arrangement causing the
tilting forward of the cardiac apex. The
fibers of the auricles are in two layers
— the external and internal; and the
left auricle is thicker and more fleshly
than the right. From the right ventricle
arises the pulmonary artery, conveying
the venous blood to be aerated in the
lungs; the infundibulum is a prolonga-
tion of the anterior wall. The left auricle
contains the four pulmonary veins re-
turning the blood to the heart, thence to
the left ventricle, and thence to the
aorta, to be distributed to every part
of the body, returning by the superior
and inferior vetw, cava to the right
auricle.
In the lowest animals we have no
blood-vessels, every part absorbing nu-
tritious fluid for itself; the lower En-
tozoa, and even the embryo in man in
its early stage, are examples. Among
the higher reptiles, we find the circula-
tion approaching that in birds and mam-
mals, till we get the double heart, as
in man.
HEAT, in natural philosophy, the
term used chiefly to mean, not the sen-
sation which our bodies feel when we
say that they are hot, but the particular
state or condition of matter which
causes this sensation. The accepted
hypothesis is that heat is caused by an
oscillatory or vibratory motion of the
particles of a body. It is thus a condi-
tion of matter and not a substance. The
hottest bodies are those in which the
vibrations move quickest through the
widest space. It is called also the
Mechanical or Dynamical Theory of
Heat.
Heat makes bodies, whether solid,
liquid, or gaseous, expand, while cold
contracts them. Water is a partial ex-
ception to the rule. In the case of a
solid, heat can produce fusion at a cer-
tain definite temperature; in that of
liquids vaporization. It is transmitted
by radiation or by conduction. Radiant
heat is that produced by radiation.
Latent heat is that which is absorbed by
solid bodies when they are subjected to
calorific influence far more than suffi-
cient to make them melt, and when at the
very time they are in process of fusion.
The heat does not raise the temperature
of the solid until it is completely lique-
fied. There is also a latent heat of vapor-
ization, being heat absorbed by liquids
when being converted into vapor. Latent
is opposed to sensible heat. Heat may be
reflected or refracted, or, by being ir-
HEATING
493
HEATING
regqfarly reflected in all directions, it
may become scattered or diffused heat;
reflection and refraction may also polar-
ize its rays, as happens to those of solar
light. The heat which falls on a body
is called incident heat. Specific heat
is the quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of a body of a given
weight 1°; the unit of measure being
the quantity required to raise the same
weight of water to the same tempera-
ture. Heat may be produced by solar
radiation, chemical action, friction, pres-
sure, percussion, absorption, and imbibi-
tion; by the conduction of powerful
magnets and bodies in motion, etc.
HEATING and VENTILATION. In
cold climates, artificial heating and ven-
tilation are both necessary for health
and comfort and are equally important.
Because the discomfort produced by low
temperature is more acutely and im-
mediately felt than that due to foul air,
improper ventilation is more common
than deficient heating. The two subjects
are so closely related, however, that they
will be considered together in this article,
the question of heating being first dealt
with in greater detail.
The temperature most conducive to
bodily comfort cannot be stated definite-
ly as it is largely determined by climate
and personal habit, varying in different
countries. A temperature of 68-70° F.
is considered necessary in the U. S. A.
and Canada, but 62° F. is the tempera-
ture most favored in England. All sys-
tems of heating depend upon radiation or
convection; or, more generally, upon a
combination of the two. The common-
est example of radiation is the open
fireplace which radiates heat, and so
warms the walls and furniture of the
room, while leaving the air compar-
atively cool. An example of convection is
found in the hot air furnace, which
supplies currents of warm air, which
constantly replace the cold air. Radia-
tion and convection combined are found
in the ordinary steam or hot water radi-
ator, which heats the air by convection
and also radiates some heat to sur-
rounding objects. Heat is most com-
monly produced by the combustion of
coal, wood, coke, oil, gas, or some other
fuel, but is occasionally obtained elec-
trically, the electricity being produced
by water-power.
Comparing the relative merits of the
different forms of heating the open fire-
place is popular because it is cheerful
to see, and from the hygienic point of
view it is good because it produces a
simple but efficient means of ventilation.
It utilizes, however, only 10-15 per cent.
Vol. IV — Cyc — FF
of the heating value of the fuel, and,
unless supplemented by other forms of
heating, is quite inadequate for pro-
viding sufficient heat in cold climates.
The stove which stands out in the room,
being connected to the chimney by a
pipe, is upward of 50 per cent, efficient,
but it has the disadvantage of being
dusty, and of quickly producing foul dry
air unless careful attention is given to
ventilation. The hot-air furnace is of two
types. The older type conveys the heated
air from a central chamber to various
parts of the house by means of pipes;
the more modern type is pipeless, the
heat entering the upper part of the
house from a single register on the first
floor, and being carried by convection
to all parts of the house. The furnace
is supplied with fresh air from the out-
side, and provided this feature is prop-
erly cared for, a hot air system is prob-
ably the most healthful method of heat-
ing a dwelling. With the old type of
furnace, however, it is difficult to obtain
uniform heating, the rooms on the wind-
ward side of the house being cold, while
those on the sheltered side are over-
heated. The pipeless furnace is growing
in popularity, and gives satisfaction in
houses of suitable size and design. The
steam furnace generates steam from a
boiler in the cellar and distributes it
over the house by means of pipes con-
nected to radiators. The hot-water fur-
nace is similar, except that hot water
instead of steam circulates through the
pipes and radiators. Both systems have
advantages and disadvantages. Hot wa-
ter is more difficult and expensive to
install but has the advantage that it
begins to supply warmth as soon as
the water becomes heated, whereas, with
steam, the water must boil before heat
is supplied. Hot water is also quieter
than steam, but high temperatures can
be produced more rapidly with the latter
and much less radiating surface is
needed. A modern development of steam
heat is the so-called "vacuum system,"
in which the whole system of piping and
radiators is maintained under a slight
vacuum. One advantage of this system
is that the knocking and hissing of the
radiators is avoided. Another recent
modification is the gas-steam radiator,
which is a radiator having a small res-
ervoir of water at the base, heated by
gas burners. .A.S the pressure, due to gen-
eration of steam, rises, the gas is auto-
matically lowered. Electric heating is
too expensive for use on a large scale,
but finds application in small heaters
for intermittent use, and also in the
heating of street cars.
Ventilatiim.—A steady supply of fresh
HEAVEN
494
HEBEON
air is necessary to the well-being of the
animal body, because one-fifth of the air
consists of oxygen and it is upon oxygen
that the heat and energy of the body
depends. When fuel burns, carbonic acid
gas is produced. The same gas is con-
tained in the breath from the body,
and to produce this carbonic acid, oxy-
gen is absorbed from the surrounding
air. An excess of carbonic acid in the
air produces headache, depression and
even nausea, and anything in excess of
six parts per ten thousand is liable to
cause discomfort. A gas burner, in a
small room, will very quickly pollute the
air, and for every cubic foot of gas con-
sumed, eight cubic feet of air are ex-
hausted of their oxygen. It is estimated
that one person requires 3,000 cubic feet
of air per hour. That is to say, a room 30
feet long, 10 feet high and 10 feet wide
contains sufficient air to supply one per-
son for one hour, but it is clear that no
one could live in a hermetically sealed
room of such a size for that length of
time without suffering from poisoning,
because throughout the time he would
be polluting the air and the pollution
would pass the safe limit very soon.
In the ordinary room, of course, there
is constant leakage of bad air and ad-
mittance of pure air through cracks and
in the doors and windows, through the
chimney and by other accidental means.
In actual practice, it is found that 250-
300 cubic feet per person in dwellings
and factories is sufficient.
HEAVEN, in theology, the place or
state of the blessed.,
HEBREW, the character in which the
Hebrew language is now written. This,
called the square character, was not the
earliest. The general opinion is that it
came into use only in the centuries im-
mediately preceding the birth of Christ,
or even about the commencement of the
Christian era itself. The character on
the Maccabee coins is like the Samaritan,
rather than the square Hebrew one.
HEBREWS. EPISTLE TO THE, one
of the most important epistles of the
New Testament. Clement of Rome re-
ferred to it about A. D. 96, as did Justin
Martyr in the 2d century, followed in
due time by many other Christian
fathers. The Greek fathei's generally
attributed the epistle to St. Paul; the
Latin Churches in Europe and northern
Africa were long of a different opinion,
but by the commencement of the 4th
century the Eastern view largely pre-
vailed, in the West as well as in the
East, and by the commencement of the
5th century it was everywhere dominant.
Jerome and Augustine had much in-
fluence in giving it currency, which it
retained to the Reformation. Erasmus,
Cardinal Cajetan, Luther, Calvin, Beza,
and others revived the old doubts. The
Council of Trent gave a decision in favor
of St. Paul, but in Pi'otestant countries
the question is still held to be a debatable
one.
HEBRIDES (heb'ri-dez), a large
group of islands, 500 in number, situated
of the W. coast of Scotland, of which
100 are inhabited. They comprise, in
all, an area of about 3,000 square miles.
Among the larger and more notable of
these are Skye, Eigg, Mull, lona, Staffa,
Ulva, Lismore, Islay, and Rum, the
largest being Skye, of the inner Heb-
rides, that lie nearer the coast; and
Lewis, Harris, Northern and Southern
Uist, Barra and Benbecula, of the outer
Hebrides, lying farther W., and sep-
arated by the strait and channel of
Minch and Little Minch from the inner
group, the largest being Lewis and
Harris, really forming but one island
but belonging to two counties. These
islands are for the most part rocky and
infertile, but well adapted to grazing
purposes, the chief industry being the
pasturing and rearing of live stock. The
islands have been developed and im-
proved by the building of good roads,
and the establishment of frequent com-
munication with Glasgow by steamship.
The moors and fens abound in winged
game, hare, etc., and are visited by
sportsmen in great numbers, being
largely and profitably rented for sporting-
purposes. The islands are a resort for
summer tourists on account of their
picturesque scenery. The fishing in-
dustry is considerable. Pop. about
100,000.
HEBRIDES, NEW, a group of is-
lands in the South Pacific, discovered by
Quiros, in 1506. Captain Cook, who
surveyed most of them in 1773, gave
them their name, as being the most W. of
the islands of the Pacific. They extend
over 375 miles. Area, 4,200 square miles.
The soil in the valleys is fertile, but the
islands are mostly mountainous, and
some have active volcanoes. Since 1887
the group is under a mixed French and
English commission. Pop. about 75,000.
HEBRON (he'bron), one of the oldest
cities in Palestine, belonging to the tribe
of Judah, 21 miles from Jerusalem. It
was anciently called Kirjatharba, and at
a later period was the seven years' resi-
dence of King David before he conquered
Jerusalem. The modern town, El Khalil
("the friend"— of God, Abraham). Pop.
(1919) 22,000. It lies low down in
a narrow and picturesque valley— the
HECLA
495
HEDJAZ
Valley of Eshcol, famous now, as of old,
for its thick clustering grapes, its olives,
and other fruits. The church erected by
the Empress Helena, the mother of Con-
stantine, on the spot where Abraham is
said to have been buried, has been con-
verted into a mosque called El-Haram
("sanctuary") , built to inclose the cave
which is the traditional burial-place of
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob and their
wives.
HECLA or HEKLA, a volcano of
Iceland, about 20 miles from its S. W.
coast, about 5,000 feet in height, and
having several craters. It is composed
chiefly of basalt and lava and is always
covered with snow. Many eruptions are
on record. One of the most tremendous
occurred in 1783, after which the vol-
cano remained quiescent till September,
1845, when it again became active, and
continued with little intermission till
November, 1846, to discharge ashes,
some masses of pumice stone, and a tor-
rent of lava.
HECTOR, the son of Priam and
Hecuba, the bravest of the Trojans,
whose forces he commanded. His wife
was Andromache. His exploits are
celebrated in the "Iliad." Having slain
Patroclus, the friend of Achilles, the
latter sought revenge, and Hector was
slain by him. The body of Hector was
dragged at the chariot wheels of the
conqueror; but afterward it was de-
livered to Priam for a ransom, who
gave it a solemn burial.
HEDIN, SVEN ANDERS, a Swedish
explorer and geographer, born in Stock-
holm, 1865, educated in Upsala, Berlin,
and Halle. In 1885 he made his first
trip to Persia and Mesopotamia. In 1890
he went to Persia as a member of the
Swedish King's embassy to the Shah.
In the following year he explored Khor-
rasan and Turkestan. In 1893 he began
the four years' expedition which made
him world-famous; a trip from Russia
to Pekin, by way of Tibet. Subse-
quently he made two other exploring
trips to Tibet. Among his many
achievements are the discovery of the
source of the Brahmaputra, the Indus
and Lake Chunitzo. Hedin lost some-
what of his prestige by his fanatical
championship of the Grerman cause dur-
ing the World War. Among his works
are: "A Journey Through Persia and
Mesopotamia" (1887) ; "The Scientific
Results of a Journey Through Central
Asia" (6 vols., 1893-1904).
HEDJAZ or HEJAZ, a kingdom of
Arabia, situated on the N. E. coast of
the Red Sea, extending from the Gulf
of Akabah to about the parallel of 20" N.
and to the Nafud Desert on the E.
The area is about 96,500 miles, and con-
sists largely of sand with little vegeta-
tion. The land slopes to the N. with
the Tehema Mountains in the center ris-
ing to a height of 6,000 feet. Bedouins
compose the population which is esti-
mated at about 300,000. The chief cen-
ters of population are the sacred cities
of Mecca and Medina, and Jeddah which
is the principal port. A railway line, to
be known as the Medina-Mecca-Jeddah
line, was in the course of construction
by the Hejaz Railway Company when
the war broke out. The region was under
nominal Turkish sovereignty, but in
1917 the Arabs, with the aid of the
British, revolted against Turkish rule.
The immediate occasion of the rising
was the strengthening of the Turkish
garrison at Medina by 3,000 picked
troops, which the Sheerif of Mecca
opposed. By inherited right, acknowl-
edged by the Turks for more than two
hundred years, he exercised an authority
in the Hedjaz both political and re-
ligious. But it was feared that Arabia
was to be brought under complete Turk-
ish sovereignty In June, 1917, the di-s-
content among the Arabs and Bedouins
come to a head. The Turks held Mecca
by means of forts and foi'tified bar-
racks. These were besieged by the
Sheerif and his troops. The garrison
opened fire upon the city with their guns
and even the Great Mosque was damaged.
After being beleaguered for a month
the Turks in Mecca capitulated. Then
the revolt spread to the coast. At Taif
the Arabs besieged and took prisoners
Ghabil Pasha, the Governor-General of
the Hedjaz, and 3,000 Turkish regulars.
Next, with British aid in the form of
arms and munitions, they cut off Medina.
It was not possible to storm the city,
which was held by some 14,000 men and
was strongly fortified. But it was block-
aded, and the blockade kept up until
the end of the war. In the meantime
Arab forces moved N. against Maan.
The Turks sent the re-enforcements from
Constantinople and Damascus. The hos-
tile movements of the Bedouins proved
of value to the British as a means of
withdrawing Turkish forces from the
front in Palestine and in Mesopotamia,
and every effort was made through
Bi'itish diplomacy to add to the unrest
among them. The rising in the Hedjaz al-
most synchronized with the British
entry into Palestine, and the two events
caused much alarm among the Turkish
leaders. Against General AUenby in
Syria on the coast sector was the 8th
Turkish army, Von Kraasenstein in
HEGEL 496
command ; N. of Jerusalem the 7th Turk-
ish army, under Fevri Pasha; and E.
of Jordan, based upon Ammam, the 4th
Turkish army. It was the last army
which was concerned in resisting the
advance N. of the Arabs of the Hedjaz,
and its difficulties were great. The
Arabs were not slow to perceive the
difficulty of the Turkish position and
they continued their operations, winning
minor successes as the Turkish diffi-
culties increased, and receiving from the
British all the aid that could be given
them. Before the Turkish collapse the
Hedjaz had been cleared largely of Turk-
ish troops and the Arabs had been in-
stalled in the garrisons at Mecca and
Medina. Following the downfall of the
Turks the independence of the Hedjaz
was proclaimed by the Arabs and was
guaranteed by the Treaty with Turkey.
The Emir Hussein assumed the title of
king in Nov., 1916.
HEGEIi (ha'gl), GEORG WILHELM
EBIEDRICH, a German metaphysician;
born in Stuttgart, in 1770. He studied
at the theological institute of Tiibingen
from 1788-1793, and was next a private
tutor at Berne (1793-1796), and subse-
quently at Frankfort-on-the-Main (1797-
1800). Having removed to Jena, and
contracted an intimacy with Schelling,
he devoted himself to metaphysical
study. After the battle of Jena, Hegel
was employed on a newspaper at Bam-
berg till 1808.
He was professor successively at
Jena, Heidelberg, and Berlin. He was
at first the disciple of Schelling, with
whom he was associated in the conduct
of a philosophical journal in 1802-1803.
But his opinions gradually took a dif-
ferent turn. He rejected Schelling's
intellectual intuition as an unwarrant-
able assumption, though he continued to
maintain its leading idea — the unity of
the subjective or ideal, and the objective
or real; and in this idea endeavored to
establish that absolute cognition and
absolute truth, which alone, according
to this school, can satisfy the demands of
the philosophical spirit. Hegel seems not
to have perfected his system; and as
he had no power of exposition, or of
lucid expression of his thoughts, it is
impossible to give a clear view of his
philosophy. His most important works
are his "Phenomenology of the Mind";
"Logic"; and "Encyclopaedia of Philo-
sophical Sciences." He died in Berlin, in
1831.
HEIDELBERG (hi'dl-berc) , a town
of Baden ; on the left bank of the Neckar,
here crossed by two bridges; in one of
the loveliest districts of Germany. It is
HEIFETZ
on a narrow strip between the river and
the castlerock and Geisberg, spurs of the
Konigstuhl (1,850 feet) ; and chiefly con-
sists of one main street and less impor-
tant cross and paralled streets. The prin-
cipal buildings are: The church of St.
Peter; the church of the Holy Ghost; the
castle, anciently the residence of the
Electors Palatine; Heildelberg Univer-
sity (g. V.) ; the town house, etc. The
castle, begun in the end of the 13th cen-
tury, and exhibiting elaborate examples
of early and late Renaissance archi-
tecture, is the most remarkable edifice
in Heidelberg. It is now an ivy-clad
ruin, but is carefully preserved from fur-
ther decay. The principal industry is
brewing. One of the greatest curiosities
of the place is the Heidelberg tun, kept
in a cellar under the castle. It is 36
feet in length, 26 in diameter, and ca-
pable of holding 800 hogsheads. Heidel-
berg is rich in public walks and fine
views, that from the Konigstuhl being of
surpassing beauty. It was long the capi-
tal of the Palatinate, but was superseded
by Mannheim in 1720. In 1622 Tilly cap-
tured and sacked the city, A similar
fate overtook it in 1689 and 1693 at the
hands of the French. Pop. about 56,000.
HEIDELBERG UNIVERSITY, a co-
educational institution in Tiffin, O. ;
founded in 1850 under the auspices of
the Reformed Church in the United
States; reported at the close of 1919:
Professors and instructors, 25; students,
331; president, C. E. Miller, D. D.
HEIDELBERG UNIVERSITY, a re-
nowned institution in Heidelberg, Ger-
many. It was founded by the Elector
Rupert I. in 1386, and continued to
flourish till the period of the Thirty
Years' War, when it began to decline.
In 1802, however, when the town with
the surrounding territory was assigned
to the Grand-duke of Baden, a new era
commenced for the university, and it
rapidly became famous. It comprises
faculties of theology, law, medicine, and
philosophy. In 1914 there were 196
professors and instructors, over 2,300
students, and 500,000 volumes and 4,700
MSS. in its library. Many of the most
famous German scholars have been pro-
fessors here — Reuchlin, (Ecolampadius,
Spanheim, Puffendorf, Gervinus, Paulus,
Kuno Fischer, Helmholtz, Bunsen,
BKintschli, etc.
HEIFETZ, JASCHA, a Russian violin-
ist, born at Vilna, Russia, in 1901. He
began studying the violin at the age of
3, and at 5 years of age entered the
Royal School of Music at Vilna. He
continued to study at St. Petersburg and
made his first public appearance at the
HEILBRONN
497
HELENA
age of 5. At 9 years of age he gave a
recital in St. Petersburg and was en-
gaged for solo work with the Symphony
Oi-chestra. He later appeared in the
leading cities of Germany, Austria, and
Russia. He made his first appearance
in New York on October 27, 1917. He
at once gained recognition as a master
of the \iolin. He made frequent tours
throughout the United States in the
years following.
HEILBRONN, a town of Wiirttemberg,
situated on the right bank of the Neckar.
The streets of the old medieval town are
narrow, and the houses have quaintly
ornamented gable-ends and tapering
pinnacles. The church of St. Kilian,
partly Gothic and partly Renaissance;
the old town hall ; the Diebsthurm
("Thief's Tower"), in which Gotz von
Berlichingen was confined; and the house
of the Teutonic Knights, now a barrack,
are the principal buildings. The chief
industries include the manufacture of
silver plate, paper, sugar, salt, chicory,
and chemicals, and there are iron and
other metal foundries and machine shops.
Fruit and wine are largely grown. Com-
mei'cially the importance of Heilbronn
depends on its trade in groceries, com,
and wood, and on its fairs for cattle,
leather, wool, and fruit. In the vicinity
gypsum and sandstone are quarried.
Heilbronn is first mentioned in 741 ; in
1360 it became an imperial town; it suf-
fered during the Peasants' War and the
Thirty Years' War, and in 1802 it fell
into the hands of Wiirttemberg. Pop.
about 43,000.
HEINE (hi'ne), HEINRICH, a Ger-
man poet and author; born of Jewish
parents in Diisseldorf, Dec. 13, 1799. He
studied law at Bonn, Berlin, and Got-
tingen; took his degree at the last men-
tioned place, and in 1825 embraced
Christianity. He afterward lived at
Hamburg, Berlin, and Munich, but in
1830 he settled in Paris, supported him-
self by his literary labors, and dwelt
there till his death. From 1837 to the
overthrow of Louis Philippe in 1848 he
enjoyed a pension of $960 fi'om the
French Government. Of the numerous
literary works of Heine may be men-
tioned in particular: "Poems"; "Pic-
tures of Travel"; "Book of Songs";
"Germany, a Winter Tale"; "Shake-
speare's Maidens and Wives"; "Last
Poems and Thoughts"; etc. As a poet
Heine is remarkable for the simplicity
and pathos of many of his lyric pieces.
His powers of wit and raillery were also
great. During the latter years of his
life ke suffered great agony from a
spinal complaint, which confined him al-
most constantly to bed. He died in
Paris, Feb. 17, 1856.
HEINZ. HENRY JOHN, an Ameri-
can manufacturer and publicist, born in
Pittsburgh, Pa., in 1844. He was edu-
cated in the public schools and at Duff's
Business College. He began the packing
of foodstuffs on a small scale at Sharps-
burg, in 1869. In 1872 he removed to
Pittsburgh. His business developed
rapidly, until it became one of the most
important food-producing firms in the
country, and had branches also in sev-
eral countries of Europe. He was a
director in many important financial in-
stitutions and was chairman of the com-
mittee to devise means to protect Pitts-
burgh from floods. He was a director
of the Pittsburgh Tuberculosis Sana-
torium and was president of the State
Sunday School Association. During the
World War he did much important work
in connection with the Food Administra-
tion. He died in 1919.
HELDER, THE, a seaport in the
Dutch province of North Holland, 51
miles fi'om Amsterdam. It is one of the
strongest fortresses in Holland, having
been first fortified by Napoleon in 1811,
and has several naval establishments, in-
cluding an arsenal and a college, and an
excellent harbor. Pop, about 28,000.
HELEN, in classic fable, the daughter
of Jupiter and Leda, of Jupiter and
Nemesis, or of the King Tyndareus and
Leda, his wife, according to the various
statements of the poets, was the most
beautiful woman of her time, and mar-
ried Menelaus, King of Sparta. Her
guilty elopement with Paris, one of the
sons of Priam, King of Troy, who had
been sent to Laceda^mon as ambassador,
led to the Trojan War, and the destruc-
tion, after 10 years' siege, of Troy. On
the death of Paris, she married his
brother Deiphobus, and when the city was
at last sacked, returned to Sparta with
her husband Menelaus. Being banished
from Sparta on the death of Menelaus,
she retired to the island of Rhodes,
where, having excited the envy of Polyxo,
the queen of the isle, she was tied to a
tree and strangled.
HELENA, a city and county-seat of
Phillips CO., Ark.;" on the Mississippi
river, and on the Missouri and North
Arkansas, the Iron Mountain and South-
ern, and the Yazoo and Mississippi rail-
roads, 90 miles S. W. of Memphis, Tenn.
It has steamship communications with
all important river ports, and is a ship-
ping point for lumber, cotton, and cot-
ton-seed oil. Its manufactures include
HELENA
498
HELL
cotton oil, boxes, cotton goods, ma-
chinery, canned goods, and finished lum-
ber. It has electric lights, public schools,
public library, the Jefferson High
School, Sacred Heart Academy, daily
and weekly newspapers, and a National
bank. Pop. (1910) 8,722; (1920) 9,112.
HELENA, a city of Montana, and
county-seat of Lewis and Clarke co.,
near Prickly Pear creek, and on the
Great Northern, and the Northern Paci-
fic railroads. It is the commercial center
of Montana, northern Idaho, and east-
ern Washington, and has abundant water
power from the Missouri river. It has
numerous smelting and reduction works,
blast furnaces, foundries, machine shops,
granite and sandstone works, and does
considerable business in mining, farm-
ing, and stock-raising. It is the seat of
Montana Wesleyan University, Mount
St. Charles College, State Capitol, Fed-
eral Buildings, Assay Office, St. Vin-
cent's Academy, Orphans' Home, St,
Peter's and St. John's Hospitals. The
city has electric lights, and electric street
railroads connecting with surrounding
towns, daily and weekly newspapers,
public library, 2 National banks. Pop.
(1910) 12,515; (1920) 12,037.
HELICTIS (hel-ik'tis), a genus of
carnivorous quadrupeds, allied to the
skunks, of which there are at least two
species, one (H. moschata) found in
China, the other {H. onentalis) in
Nepal.
HELIGOLAND, or HELGOLAND
(hel'ig-a-land), a small island in the
North Sea, formerly belonging to Great
Britain. It is about 1 mile long from N.
to S., and 1-3 of a mile from E. to W.;
1-5 of a square mile in superficial area,
and about 2 2-3 miles in circumference.
The island consists of an upper and a
lower quarter, the Oberland and Sandy
Island. A lighthouse stands on a cliff
near the village. Heligoland is an im-
portant place in time of war, and com-
mands the German trade in the North
Sea. The island, which was taken by
the English from the Danes in 1807, was
formally ceded to Great Britain in 1814,
and by Great Britain to Germany in
1890. Pop. about 3,000. The Germans
made Heligoland an impregnable for-
tress and military base. In the Bight the
British won a naval victory over the
Germans, Aug. 28, 1914. By the terms
of the Treaty of Versailles the fortifi-
cations of Heligoland were dismantled.
HELIOPOLIS (hel-e-op'o-lis), the On,
Rameses, or Beth-shemesh of the Hebrew
Scriptui-es; now called Matarich; situ-
ated a little N. of Memphis; and one of
the most ancient and extensive cities of
Egypt under the Pharaohs. It had a
magnificent temple dedicated to Ra, and
communicated with the Nile by lakes and
canals. During the flourishing ages of
the Egyptian monarchy the priests
taught within the precincts of its tem-
ples, and both Eudoxus and Plato visited
its famous schools. Here Joseph and
Mary are said to have rested with the in-
fant Christ. Near the village stands the
Pillar of On, supposed to be the oldest
Egyptian obelisk, 67^ feet high, and 6
feet broad at the base. The Turks were
defeated here by the French in 1800.
HELIUM, a gaseous element. Atomic
weight 3-99. Discovered in 1868 by
means of the spectroscope, in the sun, by
Jannsen and Lockyer, the discovery of
terrestrial helium was made later by
Ramsay, in the gases evolved from the
mineral cleveite. It is widely distrib-
uted, but occurs in small quantities. It
is present in the air to the extent of
about one volume of helium in 250,000
volumes of air, occurs in many minerals,
and has been found in the gases from hot
mineral springs. Ramsay found that the
emanations from radium showed the
presence of helium, and it is believed to
be the final product of the disintegration
of radium. It was considered of purely
academic interest until 1915, when the
suggestion was made in England that it
should be used in place of hydrogen in
balloons and airships. Its density is al-
most twice that of hydrogen, but owing
to its chemical inertness and non-inflam-
mability its use for this purpose was
thought worthy of consideration. The
matter was brought to the attention of
the United States Bureau of Mines and
this led to the development of the Jef-
feries-Norton and Linde processes for
the extraction of helium from natural
gas, which consists mainly of nitrogen,
methane and helium. By freezing the
gas at a temperature of 318° F. below
zero, the other gases become liquified,
while helium remains in the gaseous con-
dition, and can be drawn off. A yield
of 1 per cent, is considered satisfac-
tory. At the time of the signing of the
Armistice, quantities of the gas were
loaded on the docks at New Orleans,
ready for shipment to France.
HELL, a place of punishment, found,
with more or less distinctness, in nearly
all ethnic forms of religion, the precise
nature of the punishment varying widely.
Three definite stages in the concept of hell
may be traced ; (1 ) a vague notion of a fu-
ture life, to be spent in misery, with lit-
tle or no idea of moral retribution; (2) it
ranks as a place of torment for those
HELLEBOBB
499
HENDEBSON
who have offended the gods, but is con-
ceived as limited in duration; and (3)
it becomes an important factor in the
moral government of the universe, a
place where evil deeds done in this life
are rigorously punished. In the Old
Testament used chiefly for Hades, as in
Psalm xviii: 5, cxvi: 3, cxxxix: 8, Prov.
v: 5, Isa. xiv: 9; Hab. ii; 5. More rarely
in the New Testament it is used in the
same sense, as in Acts ii: 31 with ref-
erence to Psalm xvi: 10, and apparently
in Rev. i: 18, vi: 8, xx: 13, 14, though the
language is mostly figurative. In the
Apostles' Creed the article "He descended
into hell" means into Hades. This sense
of the word is now obsolete, except in
old formulas or other archaic writings.
The place of woe. This is the common
New Testament sense of the word, and is
the rendering of Greek Geemia (Ge-
henna). Of those cast into it Jesus says,
"Where their worm dieth not, and their
fire is not quenched" (Mai'k. ix: 44, 46-
48), the language being adapted from
Isa. Ixvi : 24. This fire is said to be ever-
lasting fire, prepared for the devil and
his angels (Matt, xxv: 41).
HELLEBORE (hel'a-bor), in phar-
macy, the dried rhizome of Veratrwiti
viridCf growing in swampy districts of
the United States. It is used to control
the vascular system in cases of rheuma-
tic gout.
HELLENES (hel'ens), the native
name of the ancient Greeks.
HELLESPONT. See DARDANELLES.
HELL GATE, a formerly dangerous
pass in the east river, at New York City.
Rocks here used to form an obstruction
much dreaded by mariners, but by exten-
sive submarine mining operations and
the use of the most powerful explosives,
the passage was cleared. The channel
has a uniform depth of 26 feet.
HELMET, a piece of defensive armor
for the head; a defensive covering for
the head.
HELPS, SIR ARTHUR, an English
historian; born in Streatham, Surrey,
July 10, 1813; was graduated at Cam-
bridge in 1835. His works comprise an
early volume of essays : "Thoughts in the
Cloister and the Crowd" (1835) ; "Cath-
erine Douglas, a Tragedy" (1839) ; "Es-
says Written During the Intervals of
Business" (1841); "Claims of Labor"
(1844) ; the series entitled "Friends in
Council" (1847-1859) ; "Companions of
My Solitude" (1851) ; "Brevia" (1871)
"(Conversations on War" (1871)
"Thoughts on Government" (1872)
"Animals and Their Masters" (1873)
"Social Pressure" (1875) ; "Spanish Con
quest of America" (1855-1861); lives of
"Pizarro" (1869); and "Cortes" (1871);
"Realmah, a Romance" (1868) ; and
"Ivan de Brion, a Russian Story" (1874).
He died in London, March 7, 1875.
HELSINGFORS, a seaport and capi-
tal of Finland, on a peninsula in the gulf
of that name, 180 miles W. N. W. of St.
Petersburg. Helsingfors is the residence
of the governor, the seat of important
courts and public offices, and contains a
university removed from Abo in 1827. It
has manufactures of linen, sail-cloth, and
tobacco, an important trade in timber,
com, and fish, and one of the best har-
bors in the Baltic. Pop. with Sveaborg
(1917) 187,544.
HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA,
an English poet; born in Liverpool in
1794. She first appeared as an author
in 1808, with a volume entitled "Early
Blossoms," which was followed in 1812
by her more successful volume, "The
Domestic Affections." In the same year
she married Captain Hemans, who, how-
ever, left her six years later, shortly be-
fore the birth of her fifth son. She then
devoted herself to literature, winning
public notice by her poems. In 1830 she
published one of her most popular vol-
umes, "Songs of the Affections." In 1831
she removed to Dublin, where she pub-
lished her "Hymns for Childhood," "Na-
tional Lyrics and Songs for Music," and
"Scenes and Hymns of Life." She died
in 1835.
HEMATITE. See HAEMATITE; IRON.
HEMATOLOGY, or H^ffiMATOLOGY.
See Blood.
HEMORRHAGE. See BLEEDING.
HENDERSON, a city and county-
seat of Henderson co., Ky., on the Ohio
river, and on the Louisville and Nash-
ville, the Illinois Central, and the Louis-
ville, Henderson and St. Louis railroads:
10 miles S. of Evansville, Ind. It is in a
rich timber, coal, and salt region; has
regular steamboat connection with Louis-
ville, Memphis, and other points; and
ships large quantities of tobacco and
grain. It contains several tobacco and
cigar factories, foundries, car-works,
carriage and wagon factories, water-
works, handsome fair-grounds, grist,
saw, and planing mills, woolen and churn
factories, daily and weekly newspapers,
a National bank, electric lights, and
street railways. Pop. (1910) 11,452;
(1920) 12,169.
HENDERSON. ARTHUR, an English
labor leader. He was born at Glasglow
in 1863, and served apprenticeship as a
molder at Robert Stephenson and Co. 'a
works at Newcastle, later holding a num-
HENDON
500
HENBY
her of official positions in connection with
his Trade Society and the Trade Union
Movement. Was a member of the New-
castle City Council, Darlington Borough
Council, and Mayor, 1903. Was chosen
as colleague for John Morley at New-
castle in 1895 but withdrew. In 1903 was
elected as labor M. P. to represent Bar-
nard Castle Division, Durham, in the
House of Commons, holding the seat till
1918. He was a member of the War
Cabinet, President of the Board of Edu-
cation, and Paymaster-General.
HENDON, a suburban town of Eng-
land outside of London, 8 miles from
St. Paul's Cathedral, on the banks of the
Brent. Its claim to distinction is the fact
that here were located the aerodromes of
the first aeroplanes which flew in Eng-
land, before the World War, making
of Hendon the center of the national
interest in aeroplane events. Here were
conducted the many tests of new-type
machines, whose feats added extensively
to the general experience in the art of
flying.
HENDBICKS, THOMAS ANDREWS,
Vice-President of the United States;
' born near Zanesville, O., Sept. 7, 1819;
was graduated at South Hanover Col-
lege, Indiana, in 1841; went to Cham-
bersburg, Pa., studied law in the office
of his uncle and was admitted to the
bar in 1843. In 1845 he was sent to the
Legislature, and in 1850 and 1852 was
elected to Congress. In 1860 he was the
Democratic candidate for governor of In-
diana, but was defeated by Henry S,
Lane. In 1863-1869 he was a United
States Senator; and at the Democratic
National Convention of 1868 received
132 votes (second highest) for the presi-
dential nomination. In the same year
he was again defeated for the governoi*-
ship of Indiana, but in 1872 was elected.
In the Democratic National Convention
of 1876 he received 133 ^/^ votes for the
presidential nomination, and a practi-
cally unanimous vote for the vice-presi-
dential. The Democratic ticket, headed
by Tilden. was, however, defeated. In
1884 Hendricks was again nominated for
the vice-preside'icy, and this time the
Democrats Avere victorious, and Cleve-
land and Hendricks were elected. He
died in Indianapolis, Ind., Nov. 25, 1885.
HENG-KIANG (heng-ke-ang') , a
river of China, falling from the N. W.
into the Yang-tse-kiang. In its course
of 300 miles it has several large cities
on its banks.
HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST, an
English poet and editor; bom in Glouces-
ter, Aug. 23, 1849. Months of sick-
ness in Edinburgh Infirmary (1873-1875)
bore fruit in "A Book of Verses" (1888),
which won much attention, and was fol-
lowed by "Views and Reviews" (1890) ;
"The Song of the Sword" (1892) ; "Eng-
lish Lyrics" (1897); "Poems" (1898);
etc. He has also been editor of the
"Magazine of Art"; the "Scots (or "Na-
tional") Observer"; and the "New Re-
view": besides editing Burns and Byron.
He collaborated with R. L. Stevenson in
three plays, "Deacon Brodie"; "Beau
Austin"; and "Admiral Guinea." He
died in 1903.
HENLEY-ON-THAMES, a municipal
borough of Oxfordshire, at the base of
the Chiltern Hills, and on the left bank
of the Thames; 36 miles W. of London.
The five-arch bridge was built in 1786
at a cost of $50,000. Malting is a prin-
cipal branch of industry; there are also
breweries, and a considerable trade in
corn, flour, and timber. The principal
amateur regatta of England has been
held here every summer since 1839.
HENRIETTA, MARIA, queen of
Charles I. of England; youngest child
of Henry IV., of France, by his second
wife, Maria de' Medici; bom in Paris in
1609. The proposed marriage between
Charles, Prince of Wales, and the In-
fanta of Spain having failed, a matri-
monial negotiation was opened with Hen-
rietta, whom he had first met at a ball
in Paris while on his way to Spain. The
marriage was celebrated by proxy at
Paris in 1625, but her first popularity
in England was soon destroyed by her
bigotry, hauteur and despotic ideas as to
divine right. Much of the subcequent
procedure which brought Charles to the
block may be traced indirectly to her in-
fluence. On the breaking out of civil
war she proceeded to Holland, procured
money and troops, and afterward joined
Charles at Oxford. She again went to
the Continent in 1644, and resided in
France till the Restoration. On that oc-
casion she visited England, but soon re-
turned to France, and died near Paris
in 1669.
HENRY, a name borne by various
European rulers as follows:
ENGLAND.
Henry I., surnamed Beauclerc ("fine
scholar"), youngest son of William the
Conqueror; born in Selby in Yorkshire,
in 1068. He was hunting with William
Rufus when that prince was killed, in
1100, and instantly riding^ to London,
caused himself to be proclaimed king, to
the prejudice of his elder brother Rob-
ert, th^^n absent as a Crusader. He re-
established by charter the laws of Ed-
ward the Confessor, recalled Anselm to
the primacy, and married Matilda..
HENRY
501
HENRY
daughter of Malcolm III. of Scotland,
thus conciliating in turn the people, the
Church, and the Scots. Robert landed an
army, but was pacified with a pension,
and the promise of succession in event
of his brother's decease. Soon after,
however, Henry invaded Normandy, took
Robert prisoner in 1106, and reduced
the duchy. He was successful also in
the struggle with France. The last
years of his reign were very troubled.
In 1120 his only son William was
drowned in returning from Normandy,
where, three years later, a revolt oc-
curred in favor of Robert's son. The
Welsh also were a source of disturbance,
Henry appointed as his heir his daugh-
ter Matilda or Maud, whom he had
married first to the Emperor Henry V.,
and then to Geoffrey Plantagenet of An-
jou. Henry died at Rouen in 1135, and
was succeeded by Stephen.
Henry II., first of the Plantagenet
line, horn in Normandy in 1133, son of
Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, and Matilda,
daughter of Henry I. He was invested
with the Duchy of Normandy, by the
consent of his mother, in 1150; in 1151
he succeeded to Anjou and Maine, and
by a marriage with Eleanor of Guienne
gained Guienne and Poitou. In 1152 he
invaded England, but a compromise was
effected, by which Stephen was to retain
the crown and Henry to succeed at his
death, which took place in 1154. The
commencement of his reign was marked
by the dismissal of the foreign merce-
naries; and though involved with his
brother, Godfrey, who attempted to seize
Anjou and Maine, and in a temporary
dispute with France, he reigned prosper-
ously till the contest with Thomas Becket
regarding the Constitutions of Clarendon.
Though sufficiently submissive after
Becket's death in the way of penance and
expiation, Henry only gave up the article
in the Constitutions of Clarendon which
forbade appeals to the court of Rome in
ecclesiastical cases. Before this matter
was terminated, Henry, in 1171, com-
pleted the conquest of Ireland, a great
part of which had been reduced by Rich-
ard de Clare, Earl of Pembroke, com-
monly known as Strongbow. Henry's
last years were embittered by his sons,
to whom he had assigned vai'ious terri-
tories. The eldest son, Henry, who had
been not only declared heir to England,
Normandy, Anjou, Maine and Touraine,
but actually crowned in his father's life-
time, was induced by the French mon-
arch to demand of his father the imme-
diate resignation either of the kingdom
of England or of the dukedom of Nor-
mandy. Queen Eleanor excited her other
sons, Richard and Geoffrey, to make sim-
ilar claims; Louis and William of Scot-
land gave them support; and a general
invasion of Henry's dominions was be-
gTin in 1173 by an attack on the fron-
tiers of Normandy, and an invasion of
England by the Scots, attended by con-
siderable disturbance in England. Con-
ciliating the Church by his penance,
Henry took prompt action; William of
Scotland was captured, and an accommo-
dation arrived at with Henry's sons.
These, however, once more became tur-
bulent, and though the deaths of Henry
and Geoffrey reduced the numbers of
centers of disturbance, the king was
forced to accept humiliating terms from
Richard and Philip of France. He died
shortly after at Chinon in 1189. He
ranks among the greatest English kings
both in soldiership and statecraft.
Henry III., eldest son of King John
and Isabella of Angouleme; born in Win-
chester, in 1207. He succeeded his father
in 1216. The regency was intrusted to
William Marshal, Earl of Pembroke,
who, in 1217, defeated the French army
at Lincoln, and compelled the dauphin
Louis to retire to France. On Pem-
broke's death, in May, 1219, Hubert de
Burgh and Peter des Roches, Bishop of
Winchester, became regents; but mutual
jealousies and dissensions disturbed their
administration and weakened their
power. Henry was crowned a second
time, in 1220, and two years later was
declared of age, but his feebleness of
character unfitted him to rule, and the
real power remained with his ministers.
His fondness for foreign counsellors, his
unsuccessful wars with France, and his
attempts to govern without parliaments,
excited much ill-humor in the nation.
This was increased by the heavy impo-
sitions on his subjects, made necessary by
his acceptance of the crown of Sicily for
his son Edmund. At length, in 1258, he
was virtually deposed by the "Mad Par-
liament," which assembled at Oxford,
and a council of state was formed under
the presidency of Simon de Montfort.
The popular leaders quarreled among
themselves, while the king was a prisoner
in their hands. But in 1262 civil war be-
gan, the king being compelled to employ
foreign mercenaries. In 1264 the battle
of Lewes was fought, at which the king.
Prince Edward, Earl Richard, king of
the Romans, and his son Henry, were
made prisoners by the barons. Soon
after, De Montford, now virtually sover-
eign, summoned a Parliament, which met
in January, 1265, and was the first to
which knights of the shires and repre-
sentatives of cities and boroughs were
called; thus constituting the first House
of Commons. In August of that year
HENRY
502
HENRY
De Montfort was defeated and killed by
Prince Edward, at the battle of Evesham,
and the king regained his liberty. But
the war lasted two years longer. In 1270
Prince Edward set out on the crusade,
and before his return Henry died at
Westminster, Nov. 16, 1272.
Henry IV. (called Bolingbroke), Duke
of Hereford, and eldest son of John of
Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster; born in Bo-
lingbroke in Lincolnshire, 1366. Having
deposed his cousin, Richard II., in 1399,
ascended the throne as Henry IV. This
usurpation gave rise to the civil war be-
tween the houses of York and Lancaster,
which broke out under the sway of Henry
VI. His reign was disturbed by a rebellion
headed by the Duke of Northumberland
and his son Percy, surnamed "Hotspur."
After subduing all opposition, Henry IV.
died overwhelmed with remorse for
many of his unscrupulous deeds, in 1413.
Henry V. (surnamed Monmouth), one
of the most illustrious of the line of
English sovereigns, and whose early life
of riot and dissipation gave but little
promise of his after virtues; born in
1388, ascended the throne on the death
of his father, Henry IV. In obedience
to the dying advice of his parent, to
give the public mind employment, he de-
clared war against France, laying claim
to that throne in right of his ancestors,
and at once led a powerful army to the
invasion of that kingdom; and after tak-
ing Harfleur and devastating the north-
ern provinces, fought and won the glo-
rious battle of Agincourt. To check
Henry's further progress and avert the
total ruin of his country, the French mon-
arch concluded a truce with Henry, who,
to ratify the arrangement, espoused
Charles' daughter, the Princess Cath-
arine. No king ever sat on the English
throne who was more beloved and hon-
ored than the gallant Harry "Mon-
mouth." He died in 1422.
Henry VI., the only son of the above;
born 1421, was but ten months old at
the death of his father, and was pro-
claimed king on the day after that event.
His grandfather, Charles VI., King of
France, died soon after, and the Duke of
Orleans assumed the title of king by the
name of Charles VII. This renewed the
war between England and France, and
the English, for a while, were success-
ful. Henry was crowned at Paris, and
the great Duke of Bedford, his guardian,
obtained several important victories. But
the raising of the siege of Orleans by
Joan of Arc gave a new turn to affairs,
and the English power declined, and was,
in the end, quite subverted. The death
of the Duke of Bedford was a fatal
blow to the cause of Henry; and^ to add
to his misfortunes, the York party in
England grew strong, and involved the
country in a civil war. They adopted the
white rose as their badge of distinction,
and the Lancastrians the red. Hence the
title given to the struggle — "the War of
the Roses." After various contests, the
king was defeated, and taken prisoner.
However, his wife, Margaret of Anjou,
carried on the war with spirit, and for
some time with considerable success.
Richard, Duke of York, was slain at
Wakefield, and Henry recovered his lib-
erty; but Edward, Earl of March, son
of Richard, laid claim to the crown, and
routed the queen's forces at Ludlow, but
was himself afterward defeated at St.
Alban's. At length the York party pre-
vailed, and Henry was sent to the Tower,
where it is believed, he was slain by
Richard, Duke of Gloucester. He was
found dead in the Tower in 1471.
Henry VII. (Tudor), son of Edmund,
Earl of Richmond, and of Margaret, of
the house of Lancaster, born in 1456. By
the assistance of the Duke of Brittany,
he landed in Wales with some troops, and
laid claim to the crown in 1485. The
people, disgusted at the cruelties of Rich-
ard III., joined him in such numbers that
he was enabled to give the usurper battle
at Bosworth Field, where Richard was
slain, and Henry crowned on the spot.
He united the houses of York and Lan-
caster by marrying Elizabeth, daughter
of Edward IV. His reign met with little
disturbance, except from two impostors,
set up by Lady Margaret, sister to Ed- '
ward IV. One was a joiner's son, called
Lambert Simnel, who personated Rich-
ard, Duke of York, who had been mur-
dered by the Duke of Gloucester in the
tower. On being taken prisoner, Henry
made him a scullion in his kitchen. The
other was Perkin Warbeck, who said he
was the Duke of York; but he was soon
taken, and hanged at Tyburn. Henry
reigned 24 years, and greatly increased
trade and commerce; but his avarice w^s
excessive. He died in 1509.
Henry VIII., born in 1491; succeeded
his father, Henry VII., at the age of 19.
The first years of his reign were auspi-
cious owing to his generosity; but at
length his conduct grew capricious and
arbitrary. The Emperor Maximilian and
Pope Julius II., having leagued against
France, persuaded Henry to join them,
and he, in consequence, invaded that
kingdom, where he made some conquests.
About the same time, James IV., King
of Scotland, invaded England, but was
defeated and slain at Flodden Field. Car-
dinal Wolsey succeeded in bringing
Henry over from the imperial interests
to those of the French king. When Lu-
HENEY
603
HENRY
ther commenced his reformation in Ger-
many, Henry wrote a book against him,
for which he was complimented by the
Pope with the title of "Defender of the
Faith." But this attachment to the Ro-
man see did not last long; for, having
conceived an affection for Anne Boleyn,
he determined to divorce his wife, Cath-
arine of Aragon, to whom he had been
married 18 years. His plea for the di-
vorce was that Catharine was his brother
Arthur's widow. The divorce being re-
fused by the Pope, Henry assumed the
title of Supreme Head of the English
Church, put down the monasteries, and
alienated their possessions to secular pur-
poses. His marriage with Anne Boleyn
followed; but he afterward sent her to
the scaffold, and married Lady Jane Sey-
mour, who died in child-bed. He next
married Anne of Cleves; but she not
proving agreeable to his expectations, he
put her away, and caused Cromwell,
Earl of Essex, the projector of the
match, to be beheaded. His next wife
was Catharine Howard, who was be-
headed for adultery; after which he es-
poused Catharine Parr, who survived
him. He was a man of strong passions
and considerable learning. The historian
Froude has vindicated his memory in
many respects. He died in 1547.
FRANCE.
Henry I., born in 1004, succeeded his
father, Robert I., in 1031, and died in
1060, after a reign of 23 years, frequent-
ly disturbed by civil and foreign wars.
Henry II., son of Francis I. and his
queen, Claude, born 1518. His marriage
with Catharine de Medicis was celebrated
at Marseilles, in 1533, by her uncle,
Pope Clement VII. Henry succeeded his
father in 1547, and at once made a com-
plete change in the court and ministry.
The most influential persons in his reigTi
were the Cardinal of Lorraine and his
brother Francis, Duke of Guise, the Con-
stable de Montmorenci, the Marshal de
St. Andre, and Diana of Poitiers, the
king's favorite mistress, whom he made
duchess of Valentinois. He carried on
war with England, and recovered Bou-
logne for France ; war with the Pope and
with Spain; fighting for the Protestants
in Germany, while he persecuted them
in France; acquired by conquest Metz,
Toul, and Verdun; and retained them
under the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis,
which closed the war in 1559. By the
same treaty Calais was confirmed to
France. The siege of Metz by Charles
v., and its defense by the Duke of Guise;
the battle and siege of Renti; the great
victory of the Spaniards at St. Quentin;
and the battle of Gravelines, are the
chief military events of this reign. Mary,
the young queen of Scots, was brought to
France about 1549 and betrothed to the
dauphin Francois. Henry died in July,
1559, from the effects of a wound acci-
dentally inflicted by the Count of Mont-
gomery at a splendid tournament a few
days before.
Henry III., third son of Henry II. and
Catharine de Medicis; born in 1551. He
was first known as Duke of Anjou, and
distinguished himself as a soldier at the
battle of Jarnac and Moncontour. He
was elected King of Poland in 1573, but
being proclaimed King of France on the
death of Charles IX., in 1574, he escaped,
not without risk, from Poland, and re-
turned to France. The country was dis-
tracted with the conflicting factions, and
wasted with civil war; and the king,
feeble in character and self-indulgent,
was governed by ignoble favorites. The
famous Catholic League was formed,
with the Duke of Guise at its head;
Henry of Navarre put himself at the
head of the Huguenots, and won the bat-
tle of Coutras; Paris fell into the power
of the League in 1588, and the king fled
to Chartres and Rouen ; later in the same
year he convoked the states-general at
Blois, and there had the two Guises as-
sassinated, a crime which excited the re-
volt of Paris and the principal cities of
the kingdom. The Duke of Mayenne was
named by the League lieutenant-general
of the royal estate and crown of France,
and Henry, roused at last to action,
joined his rival, Henry of Navarre, and
advanced to besiege Paris. At St. Cloud,
which he made his headquarters, he was
stabbed by a fanatic, Jacques Clement,
and died the day after, Aug. 1, 1589.
Henry III. left no children, and was the
last sovereign of the Valois line.
Henry IV. (Quatre), called The Great,
King of France and Navarre; born in
1553 in Pau, in Beam. His father, An-
thony of Bourbon, was descended from
a son of Louis IX.; his mother was
Jeanne d'Albret, daughter of Henry,
King of Navarre. He was brought up
in the simple and hardy manner of the
peasantry of Beam, and thus laid the
foundation of a vigorous constitution and
temperate habits. When the perfidious
design of destroying the Huguenot chiefs
by a massacre was formed by Charles
IX. and his mother, Catherine, one of
their means to lull suspicion was to pro-
pose to Queen Jeanne a marriage be-
tween Henry and Margaret of Valois,
the king's youngest sister. While prep-
arations were making for the marriage
festival, Henry's mother died at Paris,
not without strong suspicions of poison.
Having assumed the title of King of Na-
varre, his marriage took place, Aug. 18,
HENBY
504
HENRY
1572. Then followed the horrible scenes
of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24. Henry-
was obliged to make a profession of the
Catholic faith to save his life; but Cath-
arine of Medicis endeavored to dissolve
the marriage just celebrated. As she
was unsuccessful in this, she adopted the
plan of corrupting the noble youth by the
pleasures of a licentious court; and he
did not escape the snare. In 1576, how-
ever, he took advantage of a hunting ex-
cursion to quit the court, and professed
himself again of the Protestant Church.
Catharine, who after the decease of
Charles IX., administered the govern-
ment in the name of his successor, Henry
III., now thought it advisable to conclude
a treaty of peace with the Huguenots
(1576), securing to them religious free-
dom. Exasperated by this event, the
Catholics formed the celebrated League,
which Henry III. was obliged to confirm;
and the religious war was recommenced.
In 1587 Henry obtained a victory over
the Catholics at Coutras, in Guienne. In
1589, on the assassination of Henry III.,
Henry of Navarre succeeded to the
throne ; but he had to secure his claim by
hard fighting and by the profession of
the Catholic faith. The same year he
won the victory of Arques, and the fol-
lowing year that of Ivry, over the forces
of the League, headed by the Duke of
Mayenne. After a protracted and obsti-
nate struggle, convinced that he should
never enjoy quiet possession of the
French throne, without professing the
Catholic faith, Henry at length yielded
to the wishes of his friends, was in-
structed in the doctrines of the Roman
Church, and professed the Catholic faith,
July 25, 1593, in the Church of St. Denis.
He happily escaped an attempt to as-
sassinate him; was solemnly anointed
king at Chartres in 1594; and entered
the capital amid the acclamations of the
people. Peace was not fully re-estab-
lished till 1598, when the treaty of _Ver-
vins was signed. In 1610, while riding
through the streets of Paris, his coach
was obstructed in the Rue de la Feron-
nerie by two wagons. A fanatic named
Ravaillac took advantage of the moment
to perpetrate a long meditated deed;
and the king received a fatal stab from
the hand of this assassin, in the 57th
year of his age and the 27th of his reign.
Henry V. of France. See Chambord.
GERMANY.
Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, Em-
peror of Germany, born in 876, was the
son of Otho, Duke of Saxony, and elected
to the imperial dignity in the year 918.
He reunited the German princes, and
subdued the Hungarians, formed good
laws, and built several cities. He van-
quished the Bohemians, the Slavonians
and the Danes, and conquered the king-
dom of Lorraine. He died in 936.
Henry II., great-grandson of the pre-
ceding; born 972. He succeeded his
father as Duke of Bavaria, and in 1002
was elected King of Germany, and
crowned at Mentz and at Aix-la-Chapelle.
Two years later he was crowned King
of Lombardy at Pavia, his rival, Har-
douin, avoiding a combat with him. He
was engaged in frequent wars, in Italy,
in Bohemia, Bavaria, etc. In 1014 he
received the imperial crown at Rome, his
wife, Cunegunde, being crowned with
him. They were both distinguished for
their piety and devotion to the Church,
and were canonized. He died in 1024.
Henry III., son of the Emperor Con-
rad II.; born in 1017; succeeded his
father in the imperial dignity in 1039.
Nature had given him the talents, and
education the character, suitable for an
able ruler. In everything he undertook
he displayed a steady and persevering
spirit; the clergy were compelled to ac-
knowledge their dependence on him, and
the temporal lords he held in actual sub-
jection. He deposed three popes, and
raised Clement II. to the vacant chair;
and he was as successful in his wars as
in his administration. He died in 1056.
Henry IV., son of the preceding; bom
in 1050, and at the death of his father
was only five years old. His mother,
Agnes, was made regent, and on her
death the chief power was seized by his
uncles, the Dukes of Saxony and Ba-
varia. Henry made war on them, and
threw off their yoke. He, however, of-
fended his subjects by the licentiousness
of his manners, and quarreled vidth the
Pope, Gregory VII., about investitures.
The latter being appealed to in a subse-
quent dispute between Henry and the
Duke of Saxony, cited Henry to his tri-
bunal, who then deposed the Pope, to be
in turn excommunicated by him. The
emperor was compelled to submit, went to
Canossa, where the Pope then was, and
after being kept three days in the court-
yard, received absolution. The quarrel
was soon renewed, deposition, excommu-
nication, and election of new popes and
emperors followed. Henry's eldest son,
Conrad, rebelled against him, but was
overcome, and died in Florence in 1101.
He then caused his second son, Henry,
to be elected his successor, and crowned;
but the latter also rebelled, and making
himself master of his father's person, in
1106, by stratagem, compelled him to ab-
dicate the throne. Henry IV. died in
1106.
Henry V., the son and successor of
the preceding; born in 1081. In 1106 he
HENRY
505
HENTY
rebelled against his father, and de-
throned him, assuming the imperial
crown in his stead. In 1111 he mar-
ried Matilda, the daughter of Henry I.,
King of England; and the rich dowry
he received with his princess gave him
the means of undertaking an expedition
to demand the imperial crown from the
Pope. Finding that Pascal refused to
crown him, Henry caused the Pope to be
conveyed away from the altar while at
mass; and cut down, in the streets of
Rome, all who opposed him. At length
the Pope yielded, and Henry was
crowned in 1112, without making any
new concessions. Soon after his return
to Germany the Pope excommunicated
him; which led to a new war, the inva-
sion of Italy, and the election of a rival
Pope, Peace was not made till 1122,
when the emperor renounced his claims.
He died in 1125.
Henry VI., son of Frederick Barba-
rossa; bom in 1165. He was elected
King of the Romans when four years of
age, and succeeded his father on the im-
perial throne in 1190. The same year,
on the death of William II., King of
Sicily, he claimed that crown in right
of Constance, his wife, daughter of King
Roger. After being crowned at Rome
with his wife in 1191, he made an un-
successful attempt to conquer Naples. In
1193 he gave Leopold, Duke of Austria,
a small price to hand over to his keep-
ing his royal prisoner, Richard I. of
England, whom he detained nearly a
year, and released for a heavy ransom.
With this money he undertook another
expedition against Sicily and succeeded.
He was crowned at Palermo in 1194. A
revolt broke out in consequence of his
tyranny, and he returned to suppress it.
He died in Messina in 1197.
Henry VII., succeeded Albert I. in
1308. He undertook an expedition to
Italy, and compelled the Milanese to
crown him King of Lombardy. He then
suppressed a revolt which had broken
out in upper Italy; took several cities by
storm; and, having captured Rome, he
was crowned Roman emperor by the car-
dinals sent from Avignon, while in the
streets the work of murder and pillage
was still going on. He died in 1313.
Henry (Rapson), Landgrave of
Thuringia, was elected Emperor by the
ecclesiastical princes in 1246, when Pope
Innocent IV. deposed Frederick II. He
died in 1247 of a wound received fight-
ing his rival.
HENBY, surnamed The Navigator.
a Portuguese prince; born in Oporto in
1394. The ambition of Henry was the
discovery of unknown regions of the
world. At Sagres he erected an observ-
atory, to which he attached a school
for the instruction of youthful scions of
the nobility in the sciences neces.sary
to navigation. Subsequently he dis-
patched some of his pupils on voyages
of discovery, which resulted at last in
the discovery of the Madeira Islands in
1418. Henry's thoughts were now di-
rected toward the auriferous coasts of
Guinea, of which he had heard from the
Moors; and in 1433 one of his mariners
sailed round Cape Nun, till then re-
garded as the farthest point of the earth,
and took possession of the coasts as far
S. as Cape Bojador. Next year Henry
sent out a larger ship, which reached a
point 120 miles beyond Cape Bojador;
and at last, in 1440, Cape Blanco was
reached. Henry died in 1460.
HENRY, PATRICK, an American
patriot; born in Hanover co., Va., May
29, 1736. He entered business and mar-
ried at 18. Having failed successively
in "store-keeping" and in farming, he be-
came a lawyer in 1760, and three years
later found his opportunity, when, hav-
ing been employed to plead the cause of
the people against an unpopular tax, his
great eloquence seemed suddenly to de-
velop itself. This defense placed him at
once in the front rank of American ora-
tors, and his later speeches advanced him
to their head. Throughout the Revolu-
tionary War he was a zealous patriot.
He was a delegate to the 1st Continen-
tal Congress, which met in Philadelphia
in 1774, and delivered the first speech in
that assembly — a speech that for fiery
eloquence and lofty tone was worthy of
so momentous a meeting. In 1776 he
carried the vote of the Virginia conven-
tion for independence; and in the same
year he became governor of the new
State. In 1791 he retired from public
life, and returned to his practice; in
1795 he declined the secretaryship of
State offered him by Washington. He *
died June 6, 1799.
HENRY, FORT, an ancient fort
erected on the site of the present town
of Petersburg, Va., in 1646.
HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED, a popu-
lar English novelist and writer for boys;
bom in Trumpington, Cambridgeshire,
Dec. 8, 1832. He was editor of "Union
Jack," a journal for boys, and has been
special war correspondent of the London
"Standard" in various quarters of the
globe. A voluminous writer, among his
works are : "The Young Franc-Tireurs,"
"Winning His Spurs," "Facing Death,"
"The Lion of St. Mark's," "In the Hands
of the Cave Dwellers," "Lost Heir," and
some 70 others. He died in 1902.
HEPTARCHY
506
HERETIC
HEPTARCHY (hep'tar-ke) , the name
sometimes applied to the seven kingdoms
supposed to have been established by
the Saxons in England. This is under-
stood to mean only that the chief king-
doms at various periods from the 5th to
the 9th century were Wessex, Sussex,
Kent, Essex, East Anglia, Mercia and
Northumberland.
HERALDRY, properly the knowledge
of the whole multifarious duties devolv-
ing on a herald; in the more restricted
sense it is the science of armorial bear-
ings. The rules of heraldry differ some-
what in different countries, but the gen-
eral principles are the same. In English
heraldry, arms are divisible into three
classes: Arms of states, of communities
or corporations, and of persons and fam-
ilies. All these classes of arms are dis-
played on a shield or escutcheon. There
is no prescribed form for the shield. The
shields of maids and widows are in the
form of a lozenge. The face of the
shield, on which the arms ai'e blazoned,
is technically called the field.
HERAT (her-af), a city of Afghan-
istan, and capital of an independent
state; in a plain near the Herirood river,
360 miles W. by N. of Kabul. It is well
fortified, and surrounded by a wet ditch,
mound, and bastioned wall. It contains
a number of caravanseries, public baths,
reservoirs, and numerous mosques, be-
sides a strong citadel. Herat is the em-
porium of the commerce carried on be-
tween Kabul and Bokhara, Hindustan,
and Persia, and is a grand central mart
for the products of India, China, Tar-
tary, Afghanistan, and Persia. The local
manufactures include carpets, leather,
caps, cloaks, shoes, etc. This place has
often been ravaged by various conquerors
disputing the empire of Asia. The po-
sition of Herat is one of the greatest
possible importance, and has been well
described as the "Gate of India"; for
within the limits of the Heratee country
all the great roads leading to India con-
verge. By the Herat route alone could
a formidable and well-equipped army
march upon the Indian frontier from the
N. W. regions. Pop. about 20,000. See
Afghanistan.
HERBERT, GEORGE, an English
poet, brother of Lord Herbert of Cher-
bury; born in 1593. He was educated at
Trinity College, Cambridge. From 1619
till 1627 he was university orator. The
death of James I. in 1625 put an end to
his prospects of civil promotion, and in
the same year he took orders, and be-
came a prebendary in the diocese of
Lincoln. In 1630 he took priest's orders,
and was presented to the rectory of Be-
merton, near Salisbury, in Wiltshire.
His collection of religious poems, "The
Temple," was published in 1631 and the
"Jacula Prudentum," a collection of prov-
erbs, in 1640. His chief prose work
was "The Country Parson" (1652). He
died in 1633.
HERCULANEUM (her-ku-la'ne-um),
an ancient city about 5 miles from Na-
{)les, completely buried with Pompeii by
ava and ashes during an eruption of
Vesuvius in the reign of Titus, A. D. 79.
HERCULES (her'ku-lez), or HERAC-
LES, the beloved son of Zeus by
Alcmene, was intended by his father to
be king of the Argives; but Hera, the
jealous spouse of Zeus, by a trick caused
Eurystheus to become king of Argos.
Nor was her wrath satisfied with this;
she made Hercules serve Eurystheus, by
far the inferior man. And he enjoined
hard adventures on Hercules, even send-
ing him to Hades to fetch up the dog
Cerberus. Thus Hercules was doomed
to a life of trouble, and became the type
among the Greeks not only of manly
strength, but of manly endurance. Be-
sides the labors imposed on him by
Eurystheus, Hercules undertook adven-
tures on his own account, killing a sea
monster that ravaged Troy, and destroy-
ing Troy when the mares promised him
as i-eward for killing the monster were
denied him. His love of horses also led
him to kill Iphitus, though his guest.
Finally, after death, he himself joined
the banquet of the deathless gods, with
Hebe as his wife; but his phantom,
armed with bow and arrow and gold bal-
dric, with wild boars and lions wrought
upon it, terrified the dead in Hades.
HEREDITY, thfc transmission from
parent to offspring of physical and intel-
lectual characters.
HEREFORD, the county-town of
Herefordshire, England, 144 miles W.
N. W. of London. Its noble cathedral
was built between 1079 and 1535, and so
exhibits every variety of style from Nor-
man to Perpendicular.
HERETIC, one who adopts, and prob-
ably propagates, religious views which
the Church to which he belongs, or the
Christian Church in general, deems er-
roneous, and imperiling the eternal sal-
vation of anyone holding them. Here-
sies began in the Apostolic age. There
were, for instance, Hymeneus and Phile-
tus, who said that the resurrection was
already past (II Tim. ii: 17), and ap-
parently the Nicolaitanes, though they
are censured for hateful deeds rather
than doctrines (Rev. ii: 6). The Scrip-
ture direction for dealing ecclesiastically
HEREWARD
507
HERNIA
with heresies is given in Titus iii: 10:
"A man that is an heretick after the first
and second admonition reject." When
the Church gained an influence over the
civil power, it induced the latter to
superadd civil to the ecclesiastical pen-
alties for heresy. Those who differed
from the opinions of the imperial house
received many kinds of ill usage, but it
was not till A, D. 382 that a law of Theo-
dosius I., directed against the Mani-
chaeans, authorized capital punishment
for heresy. This law led to the execu-
tion at Treves, in A. D. 385, of Priscillian,
Bishop of Avila; he is believed to have
been the first person put to death by a
Christian government for heresy.
HEREWARD (her^e-) commonly
called HEREWARD THE Wake, an English
yeoman or squire who held the Isle of
Ely against William the Conqueror in
1070-1071. When William had succeeded
in encompassing the English patriots
and penetrating to their camp of refuge,
Hereward, scorning to yield, cut his way
through to the fastnesses of the swampy
fens N.
HERISTAL (ha'ris-tal) or HER-
STAL, (hers'-), an industrial town of
Belgium, on the Meuse, immediately N.
E. of Liege, of which it is virtually a
suburb. It is mostly inhabited by work-
men, who find employment in the coal
mines and the iron and steelworks.
Ruins still exist of the castle of Heristal,
the birthplace of Pepin, the mayor of the
palace; and his great-grandson Charle-
magne frequently resided here.
HERKIMER, a village of New York,
the county-seat of Herkimer co. It is
on the Mohawk river and on the Erie
and Barge canals, and on the New York
Central and Hudson River and the Otsego
and Herkimer railroads. It is the center
of an important dairying region and has
manufactures of knit goods, ofiice desks,
beds, furniture, paper boxes, mattresses,
etc. Pop. (1910) 7,520; (1920) 10,453.
HERKOMER, SIR HUBERT, an Eng-
lish painter; born in Waal, Bavaria,
May 26, 1849. At an early age he
settled with his parents in the United
States and subsequently in England. He
joined the Institute of Painters in Water
Colors in 1871. His oil picture, "After
the Toil of Day," in the Academy exhibi-
tion of 1873, was followed by his "Last
Muster," which gained him the "grand
medal of honor" at the Paris Exhibi-
tion of 1878. He was in 1879 elected
an A. R. A. After 1880 he devoted much
time to portraiture, and his portrait of
Miss Grant is one of his many successes
in that branch of art. He founded the
Herkomer School of Art, at Bushey, in
1883; was elected a Royal Academician
in 1890; was Slade Professor of Fine
Arts at Oxford in 1885-1895; and was
elected an Associate of the French
Academy of Fine Arts in 1895. He died
in 1914.
HERMANNSTADT (her'man-stat), a
town of Rumania, formerly capital of
Transylvania, 370 miles S. E. of Pest.
It consists of an upper and a lower
town, the walls, towers, and bastions
formerly surrounding which have only
recently been demolished. Hermann-
stadt is the seat of a Greek archbishop
and of a "Saxon" university. The fine
Bruckenthal palace contains a picture-
gallery, numismatic, antiquarian, and
mineral collections, and a library of 30,-
000 volumes. Tanning, wax-bleaching,
and the making of cloth, paper, candles,
sugar, and hats are carried on. Her-
mannstadt was originally the seat of a
German colony, founded in the reign of
Gesa IL (1141-1161), and was at first
called Villa Hermanni. It endured sev-
eral sieges from the Turks (1438 and
1442) , as well as one from the followers
of John Zapolya (1526). It also suffered
at the hands of Gabriel Bathori in 1610,
and again from both combatants during
the Russo-Hungarian War of 1849.
Pop. about 25,000.
HERMES (hur'mez) , in Greek mythol-
ogy, Mercury, the god of speech, elo-
quence, the sciences, traffic, theft, and
herds, the herald and messenger of the
gods. The Hermes of archaeology is a
rough quadrangular stone or pillar hav-
ing a head, usually of Hermes or
Mercury, sculptured on the top, without
arms or body, placed by the Greeks in
the front of buildings, and used by
Romans as landmarks.
HERMOSILLO (her-mo-seFyo), a cap-
ital of the Mexican State of Sonora, in a
fertile plain on the Rio Sonora, 50 miles
N. of Guaymas. It has a mint and other
government buildings, a bank of issue,
sawmills, distilleries, and shoe and
furniture factories, and a large export
trade in wheat and wine. Pop. about
15,000.
HERNIA, the protrusion of some por-
tion of the intestinal canal, or, in a
more general sense, of any organ or part
of an organ, from its natural place. It
may arise from over- exertion, from a
blow, etc. There are many varieties of
hernia, as, the diaphragmatic, the entero-
vaginal, the mesenteric, the mesocolic,
omental, perineal, the femoral, etc.; the
most common of all is the inguinal, oc-
curring in the groin. It may be direct or
internal and oblique or external. When
a hernia cannot be reduced, and, above
HEROD THE GREAT
508
HERPES
all, when it becomes strangulated, it
is apt to terminate in gangrene and
death.
HEROD THE GREAT, King of the
Jews, an Idumaean by birth, made king
by the triumvirs in 40 B. C. He is famed
in history for his cruelty; and one of his
latest acts was the massacre of the In-
nocents, which he ordered in the hope of
killing him who (the Magi had told him)
v/as "born king of the Jews." He died
in 2 A. D.
HEROD AGRIPPA I., son of Aristo-
bulus by Berenice, daughter of Herod the
Great. From his attachment to Caligula
he was imprisoned by Tiberius, but on
the accession of Caligula (a. d. 37) he
received the government of part of Pal-
estine, and latterly all the dominions of
Herod the Great. To please the Jews,
with whom his rule was very popular, he
caused St. James to be put to death, and
imprisoned St. Peter. He died in the
circumstances related in Acts xii., in
\. D. 44.
HEROD AGRIPPA II., a Jewish
prince; son of Herod Agrippa I.; born
about A. D, 27. On his father's death,
he being too young to govern, Judea was
reduced to a Roman province. He sub-
sequently received the kingdom of Chal-
cis, and obtained the superintendency of
the temple at Jerusalem, where, with his
sister, Berenice, he heard the defense of
Paul before Festus. Being driven from
Jerusalem by the revolt of the Jews he
joined Cestius, and later on Vespasian,
and during the siege of Jerusalem was
very serviceable to Titus. After its re-
duction (A. D. 70) he and Berenice re-
turned to Rome. He is supposed to have
died there, A. D. 94.
HEROD ANTIPAS, son of Herod the
Great, by his fifth wife, Cleopatra, was
appointed tetrarch of Galilee on his death
(4 B. c). This was the Herod who put
to death St. John the Baptist, in compli-
ment to his wife Herodias in revenge
for his reproaches of their incestuous
union. Having visited Rome he was ac-
cused of having been concerned in the
conspiracy of Sejanus, and was stripj)ed
of his dominions, and sent (a. d. 39) with
his wife into exile at Lugdunum (Lyons) ,
or, as some say, to Spain, where he died.
HERODIAS, a granddaughter of
Herod the Great and Mariamne, daugh-
ter of Aristobulus and sister of Herod
Agrippa I. She was first married to her
uncle Herod Philip, but afterward aban-
doned him and connected herself with
his brother Herod Antipas. It was 6y
her artifice that Herod was persuaded
to cause to be put to death John the Bap-
tist, who had boldly denounced the in-
cestuous connection which subsisted be-
tween her and Herod.
HERODOTUS (-rod'o-tus), a Greek
historian, surnamed "the Father of His-
tory"; born in Halicarnassus, Asia Mi-
nor, probably about 484 B. c. Disgusted
with the government of Lygdamis, the
grandson of Artemisia, who was tyrant
of his native city, he retired for a time
to the island of Samos, whence he ac-
quired the Ionic dialect, in which he
afterward composed his history. To col-
lect the necessary materials for his great
work, he entered in early manhood on a
course of patient and observant travel,
visiting almost every part of Greece and
its dependencies, and many other coun-
tries. On his return from his travels,
he took a prominent part in delivering
his country from the tyranny of Lygda-
mis. But the expulsion of the tyrant did
not bring tranquillity to Halicarnassus,
and Herodotus, having himself become
an object of dislike, again quitted his na-
tive city, and settled at Thurii, in the S.
of Italy, B. c. 443. Here he virrote the
work which has immortalized his name.
His history consists of nine books, which
bear the names of the nine Muses. He
died in Thurii, Italy, probably about
424 B. c.
HERON, the common name of birds
of the genus Ardea, constituting with
the bitterns the family Ardeid^, type of
what is now commonly regarded as a sep-
arate order of birds, the Herodiones. The
herons are very numerous, and almost
universally spread over the globe. They
are distinguished by having a long bill
cleft beneath the eyes, a compressed body,
long slender legs naked above the tarsal
joint, three toes in front, the two outer
united by a membrane, and by moderate
wings. The tail is short, rounded, and
composed of 10 or 12 feathers. The
common heron {A. cinerea) is about
three feet in length from the point of the
bill to the end of the tail, builds its nest
in high trees, many being sometimes on
one tree. Its food consists of fish, frogs,
mollusks, mice, moles, and similar small
animals. The great heron (A. herodias)
is an inhabitant of America, and is called
also great blue heron; the great white
heron or egret (A. or Herodias alba)
belongs to Europe; and the green heron
(A. virescens) , the flesh of which is much
esteemed, is a native of North America.
HERPES, a skin affection, composed
of vesicles grouped on an inflamed sur-
face, as in the lip (herpes labialis)
in pneumonia, or as shingles (herpes
zoster) where they form a belt round
half the body. Duration, from 16 to
20 days.
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