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THE  LIBRARY 

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THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

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Joseph  P.   Loeb 


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COLLIER'S 

NEW 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

A   LOOSE-LEAF  AND    SELF- REVISING 
REFERENCE  WORK 


IN  TEN  VOLUMES  WITH  515  ILLUSTRATIONS 
AND  NINETY  SIX  MAPS 


VOLUME  SEVEN 


P.  F.  COLLIER  &  SON  COMPANY 

New  York 


Copyright  1921 
By  p.   F.   Collier  &)  Son  Company 


MANUFACTURED    IN    U.     S.    A. 


GENERAL  EDITORIAL  ADVISORY  BOARD  AND 
CONTRIBUTING   EDITORS 

DR.  WILLIAM   A.  NEILSON,  Chairman 

PRESIOEXT     b.MlTil     COLLEGli,     NORTHAMl'ION,     MASS. 

REAR    ADMIRAL    AUSTIN    M.  KNIGHT 

FORMER    PRESIDENT    OF    NAVAL    WAR    COLLEGE,    NEWPORT,    R.    I. 

DR.  JOSEPH    H.  ODELL 

DIRECTOR,    SERVICE    CITIZENS    OF    DELAWARE,    WILMINGTON,    DEL. 

DR.  KENNETH    C.   M.  SILLS 

PRESIDENT    BOWDOIN    COLLEGE,    BRUNSWICK,    ME. 

DR.  HENRV    S.  CAN  BY 

EDITOR    LITERARY    REVIEW,    NEW    YORK,    N.    Y. 

DR.  W.  T.  COUNCILMAN 

DEPARTMENT  OF   PATHOLOGY,  HARVARD    MEDICAL  SCHOOL,  BOSTON,  MASS, 

DR.  CHARLES    F.  THWING 

PRESIDENT    WESTERN    RESERVE    UNIVERSITY,    CLEVELAND,    OHIO 

DR.  EDWIN    GREENL.AW 

UNIVERSITY    OF    NORTH    CAROLINA,    CHAPEL    HILL,    N.    C. 

DR.  J.  IT.  KIRKL.\ND 

CHANCELLOR    VANDERBILT    UNIVERSITY,    NASHVILLE,    TENN. 

PROFESSOR    IRVING    FISHER 

YALE    UNIVERSITY,    NEW    HAVEN,    CONN. 


EDITOR  IN  CHIEF 
FRANCIS    J.  REYNOLDS 

FORMER    REFERENCE    LIBRARIAN,    LIBRARY    OF    CONGRESS 


MANAGING  EDITOR 
ALLEN  L.   CHURCHILL 

ASSOCIATE    EDITOR    THE    NEW    INTERNATIONAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


CONTRIBUTING  EDITORS 

J.  W.  DUFFIELD 

EDITORI.\L    STAFF    OF    THE    NEW    YORK    TIMES 

ALBERT    SONNICHSEN 

ECONOMIST,    WAR    CORRESPONDENT 

T.  C.  SH.'\FFER 

PROFESSOR    OF    HISTORY 

B.  H.  GOLDSMITH 

EDITOR,    ECONOMIST 

BENEDICT    FITZP.^TRICK 

FORMERLY    LITERARY    EDITOR    OF    THE    LONDON    MAIL 

C.  E.  MELOY    SMITH 

DREXEL    INSTITUTE,    CONSULTING    ENGINEER 

E.  D.  PIERSON 

EDITOR,    CORRESPONDENT    LONDON    TIMES 

J.  B.  GIBSON 

COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

J.  L.  FRENCH 

EDITOR,    AUTHOR 


653198 


List  of  Illustrations 

Parliament  Buildings,  London — Colored  Frontispiece 


Opposite  page  36 
An  Oil  Well,  Mexico 
Oil-Delivery  Station 
Olive  Orchard 
Harbor  of  Oporto 
OsTiA,  Ancient  Port  of  Rome 
Orange-Sorting  Machine 
Ostriches 
Oxford,  England 

Opposite  page  8U 
Landing  at  Jaffa,  Palestine 
Oxen  Treading  Corn,  Palestine 
Street  Scene,  Jerusalem 
Street  Scene,  Hebron 
Fishermen  on  Sea  of  Galilee 
Cedars,  Mt.  Lebanon 
The  River  Jordan 
The  Garden  of  Gethsemane 

Opposite  page  H8 
Royal  Palms,  Cuba 
Pedro  Miguel  Locks,  Panama  Canal 
Gaillard  Cut,  Panama  Canal 
Gatun  Locks,  Panama  Canal 
Pulp  Room  in  Paper  Mill 
Paper-Making  Machine 
Place  de  L'Opera,  Paris 
L'Ile  de  la  Cite 
The  Seine  and  Its  Bridges 


Opposite  page  228 

General     Pershing's     Arrival     in 

France 
Gathering  a  Peach  Crop 
Penguins  in  the  Antarctic 
City  op  Scranton,  Pennsylvania 
Gathering  Papayas  in  Peru 
Swinging  Bridge,  Peru 
Country  House  in  the  Philippines 
South  Broad  Street,   Philadelphia 

Opposite  page  32^. 

Pineapple  Plantation 
Plymouth  Rock 
Pilgrim  Monument 
Amphitheater  at  Pola 
House  of  Vetti,  Pompeii 
Pompeii  and  Vesuvius 
Governor's  Palace,  Porto  Rico 
Country  House,  Porto  Rico 
Modern  Agriculture,  Porto  Rico 

Opposite  page  U20 
Etoile  Cathedral,  Lisbon,  Portugal 
Palace  at  Potsdam 
Quebec  from  the  St.  Lawrence 
American  Pottery 
Shaping  Clay  on  a  Potter's  Wheel 
Cattle  from  Ranges 
Huge  Railway  Locomotive 
Oil-Burning  Engine  in  the  Rockies 
Making  a  Locomotive  Drive  Wheel 
Locomotive     Works,     Bloomington, 

III. 
Ragusa,  Dalmatia 


List  of  Maps 


Ohio 

Oklahoma 
Ontario 
Oregon 

Palestine 
Panama  Canal 
Pennsylvania 


Persia,  Afghanistan,  Baluchistan, 
AND  Parts  op  Central  Asia 

Philippine  Islands 

Porto  Rico 

Portugal — See  Spain  and  Portugal 

Prince  Edward  Island — See  New 
Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
Prince  Edward  Island 

Quebec 


11 


OCHRE  — RESORCIN" 


lU 


OCHRE 


O'CONNELL 


OCHRE,  a  combination  of  peroxide  of 
iron  with  water;  but  the  name  is  gener- 
ally applied  to  clays  colored  with  the  ox- 
ides of  iron  obtained  from  the  ferrugin- 
ous mud  separated  from  tin  and  copper 
ores ;  and  it  is  also  found  in  natural  beds 
some  feet  thick.  Ochres  vary  in  color 
from  a  pale  sandy  yellow  to  a  brownish 
red. 

OCHS,  ABOLPH  S.,  an  American 
newspaper  publisher,  born  in  Cincinnati, 
O.,  1858;  educated  in  the  public  schools 
of  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  where,  after  finish- 
ing his  schooling,  he  began  his  business 
career  by  selling  newspapers.  Later  he 
apprenticed  himself  to  a  printer  and  be- 
came a  compositor  on  a  local  newspaper. 
In  1878  he  ventured  into  the  newspaper 
publishing  field  himself,  acquiring  owner- 
ship of  the  Chattanooga  "Times,"  of 
which  he  is  still  the  proprietor.  In 
1896  he  purchased  the  New  York 
"Times."  He  was  also  a  director  of  the 
Associated  Press. 

0  C  H  T  M  A  N,  LEONARD.  Artist. 
Born  at  Zonnemaire,  Zeeland,  Holland, 
1854,  he  was  brought  by  his  family  to 
the  United  States  at  the  age  of  12  to  re- 
side at  Albany,  N.  Y.  His  first  work 
was  a  draughtsman  in  an  engn*aving  of- 
fice, after  which  he  had  a  studio  for  a 
couple  of  years,  developing  his  talent  in 
landscapes.  He  studied  also  for  a  time 
at  the  N.  Y.  Art  Student's  League, 
later  traveling  in  Europe.  Since  1882 
he  has  exhibited  at  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Design  and  elsewhere,  and  won 
many  awards,  including  two  gold  medals 
at  St.  Louis.  His  moonlight  scenes 
such  as  "Night  on  the  Miamee  River" 
are  among  his  best. 

OCLAWAHA  ("crooked  water"),  a 
river  of  Florida,  which  after  a  very  wind- 
ing course  of  275  miles  flows  into  the  St, 
John,  about  25  miles  S.  of  Palatka.  Its 
banks  are  densely  wooded,  and  the  coun- 
try so  flat  that  the  waters  extend  into 
the  forest  for  a  distance  on  either  side. 

OCMUXGEE,  a  river  rising  in  the  cen- 
tral part  of  Georgia,  running  in  a  S.  S. 
E.  direction,  passing  the  town  of  Macon, 
and  ultimately  uniting  with  the  Oconee 
to  form  the  Altamaha  river,  length  about 
200  miles. 

OCONEE,  a  river  in  Georgia,  which 
rises  in  Hall  co.,  and  unites  with  the  Oc- 
mulgee_  to  form  the  Altamaha  at  Col- 
quitt; is  navigable  about  100  miles. 

O'CONNELL,  DANIEL,  called  The 
Liberator  of  Ireland  and  The  Great 
Agitator,  an  Irish  patriot;  born  in 
County  Kerry,  Ireland,  Aug.  6,  1775. 
Educated  at  the  Roman  Catholic  College 


of  St.  Omer,  and  the  Irish  seminary  at 
Douay,  a  student  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  Lon- 
don, in  1794;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1798;  and  speedily  rose  to  a  large  and 
lucrative  practice.  In  1809,  he  became 
popularly  known  by  his  fervent  advocacy 
of  Catholic  emancipation.  In  1815,  hav- 
ing in  one  of  his  diatribes  stigmatized  the 
corporation  of  Dublin  as  "beggarly,"  he 
was  challenged  by  Alderman  D'Esterre, 
and  a  hostile  meeting  took  place  in  which 
the   latter  fell.     He   sat   in   the   British 


DANIEL  O'CONI^ILL 

House  of  Commons  in  1828-1841,  and  be- 
came Lord  Mayor  of  Dublin  in  1841. 
The  return  of  the  Conservatives  to 
power  was  the  signal  for  renewed  politi- 
cal agitation.  Repeal  of  the  Union  was 
the  object  sought,  and  O'Connell  headed 
the  movement.  A  monster  meeting  to  be 
held  at  Clontarf,  Oct.  8,  1843,  was 
estopped  by  the  government,  and  O'Con- 
nell sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  $10,000, 
and  to  be  imprisoned  one  year.  This 
judgment  was  shortly  after  reversed  by 
the  House  of  Lords,  The  return  of  the 
Whigs  to  power  in  1846,  and  O'Connell's 
avowed  adherence  to  that  party,  brought 
him  into  unpopularity  and  he  retired 
from  public  life.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of 
Ireland."  He  died  in  Genoa,  Italy,  May 
15,  1847. 

O'CONNELL.  DENNIS  JOSEPH. 
American  ecclesiastic.  He  was  born  at 
Charleston,  S.  C,  and  was  educated  at 
St.  Charles'  Seminary  and  St.  Mary's 
College  in  his  native  city,  and  also  in 


OCONNELL 


OCTAGON" 


Roi^ie.  In  1877  he  was  given  the  degree 
of  S.  T.  D.  at  the  college  of  Propaganda. 
After  being  ordained  he  became  secre- 
tary to  Cardinal  Gibbons  and  later  head 
of  the  American  College  in  Rome.  Later 
he  was  made  rector  of  the  Catholic  Uni- 
versity of  America,  holding  that  position 
till  he  was  consecrated  auxiliary  bishop 
of  San  Francisco  in  1909.  Since  1912  he 
has  been  bishop  of  Richmond,  Va. 

O'CONNELL,  WILLIAM  HENRY, 
CARDINAL.  Catholic  prelate.  Born 
at  Lowell,  Mass.,  in  1859,  he  graduated 
as  B.  A.  from  Boston  College  in  1881,  af- 
ter which  he  entered  the  American  Col- 
lege at  Rome,  where  he  was  ordained 
priest  in  1884.  He  was  appointed  rector 
of  the  American  College  in  Rome  in  1895, 
named  domestic  prelate  in  1897,  and  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Portland,  Me.,  at  St. 
John  Later  an,  Rome,  in  1901.  In  1905 
he  was  named  assistant  at  the  Pontifical 
Throne,  and  in  the  same  year  represented 
the  Vatican  at  the  court  of  the  emperor 
of  Japan,  from  whom  he  received  the 
Grand  Cordon  of  the  Sacred  Treasure. 
He  was  named  archbishop  of  Constance 
and  coadjutor  with  succession  of  Boston 
in  1906,  and  succeeded  to  the  see  of  Bos- 
ton in  1907,  being  made  cardinal  in  1911. 
In  May,  1920,  he  represented  the  United 
States  at  the  beatification  in  Rome  of 
Oliver  Plunkett. 

O'CONNOR,  ANDREW,  an  American 
sculptor.  He  was  born  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  in  1874,  and  received  his  prelim- 
inary education  from  his  father  and 
Daniel  C.  French.  He  has  divided  his 
home  between  the  United  States  and 
Paris,  and  in  1906  received  from  the 
Paris  Salon  2d  medal — the  highest 
award  ever  given  to  a  foreigner.  Among 
his  decorative  statues  and  reliefs  the 
principal  are:  Central  porch,  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's Church,  N.  Y. ;  11  marble 
statues,  Essex  co.  Court  House,  Newark, 
N.  J.;  bas-relief.  Library  of  J.  P.  Mor- 
gan, N.  Y. ;  General  Liscum  Monument, 
Arlington. 

O'CONNOR,  JOHN  JOSEPH,  an 
American  ecclesiatic.  He  was  born  at 
Newark,  N.  J.,  in  1855,  and  graduated  as 
A.M.  from  Seton  Hall  College  in  1875. 
From  there  he  went  to  the  American  Col- 
lege in  Rome  and  the  University  of  Lou- 
vain,  where  he  studied  divinity,  being  or- 
dained priest  in  1877.  From  1878  to 
1895  he  was  professor  of  philosophy  and 
theology  at  Seton  Hall  College  and  Sem- 
inary. From  1895  to  1901  he  was  pastor 
at  St.  Joseph's,  Newark,  and  was  made 
bishop  of  Newark  in  1901.  With  Car- 
dinal O'Connell  he  went  to  Rome  in  1920 
to  attend  the  beatification  of  Oliver 
Plunkett. 


O'CONNOR,  THOMAS  POWER,  an 
Irish  journalist  and  politician,  born  in 
Athlone,  Ireland,  1848;  gradxiated  from 
Queen's  College,  Gal  way,  then  for  three 
years  did  newspaper  work.  Went  to  Lon- 
don, worked  as  journalist  there,  and  in 
1880  was  elected  to  Parliament  from 
Galway,  becoming  a  strong  Pamell  man. 
In  1881  he  toured  the  United  States,  lec- 
turing on  Ireland.  Was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Irish  National  League  of 
Great  Britain  in  1883.  Was  elected  from 
Liverpool  to  Parliament  six  times.  He 
founded  several  periodicals,  the  most 
famous  of  which  is  "T.  P.'s  Weekly."  In 
1906  he  visited  the  United  States  again 
to  raise  money  for  the  Home  Rule  monu- 
ment. 

O'CONOR,  CHARLES,  an  American 
lawyer;  born  in  New  York  City,  Jan.  22, 
1804;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1824, 
while  still  a  minor.  Among  his  most 
celebrated  cases  were  the  Forrest  divorce 
case ;  the  Slave  Jack  case ;  the  Lispenard 
will  case;  the  Lemon  slave  case,  and  the 
Mme.  Jumel  suit;  became  senior  counsel 
for  Jefferson  Davis  when  the  ex-Confed- 
ei'ate  President  was  indicted  for  treason, 
and  was  conspicuous  in  the  suits  against 
William  M.  Tweed  in  1871.  In  1869  he 
Avas  elected  president  of  the  Law  Insti- 
tute of  New  York;  in  1872  was  nomi- 
nated for  President  of  the  United  States 
by  one  of  the  numerous  Democratic  con- 
ventions of  that  year,  despite  his  pro- 
test, and  was  defeated;  and  in  1876  ap- 
peared before  the  Electoral  Commission 
in  support  of  the  claims  of  Samuel  J. 
Tilden.  He  died  in  Nantucket,  Mass., 
May  12,  1884. 

O'CONOR,  JOHN  FRANCIS  XAVIER, 
an  American  author  and  educator.  He 
was  born  in  New  York  in  1852,  and 
graduated  from  St.  Francis  Xavier  Col- 
lege in  1872,  taking  English  studies  in 
London,  philosophy  in  Louvain,  and  Ori- 
ental studies  at  Johns  Hopkins.  He  be- 
came a  priest  of  the  Jesuit  Order  in  1885, 
and  taught  at  West  Park  College; 
Georgetown  University;  Boston  College; 
St.  Joseph's  College,  Philadelphia;  St. 
Francis  Xavier,  N.  Y.,  being  founder  also 
of  Brooklyn  College.  Authority  on 
cuneiform  Assyrian.  His  works  Include 
dramas,  of  which  he  composed  the 
music,  among  them  the  "Mystery  of 
Life"   (1916).     He  died  in  1920. 

OCRACOKE  INLET,  an  inlet  of  North 
Carolina,  forming  a  passage  into  Pam- 
lico Sound,  22  miles  S.  W.  of  Cape  Hat- 
teras. 

OCTAGON,  in  geometry,  a  polygon  of 
eight  angles  or  sides.  A  regular  octa- 
gon is  an  octagon  all  of  whose  sides  and 


OCTAHEDRON 


ODD    FELLOW 


angles    are    respectively   equal   to   each 
other. 

OCTAHEDBON,  in  geometry,  a  solid 
contained  by  eight  equal  and  equilateral 
angles.  It  is  one  of  the  five  regular 
bodies. 

OCTANS  ("the  Octant"),  the  constel- 
lation surrounding  and  including  the 
South  Pole  of  the  heavens,  and  one  of  the 
14  added  to  the  heavens  by  Lacaille  in 
connection  with  his  work  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  Its  brightest  star  is  of  the 
3.8  magnitude.  The  star  Sigma  Octantis, 
of  the  5.8  magnitude,  lies  at  present 
within  about  %°  of  the  South  Pole, 
nearer  than  any  equally  bright  star  to 
the  North  Pole,  and  it  is  much  used  in 
the  Southern  Hemisphere  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  azimuth  of  transit  in- 
struments.   The    constellation    is    sur- 


OCTAVO,  the  size  of  one  leaf  of  a 
sheet  of  paper,  which  has  been  folded  so 
as  to  make  eight  leaves;  hence,  applied 
to  a  book  printed  with  eight  leaves  to 
the  sheet.  It  is  generally  written  8vo, 
and  varies  in  size  according  to  the  sizes 
of  paper  employed;  as,  foolscap  octavo 
(or  8vo),  imperial  octavo   (or  8vo),  etc, 

OCTOBER,  the  8th  month  of  the  so- 
called  year  of  Romulus,  which  became 
the  10th  when  Numa  changed  the  com- 
mencement of  the  year  to  Jan,  1,  though 
it  retained  its  original  name.  Many  Ro- 
man and  Greek  festivals  were  celebrated 
in  this  month,  the  most  remarkable  of 
which  was  the  sacrifice  at  Rome  of  the 
October  horse  to  the  god  Mars. 

OCTOPUS,  in  zoology,  the  typical 
genus  of  the  family  Octopodidx.  The 
body  is  oval,  warty,  or  cirrose,  finless; 


OCTOPUS 


rounded  by  Hydrus,  Mensai_Cham8eleon, 
Musca,  Triangulum  australis,  Apus,  Pavo, 
Indus,  and  Tucana.  See  Transit  In- 
strument. 

OCTAVIA,  sister  of  Augustus,  re- 
nowned for  her  beauty  and  purity  of 
character,  and  practical  wisdom.  She 
was  first  married  to  Marcellus,  a  noble 
Roman  of  consular  dignity,  and  soon  af- 
ter his  death  (40  B.  c.) ,  to  Mark  Antony. 
This  marriage,  it  was  hoped,  would 
strengthen  the  new  alliance  between  Oc- 
tavius,  her  brother,  and  Antony,  her  hus- 
band. But  Antony  had  seen  Cleopatra, 
and  he  treated  his  wife  with  a  contempt 
and  cruelty  which  Octavius  could  not  for- 
give, and  which  became  the  occasion  of 
renewed  war.^  When  Antony  set  out  for 
the  East  again,  Octavia  was  not  allowed 
to  accompany  him.     She  died  in  11  B.C. 


arms  long,  unequal,  suckers  in  two  rows, 
mantle  supported  in  front  by  the  bran- 
chial septum.  In  the  male  the  third 
right  arm  is  hectocotylized.  Found  on 
the  coasts  of  the  temperate  and  tropical 
zones.  Forty-six  species  are  known, 
varying  in  lengfth  from  one  inch  to  more 
than  two  feet.  The  females  oviposit  on 
seaweeds  or  in  empty  shells.  They  are 
sold  in  the  markets  of  Smyrna  and 
Naples,  and  India. 

OCTROI,  an  old  French  term  signi- 
fying a  grant,  privilege,  or  monopoly 
from  government  to  a  person  or  to  a 
company.  Also  a  tax  levied  at  the  gates 
of  French  cities,  towns,  etc. 

ODD  FELLOW,  a  member  of  the  In- 
dependent Order  of  Odd  Fellows,  a 
secret  fraternal  society  instituted  in  Eng- 


ODE 


ODESSA 


land  in  the  18th  century,  and  now  having 
extensive  lodges  in  Great  Britain,  Aus- 
tralia, Denmark,  Switzerland,  the  United 
States,  etc.  Its  organization  is  in  lodges 
and  encampments,  grand  lodges,  grand 
encampments,  and  the  Sovereign  Grand 
Lodge  of  the  World,  and  good  moral 
character  and  belief  in  a  Supreme  Being 
are  the  requisite  for  membership.  The 
first  lodge  in  the  United  States  was  es- 
tablished in  1819;  the  grand  lodges  of 
the  United  States  reported  in  1914  a 
membership  of  1,608,791.  Pennsylvania, 
137,751;  New  York,  126,294;  Illinois, 
105,062;  Ohio,  87,788;  Indiana,  87,044, 
etc.  The  Rebekah  lodges  admit  to  mem- 
bership female  relatives  of  the  male 
members.  There  is  also  an  organization 
of  colored  Odd  Fellows,  entitled  the 
"Grand  United  Order  of  Odd  Fellows  of 
America." 

Canada  and  the  maritime  provinces 
have  a  membership  of  100,305.  Aus- 
tralia, 45,300.  The  largest  body  is  the 
Manchester  Unity  of  Odd  Fellows  with  a 
membership  throughout  the  British  Em- 
pire of  950,000.  In  the  east,  including 
South  America,  18  Grand  Lodges  have 
been  started  among  22  nationalities, 
provinces  and  territories.  In  Europe 
lodges  were  founded  in  Germany  1876, 
Denmark  1878,  Netherlands  1877,  Switz- 
erland 1871.     In  Cuba  1883,  Mexico  1882. 

ODE,  a  poem  of  lyrical  character,  sup- 
posed to  express  the  poet's  feelings  in 
the  pressure  of  high  excitement,  and  tak- 
ing an  irregular  form  from  the  emotional 
fervency  which  seeks  spontaneous  rhythm 
for  its  varied  utterance.  The  Greeks 
called  every  lyrical  poem  adapted  to  sing- 
ing— hence  opposed  to  the  elegiac  poem 
■ — an  ode.  The  principal  ancient  writers 
were  Pindar,  Anacreon,  Sappho,  Alcaeus, 
among  the  Greeks,  and  Horace  among  the 
Romans.  As  employed  by  English  writ- 
ers the  ode  takes  either  the  Pindaric  form 
of  strophe,  antistrophe,  and  epode  irreg- 
ularly arranged  and  contrasted;  or,  the 
form  of  a  regular  series  of  regular  stan- 
zas. The  former  style  is  found  in  Dry- 
den's  "Ode  for  St.  Cecelia's  Day,"  while 
the  latter  is  seen  in  Shelly's  "Ode  to  a 
Skylark."  The  masters  of  English  poesy 
who  have  carried  the  ode  to  its  highest 
achievements  are  Milton,  Dryden,  Col- 
lins, Grey,  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Keats, 
and  Shelley. 

ODELL,  BENJAMIN  B.,  JR.,  an 
American  public  official;  born  in  New- 
burgh,  N.  Y.,  1854;  studied  in  Bethany 
College,  W.  Va.,  and  Columbia  Univer- 
sity. Entered  party  politics  and  in  1884 
became  member  of  the  New  York  State 
Republican  Committee,  and  chairman  of 
its  Executive  Committee  in  1898.     Was 


a  member  of  the  United  States  House  of 
Repi'esentatives  from  1895  to  1899 
Was  governor  of  New  York  from  190  x 
till  1904.  He  was  head  of  the  party 
machine  till  1905,  when  he  was  defeated 
as  state  chairman  by  Timothy  L.  Wood- 
ruff. 

ODENBTJRG.     See  Oedenburg. 

ODENSE,  a  city  of  Denmark  on  the 
island  of  Funen,  the  capital  of  Oden- 
seamt.  It  is  the  third  city  in  popula- 
tion in  Denmark  and  is  situated  on  the 
Odense  River.  It  is  a  well  built  city 
with  all  modern  municipal  improvements. 
It  contains  the  cathedral  of  St.  Canute, 
erected  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Other 
important  buildings  are  a  castle,  a  large 
city  hall  and  a  handsome  post  office. 
There  are  several  private  and  tech- 
nical schools  and  two  excellent  libraries. 
The  city  is  an  important  industrial  and 
commercial  center.  There  are  manufac- 
tories of  beer,  liquors,  glass,  chemical 
products,  machinery,  textiles  and  sugar. 
Pop.  about  45,000. 

ODENWALD,  a  forest  and  chain  of 
mountains  in  Western  Germany,  be- 
tween the  Neckar  and  the  Main,  in  the 
territories  of  Hesse,  Baden,  and  Bavaria. 
The  Odenwald  is  about  50  miles  in 
length,  and  presents  charming  scenery. 

ODEB,  one  of  the  principal  rivers  of 
Germany,  rising  in  the  Oderberg  on  the 
tableland  of  Moravia,  1,950  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  traversing  Prussia, 
Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and  Pomerania, 
then  emptying  into  the  Stettiner  Haff, 
whence  it  passes  into  the  Baltic  by  the 
triple  arms  of  the  Dievenow,  Peene,  and 
Swine,  which  enclose  the  islands  of  Wol- 
lin  and  Usedom.  It  has  a  course  N.  W. 
and  N.  of  550  miles,  and  a  basin  of  50,000 
square  miles.  Canals  connect  the  Oder 
with  the  Spree,  the  Havel,  and  the  Elbe; 
the  Warthe  is  the  only  tributary  of  im- 
portance for  navigation.  On  the  banks 
of  the  Oder  are  Ratibor,  Breig,  Breslau, 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  Stettin,  and 
Swinemiinde. 

ODESSA,  a  city  and  seaport  of  South 
Russia,  on  the  N.  W.  coast  of  the  Black 
Sea,  half-way  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Dniester  and  Bug.  The  harbor,  which  is 
artificial,  is  formed  of  two  moles,  and  is 
capable  of  accommodating  over  200  ves- 
sels. It  is  defended  by  two  batteries  to- 
ward the  sea;  and  on  the  E.  side  is  a 
citadel,  which  commands  the  town  and 
port.  The  principal  building  is  the  ca- 
thedral of  St.  Nicholas.  Facing  the  port 
is  a  large  statue  in  bronze  of  the  Duke 
de  Richelieu.  A  great  drawback  is  the 
scarcity  of  wood  and  water,  and  the  in- 


ODIN 


(EDEMA 


tensity  of  the  heat,  which  frequently 
reaches  120°,  and  destroys  the  vegetation 
of  the  vicinity.  Odessa  is  the  emporium 
for  the  produce  of  Southern  Russia,  and 
owes  its  rapid  growth  to  its  being  a  free 
port.  The  great  trade  of  the  town  and 
its  principal  export,  is  corn,  which,  gar- 
nered here  from  the  adjacent  Ukraine 
and  Moldavia,  is  shipped  to  almost  every 
part  of  Europe.  Odessa  was  founded 
by  Catherine  II.,  in  1794.  Pop.  about 
600,000.  Odessa  was  the  scene  of  anti- 
Jewish  riots  in  1905-1906,  when  many 
persons  were  killed.  The  mutinous 
Black  Sea  fleet  also  threatened  the  city. 
The  port  was  closed  during  the  Balkan 
War,  1912-1913.  It  was  bombarded  by 
a  Turkish  fleet  in  the  World  War  in 
1914. 

ODIN.     See  WODEN. 

ODOACER,  the  first  barbarian  King 
of  Italy,  son  of  one  of  Attila's  officers; 
born  about  434.  He  entered  into  the  Im- 
perial guards,  in  which  he  rose  to  an 
honorable  rank.  In  476  he  was  chosen 
chief  of  a  confederate  army,  and  was 
saluted  by  them  King  of  Italy.  He  de- 
feated the  patrician  Orestes  at  Pavia, 
banished  his  son,  Romulus  Augustus,  last 
Roman  emperor,  and  made  Ravenna  the 
seat  of  his  kingdom.  In  489,  Theodoric, 
King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  invaded  Italy, 
and  Odoacer  was  three  times  defeated. 
He  made  a  treaty  with  Theodoric,  by 
which  they  were  to  rule  jointly.  But  af- 
ter a  few  days,  Odoacer  was  assassi- 
nated by  his  conquerer,  March  5,  493. 

ODOMETER,  an  instrument  employed 
for  registering^  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions of  a  carriage  wheel,  to  which  it  is 
attached. 

O'DONAGHUE,  DENIS,  an  Amer- 
ican Roman  Catholic  bishop,  born  in 
Daviess  co.,  Ind.,  in  1848.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Meinrad's  College  and  at  St. 
Thomas*  Seminary,  after  studying  theol- 
ogy at  the  Grand  Seminary,  Montreal. 
He  became  a  priest  in  1874  and  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  priest  of  St.  John's 
Church,  Ind.  For  21  years  he  was  chan- 
cellor of  Vincennes  Diocese,  and  from 
1895  to  1910  was  rector  of  St.  Patrick's 
Churchy  Ind.  He  was  made  auxiliary 
bishop  m  1900  and  was  appointed  bishop 
of  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  1910. 

ODONATA.     See  Dragon  Fly. 

O'DONNELL,  LEOPOLD,  a  Spanish 
military  officer;  born  in  Santa  Cruz,  Ten- 
eriffe,  Jan.  12,  1809.  He  was  descended 
from  an  ancient  Irish  family,  entered  the 
Spanish  army  and  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  infant  Queen  Isabella  against  Don 
Carlos  (see  Carlists).    When  the  Carl- 


ists  were  overthrown  he  was  created 
Chief  of  the  Staff  to  Espartero.  He  took 
the  side  of  the  queen-mother  in  1840,  emi- 
grated with  her  to  France.  In  1843  his 
intrigues  against  Espartero  were  suc- 
cessful; and  he  was  rewarded  by  the 
governor-generalship  of  Cuba.  When  he 
returned  to  Spain  (1848)  he  intrigued 
against  Bravo  Murillo  and  Narvaez;  was 
made  war  minister  by  Espartero  in  1854 ; 
but  plotted  against  his  benefactor,  and  in 
1856  supplanted  him  by  a  coup  d'etat. 
He  was  in  three  months'  time  succeeded 
by  Narvaez,  but  in  1858  he  returned  to 
power;  in  1859  he  commanded  the  army 
in  Morocco,  took  the  Moorish  camp,  and 
the  city  of  Tetuan  surrendered,  where- 
upon he  was  made  Duke  of  Tetuan.  In 
1866  his  cabinet  was  upset  by  Narvaez, 
and  he  died  in  Bayonne,  France,  Nov.  5, 
1867. 

O'DONOVAN,    WILLIAM    RUDOLF, 

an  American  sculptor,  born  in  Preston 
CO.,  Va.,  in  1884.  He  served  in  the  Con- 
federate Army  and  after  the  war  estab- 
lished a  studio  in  New  York  City,  where 
he  executed  many  portrait  busts  of  well- 
known  people,  including  Walt  Whitman, 
General  Wheeler  and  others.  He  also 
made  statues  of  Washington  for  Caracas, 
Venezuela,  and  many  monuments  and 
statues  for  American  cities  and  institu- 
tions. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Tile  Club. 

ODONTOGLOSSUM,  an  extensive 
genus  of  orchidSj  natives  of  Central 
America,  much  prized  by  cultivators  for 
their  magnificent  flowers,  which  are  re- 
markable both  for  their  size  and  the 
beauty  of  their  colors.  A  considerable 
number  of  species  have  been  introduced 
into  Europe. 

ODYSSEY,  a  celebrated  epic  poem  at- 
tributed to  Homer,  and  descriptive  of  the 
adventures  of  Ulysses  in  his  return  home 
from  the  siege  of  Troy. 

(ECUMENICAL,  universal,  an  epi- 
thet applied  to  the  general  councils  of 
the  Church.  From  the  time  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Chalcedon  (451)  the  patriarchs  of 
Constantinople  took  the  title  of  oecumeni- 
cal, in  the  same  sense  as  the  epithet 
Catholic  is  used  in  the  Western  Church. 
See  Council. 

(EDEMA,  a  swelling  occasioned  by 
the  presence  of  water  which  collects  in 
the  interstices  of  the  cellular  tissues. 
The  subcutanous  cellular  tissue  is  the 
most  frequent,  but  not  the  only  seat  of 
oedema.  The  other  forms  are  oedema  of 
the  lungs  and  of  the  glottis.  (Edema  of 
the  brain  is  of  less  frequent  occurrence, 
and  oedema  of  the  sub-mucous  and  sub- 
cellular tissue  seldom  produces  symptoms 


OEDENBITBG  6 

sufficiently   decisive   to   determine   their 
nature. 

OEDENBURG,  a  town  of  Hungary, 
on  an  extensive  plain,  3  miles  W.  of  the 
Neusiedler  See  and  48  miles  S.  by  E.  of 
Vienna.  It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
tovsTis  in  Hungary,  and  has  manufactures 
of  candied  fruits,  sugar,  soap,  etc.,  and  a 
inrge  trade  in  wine,  corn,  and  cattle,  the 
neighborhood  being  rich  and  well  culti- 
vated. The  Roman  town  of  Scarabantia 
here  was  one  of  considerable  importance. 
Pop.  about  35,000. 

CEDIPUS,  in  Greek  legend  the  son  of 
Laius,  King  of  Thebes,  who,  after  being 
married  to  Jocasta,  consulted  the  oracle, 
which  informed  him  that  he  was  doomed 
to  die  by  the  hand  of  his  own  son.  To 
prevent  so  fearful  an  accident,  he  ordered 
his  wife,  as  soon  as  CEdipus,  the  child 
was  born  to  destroy  him.  She  secretly 
sent  the  child  away,  by  a  confidential 
servant,  with  a  command  to  expose  it  in 
some  place  where  it  would  meet  with  a 
protector — instead  he  bored  the  feet  of 
the  child  and  hung  him  on  a  tree  on 
Mount  Cithaeron.  He  was  discovered  by 
a  shepherd,  who  carried  him  home  and 
adopted  him  as  bis  own  son.  As  he  grew 
up,  the  talent  he  displayed  enabled  him 
to  outstrip  all  his  companions  who  taunt- 
ed him  with  the  baseness  of  his  birth. 
Doubting  the  truth  of  the  information 
as  to  his  being  illegitimate,  CEdipus,  so 
called  on  account  of  the  deformity  of  his 
feet,  resolved  to  proceed  to  Delphi  to  con- 
sult the  oracle,  and  was  told  that  if  he 
returned  to  his  home  he  would  become 
his  father's  murderer.  Knowing  no 
father  but  the  man  who  had  adopted  him, 
he  turned  from  Corinth  and,  in  a  narrow 
pathway,  he  met  his  father  Laius  in  his 
chariot.  Being  insolently  ordered  to 
make  way,  and  refusing,  a  contest  en- 
sued, in  which  the  decree  of  the  oracle 
was  verified  by  CEdipus  slaying  both 
Laius  and  his  attendant.  Proceeding  to 
Thebes,  he  was  attracted  by  the  enigma 
proposed  by  the  Sphinx,  and  which  he 
determined  to  solve — as  Creon,  who  had 
succeeded  Laius,  promised  any  one  who 
should  succeed  in  doing  so  the  crown  of 
Thebes  as  a  reward.  The  enigma  was 
this :  "What  animal  in  the  morning  walks 
on  four  feet,  at  noon  on  two,  and  in  the 
evening  on  three?" — which  CEdipus  ex- 
plained by  saying  it  was  man,  who,  in  his 
infancy,  or^  in  the  morning  of  his  life, 
crawls  on  his  hands  and  feet;  in  his  man- 
hood, or  the  noon  of  his  age,  he  stands 
erect  and  goes  on  two  feet;  and  in  old 
age,  or  the  evening  of  his  days,  he  sup- 
ports his  trembling  limbs  with  a  staff. 
This  being  the  true  explanation  resulted 
in  the  death  of  the  Sphinx,  and  the  ac- 


OFFA 

cession  of  (Edipus  to  the  throne  of 
Thebes,  he  marrying  Jocasta,  his  own 
mother.  In  his  endeavors  to  find  the 
murderer  of  Laius,  he  first  became  aware 
that  the  stranger  he  had  encountered  and 
killed  was  his  father.  His  remorse  was 
so  great  that  he  voluntarily  deprived 
himself  of  sight  and  banished  himself 
from  his  kingdom. 

OELAND,  a  long  and  narrow  island 
in  the  Baltic,  4  to  17  miles  from  the  B. 
coast  of  Sweden.  It  is  55  miles  long 
and  5  to  12  broad.  Scarcely  more  than 
a  limestone  cliff,  scantily  covered  with 
soil,  but  in  some  parts  well  wooded,  and 
has  good  pasture  ground;  there  are  large 
alum  works;  and  the  fishing  is  excellent. 

OEHEBBO,  a  town  of  Sweden,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Svarta  into  the  Hjelmar 
Lake,  170  miles  W.  of  Stockholm.  It  has 
an  ancient  castle,  in  which  many  diets 
have  been  held ;  and  there  is  a  trade 
in  minerals  and  matches.  Pop.  (1917) 
34,667. 

OESEL,  an  island  in  the  Baltic  be- 
longing to  the  Republic  of  Esthonia,  and 
lying  across  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of 
Riga;  length  about  45  miles;  area,  1,000 
square  miles;  pop.  about  60,000.  The 
surface  is  undulating,  broken  by  low 
hills,  marshy,  watered  by  numerous 
small  streams,  and  well  wooded.  The 
coast  is  generally  formed  by  high  cliffs. 
The  climate  is  milder  than  that  of  the 
neighboring  continental  districts.  The 
only  town  is  Arensburg,  on  the  S.  E. 
coast.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Arensburg  are  of  German  descent,  as  are 
the  nobles  and  the  clergy  of  the  island; 
but  the  peasantry  are  Esthonian.  Long 
governed  by  the  Teutonic  knights,  it  be- 
came a  Danish  province  in  1559,  was 
given  up  to  Sweden  in  1645,  and  in  1721 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Russia.  Capital 
Arensburg.  Pop.  5,000.  Island  popula- 
tion  66,000,  chiefly  Esthonians. 

CESOPHAGUS,  in  anatomy,  a  slightly 
flexed  canal,  between  the  pharynx  and 
the  stomach,  inclining  to  the  left  in  the 
neck,  the  right  in  the  upper  thorax,  and 
the  left  again  through  the  posterior  medi- 
astinum. It  is  narrow  and  flat  in  the 
neck,  and  rounded  in  the  lower  and 
longest  part.  It  passes  through  the  dia- 
phragm, and  terminates  nearly  opposite 
the  10th  dorsal  vertebra  in  the  cardiac 
orifice  of  the  stomach.  The  passage  of 
the  food  is  caused  by  muscular  contrac- 
tion through  the  action  of  the  parvagum 
nerve. 

OFF  A,  a  King  of  Mercia,  who  attained 
the  throne  after  Ethelbald,  on  defeating 
the  usurper  Beornred,  A.  D.  757.  He 
brought  Kent  under  his  sway,  and  re- 


OPPA'S    DYKE  1 

duced  the  power  of  Wessex  by  a  defeat 
inflicted  in  777.  He  also  defeated  the 
Welsh,  took  from  them  part  of  their  bor- 
der lands,  and  to  keep  them  within  their 
new  limits  erected  here  the  ramparts 
known  as  Watt's  Dyke  and  Offa's  Dyke. 
Latterly  he  murdered  Ethelbert,  King  of 
East  Anglia,  and  seized  his  kingdom. 
He  founded  the  Abbey  of  St.  Albans,  and 
was  a  liberal  patron  to  the  Church.  He 
died  in  796. 

OFFA'S  DYKE,  an  entrenchment  ex- 
tending along  the  border  of  England  and 
Wales,  from  the  N.  coast  of  Flintshire, 
on  the  estuary  of  the  Dee,  through  Den- 
bigh, Montgomery,  Salop,  Radnor,  and 
Hereford,  into  Gloucestershire,  where  its 
S.  termination  is  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Wye.  In  some  places  it  is  nearly  oblit- 
erated by  cultivation;  in  others  it  is  of 
considerable  height.  Nearly  parallel 
with  it,  about  2  miles  to  the  E.,  is  Watt's 
Dyke,  which,  however,  seems  never  to 
have  been  so  great  a  work.  Offa,  King 
of  Mercia,  is  said  to  have  erected  Watt's 
Dyke  in  765  to  keep  back  the  Welsh,  and 
Offa's  Dyke  a  few  years  later. 

OFFENBACH,  a  manufacturing  town 
of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  on  the  S.  bank  of 
the  Main,  5  miles  S.  E.  of  Frankfort. 
Before  the  World  War  among  its  indus- 
trial products  were  chemicals,  fancy 
leather  goods,  machines,  and  carriages. 
The  schloss  was  a  residence  of  the  prince- 
ly house  of  Isenburg-Birstein.  Pop. 
about  80,000. 

OFFENBACH,  JACQUES,  a  French 
composer  of  opera  bouffe;  born  of  Jewish 
parents  in  Cologne,  June  21,  1819.  He 
went  to  Paris  in  1833,  and  settled  there, 
becoming  orchestra  leader  in  the  Theatre 
Fran?ais  in  1848,  and  manager  of  the 
Bouffes  Parisiennes  in  1855.  Offenbach 
composed  a  vast  number  of  light,  lively 
operettas,  "Marriage  by  Lanterns"; 
"Elezondo's  Daughter";  etc.;  but  the  pro- 
ductions by  which  he  is  best  known  are  a 
series  of  burlesque  operas,  in  virtue  of 
which  he  must  be  regarded  as  the  in- 
ventor of  the  modern  form  of  opera 
bouffe.  Among  the  most  notable  are: 
"Orpheus  in  Hades"  (1858);  "La  Belle 
Helene";  "Bluebeard";  "The  Grand 
Duchess";  "Genevieve  of  Brabant";  and 
"King  Garotte."  "Madame  Favart" 
(1878)  became  almost  as  popular  in  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States  as  in  France. 
He  died  in  Paris,  France,  Oct.  5,  1880. 

OFFICE  BUILDINGS.  The  construc- 
tion of  edifices  designed  for  purely  com- 
mercial uses  has  in  modern'times  reached 
a  development  that  has  made  it  a  field  for 
architecture  paralleling  the  erection  of 
cathedrals  in  the  Middle  Ages.     In  this 


OGDEN 

development  America  has  greatly  sur- 
passed the  countries  of  Europe,  where 
the  use  of  former  dwellings  for  business 
purposes,  and  the  use  of  dwellings  for 
residences  and  business  combined  is  still 
largely  in  vogue.  Banks  and  insurance 
companies,  and  enterprises  of  a  similar 
kind,  to  whom  a  prosperous  facade  was 
an  advertising  asset,  were  the  first  to 
use  special  structures,  but  the  giant  pro- 
gress of  modern  business  has  made  the 
building  of  great  edifices  like  the  Equi- 
table and  Woolworth  buildings  of  New 
York  a  necessity.  The  development  of 
the  elevator  and  steel  frame  has  made 
such  building  the  last  word  in  conveni- 
ence. 

OGDEN,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Weber  co.,  Utah;  at  the  junction  of  the 
Weber  and  Ogden  rivers,  and  on  the  Ore- 
gon Short  Line,  the  Southern  Pacific, 
the  Rio  Grande  Western,  the  Salt 
Lake  and  Ogden  and  the  Union 
Pacific  railroads,  37  miles  N.  of  Salt 
Lake  City.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Weber 
Stake  Academy  (Mormon),  Sacred  Heart 
Academy,  the  State  Industrial  School, 
the  State  School  for  the  Blind,  and  the 
State  School  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb. 
Here  are  street  railroads,  electric  lights, 
National  and  private  banks,  parks,  and 
several  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
The  industries  comprise  mining,  iron 
founding,  flour  and  lumber  milling,  brew- 
ing, and  the  manufacture  of  boots  and 
shoes,  woolen  goods,  brooms,  vinegar,  and 
other  commodities.  In  Ogden  Canon  are 
large  powder  works  and  also  the  city's 
electric  light  plant.  The  streets  are 
wide  and  well  kept,  and  the  buildings 
substantial.  Pop.  (1910)  25,580;  (1920) 
32,804. 

OGDEN,  ROBERT  CURTIS,  an  Amer- 
ican capitalist  and  merchant;  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1836;  died  New  York 
City,  1913.  He  was  educated  in  a  pri- 
vate school  and  at  Yale.  From  1885,  un- 
til he  retired,  in  1907,  he  was  a  membev 
of  the  firm  of  John  Wanamaker.  During 
his  life  he  was  much  interested  in  educa- 
tion and  was  a  trustee  of  Tuskegee  In- 
stitute, in  Alabama,  president  Southern 
Education  Board,  Conference  for  Educa- 
tion in  the  South,  and  president  and 
trustee  of  Hampton  Institute. 

OGDEN,   ROBERT   MORRIS,   an 

American  educator,  born  in  Binghamton, 
N.  Y.,  in  1877.  Graduated  from  Cornell 
University  in  1901  and  afterward  studied 
in  Germany.  He  was  associate  professor 
of  psychology  in  the  University  of  Mis- 
souri in  1903-1905.  and  was  associate  pro- 
fessor and  professor  of  psychology  and 
philosophy  at  the  University  of  Texas, 
from  1909  to  1914.     In  latter  years  he 


OGDEN 


8 


O'GORMAIT 


was  appointed  professor  of  psychology  in 
the  University  of  Kansas,  serving  till 
1916,  when  he  became  professor  of  edu- 
cation of  Cornell  University.  He  is  a 
member  of  many  psychological  and  philo- 
sophical societies  and  wrote  and  trans- 
lated many  works  on  psychology. 

OGDEN,  HOLLO,  an  American  jour- 
nalist, born  Sand  Lake,  N.  Y.,  1856;  edu- 
cated Williams  College  and  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary  and  in  1881  was  or- 
dained a  Presbyterian  minister.  For 
two  years  he  was  a  missionary  in  Mexico 
City,  then  became  pastor  of  the  Case 
Avenue  Church,  Cleveland,  Ohio.  In 
1887  he  began  his  journalistic  work  in 
New  York  City,  becoming  editor  of  the 
New  York  "Evening  Post"  in  1903.  In 
1920  he  left  the  "Post"  to  assume  the 
associate  editorship  of  the  New  York 
"Times." 

OGDENSBURG,  a  city  and  port  of 
entry  in  St.  Lawrence  co.,  N.  Y.;  at  the 
confluence  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the 
Oswegatchie  rivers,  and  on  the  New 
York  Central  and  Hudson  River  and 
Rutland  railroads;  175  miles  N.  N.  W. 
of  Albany.  The  city  has  a  large  river 
trade,  and  a  steam  ferry  to  Prescott, 
Canada;  contains  a  United  States  gov- 
ernment building,  refuge  for  the  aged, 
orphanage,  academy,  hospital,  public 
library,  street  railroad  and  electric  light 
plants.  National  and  State  banks, 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers  and  many 
fine  public  and  private  buildings.  It  has 
grain  elevators,  flour  and  lumher  mills, 
leather  factories.  Manufactures  of  silk, 
curtain  rods,  clothing.  Pop.  (1910)  15,- 
933;    (1920)   14,609. 

OGEECHEE,  a  river  in  Georgia  which 
rises  in  Greene  co.,  and  empties  into 
Ossabaw  Sound,  17  miles  S.  of  Savan- 
nah; length,  about  200  miles.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  steamers  in  its  lower  waters. 

OGG,  FREDERICK  AUSTIN,  an 
American  economist,  born  at  Solsberry, 
Ind.,  in  1878.  Graduated  at  DePauw 
University  in  1899  and  took  post  gradu- 
ate courses  at  other  universities.  After 
several  years  spent  in  teaching  in  high 
schools  and  colleges,  he  became  associate 
professor  of  political  science  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin  in  1914,  and  full 
professor  in  1917.  He  was  a  member  of 
many  economic  and  historical  societies 
and  was  associate  editor  of  the  "Ameri- 
can Political  Science  Review."  He  wrote 
"Saxon  and  Slav"  (1903);  "A  Source 
Book  of  Mediaeval  History"  (1908) ;  "Life 
of  Daniel  Webster"  (1914) ;  "National 
Progress  1907-1917"  (The  American 
Nation,  Vol.  27,  1917). 


OGLESBY,  RICHARD  JAMES,  an 
American  lawyer;  born  in  Oldham  co., 
Ky.,  July  25,  1824.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  Illinois  bar  in  1845.  He  served  as  a 
1st  lieutenant  in  the  Mexican  War;  In 
1849  was  among  the  goldseekers  who 
made  the  overland  trip  to  California,  en- 
gaging in  mining  for  two  years.  In 
1851  he  returned  to  Illinois  and  resumed 
law  practice;  was  elected  State  Senator 
in  1860,  but  resigned  to  enter  the  army 
in  the  Civil  War.  He  was  colonel  of  the 
8th  Illinois  Volunteers,  and  later  Major- 
General.  He  was  three  times  governor 
of  Illinois,  being  first  elected  in  1864,  re- 
elected in  1872,  and  again  in  1885.  He 
was  elected  United  States  Senator  in 
1873  and  served  six  years.  He  died  in 
Elkhart,  Ind.,  April  24,  1899. 

OGLETHORPE,  FORT,  a  defensive 
structure  erected  by  General  Oglethorpe 
in  1737,  on  St.  Simon's  Island,  Ala.,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Alabama  river.  It  was 
the  scene  of  considerable  fighting  during 
the  Revolution,  as  well  as  the  War  of 
1812.     Now  in  ruins. 

OGLETHORPE     UNIVERSITY,     an 

institution  under  the  control  of  the 
Southern  Presbyterian  Church,  situated 
at  Atlanta,  Ga.  The  first  university 
of  this  name  was  founded  in  1835,  but 
the  stress  of  the  Civil  War  and  Recon- 
struction period  proved  too  great  for  its 
resources  and  it  was  forced  to  close  its 
doors  in  1872.  After  the  lapse  of  a  few 
years  the  present  university  assumed  its 
place.  Among  the  graduates  from  1835- 
1872  were  many  theologians,  governors  of 
the  state  and  more  famous  than  all, 
Sidney  Lanier,  the  poet.  The  endowment 
of  the  present  institution  is  about  $1,000,- 
000  which  is  under  the  control  of  a  board 
of  directors,  every  member  of  which  must 
be  a  Presbyterian. 

OGLIO  (ol'yo),  a  river  of  Northern 
Italy  which  rises  in  the  Alps,  drains 
Lake  Iseo,  and  falls  into  the  Po;  length, 
150  miles. 

O'GORMAN,  JAMES  ALOYSIUS, 
United  States  Senator  from  New  York; 
born  in  New  York  City,  1860;  educated 
in  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1882. 
From  1893  to  1900  he  was  a  justice  of 
the  District  Court  of  New  York,  then 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  New 
York.  In  1911  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  whereupon  he  re- 
signed from  the  bench.  His  term  ending 
in  1917,  he  resumed  law  practice.  In 
1912  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  National 
Democratic  Convention. 

O'GORMAN,  THOMAS,  an  American 
clergyman;  bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  May 


OGOWE 


OHIO 


1,  1843;  was  educated  in  the  United 
States  and  France ;  received  the  degree  of 
D.D.  directly  from  Pope  Leo  XIII.  in 
1893;  and  was  consecrated  Roman  Cath- 
olic Bishop  of  Sioux  Falls,  April  19, 
1896.  He  held  pastorates  at  Rochester, 
Minn.  (1867-1878);  at  Faribault,  Minn. 
(1882-1885);  was  first  president  of  the 
College  of  St.  Thomas,  St.  Paul,  Minn.; 
and  professor  at  the  Catholic  University 
of  America,  Washington,  D.  C.  He 
wrote,  "A  History  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  in  the  United  States."  In 
1902  was  appointed  by  President  Roose- 
velt a  member  of  the  Commission  to  the 
Vatican  to  discuss  Philippine  religious 
questions. 

OGOWE,  or  OGOWAY,  a  river  of 
West  Africa,  rising  on  the  W.  side  of 
the  watershed  that  parts  its  basin  from 
that  cf  the  Kongo,  in  lat.  2°  40'  S.,  Ion. 
14"  3(y  E.,  flows  W.  N.  W.,  and  finally 
curves  round  by  the  S.  so  as  to  pour  its 
waters  into  Nazareth  Bay,  on  the  N.  side 
of  Cape  Lopez.  It  forms  a  wide  delta 
of  about  70  square  miles  in  extent.  In 
the  dry  season  (July  to  September)  it 
shrinks  to  a  iiarrow  current;  at  other 
times  it  is  a  deep,  broad  stream,  islands 
and  sandbanks  and  shallows  prevent  ves- 
sels of  any  size  from  ascending.  It  has 
been  dominated  by  France,  through  her 
colony  on  the  Gaboon  (q.  v.),  since 
1885. 

OGYGES,  said  to  have  been  the  first 
King  of  Attica  and  Bceotia,  in  the  18th 
century  b.  c.  In  his  reign  is  stated  to 
have  occurred  the  great  deluge  that  cov- 
ered the  whole  of  Greece.  That  event 
has  been  placed  as  occurring  260  years 
before  that  of  Deucalion;  viz.,  about  1764 

B.  C, 

O'HARA,  THEODORE,  an  American 
lawyer,  author  of  the  poem  "The  Bivouac 
of  the  Dead";  born  in  Danville,  Ky.,  in 
1820.  He  was  a  lawyer  and  journalist; 
at  one  time  an  officer  in  the  United 
States  navy;  connected  with  the  Lopez 
and  Walker  movements;  served  as  cap- 
tain and  major  in  the  Mexican  War;  af- 
terward, for  a  year,  in  the  United  States 
cavalry;  and  in  the  Civil  War  as  a  col- 
onel on  the  Confederate  side.  He  died 
in  Barbour  co.,  Ala.,  June  7,  1867. 

O'HIGGINS,  a  province  of  Chile  with 
an  area  of  2,342  square  miles.  The  east- 
ern part  of  the  slope  of  the  Andes  is  very 
mountainous.  It  has  a  large  area  suit- 
able^ for  grazing,  in  the  western  part. 
Agriculture  and  grazing  are  the  chief 
industries.  Some  mining  of  gold  and 
other  metals  is  carried  on  in  the  moun- 
tain regions.  Pop.  (1917)  120,750.  The 
capital  is  Rancagua. 


O'HIGGINS,  HARVEY  J.,  an  Amer- 
ican writer,  born  in  London,  Ont.,  in 
1876.  He  studied  in  the  University  of 
Toronto  from  1893  to  1897.  He  wrote 
"The  Smoke  Eaters"  (1905);  "The 
Beast  and  the  Jungle"  (with  Judge  Ben 
B.  Lindsey)  (1910);  "The  Dummy" 
(1913),  and  "Mr.  Lazarus"  (1916); 
"From  the  Life"  (1919). 

OHIO,  a  State  in  the  North  Central 
Division  of  the  North  American  Union; 
bounded  by  Michigan,  Lake  Erie,  Penn- 
sylvania, West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and 
Indiana;  admitted  to  the  Union,  Feb.  19, 
1803;  capital,  Columbus;  number  of 
counties,  88;  area,  41,040  square  miles; 
pop.  (1890)  3,672,316;  (1900)  4,157,5451 
(1910)  4,767,121;   (1920)  5,759,394. 

Topography. — The  surface  of  the  State 
is  an  undulating  plain  with  a  tranverse 
ridge  crossing  it  in  a  N.  E.  and  S.  W. 
direction  just  N.  of  the  center  of  the 
State.  This  ridge  forms  the  watershed 
between  those  rivers  belonging  to  the 
St.  Lawrence,  and  those  of  the  Ohio  river 
systems.  The  highest  altitude  in  the 
State  is  near  Bellefontaine,  in  Logan 
county,  1,550  feet.  The  N.  side  of  the 
watershed,  though  smaller,  has  a  move 
gentle  slope  than  the  S.  side.  The  lands 
in  the  N.  W.  were  originally  swampy. 
The  Ohio  river  forms  over  half  the  E., 
and  the  entire  S.  boundary  of  the  State, 
and  though  it  has  an  average  descent  of 
eight  inches  to  the  mile,  is  navigable  its 
entire  distance  along  the  State.  Lake 
Erie  forms  over  two-thirds  the  N.  bound- 
ary and  provides  Ohio  with  several  ex- 
cellent harbors.  The  principal  rivers 
flowing  into  the  lake  are  the  Cuyahoga, 
whose  mouth  forms  the  harbor  of  Cleve- 
land; the  Black,  the  Vermilion,  the  Ot- 
tawa, the  Sandusky,  emptying  into  San- 
dusky Bay,  and  the  Maumee,  emptying 
into  Maumee  Bay.  All  of  these  rivers 
have  excellent  _  harbors  at  their  mouths. 
The  Maumee  river  drains  the  larger  por- 
tion^ of  the  N.  of  Ohio.  The  streams 
flovdng  into  the  Ohio  are  the  Muskingum, 
emptying  at  Marietta;  the  Scioto,  at 
Portsmouth;  the  Little  Miami,  6  miles 
from  Cincinnati;  the  Big  Miami,  20  miles 
below  Cincinnati,  and  the  Hocking. 

Geology. — The  entire  geological  forma- 
tion of  Ohio  consists  of  Palaeozoic  strata, 
having  an  average  thickness  of  about 
3,600  feet.  The  Carboniferous,  Devon- 
ian, and  Silurian  systems  form  the  sur- 
face rock  of  the  State.  The  Quaternary 
or  drift  deposits,  cover  a  large  area  of 
the  State,  consisting  of  a  blue  bowlder 
clay,  covered  by  the  Erie  clay.  The 
Carboniferous  deposits  cover  one-third 
the  surface,  overlying  the  Devonian, 
which  geologically  forms  the  surface  of 
the  N.  part  of  the  State.     The  whole  S. 


OHIO 


10 


OHIO 


E.  half  of  Ohio  is  underlaid  with  coal 
measures,  showing  seven  distinct  veins  of 
superior  coal,  for  gas  making,  or  iron 
smelting.  These  coal  measures  have  a 
practical  working  thickness  of  over  50 
feet. 

Mineralogy. — The  mineralogical  re- 
sources of  Ohio  are  very  extensive.  The 
State  ranks  ninth  in  the  United  States  in 
the  production  of  petroleum,  and  clay 
products ;  fourth  in  coal  and  natural  gas ; 
and  fourth  in  salt.  Iron  is  found  in 
several  counties,  and  is  adapted  to  fine 
class  castings.  Carbonate  of  lime,  hy- 
draulic cement,  and  quicklime  are  exten- 
sively manufactured.  The  sandstone 
near  Cleveland  is  used  extensively  for 
building  purposes  in  the  N.  States  and 
Canada.  Ohio  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  mineral  producing  States. 
Its  two  leading  products  are  coal  and 
clay  products.  There  were  produced  in 
1919  47,919,202  short  tons  of  coal.  The 
petroleum  produced  in  the  same  year 
amounted  to  7,825,226  barrels,  valued  at 
$10,061,493.  The  natural  gas  production 
was  valued  at  $17,391,060.  The  value  of 
the  products  of  the  quarries,  chiefly  sand- 
stone and  limestone,  was  $5,816,923. 
The  Portland  cement  produced  was  1,- 
983,217  barrels,  valued  at  $1,940,824. 
The  value  of  the  clay  products  was  $36,- 
839,621. 

Manufactures. — There  were  in  1914 
15,658  manufacturing  establishments, 
employing  510,435  wage  earners.  The 
capital  invested  was  $1,677,552,000,  and 
the  amount  paid  in  wages  was  $318,924,- 
000.  The  value  of  the  materials  used 
was  $1,020,782,000  and  the  value  of  the 
finished  product  was  $1,782,808,000.^ 

Soil  and  Agriculture. — The  soil  is  di- 
vided into  three  grades,  limestone  soils, 
clay  of  the  uplands,  and  swamp  lands  in 
the  N.  W.  The  former  two  are  well 
adapted  to  agriculture,  all  the  fruits, 
cereals,  and  vegetables  of  the  temperate 
zone  thriving  well.  The  following  fig- 
ures give  the  acreage,  production  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops,  in  1919: 
corn,  3,700,000  acres,  production,  162,- 
800,000  bushels,  value  $196,988,000;  oats, 
1,548,000  acres,  production  51,858,000 
bushels,  value  $37,338,000;  wheat,  2,860,- 
000  acres,  production  54,440,000  bushels, 
value  $115,413,000;  hay,  2,879,000  acres, 
production  3,973,000  tons,  value  $86,611,- 
000;  tobacco,  90,000  acres,  production 
77,400,000  pounds,  value  $26,000,084;  po- 
tatoes, 150,000  acres,  production  9,300,- 
000  bushels,  value  $17,856,000. 

Banking. — On  Oct.  31, 1919,  there  were 
reported  372  National  banks  in  opera- 
tion, having  $65,033,000  in  capital,  $45,- 
049,000  in  outstanding  circulation,  and 
$156,342,000    in    United    States    bonds. 


There  were  also  609  State  banks,  with 
$58,417,000  capital  and  $39,138,000  sur- 
plus; 169  private  banks,  with  $2,657,000 
capital,  and  $990,000  surplus.  The  ex- 
changes at  the  United  States  clearing 
houses  at  Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Colunv- 
bus  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30,  1919, 
aggregated  $8,780,512,000. 

Education. — School  attendance  is  com- 
pulsory for  children  from  6  to  15  years. 
There  were  in  1919  about  11,000  public 
elementary  schools,  with  about  30,000 
teachers  and  about  870,000  enrolled 
pupils.  There  were  over  1,000  public 
high  schools,  with  nearly  130,000  pupils, 
and  6,500  teachers.  There  were  5  State 
normal  schools,  with  about  1,200  stu- 
dents. The  total  expenditure  for  educa- 
tion exceeds  $55,000,000  annually. 
Among  the  colleges  are  the  University  of 
Cincinnati,  at  Cincinnati;  Western  Re- 
serve University,  at  Cleveland;  Ohio 
State  University,  at  Columbus;  Ohio 
Wesleyan  University,  at  Delaware; 
Oberlin  College,  at  Oberlin;  St.  Xavier 
College,  at  Cincinnati,  Oxford  and  West- 
ern Colleges,  at  Oxford,  and  the  Lake 
Erie  College  and  Seminary  at  Paines- 
ville. 

Churches. — The  strongest  denomina- 
tions in  the  State  are  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic; Methodist  Episcopal;  Presbj'terian; 
Regular  Baptist,  North;  Disciples  of 
Christ;  United  Brethren;  Lutheran,  In- 
dependent Synods;  Reformed;  Congrega- 
tional; German  Evangelical  Synod;  and 
Christian. 

Railways. — The  total  mileage  in  1919 
was  9,316.  There  were  in  addition  over 
4,300  miles  of  electric  railway  track. 

Finances. — The  receipts  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  July  1,  1918,  were  $25,411,- 
743.  The  disbursements  were  $33,199,- 
499.  The  cash  on  hand  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year  amounted  to  $7,787,756. 
There  was  a  balance  on  July  1,  1919,  of 
$7,375,351.  The  public  debt  amounted 
to  $1,665,  being  a  canal  loan  not  bearing 
interest. 

State  Government. — The  governor  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  two  years.  Legis- 
lative sessions  are  held  biennially  and 
limited  in  length  to  60  days  each.  The 
Legislature  has  37  members  in  the  Sen- 
ate, and  125  members  in  the  House. 
There  are  22  Representatives  in  Con- 
gress. The  State  government  in  1921 
was  Republican. 

History. — The  site  of  the  present  State 
of  Ohio  was  first  explored  by  La  Salle  in 
1680.  About  1750  the  English  laid  claim 
to  the  region,  and  their  effort  to  make 
good  their  claim  brought  on  the  French 
and  Indian  War.  In  1763,  the  whole 
region  was  ceded  by  France  to  England, 
and  after  the  Revolutionary  War  it  be- 


OHIO 


11 


OHNET 


came  part  of  the  territory  of  the  United 
States.  The  Ohio  Company,  organized 
in  New  England  in  1787,  composed  of 
men  who  had  served  in  the  Revolution- 
ary War,  purchased  from  the  govern- 
ment a  large  tract  N.  of  the  Ohio,  paying 
for  it  in  Continental  currency.  The  first 
permanent  settlement  was  made  at  Mari- 
etta in  1788.  Cincinnati  was  founded 
soon  after,  and  the  settlement  of  the  S. 
section  of  the  territory  progressed  rap- 
idly. In  1791  the  Indian  became  stirred 
up  by  the  encroachments  of  the  whites, 
and  a  war  ensued,  which  at  first  proved 
disastrous  to  the  United  States  troops, 
but  was  finally  ended  in  victory  by  Gen- 
eral Wayne,  in  1794.  In  the  treaty  of 
f>eace  that  followed,  the  Indians  ceded  a 
arge  section  of  territory,  in  which  sev- 
eral new  towns  were  quickly  established. 
Ohio  formed  part  of  the  Northwest  Ter- 
ritory till  1800,  when  it  was  organized  as 
a  separate  Territory,  Chillicothe  being 
made  the  seat  of  government.  In  1802 
a  constitution  was  adopted  for  the  "East- 
ern Division  of  the  Territory  N.  W.  of 
the  Ohio,"  under  the  name  of  Ohio,  and 
it  was  formally  admitted  into  the  Union 
on  Feb.  19,  1803.  Steamboat  navigation 
on  the  Ohio  began  in  1812;  excavation  of 
the  State  canals  began  in  1825,  and  was 
completed  in  1844;  and  the  first  railroad, 
begun  in  1837,  was  opened  to  traffic  by 
1842.  Ohio  took  an  active  part  in  the 
Civil  War,  and  since  the  war  has  given 
seven  Presidents  to  the  Union — Grant, 
Hayes,  Garfield,  Harrison,  McKinley, 
Taft,  and  Harding,  all  born  in  this  State. 

OHIO,  a  river  of  the  United  States, 
caled  by  the  French  explorers,  after  its 
Indian  name,  la  Belle  Riviere  (The  Beau- 
tiful River),  next  to  the  Missouri  the 
largest  affluent  of  the  Mississippi.  It  is 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  Allegheny 
and  Monongahela  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and 
flows  W.  S.  W.  950  miles,  with  a  breadth 
of  400  to  1,400  yards,  draining,  with  its 
tributaries,  an  area  of  214,000  square 
miles.  In  its  course  it  separates  the 
States  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois  from 
the  States  of  West  Virginia  and  Ken- 
tucky. The  principal  towns  on  its  banks 
are  Pittsburgh,  Wheeling,  Cincinnati, 
Louisville  (where  there  are  rapids  of  22 
feet  in  a  mile,  with  a  steamboat  canal), 
Evansville,  New  Albany,  Madison,  Ports- 
mouth, Covington,  and  Cairo.  The 
river's  principal  affluents  are  the  Tenn- 
essee, Cumberland,  Wabash,  Kentucky, 
Great  Kanawha,  Green,  Muskingum  and 
Scioto.  It  is  usually  navigable  from 
Pittsburgh. 

OHIO,  ARMY  OF  THE,  a  division  of 
the  Federal  army  in  the  Civil  War;  or- 
ganized in  1861-1862  by  General  Buell; 


afterward  came  under  the  command  of 
General  Rosecrans  and  was  called  the 
Army  of  the  Cumberland.  A  second  de- 
partment of  the  Ohio  was  formed,  and 
was  also  in  1865  incorporated  in  the 
Army  of  the  Cumberland. 

OHIO  NOBTHERN  UNIVERSITY. 
an  institution  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  situated  at 
Ada,  Ohio.  Two  normal  schools  consoli- 
dated in  1885  under  the  name  of  the  Ohio 
Normal  University.  This  institution 
was  purchased  by  the  Methodists  in  1898, 
and  re-chartered  under  the  name  of  the 
Ohio  Northern  University.  It  is  a  co- 
educational institution,  having  a  prejjar- 
atory,  normal,  and  college  department. 
The  college  is  in  session  all  but  four 
weeks  in  the  year.  In  1915  two  new 
buildings  were  erected,  bringing  the  total 
value  of  the  grounds  and  builoings  close 
to  a  million  dollars.  In  1919  there  were 
480  students  and  28  instructors.  Presi- 
dent, A.  E.  Smith. 

OHIO,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a  coeduca- 
tional non-sectarian  institution  in 
Athens,  O.;  founded  in  1804;  reported  at 
the  close  of  1900:  Professors  and  in- 
structors, 96;  students,  3,957;  president, 
Alston  Ellis,  Ph.D. 

OHIO  WESLEYAN  UNIVERSITY,  a 
coeducational  institution  in  Delaware, 
O.;  founded  in  1844  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  re- 
ported at  the  close  of  1919:  Professors 
and  instructors,  78;  number  of  students, 
1,250;  president,  J.  W.  Hoffman,  D.D. 
The  university  includes  a  college  of  lib- 
eral arts,  a  school  of  music,  oratory, 
business,  medicine,  etc. 

OHM,  or  OHMAD,  in  electromagnetics, 
the  unit  of  resistance.  It  is  10*  C.  G.  S. 
units  of  resistance,  and  is  the  same  as  the 
value  of  one  earth-quadrant  per  second. 

OHM'S  I^W.  in  electricity,  a  law 
enunciated  by  Professor  Ohm,  in  1827, 
for  determining  the  quantity  of  electro- 
motive force  in  a  voltaic  battery.  It  is 
that  the  intensity  of  the  current  in  a 
voltaic  current  is  equal  to  the  electro- 
motive force  divided  by  the  resistance. 

OHNET,  GEORGES,  a  French  novel- 
ist; born  in  Paris,  France,  April  3,  1848; 
studied  law,  and  after  practicing  some 
time  as  an  advocate  took  to  journalism, 
and  later  to  literature  proper.  Under 
the  general  title  of  "The  Battle  of  Life" 
he  published  a  series  of  novels  dealing 
wih  social  questions,  which  enjoyed  great 
popularity.  The  first  of  this  cycle  of 
romances  was  "Serge  Panine"  (1881), 
quickly   followed   by   "The    Ironmaster" 


OIL    CAKE 


12 


OKEECHOBEE    LAKE 


(1882),  "Countess  Sarah"  (1883),  "Lise 
Fleuron"  (1884),  "The  Great  Maalpit" 
(1885),  "Will"  (1888),  "In  Deep  Abyss." 
Died  1918. 

OIL  CAKE,  the  marc  or  refuse  after 
dH  is  pressed  from  flax,  rape,  mustard, 
cotton,  or  hemp  seed;  or  from  cocoanut 
pulp.     Used  for  cattle  feed  or  manure. 

OIL  CITY,  a  city  in  Venango  co..  Pa. ; 
at  the  junction  of  Oil  creek  and  the  Alle- 
gheny river  and  on  the  Erie,  the  Lake 
Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  and  Penn- 
sylvania railroads;  about  70  miles  N.  of 
Pittsburgh.  It  received  its  name  from 
the  extensive  petroleum  oil  wells  and  oil 
industries  located  here.  The  city  has  a 
public  hospital,  public  library,  electric 
street  railroads,  electric  lights,  high 
school,  daily  and  weekly  newspapers,  and 
National,  State,  and  private  banks.  Be- 
sides large  oil  refineries,  it  has  pipe 
works,  iron  foundries,  engine  and  boiler 
works,  wagon  works,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
15,657;   (1920)  21,274. 

OILCLOTH,  a  tarpaulin;  painted  can- 
vas for  floor  covering.  Figures  or  pat- 
terns in  oil  colors  are  printed  on  one  side 
by  means  of  wooden  blocks.  A  separate 
block  is  used  for  each  color. 

OIL  GAS,  in  chemistry,  a  gas  of  high 
illuminating  power,  obtained  by  dropping 
oil  on  substances  heated  to  redness  and 
collecting  the   gaseous  product. 

OIL  OF  VITRIOL,  the  common  name 
of  strong  sulphuric  acid. 

OIL  PIPE  LINES,  a  system  of  con- 
nected pipes  used  for  the  purpose  of 
transporting  oil — usually  petroleum — 
from  the  fields  to  the  refinery  or  selling 
point. 

The  first  successful  pipe  line  was  laid 
in  1865  by  Samuel  von  Syckle,  of  Titus- 
ville,  Pennsylvania,  who  placed  in  suc- 
cessful operation  a  line  four  miles  in 
length.  Although  General  S.  D.  Earns 
suggested  a  gravity  line  from  Burning 
Springs  to  the  Ohio  River  at  Parkers- 
burg,  West  Virginia,  in  1860,  it  was 
never  constructed,  and  in  1862  a  line  of 
about  three  miles  was  laid  by  J.  S. 
Hutchinson,  but  was  unsuccessful  be- 
cause of  the  excessive  leakage. 

The  success  of  this  early  line  soon  led 
to  the  construction  of  many  others,  in  the 
face  of  much  opposition,  and  actual  inter- 
ference, on  the  part  of  those  people  who 
made  their  livelihood  by  the  transporta- 
tion of  oil  in  wagons. 

The  tendency  to  locate  the  refineries  at 
the  seaboard  soon  developed,  and  these 
refineries  were  soon  connected  with  their 
oil  fields  by  pipe  lines.  A  pipe  line  from 
Olean,  New  York  to  Bayonne,  New  Jer- 

Voi.  VII — cyc 


sey,  was  constructed  in  1897.  Standard 
Oil  subsidiaries  soon  built  a  net  work  of 
lines  reaching  from  the  wells  to  the  coast 
or  to  Great  Lake  cities. 

It  is  estimated  that  there  are  now 
about  one  hundred  thousand  miles  of  pipe 
lines  and  feeders  in  the  United  States,  as 
the  western  fields  also  have  extensive  pipe 
line  systems.  Pipe  lines  have  also  been 
constructed  in  Russia  and  Mexico,  in 
Burma,  Roumania,  and  in  the  Dutch 
East  Indies. 

The  oil  is  kept  in  motion  either  by 
gravity  or,  as  is  more  frequently  the 
case,  by  high  pressure  compound  pumps. 
In  some  parts  of  the  country  where  the 
viscosity  of  the  oil  is  very  high,  refilling 
is  used  to  facilitate  the  forcing  of  the  oil 
through  the  pipe. 

OINTMENT,  a  soft,  unctuous  sub- 
stance used  for  smearing  or  anointing; 
an  unguent. 

OISE,  a  department  of  France;  sepa- 
rated from  the  English  Channel  by 
Seine-Inf  erieure ;  area,  2,272  square 
miles;  pop.  about  435,000.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Oise,  a  tributary  of  the 
Seine,  150  miles  in  length,  with  the  Aisne 
and  Therain,  affluents  of  the  Oise.  The 
soil  is  in  general  fertile,  and  agriculture 
advanced.  The  products  are  the  usual 
grain  crops,  with  an  immense  quantity 
of  vegetables,  which  are  sent  to  the 
markets  of  the  metropolis.  Before  the 
World  War  there  were  extensive  iron 
manufactures;  porcelain,  paper,  chemi- 
cals, beet-root  sugar,  woolens,  cottons, 
and  lace  (at  Chantilly)  were  also  made. 
Capital,  Beauvais.  During  the  World 
War  (1914-1918)  the  Department  was 
devastated  by  the  German  armies  and 
repeatedly  fought  over  by  the  opposing 
forces. 

OKA,  an  important  navigable  river 
of  central  Russia,  the  principle  aflSuent 
of  the  Volga  from  the  S.,  rises  in  the 
government  of  Orel,  and  flows  in  a  gen- 
erally N.  E.  direction,  and  joins  the 
Volga  at  Nijni-Novgorod,  after  a  course 
of  706  miles.  Its  basin  comprises  the 
richest  and  most  fertile  region  of  Russia. 
The  principal  towns  on  its  banks  are 
Orel,  Bielev,  Kaluga,  Riazan,  and 
Muron;  the  most  important  affluents  are 
the  rivers  Moscow,  Kliasma,  and  Tzna. 
During  spring  the  Oka  is  navigable  from 
Orel  to  the  Volga;  but  in  summer  the 
navigation  is  obstructed  by  sandbanks. 

OKEECHOBEE  LAKE,  a  large  shal- 
low lake  in  Southern  Florida;  about  40 
miles  in  length  by  25  in  breadth,  and 
with  a  maximum  depth  of  12  feet.  Its 
waters  are  discharged  through  the  Ever- 
glades, but  there  is  no  appreciable  outlei 

1 


OKHOTSK 


13 


OKLAHOMA 


stream.  It  contains  a  few  low  islands, 
and  a  drainage  company  has  been  re- 
claiming land  since  1881. 

OKHOTSK,  SEA  OF,  an  extensive  in- 
let of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  E. 
coast  of  Russian  Siberia,  nearly  en- 
closed by  Kamchatka  and  the  Kuriles 
and  Saghalien.  It  is  little  navigated. 
On  its  N.  shore,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ok- 
hota,  is  the  small  seaport  of  Okhotsk. 

OKLAHOMA,  a  State  in  the  South 
Central  Division  of  the  North  American 
Union;  bounded  by  Kansas,  Missouri, 
Arkansas,  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and 
Colorado;  admitted  to  statehood  Nov.  16, 
1907;  capital,  Oklahoma  City;  counties, 
76;  area,  70,057  square  miles;  pop, 
(1890)  258,657;  (1900)  790,391;  (1910) 
1,657,155;   (1920)  2,028,283. 

Tojyogra'phy. — Oklahoma  is  in  general 
an  upland  prairie  rising  gradually  to- 
ward the  N.  and  W.  The  principal  ele- 
vations are  the  Wichita  Mountains  in  the 
S.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Arkan- 
sas, fed  by  the  Canadian,  the  Cimarron, 
which  waters  the  N.  and  central  portions 
of  the  State,  while  the  Red  River  forms 
a  part  of  theS.  boundary,  and  with  its 
two  forks,  drains  the  S.  W.  portion  of  the 
State. 

Banking. — On  Sept.  1, 1919,  there  were 
reported  346  National  banks  in  opera- 
tion, having  $19,273,000  in  capital,  $10,- 
474,000  in  outstanding  circulation,  and 
$42,271,000  in  United  States  bonds. 
There  were  also  582  State  banks,  with 
$12,048,000  capital  and  $2,330,000  sur- 
plus. 

AgriculUire. — The  acreage,  production 
and  value  of  the  leading  crops  of  1919 
was  as  follows:  corn,  3,100,000  acres,  pro- 
duction 74,400,000  bu.,  value  $94,488,000; 
oats,  1,500,000  acres,  production  49,500,- 
000  bushels,  value  $34,650,000;  wheat, 
3,760,000  acres,  production  52,642,000 
bushels,  value  $107,912,000;  hay,  700,000 
acres,  production,  1,540,000  tons,  value 
$23,254,000;  potatoes,  44,000  acres,  pro- 
duction 3,525,000  bushels,  value,  $7,316,- 
000;  cotton,  2,341,000  acres,  production 
930,000  bales,  value  $163,680,000;  sorg- 
hums, 1,440,000  acres,  production  33,- 
120,000  bushels,  value  $49,680,000. 

Manufactures. — There  were  in  1914 
2,518  manufacturing  establishments  in 
the  State,  employing  17,443  wage  earn- 
ers. The  capital  invested  amounted  to 
$65,478,000;  the  wages  paid  to  $11,011,- 
000;  the  value  of  the  materials  used  to 
$"^0,970,000;  and  the  value  of  the  finished 
product  to  $102,006,000. 

Mineral  Production. — Oklahoma  within 
recent  years  has  become  one  of  the  most 
important  of  the  mineral  producing 
States,  due  chiefly  to  the  great  develop- 

Vol.  VIl— Cyc 


ment  of  the  petroleum  fields  which  were 
discovered  in  1904.  The  production  in- 
creased from  1,400,000  barrels  in  1904, 
to  97,915,243  barrels  in  1915,  107,507,471 
barrels  in  1917,  and  103,347,070  in  1918. 
The  value  of  the  production  in  the  lat- 
ter year  was  $231,136,205.  Coal  is  also 
produced  in  important  quantities.  In 
1919  the  production  was  3,200,000  tons. 
Oklahoma  ranks  second  among  the  States 
in    the    production    of    natural    gas.     In 

1918  there  were  124,317,179  million  cu- 
bic feet,  valued  at  $15,805,135.  Other 
important  minerals  produced  are  lead 
and  zinc. 

Education. — The  State  school  system 
embraces  elementary  and  public  high, 
schools,  normal  schools  and  colleges  for 
higher  education.  Separate  schools  are 
provided    for"  negroes    and    whites.     In 

1919  there  were  about  520,000  white 
pupils  and  about  45,000  negro  pupils  in 
the  public  schools.  There  were  over 
600  public  high  schools,  with  an  attend- 
ance of  over  35,000.  In  the  7  normal 
schools  there  were  nearly  5,000  students. 
The  total  expenditure  for  education  in 
1919  was  about  $14,000,000.  The  in- 
stitutions for  higher  education  include 
the  University  of  Oklahoma  at  Norman, 
the  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College 
at  Stillwater,  and  the  Agricultural  and 
Normal  University  for  Colored  Students 
at  Langston. 

Railways. — The  railway  mileage  in 
1919  was  6,532.  Of  this  about  100 
miles  were  laid  during  the  year.  The 
principal  lines  were  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  and  Pacific,  the  Choctaw, 
Oklahoma  and  Gulf,  the  St.  Louis  ana 
San  Francisco,  the  Missouri,  Kansas 
and  Texas,  and  the  Santa  Fe  and 
Pacific. 

Finances. — The  receipts  for  the  fiscal 
year  1918  were  $8,209,656,  and  the  dis- 
bursements were  $6,845,898.  There  was 
a  balance  at  the  beginning  of  July  1, 
1917,  of  $2,375,690,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  July  1,  1918,  the  balance  was  $4,450,- 
378.  The  State  debt  on  July  1,  1918,  was 
$6,296,000.  The  assessed  valuation  of 
real  and  personal  property  was  $1,335,- 
220,527. 

Churches. — The  strongest  denomina- 
tions in  the  State  are  the  Regular  Bap- 
tist; Christian;  Roman  Catholic;  Pro- 
testant Episcopal;  Methodist  Episcopal, 
South;  Salvation  Army;  Presbyterian; 
Congregational;  and  Methodist  Epis- 
copal. 

State  Government. — The  governor  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  four  years.  Legis- 
lative sessions  are  held  biennially  and 
are  limited  to  60  days  each.  The  Legis- 
lature has  44  members  in  the  Senate,  and 

2 


OKLAHOMA  14 

99  in  the  House.    There  are  8  Represen- 
tatives in  Congress. 

History. — Oklahoma  is  a  part  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  of  1803,  and  of  the 
tract  set  apart  for  Indian  tribes  by  Act 
of  Congress,  June  30,  1834.  On  April 
22,  1889,  a  proclamation  was  issued  by 
the  President  opening  up  1,900,000  acres 
of  land  for  settlement.  There  was  a 
great  rush  of  settlers  and  speculators, 
the  city  of  Guthrie  coming  into  existence 
in  one  day  with  a  population  of  10,000. 
Other  lands  have  been  opened  from  time 
to  time.  The  first  Territorial  governor 
was  appointed  in  1890.  In  September, 
1891,  the  Iowa,  Sac,  Fox,  and  Pottawa- 
tomie lands  of  1,000,000  acres  were 
opened;  in  April,  1892,  the  Cheyenne  and 
Arapahoe  lands  of  3,000,000  acres;  on 
Sept.  16,  1893,  the  Cherokee  Strip  of 
6,000,000  acres;  on  May  23,  1895,  a  small 
section  known  as  the  Kickapoo  lands; 
and  on  Aug.  6,  1901,  the  Kiowa,  Com- 
anche, Apache,  and  Wichita  reservations, 
representing  over  3,000,000  acres.  In 
June.  1890,  the  country  known  as  No 
Man's  Land  was  attached  to  Oklahoma 
by  Act  of  Congress,  being  created  into 
Beaver  county.  In  1896  Greer  county, 
in  the  extreme  S.  W.  portion  of  the  Terri- 
tory, was  given  to  Oklahoma  by  decision 
of  the  Supreme  Court.  In  1907,  with 
Indian  Territory,  it  was  admitted  to 
statehood. 

OKLAHOMA  AGBICULTUEAL  AND 
MECHANICAL  COLLEGE,  an  institu- 
tion maintained  by  State  and  Federal 
appropriations  to  encourage  the  study  of 
scientific  agriculture  and  electrical  and 
mechanical  engineering.  It  is  situated 
at  Stillwater,  Okla.,  and  in  1914-1915 
had  an  enrollment  of  over  twenty-three 
hundred.  In  addition  to  the  university 
where  courses  in  home  economics,  science 
and  literature  are  given  in  addition  to 
those  already  mentioned  there  are  also 
a  summer  school,  a  cotton  school  and  a 
secondary  school.  The  latter  gives  a 
three  year  course  admitting  to  the  uni- 
versity. 

OKLAHOMA  CITY,  a  city,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  State  and  county-seat  of  Okla- 
homa CO.,  Okla.;  on  the  North  Canadian 
river,  and  on  the  Santa  Fe,  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  and  Pacific,  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  and  Texas,  and  the  St.  Louis  and 
San  Francisco  railroads;  81  miles  S.  of 
Guthrie.  It  is  the  entrepot  of  a  rich 
agricultural  country,  and  is  the  center  of 
an  important  oil  producing  region.  It 
has  developed  greatly  as  a  manufactur- 
ing community  in  recent  years.  It  has 
National  banks,  and  several  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers,  and  contains  cotton 
gins,   flour   mills,  packing  houses,   pub- 


OKUMA 

lishing  houses,  oil  refineries  and  soap 
factories.  Pop.  (1890)  4,151;  (1900) 
10,037;  (1910)  64,205;  (1920)  91,295. 

OKLAHOMA,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a 
co-educational,  non-sectarian  institution 
in  Norman,  Okla.;  founded  in  1892;  re- 
ported at  the  close  of  1919:  Professors 
and  instructors,  150;  students,  3,683; 
president,  S.  D.  Brooks,  LL.D. 

OKMULGEE,  a  city  of  Oklahoma,  the 
county-seat  of  Okmulgee  co.  It  is  on  the 
St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco  railroad. 
It  is  the  center  of  a  rich  coal,  oil,  and 
gas  region,  and  its  industries  include  the 
manufacture  of  window  glass  and  bot- 
tles. It  has  a  hospital,  excellent  public 
schools,  and  an  old  council  house  of  the 
Creek  Indians.  Pop.  (1910)  4,176; 
(1920)  17,430. 

OKU,  YASUKATA,  COUNT,  a  Japa- 
nese soldier.  He  was  born  in  1846  in  the 
province  of  Chikuzen,  and  during  the  re- 
bellion of  1877  warmly  espoused  the  im- 
perial cause,  winning  distinction  in  sev- 
eral battles.  In  the  Chinese  war  of 
1894-1895  he  commanded  the  Fifth  Army 
Division,  and  afterward  helped  in  reor- 
ganizing military  affairs.  During  the 
Russo-Japanese  war  he  distinguished 
himself  as  general  in  command  of  the 
Second  Army  at  Kinchow,  Telissu,  Liao- 
Yang  and  Mukden.  Three  years  after 
being  made  general  he  was  in  1906 
named  chief  of  the  general  staff,  an  office 
which  he  held  for  six  years,  becoming 
field-marshal  at  the  close. 

OKUMA,  COUNT,  a  Japanese  states- 
.man;  born  in  Kinshiu  province,  Japan,  in 
1837;  took  part  in  the  Japanese  revolu- 
tion of  1868,  and  through  it  rose  to  office. 
In  1873  he  was  appointed  Minister  of 
Finance,  and  held  that  post  till  1881, 
when  through  a  disagreement  with  the 
premier.  Marquis  Ito,  he  resigned.  In 
1888  he  became  Minister  for  Foreign 
Affairs,  but  efforts  to  push  the  revision 
of  the  treaties  with  foreign  nations  made 
him  unpopular,  and  he  had  to  resign. 
In  1881  he  organized  the  Progressive 
party  known  as  the  Kaishinto,  and  their 
power  has  steadily  grown  till,  in  1896,  it 
carried  him  into  office  as  Foreign  Minis- 
ter. He  always  advocated  party  govern- 
ment for  Japan,  and  in  1898,  after  the 
fall  of  Marquis  Ito*s  ministry,  organized 
the  first  government  ever  appointed  in 
Japan  on  a  party  basis,  but  did  not  re- 
main long  in  office.  In  1907  he  resigned 
the  leadership  in  the  Progressive  party. 
Called  to  form  a  cabinet  in  1914,  his  sup- 
porters won  in  the  Lower  House  in  _  the 
election  of  1915.  As  premier  he_  gained 
world-wide  prominence  for  declaring  war 
on  Germany,  the  capture  of  Tsingtao  in 


OLAF    I. 


15 


OLD    BAILEY 


1914  and  the  21  demands  on  China  in 
1915.  Most  of  the  demands  giving 
Japan  increased  privileges  were  obtained 
and  in  compensation  the  return  of  Tsing- 
tao  to  China  was  promised.  Count 
Okuma  was  founder  and  president  of  the 
Waseda  University  and  also  founded  the 
Japanese  Women's  University. 

OLAF  I.,  King  of  Denmark,  perished 
in  814,  in  combat  with  the  Turks. 

OLAF  II.,  succeeded  his  brother, 
Canute  IV.,  in  1086,  and  died  in  1095. 

OLAF,  or  ST.  OLAF,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Norwegian  kings,  son 
of  Harald,  chief  of  the  district  of  Gran- 
land;  born  about  995.  He  was  a  friend 
of  the  Normans,  and  fought  as  an  ally  of 
Ethelred's  in  England.  He  afterward 
established  himself  on  the  throne  of 
Norway,  and  was  a  zealous  supporter  of 
Christianity.  Canute  the  Great  having 
landed  in  Norway  with  an  army,  Olaf 
fled  to  Russia,  and  in  attempting  to  re- 
cover his  dominions  he  was  defeated  and 
slain  at  the  battle  of  Siklestad  (1030). 
Since  1164  he  has  been  honored  as  the 
patron  saint  of  Norway.  The  order  of 
St.  Olaf,  a  Norwegian  order  given  in 
reward  for  services  rendered  to  king  and 
country  or  to  art  and  science,  was 
founded  in  1847. 

OLAND.     See  Oeland. 

O'LAITGHLIN,  JOHN  CALLAN,  an 
American  newspaper  writer,  born  in 
Washington  in  1873.  He  was  educated 
in  the  common  schools  and  studied  Euro- 
pean diplomacy  in  Columbia  University. 
He  served  as  correspondent  in  various 
parts  of  the  world  for  many  newspapers 
and  contributed  much  to  current  maga- 
zines. He  served  as  first  assistant  secre- 
tary of  state  for  three  months  in  1909, 
and  was  secretary  of  Theodore  Roosevelt 
during  the  latter's  trips  in  Africa  and 
Europe.  He  wrote  "With  Roosevelt 
from  the  Jungle  Through  Europe" 
(1910);  "Imperilled  America"  (1916). 
He  was  commissioned  major  in  the  Na- 
tional Guard  in  1918  and  served  as  aide 
to  Major-General  Goethals. 

OLD  AGE  PENSIONS,  income  re- 
ceived by  superannuated  employees  of  a 
state,  municipality  or  private  corpora- 
tion. It  is  a  prominent  feature  of  the 
general  tendency  toward  the  assumption 
of  responsibility  on  the  part  of  society 
for  the  welfare  of  its  individual  units, 
brought  about  by  the  evils  of  modern  in- 
dustrialism. Originally  based  on  the 
principle  of  individualism,  the  modern 
state  is  more  and  more  becoming  recog- 
nized as  a  social  organization,  as  well  as 
the  source  of  administrative  authority. 


The  first  statesman  to  recognize  the 
responsibility  of  the  state  for  the  welfare 
of  aged  workers  was  Bismarck,  who  in- 
itiated a  system  of  compulsory  state  in- 
surance, suggested  by  Schaeffle.  Bis^ 
marck  realized  the  powerful  impression 
which  was  then  being  made  on  the  masses 
by  the  Socialistic  doctrines  of  Lasalle, 
and  introduced  this  and  other  elements 
of  paternalism  into  the  government  as  a 
check  to  the  growing  Socialist  move- 
ment. 

Old  age  pensions,  based  on  compulsory 
insurance,  in  which  the  workers  them- 
selves are  compelled  to  pay  a  part  of  the 
cost  of  maintaining  the  system,  the  rest 
being  borne  by  the  state  and  the  employ- 
ers, have  since  been  adopted  in  many 
other  European  countries,  notably  among 
the  coal  miners  of  Austria  (in  1889), 
France  (in  1894),  Rumania  (in  1895), 
and  more  generally  in  Sweden  and  Bel- 
gium. In  the  latter  country  old  age 
pensions  are  a  part  of  the  system  of 
mutual  benefits  instituted  by  the  co-oper- 
ative societies,  notably  in  Ghent,  where 
the  profits  from  the  co-operative  enter- 
prises are  partly  devoted  to  the  old  age 
pensions  fund. 

Old  age  pensions  in  the  United  States 
have  been  largely  limited  to  the  large 
corporations,  especially  in  the  more  haz- 
ardous industries,  such  as  in  the  rail- 
roads and  coal  mines  and  the  steel  foun- 
dries. In  many  instances  this  is  done 
through  voluntary  associations,  toward 
whose  funds  the  corporations  contribute 
the  greater  portion. 

OLD  BAILEY,  until  1903  an  English 
court  or  sessions  house  in  London,  in 
which  the  sittings  of  the  Central  Crim- 
inal Court  were  held  for  the  trial  of  of- 
fenses within  its  jurisdiction.  The 
judges  of  this  court  are  the  lord  mayor, 
the  lord  chancellor,  the  judges,  alder- 
men, recorder,  and  common  serjeant  of 
London.  But  of  these  the  recorder,  the 
serjeant,  and  the  judge  of  the  sheriff's 
court  are  in  most  cases  the  actually  pre- 
siding judges.  Here  were  tried  in  1660, 
after  the  Restoration,  the  surviving 
judges  of  Charles  I. ;  and  Milton's  "Icono- 
clasts" and  "First  Defense"  were  in  the 
same  year  burned  at  the  Old  Bailey  by 
the  common  hangman.  The  patriot  Lord 
William  Russell  was  tried  here  in  1683, 
Jack  Sheppard  in  1724,  Jonathan  Wild  in 
1725,  the  poet  Savage  in  1727,  Dr.  Dodd 
in  1777,  Bellingham,  the  assassin  of  the 
statesman  Perceval,  in  1812,  the  Cato 
street  conspirators  in  1820.  The  Old 
Bailey  adjoins  Newgate  Prison,  bet\^^en 
Holborn  Viaduct  and  Ludgate  Hill, 
where  the  Central  Criminal  Court  now 
stands. 


OLDCASTLE 


16 


OLDHAM 


OLDCASTLE,  SIB  JOHN,  LORD 
COBHAM,  as  English  reformer;  born 
in  the  14th  century,  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward III.,  and  obtained  his  peerage  by 
marrying  the  daughter  of  Lord  Cobham. 
He  excited  the  resentment  of  the  clergy 
by  his  zealous  adherence  to  the  doctrines 
of  Wyclif,  whose  works  he  collected, 
transcribed,  and  distributed  among  the 
people.  Under  Henry  V.  he  was  accused 
of  heresy;  but  the  king,  with  whom  he 
was  a  favorite,  delayed  the  prosecutions 
against  him,  and  tried  to  convince  him  of 
his  alleged  errors,  but  in  vain.  He  was 
then  cited  before  the  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury (1413),  condemned  as  a  heretic, 
and  committed  to  the  Tower,  whence  he 
escaped  into  Wales.  Four  years  after- 
ward he  was  retaken  and  burned  alive  in 
St.  Giles'  Fields,  in  December,  1417.  He 
wrote  "Twelve  Conclusions,"  addressed 
to  the  Parliament  of  England. 

OLD  CATHOLICS,  the  name  assumed 
by  a  body  of  German  priests  and  laymen 
who  refused  to  accept  the  dogma  of 
Papal  Infallibility,  and,  in  consequence 
of  its  definition,  formed  themselves  into 
a  separate  body.  It  was  essentially  a 
university  movement,  for  the  German 
bishops  who  had  left  Rome  to  avoid  vot- 
ing— Hefele  among  the  number — after- 
ward submitted.  Van  Schulte,  a  pro- 
fessor at  Prague,  published  a  formal  pro- 
test; then  came  the  Nuremberg  protest 
of  "Catholic  professors"  (August,  1870). 
Father  Hyacinthe's  "Appeal  to  the  Bish- 
ops" followed  in  "La  Liberta"  early  in 
1871,  and  (March  28)  Dr.  Bollinger  set 
forth  his  reasons  for  withholding  his  as- 
sent. Dollinger  and  Friedrich  were  im- 
mediately excommunicated.  In  Septem- 
ber following,  a  congress  was  held  at 
Munich,  when  it  was  resolved  to  seek  re- 
union with  the  Greeks.  In  1872  a  second 
congTess  was  held  at  Cologne.  On  Aug. 
11,  1873,  Dr.  Reinkens  was  consecrated 
at  Rotterdam  by  Dr.  Hey  de  Kamp,  Jan- 
senist  Bishop  of  Deventer,  and,  in  1876, 
Dr.  Reinkens  consecrated  Dr.  Herzog. 
The  first  synod  (1874)  made  confession 
and  fasting  voluntary;  the  second  (1875) 
reduced  the  number  of  feasts,  and  ad- 
mitted only  such  impediments  to  mar- 
riage as  were  recognized  by  the  State; 
the  third  (1876)  permitted  priests  to 
marry,  but  forbade  them  to  officiate  after 
marriage.  This  prohibition  was  an- 
nulled by  the  fifth  synod  (1878),  and,  in 
consequence,  Friedrich,  Reusch,  and  some 
others  withdrew.  Congregations  of  Old 
Catholics  exist  in  Austria,  Italy,  Spain, 
Switzerland,  France,  and  Mexico,  but 
their  numbers  are  small. 

OLD  DOMINION,  Virginia.  In  co- 
lonial days  acts  of  Parliament  relating  to 


the  Virginian  settlements  (which  at  that 
time  included  all  the  British  dominions 
in  North  America)  always  designated 
them  as  the  "Colony  and  Dominion  of 
Virginia."  In  the  maps  of  the  time  this 
colony  was  described  as  "Old  Virginia," 
in  contradistinction  to  the  New  England 
settlements,  which  were  called  "New  Vir- 
ginia." 

OLDENBTJRG,  a  republic  since  1918, 
formerly  a  Grand  Duchy  of  North  Ger- 
many, between  lat.  52°  8(K  and  53°  43' 
N,,  Ion.  T  35'  and  8"  50'  E.,  having  N. 
the  North  Sea,  E.  the  territory  of  Bre- 
men, S.  and  W.  Hanover;  area,  2,417 
square  miles.  The  surface  is  level,  and 
so  low  on  the  coast  as  to  render  neces- 
sary the  formation  of  dykes,  as  in  Hol- 
land, to  prevent  inundations  of  the  sea. 
The  soil  is  rich  on  the  banks  of  the 
rivers,  but  in  other  parts  sandy  or 
marshy.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Weser,  Hunte,  Haase,  Leda,  and  Jahde. 
Of  the  lakes,  Drummersee  is  the  princi- 
pal. The  productions  include  flax,  hemp, 
hops,  rape  seed,  corn  and  potatoes. 
Horses  and  cattle  of  superior  breed,  and 
sheep,  are  extensively  reared.  Its  com- 
merce is  principally  carried  on  in  small 
vessels  of  from  20  to  40  tons,  along  the 
coast  with  Denmark,  Holland,  Hanover, 
etc.  The  duchy  of  Oldenburg  was 
formed  in  1773  by  Joseph  II.,  of  the 
counties  of  Oldenburg  and  Delmenhorst. 
It  joined  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine 
in  1808,  incorporated  with  the  French 
empire  by  Napoleon  I.  in  1810,  and  was 
restored  to  the  duke  in  1814.  Augustus 
first  assumed  the  title  of  grand  duke  in 
1829.  Kniphausen  was  added  to  the 
grand-duchy  in  1854.  Oldenburg  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  Hanover 
against  Prussia  in  1865,  and  after  the 
defeat  of  the  Austrians,  submitted  to 
Prussia,  with  which  it  signed  a  treaty  of 
alliance  in  1866.  Capital,  Oldenburg. 
Pop.  about  500,000. 

OLD  FORGE,  a  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Lackawanna  co.  It  is  on  the 
Lackawanna  river  and  on  the  Delaware, 
Lackawanna,  and  Western  railroad.  It 
is  the  center  of  an  important  anthracite 
region  and  its  principal  industries  are 
the  mining  and  shipping  of  coal.  There 
are  also  silk  mills.  It  has  an  excellent 
high  school,  and  other  public  buildings. 
Pop.  (1910)  11,324;  (1920)  12,237. 

OLDHAM,  a  town  of  England,  in 
Lancashire,  6  miles  N.  E.  of  Manches- 
ter. The  spinning  and  weaving  of  cot- 
ton are  the  staple  industries  of  the  town, 
and  employ  within  it  and  in  its  vicinity 
about  250  mills;  and  there  are  several 
large  machine  shops,  foundries,  tanner- 


OLDHAM 


ies,  roperies,  silk  factories,  bleach  works, 
etc.     Pop.   (1917)   133,721. 

OLDHAM,  JOHN,  an  English  au- 
thor; box'n  in  Shipton,  in  August,  1653; 
was  educated  at  the  school  of  Tetbury, 
and  then  at  Oxford.  He  had  many  pa- 
trons, the  last  being  the  Earl  of  Kings- 
ton, in  whose  house  he  died.  His  works 
have  been  published  in  three  volumes. 
He  died  in  1683. 

OLD  RED  SANDSTONE.  The  old 
red  sandstone,  or  Devonian  system,  may 
be  considered  as  embracing  the  whole 
series  of  strata  which  lies  between  the 
Silurian  and  Carboniferous  systems. 
Certain  portions  of  the  formation  were 
first  distinguished  in  Devonshire,  from 
which  it  derives  its  second  name.  The 
lower  margin  of  the  system  is  character- 
ized by  strata  containing  the  fossil  re- 
mains of  fishes,  and  forming  a  line  of 
separation  between  it  and  the  Silurian 
system.  On  its  upper  margin  it  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  rarity  of  the  vegetation 
which  so  remarkably  distinguishes  the 
over-lying  carboniferous  rocks.  The 
Devonian  formation  is  nowhere  found  so 
largely  developed  as  in  the  United  States. 
In  the  New  York  system  of  rocks  it  in- 
cludes the  following  rocks: 

Approximate  thickness 
Names.  in  New  York. 

Catskill  group,   or  old  red  sandstone.  .  .2,000  feet. 

Chemung     1,500     " 

Portage,  and  Genesee 1,000    " 

Hamilton     1,000     " 

Marcellas     50    " 

Upper    Helderberg     50    " 

Schoharie,    and    Cauda-galli    10    " 

Oriskany    sandstone    5  to  30  feet. 

OLD  TOWN,  a  town  in  Penobscot  co., 
Me.,  near  the  W.  bank  of  the  Penobscot 
river,  and  on  the  Maine  Central  and 
Bangor  and  Aroostook  railroads;  12 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Bangor.  It  has  exten- 
sive water  power,  and  is  a  center  of  the 
lumber  industry,  having  one  of  the  larg- 
est lumber  mills  in  the  world.  Pop. 
(1920)  6,956. 

OLD  WORLD,  the  Eastern  Hemis- 
phere, so  named  in  popular  parlance 
subsequent  to  the  discovery  of  the  New 
World,  in  1492. 

OLE  AN,  a  city  in  Cattaraugus  co.,  N. 
Y.,  on  the  Alleghany  river  and  on  the 
Pennsylvania,  the  Erie,  and  the  Pitts- 
burgh, Shawmut  and  Northern  rail- 
roads; 70  miles  E.  of  Buffalo.  It  con- 
tains a  large  supply  of  natural  gas,  both 
for  fuel  and  lighting;  the  Forman  Pub- 
lic Library,  several  educational  institu- 
tions, electric  street  railroads,  electric 
lights,  National  banks,  and  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers.     It  has  extensive  pe- 


ll OLfeRON 

troleum,  lumber,  and  tanning  interests* 
Pop.  (1910)  14,743;  (1920)  20,506. 

OLEANDER,  in  botany,  Nerium  ole- 
ander, the  common,  and  A^.  odorosum,  the 
sweet-scented  oleander.  They  have  lan- 
ceola  coriaceous  leaves,  with  parallel 
veins  and  fine  roseate  flowers.  The  for- 
mer is  a  native  of  India,  now  naturalized 
in  many  warm  countries.  A  decoction  of 
its  leaves  forms  a  wash  used  in  the  S.  of 
Europe  to  destroy  cutaneous  vermin;  the 
powdered  wood  and  bark  are  used  at  Nice 


OLEANDER 

as  the  basis  of  a  rat  poison.  Sweet 
scented  oleander  is  wild  in  Central  India, 
Scinde,  Afghanistan,  and  the  outer  Him- 
alayas to  5,500  ft.  Often  cultivated  in 
India,  etc.  All  parts  of  the  plant,  es- 
pecially the  root,  are  poisonous. 

OLENEK,  a  river  of  Northern  Siberia 
which  rises  under  the  polar  circle,  and 
enters  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  W.  of 
the  Lena  delta;  length,  about  1,200  miles. 

OLEOGRAPH,  a  name  given  to  an 
ordinary  chromo  lithograph  which  has 
been  "roughed"  after  printing,  mounted 
on  canvas,  and  varnished  so  as  to  imitate 
an  oil  painting. 

OLEpMARGARINE,  in  chemistry  the 
more  oily  part  of  beef  fat,  prepared  ex- 
tensively in  this  country  by  allowing  the 
melted  fat  to  cool  slowly  to  30°,  when 
most  of  the  stearin  crystallizes  out  and 
is  removed  by  pressure.  Another  brand 
of  oleomargarine  is  prepared  by  adding 
nut  oil  to  suet  fat  in  such  proportion  as 
to  reduce  the  melting  point  to  that  of 
Isutter  fat.  Both  kinds  are  largely  used 
in  making  up  artificial  butter  and  cheese. 

OLERON,  an  island  lying  from  2  to 
10  miles  off  the  W.  coast  of  France,  and 
forming  part  of  the  department  of  Char- 
ente-Inferieure.     It  is  19  miles  long  by 


OLFACTORY    NERVES 


18 


OLIVE 


about  5  broad,  and  is  unusually  fertile. 
On  Oleron  are  the  port  of  Le  Chateau, 
and  the  small  towns  of  St.  Pierre  d'Ole- 
ron  and  St.  Georges  d'Oleron. 

OLFACTORY  NERVES,  in  anatomy, 
the  fifth  pair  of  cerebral  nerves  ramify- 
ing on  the  Schneiderian  membrane,  pro- 
ducing the  sense  of  smell,  and  also  sensi- 
bility to  the  nose. 

OLIFANT  RIVER,  a  forked  stream 
of  Cape  Colony,  South  Africa;  rises  in 
the  mountains  N.  E.  of  Cape  Town,  and, 
after  a  N.  W.  course  of  150  miles,  en- 
ters the  Atlantic.  Area  of  drainage 
basin,  13,000  square  miles.  Another 
stream  bearing  the  same  name  rises  in 
the  Transvaal,  and  goes  E.  to  join  the 
Limpopo. 

OLIGARCHY,  a  form  of  government 
in  which  the  supreme  power  is  vested  in 
the  hands  of  a  small  exclusive  class;  the 
members  of  such  a  class  or  body. 

OLIGOCENE,  in  geology,  a  term  em- 
ployed by  Beyrich  to  designate  certain 
Tertiary  beds  of  Germany  (Mayence 
etc.). 

OLIPHANT,  LAURENCE,  an  English 
writer;  born  in  Cape  Town,  South 
Africa,  in  1829.  Of  good  family  and  posi- 
tion, he  roamed  over  the  earth,  deeply  in- 
terested in  the  mystic  philosophy  of  the 
East.  He  published  a  dozen  books,  in- 
eluding  three  novels;  several  works  of  a 
politico-military  nature,  such  as  "A  Nar- 
rative of  the  Earl  of  Elgin's  Mission  to 
China  and  Japan"  (I860) ;  and  various 
journalistic  and  philosophic  books,  like 
"Episodes  in  a  Life  of  Adventure" 
(1887)  and  "Scientific  Religion"  (1888). 
He  died  in  Twickenham,  England,  Dee. 
23,  1888. 

OLIPHANT,  MARGARET  (WIL- 
SON), a  Scotch  novelist;  born  in  Waly- 
ford,  Scotland,  in  April,  1828;  lived  in 
Liverpool,  London,  Rome,  and  for  nearly 
30  years  in  Windsor,  England.  She  was 
a  most  prolific  authoress,  publishing  over 
110  books,  besides  numerous  articles  and 
essays.  She  excelled  in  delineating 
character,  and  had  a  keen  sense  of  hu- 
mor. Among  her  most  important  works 
are  "Caleb  Field"  (1851);  "Harry  Muir" 
(1853);  "The  Quiet  Heart"  (1856); 
"Adam  Graeme  of  Mossgray"  (1857) ; 
"The  Makers  of  Florence"  (1874);  "A 
Beleaguered  City"  (1880);  "The  Vic- 
torian Age  of  English  Literature" 
(1892);  "A  Little  Pilgrim  in  the  Un- 
seen" (1882);  etc.  She  died  in  Wim- 
bledon, England,  June  25,  1897. 

OLIVA,  in  zoology,  olive;  a  genus  of 
Buccinidss.  Shell  cylindrical,  polished; 
.spire  very  short,  suture  channeled;  ap- 


erture long,  narrow,  notched  in  front; 
columella  callous,  striated  obliquely; 
bodywhorl  funrowed  near  base.  No  op- 
erculum in  the  typical  species,  O.  por- 
phyria. Large  foot  and  mantle  lobes; 
eyes  near  tips  of  tentacles.  Known 
species  120,  from  subtropical  coasts  of 
America,  West  Africa,  India,  China,  and 
the  Pacific.  In  palaeontology,  20  fossil 
species,  commencmg  in  the  Eocene  Ter- 
tiary. 

OLIVA,  a  village  in  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  East  Prussia,  not  far  from 
Danzig.  In  a  Cistercian  abbey  in  this 
village  a  peace  was  concluded,  May  3, 
1660,  which  terminated  the  war  between 
Sweden,  Poland,  the  emperor,  and  Bran- 
denburg. 

OLIVAREZ,  GAsPARO  DE  GUZ- 
MAN, COUNT  OF,  DUKE  OF  SAN  LU- 
CAR,  an  Italian  statesman;  born  in 
Rome,  Italy,  where  his  father  was  am- 
bassador, Jan.  6,  1587.     He  became  the 


COUNT  OF  OLIvArEZ 

friend  of  Philip  IV.,  his  confidant  in  his 
amours,  and  afterward  his  prime  minis- 
ter, in  which  capacity  he  exercised  almost 
unlimited  power  for  22  years.  OlivArez 
showed  ability  for  government;  but  his 
constant  endeavor  was  to  wring  money 
from  the  country  that  he  might  carry  on 
wars  against  Portugal,  France,  and  the 
Netherlands,  provoked  insurrections  in 
Catalonia  and  Andalusia,  and  roused  the 
Portuguese  to  shake  off  the  Spanish 
yoke  in  1640.  The  king  was  obliged  to 
dismiss  his  favorite  in  1643.  He  was  or- 
dered to  retire  to  Toro  (Zaniora),  and 
died  there  July  22,  1645. 

OLIVE,  in  botany,  Olea  europcea,  the 
leaves   are  oblong  or  lanceolate,  smooth 


OLIVE    OIL 


19 


OLLIVANT 


above  but  horny  beneath ;  the  small  white 
flowers  in  axillary,  erect  recemes;  the 
ellipsoidal  fruits  bluish-black,  berry-like, 
and  pendulous.  It  is  rarely  above  25 
feet  high  but  is  of  slow  growth,  and 
reaches  a  great  age.  Two  varieties  are 
known,  the  Oleaster,  not  to  be  confounded 
with  any  of  the  modern  order  Thymal- 
acese,  and  the  cultivated  variety.  The 
former  is  spiny,  and  has  worthless  fruit; 
the  many  sub-varieties  of  the  latter  are 
unarmed  and  have  large,  oily  fruits. 
The  specific  name  europoea  implies  that 
Europe  was  its  native  continent,  which 
is  doubtful.     Its  original  seat  was  prob- 


OLIVE 

ably  Western  Asia,  and  perhaps  Europe 
as  well.  It  was  very  abundant  in  Pales- 
tine, and  even  yet  there  are  fine  olive 
plantations  near  Jerusalem,  Nabulus 
(formerly  Schechem),  etc.  The  Mount 
of  Olives  was  named  from  it,  and  Geth- 
semane  means  an  oil  press.  The  tree 
has  been  introduced  into  and  is  culti- 
vated in  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean,  and  in  some  mountain- 
ous parts  of  India  and  Australia. 
Enormous  quantities  of  olives  are  pro- 
duced in  Southern  California.  The  un- 
ripe fruits  are  pickled,  and  the  ripe  olives 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  olive  oil.  In 
chemistry,  when  ripe,  olives  weigh  about 
30  grains  each,  and  contain  25  per  cent, 
of  water,  and  69  per  cent,  of  fat. 

OLIVE  OIL,  in  chemistry,  Florence 
oil,  or  salad  oil,  a  non-drjdng  oil,  ex- 
tracted from  the  fruit  of  the  olive  by 
pressure.  It  has  a  pale  yellow  color 
with  a  tinge  of  green,  a  mild  and  agree- 
able taste.  It  is  frequently  adulterated 
with  almond,  nut,  colza,  cotton  seed,  and 
other^  oils.  In  pharmacy,  it  is  used  as  a 
laxative;  as  an  emollient  ingredient  in 
enemas;  to  envelop  the  poisonous  par- 
ticles in  the  stomach  in  cases  of  poison- 
ing; to  relieve  pruritus  in  skin  diseases; 
and  to  protect  the  surface  from  the  air 
m  scalds  and  bums. 


OLIVER,  GEORGE  TENER,  United 
States  Senator  from  Pennsylvania ;  born 
in  Ireland,  1848,  of  American  parents 
meeting  there;  admitted  to  Pennsylvania 
bar  in  1871,  and  practiced  in  Pittsburgh 
for  ten  years.  Became  interested  in  steel 
manufacturing  and  purchased  "Pitts- 
burgh Gazette"  and  "Pittsburgh  Chroni- 
cle-Telegraph." He  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1909  to  fill 
an  unexpired  term.  In  1911  he  was  re- 
elected for  a  term  ending  1917.  In  1904 
and  1916  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Na- 
tional Convention  of  the  Republican 
party.     He  died  in  1919. 

OLIVES,  MOUNT  OF.  or  MOUNT 
OLIVET,  a  ridge  running  N.  and  S.  on 
the  E.  side  of  Jerusalem,  its  summit 
about  half  a  mile  from  the  city  wall,  and 
separated  from  it  by  the  valley  of  the 
Kidron.  It  is  composed  of  a  chalky  lime- 
stone, the  rocks  eveiywhere  showing 
themselves.  The  olive  trees  that  for- 
merly covered  it,  are  now  represented  by 
a  few  trees.  There  are  three  prominent 
summits  on  the  ridge ;  of  these  the  south- 
ernmost, which  is  lower  than  the  other 
two,  is  now  known  as  the  "Mount  of  Of- 
fense," originally  the  "Mount  of  Corrup- 
tion," because  Solomon  defiled  it  by  idol- 
atrous worship.  Over  this  ridge  passes 
the  road  to  Bethany,  the  most  frequented 
road  to  Jericho  and  the  Jordan.  The 
central  summit  rises  200  feet  above 
Jerusalem,  and  presents  a  fine  view  of 
the  city,  and  indeed  of  the  whole  region. 
Perhaps  no  spot  on  earth  unites  so  fine 
a  view,  with  so  many  memorials  of  the 
most  solemn  and  important  events.  Over 
this  hill  Christ  often  climbed  in  his  jour- 
neys to  and  from  the  holy  city.  Geth- 
semane  lay  at  its  foot  on  the  W.,  and 
Bethany  on  its  E.  slope. 

OLLA  PODRIDA,  a  dish  much  in  fa- 
vor among  all  classes  in  Spain.  It  is 
composed  of  a  mixture  of  all  kinds  of 
meat,  cut  up  fine,  and  stewed  with  vari- 
ous kinds  of  vegetables;  also  an  incon- 
gruous mixture;  a  miscellaneous  collec- 
tion of  any  kind;  a  medley. 

OLLENDORF'S  SYSTEM,  a  method 
of  learning  languages,  invented  by  H.  G. 
Ollendorf  (1803-1865),  and  designed  for 
those  who  teach  themselves. 

OLLIVANT,  ALFRED,  an  English 
novelist;  born  in  1874.  The  son  of  a 
colonel  in  the  British  army;  he  was, 
after  graduating  from  Rugby,  sent  to  the 
Royal  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich, 
from  which  he  graduated  as  senior  gun- 
ner. For  two  years,  until  1895,  he  held 
a  commission  in  the  Royal  Artillery,  then 
resigned,  to  take  up  a  literary  career. 
Among    his     works     are     "Owd      Bob" 


OLLIVIER 


20 


OLNEY 


(1898);  "Danny"  (1903);  "The  Gentle- 
man" (1908);  "The  Brown  Mare" 
(1916);  and  ''Two  Men"   (1919). 

OUilVIER,     OLIVIER     EMILE,     a 

French  statesman;  bom  in  Marseilles, 
France,  July  2,  1825,  and,  having  studied 
law  at  Paris,  began  to  practice  as  an  ad- 
vocate in  that  city.  By  clever  pleading 
he  established  a  reputation  at  the  bar, 
and  after  1864  acquired  influence  as  a 
member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly.  In 
1865  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt  appointed 
him  to  a  high  juridical  office  in  that 
country.  But  he  still  took  an  active  in- 
terest m  French  politics,  and  in  January, 
1870,  Napoleon  III.  charged  him  to  form 
a  constitutional  ministry.  OUivier  was 
an  unsuspecting  tool  in  the  hands  of  the 
Imperialists.  "With  a  light  heart"  he 
rushed  his  country  into  the  war  with 
Germany,  himself  to  be  overthrown,  after 
the  first  battle,  on  August  9.  He  with- 
drew to  Italy.  Ollivier  wrote  books  on 
"Lamartine"  (1874),  and  ''Thiers" 
(1879),  and  "The  Church  and  the  State 
to  the  Council  of  the  Vatican"  (1879) ; 
"Principles  and  Conduct"  (1875);  "The 
Liberal  Regime,"  "Michel  Ango"  (1892); 
"L'Empire  Liberal,"  6  vols.  (1894-1908). 
He  died  in  1913. 

OLMSTED,  CHARLES  SANFORD, 
an  American  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop;  born  at  Olmstedville,  N.  Y.,  in 
1853.  He  graduated  from  General  The- 
ological Seminary  in  1876.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1877.  He  served  as  rec- 
tor at  various  cities  in  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania  until  1902,  when  he  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Colorado.  He 
wrote  "December  Musings"  (poems), 
(1898);  "Discipline  of  Perfection" 
(1902) ;  "Essays  on  Mediaeval  Poets" 
(1904).    Died  in  1918. 

OLMSTED,  CHARLES  TYLER,  an 
American  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop; 
bom  in  Cohoes,  N.  Y.,  1842,  He  graduated 
from  Trinity  College  in  1865,  and,  after 
studying  divinity  at  St.  Stephen's  Col- 
lege, he  became  professor  of  mathematics 
in  that  institution  in  1866.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1868,  and  served  as  rec- 
tor and  vicar  of  several  important 
churches  of  New  York  City  and  Utica, 
and  was  consecrated  bishop  coadjutor 
of  Central  N.  Y.  in  1902,  and  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  Central  N,  Y.  in  1904. 

OLMSTED,  FREDERICK  LAW, 
American  landscape  architect;  born 
in  Staten  Island,  N.  _Y.,  1870 ;  graduated 
from  Harvard,  studied  landscape  archi- 
tecture imder  his  father  and  began  prac- 
tice in  1895.  He  has  designed  many 
public  parks  and  other  city  improve- 
ments; was  a  member  of  the  Commission 


on  Improvements  of  Washington,  in 
1902;  was  landscai>e  architect  of  the 
Metropolitan  Park  system  of  Boston  in 
1898,  and  designed  plans  for  Forest 
Hills,  L.  I.,  for  the  Sage  Foundation 
Homes  Co.  He  became  professor  of 
landscape  architecture  in  Harvard  in 
1903,  and  member  of  the  National  Com- 
mission of  Fine  Arts  in  1910. 

OLMSTED,      VICTOR      HUGO,       an 

American  statistician;  born  at  Marion, 
0.,  in  1853.  After  studying  at  George 
Washington  University  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1884.  He  served  as  chief 
of  the  division  of  results  in  the  10th 
Census,  and  from  1883  to  1889  was  em- 
ployed in  the  General  Land  Office.  From 
1889  to  1901  was  statistical  expert  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Labor. 
He  investigated  labor  conditions  in 
Hav/aii  in  1900.  From  1902  he  served 
in  various  capacities  in  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
in  connection  with  the  Census  Bureau. 
From  1906  to  1914  he  was  chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Statistics,  and  from  1913  he 
was  field  agent  of  the  Bureau  of  Crop 
Estimates  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 

OLMUTZ,  second  city  of  Moravia, 
since  October,  1918,  in  Czecho-Slovakia, 
on  the  March,  129  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Vi- 
enna. Notable  are  the  14th  century  ca- 
thedral (restored  1887) ;  the  church  of 
St.  Maurice  (1472),  whose  organ  has  48 
stops  and  2,342  pipes;  the  noble  town 
hall,  with  a  steeple  255  feet  high;  the 
archiepiscopal  palace;  and  the  lofty 
Trinity  column  on  the  Oberring.  The 
former  university  (1851-1855)  is  re- 
duced to  a  theological  faculty,  with  over 
200  students  and  a  library  of  75,000  vol- 
umes. The  trade  is  more  important  than 
the  manufactures.  Olmiitz,  which  in 
1640  was  superseded  by  Briinn  as  the 
capital  of  Moravia,  suffered  severely  in 
both  the  Thirty  and  the  Seven  Years* 
Wars.  In  1848  Ferdinand  I.  signed  his 
abdication  here. 

OLMUTZ,  CONFERENCE  OF,  a  con- 
ference held  at  Olmiitz,  a  city  of  Mor- 
avia, Austria,  Feb.  28-29,  1850,  between 
Russia  and  Austria  respecting  the  af- 
fairs of  Germany  and  especially  in  refer- 
ence to  the  revolts  in  Hesse  and  Schles- 
wig-Holstein  against  their  rulers,  the 
Elector  of  Hesse  and  the  King  of  Den- 
mark, By  the  mediation  of  Russia, 
Schleswig-Holstein  was  given  to  Den- 
mark, and  the  Elector  Hesse  was  rein- 
stated. 

OLNEY,  RICHARD,  an  American 
lawyer;  born  in  Oxford,  Mass.,  Sept.  15, 
1835;  was  graduated  at  Brown  Univer- 


OLONETZ 


21 


OLYMPUS 


sity  in  1856,  and  at  Harvard  Law  School 
in  1858;  practiced  law  in  Boston;  was 
United  States  attorney-general  in  1893- 
1895;  and  Secretary  of  State  of  the 
United  States  in  1895-1897;  then  re- 
sumed private  practice.  In  1900  he  sup- 
ported Bryan,  whom  he  had  opposed,  be- 
cause of  Republican  attitude  toward 
trusts  and  imperialism.  In  1906  he  led 
the  policy  holders  in  their  attacks  on  the 
New  York  and  Mutual  Insurance  Com- 
panies. In  1913  he  declined  the  appoint- 
ment of  ambassador  to  Great  Britain. 
He  died  in  1917. 

OLONETZ,  a  government  of  Russia, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Archangel,  on 
the  E.  by  Vologda,  on  the  S.  by  Nov- 
gorod, and  on  the  W.  by  Finland.  It 
has  an  area  of  about  50,000  square  miles. 
It  is  traversed  by  many  rivers  and  there 
are  over  2,000  lakes  within  its  boundar- 
ies. The  chief  industry  is  lumbering. 
The  climate  is  ill  adapted  for  agricul- 
ture. Pop,  about  480,000.  The  capital 
is  Petrozadosk. 

OLTENITZA,  a  town  in  Rumania,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Ai'jish  with  the  Dan- 
ube, 37  miles  S.  E.  of  Bucharest.  A 
battle  was  fought  here  Nov.  4,  1853,  and 
also  July  29,  1854,  in  both  of  which  the 
Russians  were  defeated  by  the  Turks. 

OLUSTEE,  or  OLUSTEE  STATION,  a 
village  of  Baker  co.,  Fla.,  about  20  miles 
E.  of  Lake  City.  Here  in  February, 
1864,  a  Union  force  numbering  about 
5,000  men,  under  General  Seymour  en- 
countered a  body  of  about  3,000  Confed- 
erates, under  Gfeneral  Finnegan,  and 
after  a  severe  conflict  of  several  hours, 
the  Nationals  were  defeated,  with  a  loss 
of  over  2,000  men,  besides  artillery  and 
wagon  trains.  Confederate  loss  about 
1,000  men. 

OLYMPIA,  a  celebrated  valley  of 
Elis,  in  Greece,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Alpheus,  and  the  seat  of  the  Olympic 
games.  The  Sacred  Grove  (called  the 
Altis)  of  Olympia,  enclosed  a  level  space 
about  4,000  feet  long,  nearly  2,000  broad, 
containing  both  the  spot  appropriated  to 
the  games  and  the  sanctuaries  connected 
with  them.  It  was  finely  wooded,  and  in 
its  center  stood  a  clump  of  sycamores. 
The  Altis  was  crossed  from  W.  to  E.  by 
a  road  called  the  "Pompic  Way,"  along 
which  all  the  processions  passed.  The 
most  celebrated  building  was  the  Olym- 
pieium,  or  Olympium,  dedicated  to  Olym- 
pian Zeus.  It  was  designed  by  the  archi- 
tect Libon  of  Elis  in  the  6th  century  B. 
C,  but  was  not  completed  for  more  than 
a  century.  It  contained  a  colossal  statue 
of  the  god,  the  masterpiece  of  the  sculp- 
tor Phidias. 


OLYMPIA,  a  city,  capital  of  the  State 
of  Washington,  and  county-seat  of  Thurs- 
ton CO.;  on  the  Deschutes  river  where  it 
enters  Budds  Inlet.  Puget  Sound,  and  on 
the  Northern  Pacinc  Railroad.  The  city 
has  steamboat  connection  with  Victoria 
and  other  places  on  Puget  Sound  as  well 
as  the  principal  Pacific  ports.  Here  are 
St.  Martin's  College  (R.  C),  Providence 
Academy,  state  capitol,  the  county  court 
house,  St.  Peter's  Hospital,  street  rail- 
road and  electric  light  plants,  water- 
works. National  banks,  and  several  daily 
and  weekly  newspapers.  Olympia  has  a 
boot  and  shoe  factory,  an  ice  factory, 
iron  works,  wooden  pipe  works,  and  saw 
shingle,  and  flour  mills.  Pop.  (1910) 
6,996;   (1920)  7,795. 

OLYMPIAD,  a  period  of  four  years, 
being  the  interval  from  one  celebration 
of  the  Olympic  games  to  another,  by 
which  the  ancient  Greeks  reckoned  their 
time.  The  first  Olympiad  corresponds 
with  the  776th  year  before  the  birth  of 
Christ.  The  last  Olympiad  was  the 
293rd,  corresponding  to  the  year  A.  D. 
393. 

OLYMPIC  GAMES.  These  games,  so 
famous  among  the  Greeks,  said  to  have 
been  instituted  in  honor  of  Jupiter  by 
the  Idaei  Dactyli,  1453  B.  c,  or  by  Pelops, 
1307  B.  c,  revived  by  Iphitus  884  b.  c, 
were  held  at  the  beginning  of  every  fifth 
year,  on  the  banks  of  the  Alpheus,  near 
Olsmipia,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  now  the 
Morea,  to  exercise  the  youth  in  five  kinds 
of  combats,  the  conquerors  being  highly 
honored.  The  prize  contended  for  was  a 
crown  made  of  a  kind  of  wild  olive,  ap- 
propriated to  this  use.  The  festival  was 
abolished  by  Theodosius,  A.  D.  394.  In 
1896,  after  a  lapse  of  more  than  1,500 
years,  these  games  were  revived  at 
Athens.  They  began  April  6  and  con- 
tinued for  five  consecutive  days.  The 
number  of  spectators  was  enormous. 
Athletes  from  various  countries  of  the 
world  competed  for  prizes,  and  some  of 
the  principal  contests  were  won  by  Amer- 
icans. These  games  consisted  of  foot 
racing,  wrestling,  fencing,  swimming, 
etc.  The  king  crowned  the  victors  with 
olive  branches.  In  July,  1900,  the  sec- 
ond series  was  held  in  Paris,  France,  and 
was  a  great  success.  Americans  again 
won  a  large  portion  of  the  events.  At 
the  meet  at  Stockholm,  1912,  the  score 
of  American  athletes  was  85  per  cent., 
leading  all  other  nations.  The  World 
War  prevented  a  meet  in  Berlin  in  1916. 
Olympic  games  were  held  in  Brussels  in 
1920. 

OLYMPUS,  a  celebrated  mountain  of 
Thessaly,  on  the  boi-der  of  Macedonia,  30 


OLYPHANT 


22 


OMAHA 


miles  N.  of  Larissa;  lat.  40°  4'  32"  N., 
Ion.  22°  25'  E.  Its  highest  peak  is  9,745 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  covered  with 
snow  during  two-thirds  of  the  year.  The 
E.  side,  which  fronts  the  sea,  is  com- 
posed of  a  line  of  precipices,  while  a  pro- 
fusion of  oak,  beech,  chestnut,  and  other 
trees  are  scattered  at  its  base,  and  higher 
up  are  immense  forests  of  pine.  It  was 
regarded  by  the  ancient  Greeks  as  the 
abode  of  the  gods;  and  the  palace  of 
Jupiter  was  supposed  to  be  on  the  sum- 
mit Olympus  is  also  the  ancient  name 
of  several  mountains,  viz.:  the  N.  W. 
range  of  Taurus,  in  Mysia;  a  mountain 
in  the  island  of  Cyprus;  one  in  Lycia; 
one  in  Elis;  and  one  on  the  borders  of 
Laconia  and  Arcadia. 

OLYPHANT,  a  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Lackawanna  co.  It  is  near  the 
Lackawanna  river,  and  on  the  Delaware 
and  Hudson,  the  Wilkes-Barre  and  East- 
ern, and  the  New  York,  Ontario,  and 
Western  railroads.  It  is  the  center  of 
an  important  anthracite  region  of  the 
State.  Its  chief  industries  are  the  min- 
ing and  shipping  of  coal.  There  are  al- 
so manufactures  of  blasting  powder,  iron 
and  steel  goods,  cigars,  silks,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)  8,305;   (1920)  10,236. 

OMAGH,  the  county  town  of  Tyrone, 
Ireland,  on  the  Strule,  34  miles  S.  of 
Londonderry  and  110  N.  N.  W.  of  Dub- 
lin. It  grew  up  around  an  abbey  found- 
ed in  792,  but  is  first  heard  of  as  a  fort- 
ress in  the  end  of  the  15th  century, 
when  it  was  forced  to  surrender  to  the 
English.  It  formed  part  of  James  I.'s 
"Plantation"  grants,  and  was  strongly 
garrisoned  by  Mountjoy.  On  its  being 
evacuated  by  the  troops  of  James  II,  in 
1689  it  was  partially  burned,  and  a  sec- 
ond fire  in  1743  completed  its  destruction. 
But  it  has  been  well  rebuilt,  and  is  now 
a  neat  and  prosperous  town.  Pop. 
(1918)  4,836. 

OMAHA,  a  city  of  Nebraska,  the 
largest  in  the  State,  and  the  county-seat 
of  Douglas  CO.  It  is  on  the  Missouri 
river,  about  500  miles  W.  of  Chicago. 
Omaha  is  located  on  9  trunk  lines  of  rail- 
roads and  22  branches.  These  include 
the  Burlington  route,  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee and  St.  Paul,  the  Chicago,  Rock 
Island  and  Pacific,  the  Wabash,  the 
Northwestern,  the  Illinois  Central,  the 
Union  Pacific,  and  the  Missouri  Pacific. 
The  city  is  also  on  the  Missouri  river, 
which  is  spanned  by  many  great  bridges 
connecting  it  with  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa. 
A  belt  line  of  railroads  encircles  the  city, 
giving  railway  inter-communication. 
The  area  of  the  city  is  37.78  square 
miles.    There  are  800  miles  of  streets. 


and  a  water  system  costing  $10,000,000. 
Omaha  is  the  center  of  an  important 
agricultural  area  and  is  the  first  city  in 
the  United  States  in  the  production  of 
butter,  the  second  corn  and  live  stock 
market,  the  third  agricultural  imple- 
ment center,  and  the  fourth  railroad 
center.  The  city  is  attractively  situated 
on  a  plateau  rising  into  bluffs  which  are 
used  largely  for  residence  sites.  The 
business  district  lies  adjacent  to  the 
river. 

From  its  position  with  reference  to  the 
West,  Omaha  is  called  the  Gate  City. 
It  has  a  park  system  of  over  1,000  acres 
in  extent,  and  includes  municipal  bathing 
beaches,  swimming  pools,  playgrounds, 
golf  courses,  etc. 

The  large  parks  are  connected  by  a 
boulevard  system  of  over  35  miles  in 
length. 

There  is  a  public  school  enrollment  of 
about  35,000  and  the  cost  of  the  school 
system  is  over  $2,000,000  annually. 
The  institutions  for  higher  education 
include  Creighton  University,  the  Uni- 
versity of  Omaha,  Omaha  Medical  Col- 
lege, Brownell  Hall,  and  several  private 
schools.  There  are  in  all  over  80  public 
and  private  schools.  The  public  library 
contains  over  150,000  volumes.  The 
notable  buildings  include  the  city  hall, 
county  court  house,  United  States  Gov- 
ernment building,  bank  buildings,  an 
auditorium,  and  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
and  Roman  Catholic  cathedrals.  The 
city  contains  the  Nebraska  Institution 
for  the  Deaf,  and  several  large  hospitals. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  military  headquar- 
ters of  the  Department  of  Missouri. 
Fort  Omaha  lies  within  the  city  limits 
and  Fort  Crook  adjoins  it  on  the  south. 

Omaha  is  an  important  wholesale  cen- 
ter with  an  annual  business  of  over 
$350,000,000.  The  leading  lines  are  au« 
tomobiles,  groceries,  oil,  commission  pro- 
ducts, boilers  and  accessories,  agricul- 
tural implements,  drygoods,  lumber,  coal, 
plumbing  and  heating  supplies.  The 
total  value  of  the  manufactures  is  over 
$460,000,000  annually.  Meat  packing  is 
the  chief  industry.  The  annual  output  is 
valued  at  over  $300,000,000.  Omaha  is 
first  in  pig  lead  production.  Other  im- 
portant manufactures  are  flour,  butter, 
food  products  of  all  kinds,  clothing,  boots 
and  shoes,  rubber  goods,  steam  engines, 
boilers,  etc.  The  bank  clearings  ex- 
ceed $3,000,000,000  annually.  It  has 
branches  of  the  Federal  Land  Bank  and 
of  the  Federal  Reserve  Bank. 

Omaha  is  an  Indian  name  of  disputed 
meaning.  The  town  was  laid  out  in  1854 
on  a  scale  which  anticipated  its  future 
growth.  Its  commercial  importance  was 
assured  when  it  was  selected  as  the  east- 


OMAHA 


23 


OMBAY 


em  terminus  of  the  Union  Pacific  rail- 
road. Stock  yards  were  established  in 
1884.  In  1898  the  trans-Mississippi  Ex- 
position was  held  here.  The  Grain 
Exchange  was  opened  in  1904.  In  1920 
Omaha  was  selected  as  the  half-way  sta- 
tion of  the  Trans-continental  Aerial  Mail. 
Pop.    (1910)    124,096;    (1920)    191,601. 

OMAHA,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a  coedu- 
cational institution  in  Omaha,  Neb.; 
founded  in  1880  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church;  reported  at 
the  close  of  1919:  Professors  and  in- 
structors, 73;  students,  509.  President, 
D.  E.  Jenkins,  Ph.  D. 

OMAHAS,  a  tribe  of  North  Ameri- 
can Indians  living  in  E.  Nebraska. 
They  number  about  1,400.  The  name  is 
derived  from  an  Indian  word  meaning 
"those  who  go  up  the  stream,  or  against 
the  current." 

OMAN,  or  MUSKAT,  a  sultanate  in 
Arabia  (British  Protectorate),  partly  on 
the  Persian  Gulf,  partly  on  the  Indian 
Ocean;  area,  estimated  at  82,000  square 
miles;  pop.  about  500,000.  The  chief 
features  of  the  country  are  stretches  of 
barren  sand  or  rock,  mountains  reaching 
the  height  of  10,000  feet;  fertile  valleys 
and  plains,  yielding  abundance  of  grain, 
sugar,  fruits,  cotton,  coffee,  etc.,  Oman 
being  the  richest  part  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula  both  in  agricultural  products 
and  in  mineral  treasures.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  very  superstitious  and  immoral. 
They  are  mostly  Arabs.  The  form  of 
government  is  a  monarchy  (the  ruler  be- 
ing styled  Imam),  limited  by  a  powerful 
aristocracy  with  hereditary  privileges. 
Zanzibar  and  its  dependencies  formerly 
belonged  to  Oman.  The  capital  is  Mus- 
kat.  Pop.  24,000.  Since  1913  the  inte- 
rior has  been  in  a  state  of  continuous 
revolt.  The  Sultan's  power  really  only 
extends  along  the  sea-coast. 

OMAN,  CHARLES  WILLIAM 
CHADWICK,  British  historian,  born  in 
India,  1860;  graduate  of  Oxford;  be- 
came deputy  professor  of  modern  history 
there  in  1900.  In  1905  he  was  elected  to 
the  British  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Among  his  best  known  works  are:  "A 
Short  History  of  the  Byzantine  Empire" 
(1892);  "A  History  of  Europe,  from 
476  to  918"  (1893) ;  "A  History  of  the 
Art  of  War  in  the  Middle  Ages"  (1898) ; 
and  a  "History  of  England"  (6  vols., 
1905). 

^  OMAN,  GULF  OF,  an  arm  of  the  Ara- 
bian Sea,  between  Oman  and  the  S.  coast 
of  Persia.  It  is  connected  with  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  by  the  Strait  of  Ormuz. 


OMAR  I.,  Caliph  of  the  Mussulmans, 
the  successor  of  Abu-Bekr,  and  father- 
in-law  of  Mohammed.  He  began  his 
reign  a.  d.  634,  and  is  conspicuous  among 
the  conquerors  who  chiefly  contributed 
to  the  spread  of  Ilsamism.  His  generals 
drove  the  Greeks  out  of  Syria  and  Phoe- 
nicia; and  the  Caliph  himself  took  pos- 
session of  Jerusalem  in  638,  till  it  was 
reconquered  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  at 
the  end  of  the  11th  century.  Amru,  one 
of  his  generals,  defeated  the  troops  of 
Heraclius,  near  Antioch,  in  641.  Mem- 
phis and  Alexandria  surrendered;  all 
Egypt  and  a  part  of  Libya  were  con- 
quered from  the  Romans;  and  the 
famous  library,  which  had  been  founded 
at  Alexandria  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
is  said  to  have  been  burnt  by  the  express 
order  of  Omar  I.  Having  fixed  his  resi- 
dence at  Medina,  he  was  there  assassi- 
nated by  a  Persian  slave,  in  the  10th  year 
of  his  reign,  a.  d.  643.  He  refused  to  ap- 
point a  successor;  and  thus  the  caliphate 
became  elective.  He  introduced  the  sys- 
tem of  standing  armies,  and  a  police 
force. 

OMAR  II.,  the  eighth  Caliph  of  the 
Ommiades,  great-grandson  of  the  preced- 
ing, and  succeeded  Solyman  in  717.  He 
laid  siege  to  Constantinople,  but  was 
forced  to  raise  it,  on  account  of  a  violent 
storm,  which  destroyed  a  great  part  of 
his  fleet.     He  was  poisoned  in  720. 

OMAR  KHAYYAM,  a  Persian  poet, 
astronomer,  and  mathematician;  born  in 
Nishapur  in  Khorasan.  His  scientific 
works,  which  were  of  high  value  in  their 
day,  have  been  eclipsed  by  his  "Rubai- 
yat,"  a  collection  of  about  500  epigrams 
in  praise  of  wine,  love,  and  pleasure.  A 
portion  of  the  "Rubaiyat"  was  translated 
or  rather  adapted  into  English  verse  by 
Edward  Fitzgerald  (1859-1879),  and  en- 
joyed a  wide  popularity.  Other  versions 
were  made  but  Fitzgerald's  remains  the 
best.  Omar  Khayyam  died  in  Mishapur 
1123. 

OMBAY,  MALOEWA,  or  MALUWA, 
Malay  Archipelago,  one  of  the  Sunda 
Islands  between  Celebes  and  the  N.  W. 
coast  of  Australia,  from  which  it  is  sep- 
arated by  the  Strait  of  Ombay.  The 
hills  are  volcanic,  and  the  coasts  steep 
and  difficult  to  approach.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  dark  brown,  have  thick  lips, 
flat  nose,  and  woolly  hair;  appearing  to 
be  of  mixed  Negro  and  Malay  origin. 
They  are  armed  with  the  bow,  spear,  and 
creese,  and  live  on  the  produce  of  the 
chase,  with  fish,  cocoanuts,  rice,  and 
honey,  A  portion  of  the  island  formerly 
beyonged  to  the  Portuguese,  but  since 
Aug.   6,  1851,  it  has  entirely  become  a 


OMEGA 


24 


O'NEAL 


Netherlands  possession;  included  in  the 
Residency  of  Timor.     Pop.  about  194,000. 

OMEGA,  the  name  for  the  Greek 
Jong-  o.  It  was  the  last  letter  in  the 
Greek  alphabet,  as  alpha  was  the  first. 
Inscriptions  on  tombstones,  public  docu- 
ments, etc.,  very  often  began  with  these 
two  letters,  meaning,  "In  the  name  of 
God." 

OMEN,  a  sign  believed  to  prognosti- 
cate a  future  event.  Omens  have  been 
common  among  most  nations,  but  were 
chiefly  received  in  the  ruder  ages,  and 
among  the  more  ignorant  of  a  people. 
Even  in  the  present  day,  in  many  parts 
of  England  and  the  United  States,  a  su- 
perstitious belief  in  omens  exists.  The 
howling  of  a  dog  by  night  is  believed  to 
presage  a  death  in  the  neighborhood. 
The  screeching  of  the  owl  and  the  croak- 
ing of  the  raven  have,  both  in  ancient 
and  modern  times,  been  regarded  as 
omens  of  some  dire  calamity.  To  pre- 
sent a  knife,  scissors,  razor,  or  other 
sharp  or  cutting  instrument  to  one's 
friend  is  unlucky,  as  they  are  apt  to  di- 
vide love  and  friendship.  The  list  could 
be  multiplied  indefinitely.  Fishermen 
and  sailors  are  particularly  influenced  by 
omens,  which  they  fancy  they  discover  in 
the  most  trivial  circumstances.  To  lose 
a  bucket,  or  to  throw  a  cat  overboard,  is 
believed  to  be  very  unlucky.  Whistling 
is  supposed  to  raise  the  wind.  By  a  re- 
gard to  these  things,  many  persons  add 
very  considerably  to  their  proper  share 
of  human  misery  without  any  counter- 
vailing amount  of  good. 

OMMIADES,  a  dynasty  founded  in 
Arabia  by  Moawiyah,  in  655  or  661. 
Merwan  II.,  the  14th  and  last  caliph  of 
this  race,  was  slain  in  a  mosque  on  the 
banks  of  the  Nile,  Feb.  10,  750,  when  the 
Abbassides  assumed  the  reins  of  power. 
Abderrahman,  the  only  member  of  the 
Ommiades  who  escaped  the  massacre  at 
Damascus,  founded  a  caliphate  in  Spain, 
in  755.  Eighteen  caliphs  reigned,  Hinem 
III.,  who  resigned  in  1031,  being  the  last. 

OMNIBUS,  a  Latin  word  signifying 
"for  all,"  and  now  applied  in  several 
languages  to  the  well-known  vehicle  used 
for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  at  a 
cheap  rate.  The  first  conveyances  of  the 
kind  were  those  which  came  into  use  in 
Paris  (March,  1662)  in  consequence  of 
an  edict  of  Louis  XIV.,  but  they  soon 
fell  into  disuse,  and  were  not  again  rein- 
troduced till  1827.  A  Mr.  Shillibur 
started  the  first  omnibus  in  London  in 
1829,  and  they  were  introduced  into  New 
York  in  1830,  and  Amsterdam  in  1839. 

OMPHALE,  a  queen  of  Lydia.  She 
married  Tmolus,  who,  at  his  death,  left 


her  mistress  of  his  kingdom.  She  pur- 
chased Hercules,  who  had  been  sold  as  a 
slave  for  the  recovery  of  his  senses,  after 
the  murder  of  Eurytus.  Omphale  soon 
restored  her  slave  to  liberty,  and  the  hero 
became  enamored  of  his  mistress.  The 
queen  favored  his  passion,  and  had  a  son 
by  him. 

OMRI,  a  general  of  the  army  of  Elah, 
King  of  Israel,  who,  being  at  the  siege  of 
Gibbethon,  and  hearing  that  his  master 
Elah  was  assassinated  by  Zimri,  who  had 
usurped  his  kingdom,  raised  the  siege, 
and  being  elected  king  by  his  army, 
marched  against  Zimri,  attacked  him  at 
Tirzah,  and  forced  him  to  burn  himself 
and  all  his  family  in  the  palace  in  which 
he  had  shut  himself  up.  After  his  death, 
half  of  Israel  acknowledged  Omri  for 
king;  the  other  half  adhered  to  Tibni, 
son  of  Ginath,  which  division  continued 
four  years.  When  Tibni  was  dead,  the 
people  united  in  acknowledging  Omri  aa 
King  of  all  Israel,  and  he  reigned  12 
years.  Omri  built  the  city  of  Samaria, 
which  became  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  12  tribes. 

OMSK,  chief  town  of  the  former  Rus- 
sian province  of  Akmolinsk,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Om  with  the  Irtish,  1,800 
miles  E.  of  Moscow.  It  was  built  in  1716 
as  a  defense  against  the  Kirghiz;  but  is 
now  of  no  importance  as  a  fortress.  It 
is  the  seat  of  administration  for  the 
Steppe  provinces  of  Western  Asia.  The 
trade  is  in  cattle,  hides,  furs,  and  tea. 
Pop.  135,800. 

ONDERDONK,     FRANK     SCOVILL, 

American  educator;  born  in  Mission  Val- 
ley, Texas,  in  1871.  After  studying  at 
Southwestern  University,  he  entered  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  as  minister, 
in  1892,  and  served  as  missionary  in 
Mexico.  From  1907  to  1914  he  was  mis- 
sionary at  San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico,  and 
from  1914  was  superintendent  of  the 
Mexican,  Italian  and  Bohemian  missions 
to  Texas. 

O'NEAL,  EMMET,  an  American  pub- 
lic official;  born  in  Florence,  Ala.,  in 
1853.  Graduated  University  of  Ala- 
bama in  1873,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1875.  He  was  United  States  at- 
torney for  the  N.  district  of  Alabama 
from  1893  to  1897  and  was  elected  gover- 
nor of  Alabama  for  the  term  1911  to  1915. 
He  was  president  of  the  Alabama  State 
Bar  Association  from  1909  to  1910,  and 
was^  a  member  of  other  important  pro- 
fessional associations.  He  was  chair- 
man of  the  District  Exemption  Board  of 
Division  1,  during  the  operation  of  the 
draft.  He  wrote  "The  State  Constitu- 
tion." 


ONEGA 


25 


ONONDAGAS 


ONEGA,  a  river  in  Russia,  which,  is- 
suing from  Lake  Latcha,  government  of 
Olonetz,  flows  first  N.  E.,  then  N.  W., 
and  after  a  course  of  about  270  miles, 
falls  into  the  White  Sea  at  the  S.  E.  ex- 
tremity of  the  Gulf  of  Onega. 

ONEGA,  LAKE,  in  the  N.  of  Russia, 
after  Ladoga,  to  the  N.  E.  of  which  it 
Kes,  the  largest  lake  in  Europe;  50  miles 
in  greatest  breadth,  146  miles  in  length, 
and  1,000  feet  in  depth  in  parts;  area 
3,764  square  miles.  It  is  fed  by  numer- 
ous rivers ;  but  its  only  outlet  is  the  river 
8wir,  which  flows  S.  W.  into  Lake  La- 
doga. The  N.  end  is  studded  with  islands 
and  deeply  indented  with  bays.  The 
shores  in  other  parts  are  flat  and  low 
and  regular.  Though  the  water  is  ice 
Ibound  generally  for  156  days  in  the  year, 
the  lake  is  the  scene  of  busy  traffic  in 
other  seasons.  Communication  is  pro- 
moted by  a  canal  cut  parallel  to  the  S. 
shore.  Fish  abound.  Mirages  are  fre- 
^ent  at  times.  Surveys  were  completed 
in  1890  for  a  canal  145  miles  long  to  con- 
nect Lake  Onega  with  the  White  Sea. 

ONEIDA,  a  lake  occupying  portions  of 
Oneida,  Madison,  Onondaga,  and  Oswego 
COS.,  N.  Y.  It  covers  an  area  of  about 
100  miles,  abounds  in  fish  of  an  excellent 
quality,  receives  many  small  streams, 
and  empties  its  surplus  waters  into  the 
Osage  river  by  Oneida  river. 

ONEIDA,  a  town  in  Madison  co.,  N. 
Y.;  on  Oneida  creek,  and  on  the  New 
York,  Ontario,  and  Western,  the  New 
York  Central  and  Hudson  River  rail- 
roads; 26  miles  E.  of  Syracuse.  Here 
are  a  high  school,  waterworks,  street 
i-ailroad  system,  electric  light  plant.  Na- 
tional and  State  banks,  and  several  week- 
ly newspapers.  The  town  has  a  num- 
ber of  flouring  mills,  planing  mill,  steam 
knitting  mill,  foundry  and  manufactories 
of  steam  engines,  and  carriages.  Pop. 
(1910)   8,317;   (1920)   10,541. 

ONEIDA  COMMUNITY,  a  religious 
communistic  society,  otherwise  known  as 
Perfectionist  (q.v.). 

^  ONEIDAS,  once  a  North  American  In- 
dian tribe  inhabiting  Central  New  York. 
A  remnant  in  Wisconsin  are  well  ad- 
vanced in  civilization. 

O'NEIL,  CHARLES,  an  American 
rear-admiral;  born  in  Manchester,  Eng- 
land, in  1842.  He  entered  the  American 
naval  service  as  master's  mate  in  1861, 
and  served  in  many  American  naval  en- 
gagements during  the  Civil  War.  Com- 
missioned lieutenant  in  1868,  and  rose 
successively  through  the  grades  until  he 
became  rear-admiral,  in  1901.  From 
1897  to  1904  he  was  Chief  of  the  Naval 


Bureau  of  Ordnance.  In  the  latter  year 
he  retired  but  was  detailed  for  special 
ordnance  duty  abroad  for  one  year,  in 
1904. 

O'NEIL,  JAMES,  an  American  actor, 
born  in  Ireland  in  1847.  He  made  his 
first  appearance  on  the  American  stage 
in  Cincinnati  in  1867,  after  which  he  ap- 
peared as  leading  man  and  as  star  in 
many  theaters  in  the  United  States.  For 
fifteen  years  he  was  star  in  "Monte 
Cristo,"  and  afterwards  played  the  star 
part  in  "The  Three  Musketeers"  for 
many  years.     He  died  in  1920. 

ONEONTA,  a  village  in  Otsego  eo.,  N. 
Y.;  on  the  Susquehanna  river,  and  on 
the  Delaware  and  Hudson  and  other  rail- 
roads; 60  miles  N.  E.  of  Binghamton. 
It  contains  a  State  Normal  School,  a 
State  Armory,  public  library.  National 
banks,  and  a  number  of  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers.  It  has  shirt  factories, 
cigar,  piano,  sash  and  door  factories, 
grain  elevators,  knitting  mill,  foundries, 
and  the  machine  shops  of  the  Delaware 
and  Hudson  Railroad,  and  an  assessed 
valuation  of  over  $2,000,000.  Pop. 
(1910)  9,491;  (1920)  11,582. 

ONION,  in  botany,  horticulture,  etc., 
allium  cepa,  and  the  genus  Allium. 
The  onion  has  been  cultivated  from  a 
very  early  age  (Num.  xi:  51).  A  va- 
riety of  it  is  called  the  potato,  or  under- 
ground onion.  It  multiplies  in  bulbs  be- 
low the  ground. 

ONIONS,  OLIVER,  an  English  novel- 
ist; born  in  1876.  Trained  in  the  Royal 
School  of  Art  and  began  his  literary 
work  in  Paris,  writing  for  a  students' 
periodical.  In  addition  to  his  writing, 
he  has  carried  on  his  art  work,  doing 
mostly  war  pictures,  posters  and  draw- 
ings for  advertisements.  His  best-known 
novels  are:  "Little  Devil  Doubt" 
(1909);  "In  Accordance  With  the  Evi- 
dence" (1912);  "The  Debit  Account" 
(1913);  "The  Story  of  Louie"  (1913); 
"Mushroom  Town"  (1915). 

ONOMATOPCEIA,  or  ONOMATOPEIA, 

name-making;  the  formation  of  words 
in  imitation  of  the  sounds  made  by  the 
things  signified;  as,  buzz,  hiss,  peewit, 
etc. 

ONONDAGA,  LAKE,  a  small  lake  in 
Central  New  York,  near  Syracuse;  out- 
let, Seneca  river. 

ONONDAGAS,  a  tribe  of  North  Amer- 
ican Indians  living  chiefly  in  New  York. 
At  one  time  they  laid  claim  to  all  the 
country  from  Onondaga  Lake  to  Lake 
Ontario  on  the  N.,  and  to  the  Susque- 
hanna river  on  the  S.     At  the  close  of 


ONTARIO 


26 


ONTARIO,    LAKE 


the  Revolutionary  War  some  settled  on 
Grand  river,  Ontario,  and  the  remainder 
in  New  York.  The  total  number  in  Can- 
ada and  New  York  State  is  at  present 
about  900. 

ONTARIO,  a  province  of  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada  (formerly  called  Upper 
Canada,  or  Canada  West) ;  bounded  on 
the  W.  by  Manitoba,  on  the  N.  by  Kee- 
watin  and  James  Bay;  on  the  N.  E.  and 
E.  by  the  province  of  Quebec,  on  the  S. 
E.  by  the  St.  Lawrence,  on  the  S.  and  S. 
W.  by  Lakes  Ontario,  Erie,  Huron  and 
Superior;  area,  222,000  square  miles; 
pop.  (1917)  (est.)  2,750,000;  capital, 
Toronto,  pop.  (1919)  499,278.  Ottawa, 
the  Dominion  capital,  is  situated  in  the 
E.  part  of  the  province.  Other  impor- 
tant cities  are  Hamilton  and  London. 
The  chief  lakes  of  the  province  are  Sim- 
coe,  Nipissing,  and  Nipigon.  The  chief 
rivers  are  on  the  boundary,  the  Ottawa, 
the  Albany,  and  the  Niagara,  the  Falls 
lying  partly  in  the  province.  The  sur- 
face is  generally  low,  no  elevation  ex- 
ceeding 1,000  feet.  The  province  is 
crossed  by  the  Laurentian  hills.  The 
climate  is  healthful  with  extreme  cold 
only  in  the  N.  part.  The  richest,  most 
thickly  settled,  and  most  highly  culti- 
vated portion  of  the  province  is  the  penin- 
sula between  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Lakes 
Ontario,  Erie,  and  Huron.  A  large  part 
of  the  province  is  covered  with  timber, 
and  this,  with  the  water  facilities,  makes 
lumbering  one  of  the  chief  industries. 

Minerals. — Mining  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry of  the  province,  the  minerals  in- 
cluding silver,  copper,  iron,  nickel,  gyp- 
sum, marble,  and  salt.  The  province  is 
rich  in  petroleum.  Lambton  county  con- 
taining the  largest  oil-producing  dis- 
tricts. In  1883  nickel  was  discovered  at 
Sudbury,  the  deposits  since  proving  to 
be  the  richest  on  the  Continent.  The  to- 
tal value  of  the  mineral  production  in 
1918  was  $80,208,972.  Of  this  the  gold 
was  valued  at  $8,502,480;  silver,  $17,- 
415,882;  nickel  in  worth,  $26,578,200; 
marble  (metallic),  $1,262,116;  copper, 
$8,262,360;  natural  gas,  $2,498,769;  ce- 
ment, $1,910,839;  salt,  $1,287,039. 

Agriculture. — Farming  is  an  impor- 
tant occupation  and  most  of  the  soil  is  of 
excellent  quality.  The  chief  crops  are 
hay  and  clover,  Indian  corn,  wheat,  bar- 
ley, oats,  peas,  root  crops,  potatoes,  and 
tobacco.  The  value  of  the  crops  in  1918 
was  $363,909,778.  The  value  of  farm 
buildings,  land,  livestock,  etc.,  was  $1,- 
633,413,528.  The  butter  production  was 
valued  at  $13,126,470,  and  the  cheese  at 
$24,356,019.  Stock  raising,  dairy  farm- 
ing, and  bee  culture  are  among  the  in- 
dustries of  the  province.     The  value  of 


live  stock  sold  or  slaughtered  in  1899  was 
$38,457,018.  The  wool  clip  of  the  prov- 
ince in  1900  was  5,805,921  pounds. 

Fisheries. — In  1918  the  yield  of  the 
fisheries  was  valued  at  $3,175,104.  The 
catch  consists  chiefly  of  trout,  white  fish, 
herring,  and  pickerel. 

Government. — The  provincial  govern- 
ment is  administered  by  a  lieutenant- 
governor  appointed  by  the  governor-gen- 
eral for  five  years,  assisted  by  a  respon- 
sible ministry.  There  is  only  one 
chamber,  the  Legislative  Assembly  which 
has  111  members.  The  government's 
policy  is  to  encourage  the  development  of 
provincial  resources. 

Manufacturing. — Ontario  is  essentially 
a  manufacturing  province.  Great  indus- 
tries are  established  and  there  is  a  suc- 
cession of  prosperous  cities  and  towns 
from  E  to  W.  With  the  steady  develop- 
ment of  the  water  powers  of  the  province, 
and  the  increased  value  of  its  resources, 
unlimited  opportunities  present  them- 
selves. In  1917  there  were  14,581  es- 
tablishments. Capital,  $1,335,968,699. 
Employes,  289,503.  Wages,  $229,191,- 
908.     Value  of  products,   $1,533,738,655. 

Education. — The  school  system  of  the 
province  is  free,  attendance  being  com- 
pulsory between  the  ages  of  7  and  13; 
it  includes  kindergartens,  public  schools, 
and  high  schools  (or  collegiate  institu- 
tions). "Separate  schools"  (chiefly  Ro- 
man Catholic)  are  recognized  as  part  of 
the  system.  The  educational  grant  made 
by  the  Government  in  1919  was  $3,807,- 
509.  At  the  head  of  the  educational 
system  stands  the  Toronto  University. 

History. — Ontario  was  first  settled  by 
the  French.  At  the  close  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution,  many  loyalists  came  to 
this  region  from  the  United  States.  In 
1760  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Brit- 
ish, who  organized  the  province  of  Que- 
bec in  1774  and  in  1791  divided  it  into 
Upper  and  Lower  Canada.  These  were 
reunited  in  1841,  and  again  separated 
when  the  Dominon  of  Canada  was  organ- 
ized in  1867,  the  W,  province  becoming 
the  province  of  Ontario.  Several  battles 
of  the  War  of  1812  occurred  in  this  re- 
gion, including  those  of  the  Thames,  of 
Lundy's  Lane,  etc.  An  unsuccessful  re- 
bellion occurred  in  1837. 

ONTARIO,  LAKE,  the  smallest  and 
most  E.  of  the  five  great  lakes  of  North 
America,  in  the  St.  Lawrence  basin, 
partly  belonging  to  Canada  and  partly 
to  the  State  of  New  York.  It  is  an  elon- 
gated, oval  shape,  172  miles  in  length, 
by  a  maximum  breadth  (in  the  center) 
of  60  miles;  covering  an  area  of  about 
5,400  square  miles.  Its  surface  level  is 
about  334  feet  below  that  of  Lake  Erie, 


NSilfSie. 


// 


evrSi 


10 


A   84 

Copyright 


Oopyright.  JL.  L.  Poate*  Enx. 


ONYX 


27 


OPAL 


and  231  feet  above  the  tide  level  of  the  St. 
Lawrence.  Its  depth  is  said  to  average 
490  feet;  but  in  some  places  it  is  upwards 
of  600  feet  in  depth,  and  it  is  navigable 
throughout  its  v/hole  extent  for  vessels  <Xf 
the  largest  size.  The  St.  Lawrence  (un- 
der the  name  of  the  Niagara  river) 
enters  it  near  its  S.  W.  and  leaves  it  at 
its  N.  E.  extremity,  where  it  is  much 
encumbered  with  small  islands.  Lake 
Ontario  has  many  good  harbors;  and  as 
it  never  freezes,  except  at  the  sides, 
where  the  water  is  shallow,  its  naviga- 
tion is  not  interrupted  like  that  of  Lake 
Erie.  It  is,  however,  subject  to  violent 
storms  and  heavy  swells.  Toronto, 
Kingston,  Newcastle,  and  Niagara  are 
the  principal  towns  on  the  British  side; 
and  Oswego,  Genesee,  and  Sackett's  Har- 
bor on  the  American  bank.  _  This  lake  re- 
ceives numerous  rivers,  including  the 
Trent  and  Humber  on  its  N.,  and  the 
Black,  Genesee,  and  Oswego  from  its  S. 
shores.  It  communicates  by  the  Genesee 
river  and  Oswego  canal  with  the  Erie 
canal,  and,  consequently,  with  the  Hud- 
son river_  and  New  York  City;  the 
Niagara  river  and  the  Welland  canal,  at 
its  S.  W.  extremity,  unite  it  with  Lake 
Erie,  and  the  Rideau  canal  connects  it 
with  the  Ottawa  at  Ottawa  city.  Nu- 
merous sailing  vessels  and  steamers  of 
large  size  navigate  this  lake,  which  is  the 
center  of  an  extensive  commerce. 

ONYX,  a  semi-pellucid  gem  with  vari- 
ously colored  zones  or  veins.  Any  stone 
exhibiting  layers  of  tv\-o  or  more  colors 
strongly  contrasted  is  called  an  onyx,  as 
banded  jasper,  chalcedony,  etc.,  but  more 
particularly  the  latter  when  it  is  marked 
■with  white  and  stratified  with  opaque 
and  translucent  lines.  The  ancients 
valued  it  very  highly,  and  used  it  much 
tor  cameos,  many  of  the  finest  cameos  in 
(existence  being  of  onyx. 

ONYX  MARBLE,  a  very  beautiful 
translucent  limestone  of  stalagmitic  for- 
mation discovered  by  the  French  in  the 
province  of  Oran,  Algeria,  and  first 
brought  into  general  notice  at  the  London 
exhibition  of  1862.  It  is  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  mantel  pieces,  urns,  and 
interior  decorations,  also  for  small  orna- 
ments, such  as  ink-stands,  paper-weights. 
Much  Mexican  onyx  or  Tecalli  marble  is 
used  for  these  purposes. 

OOLITE,  in  petrology,  a  variety  of 
limestone,  composed  of  grains,  like  the 
roe  of  a  fish,  each  of  which  has  usually 
a  small  fragment  of  some  organism  or  a 
grain  of  a  mineral  as  a  nucleus,  around 
■which  concentric  layers  of  calcareous 
matter  have  accumulated.  In  geology 
and  palseortology,  the  term  is  not  now 


generally  petrological,  but  is  chiefly 
chronological,  being  applied  to  a  certain 
considerable  portion  of  the  Secondary 
period  and  to  the  strata  then  deposited. 
Some  of  the  oolite  limestones  are  excel- 
lent for  building. 

OORI,  LIMPOPO,  or  CROCODILE 
RIVER,  a  river  of  S.  E.  Africa,  has  its 
sources  in  the  heart  of  the  Transvaal, 
between  Pretoria  and  Potchefstrom,  de- 
scribes a  huge  curve  to  the  N.  and  joins 
the  Indian  Ocean  a  little  N.  of  Delagoa 
Bay.  Its  course  exceeds  800  miles,  and 
it  has  numerous  tributaries,  the  most  im- 
portant being  the  Olifant  from  the  right. 
The  Limpopo  has  been  ascended  50  miles 
by  steamboat;  but  its  upper  reaches  are 
obstructed  by  rapids  and  falls. 

OOSTERHOUT.  a  city  of  Holland,  in 
the  province  of  North  Brabant.  It  con- 
tains a  town  hall,  a  large  Roman  Cath- 
olic church,  and  a  convent.  It  has  manu- 
factories of  beet  sugar,  pottery,  shoes, 
and  iron.  It  has  considerable  trade  in 
agricultural  products  and  linen.  Pop. 
about  15,000. 

OOTACAMUND,  or  UTAKAMAND, 
the  chief  town  in  the  Neilgherry  Hills, 
the  principal  sanatorium  of  the  Madras 
presidency,  and  the  summer  headquar- 
ters of  the  governor  of  Madras.  It 
stands  on  a  plateau,  in  an  amphitheater 
surrounded  by  hills,  7,228  feet  above  the 
sea,  350  miles  from  Madras  city,  and  24 
from  the  nearest  railway  station  on  the 
Madras  line.  There  are  a  public  library 
(1859),  the  Lawrence  Asylum  (1858)  for 
the  children  of  British  soldiers,  botanical 
gardens,  the  Breeks  Memorial  and  Basel 
Mission  buildings.     Pop.  18,829. 

OOZE,  in  geology,  a  stratum  consist- 
ing of  minute  calcareous  and  siliceous 
tests  derived  from  various  foraminifers, 
etc.,  the  wreckage  of  land,  with  volcanic 
ash  here  and  there,  found  on  ocean  beds. 
It  was  discovered  in  the  Atlantic,  where 
it  exists  between  5,000  and  15,000  feet  in 
depth,  whence  it  is  often  called  Atlantic 
ooze;  but  it  occurs  also  in  the  Pacific. 
The  ooze  is  an  appropriate  habitation  for 
sea  lilies,  sponges,  etc.  It  is  identical 
with  the  material  of  which  chalk  is  com- 
posed, and  its  deposition  has  gone  on 
from  Cretaceous  times  till  now.  In  tan- 
ning, a  solution  of  tannin  obtained  by 
infusing  or  boiling  oak  bark,  sumac,  cate- 
chu, or  other  tannin-jrielding  vegetable; 
the  liquor  of  a  tan-vat. 

OPAL,  a  precious  stone  of  various 
colors,  which  comes  under  the  class  of 
pellucid  gems.  It  consists  of  silica  with 
about  10  per  cent,  of  water,  and  is  very 
brittle.    It  is  characterized  by  its  irides- 


OPERA 


28 


OPERA 


cent  reflection  of  light.  It  is  found  in 
many  parts  of  Europe,  especially  in 
Hungary,  in  the  East  Indies,  etc.  The 
substance  in  which  it  is  generally  found 
is  a  ferruginous  sandstone.  There  are 
niany  varieties  or  species,  the  chief  of 
which  are  (a)  precious  or  noble  opal, 
which  exhibits  brilliant  and  changeable 
reflections  of  green,  blue,  yellow,  and 
red;  (6)  fire  opal,  which  simply  affords 
a  red  reflection;  (c)  common  opal,  whose 
colors  are  white,  green,  yellow,  and  red, 
but  without  the  play  of  colors;  (d)  semi- 
opal,  the  varieties  of  which  are  more 
opaque  than  common  opal;  (e)  hydro- 
phane,  which  assumes  a  transparency 
only  when  thrown  into  water;  (/)  hya- 
lite, which  occurs  in  small  globular  and 
botryoidal  forms,  with  a  vitreous  luster; 
(g)  menilite,  which  occurs  in  irregular 
or  reniform  masses,  and  is  opaque  or 
slightly  translucent. 

OPERA,  a  musical  drama,  that  is,  a 
dramatic  composition  set  to  music  and 
sung  on  the  stage,  accompanied  with 
musical  instruments  and  enriched  by  the 
accessories  of  costumes,  scenery,  dancing, 
etc.  The  component  parts  of  an  opera 
are  recitatives,  solos,  duets,  trios, 
quartettes,  choruses,  etc.,  and  they  are 
usually  preceded  by  an  instrumental 
overture.  The  lighter  kind  of  opera  in 
Germany  and  England,  as  well  as  the 
French  opera  comique,  is  of  a  mixed  kind 
— partly  spoken,  partly  sung.  The  chief 
varieties  of  opera  are  the  grand  opera  or 
opera  seria,  the  name  given  to  that  kind 
which  is  confined  to  music  and  singing, 
of  which  the  recitativo  is  a  principal 
feature;  the  romantic  opera,  or  opera 
drammatica  of  the  Italians,  embracing 
an  admixture  of  the  grave  and  lively;  the 
comic  opera,  or  opera  buffa;  as  well  as 
many  intermediate  varieties.  Though 
the  Greek  dramas  were  operatic  in  char- 
acter, the  opera  proper  is  of  modern  date 
and  of  Italian  origin,  and  would  seem 
to  have  developed  naturally  from  the 
miracle  play  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  first 
operas  dating  from  the  16th  century. 
About  the  close  of  that  century  the  poet 
P.inuccini  wrote  a  drama  on  the  classical 
story  of  Daphne,  which  was  set  to  music 
by  Peri,  the  most  celebrated  musician  of 
the  age.  There  was  no  attempt  at  airs, 
and  a  recitative  was  merely  a  kind  of 
measured  intonation,  Monteverde,  a 
tiilanese  musician,  improved  the  recita- 
tive by  giving  it  more  flow  and  expres- 
•jon;  he  set  the  opera  of  "Ariadne,"  by 
Rinuccini,  for  the  court  of  Mantua;  and 
in  the  opera  of  "Giasone"  (Jason),  set 
by  Cavalli  and  Cicognini,  for  the  Vene- 
tians (1649),  occur  the  first  airs  con- 
nected in  sentiment  and  spirit  with  the 


dialogue.  The  first  regular  serious 
opera  was  performed  at  Naples  in  1615, 
and  was  entitled  "Love  Not  Bound  by 
Law."  The  first  opera  buffa  is  said  to 
have  been  represented  at  Venice  in  1624, 
where  also  the  first  stage  for  operas  was 
erected  in  1637.  In  1646  the  opera  was 
transplanted  to  France  by  Cardinal 
Mazarin,  about  the  same  time  to  Ger- 
many, and  somewhat  later  to  England. 
In  France  there  arose  Lulli;  in  Germany, 
Keiser;  in  Italy,  Scarlatti;  and  in  Eng- 
land, Purcell,  who  are  the  chief  operatic 
composers  of  the  second  half  of  the  17th 
century.  The  chief  Italian  operatic  com- 
posers include,  besides  those  already 
mentioned,  Piccini,  Jomelli,  Cimarosa, 
Paisiello,  in  the  18th  century,  and  Cheru- 
bini,  Rossini,  Bellini,  Donizetti,  Verdi, 
etc.,  in  the  19th.  Among  the  French 
composers  are  Gretry,  Monsigny,  Rous- 
seau, Mehul,  belonging  to  the  18th  cen- 
tury, Boieldieu,  Auber,  Halevy,  Herold, 
A.  Thomas,  and  Gounod  to  the  19th. 
The  chief  recent  composers  of  French 
comic  opera  are  Offenbach,  Lecoq,  Herve, 
Bizet,  and  Massinet.  Among  English 
composers  of  operas  may  be  mentioned 
Arne  and  Shields  in  the  18th  century; 
and  of  recent  times  Balfe,  Wallace,  Mac- 
farren,  Sullivan,  Mackenzie,  Thomas, 
Stanford,  and  De  Koven  and  Herbert 
in  the  United  States.  It  is  the  German 
composers,  however,  who  have  raised 
opera  to  the  highest  pitch  of  perfection, 
the  list  including  such  names  as  liandel, 
Gluck,  and  Mozart  in  the  18th  century, 
Beethoven,  Weber,  Flotow,  etc.,  in  the 
19th.  Meyerbeer,  though  German  by 
birth,  is  to  be  classed  rather  with  the 
French  composers.  Richard  Wagner 
was  the  leader  of  a  school  that  changed 
the  character  of  German  operatic  com- 
position. In  his  work  the  vocal  music 
is  made  subordinate  to  text,  instrumenta- 
tion, and  scenic  decoration.  In  the  pres- 
ent century  many  novelties  were  intro- 
duced in  lyric  stage  drama.  The  weird 
operatic  music  of  the  Russian  composers 
Moussorgsky,  and  Rimsky-Korsakov  made 
a  wide  appeal.  Impressive,  and  to  many 
startling  in  their  departure  from  accept- 
ed convention  were:  Debussy's  "Peleas 
and  Melisande"  (1902) ;  Strauss's 
"Salome"  (1905)  and  such  variations  on 
operatic  themes  as  Stravinsky's  panto- 
mime-ballets "Petruchka"  and  "L'Oiseau 
du  Feu."  In  the  United  States,  Ameri- 
can composers  have  in  recent  years  en- 
gaged more  actively  in  the  lyric  stage 
drama.  The  most  important  efforts 
since  Damrosch's  "Scarlet  Letter" 
(1894)  have  been  "Cyrano"  by  the  same 
composer  in  1903,  Nevin's  "Poia"  (Ber- 
lin, 1910);  Parker's  "Mona"  (1911); 
"Fairyland"     (1913) ;     "Shanewis"     by 


OPERA    BOITFFE  29 

Charles  Cadman    (1918),  and  "The  Le- 
gend" by  J.  C.  Breil  (1919). 

OPERA  BOUFFE,  a  farcical  form  of 
opera  buff  a  in  which  the  characters,  sub- 
ject matter,  and  music  is  intended  to  bur- 
lesque the  more  serious  style  of  opera. 
Offenbach  was  the  creator  as  well  as  the 
chief  master  in  this  art.  The  comic 
operas  of  Gilbert  and  Sullivan,  both  in 
the  character  of  the  music  and  the 
libretti,  stand  by  themselves. 

OPERA  GLASS,  a  binocular  telescope 
of  the  kind  invented  by  Galileo.  It  has 
a  plano-concave  or  double  concave  eye 
glass,  so  that  the  image  is  not  inverted 
and  little  light  is  lost,  thus  securing  great 
distinctness. 

OPHIDIA,  in  zoology,  snakes;  an  or- 
der of  the  class  Reptilia,  which  is  placed 
by  Professor  Huxley  in  his  division 
Sauropsida.  The  body  is  always  cylin- 
drical and  without  a  bony  exoskeleton. 
Vertebrae  proccelous,  with  rudimentary 
transverse  processes.  They  have  no 
sternum,  pectoral  arch,  forelimbs,  or 
sacrum;  nor  as  a  rule  are  traces  of  hin- 
der limbs  present,  though  they  occa- 
sionally occur,  e.  g.,  in  Python.  Hooked 
conical  teeth  are  always  present,  anchy- 
losed  with  the  jaw.  The  order  is  pre- 
eminently tropical,  the  species  rapidly 
diminishing  as  the  distance  from  the 
equator  increases,  and  wholly  ceasing  be- 
fore the  Arctic  or  Antarctic  Circle  is 
reached.  The  classification  is  not  fixed. 
Acording  to  Wallace,  the  order  contains 
25  families.  There  is  another  and  natu- 
ral division  into  three  sub-orders:  (1) 
Thanatophidia  (venomous  snakes),  with 
two  groups,  Proteroglyphia  and  Soleno- 
glyphia;  (2)  Coluhriformes  (Innocuous 
colubriform  snakes) ;  and  (3)  Typhlo- 
pidse  (blind  snakes). 

OPHIR,  an  ancient  country  celebrated 
for  gold.  The  ships  of  Solomon  and 
Hiram,  King  of  Tyre,  brought  450  tal- 
ents of  gold  to  Jerusalem,  1000  B.  C. 
Its  position  has  not  been  ascertained, 
and  Arabia,  India,  and  Africa  are  con- 
tended for  by  different  authorities.  Jo- 
sephus  considers  Malacca  to  be  Ophir, 
and  Sir  Emerson  Tennent  supports  this 
view.  Purchas  says  Ceylon.  But  the 
discoveries  made  in  1868  of  gold  deposits 
on  the  E.  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  workings,  give  addi- 
tional force  to  the  ideas  entertained  by 
many  that  thereabouts  was  the  locality 
of  Ophir. 

OPHITE,  green  porphyry  or  serpen- 
tine, a  metamorphic  rock  of  a  dusky- 
grreen  color  of  different  shades,  sprinkled 
•with  spots  of  a  lighter  green.     It  is  a 

Vol.  VII — Cyc 


OPIUM 


hydrous  silicate  of  magnesia  with  alum- 
ina and  iron.     Called  also  ophiolite. 

OPHIUCHUS,  in  astronomy,  Serpen- 
tarius,  the  Serpent-bearer,  a  constellation 
of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  One  of 
the  ancient  asterisms,  having  Hercules 
on  the  N.,  Scorpio  on  the  S.,  and  Ser- 
pens on  the  W.  It  has  about  80  stars 
visible  to  the  naked  eye,  the  chief  being 
Ras  Alague. 

OPHIUROIDEA,  an  order  of  the  Echi- 
nodermata,  comprising  star  fishes  known 
as  brittle  stars  and  sand  stars.  These 
animals  have  long  slender- jointed  arms, 
which  may  either  be  branched  or  simple, 

OPHTHALMIA,  in  pathology,  a  terra 
used  to  indicate  the  structural  changes 
produced  by  proliferation  and  catarrhal 
inflammation,  going  on  to  the  formation 
of  pus  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
eye,  exhibiting  various  forms,  catarrhal, 
pustular,  purulent  (in  the  new-born  in- 
fant), gonorrhoeal,  strumous,  or  scrofu- 
lous, and  chronic.  The  chief  symptoms 
are  redness  of  the  eye,  chemosis,  or  swell- 
ing, discharge  of  fluid  and  pus,  intoler- 
ance of  light,  and  frequently,  in  severe 
cases,  spasmodic  closure  of  the  eyelids. 
When  the  cornea  is  involved,  destruction 
of  the  eye  and  permanent  loss  of  sight — 
as  in  diphtheria  and  smallpox,  or  from 
sand,  etc.,  as  among  the  troops  and  na- 
tives in  Egypt  especially — is  a  common 
result.  Treatment  of  the  discharge  by 
caustics  and  astringents  is  Imperatively 
called  for. 

OPHTHALMOSCOPE,  an  instrument 
invented  by  Helmholtz,  and  described  by 
him  in  1851.  It  is  used  for  the  exam- 
ination of  the  inner  structure  of  the  eye- 
ball, and  is  composed  of  a  small  round 
mirror  with  a  central  perforation,  which 
reflects  the  light  of  a  lamp  placed  at  the 
side  of  the  eye.  When  the  mirror  only 
is  used,  the  method  is  known  as  direct; 
when  a  convex  lens  is  between  the  eye 
and  the  mirror  it  is  indirect. 

OPISTHOBRANCHIATA,  in  zoology, 
an  order  of  Gasteropoda.  Shell  rudi- 
mentary or  wanting;  branchiae  arbores- 
cent or  fasciculated,  more  or  less  com- 
pletely exposed  on  the  back  and  sides 
toward  the  rear  of  the  body.  It  con- 
tains two  sections,  Tectibranchiata  and 
Nudibranchiata. 

OPIUM,  in  chemistry,  the  dried  juice 
obtained  from  Papaver  somniferuvi,  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  Asia  _  Minor, 
Egypt,  and  India.  An  incision  is  made 
in  the  unripe  capsules,  the  juice  is  left 
to  dry  over  night,  and  then  removed 
with  a  blunt  knife.  Opium  is  a  complex 
substance  containing  morphine  (3-15  per 


OPORTO 


30 


OPPENHEIM 


cent.),  the  most  important  alkaloid,  nar- 
cotine,  codeine,  narceine,  thebaine,  pa- 
paverine, meconic  acid,  meconin,  resin, 
and  fat,  together  with  other  substances, 
the  composition  of  which  is  not  clearly 
established.  In  pharmacy,  in  small  doses 
it  produces  brief  excitement,  and  then 
acts  as  a  soporific.  In  large  doses  the 
sleep  becomes  coma,  and  death  ensues. 
It  is  given  to  allay  pain  and  spasm. 

OPORTO,  an  important  city  and  sea- 
port of  Portugal,  on  the  Douro,  2  miles 
from  its  mouth,  174  miles  N.  E.  of  Lis- 
bon. Situated  on  a  steep  declivity  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river,  the  appearance 
of  Oporto  from  the  sea  is  picturesque  and 
imposing.  Oporto  possesses  many 
churches  and  convents,  but  no  monument 
worthy  of  a  special  notice.  There  are 
four  colleges,  an  academy  of  navigation 
and  commerce,  a  school  of  medicine  and 
surgery.  Manufactures  include  silk,  cot- 
ton, woolen  and  linen  fabrics,  ropes,  to- 
bacco, soap;  also,  shipbuilding.  The  har- 
bor within  the  bar  across  the  mouth  of 
the  Douro  can  only  be  entered  by  large 
vessels  at  high  water.  Owing  to  her  sit- 
uation, Oporto  has  an  extensive  com- 
merce. The  principal  export  is  a  red 
wine  called  port,  produced  on  the  banks 
of  the  Douro.  The  climate  is  generally 
damp  and  foggy;  in  winter  the  cold  is 
very  severe,  but  in  summer  the  winds 
from  the  E.,  S.,  and  W.  moderate  the 
intensity  of  the  heat.  Oporto  occupies 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Portus  Cale,  from 
which  the  name  Portugal  is  derived.  It 
was  taken  and  sacked  by  the  French  in 
1805.     Pop.  about  200,000. 

OPOSSUM,  in  zoology,  the  popular 
name  for  the  pouched  mammals  which 
have  a  geographical  range  from  the 
United  States  to  Patagonia.     They  vary 


OPOSSUM 

from  the  size  of  a  mouse  to  that  of  a 
large  cat,  and  have  long  noses,  ears,  and 
(generally)  naked  prehensile  tails.  The 
Virginian  opossum  (Didelphys  virgin- 
iana),  common  over  all  temperate  Amer- 
ica, is  the  best-known  of  the  family. 
The  crab-eating  opossum  inhabits  cen- 


tral and  tropical  South  America.  Lord 
Derby's  opossum,  like  some  others  which 
have  been  placed  in  a  separate  group, 
has  no  pouches  in  which  to  carry  its 
young;  they  commonly  ride  on  their 
mother's  back,  twining  their  prehensile 


WATER  OPOSSUM 


tails  round  hers.  The  Murine  opossum> 
no  larger  than  a  common  mouse,  is 
bright  red,  and  ranges  from  Central 
Mexico  to  the  S.  of  Brazil.  The  most  re- 
markable of  the  group,  the  three-striped 
opossum  from  Brazil,  is  reddish-gray, 
with  three  deep  black  bands  down  the 
back. 

OPOSSUM  SHRIMP,  the  popular 
name  of  several  species  of  Mysis,  a  genus 
of  small  crustaceans.  They  receive  their 
name  from  the  females  carrying  their 
eggs  and  young  in  a  pouch  between  the 
thoracic  legs. 

OPP,  JULIE  (MRS.  WILLIAM  FA- 
VERSHAM),  an  American  actress,  born 
in  New  York,  in  1871.  She  first  ap- 
peared on  the  stage  in  1896  in  London, 
and  was  leading  lady  with  Sir  George 
Alexander  for  five  years.  She  later  was 
engaged  by  Charles  Frohman  and  ap- 
peared as  co-star  with  William  Faver- 
sham  for  many  years.  She  was  married 
to  Mr.  Faversham  in  1902.  Author  of 
"The  Squaw  Man."  She  died  April  8, 
1921. 

OPPELN",  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia, 
on  the  Oder,  51  miles  S.  E.  of  Breslau. 
Since  1816,  when  it  was  erected  into  a 
seat  of  government  for  Upper  Silesia, 
the  town  has  been  much  beautified  both 
with  new  edifices  and  with  parks  and 
gardens.  Its  church  of  St.  Adalbert 
was  founded  in  995;  and  there  is  an  old 
castle  on  an  island  in  the  Oder.  The 
manufactures  before  the  World  War  in- 
cluded pottery,  cigars,  cement,  beer, 
leather,  etc.,  and  there  was  a  consider- 
able trade  in  grain  and  cattle. 

OPPENHEIM,  E.  PHILLIPS.  Eng- 
lish novelist.  He  was  born  in  1866,  and 
received  his  education  at  Leicester,  Eng. 
He  started  writing  in  his  teens  and  his 
work  has  achieved  popularity  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Europe.  His  books 
include:  "Enoch  Stone";  "A  Man  and 
His  Kingdom";  "A  Millionaire  of  Yester- 
day";   "The    Survivor";    "The    World's 


OPPENHEIM 


31 


OPTICAL    ILLUSION 


Great  Snare";  "The  Master  Mummer"; 
"Anna  the  Adventuress";  "Mysterious 
Mr.  Sabin";  "The  Traitor";  "A  Prince  of 
Sinners";  "Mr.  Wingrave";  "A  Maker 
of  History";  "The  Secret";  "Conspira- 
tors"; "The  Missioner";  "Jeanne  of  the 
Marshes";  "The  Illustrious  Prince"; 
"The  Missing  Delora";  "The  Falling 
Star";  "Havoc";  "The  Lighted  Way"; 
"The  Mischief  Maker";  "The  Game  of 
Liberty";  "People's  Man";  "Mr.  Grex 
of  Monte  Carlo";  "The  Double  Traitor"; 
"The  Hillman";  "The  Wicked  Marquis"; 
"The  Curious  Quest." 


E.   PHILLIPS  OPPENUEIM 

OPPENHEIM,  JAMES,  an  American 
novelist  and  short  story  writer,  bom  at 
St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  in  1882.  After 
studying  for  a  time  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity he  became  in  1905  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  Hebrew  Technical  Schools 
for  Girls  in  New  York  City.  He  re- 
signed this  position  in  1907  to  give  him- 
self entirely  to  literary  work.  His  best 
known  novels  are  "Doctor  Rast"  (1909) ; 
"Wild  Oats"  (1910);  "Idle  Wives" 
(1914).  Besides  novels  he  has  written 
several  volumes  of  poetry  such  as  "War 
and  Laughter"  (1916);  "The  Book  of 
Self"   (1917). 

OPPEB,  FREDERICK  BURR,  Amer- 
ican artist,  born  in  Madison,  0.,  1857; 
left  school  at  fourteen  to  work  in  village 
newspaper  office.  Came  to  New  York, 
worked  there  in  a  store,  then,  having  sold 


some  humorous  sketches,  "Wild  Oats," 
took  up  illustrating  as  a  profession. 
Was  on  art  staff  of  Frank  Leslie's  three 
years;  with  "Puck"  eighteen  years,  which 
he  left  to  go  on  the  New  York  "Journal." 
Has  illustrated  for  Bill  Nye,  Mark 
Twain,  Dunne  (Mr.  Dooley) ;  is  widely 
known  from  his  "Happy  Hooligan,"  "Al- 
pbonse  and  Gaston,"  and  other  "funny 
sheet"  sketches. 

OPPOSITION,  in  astronomy,  the  sit- 
uation of  two  heavenly  bodies  when  they 
are  diametrically  opposed  to  each  other, 
or  when  their  longitudes  differ  by  180°. 
Thus  there  is  always  an  opposition  of 
sun  and  moon  at  every  full  moon;  also 
the  moon,  or  a  planet,  is  said  to  be  in 
opposition  to  the  sun  when  it  passes  the 
meridian  at  midnight.  In  logic,  opposi- 
tion of  judgments  is  the  relation  be- 
tween any  two  which  have  the  same  mat- 
ter, but  a  different  form,  the  same  sub- 
ject and  predicate,  but  a  different  quan- 
tity, quality  or  relation.  There  are  five 
kinds  of  opposition,  viz.,  contradictory, 
contrary,  inconsistent,  subaltern,  and 
subcontrary.  In  rhetoric,  a  figure 
whereby  two  things  are  joined  which 
seem  incompatible. 

OPSONIN.  A  substance  which  is  be- 
lieved to  exist  in  the  blood,  and  whose 
function  it  is  to  stimulate  the  phagocites 
in  their  attack  upon  harmful  bacteria, 
possibly  by  rendering  these  foreign 
micro-organisms  more  readily  absorbable. 
The  opsonic  index  is  the  ratio  between 
the  power  of  absorbing  bacteria  pos- 
sessed by  the  blood  under  healthy  condi- 
tions and  that  possessed  under  pathologi- 
cal conditions.  In  other  words,  the 
higher  the  opsonic  index,  the  greater  is 
the  resistance  of  the  body  to  disease.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  opsonic  index 
can  in  certain  diseases  be  raised  by  in- 
jecting into  the  blood  dead  bacteria  of 
the  species  producing  the  disease. 

OPTATIVE,  in  grammar,  that  form 
of  the  verb  in  which  wish  or  desire  is 
expressed,  existing  in  the  Greek  and  some 
other  languages,  its  force  being  conveyed 
in  English  by  such  circumlocutions,  as 
"may  I,"  "would  that  he,"  etc. 

OPTICAL  ILLUSION.  An  object  ap- 
pears large  or  small,  near  or  distant,  ac- 
cording as  the  rays  from  its  opposite 
borders  meeting  at  the  eye  form  a  large 
or  a  small  angle ;  when  the  angle  is  large, 
the  object  is  either  large  or  near;  when 
small,  the  object  must  be  small  or  dis- 
tant. Experience  alone  enables  us  to  de- 
cide whether  an  object  of  large  apparent 
size  is  so  on  account  of  its  real  size,  or  of 
its  proximity ;  and  our  decision  is  arrived 
at  by  a  comparison  of  the  object  in  post- 


OPTIC    NERVE 


32 


OPTOMETRY 


tion  with  other  common  objects,  such  as 
trees,  houses,  etc.  The  same  is,  of 
course,  true  of  apparently  small  objects. 
But  when  all  means  for  comparison  are 
removed  our  judgment  is  at  fault.  Sim- 
ilarly, we  erroneously  infer  spherical 
solids  at  a  distance  to  be  flat  disks,  and  a 
man  in  a  white  habit  seems  larger  than 
he  would  if  he  wore  a  dark  dress.  Illu- 
sions are  also  produced  by  external 
causes. 

The  persistence  of  impressions  on  the 
retina  for  about  one-sixth  of  a  second 
after  the  object  which  produced  the  im- 
pression has  been  removed  produces  an- 
other class  of  illusions.  Common  exam- 
ples of  this  are  the  illuminated  circle 
formed  by  the  rapid  revolution  of  an  ig- 
nited carbon  point,  piece  of  red-hot  iron, 
or  other  luminous  body.  Another  form 
of  illusion  is  produced  to  a  person  who  is 
seated  in  a  vehicle  in  motion.  The  illu- 
sion is  most  complete  when  the  attention 
is  riveted  on  an  object  several  yards  off; 
this  object  then  appears  to  be  a  center 
round  which  all  the  other  objects  re- 
volve, those  between  the  observer  and  the 
object  moving  backward,  and  those  be- 
yond the  object  moving  forward.  Other 
illusions  arise  from  a  disordered  state  of 
the  organs  of  vision:  e.  g.,  the  seeing  of 
things  double  or  movable,  or  of  a  color 
different  from  the  true  one. 

OPTIC  NERVE,  in  anatomy,  the 
nerve  of  sight,  proceeding  from  the  optic 
lobes  or  corpora  quadrige^nina  to  the  eye, 
terminating  in  an  expansion  called  the 
retina.'  The  inner  portion  of  the  fibers 
of  the  two  optic  nerves  decussates  at  the 
commissure,  passing  to  the  opposite  eye, 
while  the  outer  portion  continues  its 
course  to  the  eye  of  the  same  side,  which 
has  been  supposed  to  assist  in  the  _pro- 
duction  of  single  vision,  although  it  is 
more  probable  that  the  latter  is  the  result 
of  a  mental  act.  The  closest  relations 
exist  between  the  optic  nerve,  its  disk, 
the  retina,  and  the  choroid,  as  regards 
the  cerebral  and  intraocular  circulation, 
particularly  seen  in  the  course  of  cere- 
bro-spinal  disease. 

OPTIC  NEURITIS.  Condition  of  the 
optic  nerve  brought  about  by  inflamma- 
tion showing  two  distinct  phases,  namely, 
retrobulbar  neuritis  in  which  the  nerve 
fibers  behind  the  eye  are  affected,  and 
papillitis,  where  the  seat  of  inflammation 
is  in  the  optic  dtsk.  The  condition  is 
often  the  result  of  brain  disease,  acute 
fevers,  and  syphilis,  affecting  the  vision 
in  common  with  other  subjective  symp- 
toms. 

OPTICS,  in  physics,  that  branch  of 
knowledge  which  treats  of  the  properties 


of  light  and  of  vision  as  performed  by 
the  human  eye.  The  modern  division  of 
the  science  is  into:  1.  Sources  of  light; 
2.  Transmission,  velocity,  and  intensity 
of  light;  3.  Reflection  of  light — mirrors; 
4.  Single  refraction — lenses;  5.  Disper- 
sion and  achromatism;  6.  Optical  instru- 
ment; 7.  The  eye  considered  as  an  opti- 
cal instrument;  8.  Phosphorescence  and 
fluorescence;  and  9.  Double  refraction, 
interference,  and  polarization. 

OPTIMISM,  in  philosophy,  the  name 
given  to  the  view  propounded  in  the 
"Thedicee"  of  Leibnitz  that  this  world, 
as  the  work  of  God,  must  be  the  best 
among  all  possible  worlds.  In  general, 
the  tendency  to  take  the  most  hopeful 
view  of  matters  in  general;  the  belief 
that  the  world  is  growing  better. 

OPTOCHIN.  Ethylhydrocupreine. 
C1.H.0N2OH.  C.C2H5.  A  derivative  of 
cupreine,  which  occurs,  together  with 
quinine  in  the  bark  of  Remijia  peduncu- 
lata.  It  is  a  white,  or  faintly  yellow 
powder,  with  a  bitter  taste.  Almost  in- 
soluble in  water.  Possesses  properties 
similar  to  those  of  quinine,  and  is  used 
in  the  treatment  of  certain  infections  of 
the  cornea  of  the  eye.  Internally  the 
drug  is  uncertain  in  its  action,  and  its 
administration  has  sometimes  been  fol- 
lowed by  deafness  and  blindness,  either 
temporary  or  permanent.  For  treating 
the  eye  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  optochin 
hydrochloride  is  recommended. 

OPTOGrRAPHY,  in  optics,  the  tem- 
porary retention  in  certain  cases  of  an 
image,  that  of  the  last  person  or  thing 
seen,  on  the  retina  of  the  eye  when  a  man 
or  a  beast  dies. 

OPTOMETRY.  The  science  of  meas- 
uring the  vision  and  strength  of  the  eye 
without  the  dilation  of  the  pupil  by  the 
use  of  drugs,  and  the  selection  of  proper 
lenses  to  correct  defective  vision. 

The  use  of  drugs  to  dilate  the  pupils 
while  making  an  examination  is  not 
legal,  except  by  a  registered  physician — 
an  oculist. 

The  profession  of  optometry  has  been 
established  by  those  opticians  who  de- 
sired to  place  their  work  on  a  higher 
plane  than  that  occupied  by  the  ordinary 
seller  of  optical  goods.  An  organization 
was  formed  in  1904,  and  committees  ap- 
pointed who  worked  for  legislative  regu- 
lation of  the  practice  of  their  profession. 
Minnesota  was  the  first  state  to  ac- 
knowledge the  new  profession,  but  now 
almost  every  state,  as  well  as  the  Cana- 
dian provinces,  recognizes  and  regulates 
it  by  legislative  action. 

The  general  requirements  for'  the  prac- 
tice of  optometry  are  a  thorough  knowl- 


OPUNTIA 


33 


ORANG  OUTANG 


edge  of  the  principles  of  the  profession, 
which  may  have  been  gained  either  in  a 
recogrnized  school,  or  by  employment  un- 
der a  practitioner  of  the  profession,  and 
a  certain  amount  of  high  school  work. 
Some  colleges,  notably  Columbia,  Cali- 
fornia, and  Ohio  State  University,  as 
well  as  the  Rochester  Athenium  and  Me- 
chanics Institute,  give  training  for  this 
work,  and  schools  teaching  this  subject 
alone  have  been  established  in  Boston, 
New  York,  and  Philadelphia. 

Test  cards  of  graduated  letters,  cases 
of  assorted  lenses,  and  specially  designed 
instruments,  usually  reflectors  or  refrac- 
tors of  light,  are  used  in  making  the 
tests,  the  instruments  having  the  widest 
use  being  the  skiascope,  the  ophthalmom- 
eter, the  ophthalmoscope,  and  the  phoro- 
meter.  Various  test  lenses  are  placed 
before  the  eye  which  is  being  tested,  until 
the  lens  which  best  corrects  a  certain  de- 
termined defect  is  secured. 

OPUNTIA,  in  botany,  Indian  fig;  the 
typical  genus  of  the  family  Opuntidx. 
The  stem  consists  of  flat  joints  broader 
above  than  below,  at  length  becoming 
cylindrical  and  continuous.  All  the  spe- 
cies were  originally  American.  O.  vul- 
garis is  indigenous  in  tropical  America, 
Bermuda,  etc.,  whence  it  has  been  intro- 
duced into  Southern  Europe;  its  fruit 
imparts  a  red  tinge  to  the  urine  of  those 
who  eat  it.  0.  tuna  furnishes  a  rich  car- 
mine pigment,  used  in  Naples  as  a  water- 
color.  O.  dillenii  is  tised  in  the  Deccan 
as  a  hedge  plant  about  cantonments. 
Cochineal  insects  brought  to  India  flour- 
ished on  it,  and  it  yields  a  coarse  fiber 
used  in  paper  making. 

ORACLE,  in  anthropology,  oracles 
are  of  high  antiquity.  They  existed 
among  the  Egyptians  (Herod,  v:  89,  viii: 
82) ,  and  the  poetry  of  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans  is  full  of  allusion  to  them.  The 
Hebrews  might  lawfully,  by  the  high 
priest,  consult  the  Urira  and  Thummim 
(Num.  xxvii:  21),  but  they  also  illicitly 
sought  responses  from  teraphim  (Judges 
xvii:  5),  and  from  the  gods  of  surround- 
ing nations  (II  Kings  i:  2,  3,  6,  16). 
The  responses  were  supposed  to  be  given 
by  a  supernatural  afflatus,  either  through 
a  person,  as  at  Delphi  and  Cumse,  _  or 
through  some  object,  as  in  the  rustling 
of  the  sacred  grove  at  Dodona.  But  in 
every  case  there  is  present  the  idea  of  a 
power  more  than  human  taking  posses- 
sion of  a  person  or  thing,  and  making 
that  person  or  thing  the  vehicle  of  the 
response. 

ORAN,  a  seaport  of  Algeria,  stands 
on  the  Gulf  of  Oran,  261  miles  W.  by  S. 
of  Algiers,  and  130  miles  S.  of  Cartagena 


in  Spain.  It  stretches  up  the  foot  of  a 
hill,  is  defended  by  detached  forts,  has  a 
thoroughly  French  appearance,  having 
been  mainly  built  since  1790,  when  the 
old  Spanish  town  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  and  possesses  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic cathedral  (1839),  a  grand  mosque,  a 
large  military  hospital,  a  college,  a 
seminary,  and  two  citadels  or  castles. 
The  harbor  is  protected  on  the  N.  and  E. 
by  moles  constructed  in  1887  at  a  cost 
of  $1,400,000;  alfa,  iron  ore,  and  cereals 
are  the  chief  of  the  exports.  Oran  was 
built  by  the  Moors.  During  the  second 
half  of  the  15th  century  it  was  a  highly 
prosperous  commercial  town,  and  was 
celebrated  for  its  cloth  and  arms  and  fine 
public  buildings.  But  it  was  taken  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1509  and  made  a  penal 
settlement.  It  was  captured  by  the 
Turks  in  1708,  but  retaken  by  the  Span- 
iards in  1732.  In  1790  it  was  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake,  and  shortly  after  was 
altogether  abandoned  by  the  Spaniards, 
the  Turks  occupying  it  again  in  1792. 
The  French  took  possession  of  the  town 
in  1831.     Pop.  about  125,000. 

ORANG  OUTANG,  in  zoology,  Simia 
satyrus,  the  Mias  of  the  Dyaks;  also 
known  as  the  "wild  man  of  the  woods." 
It  is  a  dull,  slothful  animal,  but  possessed 


ORANG  OUTANG 

of  great  strength.  These  animals  are 
now  confined  to  the  swampy  forests  of 
Sumatra  and  Borneo.  Their  height  has 
been  variously  stated,  but  we  have  not 
the  least  reliable  e\'idence  of  the  exist- 
ence of  orangs  in  Borneo  more  than  four 
feet  two  inclies  high.  The  legs  are  very 
short,  the  arms  are  disproportionately 
long,  reaching  to  the  ankle  when  the  ani- 


OBANGE 


34 


OK^INGE 


mal  is  placed  in  an  erect  position.  The 
hair  is  long,  ruddy-brown,  with  a  decid- 
edly red  tinge,  face  dark,  eyes  and  nose 
small,  jaws  prognathous,  the  hair  fall- 
ing over  the  forehead  and  backward  over 
the  neck;  it  is  long  on  the  limbs,  with  a 
downward  direction  on  the  upper,  and  an 
upward  on  the  lower  arm.  There  are 
neither  cheek  pouches  nor  natesal  callosi- 
ties, nor  a  tail,  and  the  hips  are  covered 
with  hair.  The  males  have  a  longish 
beard,  and  they  sometimes  develop  warty 
protuberances  on  each  side  of  the  face. 
The  resemblance  to  man  in  appearance 
is  greatest  in  the  females  and  in  young 
animals.  The  head  of  a  baby  orang  is 
not  very  different  from  that  of  an  aver- 
age child;  but  in  the  adult  the  muzzle 
is  as^  well-marked  a  feature  as  in  the 
Carnivora.  The  orang  is  arboreal,  and 
forms  a  sort  of  nest  or  shelter  among 
the  trees.  It  never  walks  erect,  unless 
when  using  its  hands  to  support  itself  by 
branches  overhead,  or  when  attacked. 

ORANGE,  properly  Citrus  aurantium, 
the  sweet  orange.  The  leaves  are  ovate, 
oblong,  acute,  slightly  serrulated;  petiole 
more  or  less  winged;  the  pulp  is  sweet. 
It  is  a  native  of  India,  and  by  some  bot- 
anists is  believed  to  be  only  a  variety 
of  the  citron  (C.  medica).     It  was  intro- 


ORANGE 


duced  into  the  S.  of  Europe  about  the 
12th  century,  having  been  brought  into 
Arabia  about  three  centuries  earlier.  It 
lives  about  600  years.  Among  the  many 
varieties  are  the  China  orange,  which  is 
the  common  orange  of  the  markets;  the 
blood,  or  Malta  orange;  the  St.  Michael's 


orange;  the  noble,  or  mandarin  orange; 
the  navel,  or  seedless,  etc.  The  orange 
contains  malic  acid;  the  rind  is  bitter 
and  aromatic;  the  fruit  itself  is  said  to 
be  disinfectant.  Orange  poultice  has 
been  recommended  in  India  in  skin  dis- 
eases. There  are  various  allied  species, 
specially  the  bitter,  or  Seville  orange,  C. 
bigaradia,  largely  imported  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  candied  orange  peel,  etc.  It, 
too,  has  run  into  several  varieties.  In 
Florida  and  Southern  California  vast 
orange  plantation^  are  providing  im- 
mense crops  of  many  varieties  of  the 
orange.  In  1918-1919  California  shipped 
over  49,063  carloads  of  citrus  fruits, 
worth  more  than  $100,000,000. 

_  ORANGE,  or  GARIEP,  the  largest 
river  of  South  Africa,  rises  in  the  Kath- 
lamba  Mountains,  in  the  E.  of  Basuto- 
land,  and  flows  W.,  with  an  inclination  to 
the  N.,  to  the  Atlantic  ocean.  It  de- 
scribes numerous  wide  curves  in  its 
course  of  1,000  miles,  and  separates  Cape 
Colony,  on  the  S.,  from  the  Orange  Free 
State,  Griqualand  West,  Bechuanaland, 
and  Great  Namaqualand,  on  the  N. 
Area  of  basin,  325,000  square  miles.  Its 
principal  tributaries  are  the  Caledon  and 
the  Vaal,  both  joining  it  from  the  right. 
Its  volume  varies  greatly  between  the 
dry  season,  when  it  is  not  navigable,  and 
the  rainy  season,  when  it  overflows  its 
banks  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course. 
Its  mouth  is,  moreover,  obstructed  by  a 
bar. 

ORANGE,  anciently  Arausio,  a  city 
and  commune  of  France,  18  miles  N.  of 
Avignon,  on  left  bank  of  the  Aigue, 
tributary  of  the  Rhone.  There  are  two 
great  monuments  of  the  Roman  period,  a 
triumphal  arch  (72  feet  high),  the  finest 
in  France,  and  the  ruins  of  a  theater,  340 
feet  long;  the  only  modern  building  of 
interest  is  the  cathedral.  For  five  cen- 
turies (till  1531)  Orange  was  an  inde- 
pendent principality  ruled  by  its  own 
sovereigns,  the  estates  and  title  passing 
to  the  Count  of  Nassau,  and  thus  to  Will- 
iam III.,  afterward  King  of  Great  Brit- 
ain. In  1713  Orange  was  for  certain 
equivalents  conceded  to  France  by  the 
King  of  Prussia,  though  the  title  of 
prince  has  descended  by  the  younger 
Nassau  line  to  the  kings  and  stadtholders 
of  Holland.  The  district  is  very  pro- 
ductive; manufactures  silks,  woolens, 
and  fruits. 

ORANGE,  a  town  of  Connecticut,  in 
New  Haven  co.  It  is  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven,  and  Hartford  railroad.  It 
is  chiefly  a  farming  community,  but  its 
industries  include  the  manufacture  of 
automobiles,  ribbons,  and  buckles.     Pop., 


OBANGE  35 

Including  West  Haven  borough,   (1910) 
11,272;    (1920)   16,614. 

ORANGE,  a  city  in  Essex  cc,  N.  J.; 
on  the  Lackawanna  railroad;  4  miles  N. 
W.  of  Newark.  It  is  built  on  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  Watchung  Mountain,  and  in 
its  vicinity  are  Eagle  Rock,  650  feet 
above  tide-water,  Hemlock  Falls,  a  wild 
mountain  attraction,  and  Llewellyn  Park, 
which  comprises  750  acres,  and  contains 
many  costly  residences.  Here  are  the 
Orange  Memorial  Hospital,  House  of  the 
Good  Shepherd,  a  Masonic  temple.  Or- 
phan Home,  a  public  library,  National 
banks,  daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  It 
has  extensive  manufactories,  and  indus- 
tries of  importance.  Pop.  (1910)  29,630; 
(1920)  33,229. 

ORANGE,  a  city  of  Texas,  the  county- 
seat  of  Orange  co.  It  is  on  the  Sabine 
river,  and  on  the  Intercoastal  canal,  and 
on  the  Orange  and  Northwestern  and  the 
Texas  and  New  Orleans  railroads.  It 
has  important  lumber  interests.  It  is  a 
shipping  center  for  rice,  cotton,  and  live 
stock.  Its  industries  include  the  manu- 
facture of  lumber,  paper,  and  oil.  Pop. 
(1910)   5,527;    (1920)  9,212. 

ORANGE,  FORT,  an  old  fort  built  by 
the  Dutch  in  1623,  on  the  site  of  the 
present  city  of  Albany,  N.  Y. 

ORANGE,  PRINCE  OF.  See  WIL- 
LIAM THE  Silent,  Prince  of  Orange: 
William  III.,  King  of  England: 
Maurice. 

ORANGE  FREE  STATE  PROVINCE, 
formerly  Orange  River  Colony,  a  state 
pf  the  Union  of  South  Africa.  It  has 
Cape  Colony  on  S.  and  S.  W.,  Bechuana- 
land  on  N.  W.,  Transvaal  Colony  on  N., 
Natal  on  E.,  Basutoland  on  S.  E.;  area 
estimated  at  50,389  square  miles,  divided 
into  19  districts;  pop.  Europeans  about 
200,000.  Native  and  colored,  about  400,- 
000.  Capital,  Bloemf  ontein.  Lying  about 
5,000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  the  coun- 
try, chiefly  vast  undulating  plains,  is 
cold  in  wanter,  with  violent  thunder 
storms  and  long  droughts  in  summer.  It 
is,  however,  very  healthful,  and  favor- 
able to  European  constitutions.  Agri- 
culturing  and  pasturing  are  the  chief 
occupations,  and  wool,  hides,  and  ostrich 
feathers  the  principal  exports.  Dia- 
monds and  other  precious  stones  have 
been  found  in  paying  quantities,  rich 
coal  mines  exist,  and  the  State  is  said  to 
abound  in  other  mineral  wealth.  Gold 
was  discovered  in  1887.  The  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church  is  the  dominant  religion, 
and  a  Dutch  dialect  the  language  of  the 
country.    The    country    may    now    be 


ORATORIO 


reached  by  railway  from  Port  Elizabeth. 
The  colony  was  founded  in  1835-1836 
by  Dutch  settlers  from  Cape  Colony,  an- 
nexed by  Great  Britain  in  1848  in  order 
to  put  a  .stop  to  the  Boer  outrages  on 
natives  but  in  1854  it  was  recognized  as 
an  independent  State. 

The  great  discovery  of  diamonds  on 
the  banks  of  the  Vaal  river,  in  May, 
1870,  led  to  conflicting  claims  by  the 
Orange  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal 
Republic  but  in  October,  1871,  the  Brit- 
ish annexed  the  disputed  territory  (See 
KiMBERLEY).  In  the  summer  of  1899, 
the  relations  becoming  strained  between 
the  South  African  Republic  and  the 
British  government,  the  Orange  Free 
State  declared  its  intention  of  supporting 
the  latter  in  the  event  of  war  (See 
Transvaal  Colony).  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Boer  forces,  a  military  governor 
was  appointed  over  the  Orange  Free 
State  (March,  1900).  Its  annexation  to 
the  British  empire  was  formally  pro- 
claimed at  Bloemfontein,  May  28.  On 
Sept.  5,  Lord  Roberts  issued  a  proclama- 
tion defining  the  policy  of  the  British 
government  in  regard  to  the  conquered 
State.     See  Boers. 

ORATION,  an  elaborate  speech  or  dis- 
course, composed  according  to  the  rules 
of  oratory,  and  delivered  in  public,  and 
treating  of  some  important  subject  in 
elevated  and  dignified  language;  an  elo- 
quent speech  prepared  beforehand  and 
spoken  in  public. 

ORATORIO,  a  kind  of  musical  drama, 
consisting  of  airs,  recitations,  duets, 
trios,  choruses,  etc.  The  text  is  usually 
derived  from  some  Scriptural  subject; 
as,  for  instance,  that  of  the  "Messiah," 
of  the  "Creation,"  and  of  "Elijah."  The 
origin  of  the  oratorio  is  somewhat  ob- 
scure. The  most  probable  account  is 
that  which  attributes  its  intention  to  St. 
Philip  Neri,  who,  in  1548,  organized,  at 
the  new  chapel  at  Rome,  certain  musical 
performances,  consisting  of  poems  on 
sacred  subjects,  sung  by  first-rate  sing- 
ers, accompanied  by  the  best  instrument- 
alists, for  the  purpose  of  attracting  large 
congregations.  It  was  entirely  success- 
ful, and  these  performances,  which  at 
first  were  only  poems  in  four  parts, 
were,  in  less  than  half  a  century  after 
the  death  of  Neri,  in  1595,  developed  into 
those  splendid  compositions  called  by 
moderns  oratorios.  Italy,  though  the 
birthplace  of  the  oratorio,  has  produced 
very  few  of  any  note.  The  Germans,  on 
the  contrary,  excel  in  this  species  of 
composition;  as  a  proof  of  this,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  mention  the  names  of  Bach, 
Haydn,  Beethoven,  Mozart,  and,  greatest 
of  all  Handel. 


ORATORY 


36 


ORCHOMENOS 


ORATORY,  an  apartment  in  a  private 
house  or  building  designed  for  domestic 
worship.  It  differs  from  a  chapel  inas- 
much as  it  contains  no  altar,  nor  may 
mass  be  performed  in  it. 

ORBICULINA,  a  genus  of  minute  f  or- 
aminifers,  found  alive  in  tropical  seas,  as 
also  fossil  in  the  Tertiaries.  They  have 
their  name  from  their  flattened  globular 
shape. 

ORBIT,  in  anatomy,  the  bony  cavity 
in  which  the  eye  is  situated.  In  astron- 
omy, the  path  of  a  primary  planet  in 
its  revolution  round  the  sun,  or  a  sec- 
ondary one  in  its  revolution  round  the 
primary.  In  ornithology,  the  skin  which 
surrounds  the  eye  of  a  bird. 

ORCHARD,  an  inclosure  devoted  to 
the  culture  of  fruit  trees,  especially  the 
apple,  the  pear,  the  plum,  the  peach,  and 
the  cherry.  The  most  suitable  position 
for  an  orchard  is  a  declivity  lying  well 
exposed  to  the  sun  and  sheltered  from 
the  colder  winds.  Fruit  cultivation  is 
carried  on  most  extensively  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
The  chief  fruit-growing  States  are  New 
York,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Illinois,  Penn- 
sylvania, Delaware,  New  Jersey,  Mary- 
land, Indiana,  California  and  Oregon. 

ORCHARDSON,  WILLIAM  QUIL- 
LER,  an  English  genre  painter;  born  in 
Edinburgh,  in  1835,  where  subsequently 
he  studied  under  Scott  Lauder  at  the 
Trustees'  Academy;  became  A.  R.  A.  in 
1868,  R.  A.  in  1877,  and  received  a  Medal 
of  Honor  at  the  Paris  Exposition,  in 
1878.  Best  knovim  among  his  highly- 
popular  pictures  are  "The  Challenge" 
(1865),  "The  Duke's  Antechamber" 
(1869).  "Casus  Belli"  (1870),  "The 
Protector"  (1871),  "The  Bill  of  Sale" 
(1875),  "The  Queen  of  the  Swords" 
(1877),  "A  Social  Eddy"  (1878),  "Hard 
Hit"  (1879),  "On  Board  H.  M.  S.  'Beller- 
ophon,'  July,  23,  1815"  (1880;  bought  by 
the  Chantrey  Bequest).  "Marriage  de 
Convenance"  (1884),  "After"  (1886), 
"The  Salon  of  Madame  Recamier" 
(1885),  "The  First  Cloud"  (1887),  and 
"The  Young  Duke"  (1889).  He  died 
April  13,  1910. 

ORCHELLA,  name  of  several  species 
of  Roccella,  a  genus  of  lichens,  originally 
brought  from  the  Levant,  and  employed 
from  very  early  times  as  a  dye  agent. 
Large  quantities  are  gathered  in  the 
maritime  rocks  of  the  Canary  and  Cape 
Verde  Islands.  A  purple  and  a  red  dye, 
known  as  orchil  or  archil,  are  prepared 
from  them. 

ORCHESTRA,  or  ORCHESTER,  in 
Greek    and   Roman  theaters,  the   semi- 


circular area,  included  by  the  straight 
line  which  bounded  the  stage  in  front  of 
the  first  row  of  the  ascending  steps.  In 
the  Greek  theater  this  space  was  always 
occupied  by  the  chorus.  In  Roman 
comedy  there  was  no  chorus;  and  in 
Roman  tragedies,  both  the  chorus  and 
the  musicians  were  placed  upon  the  stage 
itself,  the  whole  of  the  orchestra  being 
reserved  for  the  senators.  In  modern 
theaters,  etc. :  ( 1 )  The  place  where  the 
band,  or  band  and  chorus,  are  placed  in 
modern  concert-rooms,  theaters,  etc.  (2) 
The  collection  of  instruments  of  varied 
compass  and  quality  of  tone  which  con- 
stitutes a  full  band.  There  are  no  or- 
chestral scores  earlier  than  the  latter 
part  of  the  16th  century,  so  all  state- 
ments as  to  concerted  instrumental  music 
before  that  time  are  wholly  conjectural. 

ORCHESTRIOIT,  an  instrument  of  the 
organ  type  devised  to  reproduce  the  play- 
ing of  all  the  wired  instruments^  of  the 
orchestra.  The  first  orchestrion  is 
claimed  as  the  invention  of  a  native  of 
Karlsruhe,  Baden,  named  Welte,  whose 
son  made  the  instrument  more  commer- 
cially possible  by  the  use  of  paper  rolls 
as  reed  pipes.  In  recent  years  the  or- 
chestrion has  been  still  f urttier  developed 
for  use  in  places  of  amusement. 

ORCHIDACE.ffi,  orchids;  the  typical 
order  of  the  alliance  Archidales.  It  con- 
sists of  perennial  herbs  or  shrubs,  with 
fibrous,  fasciculated,  fleshy,  or  tuberlike 
roots.  All  the  species  are  terrestrial  in 
temperate  latitudes;  in  the  tropics  many 
are  epiphytes,  growing  on  trees.  They 
are  remarkable  for  their  irregular  flow- 
ers, often  very  beautiful,  sometimes  very 
frag:rant.  Found  in  nearly  all  climates. 
Known  genera  400;  species  3,000.  Di- 
vided into  seven  tribes:  Malaxeae,  Epi- 
dendreas,  Vandea,  Ophreae,  ArethusesSj, 
Neotteae,  and  Cypripedeae. 

ORCHIS,  the  typical  genus  of  the  or- 
der Orchidacese.  It  is  one  of  the  tribe 
Ohreae  or  Orphrydese,  and  the  family 
Serapiadss.  The  tubers  are  globose, 
ovoid,  or  palmate ;  the  lip  is  spurred ;  the 
glands  of  the  stalks  of  the  pollen  masses 
contained  in  a  common  little  pouch. 
Chiefly  grown  in  the  N.  temperate  zone. 
About  80  kinds  are  known. 

ORCHOMENOS,  an  ancient  city  of 
Bceoti^,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Minyse;  situated  at  the  N.  W.  corner  of 
Lake  Copias,  where  it  is  joined  by  the 
Cephissus,  and  extended  from  the  marshy 
edges  of  the  lake  up  the  face  of  a  steep 
rock  hill,  on  which  stood  the  acropolis. 
It  sent  30  ships  to  the  Trojan  war,  and 
at  a  later  date  became  a  member  of  the 
Boeotian    confederacy.    Its    government 


©Emiig  Callouay 


AN   OIL   WELL   SOUTH   OF   TAMPICO,   MEXICO 


Enc.  Vol.  7  —  p.  36 


@ 


>\€:i^.^'S'ti 


OSTRICH    AND    YOUNG    ON    AN    OSTRICH    FARM    IN    MARARIYEH,    EGYPT 


ORCHOMENOS 


37 


ORDEAL 


was  thoroughly  aristocratic,  and  after 
the  Peloponnesian  war  the  jealous  demo- 
cratic Thebans  destroyed  it  by  fire,  and 
sold  its  inhabitants  as  slaves.  It  was 
rebuilt  in  the  reign  of  Philip  of  Mace- 


ORCHIDS 
1.  Calyso  Borealis.  3.  Ladies'    Dresses. 


2.  Moccasin  Flower. 


4.  Snake  Mouth. 


don,  but  never  recovered  its  position.  It 
was  famous  for  its  musical  festival  iB 
honor  of  the  Graces,  who  were  specially 
worshiped  in  the  city. 


ORCZY,  BARONESS  (MRS.  MON- 
TAGU BARSTOW),  Hungarian  play- 
wright and  novelist,  born  in  Tar- 
naors,  Hungary,  educated  in  Brussels, 
studied  art  and  exhibited  in  England, 
where  she  married  Montagu  Barstow. 
Began  writing  in  1900,  and  first  became 
known  for  her  brilliant  detective  stories, 
known  as  "The  Old  Man  in  the  Comer" 
Series.  Among  her  best  known  works  are: 
"The  Scarlet  Pimpernel"  (1905)  ;  "A 
Son  of  the  People"  (1906);  "Flower  o' 
the  Lily"  (1918);  and  "His  Majesty's 
Well-Beloved"   (1919). 

ORDEAL,  the  judicium  Dei  of  medi- 
aeval writers;  the  practice  of  referring 
disputed  questions  (especially  those 
touching  the  criminality  of  a  suspected 
person)  to  supernatural  decision,  in  the 
belief  that  the  Deity  would  work  a  mira- 
cle rather  than  the  innocent  should  suffer 
or  the  guilty  escape  punishment.  It  ex- 
isted among  the  Jews.  A  wife  accused 
of  adultery  was  required  to  drink  "the 
bitter  water  that  causeth  a  curse"  (Num. 
v:  12-31),  and  a  strangely  similar  in- 
stitution exists  at  the  present  day  among 
the  negroes  of  the  Gold  Coast  of  Africa; 
and  ordeal  in  some  form  or  other  is  still 
practiced  by  races  of  low  culture,  and 
by  individuals  of  low  culture  among 
races  standing  in  the  forefront  of  civ- 
ilization. In  the  Middle  Ages  in  Europe 
ordeal  was  sanctioned  both  by  civil  and 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  was 
chiefly  of  three  kinds:  (1)  By  fire — a 
survival  from  the  early  classic  times,  in 
which  the  accused  had  to  walk  barefoot 
and  blindfolded  over  red-hot  plowshares, 
or  to  take  up  and  carry  a  piece  of  red- 
hot  iron  a  certain  distance.  This  method 
was  allowed  only  to  persons  of  high 
rank;  (2)  By  water,  for  persons  of  the 
middle  and  lower  classes.  This  was  of 
two  kinds.  The  accused  had  to  take  a 
stone  out  of  boiling  water,  and  if,  after 
a  certain  time,  his  arm  presented  no 
marks  of  injury,  he  was  adjudged  inno- 
cent. In  the  second  case — a  common 
method  when  witchcraft  was  alleged — 
the  accused,  bound  hand  and  foot,  was 
thrown  into  a  river  or  pond,  and  it  was 
believed  that  a  guilty  person  would  float 
without  effort,  and  that  an  innocent  per- 
son would  infallibly  sink;  (3)  Wager 
of  battle.  Besides  these  three  principal 
methods  there  were  three  others  in  less 
general  use:  A  supposed  murderer  was 
required  to  touch  the  body  of  the  mur- 
dered man,  and  was  pronounced  guilty 
if  blood  flowed  from  the  wounds;  the 
Ordeal  of  the  Eucharist,  in  which  divine 
judgment  was  supposed  to  follow  un- 
worthy reception  of  the  sacrament;  and 
the  Corsned. 


OBDEAL    TREE 


38 


ORDERS 


ORDEAL  TREE,  in  botany:  Of 
Guinea,  Erythrophhseum  guineense;  of 
Madagascar,  Cerbera  tanguin.  The 
fruit,  which  is  poisonous,  is  given  in 
some  kind  of  broth  to  the  accused  per- 
son. If  he  recover,  he  is  deemed  inno- 
cent ;  if  he  die,  this  is  to  be  held  to  prove 
his  guilt. 

ORDER,  in  archaeology,  the  different 
modes  of  architectural  treatment  adopted 
by  the  ancients  in  constructing  their  pub- 
lic edifices  and  buildings  of  the  higher 
class.  They  are  usually  separated  into 
five,  principally  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  the  proportions  of  their  columns 
and  the  kind  of  capitals  employed,  but 
also  by  the  relative  proportions  and  dec- 
orative parts  of  their  entablatures,  as 
well  as  other  minor  features.  They  are 
known  as  the  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian, 
Tuscan  and  Composite.  In  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  in  the  Roman  Church,  "a  Sacra- 
ment of  the  New  Law  by  which  spiritual 
power  is  given,  and  grace  conferred  for 
the  performance  of  sacred  duties."  The 
Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xxiii.)  asserted, 
and  anathematized  those  who  denied  (1) 
that  there  was  a  real  priesthood  in  the 
New  Law;  (2)  that,  besides  the  priest- 
hood, there  were  grades  of  orders;  (3) 
that  Order  was  a  Sacrament  instituted 
by  Christ;  (4)  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was 
given  and  a  character  conferred  at  or- 
dination; (5)  that  unction  was  properly 
used  in  ordination;  (6)  that  there  was 
a  divinely  appointed  hierarchy  in  the 
Roman  Church;  (7)  that  bishops  were 
superior  in  power  to  priests,  and  were 
the  ministers  of  Confirmation  and  Or- 
der; and  (8)  that  bishops  appointed  by 
the  Roman  Pontiffs  were  true  and  legiti- 
mate bishops.  The  doctrine  of  Apostoli- 
cal Succession  is  a  necessary  deduction 
from  the  view  that  Order  is  a  Sacra- 
ment. Orders  in  the  Roman  Church  are 
divided  into  two  classes:  Sacred,  or 
Major,  and  Minor  Orders.  In  the  East 
the  number  of  orders  has  varied  at  dif- 
ferent times,  but  in  the  Greek,  Coptic, 
and  Nestorian  Churches  the  orders  rec- 
ognized are  those  of  bishop,  priest,  dea- 
con, subdeacon,  and  reader.  Anglicans 
acknowledge  three :  bishops,  priests,  and 
deacons.  The  validity  of  Anglican  Or- 
ders is  denied  by  the  Roman  Church. 
English  clerics  entering  that  church,  and 
wishing  to  become  priests,  must  be  or- 
dained by  a  Roman  bishop.  In  geom- 
etry, rank  or  class.  In  analysis,  magni- 
tudes are  classed  into  orders,  depending 
upon  the  degree  of  their  equations.  AH 
algebraic  magnitudes  whose  equations 
are  of  the  first  degree  are  of  the  first 
order;  those  whose  equations  are  of  the 
second,  third,  etc.,  degrees,  are  r»sr)ec- 


tively  of  the  second,  third,  etc.,  orders. 
In  natural  science,  the  designation  given 
to  the  division  immediately  below  £  class 
or  sub-class  and  next  above  a  tribe  or  a 
family.  In  rhetoric,  the  placing  of 
words  and  members  in  a  sentence  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  contribute  to  force 
and  beauty  of  expression,  or  to  the  clear 
illustration  of  the  subject. 

ORDERS,  MILITARY,  fraternities  or 
societies  of  men  banded  together  in 
former  times  for  military  and  partly  for 
patriotic  or  Christian  purposes.  Free 
birth  and  an  irreproachable  life  were  the 
conditions  of  admission.  The  chief  were 
the  Templars,  the  Teutonic  Knights,  and 
the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 

ORDERS,  RELIGIOUS,  associations, 
the  members  of  which  band  themselves 
to  lead  strict  and  devotional  lives,  and  to 
live  separate  from  the  world.  Prior  to 
their  formation  there  were  only  the 
hermits  or  anchorites  (see  Monastery). 
The  entry  into  religious  orders  from 
their  foundation  to  the  present  time,  is 
preceded  by  the  taking  of  the  monastic 
vow,  which  enjoins  residence  in  a  mon- 
astery, celibacy,  renunciation  of  worldly 
pleasures,  the  duty  of  prayer,  fasting, 
and  other  austerities,  and  unconditional 
obedience  to  superiors.  The  first  prop- 
erly constituted  religious  order  was 
founded  in  the  4th  century  by  St.  Basil, 
now  chiefly  confined  to  the  Greek  Church 
in  the  East.  In  the  time  of  Justinian 
(530),  St.  Benedict  established  a  new 
order,  the  Benedictines,  under  a  set  of 
rules  based  principally  on  those  of  St. 
Basil,  and  for  some  600  years  after  the 
greatest  number  of  European  monks  fol- 
lowed his  statutes.  According  to  some 
authorities  as  many  as  23  orders  sprang 
from  this  one.  About  1220  the  Domini- 
cans and  Franciscans  originated  by  tak- 
ing amended  rules  from  their  leaders. 
These  rules,  especially  those  of  the  Dom- 
inic'ans,  were  more  austere,  including 
perpetual  silence,  total  abstinence  from 
flesh,  and  the  wearing  of  woolen  only, 
and  they  were  not  allowed  to  receive 
money,  and  had  to  subsist  on  alms,  be- 
ing thus  "mendicant"  orders.  Modified 
orders  of  the  Benedictines  are,  for  in- 
stance, the  Camaldulians  or  Camaldo- 
lites,  the  Carthusians,  the  Celestines,  the 
Cistercians,  the  Bernardines,  Feuillants, 
Recollets,  the  nuns  of  Port  Royal,  and 
the  Trappists.  In  the  8th  century  the 
monks  began  to  be  viewed  as  members 
of  the  clerical  order,  and  in  the  10th,  by 
receiving  permission  to  assume  the  ton- 
sure, they  were  formally  declared  clergy- 
men. The  Prsemonstratenses,  Servites, 
Augustines,  Hieronymites  or  Jerony- 
mites,  Jesuits,  and  Carmelites  are  regu- 


ORDEES    IN    COUNCIL 


39 


ORDNANCE 


lar  orders,  according  to  the  rules  of  St. 
Augustine.  Suborders  of  the  Francis- 
cans are  the  Minorites,  Conventuals,  Ob- 
servatines,  Fraticelli,  Cordeliers,  Capu- 
chins, Minims,  etc.  As  the  secluded  life 
of  the  monks,  soon  after  the  origin  of 
monasteries,  had  given  rise  to  similar  as- 
sociations of  pious  females,  so  nuns  com- 
monly banded  together  as  new  orders  of 
monks  arose,  and  formed  societies  under 
similar  names  and  regulations.  Thus 
there  were  Benedictine,  Camaldulian, 
Carthusian,  Cistercian,  Augustine,  Prae- 
monstratensian,  Carmelite,  Trinitarian, 
Dominican,  Franciscan  nuns,  and  many 
other  orders  of  regular  canonesses. 
There  were  also  congregations  of  nuns 
who  united  with  certain  orders  of  monks 
without  adopting  their  names.  The 
Ursuline  and  Hospitaller  nuns,  or  Sisters 
of  Mercy,  are  female  orders  existing  in- 
dependently of  any  male  orders,  and 
living  according  to  the  rules  of  St. 
Augustine.  The  orders  first  established 
governed  themselves  in  an  aristocratico- 
republican  manner.  The  Benedictine 
monasteries  were  long  independent  of  one 
another.  The  Cistercians  obeyed  a  high 
council  made  up  of  the  superior,  and 
other  abbots  and  counsellors,  and  these 
were  again  responsible  to  the  general 
chapters.  The  four  mendicant  orders, 
the  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Augus- 
tines,  and  Carmelites,  at  their  very  com- 
mencement placed  themselves  in  a  much 
more  intimate  connection  with  the  Popes. 

ORDERS  IN  COUNCIL,  orders  by  the 
ruling  sovereign  with  the  advice  of  the 
privy  council.    See  Privy  Council. 

ORDINATE,  in  analytical  geometi-y, 
the  ordinate  of  a  point  is  one  of  the 
elements  of  reference,  by  means  of  which 
the  position  of  a  point  is  determined  with 
respect  to  fixed  straight  lines,  taken  as 
co-ordinate  axes.  The  ordinate  of  a  point 
to  a  diameter  of  a  conic  section  is  the 
distance  of  the  point  from  that  diameter, 
measured  on  a  line  parallel  to  a  tangent 
drawn  at  the  vertex  of  the  diameter. 
The  ordinate  to  a  diameter  is  equal  to 
half  the  chord  through  the  point  which 
is  bisected  by  the  diameter. 

ORDINATION,  the  act  of  conferring 
the  sacrament  of  order  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Women  are  incapable 
of  being  validly  ordained  (I  Cor.  xiv:  34; 
I  Tim.  ii:  11,  12).  Ordination  is,  in  the 
normal  course  of  things,  conferred^  by 
bishops,  but  abbots  may  confer  minor 
orders  on  their  subjects.  Dismissory  let- 
ters are  necessary  if  a  man  is  to  be 
ordained  for  a  diocese  other  than  that 
in  which  he  was  born,  and  he  must  have 
legitimate   and  sufficient  title.     Ordina- 


tion to  sacred  orders,  according  to  the 
general  law  of  the  Church,  can  only  take 
place  on  the  Saturdays  in  the  four  Em- 
ber weeks,  on  the  fifth  Saturday  in  Lent, 
or  on  Holy  Saturday,  and  always  during 
mass.  Minor  orders  can  be  conferred  at 
general  ordinations,  and  also  on  any 
Sunday  or  holiday,  not  necessarily  dur- 
ing  mass. 

In  the  United  States  Protestant 
churches  have  each  their  own  method  of 
ordination,  which  is  rather  a  service  of 
consecration  than  a  sacrament  impart- 
ing special  power.  The  ordination  in  the 
Episcopal  Church  is  patterned  largely 
after  that  of  the  English  Episcopal 
Church. 

ORDNANCE.  Although  artillery 
weapons,  equipment,  such  as  wagons, 
caissons,  and  limbers,  machine  guns, 
rifles,  small  arms,  hand  grenades,  har- 
ness and  ammunition  of  all  kinds  are  in- 
cluded in  the  general  class  of  military 
supplies  known  as  ordnance,  this  article 
will  consider  only  the  features  of  con- 
struction of  the  artillery  weapon  and  its 
mount. 

Artillery  weapons  are  of  three  types, 
guns,  mortars  and  howitzers.  Of  each 
type  there  are  various  models,  the 
style,  size  and  power  of  which  are  de- 
termined by  the  use  for  which  the  weapon 
is  intended.  Guns  are  of  three  main 
classes,  field,  siege  and  coast  defense 
weapons.  In  the  United  States  Army 
field  guns  are  again  classified.  Those 
under  six  inches  in  diameter  are  known 
as  light  artillery  and  are  operated  by 
the  field  artillery,  while  every  gun  of 
more  than  six  tnches  is  classed  as  heavy 
artillery,  and  is  operated  by  the  coast 
artillery  corps.  A  gun  is  fired  from  a 
low  angular  muzzle  compared  to  that  of 
a  mortar,  the  elevation  frequently  being 
as  low  as  15°,  and  seldom  exceeding 
40°,  while  a  mortar  is  designed  to  fire 
with  a  muzzle  elevation  of  65°  to  70°. 
The  barrel  of  a  gun  is  usually  longer 
than  that  of  a  mortar  of  the  same  cali- 
ber, and  because  of  that  fact,  the  ex- 
panding gases  from  the  explosion  have  a 
longer  time  to  act  and  a  higher  muzzle 
velocity  results  from  a  charge  of  power 
of  the  same  power.  A  siege  weapon  is 
either  a  large  gun  or  mortar  placed  on, 
some  sort  of  a  mobile  mount  such  as  a 
caterpillar  platform  or  a  special  railway 
mount.  A  howitzer  is  a  short  weapon 
usually  of  comparatively  light  weight, 
and  so  designed  that  its  projectile  will 
have  an  abrupt  fall. 

It  is  a  long  step  from  the  catapult  of 
ancient  days  to  the  gun  with  which  the 
Germans  bombarded  Paris  from  a  dis- 
tance of  over  seventy  miles,  but  as  a 


ORDNANCE 


40 


OBE 


matter  of  fact  real  progress  in  ordnance 
has  been  comparatively  modern. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  gunpowder 
was  known  to  China  and  the  far  east  for 
years  before  it  was  known  in  Europe, 
credit  should  go  to  the  West  for  the  first 
use  of  guns  as  they  are  now  understood. 
Little  attention  was  paid  to  the  design 
of  the  gun  or  to  the  strength  of  the 
charge  in  early  days,  and  the  first  models 
were  frequently  more  dangerous  to  their 
crews  than  to  the  targets. 
,  Early  guns  were  made  of  wrought  or 
cast  iron  or  bronze,  and  gradually  in- 
creased in  size  and  weight  in  order  to 
secure  greater  strength.  They  were  of 
course  loaded  at  the  muzzle  and  fired  by 


many  devices  using  springs,  air  or  water 
have  been  introduced  and  many  per- 
fected. In  the  French  75  millimeter  gun, 
acknowledged  the  most  successful  field 
piece  of  the  World  War,  its  outstanding 
superior  feature  was  its  hydro-pneu- 
matic recoil  mechanism. 

OBDOVICIAN,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  a  geological  formation  inter- 
mediate between  Cambrian  and  Silurian ; 
otherwise  accounted  the  Lower  Silurian 
strata.  It  is  so  called  from  the  Ordo- 
vices,  an  ancient  British  tribe. 

ORDWAY,  SAMUEL  HANSON,  an 
American   lawyer,  bom  in   New  York 


(4^%i^ 


AMERICAN    4,7    HOWITZER 


a  fuse.  The  modern  gun  is  made  of 
steel,  and  only  selected  parts  of  special 
ingots  are  used.  The  ingot  is  cast  in 
the  rough  form  of  the  gun,  bored  on  a 
special  lathe,  then  heated  and  forged  on 
a  mandrel,  then  annealed,  then  turned 
and  bored  to  size,  tempered  and  again 
annealed. 

The  inside  of  the  gun  or  tube  is  bored 
and  reamed  by  a  special  machine  which 
assures  straightness.  The  outer  part  or 
jacket  is  heated  and  consequently  ex- 
panded and  dropped  over  the  tube,  where 
it  cools  and  shrinks  to  position.  The 
several  parts  of  the  gun  are  assembled 
in  this  fashion.  The  assembled  gun  is 
then^  rifled,  turned  to  final  size  on  the 
outside,  the  powder  chamber  and  breech 
rest  are  finished,  and  the  gun  fitted  with 
a  breech  lock  of  either  a  sliding  or  in- 
terrupted screw  type. 

The  function  of  a  gun  carriage  is  to 
support  the  gun  as  it  is  fired,  and  in  the 
case  of  mobile  guns  to  furnish  a  means 
for  transportation.  A  means  for  com- 
pensating the  enormous  force  of  recoil 
has  been  the  subject  of  much  study  on 
the  part  of  designers  of  ordnance,  and 


City  in  1860.  Graduated  from  Brown 
University  in  1880  and  took  a  post-grad- 
uate course  in  Harvard.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1884,  and  from  that 
time  practiced  law  in  New  York  City. 
He  was  a  member  of  many  important 
commissions,  including  one  appointed  by 
Governor  Hughes  to  investigate  specula- 
tion in  securities  and  commodities.  Ac- 
tive in  civil  service  reform  work  and  for 
years  chairman  of  the  executive  com- 
mittee of  the  Civil  Service  Reform 
Association.  He  wrote  many  articles 
and  delivered  many  addresses  on  civics 
and  economics. 

ORE,  substances  found  in  the  earth 
from  which  metals  are  obtained  by  var- 
ious processes,  but  chiefly  by  roasting 
and  smelting.  Ore  consists  of  metals 
mineralized  by  chemical  combination 
with  one  or  more  of  the  non-metallic  ele- 
ments. Generally  speaking,  however,  all 
mineral  substances  containing  metals, 
combined  or  free,  are  called  ores.  They 
are  found  in  veins  or  lodes,  in  bedded 
masses,  and  also  disseminated  in  rocks 
of  all  ages,  both  igneous  and  stratified 


OBEADS 


41 


OREGON 


sedimentary.  In  the  latter,  the  ores  of 
iron  and  manganese  are  the  most  abun- 
dant, and  often  found  in  beds  of  large 
extent.  Some  ores,  as  well  as  native 
metals,  are  also  found  in  alluvial  de- 
posits; gold,  platinum,  etc.,  in  those 
known  as  placers.  Placer  products, 
sometimes  called  placer  ores,  have  been 
derived  from  the  degradation  and  wear- 
ing away  of  older  rocks,  the  minerals 
having  been  washed  out  and  redeposited 
by  the  agency  of  water. 

OBEADS,  in  Greek  mythology,  nymphs 
of  the  mountains. 

OBE  DEPOSITS.  Any  considerable 
accumulation  of  metal  bearing  matter  in 
the  crust  of  the  earth.  A  metalliferous 
rock  is  spoken  of  as  an  ore  when  it  con- 
tains metallic  minerals  (or  in  some  cases 
non-metallic  minerals,  such  as  sulphur) 
in  such  quantities  and  mixtures  as  to 
make  possible  their  j)rofitable  extrac- 
tion. The  metal  contained  in  an  ore  is 
sometime  found  in  its  elemental  form, 
as  in  the  case  of  gold  or  platinum,  but 
more  frequently  as  a  sulphur  compound, 
or  as  an  oxide  carbonate  or  silicate. 
Often  several  different  forms  of  one 
metallic  element  are  found  in  the  same 
deposit  and  several  metals  are  often 
found  together.  Quartz,  feldspar,  horn- 
blende, fluorite  are  the  common  gangue 
materials,  and  are  sometimes  so  evenly 
mixed  with  the  minerals  that  the  ore 
must  be  crushed  and  metal  picked  out  by 
magnets  or  separated  by  specific  gravity 
devices.  In  other  cases  the  gangue  is  in 
such  a  form  that  it  can  be  avoided  in 
mining.  Some  deposits  were  formed  at 
the  same  time  as  the  rocks  by  which  they 
are  contained,  but  in  the  greater  number 
of  cases,  the  mineral  was  deposited  after 
the  rocks  were  formed.  The  greater 
number  of  ore  deposits  are  in  igneous 
rocks  and  not  infrequently  near  hot 
springs.  It  is  believed  that  ground 
water,  frequently  hot,  and  sometimes  un- 
der high  pressure  because  of  its  depth 
and  in  vapor  form  carried  many  of  the 
metallic  elements  in  solution  until  a  de- 
crease in  temperature  or  pressure  caused 
the  precipitation  of  the  metallic  salts 
they  had  been  carrying  in  solution. 

When  metal  bearing  salts  are  deposited 
along  a  crevice  or  fissure  in  tubular 
form,  the  deposit  is  called  a  vein;  and 
when  the  veins  are  parallel  and  closely 
spaced,  they  are  known  as  a  lode.  A 
large  pocket  rich  in  ore  is  known  as  a 
bonanza.  When  the  metal  is  found  in 
the  open  mixed  with  gravel,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case  with  gold  and  platinum, 
they  are  called  placer  deposits. 

The  form  of  the  deposit,  the  mineral 
contents  or  the  origin  of  the  ore  body  are 


the  three  most  widely  used  methods  of 
classifying  ore  bodies.  The  former  is 
used  by  miners  and  the  latter  by  geolo- 
gists and  mining  engineers.  The  five 
main  divisions  under  this  method  of 
classification   are : 

1.  Igneous,  those  which  were  formed 
with  the  rocks; 

2.  Pneumatolytic  Deposits,  made  by 
gases  above  the  critical  point; 

3.  Fumarole   Deposits,  made  by  lava; 

4.  Gas  Aqueous  Deposits,  made  by 
ground  water  at  high  temperature; 

5.  Deposits  by  ordinary  ground  or  sur- 
face  water. 

Ore  deposits  are  found  over  a  wide 
range  of  territory.  They  are  found 
where  there  has  been  igneous  activity,  or 
where  they  have  resulted  from  the  work 
of  meteoric  waters. 

Copper  is  found  in  the  United  States 
in  Michigan,  Arizona,  Utah  and  Mon- 
tana ;  zinc  in  New  Jersey,  and  both  lead 
and  zinc  are  found  in  Missouri,  Illinois, 
Iowa  and  Wisconsin;  iron  ore  is  found 
around  Lake  Superior  and  in  parts  of 
the  Appalachian  region,  and  gold  and 
silver  are  found  in  Alaska,  the  Black 
Hills,  and  in  the  Cordilleran  region. 

OBEGON,  a  State  in  the  Pacific  Divi- 
sion of  the  North  American  Union; 
bounded  by  Washington,  Idaho,  Nevada, 
California,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean;  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union,  Feb.  14,  1859;  cap- 
ital, Salem;  counties,  36;  area,  96,699 
square  miles;  pop.  (1890)  313,767; 
(1900)  413,536;  (1910)  672,765;  (1920) 
783,389. 

Topography. — The  surface  of  the 
State  is  mountainous,  three  ranges  di- 
viding it  from  N.  to  S.;  the  Coast  Range 
from  10  to  30  miles  from  the  ocean;  the 
Cascade  Mountains,  from  110  to  150 
miles  inland;  and  the  Blue  Mountains  in 
the  E.  The  Coast  Range  has  an  extreme 
altitude  of  4,000  feet,  and  is  covered  with 
dense  forests.  The  Cascade  Mountains, 
a  continuation  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas, 
have  an  extreme  height  of  7,000  feet, 
with  several  peaks  rising  2,000  to  5,000 
feet  higher.  Mount  Hood  reaches  an 
altitude  of  11,500  feet,  McLoughlin,  11,- 
000  feet;  and  Jefferson,  10,500  feet.  The 
Cascades  are  heavily  timbered  to  the 
snow  line.  Four  transverse  ranges  con- 
nect the  Coast  Range  with  the  Cascades; 
the  Calpooia,  Umpqua,  Rouge  River  and 
Siskiyou  Mountains.  The  Willamette 
river  valley,  lying  between  the  Coast 
Range  and  Cascade  Mountains,  and  the 
Columbia  river  and  California  spur,  is 
150  miles  long,  from  30  to  70  miles  wide, 
and  is  extremely  fertile.  Eastern  Ore- 
gon, embracing  two-thirds  of  the  State, 
is   a   high   table-land,   with   little    rain- 


OREGON                                42  OREGON 

fall,  and  sparsely  populated.     There  are  production  4,230,000  bushels,  value   ?6,- 

fertile  valleys  along  the  rivers  and  lakes  345,000. 

in  the  S.,  and  in  the  Blue  Mountains.  Manufactures. — There  were  in  1914 
The  rivers  flowing  into  the  ocean  are  the  2,320  manufacturing  establishments,  em- 
Roque,  Coquille,  Umpqua,  Sinslaw,  Al-  ploying  28,829  wage  earners.  The  cap- 
sace,  Yaquina,  Nestuca,  and  Nehalem;  ital  invested  amounted  to  $139,500,000, 
those  emptying  into  the  Columbia,  Lewis  and  the  wages  paid  to  $20,921,000.  The 
and  Clark,  Clatskaine,  Youngs,  Sandy,  value  of  the  materials  used  was  $63,- 
Willamette,  Des  Chutes,  Hood,  Umatilla,  258,000,  and  the  value  of  the  finished 
and  John  Day;  and  those  feeding  the  production  was  $109,762,000.  The  nat- 
Snake  river,  the  Owybee,  Malbeur,  ural  advantages  of  the  State  are  exten- 
Burnt,  Powder,  and  Grande  Ronde.  The  sive,  furnishing  material  for  its  various 
principal  lakes  are,  Klamath,  Goose,  manufacturing  enterprises,  and  its 
Warner,  Salt,  Christmas,  Albery,  Sum-  streams  furnish  abundant  power  at  the 
mer.  Silver,  Henry,  and  Malheur.  Crater  Dalles,  the  Cascades,  and  Oregon  City. 
Lake  in  the  Cascades,  8,000  feet  above  The  principal  industries  include  railroad 
sea-level,  is  the  crater  of  an  extinct  cars  and  shop  construction,  fish  canning, 
volcano,  10  miles  in  circumference,  and  flouring  mills,  lumber  and  timber,  print- 
surrounded  by  bluffs  2,000  feet  high,  ing  and  publishing,  shipbuilding,  slaugh- 
It  is  the  deepest  body  of  fresh  water  in  tering,  meat  packing,  and  the  manufac- 
America.  The  coast  line  of  Oregon  is  ture  of  woolen  goods, 
very  abrupt  and  rocky  and  but  little  Banking. — On  Oct.  31,  1919,  there 
indented,  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  were  reported  87  National  banks  in  oper- 
river  being  the  best  harbor.  There  are  ation,  having  $10,661,000  capital,  $6,371,- 
other  harbors  at  Port  Orchard,  Roque  000  in  outstanding  circulation,  and  $25,- 
river,  Coos  Bay,  Tillamook  Bay,  and  793,000  in  United  States  bonds.  There 
Yaquina  Bay.  were  also  171  State  banks,  with  $8,155,- 

Geology. — The  geological  structure  of  000  capital,  and  $2,980,000  surplus.  The 
the  State  is  quite  varied.  The  Coast  exchanges  at  the  United  States  Clearing 
Range  and  Blue  Mountains  are  of  Eozoic  House  at  Seattle,  during  the  year  end- 
formation;  the  Cascade  ranges  and  the  ing  Sept.  30,  1919,  amounted  to  $2,013,- 
E.  part  of  the  State,  of  volcanic,  with  its  736,000,  an  increase  over  those  of  the 
ridges  and  hills  of  obsidian;  and  the  preceding  year  of  $11,686,829. 
Pacific  Coast,  Willamette  valley,  and  Education. — The  school  population  in 
part  of  the  Umpqua  valley,  are  of  Ter-  1918  was  207,158,  with  a  total  enrollment 
tiary  formation.  The  Cretaceous  fossil  of  106,546.  The  average  daily  attend- 
deposits  are  found  in  the  upper  valleys  ance  was  111,832.  There  were  in  the 
of  Des  Chutes,  Crooked  and  John  Day  elementary  schools  5,913  teachers.  The 
rivers,  and  the  Grande  Ronde  valley,  total  expenditures  for  public  education 
The  Glacial,  Champlain,  and  Terrace  is  about  $10,000,000  annually.  The  col- 
periods  are  well  represented.  In  1919  leges  include  the  University  of  Oregon, 
the  principal  mineral  productions  in-  at  Eugene;  Pacific  University  at  Forest 
eluded  gold,  silver  and  coal.  The  gold  Grove;  Willamette  University,  at  Salem; 
production  was  valued  at  $1,071,000.  and  Portland  University  at  University 
The  building  stones  are  granite,  sand-  Park. 
stone,  and  limestone.  Churches. — The     strongest    denomina- 

S oil  and  Agriculture. — The  soil  is  of  tions  in  the  State  are  the  Roman  Cath- 

volcanic  origin,  with  alluvial  deposits  in  olic;      Methodist      Episcopal;      Regular 

the  valleys,  and  is  extremely  fertile.     In  Baptist;  Disciples  of  Christ;   Presbyter- 

the    central    and    S.    E.   portions   of   the  ian;    Congregational;    Methodist   Episco- 

State  the  rainfall  is  very  light  and  the  pal.    South;    Protestant    Episcopal;    and 

farming  depends  largely  upon  irrigation.  United   Brethren 

Grapes,   prunes  and   other  fruits  thrive  Finances. — The  receipts  for  the  fiscal 

abundantly,    and    the   wool   growing   in-  year  1919  was  $17,784,693;  and  the  dis- 

dustry  is  very  large.     The  acreage,  pro-  bursements      $17,604,604.     The     balance 

duction  and  value  of  the  principal  crops  on  Jan.   1,  1919  was  $3,128,790,  and  on 

in    1919   were    as   follows:    corn,    71,000  Dec.    31,    1919,    $3,308,879.     The    State 

acres,  production  1,860,000  bushels,  value  indebtedness    amounted    to    $10,665,750. 

$2,883,000;    oats,  347,000   acres,  produc-  The  assessed  value  of  taxable  property 

tion    11,104,000   bushels,   value    $10,216,-  was  $990,435,472. 

000;     barley,    82,000    acres,    production  Railways. — The  total   length   of  main 

1,886,000      bushels,     value      $2,829,000;  line  track  in  1919  was  2,937  miles.     The 

wheat,    1,126,000   acres,   production   20,-  roads  having  the  longest  mileage  were 

495,000  bushels,  value  $43,449,000;  hay,  the  Oregon  and  Washington  Railroad  and 

854,000  acres,  production  1,452,000  tons.  Navigation    Company,    and   the    Oregon 

value  $27,733,000;  potatoes,  45,000  acres,  and  California. 


OREGON    COLLEGE 


43 


OREL 


State  Government. — The  governor  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  four  years.  Leg- 
islative sessions  are  held  biennially,  and 
are  limited  to  40  days  each.  The  Legis- 
lature has  30  members  in  the  Senate, 
and  60  in  the  House.  There  are  3  Rep- 
resentatives in  Congress. 

History. — The  name  Oregon  was  long 
applied  to  all  the  territory  claimed  by 
the  United  States  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
extending  from  lat.  42°  to  54°  40'  N. 
By  the  treaty  of  1846,  a  boundary  line 
was  fixed  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  at  lat.  49°.  The  discov- 
ery of  the  Columbia  river,  in  1792,  was 
succeeded  by  an  exploration  under  Cap- 
tains Lewis  and  Clark,  1804-1805.  In 
1808  the  Missouri  Fur  Company  estab- 
lished trading-posts  in  the  country;  and, 
in  1811,  the  American  Fur  Company 
founded  a  settlement  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia,  and  named  it  Astoria.  In 
«  1839,  the  emigration  of  Americans  com- 
menced overland  by  way  of  the  South 
Pass,  and  the  territory  continued  to  re- 
ceive settlers  yearly  till  1848,  when  the 
California  "gold-fever"  attracted  a  large 
quota  of  her  citizens  away.  In  1850, 
however,  the  land-donation  law,  passed 
by  Congress,  had  the  effect  of  register- 
ing 8,000  citizens  in  Oregon,  which  was 
formally  organized  as  a  Territory, 
Aug.  14,  1848,  On  March  2,  1853, 
Washington  Territory  was  formed  out  of 
the  N.  half  of  Oregon;  Nov.  5,  1857,  a 
State  constitution  was  adopted;  and  Feb. 
14,  1859,  the  State  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  by  Act  of  Congress  under  the 
constitution  previously  ratified.  From 
1845  till  1855,  a  desultory  warfare  was 
kept  up  with  the  Indian  aborigines,  and 
a  resumption  of  the  same  occurred  in 
1858,  and  again  in  1872-1873. 

OREGON  AGRICULTURAL  COL- 
LEGE. An  institution  supported  by  the 
state,  situated  at  Corvallis,  Ore.  It 
was  founded  in  1885  and  now  includes 
fifteen  large  buildings  and  has  an  en- 
rollment in  all  courses  of  4,158.  Instruc- 
tion is  given  in  forestry,  agriculture,  en- 
gineering, mining,  commerce,  and  home 
economics.  Like  other  western  state 
universities  its  income  is  largely  derived 
from  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  lands 
ceded  to  it  by  the  State.  This  source  of 
income  plus  the  State  appropriation 
yields  about  $800,000  annually.  The  col- 
lege possesses  a  library  of  about  30,000 
volumes. 

OREGON,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a  coed- 
ucational non-sectarian  institution  in 
Eugene,  Ore.;  founded  in  1872;  reported 
at  the  close  of  1919:  Professors  and 
instructors,  118;  students,  1,960;  presi- 
dent, P.  L.  Campbell. 


O'REILLY,  CHARLES  J.,  an  Ameri- 
can bishop  born  in  St.  John,  New  Bruns- 
wick, in  1860.  He  was  educated  at  St. 
Joseph's  College  and  at  the  Grand  Semi- 
nary, Montreal.  He  was  ordained  priest 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  1890 
and  for  several  years  was  in  charge  of 
missions  at  Oswego.  He  served  as 
rector  in  Portland,  Ore.,  in  1894  to  1903. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  consecrated 
first  bishop  of  Baker  City.  He  was  for 
several  years  editor  of  the  "Catholic 
Sentinel." 

O'REILLY,  JAMES,  an  American  Ro- 
man Catholic  bishop,  born  in  Ireland  in 
1856.  Educated  in  All  Hallows  College 
in  Ireland  and  was  ordained  priest  and 
served  as  pastor  in  Stillwater  and  Lake 
City,  Minn.,  and  in  Padua,  Minn.  In 
1909  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Fargo. 

O'REILLY,  JOHN  BOYLE,  an  Irish 
American  poet;  born  at  DoAvth  Castle, 
County  Meath,  Ireland,  June  28,  1844; 
became  a  reporter  for  English  and  Irish 
papers,  and  Fenianism.  In  1863  he  en- 
listed in  the  10th  Hussars,  in  Ireland, 
for  the  avowed  purpose  of  spreading  rev- 
olutionary doctrines  among  the  soldiers. 
For  this  he  was  arrested,  tried  for  trea- 
son and  sent  for  20  years  penal  servi- 
tude in  Australia.  The  following  year 
(1869)  he  escaped  to  America.  In  Bos- 
ton he  found  work  on  "The  Pilot"  (sub- 
sequently became  editor  and  principal 
owner).  In  1870  he  went  to  Canada  for 
"The  Pilot"  during  the  second  Fenian 
raid  and  commanded  Irish  forces.  His 
works  include:  "Songs  of  the  Southern 
Seas"  (1873) ;  "Songs,  Legends  and  Bal- 
lads" (1878);  "Moondyne,  a  Novel" 
(1879);  "Statues  in  the  Block"  (1881); 
"In  Bohemia"  (1886);  and  "Stories  and 
Sketches"  (1888).  He  died  in  Hull, 
Mass.,  Aug.  10,  1890. 

O'REILLY,  PETER  J.,  an  American 
Roman  Catholic  bishop,  born  in  Dublin, 
Ireland,  in  1853.  He  was  educated  in 
Ireland  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1877. 
In  the  same  year  he  came  to  America. 
In  1901  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Lebedos,  Diocese  of  Peoria. 

OREL,  a  government  of  Russia,  con- 
taining 12  districts.  It  has  an  area  of 
18,042  square  miles.  In  the  eastern  part 
there  is  a  large  area  of  agricultural 
land.  In  the  west  the  soil  is  sandy  and 
ill  adapted  for  agriculture.  Stock  rais- 
ing is  the  most  important  industry. 
There  are  immense  forests  which  pro- 
duce timber,  tar,  and  pitch.  There  are 
manufactories  of  iron  rails,  glass,  flour, 
and  hemp  products.  Pop.  about  900,000. 
Capital   Orel. 


OREL  44 

OREL,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
the  same  name  in  Russia.  It  is  on  Oka 
river,  about  240  miles  S.  of  Moscow. 
There  are  several  schools  and  a  theologi- 
cal seminary.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop 
and  contains  several  cathedrals.  The 
chief  manufactories  are  candles,  oil,  and 
flour.  The  city  was  founded  in  1564. 
Pop.  about  100,000. 

O'RELL,  MAX.     See  Blouet,  Paul. 

ORENBURG,  a  town  of  European 
Russia  (Tartar-Bashkir  Republic)  on 
'  the  Ural  river;  727  miles  E.  S.  E.  of 
Moscow.  Founded  (1743)  as  a  frontier 
fortress,  it  is  now  of  importance  for  its 
commerce  only;  it  imports  cotton,  silk 
stuffs,  cattle,  hides,  etc.,  from  Bokhara, 
Khiva,  and  Tashkend.  Corn,  metals, 
sugar,  woven  goods  are  the  principal  ex- 
ports. The  town  possesses  an  arsenal 
and  two  military  schools.  Pop.  about 
150,000. 

ORESTES,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
son  of  Agamemnon  and  of  Clytemnestra, 
the  avenger  of  his  father,  by  becoming 
the  murderer  of  his  mother.  For  this 
murder  he  is  relentlessly  pursued  by  the 
Eumenides  or  Furies,  and  only  succeeds 
in  appeasing  these  terrible  goddesses  by 
carrying  out  the  instructions  o'  the  Del- 
phian oracle  to  bring  back  the  statue  of 
Diana  from  Tauris  to  Argos.  Married 
to  Hermione,  daughter  of  Menelaus, 
Orestes  ruled  over  his  paternal  kingdom 
of  Mycenae,  and  over  Argos,  upon  the 
death  of  its  king.  Orestes  is  an  impor- 
tant figure  in  the  "Choephori"  and  the 
"Eumenides"  of  ^schylus,  the  "Electra" 
of  Sophocles,  and  the  "Orestes"  and 
**Iphigenia  in  Tauris"  of  Euripides. 

Scenes  from  the  story  of  Orestes  ap- 
pear in  Greek  decorative  art. 

ORE  AH,  OORFA,  or  UREA  (ancient 
Edessa)  a  fortified  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  78  miles  S.  W.  of  Diarbekr.  It 
is  well  built,  and  has  a  considerable 
trade  with  North  Syria  and  Mesopota- 
mia. It  is  supposed  to  be  the  site  of  the 
"Ur  of  the  Chaldees,"  mentioned  in 
Scripture.  Pop.  about  30,000,  mostly 
Mohammedans. 

ORGAN,  in  anatomy,  a  member  of  an 
organized  being  through  which  its  func- 
tions are  executed.  Thus  the  root,  stem, 
and  leaves  of  a  plant  are  organs. 

In  music,  the  most  comprehensive  and 
important  of  all  wind  instruments.  Its 
history  can  be  traced  back  to  the  earliest 
antiquity.  Starting  from  a  small  collec- 
tion of  pipes,  perhaps  even  from  a 
syrinx,  it  has  gradually  grown  in  size 
and  complexity  till,  at  the  present  day, 
one  performer  has  complete  control  over 
many  thousands  of  pipes.     In  its  rudi- 


ORGANOTHERAPY 

mentary  state,  the  wind  was  admitted  to 
each  pipe  at  the  will  of  the  player  by 
means  of  a  sliding  strip  of  wood,  which 
could  be  pulled  in  and  out;  this  mechan- 
ism was  the  ancestor  of  our  modern  key- 
board. The  next  step  was  to  have  more 
than  one  series  of  pipes;  strips  of  wood 
passing  lengthwise  under  the  mouths  of 
each  set  enabled  the  player,  by  pulling 
a  stop,  to  exercise  a  choice  as  to  which  he 
used.  Afterward,  as  larger  organs  were 
constructed,  the  smaller  were  called  "por- 
tative," because  they  could  be  carried 
about  in  processions,  etc.,  and  the  large 
ones  were  called  "positive,"  because  they 
were  fixtures.  The  essential  principles 
of  the  construction  of  an  organ  were  thus 
discovered,  and  it  only  remained  to  ex- 
pand the  instruments.  In  modern  in- 
struments, four,  or  sometimes  even  five, 
rows  of  keys  are  found,  each  represent- 
ing a  distinct  instrument;  these  are 
named  after  their  use  br  characteristics; 
as,  great  organ,  that  used  for  grand  ef- 
fects, the  principal  manual;  choir  organ, 
that  used  for  the  accompaniment  of 
voices;  solo  organ,  that  containing  stops 
for  solo  use;  swell  organ,  pipes  placed 
in  a  distant  box,  with  shutters  opening 
and  closing  like  Venetian  blinds,  by 
means  of  which  a  crescendo  can  be  made ; 
pedal  organ,  the  pipes  controlled  by  the 
pedals.  Pipes  range  from  32  feet  to  % 
of  an  inch  in  length;  they  are  divided 
into  two  great  classes,  flue  and  reed, 
names  which  need  no  explanation.  The 
title  of  stops  generally  intimates  their 
quality  of  tone,  e.  g.,  flute,  violin,  oboe, 
clarinet,  trumpet,  etc. 

In  comparative  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology, organ  of  Bojanus,  a  double  organ 
with  two  bilaterally  symmetrical  halves, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  body,  just  below 
the  pericardium.  This  organ  performs 
the  function  of  a  kidney. 

ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY,  the  chemis- 
try of  the  carbon  compounds  in  which 
the  hydrogen  or  nitrogen  of  the  substance 
is  directly  united  with  carbon. 

ORGANIC     RADICAL,    a    group    of 

atoms  containing  one  or  more  atoms  of 
carbon,  of  which  one  or  more  bonds  are 
unsatisfied. 

ORGANOTHERAPY.  The  branch  of 
medical  science  using  animal  organs  and 
their  extracts  for  healing  purposes.  The 
use  of  animal  tissues  as  medicines  is  as 
old  almost  as  authentic  history,  and  the 
belief  in  their  eificacy  prevailed  amoiig  al- 
most all  races,  though  their  early  use 
was  largely  superstitious.  But  modern 
organotherapy  may  be  said  to  have  be- 
gun in  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
with    the    discovery    of    Brown-Sequard 


OBGANZINE 


45 


ORINOCO 


that  the  glands  of  the  body  furnish  the 
blood  with  useful  principles.  From  that 
time  almost  every  gland  and  tissue  in 
the  body  has  been  investigated,  and  in 
recent  years  the  grafting  of  glands  from 
animals  into  the  human  body  has  been 
accompanied  by  enthusiastic  claims. 
While  progress  in  the  study  has  added 
substances  of  value  to  our  therapeutic  re- 
sources— thyroid  extract  and  adrenaline, 
for  example — the  differences  and  antag- 
onisms between  animal  and  human  tis- 
sues, and  similar  elusive  principles  have 
kept  organotherapy  still  in  the  experi- 
mental  stage. 

OBGANZINE,  a  silk  thread  of  several 
singles  twisted  together;   thrown  silk. 

OBIEL,  or  OBIOL,  a  projecting  win- 
dow, mostly  of  a  triagonal  or  pentagonal 
form,  and  divided  by  mullions  and  tran- 
soms into  different  bays  and  other  pro- 
portions. 

OBIENTAL  SOCIETY,  AMERICAN. 
A  learned  society  formed  in  1842  for  the 
purpose  of  promoting  Oriental  research 
in  America.  The  society  is  chartered 
under  the  laws  of  Massachusetts  and  its 
constitution  provides  that  one  meeting 
in  every  three  years  must  be  held  within 
the  confines  of  that  state.  The  meetings 
are  held  annually  and  are  featured  by 
discussions  on  Oriental  history  and 
philology.  The  "Journal"  published  by 
the  Society  contains  much  valuable  ma- 
terial for  the  student  of  the  Orient. 
The  library  of  the  society  is  at  Yale 
University.  Some  of  the  leading  educa- 
tors of  America  have  been  presidents  of 
this  society,  among  them  being  Theo- 
dore Dwight  Woolsey,  W.  D.  Whitney, 
President  Hadley  of  Yale  University, 
Daniel  Coit  Oilman,  and  Crawford  H. 
Toy.  In  1920  the  enrollment  of  the  so- 
ciety numbered  about  350  members. 

OBIENTATION,  in  anthropology, 
practices  concerning  the  posture  of  the 
dead  in  their  graves,  and  the  living  in 
their  temples.  In  architecture,  the  plac- 
ing or  building  of  a  church  so  that  its 
chancel  is  toward  the  E.,  or  that  part  of 
the  E.  in  which  the  sun  rises  on  the  day 
of  the  patron  saint.  In  biology,  a  term 
applied  to  the  means  by  which  animals, 
when  taken  from  home,  are  able  to  trace 
their  way  back.  In  surveying,  the  act 
of  determining  the  direction  of  the  side  of 
a  triangle,  or  the  direction  of  a  chain 
of  triangles. 

OBIENTE,  a  province  of  Cuba.  It 
has  an  area  of  15,227  square  miles.  Pop. 
about  625,000. 

ORIFLAMME,  or  OBIFLAMB,  the 
ancient  royal  banner  of  France;  origi- 

Vol.  VII — Cyc 


nally  the  banner  of  the  abbey  of  St. 
Denis,  near  Paris,  which  received  many 
important  grants  from  the  early  French 
kings.  Its  color  was  purple  with  a  tinge 
of  azure,  and  gold.  It  became  the  ban- 
ner of  the  monarchy  in  the  reigrn  of 
Philip  I. 

OBIGEN,  a  father  of  the  Church,  and 
one  of  the  most  learned  ecclesiastical 
writers;  was  born  in  Alexandria,  185  A. 
D.,  of  Christian  parents,  who  instructed 
him  in  religious  knowledge  and  in  the 
sciences.  He  became  catechist,  or  head 
of  the  Christian  school  of  Alexandria. 
From  Alexandria  he  went  to  Rome,  where 
he  began  his  famous  "Hexapla,"  an  edi- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  Bible  with  five  Greek 
versions  of  it.  He  returned  to  Alexan- 
dria, and  was  ordained.  Soon  after  this, 
he  began  his  "Commentaries  on  the 
Scriptures."  His  great  talents  and  pop- 
ularity exposed  him  to  the  jealousy  of 
the  bishop,  whose  persecutions  at  length 
drove  him  from  his  native  country,  and 
made  him  a  wanderer.  Origen  is  sup- 
posed to  have  died  in  Tyre  about  the 
year  254. 

ORIHTJELA,  a  city  of  Spain  in  the 
province  of  Alicante.  It  is_  on  the  Se- 
gura  River.  The  city  contains  a  cathe- 
dral and  a  bishop's  palace.  It  is  the 
center  of  an  important  agricultural  re- 
gion. There  are  also  manufactories  of 
silk,  linen  goods,  hats,  flour,  and  oil. 
Pop.  about  35,000. 

OBILLON,  a  curved  projection  formed 
by  the  face  of  a  bastion  overlapping  the 
end  of  the  flank,  intended  to  protect  it 
from  oblique  fire.  Also  an  earthen 
mound  faced  with  brick. 

ORINOCO,  one  of  the  great  rivers  of 
South  America,  has  its  origin  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Sierra  Parima,  in  the  ex- 
treme S.  E.  of  Venezuela ;_  its  exact 
sources  were  only  discovered  in  1886  by 
Chaffanjon.  It  flows  at  first  W.  by  N.^, 
a  mountain-stream,  as  far  as  Ion.  67° 
W.  A  little  below  Esmeralda  (Ion.  65" 
50'  W.)  it  divides  and  sends  off  to  the  S. 
an  arm,  the  Cassiquiare,  which,  after  a 
course  of  180  miles,  enters  the  Rio 
Negro,  a  tributary  of  the  Amazon.  The 
other  branch  on  reaching  San  Fernando 
(Ion.  68°  10'  and  lat.  4°  2'  N.)  is  met  by 
the  strong  current  of  the  Guaviare;  the 
united  stream  then  turns  due  N.,  and 
after  passing  over  the  magnificent  cata- 
racts of  Maypures  and  Atures  and  pick- 
ing up  the  Meta  on  the  left,  meets  the 
Apure.  Below  the  confluence  with  the 
Apure  the  Orinoco  turns  E.  and  trav- 
erses the  llanos  of  Venezuela,  its  waters, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  4  miles,  being 
augmented  from  the  right  by  the  Caura 

4 


OEIOLE 


46 


OBKNEY    ISLANDS 


and  the  Caroni.  About  120  miles  from 
the  Atlantic,  into  which  it  rolls  its  milk- 
white  flood,  its  delta  (8,500  square  miles) 
begins.  Of  the  numerous  mouths  which 
reach  the  ocean  over  165  miles  of  coast 
line  only  seven  are  navigable.  The 
waterway  principally  used  by  ocean- 
going vessels,  which  penetrate  up  to  Ciu- 
dad  Bolivar  (Angostura),  a  distance  of 
245  miles,  is  the  Boca  de  Navios,  vary- 
ing in  width  from  3%  to  23  miles.  The 
total  length  of  the  river  is  some  1,550 
miles,  of  which  900,  up  to  the  cataracts 
of  Atures,  are  navigable,  besides  a  far- 
ther stretch  of  500  miles  above  the  cata- 
racts of  Maypures;  area  of  drainage 
basin,  368,600  square  miles. 

OBIOLE,  Oriolus  galbula,  the  type- 
species  of  the  family  Oriolidse.  Its  con- 
spicuous plumage,  bright  yellow  con- 
trasted with  black,  chiefly  on  wings  and 
tail,  often  brings  about  its  death.  The 
nest  is   suspended  under  the  horizontal 


EUROPEAN   ORIOLE 

fork  of  a  bough;  the  eggs  are  of  a  shin- 
ing white,  sometimes  tinged  with  pink, 
and  sparsely  dotted  with  purple.  It  is 
well  known  in  Europe.  Its  range  in 
summer  is  as  far  E.  as  Irkutsk,  in  win- 
ter it  is  found  in  Natal  and  Damara- 
land.  In  India  it  is  replaced  by  Oriolus 
kundoo. 

ORION,  in  mythology,  a  celebrated 
Greek  giant  and  hero,  and  the  reputed 
son  of  Hyrieus  of  Hyria,  in  Bceotia.  So 
immense  was  his  size,  that  when  he  wad- 
ed through  the  deepest  seas  he  was  still 
a  head  and  shoulders  above  the  water; 
and  when  he  walked  on  dry  land,  his 
stature  reached  the  clouds.  After  his 
death  he  was  placed  with  his  hound  in 
heaven,  where,  to  this  day,  the  following 
constellation  bears  his  name. 


In  astronomy,  one  of  the  ancient  con- 
stellations found  by  Ptolemy.  The  equi- 
noctial passes  nearly  through  its  center, 
and  it  is  situated  in  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere with  respect  to  the  equator.  Four 
of  the  seven  stars  constituting  the 
constellation  are  situated  in  the  middle 
of  it,  in  a  straight  line.  Two  of  these 
are  of  the  first  magnitude,  namely  Betel- 
guese  or  Beltegeux,  in  the  right  shoul- 
der, and  Rigel  in  the  left  foot.  In  the 
middle  of  the  square  are  three  stars  of 
the  second  magnitude,  which  form  what 
is  called  the  belt  of  Orion.  The  constel- 
lations which  surround  Orion  are  Eri- 
damus,  Canis  Major,  Gemini,  Auriga, 
and  Taurus.  Near  the  sword-scabbard 
is  a  remarkable  nebula,  and  within  the 
constellation  are  thousands  of  small 
stars,  which  are  only  visible  by  power- 
ful telescopes. 

OmSSA,  a  maritime  province,  of  Hin- 
dustan; on  the  Bay  of  Bengal;  consti- 
tuted by  the  British  in  1912  out  of  the 
state  of  Bengal,  area,  13,743  square  miles, 
pop.  about  5,210,000  and  the  native 
states  of  Bihur  and  Orissa,  area,  28,648 
miles.  Pop.  about  5,200,000.  The  sur- 
face along  the  shore  is  in  general  low 
and  sandy,  and  in  the  interior  wild  and 
rugged.  The  inhabitants  are  composed 
chiefly  of  Oorias,  the  conquerors  of  the 
country,  and  of  wild  hill  tribes.  The 
largest  river  is  the  Mahanadi.  The 
chief  towns  are  Cattack,  Puri  or  Jug- 
gernauth,  and  Balasore. 

ORIZABA,  city  of  the  Mexican  state 
of  Vera  Cruz;  82  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Vera  Cruz  city,  and  181  E.  S.  E.  of  Mex- 
ico; in  a  fertile  garden  country,  4,030 
feet  above  the  sea;  contains  an  extensive 
cotton  factory,  paper  and  corn  mills,  and 
railway  shops.  The  volcano  of  Orizaba, 
25  miles  N.,  is  a  noble  pyramid  rising  to 
an  elevation  of  17,876  feet,  or,  accord- 
ing to  Heilprin's  measurements,  18,205 
feet.  Its  last  severe  eruption  was  in 
1566.     Pop.  about  40,000. 

ORKNEY  ISLANDS,  a  growp  of  90 
Scotch  islands,  islets,  and  skerries,  of 
which  only  28  are  inhabited,  and  which 
have  an  aggregate  area  of  376  square 
miles,  the  largest  being  Pomona  or  Main- 
land (207  square  miles),  Hoy  (53),  San- 
day  (26),  Westray,  South  Ronaldshay, 
Rousay,  Stronsay,  Eday,  Shapinshay, 
Burray,  Flotta,  etc.  They  extend  50 
miles  N.  E.,  and  are  separated  from 
Caithness  by  the  Pentland  Firth,  6% 
miles  wide  at  the  narrowest.  With  the 
exception  of  Hoy,  which  has  fine  cliffs, 
and  in  the  Ward  Hill  attains  1,564  feet, 
the  scenery  is  generally  tame,  the  sur- 
face low  and  treeless,  with  many  fresh 


OBLANDO 


47 


ORLEANS 


water  lochs,  and  the  soil  shallow,  incum- 
bent on  peat  or  moss.  The  mean  an- 
nual temperature  is  45°,  the  rainfall 
34.3  inches.  The  area  under  cultivation 
has  more  than  doubled  since  1850,  but  is 
still  less  than  one-half  of  the  total  area. 
The  live  stock  during  the  same  period 
has  trebled;  agriculture  and  fishing  are 
the  principal  industries.  The  Orkneys 
(Ptolemy's  Orcades)  were  gradually 
wrested  by  Norse  rovers  from  their  Pic- 
tish  inhabitants.  They  continued  sub- 
ject to  the  Scandinavian  crown — till 
1231,  and  afterward  under  the  Earls  of 
Angus  and  Stratherne  and  the  Sinclairs 
—till  in  1468  they  were  given  to  James 
III.  of  Scotland  as  a  security  for  the 
dowry  of  his  wife,  Margaret  of  Denmark. 
The  present  landed  proprietors  are 
chiefly  of  Scotch  descent,  the  islanders 
generally  of  mixed  Scandinavian  and 
Scotch  origin.  Pop.  (1918)  estimated, 
23,100.  In  the  World  War  (1914- 
1918)  the  British  Grand  Fleet  made 
Scapa  Flow  in  the  Orkneys  its  base  for 
naval  operations.  Here  the  surrendered 
German  war-ships  were  interned  and 
subsequently  stink  by  order  of  the  Ger- 
man Naval  Command. 

ORLANDO,  a  city  of  Florida,  the 
county-seat  of  Orange  co.  It  is  a  popu- 
lar winter  resort  and  is  noted  for  its 
hunting  and  fishing.  It  is  the  center  of 
an  important  fruit-growing  region. 
Pop.   (1910)   3,894;    (1920)  9^82. 

ORLEANS  (or-la-an'),  a  city  of 
France,  capital  of  the  department  of  the 
Loiret;  on  the  Loire;  68  miles  S.  W.  of 
Paris.  It  has  some  handsome  public 
squares,  a  Gothic  cathedral,  and  other 
notable  buildings.  Confectionery,  pot- 
tery, and  woolen  goods  are  the  staple 
articles  of  manufacture.  Philip  of  Va- 
lois  erected  Orleans  into  a  duchy  and 
peerage  in  favor  of  his  son,  and  Orleans 
continued  to  give  the  title  of  duke  to  a 
prince  of  the  blood  royal.  In  1426  the 
city  sustained  a  siege  against  the  Eng- 
lish, and  was  relieved  by  the  Maid  of 
Orleans  (Joan  of  Arc),  whose  statue  in 
bronze  stands  in  one  of  the  public 
squares.  It  was  taken  and  retaken  more 
than  once  in  the  Franco-German  War  in 
the  latter  part  of  1870.  Pop.  about 
75,000. 

ORLEANS,  a  French  royal  family, 
two  houses  of  which  have  occupied  the 
throne  of  France.  Henry  III.  (died 
1589)  was  the  last  sovereig:n  of  this 
house,  the  Valois-Orleans  branch.  The 
house  of  Bourbon-Orleans  is  descended 
from  Philip,  Duke  of  Orleans,  son  of 
Louis  XIII.  and  younger  brother  of 
Louis    XIV.     His    son    Philip,    Duke    of 


Orleans,  was  regent  of  France  during  the 
minority  of  Louis  XV.  His  grandson, 
Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  who  assumed  the 
surname  of  Egalite,  was  beheaded  in 
1793.  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of  Chartres, 
afterward  King  of  the  French,  was  the 
son  of  Egalite.  The  grandson  of  Louis 
Philippe,  the  Comte  de  Paris,  born  1838, 
and  educated  in  England,  next  became 
the  head  of  the  royal  house  and  royalist 
party  of  France.  He  died  in  England, 
Sept.  8,  1894;  and  the  title  passed  to  his 
son,  Louis  Philippe  Robert,  born  in 
Twickenham,  England,  Feb.  6,  1869,  and 
not  permitted  in  France. 

ORLEANS,  BASTARD  OF.     See  Du- 

NOis,  Jean. 

ORLEANS,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  GAS- 
TON, DTJKE  OF,  third  son  of  Henry  IV. 
of  France,  and  Mary  Medici;  born  April 
25,  1608.  By  his  first  marriage,  with 
Mary  of  Bourbon,  heiress  of  the  house  of 
Montpensier,  he  had  a  daughter,  author 
of  some  interesting  memoirs.  During 
the  disturbances  of  the  Fronde  he  joined 
De  Retz,  the  soul  of  the  Fronde,  who, 
however,  soon  saw  through  the  character 
of  his  fickle  and  feeble  confederate.  Af- 
ter the  termination  of  the  troubles  (1648) 
the  duke  was  banished  to  Blois.  He 
died  Feb.  2,  1660. 

ORLEANS,  LOUIS  ALBERT  PHIL- 
IPPE, Count  of  Paris ;  born  in  the  Tuil- 
eries,  Paris,  France,  Aug.  24,  1838;  son 
of  the  Duke  of  Orleans;  was  educated  at 
Claremont,  England.  In  1861  he  and  his 
brother,  the  Duke  of  Chartres,  came  to 
the  United  States  and  served  with  dis- 
tinction on  General  McClellan's  staff  till 
June,  1862.  After  the  establishment  of 
the  republic  in  France  he  lived  in  Paris, 
till  the  expulsion  bill  of  1886  drove  him 
into  exile  to  England.  Among  his  publi- 
cations, his  "History  of  the  Civil  War  in 
America"  (1874-1889)  is  highly  esteem- 
ed by  historians  and  military  critics. 
He  died  in  London,  England,  Sept.  8, 
1894. 

ORLEANS,  LOUIS  PHILIPPE  JOS- 
EPH, DUKE  OF  (Egalite),  a  great- 
grandson  of  the  regent  Philippe,  Duke 
of  Orleans;  born  in  St.  Cloud,  France, 
April  13,  1747;  married  in  1769  the 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Penthievre. 
He  was  notorious  for  his  dissoluteness  of 
manners.  His  opposition  to  the  court 
began  in  1771,  and  he  became  the  rally- 
ing point  of  its  enemies.  In  1787  he  was 
exiled  for  the  part  he  took  in  the  As- 
sembly of  Notables;  in  1789  he  was  one 
of  the  nobles  who  joined  the  Tiers  Etat 
(Third  Estate)  ;  in  1792  he  went  over 
to  the  revolutionary  party  without  re- 
serve, took  the  name  of  Philipp>e  Egalite 


OBLEANS 


48 


ORMONDE 


("Philip  Equality"),  and  voted  for  the 
death  of  Louis  XVI.  It  did  not  save  him 
from  being  arrested  as  a  Bourbon,  con- 
demned and  beheaded,  in  Paris,  Nov.  6, 
1793. 

ORLEANS,  LOUIS  PHILIPPE  ROB- 
ERT, DUKE  OF,  born  in  Twickenhamj 
England,  Feb.  6,  1869;  son  of  the  Count 
of  Paris,  and  heir  to  the  French  throne; 
was  educated  in  France,  but  banished 
with  the  other  princes  in  1886.  In  1890 
he  returned  and  demanded  the  right  of 
enlisting  in  the  army,  but  was  again  im- 
prisoned and  banished.  On  the  death  of 
his  father,  in  1894,  he  became  the  head 
of  the  royal  house. 

ORLEANS,  PHILIPPE,  DUKE  OF, 
only  brother  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
and  founder  of  the  house  of  Bourbon- 
Orleans,  which  for  a  short  time  held  the 
throne  of  France;  born  Sept.  21,  1640. 
In  his  21st  year  he  married  Henrietta  of 
England,  sister  of  Charles  II.  The  great 
esteem  which  the  king  showed  for  this 
princess  excited  the  jealousy  of  his  broth- 
er, and  her  sudden  death  was  attributed 
to  poison,  to  the  administration  of  which 
the  duke  was  suspected  of  being  acces- 
sory. His  jealousy  seems  not  to  have 
been  unfounded.  The  second  marriage 
of  the  duke,  with  the  Princess  Elizabeth 
of  the  Palatinate  (1671),  was  arranged 
by  Louis  to  secure  the  neutrality  of  the 
Elector  Palatine  in  the  approaching  war 
against  Holland.  In  this  war  the  duke 
distinguished  himself  in  spite  of  his  ef- 
feminacy.    He  died  June  9,  1701. 

ORLEANS,  PHILIPPE,  DUKE  OF, 
Regent  of  France,  son  of  Philippe,  Duke 
of  Orleans,  and  the  Princess  Palatine 
Elizabeth;  born  in  St.  Cloud,  France,  in 
August,  1674.  He  fell  early  under  the 
influence  of  the  clever  and  unscrupulous 
Abbe  (afterward  Cardinal)  Dubois.  He 
made  his  military  debut  at  the  siege  of 
Mons  (1691),  and  in  1693  distinguished 
himself  at  Neerwinden,  but  only  to 
arouse  the  jealousy  of  Louis  XIV.,  his 
uncle,  who  compelled  him  to  retire  from 
the  army.  In  1692  he  married  Mile,  de 
Blois,  the  legitimated  daughter  of  Louis. 
In  1707  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  the 
Duke  of  Berwick  in  Spain,  and  complet- 
ed the  subjugation  of  that  country.  He 
was  recalled,  however,  being  suspected 
of  intriguing  .for  the  crown  of  Spain. 
On  the  death  of  the  king  (Sept.  1,  1715), 
he  was  appointed  regent.  He  found  the 
finances  in  extreme  disorder,  and  his 
reckless  introduction  of  a  vast  paper 
currency  brought  the  nation  to  the  verge 
of  bankruptcy.  He  resigned  the  gov- 
ernment to  Louis  XV.  on  Feb.  13,  1723, 


and  died  in  Paris,  in  December  of  the 
same  year. 

ORLOFF,  a  celebrated  Russian  fam- 
ily, founded  under  Peter  the  Great  by 
Ivan  Orel,  one  of  the  archers  or  strelitzes, 
who,  when  that  body  was  destroyed, 
saved  his  life  by  his  cool  courage,  and  be- 
came an  officer  and  a  noble.  The  most 
celebrated  of  his  descendants  were: 
Gregory,  a  Russian  general  and  politi- 
cal intriguer,  who  greatly  promoted  the 
elevation  of  his  mistress,  Catherine  II., 
to  the  throne.  Being  disappointed  in  his 
hope  of  sharing  the  crown  with  her,  and 
declining  a  private  marriage,  he  was 
supplanted  by  a  new  favorite,  and  died 
insane  in  1783.  He  had  one  son  by  the 
empress,  named  Bobrinski.  Alexis,  his 
brother,  and  fellow  conspirator,  was  a 
man  of  gigantic  stature  and  strength, 
and  is  said  to  have  strangled  the  Emper- 
or Peter  with  his  own  hands.  He  was  a 
favorite  of  Catherine,  and  was  married 
to  the  Princess  Tarakanoff,  daughter  of 
the  Empress  Elizabeth;  died  in  1808. 
Gregory  Vladimirowitz,  a  nobleman  of 
the  same  family,  born  in  1778,  and  bear- 
ing the  title  of  Count  Orloff,  was  distin- 
guished for  his  patronage  and  culture  of 
letters.  He  was  author  of  "Historical, 
Political,  and  Literary  Memoirs  of  Na- 
ples"; and  "History  of  the  Arts  in 
Italy";  died  in  1826.  Michael,  son  of 
the  above  Alexis;  born  in  1785,  served 
in  the  Russian  army  against  Napoleon  I., 
and  went  to  Paris  with  the  Allies  in  1814. 
Alexis,  brother  of  the  preceding;  born  in 
1787,  distinguished  himself  as  a  diplo- 
matist and  statesman  under  Nicholas, 
and  died  in  1861. 

ORMOLU,  a  brass  used  for  cheap  jew- 
elry, and  composed  of  zinc  and  copper, 
in  various  proportions,  to  imitate  gold. 
Gold  lacquer  is  used  to  heighten  the 
color.  It  is  also  called  mosaic  gold. 
Bronze  and  copper-gilt  also  go  by  this 
name. 

ORMONDE,  JAMES  BUTLER, 
DUKE  OF,  an  English  statesman;  born 
in  London,  England,  Oct.  19,  1610.  He 
was  the  first  of  the  ancient  Anglo-Irish 
family  of  Butler  on  whom  the  ducal  title 
was  conferred.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century  Theobald  Butler,  from 
whom  the  Duke  of  Ormonde  was  descend- 
ed, held  the  hereditary  office  of  royal 
cupbearer  or  "butler"  of  Ireland.  The 
duke's  father,  the  son  of  the  celebrated 
Walter,  Earl  of  Ormonde,  was  drowned 
in  crossing  the  channel;  and  the  old  earl 
having  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the 
king,  James  I.,  and  being  thrown  into 
prison,  James,  who  on  his  father's  death 
became,   as   Viscount   Thurles,  the   heir 


ORMONDE 


49 


ORNDORFF 


of  the  title,  was  taken  possession  of  as 
a  royal  wr\rd,  and  placed  under  the 
guardianship  of  the  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, On  the  restoration  of  his 
grandfather  to  liberty,  he  also  was  re- 
leased; and  in  his  20th  year  he  married 
his  cousin,  Lady  Elizabeth  Preston,  and 
in  1632  succeeded,  upon  his  grandfath- 
er's death,  to  the  earldom  and  estates  of 
Ormonde.  During  the  Strafford  admin- 
istration in  Ireland  Ormonde  distinguish- 
ed himself.  He  failed  to  please  in  1643 
when  he  concluded  an  armistice ;  his  pol- 
icy was  condemned  as  well  by  the  friends 
as  by  the  enemies  of  the  royalist  party 
in  England.  During  the  long  contest  of 
Charles  with  the  Parliament.  Ormonde 
continued  to  uphold  the  royal  interest 
in  his  Irish  government;  and  when  the 
last  crisis  of  the  king's  fortunes  came, 
he  resigned  his  Irish  command,  and  re- 
tired to  France,  from  which  country  he 
again  returned  to  Ireland  with  the  de- 
sign of  restoring  the  royal  authority. 
After  a  gallant  but  unequal  struggle,  he 
was,  however,  compelled,  in  1650,  to  re- 
turn to  France.  At  the  Restoration  he 
accompanied  Charles  II.  on  his  return, 
and  was  rewarded  for  his  fidelity  by 
the  ducal  title  of  Ormonde.  His  after 
life  was  less  eventful,  though  he  twice 
again  returned  to  the  government  of 
Ireland.  It  was  in  1679  as  he  was  re- 
turning from  a  civic  festival,  he  was  at- 
tacked by  Colonel  Blood  and  a  party  of 
ruffians,  and  dragged  from  his  coach 
with  the  intention  of  being  hanged  at 
Tyburn.  He  escaped  uninjured,  and 
lived  till  the  year  1688.  He  died  in 
Dorsetshire,  England,  July  21,  1688. 

ORMONDE,  JAMES  BUTLER,  2D 
DUKE  OF,  an  English  military  officer; 
bom  in  Dublin  in  1665.  In  1682  he  mar- 
ried Anne,  daughter  of  Lord  Hyde,  after- 
ward Earl  of  Rochester.  As  Earl  of 
Ossory  he  served  in  the  army  against 
Monmouth,  and  also  held  an  office  in  the 
palace  under  James  II.  After  his  ac- 
cession to  the  dukedom  by  the  death  of 
his  grandfather  in  1688,  he  took  his 
share  in  the  Revolution  conflict,  but  af- 
terward, at  the  coronation  of  William 
and  Mary,  he  acted  as  lord  high-con- 
stable. He  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  the  Boyne,  at  the  head  of  William's 
life  guards.  He  soon  became  popular. 
In  1702  he  was  placed  in  command  in 
the  expedition  against  Cadiz;  in  1703  he 
was  appointed  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
and  in  1711  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
land  forces  sent  against  France  and 
Spain.  After  the  accession  of  George  I. 
Ormonde  somehow  fell  into  disgrace 
with  the  king,  and  was  impeached  in 
1715  of  high  treason,  and  with  the  re- 


sult that  his  estates  were  attainted,  and 
he  was  deprived  of  all  his  honors.  He 
retired  into  France,  where  he  attached 
himself  to  the  Jacobite  court,  and  spent 
many  years  in  the  secret  intrigues  of 
the  Pretender  and  his  followers.  A  col- 
lection of  letters  written  by  him  in  the 
organization  of  the  abortive  attempt  by 
Spain  to  invade  England  and  Scotland  in 
1719,  were  in  1890  brought  to  light,  and 
in  1896  issued  by  the  Scottish  History 
society.     He  died  abroad  in  1745. 

ORMULUM,  a  Transition  English 
metrical  translation  of  the  Gospel  his- 
tory. 

ORMUZ,  or  HORMUZ,  a  small  town 
on  the  island  of  Jerun,  in  the  Strait  of 
Ormuz,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  4  miles  S.  of  the  Persian  coast. 
Three  centuries  before  the  Christian  era 
there  existed  on  the  mainland,  12  miles 
E.  of  the  island,  a  city  Ormuz;  this  in 
the  13th  century  was  the  headquarters 
of  the  Persian  trade  with  India.  But 
about  the  end  of  the  century  its  ruler 
transferred  his  people  to  the  site  of  the 
present  town,  to  escape  the  Mongols. 
The  new  city  maintained  its  commercial 
supremacy  even  after  it  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Portuguese,  through  Albu- 
querque's capture  of  it  in  1507.  It  was 
taken  from  the  Portuguese  in  1622  by  an 
English  fleet  (Baffin,  the  Arctic  navi- 
gator, being  killed  in  the  action) ,  and 
given  to  Shah  Abbas  of  Persia,  who 
transferred  the  trade  to  his  port  of  Ban- 
dar Abbas,  12  miles  N,  W,  on  the  main- 
land. The  Portuguese  fort  still  stands, 
but  the  town  of  Ormuz  is  a  ruin.  The 
island  yields  salt  and  sulphur. 

ORMUZD,  in  Persian  mythology,  the 
beneficient  deity  of  the  Zoroastrian  re- 
ligion as  it  is  set  forth  in  the  Zenda- 
vesta.  According  to  this  system  (dual- 
ism), Ormuzd.  the  principle  of  light  and 
purity,  created  six  immortal  spirits,  then 
28  subordinate  spirits,  and  lastly  the 
souls  of  men,  while  Ahriman,  the  oppos- 
ing evil  principle,  produced  six  evil  an- 
gels with  sundry  subordinate  principles, 
leading,  however,  to  the  triumph  of  Or- 
muzd, when  Ahriman  will  acknowledge 
his  supremacy,  and  all  creatures  shall  be 
delivered  from  the  dominion  of  evil. 

ORNDORFF.  WILLIAM  RIDGELY, 
an  American  chemist,  bom  in  Baltimore, 
in  1862.  After  studying  at  Baltimore 
City  College  and  at  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity, and  at  several  other  universities 
in  Germany,  he  was  instructor  and  as- 
sistant professor  of  chemistry  at  Cor- 
nell University,  from  1887  to  1898.  He 
was  professor  of  organic  chemistry  from 
1902.    In  1890  he  served  as  special  agent 


ORNE 


50 


ORRIS    ROOT 


of  the  United  States  Census,  and  car- 
ried on  many  important  researches  in 
chemical  subjects,  and  was  a  member 
of  many  important  American  and  for- 
eign chemistry  societies.  He  wrote 
"Laboratory  Manual  of  Organic  Chem- 
istry" in  1894. 

ORNE,  a  department  of  France, 
formed  out  of  the  old  provinces  of  Nor- 
mandy, Alen?on,  and  Perche;  separated 
from  the  English  Channel  on  the  W.  by 
La  Manche  and  on  the  N.  by  Calvados; 
area,  2,371  square  miles;  pop.  about  300,- 
000.  A  range  of  wooded  hills,  nowhere 
rising  above  1,370  feet,  extends  across 
the  S.  of  the  department  from  E.  to  W., 
separating  the  streams  that  flow  N.  to 
the  English  Channel  from  those  that  go 
S.  to  the  Seine  and  Loire.  Though  the 
soil  is  fertile,  agriculture  is  not  in  an 
advanced  state.  Apple  and  pear  trees 
abound,  and  more  than  22,000,000  gal- 
lons of  cider  are  made  every  year.  Cat- 
tle and  horses  of  the  purest  Norman 
breed  are  reared.  There  are  cotton  and 
hemp  spinning,  and  cotton  and  linen 
weaving,  dyeing,  bleaching,  and  manu- 
facture of  gloves,  iron,  glass,  etc.  Fish- 
ing and  bee  keeping  are  carried  on. 
Capital,  Alengon. 

ORNITHOLOGY,  in  natural  science, 
the  methodical  study,  and  consequent 
knowledge  of  birds,  with  all  that  relates 
to  them.  It  embraces  caliology  (which 
treats  of  nests),  oology,  pterylology, and 
ornithotomy.  Its  earliest  literature 
dates  from  Aristotle  (384-322  B.  c),  and 
every  succeeding  age  has  added  its 
quota. 

ORNITHORHYNCHUS,  commonly 
called  duckbill  or  watermole,  in  zoology, 
the  sole  genus  of  the  family.  Premax- 
illa  and  the  mandible  expanded  anterior- 
ly, and  supporting  a  horny  beak;  teeth 
supplied  functionally  by  horny  struc- 
tures; legs  short,  fitted  for  swimming; 
feet  webbed,  each  with  five  well  develop- 
ed toes,  armed  with  large  claws,  and  be- 
yond which,  in  the  forefeet,  the  interdigi- 
tal  membrane  is  extended.  Tongue  not 
extensile;  tail  rather  short,  broad,  and 
depressed;  eyes  very  small;  fur  close  and 
soft,  A  single  species,  0.  paradoxus,  0. 
anatinus,  inhabits  Australia  and  Tas- 
mania. It  is  aquatic,  and  feeds  on  wa- 
ter insects,  small  mollusca,  and  worms. 
The  ornithorhynchus,  though  mammal- 
ian in  its  general  structure,  is  oviparous, 
laying  two  eggs  at  a  time.  These  are 
about  %  inches  in  the  longer,  and  % 
inches  in  the  shorter  diameter. 

^  ORONTES,  the  ancient  name  of  a 
river  in  Syria,  now  called  Nahr-el-Asi. 
It  rises  in  the  highest  part  of  Coele-Syria, 


near  Baalbek,  flows  N.  between  the 
mountains  of  Libanus,  as  far  as  the  city 
of  Antioch,  and  then  W.  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  through  a  total  course  of 
147  miles. 

ORPEN,  MAJOR  SIR  WILLIAM, 
British  painter.  He  was  born  in  Ire- 
land in  1878,  and  was  educated  at  the 
Dublin  Metropolitan  School  of  Art  and 
Slade  School.  He  won  much  prominence 
as  a  portrait  painter,  and  in  1918  had  a 
great  exhibition  of  his  war  pictures, 
many  of  which  he  presented  to  the  gov- 
ernment. His  painting  representing  the 
international  delegates  at  Versailles  in 
1919  was  completed  in  1920. 

ORPHAN  ASYLUM,  or  ORPHAN- 
AGE, an  establishment  in  which  orphans 
are  provided  for  and  educated.  In  all 
well  regulated  states  the  duty  of  taking 
care  of  destitute  orphans  was  recogniz- 
ed at  an  early  age,  and  it  appears  that 
the  cities  of  Thebes,  Athens,  and  Rome 
had  establishments  in  which  orphaned, 
deserted,  and  illegitimate  children  were 
supported  and  educated  at  the  public  ex- 
pense. In  the  Middle  Ages  such  asy- 
lums were  numerous  and  generally  un- 
der the  direction  of  the  clergy.  In  re- 
cent times  public  orphanages  have  been 
substituted  or  supplemented  by  the  farm- 
ing out  system,  that  is,  the  children  are 
brought  up  in  private  families  willing 
to  undertake  their  charge.  Orphan  asy- 
lums, as  conducted  in  the  United  States, 
are  supported  as  private  institutions,  as- 
sisted by  legislative  appropriation.  They 
are  fostered  also  by  the  religious  de- 
nominations. 

ORPHEUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  cel- 
ebrated mythic  bard,  said  to  have  been 
a  son  of  Apollo  or  (Eagrus,  King  of 
Thrace,  and  the  Muse  Calliope.  To- 
gether with  his  brother  Linus  he  was 
regarded  as  having  introduced  the  arts 
of  civilized  life  among  wild  and  untu- 
tored hordes. 

ORPIMENT,  in  mineralogy,  an  or- 
thorhombic  mineral  occurring  sometimes 
in  crystals,  mostly  as  cleavable  masses, 
earthy,  or  as  incrustations.  Composi- 
tion: Sulphur,  39.0;  arsenic,  61.0  =  100. 
Found  in  metalliferous  veins  with  real- 
gar at  many  localities. 

ORRERY,  in  astronomy,  a  planetary 
machine  to  illustrate  and  explain  the 
motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

ORRIS  ROOT,  in  botany,  the  rhizome 
of  Iris  ftorentina  and  /.  germanica, 
sometimes  called  violet-scented  orris  root. 

Orris-root  starch,  the  starch  or  flour 
of  the  root  of  7.  florentina,  used  in  the 


OBSINI 


51 


ORTHOPTERA 


manufacture  of  violet  powder,  and  for 
scenting  snuffs. 

ORSINI,  one  of  the  most  illustrious, 
and  powerful  families  of  Italy.  It  be- 
came known  about  the  11th  century,  and 
had  already  acquired  high  rank  and  ex- 
tensive possessions  in  the  Papal  States 
when  one  of  its  members,  Giovanni  Gae- 
tano,  was  raised  to  the  pontificate  under 
the  title  of  Nicholas  III.  (1277-1280). 
The  feud  between  the  Orsini  and  Colonna 
families  is  celebrated  in  history.  Many 
of  the  Orsini  became  famous  military 
chiefs.  Vincenzo  Marco  Orsini  (Bene- 
dict XIII.)  succeeded  Innocent  XIII.  as 
Pope  in  1724.  The  Orsini  family  is  now 
divided  into  two  branches,  the  Orsini- 
Gravina  at  Rome  and  the  Orsini  of  Pied- 
mont. 

ORSINI,  CARDINAL.  See  Bene- 
dict XIII. 

ORSOVA,  the  name  ol  two  towns  on 
the  Danube  near  the  Iron  Gates.  Old 
Orsova,  a  Hungarian  place,  is  478  miles 
S.  E.  of  Vienna,  and  is  a  station  for  the 
Danube  steamers.  New  Orsova,  on  the 
Serbian  side,  is  a  fortified  town  held  by 
Austria  (since  1878),  who  also  were  mas- 
ters of  it  between  1716  and  1738;  the 
Turks  held  it  both  before  1716  and  after 
1738.  In  1890-1896  a  costly  canal  and 
other  works  were  made  for  facilitating 
navigation  at  the  rocky  bend  called  the 
Iron  Gates. 

ORTEGAL,  CAPE,  the  N.  W.  point  of 
Spain. 

ORTH,  SAMUEL  PETER,  an  Ameri- 
can educator,  born  at  Capac,  Mich.,  in 
1873.  Graduated  Oberlin  College  in 
1896  and  took  post  gn^aduate  courses  at 
the  University  of  Michigan  and  Colum- 
bia University.  From  1897  to  1902  he 
was  professor  of  political  and  social  sci- 
ence of  Buchtel  College.  From  1903  to 
1912  he  practiced  law  in  Cleveland.  In 
the  latter  year  he  became  professor  of 
political  science  in  Cornell  University, 
and  was  lecturer  on  law  and  economic 
subjects  in  several  colleges  and  univer- 
sities. He  was  president  of  the  Board 
of  Education  in  Cleveland  in  1904.  He 
accompanied  the  Cook  Arctic  expedition 
to  Greenland  in  1894  and  wrote  "Five 
American  Politicians"  (1903);  "Social- 
ism and  Democracy  in  Europe"  (1913) ; 
"Imperial  Impulse"  (1916). 

ORTHEZ,  a  town  in  the  French  de- 
partment of  Basses-Pyrenees,  on  the 
bank  of  the  Gave  de  Pau,  41  miles  E. 
of  Bayonne.  The  "Tower  of  Moncade" 
(1240),  the  stately  castle  of  the  counts 
of  Foix,  which  Froissart  visited  in  1388, 
was    reduced   to    a    ruin   by    Richelieu. 


Near  Orthez  Wellington  gained  a  decis- 
ive victory  over  Soult,  Feb.  27,  1814. 

ORTHOCLASE,  in  mineralogy,  a 
monoclinic  species  of  the  felspar  group 
of  unisilicates.  Dana  distinguishes  the 
following  varieties:  1.  Ordinary,  (1) 
adularia,  including  moonstone  and  valen- 
cianite;  (2)  sunstone,  or  aventurine  fel- 
spar; (3)  necronite;  (4)  amazon  stone, 
now  referred  to  microcoline;  (5)  ery- 
thrite;  (6)  sanidine,  or  glassy  felspar; 
(7)  chesterlite,  now  referred  to  micro- 
cline;  (8)  microcline  of  breithaupt;  (9) 
loxoclase;  (10)  paradoxite;  (11)  cot- 
taite;  (12)  muldan;  (13)  lazurf elspar ; 
(14)  perthite;  (15)  murchisonite.  2. 
Compact  orthoclase  or  orthoclase-felsite, 
including  massive  kinds  constituting 
rocks;  it  is  an  essential  constituent  of 
many  rocks,  granites,  gneisses,  syenites, 
etc. 

ORTHODOX,  holding  the  right  or 
true  faith;  sound  in  opinion  or  doctrine; 
especially  in  religious  opinions  or  doc- 
trines ;  opposed  to  heterodox  and  heret- 
ical. 

ORTHOEPY,  the  art  of  uttering 
words  correctly;  correct  speech  or  pro- 
nunciation. 

ORTHOGRAPHY,  the  art,  practice, 
or  habit  of  spelling  words  correctly  ac- 
cording to  the  recognized  usage;  correct 
or  proper  spelling;  as,  the  orthography 
of  a  word.  Also  that  part  of  grammar 
which  deals  with  the  nature  and  proper- 
ties of  letters.  In  architecture  and 
draughting,  the  elevation  of  a  building, 
showing  all  the  parts  thereof  in  their 
true  proportions;  the  orthography  is 
either  external  or  internal.  The  ex- 
ternal is  the  delineation  of  the  outer  face 
or  front  of  a  building;  the  internal  is  a 
section  of  the  same. 

ORTHOP-ffiDIA,  a  branch  of  medical 
science  relating  to  the  cure  of  natural 
deformities.  Orthopaedia  is  divided  into 
prophylactic  or  preventive,  and  thera- 
peutic or  curative.  The  object  of  the 
former  is  to  prevent  deformities  in  in- 
fants, and  is  obtained  by  hygienic  means, 
such  as  pure  air,  careful  nursing,  ana 
suitable  food,  clothing,  and  exercise ;  that 
of  the  latter  is  to  correct  deformities  al- 
ready existing  by  mechanical  treatment. 

ORTHOPTERA,  in  entomology  an 
order  of  the  class  Insecta,  having  four 
densely  reticulated  wings,  the  anterior 
more  or  less  coriaceous,  the  posterior 
folded  under  them,  and  membranous; 
sometimes  apterous.  In  the  most  typi- 
cal groups  the  wings  are  deflexed  and 
closely  applied  to  the  body.  Mouth  man- 
dibulate,  metamorphosis  incomplete. 


ORTLEB-SPITZE  52 

ORTLER-SPITZE,     or     OBTLER,     a 

mountain  of  the  Alps,  in  Tyrol,  near  the 
borders  of  Switzerland  and  Italy,  the 
highest  of  the  Austrian  and  German 
Alps;  height,  12,814  feet.  The  group 
to  which  this  mountain  belongs  is  known 
as  the  Ortler  Alps. 

ORTOLAN,  a  gardener.  In  ornithology, 
Emberiza  hortulana,  a  native  of  conti- 
nental Europe  and  Western  Asia,  migrat- 
ing S.  in  winter,  though  it  is  unknown 
whither,  returning  about  the  end  of 
April  or  the  end  of  May.  In  appearance 
and  habits  it  much  resembles  the  yellow- 
hammer,  but  the  head  is  greenish-gray. 

ORTON,  EDWARD,  JR.,  an  Ameri- 
can educator,  born  in  Chester,  N.  Y.  in 
1863.  He  graduated  from  Ohio  State 
University  in  1884  and  for  four  years 
afterwards  served  as  chemist  in  a  blast 
furnace.  He  was  the  first  to  begin  the 
manufacture  of  "ferro-silicon"  as  an  al- 
loy of  iron  in  the  United  States,  Large- 
ly through  his  efforts  a  school  for  in- 
struction in  the  technology  of  clay,  glass 
and  cement  industries  was  established. 
From  1902  to  1906  he  was  dean  of  the 
College  of  Engineering  at  the  Ohio  State 
University,  serving  again  in  that  ca- 
pacity from  1910  to  1916.  He  served  as 
major  in  the  Quartermaster  Service  in 
1917.  He  was  a  member  of  many  im- 
portant professional  societies.  He  wrote 
many  reports  on  clay  industries  _  and 
many  technical  articles  for  professional 
magazines. 

ORTYX,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  of 
Perdicinie;  bill  short,  very  high,  the  tip 
hooked;  lateral  toes,  unequal;  hinder  toe, 
none,  confined  to  America.  O.  virginia- 
tiiis  is  the  Virginian  quaiL 

ORURO,  capital  of  the  department  of 
Oruro,  in  Bolivia;  on  a  saline  plain  11,- 
960  feet  above  the  sea,  near  the  salt  lake 
of  Aullagas,  and  possesses  mines  of  sil- 
ver, gold,  and  tin.  Founded  in  1606,  it 
had  70,000  inhabitants  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury, pop.  about  25,000. 

ORVIETO,  a  city  of  Italy,  province  of 
Perugia;  78  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Rome; 
crowns  an  isolated  tufa  rock,  which  rises 
765  feet  above  the  river  Pagalia,  and 
1,327  above  sea-level.  The  cruciform 
cathedral  (1290-1580),  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  richly  adorned  specimens 
of  Italian  (Jothic,  is  built  of  black  and 
white  marble,  and  measures  295  feet  by 
109.  The  interior  also  is  magnificently 
decorated  with  sculptures  and  with  paint- 
ings by  Luca  Signorelli,  Fra  Angelico, 
etc.  The  bishop's  palace  and  St.  Pat- 
rick's Well  (1527-1540),  with  its  250 
steps,     are     also     noteworthy.     Orvieto, 


O'RYAN 

called  in  the  7th  century  A.  D.  Urbs  Vetus 
in  the  Middle  Ages  gave  shelter  to  32 
Popes.  Pop.  (1911)  with  suburbs,  about 
20,000. 

O'RYAN,  JOHN  F.,  an  American 
army  officer.  He  was  born  in  New 
York,  1874,  and  after  attending  Catho- 
lic public  schools,  studied  at  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York  from  1890  to 
1893.  In  1898  he  graduated  as  LL.B. 
from  New  York  University,  being  in 
the  same  year  admitted  to  the  bar,  be- 
coming member   of   the   firm   Corbin   & 


GENERAL  JOHN  F.   O'RYAN 

O'Ryan.  In  1897  he  enlisted  as  a  pri- 
vate in  Company  G,  7th  Infantry,  Na- 
tional Guard,  New  York  and  from  1900 
commanded  as  second  lieutenant  the  2d 
Battery.  He  became  first  lieutenant  in 
1904,  and  captain  of  the  1st  Battery  in 
1907.  In  1911  he  was  promoted  Ma- 
jor of  the  2d  Battalion  Field  Artillery 
and  in  1912  became  Major-General  com- 
manding the  National  Guard  of  New 
York.  He  commanded  the  New  York 
Division  on  the  Mexican  border  in  1916 
and  after  the  United  States  had  declar- 
ed war  with  the  Central  Powers  was  in 
1917  appointed  by  President  Wilson  com- 
mander of  the  27th  Division,  National 
Guard,  and  later  Major-General  in  Eu- 
rope. He  was  through  all  the  campaigns 
with  the  National  Guard  during  the 
World  War,  and  on  his  return  to  the 
United  States  with  his  war-tried  veter- 
ans in  1919  was  given  a  great  popular 
reception. 


ORYX 


53 


OSBORN 


ORYX,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  Bovidx; 
according  to  Sir  Victor  Brooke,  typical 
of  the  sub-family  Oryginx.  Four  spe- 
cies are  known:  0.  leucoryx,  the  Leu- 
coryx,  from  Northeastern  and  Western 
Africa;  O.  gazella,  the  gemsbok,  from 
Southern  Africa;  O.  heisa,  the  beisa  an- 
telope, from  Eastern  Africa,  and  the 
coasts  of  the  Red  Sea;  and  O.  beatrix, 
from  Arabia. 

OSAGE  ORANGE  (Madura  auranti- 
aca) ,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Mora- 
cess,  a  native  of  North  America.  It  at- 
tains a  height  varying,  according  to  soil 
and  situation,  from  20  to  60  feet.  It  is 
of  the  same  genus  with  fustic,  and  its 
wood,  which  is  bright  yellow,  probably 
might  be  used  for  dyeing.  The  wood  is 
fine  grained  and  very  elastic,  and  takes  a 
high  polish;  it  is  much  used  for  fence- 
posts,  sleepers,  paving-blocks,  etc.  The 
tree  is  largely  employed  in  the  United 
States,  especially  in  the  West,  as  a  hedge 
plant;  it  has  also  been  introduced  into 
Great  Britain  for  tl^at  purpose.  Its 
fruit,  about  the  size  of  a  large  orange, 
is  seldom  eaten. 

OSAGES,  a  tribe  of  North  American 
Indians,  about  1,500  in  number,  living  on 
a  reservation  in  the  N.  part  of  the  State 
of  Oklahoma.  It  is  said  to  be  the  rich- 
est community  in  the  world.  They  own 
nearly  1,500,000  acres,  most  of  it  leased 
to  oil  companies. 

OSAKA,  or  OZAKA,  an  important  city 
of  Central  Japan,  at  the  head  of  the  gulf 
of  the  same  name.  The  city  covers  an 
area  of  about  8  square  miles  and  is  in- 
tersected with  canals.  Its  fine  castle, 
the  stones  of  whose  walls  are  of  aston- 
ishing size,  was  constructed  by  Hidey- 
oshi's  orders  in  1583,  and  the  palace, 
built  afterward  in  its  precincts  and  de- 
stroyed in  1868,  was  perhaps  the  most 
magnificent  structure  in  Japan.  Osaka 
is  the  great  commercial  center  of  the 
empire,  and  the  headquarters  of  the  rice 
and  tea  trade.  Its  port  does  not  admit 
of  the  entrance  of  large  vessels.  There 
is  a  foreign  settlement,  mostly  occupied 
by  missionaries.  Osaka  was  ravaged  by 
destructive  fires  in  1910  and  1912.  Pop. 
about  1,500,000. 

OSBORN,  CHASE  SALMON,  an 
American  public  official,  born  in  Hunt- 
ington CO.,  Ind.,  in  1860.  After  studying 
at  Purdue  University  he  entered  news- 
paper work  at  Lafayette,  Ind.  In  sev- 
eral years  following  he  did  newspaper 
work  in  Chicago  and  Milwaukee.  He 
became  a.  newspaper  publisher  in  Flor- 
ence, Wis.,  and  afterwards  purchased  and 
published  other  newspapers  in  Michi- 
gan.    He    served   in    various    public   ca- 


pacities and  was  commissioner  of  rail- 
roads from  1899  to  1903.  He  was  elect- 
ed governor  of  Michigan  in  1911.  He 
wrote  "The  Andean  Land"  in  1909. 

OSBORN,   HENRY  FAIRFIELD,   an 

American  scientist  and  author.  He  was 
born  in  1857  at  Fairfield,  Conn.,  and  af- 
ter graduating  at  Princeton  in  1877,  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  paleontolo- 
gy. In  1881  he  became  instructor  at 
Princeton  in  natural  science  and  two 
years  later  professor  of  anatomy,  leav- 
ing in  1890  to  teach  zoology  at  Columbia 
University.  He  was  twenty  years  at 
Columbia,  filling  the  post  of  dean  of 
natural  science  part  of  the  time,  and  that 
of  curator  of  vertebrate  palaeontology  in 
the  American  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory. While  engaged  in  teaching,  his 
research  and  exploration  work  widened 
the  field  of  natural  history  and  his  re- 
construction of  prehistoric  mammals 
drew  the  attention  of  scientists  all  the 
world  over.  In  1908  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  Nat- 
ural History  Museum,  and  has  acted  as 
palagontologist  to  the  geological  surveys 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  He 
was  official  or  president  of  several  so- 
cieties working  in  his  field,  among  them 
the  Bison  Society,  and  the  Morphologi- 
cal Society.  His  first  published  work, 
which  appeared  in  1890,  was  "Evolution 
and  Heredity."  Since  then  he  wrote 
"From  the  Greeks  to  Darwin";  "Heredi- 
tary Mechanism";  "Evolution  of  Mam- 
malian Molar  Teeth";  "The  Age  of 
Mammals";  "Hu-xley  and  Education"; 
''Men  of  the  Stone  Age." 

OSBORN,    HENRY    STAFFORD,    an 

American  educator;  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Aug.  17,  1823;  graduated  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  in  1841,  Union 
Theological  Seminary  1846.  He  held 
several  pastorates  and  was  Professor  of 
Mining  and  Metallurgy'  in  Lafayette  Col- 
lege in  1866-1870;  and  Miami  University 
till  1873,  when  he  devoted  himself  to 
elaborating  his  surveys  of  noted  places  in 
Biblical  history,  and  preparing  a  set  of 
maps  of  the  Holy  Land  that  have  become 
standards.  Among  his  publications  are: 
"Palestine,  Past  and  Present"  (1855); 
"Scientific  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel 
in  the  United  States"  (1870);  "Ancient 
Egypt  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Discover- 
ies" (1885) ;  "Biblical  History  and  Geog- 
raphy" (1888)  ;  etc.  He  died  in  New 
York  City,  Feb.  2,  1894. 

OSBORN.  HERBERT,  an  American 
biologist,  born  at  Lafayette,  Wis.,  in 
1856.  He  graduated  from  Iowa  State 
College  in  1879.  He  served  as  professor 
of  zoology  at  that  institution  from  1885 


OSBORN 


54 


OSCAR    II. 


to  189S.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed state  entomologist  of  Iowa.  He 
was  director  of  the  Lake  Laboratory  of 
Ohio  University  in  1898  and  was  direc- 
tor of  Ohio  Biological  Survey  in  1912. 
He  was  a  member  of  many  important 
American  and  foreign  professional  so- 
cieties. He  wrote  much  on  entomology. 
His  most  important  works  are  "Eco- 
nomic Zoology"  (1908) ;  "Economic  En- 
tomology (1916).  He  also  contributed 
many  articles  to  professional  journals. 

OSBORN,  LAUGHTON,  an  American 
artist  and  author,  born  in  New  York 
City  in  1809.  He  graduated  at  Colum- 
bia College  in  1827.  His  works  include: 
"Sixty  Years  of  Life"  (1831);  "Vision 
of  Rubeta"  (1838);  "Arthur  Carryl" 
1841;  "Travels  by  Sea  and  Land"  (1868). 
He  died  in  New  York  City,  Dec.  12,  1878. 

OSBORNE,      THOMAS      MOTT.     An 

American  penologist  and  manufacturer, 
born  in  1859,  and  a  graduate  of  the  class 
of  '84  at  Harvard.  Upon  entering  busi- 
ness he  became  president  of  the  Auburn 
Publishing  Company  and  was  associated 
in  an  official  capacity  with  many  other 
firms.  At  his  birthplace,  Auburn,  N.  Y. 
he  took  an  active  interest  in  politics,  be- 
ing mayor  of  the  city  from  1903-1905. 
His  interest  at  this  time  was  aroused  by 
conditions  in  prisons  and  he  became  a 
member  of  the  National  Committee  on 
Prison  Reform.  In  1913  he  had  himself 
committed  to  the  Auburn  State  Prison 
the  better  to  study  the  conditions  of  the 
prisoners.  From  1914-1916  he  was  war- 
den of  Sing  Sing  prison,  where  his  hu- 
mane work  attracted  national  attention. 

OSBORNE,   WILLIAM  HAMILTON, 

an  American  lawyer  and  writer,  born  at 
Newark,  N.  J.,  in  1873.  He  was  a  gradu- 
ate of  the  common  schools  and  studied 
law  at  the  New  York  Law  School.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1894.  He 
practiced  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey. 
He  wrote  "The  Red  Mouse"  (1909); 
"The  Running  Fight"  (1910) ;  "How  to 
Make  Your  Will"  (1917).  He  also  con- 
tributed to  many  magazines. 

OSBORNE  SERIES,  a  series  of  beds 
of  Oligocene  age,  found  at  or  near  Os- 
borne, in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  They  were 
deposited  in  fresh  and  brackish  water. 
There  are,  of  animals,  peculiar  species 
of  Paludina,  Melania,  Melanopsis,  and 
Cypris,  and  of  plants,  Chara.  One  bed 
is  the  Nettlestone  Grit,  near  Ryde,  which 
is  a  freestone  much  used  for  building. 
Called  also  the  St.  Helen's  series. 

OSBOURNE,  LLOYD,  an  American 
author,  born  in  San  Francisco,  Cal., 
1868;   son  of  Fanny  Van  de  Grift  Os- 


bourne,  who  afterward  married  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson.  Educated  in  private 
schools  and  University  of  Edinburgh. 
Was  United  States  vice-consul  at  Samoa 
in  1897.  Among  his  best  known  books 
are:  "The  Wrong  Box"  (with  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson)  (1889);  "The  Queen 
vs.  Billy"  (1900)  ;  "The  Motor  Maniacs" 
(1905) ;  "A  Person  of  Some  Importance" 
(1911);  and,  with  Austin  Strong  wrote 
"The  Exile,"  which  was  played  by  Mar- 
tin Harvey. 

OSCANS,  the  name  of  an  Italian  peo- 
ple who  at  an  early  period  occupied  Cam- 
pania, and  were  either  closely  allied  to 
or  the  same  race  as  the  Ausones.  Sub- 
sequently (about  423  B.  C.)  Samnites 
from  the  hilly  districts  to  the  N.  over- 
ran the  country  and  amalgamated  with 
the  inhabitants  whom  they  had  subju- 
gated; and  the  names  Osci  and  Oscan 
language  were  subsequently  applied  to 
all  the  other  races  and  dialects  whose  ori- 
gin was  nearly  or  wholly  the  same.  The 
Oscan  language  was  not  substantially 
different  from  the  Latin,  but  only  a  rud- 
er and  more  primitive  form  of  the  same 
central  Italian  tongue.  By  the  victories 
of  the  Romans  over  the  Samnites,  and  the 
conferring  of  the  civitas  on  all  the  Ital- 
ians (88  B.  c),  an  end  was  put  to  the 
official  use  of  the  Oscan  tongue;  never- 
theless, in  the  time  of  Varro  (1st 
century  B.  c.)  it  was  still  used  by  the 
people. 

OSCAR  I.,  JOSEPH  FRANCOIS 
BERNADOTTE,  King  of  Sweden  and 
Norway,  son  of  Bernadotte  (Charles 
XIV.) ;  born  in  Paris,  France,  July  4, 
1799.  In  1823  he  married  Josephine, 
eldest  daughter  of  Prince  Eugene  Beau- 
harnais.  During  the  reign  of  his  father 
he  was  three  times  (in  1824,  1828,  and 
1833)  viceroy  of  Norway,  where  he  made 
himself  popular  by  his  good  administra- 
tion. He  acceded  to  the  throne  in  1844. 
He  took  little  part  in  foreign  politics  and 
resigned  in  favor  of  his  eldest  son  in 
1857.     He  died  July  8,  1859. 

OSCAR  II.,  King  of  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way; born  Jan.  21,  1829,  a  great-grand- 
son of  Napoleon  I.'s  famous  general, 
Marshal  Bernadotte,  the  first  king  of  the 
new  independent  kingdom  of  Norway. 
He  ascended  the  throne  in  1872,  in  suc- 
cession to  his  brother,  Charles  XV.  He 
was  an  excellent  scholar  and  writer,  and 
translated  Goethe's  "Faust"  into  Swedish. 
Issued  in  1888  a  volume  of  minor  poems 
under  his  nom  de  plume  of  "Oscar  Fred- 
erik."  He  married,  in  1857,  the  Prin- 
cess Sophia  of  Nassau,  by  whom  he  had 
four  sons.  Norway  withdrew  from  him 
in  1905,  and  he  refused  a  scion  of  his 


OSCEOLA  55 

house  to  that  throne,  therefore  she  turn- 
ed to  Denmark.     He  died  Dec.  8,  1907. 

OSCEOLA,  a  chief  of  the  Seminole  In- 
dians; born  in  Florida  about  1818;  was 
the  son  of  an  Indian  trader  called  Pow- 
ell. In_  1835,  while  on  a  visit  to  Fort 
King,  his  wife  was  claimed  as  a  slave,  as 
being  the  daughter  of  a  fugitive  slave 
woman,  and  carried  off  as  such.  Osceola 
resolved  upon  vengeance,  and  some 
months  afterward,  finding'  General 
Thompson  outside  of  the  fort,  killed  him 
and  six  other  whites  in  his  company,  Dec. 
28,  1835.  Such  was  the  beginning  of 
the  second  Seminole  War,  during  which 
Osceola  defeated  the  United  States 
troops  in  several  engagements.  On  Oct. 
23,  1837,  while  holding  a  conference  un- 
der a  flag  of  truce  with  General  Jessup, 
near  St.  Augustine,  he  was  treacherous- 
ly seized  and  kept  in  confinement  in 
Fort  Moultrie  till  his  death,  in  1838. 

OSCILLATION,  the  vibration  of  recip- 
rocal ascent  and  descent  of  a  pendulous 
body.  The  problem  of  oscillation,  in  its 
widest  sense,  _  includes  most  of  those 
which  occur  in  astronomy,  optics,  etc. 
To  their  average  motions,  the  moon  and 
planets  add  small  oscillations  about  their 
mean  places;  the  tides  consists  of  oscilla- 
tions of  the  ocean,  etc.  In  general  lan- 
guage, however,  the  problem  of  oscilla- 
tion refers  only  to  the  purely  theoretical 
part  of  the  problem  of  the  pendulum. 

O'SHAUGHNESSY,  ARTHUR  WIL- 
LIAM EDGAR,  an  English  poet ;  born  in 
1844.  In  1864  he  entered  the  British 
Museum.  He  was  a  follower  of  Morris 
and  Swinburne  and  of  the  French  ro- 
mantic school.  He  published  between 
1870  and  1881:  "An  Epic  of  Women"; 
"Lays  of  France,"  a  free  paraphrase  of 
the  lais  of  Marie  de  France;  "Music  and 
Moonlight";  and  "Songs  of  a  Worker." 
He  died  in  1881. 

O'SHAUGHNESSY,  EDITH  COUES 
(MRS.    NELSON    O'SHAUGHNESSY), 

an  American  writer,  born  in  Columbia, 
S.  C.  She  was  educated  privately  and 
married  Nelson  O'Shaughnessy  in  1901. 
She  \vrote  "A  Diplomat's  Wife  in 
Mexico"  (1916) ;  "Diplomatic  Days  in 
Mexico"  (1917).  During  the  war  she 
was  engaged  in  relief  work  in  France. 

O'SHAUGHNESSY,  NELSON,  an 
American  diplomat,  born  in  New  York 
in  1876.  Graduated  Georgetown  Col- 
lege in  1892,  and  afterward  studied  at 
Oxford  University.  After  making  a 
study  of  international  law  and  foreign 
languages  in  Europe,  he  returned  to  the 
United  States.  He  was  appointed  secre- 
tary of  the  legation  of  Copenhagen  in 


OSIER 

1904,  and  served  in  this  position  and 
many  other  legations  in  Eui'ope  and 
America.  In  1913  he  was  Charge  de 
Affaires  in  Mexico,  continuing  during  the 
period  of  General  Huerta's  rule  in  that 
country.  In  1914  he  was  appointed 
special  diplomatic  agent  at  Vienna  and 
was  first  secretary  of  the  Embassy  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  in  1915.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  retired  from  diplomatic  ser- 
vice. He  took  an  active  part  in  war 
work  in  France  during  the  World  War. 

O'SHEA,  MICHAEL  VINCENT,  an 
American  educator  and  author.  He  was 
born  at  Le  Roy,  N.  Y.,  in  1866,  studied 
at  Cornell,  where  he  graduated  in  1892, 
immediately  entering  the  State  Normal 
School  at  Mankato,  Minn.,  as  instructor. 
Later  he  taught  at  Buffalo  Teachers' 
College  and  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
at  the  same  time  editing  journals  con- 
nected with  education,  and  presiding 
over  the  Society  of  College  Teachers. 
His  works  include:  "Aspects  of  Mental 
Economy";  "Education  as  Adjustment"; 
"Method  and  Management  in  Teaching"; 
"Dynamic  Factors  in  Education";  "So- 
cial Development  and  Education";  and 
"Health  and   Cleanliness." 

OSHIMA,  a  designation  given  to 
about  20  different  localities  in  Japan. 
The  most  important  of  this  name  is  an 
island  about  100  miles  long,  reaching 
toward  the  Bonin  Islands.  It  has  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  5,000.  The  chief  indus- 
try is  fishing.  The  name  is  also  given 
to  another  island  of  the  Luchu  archipel- 
ago. This  ^  is  about  34  miles  long  and 
17  miles  wide. 

OSHKOSH,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Winnebago  co.,  Wis.,  on  both  sides  of 
the  Fox  river,  and  on  the  Minneapolis, 
St.  Paul  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  the  Chi- 
cago and  Northwestern,  and  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  railroads. 
Here  are  the  court  house,  city  hall, 
United  States  government  building,  pub- 
lic library,  high  school.  School  of  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb,  State  Normal  School, 
County  Hospital  for  the  Incurable  In- 
sane, the  Northern  State  Hospital  for 
the  Insane,  street  railroad  and  electric 
light  plant,  waterworks.  National  and 
state  banks,  parks,  and  several  daily 
and  weekly  newspapers.  It  has  a  large 
lumbering  industry,  manufactories  of 
carriages  and  wagons,  machinery,  tobac- 
co and  flour,  and  meat  packing  plants. 
Pop.    (1910)    33,062;    (1920)   33,162. 

OSIER,  in  botany,  salix  viminalis,  a 
willow  with  linear  lanceolate  acuminate 
leaves,  reticulate  above  and  silky  be- 
neath; golden  yellow,  sessile  catkins  open- 
ing before  the  leaves,  etc.,  and  tomentose 


OSIRIS 


56 


OSMTJNDA 


capsules.  Cultivated  in  osier  beds,  its 
long  pliable  shoots  being  used  for  wicker- 
work  basket  making. 

OSims,  in  Egyptian  mythology,  one 
of  the  chief  Egyptian  divinities,  the 
brother  and  husband  of  Isis,  and,  to- 
gether with  her,  the  greatest  benefactor 
of  Egypt,  into  which  he  introduced  a 
knowledge  of  religion,  laws  and  the  arts 
and  sciences.  His  principal  office,  as  an 
Egyptian  deity,  was  to  judge  the  dead, 
and  to  rule  over  that  kingdom  into  which 
the  souls  of  the  good  were  admitted  to 
eternal  felicity.  He  was  that  attribute 
of  the  deity  which  signified  the  divine 
goodness;  and  as  an  avatar,  or  manifes- 
tation of  the  divinity  on  earth,  he  was 
superior  to  any  even  of  the  Egyptian 
gods.  He  was  styled  Manifester  of 
Good,  President  of  the  West,  Lord  of  the 
East,  Lord  of  Lords,  Eternal  Ruler,  King 
of  the  Gods,  etc.  He  was  venerated  un- 
der the  form  of  the  sacred  bulls  Apis  and 
Mnevis;  or  as  a  human  figure  with  a 
bull's  head,  distinguished  by  the  name 
Apis-Osiris,  and  is  usually  represented 
as  clad  in  pure  white.  His  general  at- 
tributes are  the  high  cap  of  Upper 
Egypt,  a  flagellum,  and  sometimes  a 
spotted  skin.  Under  the  form  of  the  sa- 
cred bull  Apis  he  was  supposed  to  be  al- 
ways present  among  men. 

OSKALOOSA,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Mahaska  co.,  la.;  between  Des  Moines 
and  Keokuk  rivers,  and  on  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island,  and  Pacific,  the  Burlington 
Route,  and  the  Minneapolis  and  St.  Louis 
railroads;  62  miles  S.  E.  of  Des  Moines. 
It  contains  Oskaloosa  College  (Chris- 
tian), Penn  College  (Friends),  a  busi- 
ness college,  preparatory  and  normal 
schools,  high  school,  public  library,  elec- 
tric lights.  National  and  state  banks, 
and  a  number  of  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers. It  is  in  a  rich  coal,  iron,  lime- 
stone, and  fire^  clay  region,  and  has  man- 
ufactories of  iron  and  brass  goods,  iron 
furnaces,  vitrified  brick  works,  woolen 
goods  and  flour  mills,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
9,466;    (1920)   9,427. 

OSLER,  SIR  WILLIAM.  Physician 
and  author.  He  was  born  in  1849  at 
Bondhead,  Ontario,  Canada,  and  gradu- 
ated as  M.D.  from  McGill  University, 
Montreal,  in  1872,  after  studying  also 
in  England,  Germany,  and  Austria.  On 
returning  from  abroad  he  taught  path- 
ology at  McGill,  and  in  1884  was  named 
professor  of  clinical  medicine  at  Penn- 
sylvania University  and  five  years  later 
of  medicine  at  Johns  Hopkins.  In  1905 
he  went  to  live  in  England,  and  after 
six  years*  residence  there  was  made  a 
baronet,  having  lectured  at  Oxford  and 


at  St.  George's  Hospital,  London.  Osier 
was  a  voluminous  essayist  and  wrote 
much  on  cancer,  chorea,  blood  platelets, 
displaying  much  originality.  He  gained 
considerable  notoriety  by  putting  forty 
as  almost  the  terminus  to  the  age  of  hu- 
man usefulness,  but  his  extravagance  on 
the  one  side  was  balanced  by  contribu- 
tions in  his  special  field  on  the  other. 
During    the    World    War    he    presided 


SIR  WILLIAM   OSLER 

over  the  medical  departments  of  the  Brit- 
ish forces,  and  organized  several  medical 
units.  His  works  include:  "Histology 
Notes";  "Cerebral  Palsies  of  Children"; 
"Principles  and  Practice  of  Medicine"; 
"Science  and  Immortality" ;  "Counsel  and 
Ideals";  "An  Alabama  Student";  "A 
Way  of  Life."    He  died  in  1919. 

OSMAN.     See  Othman. 

OSMIUM,  in  chemistry,  a  tetrad  me- 
tallic element,  discovered  by  Tennant  in 
1804;  symbol,  Os;  at.  virt.,  190.9;  occurs 
combined  with  iridium,  forming  the  na- 
tive alloy  osmiridium,  in  platinum  ore. 

OSMOSE,  in  chemistry,  osmosis,  the 
mixing  of  dissimilar  substances  through 
a  porous  diaphragm — a  phenomenon  due 
to  the  attraction  which  the  liquids  have 
for  each  other. 

OSMTJNDA,  in  botany,  fern  royal,  os- 
mund  royal,  or  flowering  fern;  the  typi- 
cal genus  of  Osmundese.  Six  are  known. 
One,    O.    regalis,    the    common    osmund 


OSNABBUCK  57 

royal,  or  flowering  fern,  is  the  noblest  of 
domestic  ferns;  the  fronds  are  bipin- 
nate,  fertile  at  the  top.  It  is  frequent  in 
boggy  places  and  the  wet  morasses  of 
woods  in  the  W.  of  Scotland  and  the  S. 
of  Ireland.  Found  also  in  England, 
Continental  Europe,  Asia,  and  Canada. 
The  powdered  stem  has  been  used  suc- 
cessfully in  rickets,  the  dose  being  three 
drachms.  Sometimes  this  fern  has  been 
called   bog  onion. 

OSNABBirCK,  a  town  of  Prussia; 
province  of  Hanover,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Hase,  75  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Bremen.  Its 
great  Catholic  cathedral,  in  the  Transi- 
tion style  of  the  first  half  of  the  13th 
century,  is  rich  in  relics  and  monuments ; 
and  the  town  hall  (1486-1512)  contains 
portraits  of  all  the  plenipotentiaries  who 
here,  Oct.  24,  1648,  signed  the  peace  of 
Westphalia.  Osnabruck  has  important 
iron  and  steel  works,  and  manufactures 
of  railway  plants,  agricultural  machin- 
ery, gas-meters,  paper,  tobacco,  etc.  It 
suffered  much  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
(1618-1648),  but  recovered,  thanks  to  its 
linen  industry,  during  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  name  Osnaburgs  given  to 
coarse  linens  is  derived  hence.  Pop. 
about  75,000. 

OSPREY,  or  OSPBAY,  in  ornithology, 
Pandion  haliaetus,  the  fish  hawk,  bald 
buzzard,  or  fishing  eagle.  A  bird  of 
prey,  of  almost  world-wide  distribution, 
subsisting  on  fish.  The  osprey  is  about 
two  feet  long,  with  a  wing  expanse  nearly 
three  times  as  great.  The  plumage  is 
dark  brown,  white  on  the  under  surface, 


OSSOLI 


AMERICAN   OSPREY 

with  a  few  streaks  of  brown  on  the 
throat;  crown  light  brown  edged  with 
white,  and  a  streak  of  dark  brown  from 
the  eye  to  the  shoulders.  Ospreys  nest 
usually  near  the  seashore,  and,  unlike 
rapacious  birds  generally,  are  in  some 
measure  gregarious.  In  North  America 
large  communities  of  ospreys  are  found. 
They  lay  three  or  four  eggs  of  a  rich  red 


to  huffy  white,  with  large  reddish  and 
brown  markings. 

OSSA,  the  ancient  name  of  a  mountain 
on  the  E.  side  of  Thessaly,  near  Pelion, 
and  separated  from  Olympus  by  the  vale 
of  Tempe.  The  ancients  placed  the  seat 
of  the  Centaurs  and  Giants  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Pelion  and  Ossa. 

OSSIAN,  a  mythical  Gaelic  hero  and 
bard,  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  3d  cen- 
tury, and  to  have  been  the  son  of  Fingal, 
a  Caledonian  hero,  whom  he  accompanied 
in  various  military  expeditions.  His 
name  has  derived  its  celebrity  from  the 
publications  of  Macpherson,  who,  about 
1760,  gave  to  the  world,  as  the  "Poems 
of  Ossian,"  a  remarkable  series  of  bal- 
lads. 

OSSIFICATION,  the  formation  of 
bone.  In  the  growth  of  the  skeleton  of 
man  and  the  higher  animals,  this  process 
goes  on  naturally,  and  it  occurs  in  the 
reproduction  of  new  bones  after  the  de- 
struction or  loss  of  old  ones.  Ossifica- 
tion also  occurs  as  an  unnatural  or  mor- 
bid process.  It  occurs  most  frequently 
in  the  cartilage  of  the  ribs,  after  the  50th 
year;  but  in  some  cases  it  commences  be- 
tween the  ages  of  30  and  40.  The  carti- 
lages of  the  windpipe  are  next  to  those 
of  the  ribs  in  their  liability  to  become 
osseous.  The  disease  called  "ossification 
of  the  heart"  is  not  an  affection  of  the 
proper  substance  of  that  organ,  but  of  its 
valves,  in  which  earthy  matter  is  some- 
times deposited. 

OSSINING,  a  village  in  Westchester 
CO.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Hudson  river,  and  on 
the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River 
railroad;  30  miles  N.  of  New  York.  It 
is  situated  at  the  widest  part  of  the  river 
on  ground  rising  to  an  altitude  of  300 
feet,  and  commands  a  fine  view  of  many 
interesting  points  on  the  river.  Here  are 
military  academies,  street  railroad  and 
electric  light  plants,  a  portion  of  the 
Croton  aqueduct,  which  is  carried  across 
Kill  brook  by  a  stone  arch  88  feet  wide 
and  70  feet  high;  National  and  savings 
banks,  and  several  weekly  newspapers. 
It  has  manufactories  of  lime,  sleighs,  car- 
riages, cotton  gins,  steam  engines,  gas 
and  water  pipe,  etc.  A  State  peniten- 
tiary, one  of  the  most  famous  of  Ameri- 
can prisons,  is  located  here.  On  this  ac- 
count, after  many  attempts  to  have  its 
former  name.  Sing  Sing,  changed,  the 
Legislature  in  1901  granted  this  privi- 
lege, and  the  name  Ossining  was  adopted. 
Pop.    (1910)    11,480;    (1920)    10,739. 

OSSOLI.  MAKCHIONESS  D',  SARAH 
MARGARET  FtTLLER,  best  known  as 
Margaret  Fuller,  an  American  writer 


OSTEND 


58 


OSTERHATJS 


on  literature,  art  and  society;  born  in 
Cambridgeport,  Mass.,  May  23,  1810. 
For  some  years  she  taught  in  girls' 
schools;  edited  the  "Dial"  (1840-1842). 
Her  collected  essays  on  "Women  in  the 
Nineteenth  Century"  were  published  in 
1843.  She  contributed  regularly  to  the 
New  York  "Tribune"  papers  on  literature 
and  art.  At  Rome  she  married  the 
Marquis  d'Ossoli.  The  pair  were  on 
their  way  to  New  York  when  their  ship 
was  wrecked  and  both  were  lost.  Her 
other  books  are:  "Art,  Literature,  and 
Drama";  "At  Home  and  Abroad"; 
"Life  Without  and  Life  Within."  She 
died  July  19,  1850. 

OSTEND,  a  fashionable  watering 
place  in  the  Belgian  province  of  West 
Flanders,  on  the  German  Ocean,  77  miles 
W.  N.  W.  of  Brussels.  Two  spacious 
floating  basins  for  the  Dover  mail-pack- 
ets were  completed  in  1874;  and  as  a 
station  also  for  London  steamers,  and 
the  terminus  of  various  lines  of  railway, 
Ostend  is  a  lively  and  active  place  of 
transport  traffic.  It  is  an  important 
fishing  station,  and  has  a  good  school  of 
navigation,  a  handsome  Cursaal  (1878), 
a  city  hall  (1711),  a  fish  market,  and  a 
lighthouse  (1771;  175  feet).  The  manu- 
factures include  linen,  sail  cloth,  candles, 
and  tobacco.  Dating  from  1072,  Ostend 
is  memorable  for  the  protracted  siege  by 
the  Spaniards  which  it  underwent  from 
July  7,  1601,  to  Sept.  20,  1604.  Twice 
again  it  surrendered — to  the  Allies  in 
1706,  and  to  the  French  in  1745.  The 
fortifications  have  been  demolished  since 
1865.     Pop.  about  45,000. 

In  the  World  War  (1914-1918)  Os- 
tend was  for  a  brief  period  the  capital 
of  Belgium.  Occupied  by  the  Germans 
Oct.  5,  1914.  It  was  bombarded  187 
times  in  the  course  of  the  war,  during 
which  271  persons  were  killed  and  496 
injured,  with  damage  to  the  town  of  $15,- 
400,000. 

OSTEOLEPIS,  a  genus  of  fossil  gan- 
oid fish  peculiar  to  the  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone. It  is  characterized  by  smooth 
rhomboidal  scales,  by  numerous  sharply 
pointed  teeth,  and  by  having  the  two 
dorsal  and  anal  fins  alternating  with  each 
other.     The  body  is  long  and  slender. 

OSTEOLOGY,  a  discourse  or  treatise 
on  the  bones;  that  branch  of  anatomy 
which  describes  the  bones  and  their  uses. 
See  Anatomy:     Bone„ 

OSTEOPATHY,  a  system  of  healing, 
founded  by  Dr.  A.  T.  Still.  In  spite  of 
the  apparent  etymology  of  the  name,  the 
system  does  not  confine  itself  to  the  treat- 
ment of  bone  diseases,  but  claims  to  be 


a  general  system  founded  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  "all  bodily  disorders  are  the 
result  of  mechanical  obstruction  to  the 
free  circulation  of  vital  fluids  and 
forces."  Its  apparently  marvelous  cures 
are  accomplished  through  purely  scien- 
tific methods,  based  on  a  profound  knowl- 
edge of  the  human  mechanism.  The  diag- 
nosis is  largely  through  the  sense  of 
touch,  which  is  developed  to  its  highest 
perfection.  The  osteopath  takes  the 
position  that  when  all  obstructions  to  the 
proper  direction  of  the  life  giving  and 
healing  energies  that  are  resident  in  the 
body — such  as  maladjustments  or  ab- 
normalities of  the  bodily  machine  in  any 
of  its  parts — are  detected  and  corrected, 
by  a  thorough  knowledge  of  anatomy  and 
physiology,  nature  fast  regains  her 
equilibrium  of  health  and  strength.  No 
medicine  whatever  is  used  and  no  surgery 
employed,  except  in  cases  where  the  lat- 
ter is  needed  exclusively.  In  1892  Dr. 
Still  organized  a  college  at  Kirks ville, 
Mo.,  under  the  laws  of  that  State.  A 
large  building  was  erected  in  1895  and 
additions  made  in  1896.  The  school  be- 
gan with  28  students  and  has  steadily 
increased  in  numbers.  It  has  between 
300  and  400  students. 

The  first  state  to  legalize  the  practice 
of  osteopathy  was  Vermont  in  1896. 
Missouri,  Michigan  and  North  Dakota  in 
1897.  Iowa  1898.  South  Dakota,  Illi- 
nois and  Tennessee  1899.  Osteopathy  is 
now  practiced  in  England,  Ireland,  Scot- 
land, France,  Germany  and  Sweden. 
The  parent  schools  of  the  American 
Society  of  Osteopathy,  Kirksville,  Mo., 
established  in  1892,  has  graduated  2000 
practitioners. 

OSTERHATJS,  HUGO.  A  rear-ad- 
miral in  the  United  States  Navy.  He 
was  born  in  Belleville,  111.,  in  1851  and 
graduated  from  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1870.  He  commanded  the 
battleship  "Connecticut"  in  the  voyage  of 
the  American  Fleet  around  the  world  in 
1907.  A  rear-admiral's  commission  was 
given  him  in  1909.  In  1911  he  was  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Atlantic  Fleet, 
He  retired  at  the  age  limit  in  1913. 

OSTERHAUS,    PETER   JOSEPH,    an 

American  military  officer;  born  Coblenz, 
Germany,  about  1820;  emigrated  to  the 
United  States,  and  was  made  a  major  of 
Missouri  volunteers  early  in  the  Civil 
War;  commanded  a  brigade  under  Fre- 
mont, and  a  division  in  the  battle  of 
Missionary  Ridge.  He  was  promoted  to 
Major-General  of  volunteers  in  1864. 
After  the  war  he  was  appointed  United 
States  consul  at  Lyons,  France,  and  fin- 
ally returned  to  Germany.  He  died  in 
1914. 


OSTERODE 


59 


OSTWAJLD 


OSTEKODE,  a  town  of  Hanover,  Prus- 
sia, at  the  W.  base  of  the  Harz  Mount- 
ains, on  the  Sose,  an  affluent  of  the  Leine, 
30  miles  N.  W.  of  Nordhausen.  Its 
church  of  St.  Giles  (724;  rebuilt  1578) 
contains  the  graves  of  the  dukes  of 
Grubenhagen,  and  there  are  also  a  fine 
town  hall,  baths,  large  grain  stores,  and 
cotton,  woolen,  and  linen  factories. 
OsTERODE,  in  East  Prussia,  on  the 
Drewenz,  77  miles  N.  E.  of  Thorn,  has 
a  castle  of  the  Teutonic  knights  (1270) 
and  iron  manufactures.  Pop.  about 
8,500. 

OSTIA,  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Tiber,  6  miles  from  Rome 
by  the  "Way  of  Ostia."  It  was  of  great 
importance  as  the  port  of  Rome  and  as 
a  naval  station,  and  for  a  long  period  it 
engrossed  the  whole  trade  of  Rome  by 
sea.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens 
in  the  9th  century.  Its  ruins  comprise 
tombs,  two  temples,  a  theater,  etc.  The 
modern  Ostia  (founded  by  Gregory  IV. 
in  830)  is  a  miserable  village  with  but 
few  inhabitants. 

OSTIAKS,  or  OSTYAKS,  a  Ural-Al- 
taic people  living  along  the  lower  course 
of  the  river  Ob  in  Western  Siberia,  where 
they  struggle  against  chronic  poverty, 
drunkenness,  frequently  famine,  to  get 
a  living  by  fishing  and  hunting  fur- 
bearing  animals.  They  dwell  in  wretched 
and  very  dirty  huts,  eat  flesh  raw,  use 
bows  and  arrows,  and  weapons  of  bone 
and  stone;  and  are  still  in  great  part 
heathens.  They  are  decreasing  in  num- 
bers, and  are  estimated  now  at  about  20,- 
000.  Their  language  belongs  to  the  Fin- 
nish division. 

OSTRACISM,  a  practice  introduced 
into  Athens  by  Kleisthenes  to  preserve 
the  democratic  government  which  he  had 
established,  and  which  sooner  or  later 
existed  also  in  Argos,  Megara,  Miletus, 
and  Syracuse.  If  any  citizen  became  so 
powerful  that  it  was  feared  he  would 
attempt  to  overthrow  the  government,  an 
ostracism  was  asked  from  the  Athenian 
senate  and  the  public  assembly.  If 
granted,  the  citizens  each  deposited  a 
shell  or  potsherd  on  which  was  written 
the  name  of  any  person  of  whom  they 
entertained  apprehension,  and  if  6,000 
concurred  in  voting  against  the  same  in- 
dividual, he  was  required  to  go  into  hon- 
orable banishment  for  10  years,  retain- 
ing, however,  all  his  property. 

OSTRICH,  in  ornithology,  Strutkio  ca- 
melus,  from  the  deserts  of  Africa  and 
Arabia.  It  is  the  largest  of  all  living 
birds,  standing  from  six  to  eight  feet  in 
height,  and  has  been  known  from  remote 
antiquity.     The    ostrich   is    hunted    and 


bred  for  the  sake  of  the  quill  feathers  of 
the  wings  and  tail,  now  used  by  women 
principally,  though  formerly  ostrich 
Pj"J"fs    decked   the   helmets   of  knights, 

!u  r  ,!?■'  ^^^  ^^*^  °f  ^^^  cavaliers,  and 
the  fashion  came  in  again  for  a  time  at 
the  Restoration.  The  ostrich  is  a  vege- 
table feeder,  but  swallows  stones,  bits  of 
iron,  and  other  hard  substances  to  aid 
the  gizzard  in  its  functions.  The  head 
and  neck  are  nearly  naked,  body  black, 
quill  feathers  of  wings  and  tail  white. 
The  wings  are  useless  for  flight,  but  of 
so  much  assistance  in  running  that  the 
bird  can  outstrip  the  fleetest  horse.  Os- 
triches are  polygamous,  the  hens  lay  their 
eggs  in  a  common  nest — a  hole  scratched 
in  the  sand,  and  the  cockbird  relieves  the 
hens  in  the  task  of  incubation,  which  is 
aided  by  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

OSTROGOTHS,  the  E.  branch  of  the 
Gtothic  race  that,  in  a  very  early  day, 
lived  in  Southern  Russia  near  the  Valley 
of  the  Don.  Here  in  A.  D.  375  they  were 
attacked  and  conquered  by  the  Huns. 
In  378  many  of  them  settled  in  Pannonia, 
Theodoric  became  their  king  in  474,  and 
in  479  led  them  over  the  Julian  Alps,  con- 
quered Odoacer  in  493  and  became  King 
of  Italy.  The  country  prospered  under 
his  reign.  Belisarius  endeavored  to  ex- 
pel these  people  and  in  552  the  kingdom 
was  taken  from  them  and  they  gradually 
became  incorporated  with  other  nations. 

OSTROLENKA,  Poland,  formerly  in 
Russian  Poland,  when  it  was  a  district 
town  in  the  government  of  Lomza,  on 
the  River  Narew,  and  on  the  Ostro- 
lenka-Piljava  railways.  During  the 
great  World  War  it  was  the  center  of 
almost  continuous  fighting  for  over  a 
year,  being  held  alternately  by  both  Rus- 
sians and  Germans.     Pop.  about  17,500. 

OSTUNI,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Lecce,  about  20  miles  N.  W.  of 
Brindisi.  The  city  has  a  cathedral  built 
in  the  15th  century,  a  library  and  a 
museum.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

OSTWALD,  WILHELM.  German 
chemist.  Born  at  Riga,  Prussia,  he 
graduated  at  Dorpat,  and  taught  chem- 
istry there  and  at  Riga  and  then  for 
twenty  years  at  Leipzig  University,  act- 
ing as  Harvard  exchange  professor  in 
1906.  In  1909  the  Nobel  prize  for  chem- 
istry was  awarded  him,  as  a  result  of  his 
discoveries  in  respect  to  the  color  of 
ions,  the  conductivity  of  organic  acids, 
and  their  chemical  reaction.  His  works 
include  several  text-books  on  general 
chemistry  as  well  as  "Elektrochemie"; 
and  "Vorlesungen  iiber  Naturphiloso- 
phie."    He  edited  numerous  scientifie  re- 


OSWALD 


60 


OTHO    I. 


prints     and    "Zeitschrift    fiir    physika- 
lische  Chemie." 

OSWALD,  ST.,  king  of  Northumbria, 
son  of  the  conquering  Ethelfrith  of 
Bernicia  and  of  Acha,  sister  of  the  brave 
Edwin  of  Deira.  He  fought  his  way 
to  the  throne  by  the  defeat,  at  Heaven- 
field  near  Hexham  (635),  of  Csedwalla, 
the  Welsh  king,  who  had  aided  Penda  to 
crush  Edwin  at  Hatfield  two  years  be- 
fore. Under  the  reign  of  Edwin  he  had 
found  shelter  in  Scotland,  and  been  con- 
verted to  Christianity  at  Hii  or  lona; 
and  now,  when  he  was  hailed  king  of 
the  whole  of  Northumberland,  he  estab- 
lished Christianity  vnth  the  help  of  St. 
Aidan,  who  settled  on  Holy  Island.  Os- 
wald was  acknowledged  as  overlord  by 
all  the  kingdoms  save  those  subject  to 
Penda.  He  fell  fighting  against  his  en- 
emy at  Maserfield   (Oswestry)  in  642, 

OSWEGO,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Oswego  CO.,  N.  Y. ;  on  the  Oswego  river, 
the  Oswego  canal,  and  the  New  York, 
Ontario  and  Western,  the  Lackawanna, 
and  the  New  York  Central  railroads;  36 
miles  N.  of  Syracuse.  The  city  has  two 
harbors,  one  at  the  immediate  mouth  of 
the  river  and  one  in  Lake  Ontario.  It 
is  a  terminus  of  the  New  York  State 
Barge  Canal.  It  contains  a  State  Nor- 
mal School,  United  States  Government 
building,  Gerritt  Smith  library,  orphan 
asylum,  public  hospital,  high  school, 
electric  light  and  street  railroad  plants. 
National  and  savings  banks,  and  several 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  There  are 
manufactories  of  boilers  and  engines, 
tools,  pumps,  automobile  parts,  hosiery, 
matches,  starch,  etc.  Oswego  has  regu- 
lar steamboat  communication  with  the 
cities  of  the  Great  Lakes;  imports  about 
$1,400,000,  and  exports,  $4,000,000.  Pop. 
(1910)   23,368;    (1920)   23.626. 

OSWEGO,  FORT,  an  old  French  fort, 
built  on  the  site  of  the  present  city  of 
Oswego,  N.  Y.,  by  Count  Frontenac, 
about  1696.  Fort  Ontario,  however,  was 
built  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Oswego 
river  in  1755,  and  at  once  took  the  pre- 
cedence. Both  forts  were  the  scenes  of 
considerable  fighting  during  the  French 
and  Revolutionary  Wars,  and  once  in 
1814. 

OSWEGO  RIVEB,  a  river  in  New 
York  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Sen- 
eca and  Oneida  rivers  12  miles  N.  W. 
of  Syracuse.     It  is  24  miles  long. 

OSWEGO  TEA,  a  name  given  to  sev- 
eral species  of  Monarda,  particularly  M. 
'purpurea,  M.  didyma,  and  M.  kalmiana, 
natives  of  North  America,  because  of  the 
occasional  use  of  an  infusion  of  the  dried 


leaves  as  a  beverage,  said  to  be  useful 
in  intermittents  and  as  a  stomachic. 
Some  other  species  of  Monarda  are  used 
in  the  same  way,  and  the  three  species 
named  are  not  uncommonly  cultivated  in 
gardens   for   ornament. 

OSWESTBY,  a  thriving  market  town 
and  municipal  borough  of  Shropshire, 
England,  18  miles  N.  W.  of  Shrewsbury. 
It  has  an  old  parish  church,  restored  in 
1872;  a  fragment  of  the  Norman  castle 
of  Walter  Fitzalan,  progenitor  of  the 
royal  Stewarts;  and  a  15th  century 
grammar  school.  Oswestry  derives  its 
name  from  St.  Oswald,  who  was  slain 
here. 

OTAGO,  one  of  the  provincial  districts 
of  New  Zealand,  including  the  whole  of 
the  S.  part  of  South  Island,  S.  of  the 
districts  of  Canterbury  and  Westland, 
being  surrounded  on  the  other  three  sides 
by  the  sea;  area,  about  15,000,000  acres. 
The  interior  is  mountainous ;  many  peaks 
attain  the  height  of  from  3,000  to  9,000 
feet,  but  there  is  much  pastoral  land; 
the  N,  E.  consists  of  extensive  plains. 
Otago,  though  it  possesses  valuable  gold 
fields,  is  chiefly  a  pastoral  and  agricul- 
tural district,  second  only  to  Canterbury 
in  wheat  production.  Coal  has  been 
found  in  abundance.  Otago  was  founded 
in  1848  by  the  Scotch  Free  Church  As- 
sociation; it  is  now  the  most  populous 
division  of  the  colony.  The  capital  is 
Dunedin;  the  next  town  in  importance  is 
Oamaru.  Pop.  Otago  portion  about  135,- 
000;  Southland  portion  about  65,000. 

OTALGIA,  neuralgia  of  the  ear.  Its 
causes  and  treatment  are  those  of  neu- 
ralgia generally,  but  it  is  particularly 
caused  by  caries  of  the  teeth. 

OTHMAN,  or  OSMAN,  founder  of 
the  Ottoman  empire;  born  in  1259;  one 
of  the  emirs  who,  on  the  destruction  of 
the  empire  of  the  Seljukides,  became  in- 
dependent chiefs.  Joined  by  other  emirs, 
he  invaded  the  Eastern  Empire  in  1299, 
and  made  himself  master  of  Nicsea,  Icon- 
ium,  and  other  towns.  He  took  no  other 
title  than  Emir,  but  ruled  with  absolute 
power,  not  without  justice  and  modera- 
tion.    He  died  in  1326. 

OTHO  I.,  Emperor  of  (Jermany,  called 
The  Great;  born  in  912;  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Henry  the  Fowler,  and  crowned 
King  of  Germany  in  936,  at  the  age  of 
24.  He  carried  on  war  with  the  Huns, 
and  drove  them  from  the  West;  made 
Bohemia  his  tributary;  deprived  the 
Duke  of  Bavaria  of  his  estates,  and  then 
had  to  encounter  the  resistance  of  the 
great  chieftains  of  the  empire,  aided  by 
the  King  of  France.     He  afterward  aided 


OTHO    II. 


61 


OTIS 


the  same  king  against  his  revolted  vassal, 
Hugh  the  Great,  defeated  the  Danes,  and 
again  invaded  Bohemia.  He  was  then 
engaged  for  10  years  in  war  \vith  the 
Hungarians,  and  finally  defeated  them 
at  Leek.  Berenger  having  usurped  the 
title  of  Emperor  of  Italy,  Otho  entered 
Rome,  where  he  was  crowned  Emperor  by 
John  XII.  That  pontiff  afterward 
leagued  with  Berenger,  on  which  Otho 
caused  him  to  be  deposed,  and  put  Leo 
VIII.  in  his  place,  in  963.  On  the  em- 
peror's return  to  Germany,  the  Romans 
revolted  and  imprisoned  Leo;  for  which 
Otho  again  visited  Rome,  which  he  be- 
sieged and  restored  Leo.  He  next  turned 
his  arms  against  Nicephorus,  Emperor 
of  the  East,  whose  army  he  defeated. 
John  Zimisces,  the  successor  of  Niceph- 
orus, made  peace  with  Otho,  who  died  in 
973. 

OTHO  II.,  surnamed  the  Bloody;  born 
in  955,  succeeded  Otho  I.,  his  father,  in 
973.  His  mother,  Adelaide,  opposed  his 
accession,  her  party  proclaiming  Henry, 
the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  emperor.  Otho  ex- 
pelled his  mother  from  the  court,  de- 
feated Henry,  repulsed  the  Danes  and 
Bohemians,  and  afterward  marched  into 
Italy  to  expel  the  Saracens,  but  he  fell 
ill  at  Rom.e,  where  he  died  in  983. 

OTHO  III.;  born  in  980;  succeeded 
Otho  II.,  his  father,  in  983.  The  empire 
was  administered  during  his  minority  by 
his  grandmother  Adelaide,  conjointly 
with  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  At  the 
age  of  16  he  assumed  the  reins  of  gov- 
ernment, and  went  to  Italy,  which  was 
in  a  state  of  confusion,  owing  to  the  op- 
position of  different  Popes.  Otho  having 
re-established  order,  returned  into  Ger- 
many, and  made  Boleslas  King  of  Poland. 
He  was  obliged  again  to  pass  into  Italy 
to  quell  a  revolt,  but  died  soon  after- 
ward, in  1002. 

OTHO  IV.,  called  the  Superb,  was  the 
son  of  Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and 
chosen  emperor  in  1208.  He  was  excom- 
municated by  the  Pope  for  seizing  the 
lands  which  the  Countess  Matilda  be- 
queathed to  the  Holy  See.  In  1212  the 
princes  of  the  empire  elected  Frederic, 
King  of  Sicily,  in  the  room  of  Otho,  who, 
after  struggling  against  his  rival  till 
1215,  resigned  his  crown  to  him,  and  re- 
tired to  Brunswick.     He  died  in  1218. 

OTHO,  KING  OF  GREECE.  2d  son  of 
Louis  I.,  King  of  Bavaria;  born  in  Salz- 
burg, July  1,  1815.  At  17  years  of  age 
he  _was  invited  by  the  Greeks  to  become 
their  monarch,  and  this  proposition  be- 
ing acceded  to  by  the  governments  of 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Russia,  in  a 
treaty    concluded    in    London    in    May, 

Vol.  VII — cyc 


1832,  Otho  was  accordingly  declared 
King  of  Greece  in  January,  1833,  and, 
in  June,  1835,  on  his  attaining  the  age 
of  20,  he  assumed  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment. Otho,  however,  soon  became  un- 
popular with  his  subjects,  owing  to  his 
selection  of  Bavarians  as  his  cabinet  ad- 
visers, and,  also,  to  the  strong  pro-Ger- 
man sympathies  he  continually  mani- 
fested. After  a  stormy  and  inglorious 
reign  of  30  years,  Otho  abdicated  the 
throne,  Oct.  20,  1862,  and  fled  the  coun- 
try, which  was  then  in  a  state  of  insur- 
rection against  the  royal  authority.  He 
died  in  Bamberg,  Bavaria,  July  26,  1867. 

OTHO.  MARCUS  SILVIXJS,  a  Roman 
emperor;  born  in  Rome,  A.  D.  32.  After 
Nero's  death,  he  attached  himself  to 
Galba,  but  that  emperor  having  adopted 
Piso  as  his  heir,  Otho  excited  an  insur- 
rection, murdered  Galba  and  Piso,  and 
ascended  the  throne  in  69.  He  was  op- 
posed by  Vitellius,  who  was  supported 
by  the  German  army,  and  in  a  battle 
between  the  two  rivals  near  Bedriacum, 
Otho  was  defeated,  on  which  he  slew 
himself,  after  reigning  three  months. 

OTIS,      ELWELL      STEPHEN,      an 

American  military  officer;  born  in  Fred- 
erick, Md.,  March  25,  1838;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Rochester  (N.  Y.)  University  in 
1858,  and  began  the  study  of  law.  "When 
the  Civil  War  broke  out,  he  entered  the 
volunteer  service  as  captain  in  the  140th 
New  York  Infantry.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  battle  of  Gettysburg.  At  the 
battle  of  the  Wilderness,  he  commanded 
as  lieutenant-colonel  the  picket  line  of 
the  5th  Corps,  which  brought  on  the  en- 
gagement. At  Spottsylvania  the  regi- 
ment lost  its  colonel  and  Otis  succeeded 
to  the  command.  He  was  severely 
wounded  near  Petersburg,  Oct.  1,  1864, 
and  was  disabled  for  duty.  He  was  dis- 
charged from  the  volunteer  service  Jan. 
24,  1865,  with  the  brevet  rank  of  Briga- 
dier-General. In  1866  he  was  appointed 
lieutenant-colonel  of  the  22d  United 
States  Infantry,  and  became  colonel  of 
the  20th  Infantry  in  1880.  From  1867 
to  1881  he  served  with  the  army  in  the 
West  against  the  Indians.  In  1881  he 
organized  the  School  of  Infantry  and 
Cavalry  at  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan. ;  Nov. 
28,  1893,  was  promoted  to  the  full  rank 
of  Brigadier-General.  On  Dec.  1  of  the 
same  year  he  was  assigned  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Department  of  the  Columbia, 
with  headquarters  at  Vancouver,  and  in 
1897  was  transferred  to  the  Department 
of  Colorado.  On  May  28,  1898,  he  was 
appointed  Major-General  of  volunteers 
and  assigned  to  duty  in  command  of  the 
Department  of  the  Pacific,  and  as  mili- 
tary governor  of  the  Philippines,  which 


OTIS 


62 


OTTAWA 


office  he  held  till  May  5,  1900.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Philippine  commission, 
and  on  June  16,  1900,  was  promoted 
Major-General,  U.  S.  A.,  and  later  as- 
signed to  the  Department  of  the  Lakes. 
He  died  Oct.  21,  1909. 

OTIS,  HARmsON  GRAY,  an  Ameri- 
can statesman,  son  of  James;  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  8,  1765;  was  member 
of  Congress,  1797-1801,  and  United 
States  Senator,  1817-1822.  He  was 
prominent  in  the  Massachusetts  Legisla- 
ture ;  took  an  active  part  in  the  Hartford 
Convention  of  1814;  and  was  mayor  of 
Boston  in  1829.  His  published  works  in- 
clude :  "Letters  in  Defense  of  the  Hart- 
ford Convention"  (1824),  and  "Orations 
and  Addresses."  He  died  in  Boston, 
Oct.  28,  1848. 

OTIS,  JAMES,  an  American  states- 
man; born  in  West  Barnstable,  Mass., 
Feb.  5,  1725.  At  an  early  age  he  at- 
tracted attention  by  his  eloquence  in  be- 
half of  the  colonists  against  British  op- 
pression, and  his  determined  opposition 
to  the  "writs  of  assistance"  in  1761. 
Through  his  efforts  the  Stamp  Act  Con- 
gress was  assembled  in  1765.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  political  es- 
says and  orations,  among  which  are 
"Vindication  of  the  Conduct  of  the  House 
of  Representatives"  (1762);  "Rights  of 
the  British  Colonies  Asserted"  (1765); 
•'Consideration  on  Behalf  of  the  Colon- 
ists" (1765).  He  died  in  Andover, 
Mass.,  May  23,  1783. 

OTOMIS,  a  tribe  of  Mexican  Indians, 
and  one  of  the  oldest  nations  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  the  plateau. 
They  were  agriculturists  and  had  some 
knowledge  of  the  manufacture  of  cloth 
and  ornaments  of  gold  and  copper.  Dur- 
ing the  siege  of  Mexico  they  came  to  the 
assistance  of  Cortez  (in  1521),  and  have 
ever  since  been  nominally  in  subjection 
to_  the  whites.  They  accepted  the  Cath- 
olic faith,  but  have  made  little  progress 
in  civilization.  Their  descendants,  about 
200,000,  mostly  live  in  the  mountains  of 
Queretaro,  Guanajuato  and  Hidalgo. 
They   speak    Spanish   and   Mexican. 

OTRANTO  (the  ancient  Hydruntum) , 
a  town  in  the  extreme  S.  E.  of  Italy,  29 
miles  S.  E.  of  Lecce,  and  on  the  Strait 
of  Otranto,  45  miles  from  the  coast  of 
Albania  on  the  opposite  side.  During 
the  later  period  of  the  Roman  empire, 
and  all  through  the  Middle  Ages,  it  was 
the  chief  port  of  Italy  on  the  Adriatic, 
whence  passengers  took  ship  for  Greece 
— having  in  this  respect  supplanted  the 
famous  Brundusium  of  earlier  times ;  but 
its  port  is  now  in  decay. 


OTTAWA,  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of 
British  North  America,  rises  nearly  300 
miles  due  N.  of  Ottawa  city,  flows  W.  to 
Lake  Temiscamingue,  some  300  miles, 
and  thence  400  miles  S.  E.,  and  falls  into 
the  St.  La-\vrence  by  two  mouths,  which 
form  the  island  of  Montreal.  ^  Its  drain- 
age basin  has  an  area  variously  esti- 
mated at  from  60,000  to  80,000  square 
miles.  During  its  course  it  sometimes 
contracts  to  40  or  50  yards;  elsewhere  it 
widens  into  numerous  lakes  of  consider- 
able size.  It  is  fed  by  many  important 
tributaries,  the  Petewawa,  Bonnechere, 
Madawaska,  Rideau,  Coulonge,  Gatineau, 
and  Rivieres  du  Lievre  and  du  Nord. 
These,  with  the  Ottawa  itself,  form  the 
means  of  transit  for  perhaps  the  largest 
lumber  trade  in  the  world. 

OTTAWA,  a  city  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
the  capital  of  the  Dominion,  and  the 
county-seat  of  Carleton  co.  It  is  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Ottawa  river  at  the 
junction  of  the  Rideau.  It  is  on  the 
Canadian  Pacific,  the  Canadian  North- 
ern, the  Grand  Trunk,  and  the  Ottawa 
and  New  York  railroads.  There  is 
steamship  communication  by  the  Ottawa 
river  with  Montreal  and  by  the  Rideau 
Canal  with  Lake  Ontario.  The  Ottawa 
river  rushes  over  several  cataracts  and 
fails  near  the  city.  The  city  has  an 
area  of  5,295  acres  or  approximately  8 
square  miles.  The  Ottawa  river  and  its 
tributaries  furnish  an  abundance  of 
water  power  which  is  employed  by  the 
industries  of  the  city.  It  is  estimated 
that  vdthin  50  miles  there  is  available 
1,000,000   hydraulic   horse   power. 

The  city  is  attractively  situated  in  the 
midst  of  picturesque  and  beautiful  scen- 
ery. It  IS  essentially  a  city  of  homes. 
It  is  in  the  center  of  one  of  the  most 
attractive  agricultural  belts  in  Ontario 
and  is  also  the  center  of  an  extensive 
lumber  region.  The  river  is  spanned  by 
several  large  bridges  and  the  Rideau 
Canal  divides  the  city  into  the  Upper 
Town  or  western  portion  and  the  Lower 
Town  or  eastern  portion,  the  former  be- 
ing distinguished  by  its  predominantly 
English  and  the  latter  by  its  predomi- 
nantly French  population. 

The  streets  are  wide  and  attractively 
laid  out  at  right  angles.  The  most  nota- 
ble buildings  are  those  of  the  Dominion 
Parliament.  The  Parliament  buildings 
were  burned  in  1916  but  their  rebuilding 
was  at  once  begun  and  in  1921  the  main 
structure  was  almost  completed.  Other 
notable  buildings  include  the  Roman 
Catholic  Cathedral  of  Notoe  Dame, 
Christ  Church,  city  hall,  Rideau  Hall, 
the  residence  of  the  governor-general, 
several  large  hospitals,  the  Agricultural 
and  Industrial  Exhibition  building,  pub- 


OTTAWA 


63 


OTTER 


lie  library,  and  the  National  Victoria 
Museum.  Ottawa  is  an  important  edu- 
cational center.  There  are  24  public 
schools  and  over  30  separate  schools,  in- 
cluding a  model  and  normal  school.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Ottawa  University  and  has 
in  addition  many  business  colleges, 
women's  colleges,  convents,  and  private 
schools. 

All  the  great  Canadian  banks  have 
branches  in  Ottawa.  The  bank  clear- 
ings in  1918  amounted  to  $357,958,751. 
There  is  an  exceptionally  attractive  park 
system.  The  largest  park  is  Rock 
Cliffe,  which  contains  89  acres.  The  as- 
sessed valuation  of  property  in  1919  was 
$158,846,717.     There     are     nearly     200 


light  plants,  National  banks,  and  several 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  It  has 
manufactories  of  window  glass,  bottles, 
and  lamp  chimneys,  drain-tile,  sewer- 
pipe,  fire-brick,  organs,  carriages,  flour, 
saddlery,  pumps,  harness,  lumber,  agri- 
cultural implements,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
9,535;   (1920)   10,816. 

OTTAWA,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Franklin  co.,  Kan.;  on  the  Marais  des 
Cygnes  river,  and  on  the  Missouri  Pacific, 
and  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Sante  Fe 
railroads;  58  miles  S.  W.  of  Kansas  City. 
Here  are  the  Ottawa  University  (Bapt.), 
Chautauqua  Assembly,  high  school,  pub- 
lic library,  Sante  Fe  Hospital,  National 


CANADIAN   PARLIAMENT  BUILDING  AT  OTTAWA 


manufacturing  establishments  and  the 
manufactures  include  wood  products, 
paper,  cement,  carbide,  foundry  products, 
mica  and  clothing.  Ottawa  is  the  seat 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop  of 
Ottawa  and  of  the  Anglican  Bishop  of 
Ottawa.  The  city  was  founded  in  1827 
and  was  incorporated  under  its  present 
name  in  1854.  It  was  selected  by  Queen 
Victoria  as  the  capital  of  Canada,  in 
1858.  Pop.  (1911)  87,062;  (1920)  127,- 
468. 

OTTAWA,  city  and  county-seat  of  La- 
salle  CO.,  111.;  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Illinois  and  Fox  rivers,  on  the  Illinois 
and  Michigan  canal,  and  on  the  Burling- 
ton Route,  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and 
Pacific  and  the  Chicago,  Ottawa  and 
Peoria  railroads;  85  miles  S.  W.  of 
Chicago.  Here  are  Pleasant  View  Col- 
lege (Luth.),  St.  Francis  Xavier  Acad- 
emy, Rybum  Memorial  Hospital,  busi- 
ness college,  parks,  Reddick  Library, 
court  house,  street  railroad  and  electric 


and  State  banks,  gas  and  electric  lights, 
and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  It 
has  manufactories  of  carriages,  furni- 
ture, soap,  flour,  gas  engines  and  foundry 
products.  Pop.  (1910)  7,650;  (1920) 
9,018. 

OTTAWA  UNIVERSITY,  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  in  Ottawa,  Kan.; 
founded  in  1865  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Baptist  Church;  reported  at  the  close 
of  1919:  Professors  and  instructors,  22; 
students,  186;  president,  S.  E.  Price, 
D.  D. 

OTTEB,  in  zoology,  the  genus  Lntra 
and  especially  L.  vulgaris,  the  common 
otter.  The  animals  vary  greatly  in  size; 
but  the  total  length  averages  about  40 
inches,  of  which  the  tail  constitutes 
rather  more  than  a  third.  The  fur  is 
of  a  soft,  brown  color,  lighter  on  throat 
and  breast,  and  consists  of  long,  coarse, 
shining  hairs,  with  a  short  under  fur  of 
fine  texture.     The  otter  lives  exclusively 


OTTEBBEIN    UNIVEBSITY  64 

on  fish,  and  is  therefore  rarely  met  with 
far  from  water.  The  female  produces 
from  three  to  five  at  a  birth,  usually  in 
March  or  April,  and  brings  them  up  in 
a  nest  formed  of  grass,  and  usually  in 
a  hollow  in  a  river  bank  or  in  the  shelter 
of  the  roots  of  some  overhanging  tree. 


OUDH 


OTTER 

In  angling,  an  instrument  for  fishing,  so 
called  from  its  destructive  nature.  It  is 
a  float,  from  which  lines  run  out  with 
bait  or  flies,  and  which  is  either  moored 
or  trailed  parallel  to  a  boat.  Called  also 
a  trot  line.  In  entomology,  the  larva  of 
the  ghost  moth. 

OTTEREEIN  UNIVEBSITY,  a  coed- 
ucational institution  in  Westerville,  O.; 
founded  in  1847  under  the  auspices  of 
the  United  Brethren;  reported  at  the 
close  of  1919:  Professors  and  instruc- 
tors, 25;  students,  474;  president,  W.  G. 
Clippinger. 

OTTERBURN,  a  township  of  Eng- 
land, Northumberland  county,  20  iniles 
N.  N.  W.  of  Hexham.  About  half  a  mile 
from  the  village  is  an  obelisk  marking 
the  spot  where  Earl  Douglas  fell  in  the 
battle  of  Chevy  Chase,  in  1388. 

OTTERY  ST.  MARY,  a  town  of  Dev- 
onshire, on  the  river  Otter,  11  miles  E.  of 
Exeter.  Twice  the  scene  of  a  great  con- 
flagration, in  1767  and  1866,  it  retains  its 
magnificent  collegiate  church,  a  reduced 
copy  of  the  cathedral  of  Exeter,  with  the 
only  other  transeptal  towers  in  England. 
Begun  about  1260  by  Bishop  Brones- 
combe,  it  is  Early  English,  decorated, 
and  perpendicular  in  style  and  was  re- 
stored by  Butterfield  in  1849-1850.  The 
old  King's  grammar  school  was  demol- 
ished in  1884.  Alexander  Barclay  was 
a  priest  here;  Coleridge  was  a  native; 
and  "Clavering"  in  "Pendennis"  is  Ot- 
tery  St.  Mary,  the  Devonshire  residence 
of  Thackeray's  stepfather.  Silk  shoe 
laces,  handkerchiefs,  and  Honiton  lace 
♦  are  manufactured. 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE.     See  Turkey. 

OTTTTMWA,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Wapello  CO.,  la.:  on  Des  Moines  river, 
and  on  the  Burlington  Route,  the  Wa- 


bash, and  other  railroads;  75  miles  W. 
of  Burlington.  The  city  has  a  United 
States  Government  Building,  Normal 
School,  business  college,  Hawkeye  Hospi- 
tal, court  house,  National  and  State 
banks,  and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
It  is  in  a  rich  coal  region,  and  contains 
oil  and  starch  mills,  iron  works,  meat- 
packing plant,  and  numerous  other  in- 
dustries. Pop.  (1910)  22,012;  (1920) 
23,003. 

OTWAY,  THOMAS,  an  English  dra- 
matist; born  in  Trotton,  Sussex,  in  1652; 
educated  at  Winchester,  and  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford;  served  as  cornet  in  the 
Low  Countries;  was  an  unsuccessful  ac- 
tor, and  finally  wrote  for  the  stage.  Of 
his  many  plays,  one  tragedy,  "Venice 
Preserved,"  is  among  the  best  remem- 
bered of  the  Restoration  drama,  and 
keeps  his  name  familiar  in  literary  al- 
lusion. "The  Orphan"  ranks  next  in 
critical  esteem.    He  died  in  1685. 

OUDENARDE,  a  town  of  Belgium,  on 
the  Scheldt,  37  miles  W.  of  Brussels.  It 
has  a  fine  Gothic  town  hall  (1535)  and 
two  interesting  churches.  Margaret  of 
Parma  was  born  here.  In  1706  Ouden- 
arde  was  taken  by  Marlborough;  and  an 
attempt  made  by  the  French  to  retake  it 
brought  on  the  famous  battle  of  Ouden- 
arde,  the  third  of  Marlborough's  four 
great  victories,  which  was  gained,  on 
July  11,  1708,  with  the  aid  of  Prince 
Eugene,  over  the  French  under  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy  and  Marshal  Villars.  Pop. 
about  7,500.  The  town  was  occupied  by 
the  Germans  early  in  the  World  War 
(1914-1918).  An  American  division,  the 
91st  was  here  engaged  in  attacks  on  tht 
German  forces  when  the  armistice  was 
declared. 

OUDH,  a  province  and  town  of  British 
India,  separated  on  the  N.  from  Nepal 
by  the  lower  ranges  of  the  Himalaya, 
whence  it  gradually  slopes,  a  great  plain 
watered  by  the  Gumti,  Gogra,  and  Rapti 
rivers,  to  the  Ganges;  area  24,158  square 
miles.  Pop.  province,  about  13,000,000. 
Town,  23,000,  mostly  Hindus,  though  the 
dominant  native  race  for  centuries  has 
been  Mohammedan.  The  Brahmans  are 
the  most  numerous  class,  about  one- 
eighth  of  the  whole  population.  Oudh  is 
believed  to  have  been  one  of  the  oldest 
seats  of  Aryan  civilization  in  India. 
After  being  the  center  of  a  long  native 
Hindu  dynasty  it  was  subjugated  by  the 
ruler  of  Kanauj,  and  in  1194  was  made 
subject  to  the  Mussulman  empire  of 
Delhi.  In  1732-1743  it  became  virtually 
an  independent  state,  and  the  dynasty  of 
the  NaAvabs  lasted  till  the  annexation  of 
the  province  by  the  British  in  1856.    Dur- 


OUDINOT  65 

ing  the  mutiny  of  1857  Oudh  was  one  of 
the  centers  of  rebellion  and  the  scene  of 
highly  dramatic  events. 

OUDINOT,  CHARLES  NICOLAS, 
Duke  of  ReKgio  and  Marshal  of  France; 
born  in  Bar-le-Duc,  in  1767.  He  en- 
tered the  army  when  19  years  of  age, 
and  when  the  Revolution  broke  out  held 
the  rank  of  captain.  He  embraced  the 
popular  cause,  and  rising  to  the  rank  of 
general,  accompanied  Massena  into  Italy 
v.s  one  of  his  staff  officers,  in  1799.  His 
fortunes  from  this  time  were  linked  with 
those  of  Napoleon  till  the  capitulation  of 
Paris,  March  31,  1814,  when  he  became 
a  Bourbonist.  In  that  character  he 
headed  the  army  that  invaded  Spain  in 
1823,  and  was  resident  at  Madrid  some 
months  as  governor.  He  succeeded  Mar- 
shal Moncey  as  governor  of  the  Invalides 
in  1842,  and  died  in  1847.  His  son, 
Charles  Nicolas- Victor  Oudinot,  Duke 
of  Reggio  (1791-1863),  was  a  general  in 
the  French  army.  He  first  distinguished 
himself  in  Algeria,  and  was  general  of 
the  French  expedition  against  Rome  in 
1849. 

OUIDA,  pseudonym  of  the  novelist 
Louise  de  la  Ramee,  born  about  1840; 
spent  part  of  her  girlhood  with  her 
mother  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds  and  after- 
wards lived  in  London  where  she  wrote 
for  the  leading  magazines.  After  1875 
or  1876  she  lived  on  the  continent,  princi- 
pally at  Florence,  Italy.  She  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  novels,  volumes  of 
short  stories  and  essays,  among  the  most 
noted  are:  "Strathmore"  (1865),  "Ida- 
lia"  (1867),  "Under  Two  Flags"  (the 
best,  1868),  "Puck"  (1869),  "Folle 
Farine"  (1871),  "Pascarel"  (1873), 
"Ariadne"  (1877),  "Moths"  (1880), 
"Princess  Napraxine"  (1884),  "Two  Of- 
fenders" (1894),  "A  Story  of  Venice" 
(1895),  "Town"  (1897),  "La  Strega" 
(1899),  etc.     She  died  Jan.  25,  1908. 

OUNCE,  a  unit  of  weight.  In  troy 
weight,  the  ounce  is  one-twelfth  of  a 
pound,  contains  20  pennyweights^  of  24 
grains  each,  and  is,  therefore,  equivalent 
to  480  grains.  In  avoirdupois  weight, 
the  ounce  is  the  sixteenth  part  of  a 
pound,  and  is  equivalent  to  437  V2  grains 
troy.  Also  a  money  of  account  in 
Morocco,  valued  at  about  six  cents.  In 
zoology;  Felis  tincia,  the  snow  leopard; 
habitat,  the  Himalayas,  at  an  elevation 
ranging  from  9,000  to  18,000  feet.  _  It  is 
about  the  size  of  a  leopard,  of  which  it 
is  probably  an  immature  form;  ground 
color  pale  yellowish-gray,  dingy,  yellow- 
ish-white beneath.  The  fur  is  thick,  and 
it  ha£  a  well  marked  short  mane.  It  has 
never  been  knowTi  to  attack  man. 


OUZEL 

OUNDLE,  a  small  but  ancient  and 
pleasant  town  of  Northamptonshire, 
England,  13  miles  S.  W.  of  Peterborough; 
has  an  old  church,  partly  Early  English 
and  partly  Decorated  style,  restored  in 
1864.  Here  St.  Wilfrid  died.  Laxton's 
grammar  school  dates  from  1550. 

OUSE,  a  river  of  England,  York  co., 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Swale  and 
Ure,  and  after  a  S.  E.  course  of  60  miles, 
unites  with  the  Trent  to  form  the  estuary 
of  the  Humber.  It  is  navigable  for  large 
vessels  45  miles,  or  to  York.  OusE 
(Great)  rises  near  Brackley,  Northamp- 
ton county,  and  after  a  N.  E.  course  of 
160  miles,  two-thirds  of  which  is  naviga- 
ble, enters  the  Wash  at  Lynn  Regis. 
OusE  (Little)  or  Brandon  River,  falls 
into  the  Great  Ouse,  at  the  junction  of 
the  river  Stoke,  and  the  New  Bedford 
and  Wisbeach  canal. 

OUTCROP,  in  mining  and  geology,  a 
term  used  by  miners,  but  now  adopted  by 
geologists,  for  the  exposure  of  any  por- 
tion of  a  stratum  which  comes  out  upon 
the  surface,  or  for  the  part  of  the 
stratum  thus  exposed. 

OUTLAWRY,  the  act  of  outlawing; 
the  state  of  being  outlawed;  the  putting 
a  man  out  of  the  protection  of  the  law, 
or  the  process  by  which  a  man  is  de- 
prived of  that  protection,  as  a  punish- 
ment for  contempt  in  refusing  to  appear 
when  called  into  court.  Formerly  any 
one  might  kill  an  outlawed  person  with- 
out incurring  any  penalty,  but  now  the 
wanton  killing  of  an  outlaw  is  consid- 
ered as  murder.  In  England  criminal 
outlawry  has  been  in  abeyance  since 
1859;  civil  outlawry  was  abolished  in 
1879.  In  the  U.  S.  civil  outlawry  is  un- 
known, and  criminal  outlawry  has  been 
obsolete  since  the  Revolution. 

OUTRIGGER,  in  its  proper  sense,  a 
beam  or  spar  fastened  horizontally  to 
the  crosstrees  or  otherwise,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  extending  further  from  the  mast 
or  topmast  the  backstay  or  other  rope 
by  which  that  mast  or  topmast  is  sup- 
ported. The  power  of  the  stay  is  thus 
increased.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
a  contrivance  used  in  very  narrow  rac- 
ing boats,  by  which  the  oar  is  given  the 
requisite    amount   of   play    outboard. 

OUTWORKS,  all  works  of  a  fortress 
which  are  situated  without  the  principal 
line  of  fortification. 

OUZEL,  or  OUSEL,  an  old  name  of 
the  blackbird;  but  also  applied  to  other 
birds.  Thus,  one  British  thrush  (Tnr- 
d7(s  torqnattis)  is  called  the  ring  ouzel, 
and  the  dipper  is  very  generally  known 
as  the  water  ouzel. 


OVAL 


66 


OVIPAROUS 


OVAL,  an  egg-shaped  curve  or  curve 
i-esembling  the  longitudinal  section  of 
an  egg. 

OVARIAN  CYSTS,  in  pathology,  one 
of  the  three  kinds  of  tumors  occasionally 
arising  in  the  ovary.  It  consists  in  the 
conversion  of  the  gland,  or  parts  of  it, 
into  cysts.  Ovarian  cysts  tend  to  grow 
to  a  great  size.  They  are  often  fatal 
within  four  years  unless  healed  by  a 
successful  operation. 

OVARIOTOMY,  the  operation  of  re- 
moving the  ovary,  or  a  tumor  in  the 
ovary;  a  surgical  operation  first  per- 
formed in  1809,  and  long  considered 
exceedingly  dangerous,  but  latterly  per- 
formed with  great  and  increasing  suc- 
cess, especially  since  the  adoption  of 
the  antiseptic  treatment  inaugurated  by 
Lister. 

OVARY,  in  botany,  a  hollow  case 
placed  at  the  base  of  the  pistil,  and  con- 
taining one  or  more  cells  inclosing 
ovules.  Its  normal  state  is  to  be  su- 
perior to  the  calyx;  but  in  some  cases 
it  is  adherent  to  the  tube  of  the  calyx, 
when  it  is  called  inferior.  It  may  also 
be  parietal.  In  physiology,  the  organ 
in  which  the  ova  or  germs  of  the  future 
offspring  are  formed  and  temporarily 
contained. 

OVEN,  a  close  chamber  in  which  sub- 
stances are  baked,  heated,  or  dried;  a 
chamber  in  a  stove  or  range  in  which 
food  is  baked. 

OVEN  BIRDS,  birds  belonging  to  the 
family  Certhidse,  or  creepers,  found  in 
South  America;  typical  genus,  Furnar- 
ius.  They  are  all  of  small  size,  and  feed 
upon  seeds,  fruits,  and  insects.  Their 
popular  name  is  derived  from  the  form 
of  their  nest,  which  is  dome-shaped,  and 
built  of  tough  clay  or  mud  with  a  wind- 
ing entrance. 

OVENS  RIVER,  a  river  in  the  N.  E. 
of  Victoria,  Australia;  a  tributary  of 
the  Murray.  The  district  is  an  impor- 
tant gold  mining  and  agricultural  one. 

OVERIJSSEL,     or     OVERYSSEL,     a 

province  of  the  Netherlands;  area,  1,283 
square  miles.  It  is  watered  by  the  Ijs- 
sel,  which  separates  it  from  Gelderland, 
and  by  the  Vecht  and  its  affluents.  Ex- 
cept a  strip  along  the  Ijssel,  present- 
ing good  arable  and  meadow  land,  the 
surface  is  mostly  a  sandy  flat  relieved 
by  hillocks,  and  the  principal  industry 
is  stock  raising  and  dairy  farming. 
Chief  towns,  Zwolle,  Deventer,  Almelo, 
and   Kampen.     Pop.    (1917)    431,757. 

OVERLAP,  a  term  of  geology.  When 
the  upper  beds  of  a  conformable  series 


of  strata  extend  beyond  the  bottom  beds 
of  the  same  series,  the  former  are  said 
to  overlap  the  latter. 

OVERMAN,  LEE  SLATER.  United 
States  Senator  from  North  Carolina. 
Born  1854,  and  graduated  from  Trinity 
College,  N.  C,  in  1874.  For  a  few  years, 
while  studying  law,  he  was  private  sec- 
retary to  the  governor  of  the  state,  and 
in  1878  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He 
was  elected  to  the  North  Carolina 
House  of  Representatives  in  1883  and 
between  that  date  and  1900  served  four 
terms.  In  1900  he  was  president  of  the 
Democratic  State  Convention  and  in 
1903  elected  United  States  Senator, 
He  was  re-elected  in  1909  and  1915. 

OVERTURE,  in  music,  an  introduc- 
tory symphony  for  instruments,  chiefly 
used  as  an  introduction  to  important 
musical  compositions,  as  operas,  orator- 
ios, etc.  Its  principal  themes  are  often 
taken  from  the  work  it  precedes.  In 
Presbyterianism,  a  petition  or  proposal 
from  a  Presbytery,  or  an  individual,  to 
the  highest  court,  which  is  the  General 
Assembly  or  the  Synod,  that  a  new  law 
be  created,  an  old  one  amended  or  re- 
pealed, or  a  measure  carried  into  effect. 
The  term  was  borrowed  from  the 
Huguenots. 

OVID,  PUBLIUS  OVIDIUS  F  \S0,  a 

Roman  poet  of  the  Augustan  age,  of  the 
equestrian  order;  born  in  Sulmo,  43  B.  C. 
He  studied  the  law,  but  his  decided 
predilection  for  polite  literature,  and 
particularly  poetry,  led  him  to  neglect 
severer  studies  and  on  succeeding  to  the 
paternal  estate,  he  quitted  the  bar  for 
poetry  and  pleasure.  Horace  and  Prop- 
ertius  were  his  friends,  and  Augustus 
was  a  liberal  patron  to  him;  but  he  at 
length  fell  under  the  displeasure  of  the 
emperor,  who,  for  some  cause  never  ex- 
plained, banished  him  from  Rome,  and 
sent  him  to  live  among  the  Getae,  or 
Goths,  on  the  Euxine.  His  chief  works 
are  "The  Loves,"  "The  Art  of  Loving," 
and  the  "Metamorphoses."  He  in  vain 
solicited  his  recall  to  Rome,  and  died  in 
Tomi  A.  p.  18.  Ovid  possessed  high  poeti- 
cal genius.  His  judgment  and  taste, 
however,  are  sometimes  at  fault,  but  no 
poet,  either  ancient  or  modern,  has  ex- 
pressed beautiful  thought  in  more  ap- 
propriate language. 

OVIPAROUS,  in  zoology,  a  term,  ap- 
plied to  birds,  reptiles,  fishes,^  and  in- 
sects, whose  mode  of  reproduction  is  by 
the  exclusion  of  the  germ  in  the  form 
and  condition  of  an  egg,  the  development 
of  which  takes  place  out  of  the  body, 
either  with  or  without   incubation. 


OVULE 


67 


OWL 


OVULE,  in  botany,  a  rudimentary  seed " 
which  requires  to  be  fertilized  by  pollen 
before  it  develops. 

OVUM,  in  physiology,  the  germ  pro- 
duced within  the  ovary,  and  capable  of 
developing  into  a  new  individual.  In 
archaeology,  ornaments  in  the  form  of 
eggs,  curved  on  the  contour  of  the 
ovolo,  or  quarter-round,  and  separated 
from  each  other  by  anchors  or  arrow 
heads. 

OWEN,  ROBERT,  an  English  social 
reformer  and  author;  born  in  Newton, 
Montgomeryshire,  Wales,  March  14, 
1771.  He  early  turned  his  attention  to 
social  questions,  publishing  in  1813 
"New  Views  of  Society;  or.  Essays  upon 
the  Formation  of  the  Human  Charac- 
ter, and  Book  of  the  New  Moral  World." 
He  attempted  to  found  communist  socie- 
ties in  England,  also  in  New  Harmony, 
Ind.,  and  later  in  Mexico.  In  his  later 
years  he  became  a  believer  in  Spiritual- 
ism. His  followers  bore  the  name  of 
Owenites,  and  were  among  the  founders 
of  the  English  Chartist  movement.  He 
died  Nov.  19,  1858. 

OWEN,  ROBERT  DALE,  an  Ameri- 
can diplomatist,  son  of  Robert;  born  in 
Glasgow,  Scotland,  Nov.  7,  1801;  was 
educated  in  Sv^itzerland ;  removed  to  the 
United  States  in  1825;  was  Representa- 
tive to  Congress  from  Indiana  (1843- 
1847) ;  and  minister  to  Naples  (1853- 
1858).  During  the  Civil  War  he  was 
a  prominent  advocate  of  negro  emanci- 
pation. Among  his  works  are:  "Moral 
Physiology"  (1831);  "Footfalls  on  the 
Boundary  of  Another  World"  (1860)  ; 
"Beyond  the  Breakers"  (1870),  a  novel; 
"Threading  My  Way"  (1874).  He  died 
in  Lake  George,  N.  Y.,  June  17,  1877. 

OWEN,  ROBERT  LATHAM,  United 
States  Senator  from  Oklahoma,  born  in 
Lynchburg,  Va.,  in  1856.  He  graduated 
from  the  Washington  and  Lee  Univer- 
sity in  1877.  After  several  years  of 
teaching  he  studied  law  and  was  admit- 
ted to  practice  in  1880.  He  acted  as 
r  United  States  Indian  agent  for  the  Five 
Civilized  Tribes  from  1885  to  1889.  He 
was  elected  United  States  Senator  in 
1907  and  was  re-elected  in  1913.  In  the 
Senate  he  acted  as  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Banking  and  Currency  in  the 
65th  Congress. 

OWEN    MEREDITH.     See    LyttON, 

Edward   Robert. 

OWEN  SOUND,  a  town  in  Ontario, 
Canada,  34  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Colling- 
wood,  at  the  head  of  a  long  bay  of  the 
same  name  off  Georgian  Bay.     It  has  a 


'dry  dock,  300  feet  long,  55  feet  wide,  and 
12  feet  deep  on  sill  at  high  water. 

OWEN  STANLEY  RANGE,  a  portion 
of  a  range  of  lofty  mountains  in  the  E. 
part  of  Bi'itish  Guinea.  Mount  Owen 
Stanley  is  a  peak  13,130  feet  high. 

OWENSBORO,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Daviess  co.,  Ky.,  on  the  Ohio  river, 
and  on  the  Louisville,  Henderson,  and 
St.  Louis,  the  Illinois  Central,  and  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville  railroads;  40 
miles  S.  E.  of  Evansville,  Ind.  Here 
are  Owensboro  Female  College  (non- 
sect.),  St.  Francis  Academy,  a  United 
States  Government  Building,  water- 
works, street  railroad  and  electric  light 
plants,  and  daily  and  weekly  newspa- 
pers. The  city  is  noted  for  its  large 
tobacco  interests.  It  also  has  manufac- 
tories of  flour,  shingles,  brick,  ice,  sewer 
pipe,  furniture,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  16,- 
011;    (1920)    17,424. 

OWENS  COLLEGE,  Manchester,  Eng- 
land, an  institution  established  under 
the  will  of  John  Owens,  a  Manchester 
merchant,  who  died  in  1846,  and  left 
about  $500,000  for  the  purpose  of  found- 
ing an  institution  for  providing  a  uni- 
versity education,  in  which  theological 
and  religious  subjects  should  form  no 
part  of  the  instruction  given.  Teaching 
commenced  in  1851,  and  the  present 
Gothic  building  was  completed  in  1873. 
The  success  of  the  college  led  to  the 
establishment  of  a  new  university,  Vic- 
toria University,  to  consist  of  Owens 
College  and  several  affiliated  colleges 
located  in  different  towns,  but  having  its 
headquarters  in  Manchester.  The  Vic- 
toria University  was  instituted  by  royal 
charter  in  1880.  University  College, 
Liverpool,  was  incorporated  with  Vic- 
toria University  in  1884,  and  the  York- 
shire College,  Leeds,  in  1888.  There  is 
a  women's  department  in  connection 
with  Owens  College.  The  charter  of 
Victoria  University  gives  power  to  grant 
degrees  to  women,  and  the  examinations 
are  throAvn  open  to  them. 

OWEN'S  LAKE,  a  lake  in  Inyo  co., 
Cal.,  crossed  in  extreme  W.  by  118''  W., 
160  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Los  Angeles;  its 
water  is  strongly  impregnated  with  salt 
and  carbonate  of  soda;  it  has  no  visible 
outlet;  receives  Owen's  river;  length 
about  16  miles,  breadth,  10  miles. 

OWEN'S  RIVER,  a  river  of  Califor- 
nia, which  flows  into  Owen's  lake.  It  is 
175  miles  long. 

OWL,  in  ornithology,  a  popular  name 
for  any  nocturnal  raptorial  bird,  of 
which  about  250  species  are  known.  A 
classification   has   been  proposed,   based 


owosso 


68 


OXENHAM 


on  pterylological  and  osteological  char- 
acters, broadly  dividing  the  owls  into 
two  sections:  (1)  The  screech-owl,  and 
(2)  the  tawny-owl  section,  with  (the  Lin- 
naean)  Strix  fianimea  and  S.  stridula  as 
the  respective  types.  The  former  is 
known  as  the  Alucine  (from  Fleming's 
name  for  the  genus,  Aluco),  and  the 
latter  as  the  Strigine  section.  The  pre- 
vailing color  of  the  plumage  is  brown, 
with  a  tinge  of  rusty-red,  and  it  is  exceed- 
ingly loose  and  soft,  so  that  their  flight 
(even  in  the  larger  species)  is  almost 
noiseless,  enabling  them  to  swoop  upon 
their  prey,  which  they  hunt  in  the  twi- 
light. All  owls  cast  up  in  the  form  of 
pellets  the  indigestible  parts  of  the  food 
swallowed.  They  range  over  the  whole 
globe. 

OWOSSO,  a  city  in  Shiawassee  cc, 
Mich.;  on  the  Shiawasse  river,  and  on 
the  Michigan  Central,  the  Grand  Trunk, 
and  the  Ann  Arbor  railroads;  38  miles 
S.  W.  of  Saginaw.  It  contains  libraries, 
waterworks,  street  railroad  and  electric 
light  plants,  several  banks,  and  a  num- 
ber of  daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  It 
has  manufactories  of  door  and  window 
screens,  hickory  handles,  caskets,  furni- 
ture and  dining-room  tables,  rugs,  news- 
papers and  books.  Pop.  (1910)  9,639; 
(1920)    12,575. 

OX,  the  castrated  male  of  Bos  taunts 
when  arrived  at  maturity;  also  the  popu- 
lar name  for  the  genus  Bos.  It  has  been 
known  from  remote  antiquity,  and  in 
the  East  possessed,  and  in  India  still 
possesses,  a  sacred  character.  They 
have  been  broadly  divided  into  two 
groups — the  humped,  with  B.  Indicus, 
and  the  straight-backed,  with  B.  taiirus 
as  a  type.  The  domestic  oxen  consist  of 
a  number  of  different  breeds. 

OXALIC  ACID,  in  chemistry, 


CO.HO 
CO.HO 


2H.0, 


a  dibasic  acid  existing  ready  formed  in 
plants,  and  produced  by  the  simple  oxida- 
tion of  glycollic  alcohol,  or  by  acting  on 
starch,  sugar,  or  cellulose,  with  nitric 
acid,  or  fusion  with  caustic  alkali.  It  is 
formed  commercially  by  fusing  sawdust 
with  a  mixture  of  soda  and  potash  to 
204°,  decomposing  the  oxalate  with  lime, 
and  the  lime  salt  with  sulphuric  acid, 
and  afterward  recrystallizing.  The  so- 
lution has  a  strong  acid  reaction,  and  is 
highly  poisonous.  The  antidote  is  chalk 
or  magnesia. 

OXAIilDACE^,  the  oxalid  or  wood- 
sorrel  family,  an  order  of  plants,  alli- 
ance Geraniales.     They  are  herbs,  under- 


shrubs,  or  trees,  generally  distributed 
throughout  both  the  hot  and  the  tem- 
perate regions  of  the  globe ;  the  shrubby 
species,  however,  are  almost  confine-^l 
to  the  tropics.  They  are  chiefly  remark- 
able for  their  acid  juice,  containing  bin- 
oxalate  of  potash.  The  order  contains 
six  genera  and  325  species. 

OXALIS,  in  botany,  wood-sorrel;  the 
typical  genus  of  the  Oxalidese  or  Oxali- 
dacese.  Known  species,  220;  chiefly  from 
South  Africa  and  South  America.  O. 
acetosella  is  the  common  wood-sorrel. 
The  leaves  are  all  radical  and  trifoliate; 
handsome  white  flowers,  with  purplish 
veins.  Found  in  woods  and  other  shady 
places,  and  in  nooks  on  mountain  sides. 
O.  corniciilata  is  the  yellow  prominent 
wood-sorrel.  O.  stricta,  possibly  onlv 
a  sub-species  of  the  last.  The  stalks  of 
O.  crenata,  a  Columbian  species,  are  very 
acid,  and  make  good  preserve.  O.  escn- 
lenta,  O.  deppei,  O.  crassicaulis,  and  O. 
tetraphylla  have  eatable  tubers.  O. 
sensitiva,  O.  stricta,  and  O.  biophytum 
have  sensitive  leaves.  Those  of  O.  sen- 
sitiva are  tonic  and  slightly  stimulating. 

OXALURIA,  a  morbid  condition  of 
the  system,  in  which  one  of  the  most 
prominent  sjrmptoms  is  the  persistent  oc- 
currence of  crystals  of  oxalate  of  lime 
in  the  urine.  Persons  who  secrete  this 
foi-m  of  urine  are  usually  dyspeptic, 
hypochondriacal,  and  liable  to  attacks  of 
boils,  cutaneous  eruptions,  and  neural- 
gia. 

OXENFORD,  JOHN,  an  English  dra- 
matist and  critic;  born  in  Camborwell, 
England,  in  1812,  and  was  originally 
educated  for  the  bar,  but  early  turned 
to^  a  life  of  letters,  made  himself  familiar 
with  French,  German,  and  Spanish  liter- 
ature and  translated  Goethe's  "Autobi- 
ography," and  Eckermann's  "Conversa- 
tions with  Goethe."  For  his  last  30 
years  he  was  dramatic  critic  for  the 
"Times."  His  "Illustrated  Book  of 
French  Songs"  (1855)  showed  a  dexter- 
ous mastery  of  the  lighter  forms  of 
verse.  He  wrote  many  plays,  among 
them  the  "Dice  of  Death,"  the  "Reigning 
Favorite,"  the  "Two  Orphans,"  as  well 
as  the  libretto  for  "The  Lily  of  Killar- 
ney,"  and  one  farce  at  least,  "Twice 
Killed,"  that  became  widely  popular. 
He  died  in  London,  Feb.  21,  1877. 

OXENHAM,  HENRY  NUTCOMBE, 
an  English  theologian;  born  in  Harrow, 
England,  Nov.  15,  1829;  and  educated  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  taking  a  classi- 
cal second  class  in  1850.  He  took  orders 
in  1854,  and  held  vai-ious  curacies,  but 
entered  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  ia 
1857,  and  was  successively  professor  at 


OXENHAM 


69 


OXFORD    UNIVERSITY 


St.  Edmund's  College,  Ware,  and  master 
at  the  Oratory  School,  Birmingham. 
Oxenham  translated  Dollinger's  "First 
Age  of  the  Church"  (1866),  and  "Lec- 
tures on  Reunion  of  the  Churches" 
(1872),  also  vol.  ii.  of  Hefele's  "History 
of  the  Councils  of  the  Church"  (1876) ; 
"Catholic  Eschatalogy  and  Universal- 
ism"  (1876);  "Short  Studies  in  Eccle- 
siastical History  and  Biography"  (1884) ; 
and  "Short  Studies,  Ethical  and  Reli- 
gious" (1885).     He  died  March  23,  1888. 

OXENHAM,  JOHN.  English  novel- 
ist. He  was  born  in  Manchester,  Lan- 
cashire, and  educated  at  Victoria  Uni- 
versity in  that  city,  acting  first  as  a 
clerk  and  later  as  a  commercial  trav- 
eler, reresenting  English  firms  in  con- 
tinental Europe  and  the  United  States. 
His  first  efforts  at  novel  writing  were  in 
the  interests  of  business.  His  works  in- 
clude: "God's  Prisoner";  "Bondman 
Free";  "Barbe  of  Grand  Bayou"; 
"Hearts  in  Exile";  "Carettc  of  Sark"; 
"Pearl  of  Pearl  Island";  "A  Maid  of  the 
Silver  Sea";  "The  Coil  of  Carne";  "Red 
Wrath";  "Broken  Shackles." 

OXENSTJERNA,   AXEL,   COUNT,   a 

Swedish  statesmen;  born  in  Fano,  Swe- 
den, June  16,  1583,  studied  theology  at 


COUNT  AXEL   OXENSTJERNA 

Rostock,  Wittenberg,  and  Jena;  and  in 
1609  returned  to  Sweden  and  entered 
the  service  of  Charles  IX.  In  1608  he 
was  admitted  into  the  senate ;  and  on  the 
accession  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  in  1611, 
was  made  chancellor.  He  accompanied 
Gustavus  Adolphus  during  his  campaigns 
in  Germany;  and  on  the  fall  of  his  mas- 
ter at  Liitzen  (1632)  was  recognized,  at 
a  congress  assembled  at  Heilbronn,  as 
the  head  of  the  Protestant  League.     This 


league  was  held  together  and  supported 
solely  by  his  influence  and  wisdom,  and 
in  1636  he  returned  to  Sweden,  laid  down 
his  extraordinary  powers,  and  took  his 
seat  in  the  senate  as  chancellor  of  the 
kingdom  and  one  of  the  five  guardians 
of  the  queen.  He  died  in  Stockholm j 
Aug.  28,  1654. 

OXFORD,  a  city  and  county  borough 
in  England;  capital  of  Oxford  co.,  and 
seat  of  one  of  the  most  celebrated  uni- 
versities in  the  world;  about  50  miles  W. 
N.  W.  of  London,  on  a  gentle  acclivity 
between  the  Cherwell  and  the  Thames, 
here  called  the  Isis.  Oxford,  as  a  city 
of  towers  and  spires  of  fine  collegiate 
buildings  old  and  new,  of  gardens,  gi'oves, 
and  avenues  of  trees,  is  unique  in  Eng- 
land. The  oldest  building  is  the  castle 
keep,  built  in  the  time  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  and  still  all  but  entire.  Of 
the  numerous  churches  the  first  place  is 
due  to  the  cathedral,  begun  about  1160, 
and  chiefly  in  the  late  Norman  style. 
It  not  only  serves  as  the  cathedral  of 
Oxford  diocese,  but  also  forms  part  of 
the  collegiate  buildings  of  Christ  Church. 
Other  churches  are  St.  Mary's,  used  as 
the  University  Church,  ^vith  a  note- 
worthy tower  and  spire  (dating  about 
1400),  St.  Philip  and  St.  James',  a 
striking  example  of  modern  Gothic;  All 
Saints'  (18th  century),  with  a  Graeco- 
Gothic  spire;  St.  Giles'  (12th  and  13th 
century) ;  St.  Barnabas,  a  fine  modern 
building.  Of  the  university  buildings 
the  most  remarkable  are  Christ  Church; 
Magdalen  College,  considered  to  be  the 
most  beautiful  and  complete  of  all;  Bal- 
liol  College,  with  a  modern  front  (1867- 
1869)  and  a  modern  Gothic  chapel; 
Brasenose  College;  and  New  College 
(more  than  500  years  old),  besides  the 
Sheldonian  Theater,  Bodleian  Library, 
Radcliffe  Library,  and  other  buildings 
belonging-  to  the  university.  Pop.  esti- 
mated   (1918)    53,108. 

OXFORD  CLAY,  in  geology,  a  bed  of 
clay,  sometimies  600  feet  thick,  underly- 
ing the  Coral  Rag,  and  the  accompanying 
sandy  beds  of  the  Middle  Oolite.  Cor- 
als are  absent,  but  Ammonites  and 
Belemnites  abound.  Remains  of  Ichthy- 
osaurus, Plesiosaurus,  etc.,  are  also 
found. 

OXFORD,  EARL  OF.      See  Walpole. 

OXFORD.  UNIVERSITY  OF,  an  Eng- 
lish university  that  lays  claim  to  great 
antiquity,  tradition  assigning  its  foun- 
dation to  King  Alfred  in  879.  The  ear- 
liest charter  was  granted  by  King  John, 
and  its  privileges  were  confirmed  and 
extended  by  subsequent  monarchs,  the 
act  by  which  it  was  created  a  corporate 


OXFORDSHIRE 


70 


OYAMA 


body  having  been  passed  during  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  in  1570.  The  num- 
ber of  colleges  established  are  21,  viz.: — 
Universitv  (founded,  1249)  ;  Balliol 
(1263);  Merton  (1274);  Exeter  (1314); 
Oriel  (1326);  Queen's  (1340);  New 
(1379);  Lincoln  (1427);  All  Soul's 
(1437);  Magdalen  (1458);  Brasenose 
(1509);  Corpus  Christi  (1516);  Christ 
Church  (1526);  Trinitv  (1554);  St. 
John's  (1555);  Jesus  (1571);  Wadham 
(1610);  Pembroke  (1624);  Worcester 
(1714);  Keble  (1870);  and  Hertford 
(1874).  There  are  colleges,  not  incor- 
porated, viz.:  Magdalen,  St.  Edmund's, 
St.  Mary's,  New  Inn,  and  St.  Alban's. 
Attached  to  the  university  is  the  Bod- 
leian Library,  founded  by  Sir  Thomas 
Bodley,  containing  about  500,000  printed 
volumes,  and  more  than  30,000  valuable 
MSS.  Practically  the  entire  student 
body  volunteered  for  service  in  the 
World  War,  and  the  university  was  used 
for  war  activities  of  many  sorts. 

OXFORDSHIRE,  co.  of  England,  di- 
vided from  Berkshire  by  the  River 
Thames,  and  adjoining  Gloucestershire, 
and  the  counties  of  Warwick,  North- 
ampton, and  Buckingham.  The  area, 
which  totals  751  square  miles,  is  divid- 
ed outside  the  towns  between  forest,  agri- 
culture and  pasture  land,  this  last  pre- 
dominating. The  social  life  is  centered 
at  Oxford,  which  is  the  capital.  Dairy 
farming  is  one  of  the  industries,  and 
the  manufactures  include  shoes,  gloves, 
blankets  and  farming  utensils.  Pop. 
about  200,000. 

OXIDATION,  in  chemistry,  the  chem- 
ical change  which  gives  rise  to  the  for- 
mation of  oxides,  and  which  is  brought 
about  by  the  action  of  oxygen  acids, 
water,  or  free  oxygen. 

OXIDE,  the  product  of  the  combina- 
•  tion  of  oxygen  with  a  metal  or  metal- 
^  loid. 

OXLIP,  in  botany,  Primula  elatior; 
resembles  the  cowslip,  but  has  the  calyx 
teeth  accuminate,  the  corolla  pale  yel- 
low instead  of  buff,  the  limb  concave, 
the  throat  without  folds. 

OXUS,  AMOO,  AMOO-DARIA,  or 
JIHOON,  a  large  river  in  Central  Asia, 
which  has  its  sources  between  the  Thian 
Shan  and  Hindu  Kush  ranges  in  the 
elevated  region  known  as  the  Pamir, 
flows  W.  through  a  broad  valley,  receiv- 
ing many  affluents,  and  N.  W.  through 
the  deserts  of  W.  Turkestan,  bordering 
on  or  belonging  to  Bokhara  and  Khiva, 
to  the  S.  extremity  of  the  Sea  of  Aral, 
where  it  forms  an  extensive  marshy 
delta.    The    principal    head-stream    of 


the  Oxus  is  by  some  considered  to  be  the 
Panja  river,  which  rises  in  a  lake  of 
the  Great  Pamir,  at  a  height  of  13,900 
feet.  The  Oxus  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance forms  the  boundary  between 
Afghanistan  and  Bokhara.  Total  course, 
1,300  miles. 

OXYGEN,  in  chemistry,  symbol  0 ;  at. 
wt.  16;  a  dyad  element  existing  in  the 
free  state  in  the  atmosphere,  and  in 
combination  in  the  ocean.  It  forms 
about  one-fifth  of  the  former  and  eight- 
ninths  of  the  latter.  It  is  also  present 
in  the  great  majority  of  substances 
forming  the  earth's  crust,  and  is  the 
most  abundant  of  all  the  elements.  It 
was  discovered  in  1774  by  Scheele  in 
Sweden  and  Priestley  in  England  inde- 
pendently, but  the  name  was  given  by 
Lavoisier  some  time  after.  It  can  be 
obtained  pure  by  heating  black  oxide  of 
manganese,  or  a  mixture  of  this  oxide 
with  potassic  chlorate  in  a  retort,  and 
collecting  the  gas  over  water.  When 
pure  it  is  without  color,  taste,  or  smell. 
It  is  the  sustaining  principle  of  animal 
life  and  of  the  ordinary  phenomena  of 
combustion.  Under  the  influence  of  cold 
and  high  pressure  it  has  been  reduced 
to  the  liquid  state. 

OXYHYDROGEN    BLOWPIPE.     An 

apparatus  in  which  hydrogen  is  burnt 
in  a  stream  of  pure  oxygen.  When  hy- 
drogen burns  in  air  or  oxygen,  water  ig 
produced.  When  combustion  takes  place 
in  pure  oxygen,  a  very  high  temperature 
results,  stated  by  Bunsen  to  be  2,844" 
C.  This  temperature  is  capable  of  fus- 
ing highly  refractory  substances,  and 
even  of  bringing  platinum  to  the  boil- 
ing point.  The  original  "limelight"  was 
produced  by  directing  an  oxyhydrogen 
flame  against  lime.  For  industrial  uses, 
the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe  has  been  al- 
most entirely  superseded  by  the  oxyacety- 
lene  burner,  which  depends  on  similar 
principles,  acetylene  being  substituted 
for  hydrogen. 

OXYRHYNCHUS,  a  celebrated 
Egyptian  fish,  sacred  to  the  goddess 
Athor,  and  represented  in  sculptures  and 
on  coins.     It  was  anciently  embalmed. 

OYAMA,  IWAO,  PRINCE.  A  Jap- 
anese general.  He  was  born  in  1842 
at  Kagoshima,  and  studied  the  military 
art  in  Europe,  supporting  the  throne 
in  the  rebellion  of  1877.  In  1885  he  be- 
came minister  with  war  portfolio  in  the 
Japanese  cabinet  and  commanded  the 
Second  Army  in  the  China  War.  He 
was  made  field-marshal  in  1898,  and  in 
the  war  with  Russia  was  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Japanese  forces  that  fought 
at  Shoho  and  Mukden.     Oyama   was  in 


OYER    AND    TERMINER 


71 


OZARK    MOUNTAINS 


Europe  during  the  Franco-German  War, 
and  he  had  made  a  thorough  study  of 
Moltke's  methods,  and  these  methods  he 
applied  with  entire  success  both  at  Liao- 
Yang  and  Mukden.  He  was  made  prince 
in  1907. 

OYER  AND  TERMINER,  the  name 
,  of  courts  of  criminal  jurisdiction  in  the 
I  United  States,  generally  held  at  the  same 
time  with  the  court  of  quarter  sessions, 
and  by  the  same  judges,  and  which  have 
power,  as  the  terms  imply,  to  hear  and 
determine  all  treasons,  felonies,  and  mis- 
demeanors committed  within  their  juris- 
diction. 

OYSTER,  a  well-known  edible  shell 
fish,  belonging  to  the  genus  ostrea,  oc- 
curring in  most  parts  of  the  world.  The 
European  oyster  (O.  edulis),  which 
forms  a  considerable  article  of  trade  on 
the  coasts  of  England  and  Finance,  is 
taken  by  dredging,  after  which  the  ani- 
mals arc  placed  in  pits  formed  for  the 
purpose,  furnished  with  sluices,  through 
which,  at  spring  tides,  the  water  is  suf- 
fered to  flow.  In  these  receptacles  they 
acquire  the  green  tinge  so  remarkable 
in  the  European  oyster,  and  which  is 
considered  as  adding  to  their  value. 
The  breeding  time  of  oysters  is  in  April 
or  May,  from  which  time  to  July  or 
August,  the  oysters  are  said  to  be  "sick," 
or  "in  the  milk."  This  is  known  by 
the  appearance  of  a  milky  substance  in 
the  gills.  Oysters  attain  a  size  fit  for 
the  table  in  about  a  year  and  a  half,  and 
are  in  their  prime  at  three  years  of  age. 

From  the  observations  and  experi- 
ments of  naturalists,  it  appears  that 
they  can  move  from  place  to  place  by  sud- 
denly closing  their  shells,  and  thus  eject- 
ing the  water  contained  between  them 
with  sufficient  force  to  throw  themselves 
backward,  or  in  a  lateral  direction. 

The  lime  obtained  from  the  calcina- 
tion of  oyster  shells,  though  exceedingly 
pure  and  white,  is  suited  for  work  which 
does  not  require  great  tenacity,  as  for 
plastering  rooms. 

The  oysters  most  esteemed  in  the 
United  States  are  the  Virginian  oyster 
(O.  Virginiana)  and  the  Northern  oys- 
ter^ (0.  borealis.)  The  flats  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  maritime  cities  are  generally 
thickly  beset  with  poles,  indicating  the 
localities  of  oyster  beds.  The  principal 
sources  of  supply  are  the  Chesapeake 
Bay,  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  and  Long 
Island  Sound. 

Formerly  the  oyster  beds  were  almost 
wholly  kept  up  by  restocking  them  with 
seed  oysters  from  Chesapeake  Bay  and 
from  the  Hudson  river;  but  of  late  years 
the  spat  is  secured  at  spawning  time, 
and  new  ground  in  the  vicinity  is  brought 


under  cultivation,  till  the  ai'ea  of  oyster 
beds  in  Long  Island  Sound  is  now  com- 
puted by  miles  rather  than  by  acres,  and 
it  is  yearly  extending. 

Latv  as  to  Oysterfi. — The  rule  is  that 
he  who  has  the  right  of  property  in  the 
soil  or  seashore  is  entitled  to  catch  or 
keep  a  bed  of  oysters  there.  Whoever 
steals  oysters  or  oyster-brood  from  an 
oyster-bed  which  is  private  property  is 
guilty  of  felony;  and  whoever  unlaw- 
fully or  willfully  uses  any  dredge,  net, 
or  instrument  within  the  limits  of  a 
private  oyster-bed,  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  oysters,  though  none  are  actual- 
ly taken,  is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 
In  the  United  States  there  are  various 
laws  for  the  protection  of  the  oyster  in- 
dustry, and  applicable  to  various  states, 
those  relating  to  Virginia  and  New 
Jersey,  being  the  most  specific  and 
strict. 

OYSTER  CATCHER,  in  ornithology, 
Hxmatopus  ostralcgus,  a  handsome  Euro- 
pean bird,  about  16  inches  long,  common 
on  flat,  sandy  coasts.  The  head,  neck, 
throat,  scapularies,  quill  feathers,  and 
latter  half  of  the  tail  feathers  are  deep 
glossy  black,  the  rest  of  the  plumage 
pure  white.  The  bill,  about  three  inches 
long,  is  a  rich  ruddy  color,  deepest  at  the 


OYSTER  CATCHER 

base;  very  much  compressed,  with  a 
wedge-like  termination.  Oyster  catcher 
is  a  misnomer,  for  the  bird  feeds  mostly 
on  mussels  and  limpets,  though  it  fre- 
quently takes  to  the  water  in  search  of 
food.  The  bird  seems  to  lay  its  head 
sideways  on  the  ground,  and  then,  grasp- 
ing the  limpet's  shell  close  to  the  rock 
between  the  mandibles,  uses  them  as 
scissor-blades  to  cut  off  the  mollusk  from 
its  sticking  place.  Also  any  of  the  sev- 
eral American  species  of  wading  birds 
of  the  genus  Hcematopus. 

OZARK  MOUNTAINS,  a  chain  of  the 
United  States,  intersecting  in  a  S.  W. 
direction  the  States  of  Missouri  and 
Arkansas;   height  about  1,400  feet. 


OZOKEBITE 


72 


OZONE 


OZOKERIT-E.  Mineral  wax;  fossil 
wax.  A  naturally  occurring,  wax-like 
hydrocarbon  mixture,  brownish  to  black 
or  green  in  color.  Specific  gravity  0-85 
to  0-97.  Melting  point  55-110°  C.  In- 
soluble in  water,  but  soluble  in  all  com- 
mon solvents  of  fats  and  oils.  Found 
in  veins  in  Galicia,  Utah,  Wyoming,  in 
the  Caucasus  and  in  other  parts.  Its 
formation  is  believed  to  have  been 
brought  about  by  the  oxidation  and  de- 
composition of  the  hydrocarbons  of 
naphtha.  Ozokerite  is  purified  by  treat- 
ment with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
and  filtration  through  charcoal,  and 
yields,  by  this  treatment,  a  white  waxy 
substance  known  as  cerasin,  used  in  the 


manufacture  of  candles.  The  chief  uses 
of  ozokerite  are  in  electric  insulation,  the 
manufacture  of  paints,  leather  polish, 
sealing  wax  and  ink,  as  a  filling  for 
rubber  and  in  the  preparation  of  carbon 
papers. 

OZONE,  in  chemistry,  a  modification 
of  oxygen  existing  as  a  triatomic  mole- 
cule. It  is  nearly  always  present  in  the 
atmosphere,  apparently  as  the  result  of 
electrical  action,  and  is  formed  by  pas- 
sing electric  sparks  into  dry  air.  It 
possesses  a  peculiar,  almost  metallic, 
odor,  and  seems  to  have  all  the  proper- 
ties of  oxygen,  in  an  enhanced  degree. 


p 


P,  p,  the  16th  letter  and  the  12th  con- 
sonant of  the  English  alphabet  is^  a 
labial  sound, _  formed  by  a  compression 
of  the  anterior  part  of  the  lips,  as  in 
pull,  papa,  ap.  As  a  sharp  labial  it  is 
classed  with  f,  and  corresponds  to  the 
flat  labial  b.  P  has  but  one  sound  in 
English,  except  when  in  combination 
with  h  it  forms  the  digraph  ph,  which  is 
sounded  as  f,  and  occurs  in  words  de- 
rived from  the  Greek.  In  the  case  of 
many  words  derived  from  the  Greek, 
initial  p  is  not  sounded,  as  in  pneuma- 
tics, psalm,  psalter,  pterodactyl.  It  is 
sometimes,  but  rarely,  silent  in  the  mid- 
dle of  a  word,  as  in  receipt.  P  repre- 
sents the  Latin  post  =  aiter;  as  p.  m.= 
post  meridiem  =  after  noon;  p.  s.=  post- 
script, etc. ;  in  music  for  piano  =  softly. 

As  a  symbol,  P  was  formerly  used: 
In  numerals:  To  denote  400,  and  with 
a  dash  over  it,  to  denote  400,000. 

PACAGUARAS,  an  Indian  tribe  liv- 
ing in  the  N.  parts  of  Bolivia  and  Brazil. 
They  have  numerous  small  villages  and 
follow  hunting  and  fishing  for  a  liveli- 
hood. Some  of  them  formerly  embraced 
the  Christian  religion.  There  is  but  a 
remnant  of  the  tribe  remaining. 

PACAY,  a  Peruvian  tree  (Prosopis 
dulcis) ,  natural  order  Leguminosse,  sub- 
order Mimosx.  The  pure  white,  flaky 
matter  in  which  the  seeds  are  embedded 
is  used  as  food,  and  the  pods,  which  are 
nearly  two  feet  long,  serve  for  feeding 
cattle.  The  mesquite  belongs  to  the 
same  genus. 

PACHACAMA,  a  town  and  temple  of 
ancient  Peru,  on  the  coast,  about  20 
miles  S.  of  Lima.  In  this  temple  wor- 
ship was  paid  to  Pachacama,  the  Su- 
preme Deity,  or  "founder  of  the  world." 
The  ruins  of  the  building,  are  of  an 
older  type  of  architecture  than  that  of 
the  Incas.  The  shrine  and  wooden 
image  of  the  god  were  destroyed  by 
Pizarro  in  1523. 


PACHIRA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
Bombacex,  akin  to  Adansonia.  P.  {Car- 
olinea)  alba  is  a  South  American  tree, 
the  inner  bark  of  which  furnishes  excel- 
lent cordage.  P.  macrantha  is  a  large 
tree,  100  feet  high,  with  greenish  flowers 
and  blood-red  filaments. 

PACHMANN,     VLADIMIR     DE,     a 

Russian  pianist;  born  in  Odessa,  Russia, 
July  27,  1848.  He  studied  under  his  fa- 
ther, who  was  a  violinist  of  some  talent, 
and  was  also  a  pupil  of  Dachs  at  Vienna. 
His  first  appearance  was  in  1869,  and  in 
1871  he  began  his  tours.  He  visited 
Paris,  Vienna  and  London  (1882-1883) 
and  was  received  with  enthusiasm.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  and  toured  the 
country  in  1899-1900.  He  became  fam- 
ous here  and  in  Europe  especially  for 
his  interpretations  of  Chopin. 

PACHYDERMATA,  an  order  of 
Mammalia,  founded  by  Cuvier,  for 
hoofed  non-ruminant  animals  with  thick 
integuments.  He  divided  it  into  three 
groups,  Proboscidea,  Ordinaria,  and  Soli- 
dungula.  The  first  division  is  now 
raised  to  ordinal  rank,  and  contains  the 
elephants;  the  others  are  grouped  in  one 
order,  Ungulata.  To  these  two  orders 
Professor  Huxley  has  provisionally 
added  a  third,  Hyracoidea. 

PACIFIC  OCEAN,  the  largest  of  the 
five  great  oceans,  lying  between  America 
on  the  E.,  and  Asia,  Malaysia,  and  Aus- 
tralasia on  the  W.  The  name  "Pacific," 
was  given  to  it  by  Magellan,  the  first 
European  na\agator  who  traversed  its 
expanse.  The  greatest  length  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  from  the  Arctic  (at  Bering 
Strait)  to  the  Antarctic  cii'cles  is  9,200 
miles,  and  its  greatest  width,  along  the 
parallel  of  lat.  5°  N.,  about  10,300  miles; 
while  its  area  may  be  roughly  estimated 
at  about  two-fifths  of  the  whole  surface 
of  the  earth.  The  deepest  sounding  yet 
found  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  26,850 
feet,  or  about  5  miles — nearly  equal  to 


73 


PACIFIC    RAILBOADS 


74 


PACINIAN    BODIES 


the  height  of  the  highest  mountain  on 
the  globe.  The  coasts  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean  present  a  general  resemblance  to 
those  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the  similarity 
in  the  outline  of  the  W.  coasts  of  each 
is  even  striking,  especially  N.  of  the 
equator;  but  the  shores  of  the  former, 
unlike  those  of  the  latter,  are  sinuous, 
and,  excepting  the  N.  E.  coast  of  Asia, 
little  indented  with  inlets.  The  shore  on 
the  American  side  is  bold  ..nd  rocky, 
while  that  of  Asia  varies  much  in  char- 
acter. Though  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  by 
far  the  largest  of  the  five  great  oceans 
the  proportion  of  land  drained  into  it  is 
comparatively  insignificant.  Its  basin 
includes  only  the  narrow  strip  of  the 
American  continent  to  the  W,  of  the 
Andes  and  Rocky  Mountains;  Melanesia, 
which  contains  few  rivers,  and  none  of 
them  of  large  size;  the  Indo-Chinese 
States,  China  proper,  with  the  E.  part 
of  Mongolia,  and  Manchuria  in  the 
Asiatic  continent. 

In  Polynesia,  especially  near  the  New 
Hebrides  group,  hurricanes  are  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  from  November  to 
April.  On  the  coast  of  Patagonia,  and 
at  Cape  Horn,  W.  winds  prevail  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year,  while  in 
the  sea  of  Okhotsk  they  are  of  rare  oc- 
currence. The  frightful  typhoon  is  the 
terror  of  mariners  in  the  Chinese  seas, 
and  may  occur  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 
The  currents  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
though  less  marked  in  character  and  ef- 
fects than  those  of  the  Atlantic,  are  yet 
of  sufficient  importance  to  require  a 
brief  notice.  The  southei'n  Pacific  cur- 
rent takes  its  rise  S.  of  Van  Dieman's 
Land,  and  flows  E.  at  the  rate  of  half  a 
mile  per  hour,  dividing  into  two  branches 
about  Ion.  98°  W.,  the  N.  branch,  or  Cur- 
rent of  Mentor,  turning  N.  and  grad- 
ually losing  itself  in  the  counter  Equa- 
torial Current;  the  S.  branch  continuing 
its  E.  course  till  it  is  subdivided  by  the 
opposition  of  Cape  Horn  into  two 
branches,  one  of  which,  the  cold  Current 
of  Peru,  or  Humboldt's  Current,  ad- 
vances N.  along  the  W.  coast  of  South 
America,  becoming  finally  absorbed  in 
the  Equatorial  Current;  the  other  wash- 
ing the  coast  of  Brazil,  and  becoming  an 
Atlantic  current.  The  existence  of  this 
ocean  first  became  known  to  Europeans 
through  Columbus,  who  had  received  ac- 
counts of  it  from  some  of  the  natives  of 
America,  though  it  was  first  seen  by 
Balboa,  Sept.  29,  1513,  and  first  trav- 
ersed by  Magellan  eight  years  after- 
ward. 

PACIFIC  RAILROADS,  a  general 
name  given  to  all  the  railroads  connect- 
ing the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States 


with  other  parts  of  the  country,  to  which 
the  aid  of  the  National  government  was 
given  in  their  construction.  In  1862  an 
act  was  passed,  granting  to  the  com- 
panies five  sections  of  public  land  and 
$16,000  in  government  bonds  for  every 
mile  constructed,  the  land  and  bonds 
for  every  stretch  of  40  miles  to  be 
turned  over  to  the  company  only  on  the 
completion  of  such  stretch.  The  Union 
Pacific  railroad  was  built  W.  over  the 
mountains,  and  the  Central  Pacific  rail- 
road was  built  E.  from  Sacramento. 
These  two  lines  were  joined,  with  im- 
pressive ceremonies,  at  Promontory 
Point,  Utah,  May  10,  1869.  The  last 
tie,  of  laurel  wood,  with  a  plate  of  silver 
upon  it,  was  laid,  and  the  last  spike, 
made  of  iron,  silver,  and  gold,  was 
driven  in  the  presence  of  distinguished 
men.  Telegraph  wires  were  attached  to 
the  last  rail,  and  the  last  blows  were 
signaled  upon  bells  in  Washington  and 
other  large  cities. 

In  May,  1878,  an  act,  known  as  the 
Thurman  Act,  was  passed.  In  addition 
to  the  amounts  retained  out  of  sums  due 
for  government  service,  the  Act  of  1862 
provided  for  the  payment  of  5  per  cent, 
of  the  net  earnings  of  the  company. 
The  Act  of  1878  retained  the  entire 
amount  due  to  the  companies  for  gov- 
ernment service,  one-half  to  be  applied 
to  interest  payments,  one-half  to  form  a 
sinking  fund  for  the  principal,  and  it 
required,  moreover,  the  annual  payment 
of  a  fixed  sum  ($850,000  for  the  Union 
Pacific  and  $1,200,000  for  the  Central 
Pacific).     See  Railways. 

PACIFIC  UNIVERSITY,  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  in  Forest  Grove,  Ore.; 
founded  in  1853  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Congregational  Church;  reported  at 
the  close  of  1919 :  Professors  and  in- 
structors, 12:  students,  150;  Dean,  R.  F. 
Clark,  A.M. 

PACIFIC  UNIVERSITY,  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  in  San  Jose,  Cal., 
founded  in  1852  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  re- 
ported in  1919:  34  instructors;  465  stu- 
dents; President,  J.  L.  Seaton,  Ph.  D. 

PACINIAN  BODIES,  or  PACINIAN 
CORPUSCLES,  certain  corpuscles  ap- 
pended to  the  nerves;  first  noticed  by 
Pacini  in  1830  and  1835,  and  described 
by  him  in  1840.  In  the  human  subject 
they  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  con- 
nection with  the  nerves  of  the  hand  and 
foot,  the  nerves,  as  it  may  be  presumed, 
of  touch;  but  they  also  exist  sparingly 
on  other  spinal  nerves,  and  on  the  plex- 
uses of  the  sympathetic,  though  never  on 
the  nerves  of  motion. 


PACKARD                             75  PACKING    INDUSTRY 

PACKARD,  ALPHEUS  SPRING,  an  years  the  packing  industry  has  come  to 
American  naturalist;  born  in  Bruns-  be  one  of  the  most  important  industries 
wick,  Me.,  Feb.  19,  1839;  graduated  at  in  many  American  cities,  especially  in 
Bowdoin  1861;  for  a  time  assistant  to  the  middle  West.  The  history  of  the 
Agassiz  at  Cambridge.  State  Entomol-  industry  begins  in  New  England  in  the 
ogist  of  Massachusetts  in  1871-1873.  17th  century,  when  quantities  of  pork 
In  1878  Professor  of  Zoology  and  Geol-  and  beef  were  packed  in  barrels  for 
ogy  at  Brown  University.  He  is  best  foreign  trade.  The  first  packing  house 
known  as  an  entomologist;  his  classifica-  in  the  West  was  established  in  Cincin- 
tion  of  insects,  1863,  has  been  generally  nati  in  1818,  and  that  city  remained  the 
accepted.  As  an  evolutionist.  Professor  center  of  the  packing  trade  for  nearly 
Packard  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  fifty  years,  when  Chicago  surpassed  it. 
Neo-Lamarckian  school.  His  writings  The  tremendous  and  rapid  growth  of 
include  "Structure  of  the  Ovipositor  of  the  meat  packing  business  is  due  to  the 
Insects"  (1868);  "Development  and  An-  invention  of  the  refrigerator  car  in  1868 
atomy  of  Limulus  Polyphemus  (1871-  by  William  Davis  of  Detroit.  Before 
1885) ;  "The  Cave  Fauna  of  North  that  time  meat  had  to  be  killed  near 
America"  (1888) ;  "The  Labrador  the  point  of  consumption,  and  the  pack- 
Coast"  (1891);  "Text-book  of  Entomol-  ing  industry  was  largely  confined  to  the 
ogy"  (1898);  "Lamark"  (1891);  mono-  production  of  barreled  beef,  and  the 
graphs  on  geometrid  moths,  a  locust's  curing  of  pork  products  in  winter.  Even 
brain,  piiyllopod  Crustacea,  etc.  He  the  canning  of  meats  is  a  fairly  recent 
died  in  1905.  development.     In     the     slaughtering    of 

PACKARD,  FRANK  LUCIUS,  an  animals  a  great  many  labor  saving  de- 
American  writerf  born  in  Montreal,  3^?J?  ;^f  ^'Z?! *^"?"  Vl"^^^  ^  ^"^^ 
Canada,  in  1877.'  He  graduated  from  ft^j,  ^aids  and  nacSne  house's  of 
McGill  University  in  1897,  and  took  post-  cSca  J  and  the  othe?  laree  citks  The 
graduate  courses  in  Europe,  For  sev-  ^^^s'  a?e  first  stunned'^  by  a  '^^ 
tZ  /.^f  fn  %nrhPol^^'.n.S,-h,^S'T;  blow  on  the  head,  then  killed  and  bled, 
mfgazines  He  wal\he  author  of  ^'oS  ^^*^^  ^^^^^  they  are  passed  through 
I^t^T^^^  ;f  ptc,  rL;5»  /iQii^?  "T^^  scalding  vats  and  through  an  automatic 
M,wTM.3^nS?'  'T?.  U  r^^^  scraper  which  removes  the  hair  and 
Miracle    Man,"     (1914)      "The    Beloved  u^;„tip^      Ac;  snnn  »<;;  tViP  f^flrpa<5«;p<=!  bavp 

S?  W1q41'''^'   '7^'   ^;"-J^.'  '"""^  be  n   d'esstd'and  ^LrougMy 'fnspeS, 

^Sies^  to  mka-a^fne  '                                ""  '^^ey  are  chilled  by  refrigeration,  which 

stories  to  magazines.  -^    ^^^    ^^gjg    ^^    ^^U    successful    meat 

PACKER  COLLEGIATE  INSTI-  curing.  The  meat  is  shipped  to  Eastern 
TUTE.  A  girls'  school  in  Brooklyn,  N.  markets  in  refrigerated  cars  owned  by 
Y.,  built  in  1853  to  succeed  the  Brooklyn  the  packing  companies,  and  placed  in 
Female  Academy,  the  buildings  of  which  cold  storage  warehouses  to  be  sold  to 
were  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  preceding  local  dealers,  or  transferred  to  iced 
year.  Mrs.  Harriet  L.  Packer  endowed  rooms  in  the  ocean  liners  to  be  delivered 
the  new  institution  with  $65,000.  The  in  Liverpool  or  Glasgow, 
courses  now  given  provide  primary,  Originally  little  or  no  use  was  made 
secondary,  high  school,  and  collegiate  in-  of  the  so-called  waste  products  of  ani- 
struction.  The  enrollment  in  all  depart-  mals,  but  the  packers  have  shown  great 
ments  in  the  year  1914-1915  was  641.  ingenuity  in  their  use  of  the  by-prod- 
The  total  value  of  the  buildings  and  ucts.  In  addition  to  the  sale  of  the  car- 
equipment  of  the  institute  Is  approxi-  casses  of  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs,  the 
mately  $600,000.  The  library  is  an  un-  packing  industry  now  includes  the  mak- 
usually  large  one  for  schools  of  this  ing  of  glue  from  the  hoofs,  horns  and 
type,  having  11,000  volumes.  bones,  leather   from  the   hides,  brushes 

T>  A  rc-ir-ni-k-KT/-.        i-n-'            n         £        m  from  the  hog  bristles,  fertilizer  from  the 

rpv  w£?o  °.^i^'  ^  ^^'"^'^  ^^^%  °^  ^  ''^"  meat  scrapsf  soaps,  tallow  from  the  fats, 

If^r^tl  ^^''^^  .consisting    of    copper,  -^  f^^^'  the  stomach,  and  lard,  one 

S  ^i^^\  l""^  T"-     "  ^^^  formerly  P^\^           ^  valuable  and  profitable  by- 

SfJlf     \^  '''^^^!^'%']^^^^T^*'''^^  '^^  products.     Two     grades     of     lard     are 

strument  makers   and  others,, for  a  van-  P^        ^          lard?  and  the  more  refined 

frP  SL?  P^rSSo?''  ^^'""^  ""'"^'^  ^   °^'  leaf  lard.     In  dressing  hogs,  nearly   20 

are  now  employed.  p^^  ^^^^   .^  ^^^^^^  ^^  jg  ^g^d  f^^.  gj^e  or 

i    PACKING    INDUSTRY.     The    pack-  fertilizer.     The   most   profitable   part   of 

ing   industry    involves   the   purchase    of  the  industry  is  the  making  of  sausages, 

live   stock,  the   conversion   of  live   stock  The  meat  used   for  this   purpose   is  for 

into  saleable  products,  and  the  distribu-  the  most  part  trimmings.     The  meat  is 

tion  of  those  products.     In  the  last  fifty  chopped,   mixed   with   potato    flour    and 


PACKING    INDUSTRY 


76 


PADELFORD 


water,  spiced,  and  stuffed  by  machinery 
'  into  the  intestines  which  are  used  for 
sausage  casings  after  they  have  been 
thoroughly  cleaned  by  machinery.  In 
dressing  cattle,  the  parts  to  be  sold  as 
fresh  beef  are  allowed  to  cool  for  forty- 
eight  hours,  and  then  shipped.  The 
poorer  grades  of  beef  are  used  for  can- 
ning, which  is  becoming  a  more  impor- 
tant division  of  the  industry  than  it  was 
formerly. 

In  1906  a  Federal  Meat  Inspection 
Law  was  passed,  requiring  several  in- 
spections of  the  animals  by  expert  vet- 
erinarians before  slaughtering,  and 
again  during  the  processes  of  slaughter- 
ing and  curing.  Before  that  time  there 
had  been  inadequate  protection  against 
tainted  meats,  though  there  had  been 
government  supervision  of  the  industry 
since  1891. 

There  has  been  a  growing  tendency  in 
the  United  States  to  concentrate  the 
industry  in  the  hands  of  a  few  com- 
panies, controlled  by  a  small  group  of 
men.  As  early  as  1890  the  four  largest 
packing  concerns  entered  into  an  agree- 
ment not  to  enter  into  competition  with 
one  another.  The  danger  of  such  a 
monopoly  of  the  food  supply  was  soon 
evident  to  the  government,  and  in  1902 
an  investigation  of  the  industry  was 
made  by  the  Department  of  Justice,  and 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
issued  an  injunction  restraining  the 
packers  from  conducting  their  business 
in  violation  of  the  Sherman  Anti-Trust 
Act  of  1890.  This  injunction,  however, 
did  not  seem  to  change  the  policy  of  the 
packers  but  rather  forced  them  to  re- 
sort to  guarded  methods  of  controlling 
the  food  supply  of  the  country.  In  the 
past  ten  years  there  have  been  frequent 
Congressional  Committees  appointed  to 
investigate  the  packing  industry,  and  the 
magazines  and  papers  have  contained 
countless  articles  on  the  subject.  In 
June,  1919,  the  Federal  Trade  Commis- 
sion made  a  detailed  report  of  the  busi- 
ness conducted  by  "The  Big  Five"  pack- 
ers, Armour  &  Co.,  Swift  &  Co.,  Libby, 
Wilson  and  Cudahy.  This  report 
stated,  among  other  charges,  that  the 
Big  Five  had  secured  control  of  the 
meat  supply  of  the  country,  that  they 
had  unfairly  used  this  control  to  keep 
up  prices,  to  crush  competition,  and  to 
secure  special  privileges  from  the  rail- 
roads, and  to  demand  excessive  profits 
harmful  both  to  the  consumer  and  to  the 
producer.  The  Commission  recom- 
mended government  requisition  of  (1) 
rolling  stock  used  for  the  transportation 
of  animals,  (2)  the  principal  stock 
yards  of  the  country,  (3)  all  the  pri- 
vately   owned    refrigerating    cars,     (4) 


marketing  and  storage  facilities.  In 
December,  1919,  Attorney  General 
Palmer  announced  that  the  packers  had 
agreed  to  retire  from  all  business  ex- 
cept meat  packing  and  distribution  of 
dairy  products,  to  sell  all  their  holdings 
in  the  large  public  stock  yards,  and  in 
stock-yard  newspapers,  to  abandon  the 
use  of  countless  branch  warehouses,  all 
over  the  country,  and  to  disassociate 
themselves  from  the  retail  meat  business, 
which  they  had  formerly  controlled,  as 
well  as  many  of  the  chain  stores.  How- 
ever, this  agreement  of  the  packers  did 
not  immediately  result  in  the  lowering 
of  prices,  and  in  1920  a  number  of  bills 
were  introduced  into  Congress  in  an  en- 
deavor to  restrain  the  monopoly  of  the 
Big  Five.  Chief  among  these  were  bills 
backed  by  the  farmers  of  Kansas.  The 
chief  centers  in  which  the  packing  in- 
dustry is  conducted  in  the  United  States 
are  Chicago,  Omaha,  Milwaukee,  St. 
Louis,  Kansas  City,  Cincinnati,  and 
New  York.  The  foreign  trade  of  the 
packers  is  greatly  increasing  with  the 
improved  facilities  for  refrigeration  in 
trains  and  steamships. 

The  latest  available  figures  are  from 
the  United  States  census  of  1914,  and 
give  1,279  slaughtering  establishments, 
with  a  capital  of  $534,274,000  and  prod- 
ucts valued  at  $1,651,965,000.  Chicago 
heads  the  list  of  centers  of  the  industry 
with  24  per  cent,  of  the  business  done. 

PACTOLUS,  anciently  the  name  of  a 
small  brook  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
which  rises  on  the  N.  slope  of  Mount 
Tmolus  (modern  Buz  Dagh)  flows  N. 
past  Sardis  (Sart),  and  empties  itself 
into  the  Hermus  (Kodus).  It  is  never 
more  than  10  feet  broad  and  1  foot 
deep.  The  sands  or  mud  of  Pactolus 
were  long  famous  in  antiquity  for  the 
particles  of  gold  dust  which  they  con- 
tained. The  brook  is  now  called  Sara- 
bat. 

PADDLE  FISH,  the  Polyodon  spatula, 
a  large  fish  allied  to  the  sturgeons,  so 
named  from  the  elongated  broad  snout 
with  which  it  stirs  up  the  soft  muddy 
bottom  in  search  of  food.  It  often 
reaches  a  length  of  from  5  to  6  feet. 
The  paddle  fishes  are  exclusively  North 
American  in  their  distribution,  being 
found  in  the  Mississippi,  Ohio,  and  other 
great  rivers  of  that  continent. 

PADELFORD,  FREDERICK  MOR- 
GAN, an  American  educator,  born  at 
Haverhill,  Mass.,  in  1875.  Graduated 
from  Colby  College  in  1896  and  took 
post-graduate  courses  at  Yale  and  in 
Europe.  From  1899  he  was  professor 
of  English  at  the  University  of  Idaho 


PADERBORN  77 

and  in  the  year  1901  he  became  profes- 
sor of  English  at  the  University  of 
Washington.  He  wrote  and  translated 
many  works  relating  to  English  and 
other  literature.  He  was  a  contributor 
to  the  Cambridge  History  of  English 
Literature  and  to  European  and  English 
magazines. 

PADERBORN,  a  town  of  Westphalia, 
Prussia;  50  miles  S.  W.  of  Hanover. 
The  fine  Romanesque  cathedral  (R.  C), 
completed  in  1163,  is  built  over  the 
sources  of  the  Pader,  and  contains  the 
silver  coflBn  of  St.  Liborius.  Notable 
edifices  are  St.  Bartholomew's  Chapel 
(1017)  and  the  town  house  (1615;  re- 
stored 1870-1876).  The  old  Hanse  town 
was  sacked  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick 
in  1622,  and  it  suffered  much  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.  From  1614  to  1819 
it  was  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
university.  Much  of  it  was  burnt  down 
in  1875. 

PADEREWSKI,  IGNACE  JAN,  a 
Russian  pianist;  born  in  Podolia,  Rus- 
sian Poland,  Nov.  6,  1860.  At  seven  his 
father  placed  him  under  the  care  of  a 
teacher,    Pierre    Sowinski.     In    1872    he 


PADUA 


IGNACE  JAN  PADEREWSKI 

went  to  Warsaw,  where  his  knowledge 
of  harmony  and  counterpoint  was  ac- 
quired from  Roguski,  and  later  from 
Frederick  Kiel,  of  Berlin.  At  18  he  was 
nominated  Professor  of  Music  to  the 
Warsaw  Conservatory.  In  1884  he  held 
Vol.  VII— Cyc 


a  professorship  at  the  Conservatory  of 
Music  in  Strassburg,  but  he  resolved  to 
become  a  pianistic  virtuoso.  He  re- 
moved to  Vienna,  placed  himself  under 
Leschetizky,  and  made  his  debut  before 
the  Viennese  public  in  1887,  and  was  at 
once  proclaimed  to  be  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  pianists  of  the  day.  He  paid 
several  visits  to  the  principal  tov/ns 
throughout  Germany,  always  with  in- 
creasing success,  and  in  1889  made  his 
first  appearance  before  a  Parisian  au- 
dience. He  visited  the  United  States 
four  times.  He  composed  more  than  80 
vocal  works,  a  concerto  in  A  minor  for 
piano  and  orchestra,  an  opera  "Man- 
fred," a  suite  for  orchestra  in  G,  and 
many  pieces  for  the  piano.  His  "Polish 
Fantasie"  was  produced  at  the  Norwich 
Festival   in   1893. 

In  1900  he  established  the  Paderewski 
Fund  in  the  United  States  for  the 
encouragement  of  American  composers. 
In  the  first  competition  (1902)  three 
prizes  of  $500  were  awarded  to  Henry 
Hadley,  Horatio  Parker  and  Arthur 
Bird.  Only  one  award,  to  Arthur  Shep- 
herd, was  made  in  1906.  Paderewski 
married  Madame  Gorski  in  1899.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  he  was  busy 
pressing  the  claims  of  Poland  as  a  na- 
tion and  raising  money  for  his  suffering 
countrymen.  He  was  appointed  Pre- 
mier of  the  Polish  Republic  1919,  and 
resigned  in  1920. 

PADGETT,  LEMUEL  P.,  member  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  from  the 
7th  Tennessee  district.  Born  in  Colum- 
bia, Tenn.,  1855,  gi'aduated  from  Erskine 
College,  South  Carolina,  1876.  Three 
years  later  he  began  the  practice  of  law 
at  Columbia.  From  1898-1900  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Tennessee  State  Senate 
and  in  1901  was  elected  to  Congress, 
since  that  time  he  has  been  re-elected 
for  every  term.  When  the  Democratic 
party  obtained  a  majority  in  the  House 
in  1911  Congressman  Padgett  became 
Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Naval 
Affairs,  and  directed  the  Committee's 
action  during  the  war  with  Germany. 
Since  December,  1917,  he  was  a  regent  of 
the    Smithsonian    Institution. 

PADUA  (ancient  Patavium),  a  forti- 
fied city  and  province  of  Italy  (Padova). 
Its  celebrated  university,  founded  in  the 
13th  century,  had  formerly  students 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Among 
these  were  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Tasso; 
and  among  the  professors  Fallopius, 
Fabricius  ab  Aquapendente,  Morgagni, 
Galileo,  and  Guglielmini.  The  univer- 
sity library  comprises  100,000  volumes. 
There  is  also  an  academy  of  sciences. 
The    churches,   and   especially    San   An- 

6 


PADUCAH 


78 


PAGAN 


tonio,  are  less  remarkable  for  architec- 
ture than  for  their  paintings  and  inte- 
rior decorations.  Manufactures  woolens, 
silks,  ribbons,  and  leather.  Fop.  prov- 
ince about  575,000;  city,  about  120,000. 

PADUCAH,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
McCracken  co.,  Ky.;  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Ohio  and  Tennessee  rivers,  and 
on  the  Nashville,  Chattanooga,  and  St. 
Louis,  the  Illinois  Central  and  the  Chi- 
cago, Burlington  and  Quincy  railroads; 
48  miles  N.  E.  of  Cairo,  111.  It  con- 
tains a  court  house,  high  school.  United 
States  Government  Building,  the  Illinois 
Central  Railroad  Hospital,  waterworks, 
electric  light  and  street  railroad  plants, 


P.fflSTUM,  an  ancient  city  of  Lucania, 
in  southern  Italy,  in  the  N.  W.  extremity 
of  that  province,  about  4  miles  S.  E. 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Silarus  (Selo), 
and  upon  a  bay  of  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea, 
called  Sinus  Psestanus  (now  Gulf  of  Sa- 
lerno). It  was  a  place  of  importance 
and  great  beauty  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans,  and  renowned  for  the  splendid 
roses  grown  in  its  neighborhood,  which 
bloomed  twice  a  year. 

PAEZ  (pa-eth'),  JOSE  ANTONIO, 
one  of  the  founders  of  South  American 
independence;  born  of  Indian  parents 
near  Acarigua,  Venezuela,  in  1790.  He 
entered  the  patriot  army  in  1810,  rose  to 


TEMPLE  OF   CERES  AT  P^STUM 


National  and  State  banks,  and  several 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  There 
are  manufactories  of  chairs,  furniture, 
tobacco,  farming  implements,  etc.  It 
also  has  a  shipbuilding  plant,  tobacco 
warehouses,  and  tobacco  factories.  Pop. 
(1910)    22,760;    (1920)    24,735. 

P^AN,  in  classical  mythology,  a 
name  given  to  Apollo.  Also  the  ancient 
choral  song  addressed  to  Apollo,  named 
after  its  burden  (Greek  io  paian).  It 
was  sung  sometimes  before  battle,  and 
sometimes  after  a  victory.  Also  a  song 
of  triumph  or  rejoicing. 

PAES,  or  PAEZES,  an  Indian  tribe 
living  in  the  mountains  of  Colombia. 
They  were  formerly  a  powerful,  warlike 
tribe  now  reduced  to  about  2,000.  "They 
live  in  villages  and  follow  agriculture 
and  though  inhabiting  a  cold  region  wear 
few   clothes. 


general  of  division  in  1819,  and  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  battle  of  Carabobo, 
which  secured  the  independence  of  Co- 
lombia in  1821.  At  first  he  acted  in 
concert  with  Bolivar,  but  in  1829  he 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  revolu- 
tion which  culminated  in  the  independ- 
ence of  Venezuela,  of  which  he  was  the 
first  president.  He  spent  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  in  the  United  States.  He 
died  in  exile  in  New  York,  May  7,  1873. 

PAGAN  (Latin,  pagus  =  a  village) ,  a 
heathen,  an  idolater;  one  who  worships 
idols  or  false  gods  (applied  to  one  who 
is  not  a  Christian,  a  Jew,  or  a  Mo- 
hammedan). The  last  use  of  the  word 
dates  from  the  4th  century.  Trench 
says  that  the  first  use  of  the  word  in 
this  sense  is  in  an  edict  of  the  Emperor 
Valentinian  A.  D.  368.  When  Christian- 
ity was  first  preached,  the  cities  were 
quicker  to  embrace   the  faith  than  the 


PAGANINI  79 

villages  and  the  word  paganus  =  a  vil- 
lager became  synonymous  with  heathen. 

PAGANINI,  NICOLO,  an  Italian  vio- 
list  bom  in  Genoa,  1784.  His  father  was 
a  distinguished  musical  amateur.  From 
1813,  when  he  went  to  Milan,  dates  his 
marvelous  performance  on  a  single 
string  which  later  amazed  great  audi- 
ences in  Germany,  France,  and  Eng- 
land. He  realized  large  sums  of  money 
by  his  playing  which  were  gambled 
away.  His  last  years  were  spent  at 
his  villa  near  Parma.  Died  in  Nice 
in  1840. 

PAGANISM,  the  state  or  condition  of 
a  pagan;  heathenism;  the  worship  of 
idols  or  false  gods,  used  specially  of  that 
of  ancient  Rome.  In  Germany  the  term 
if  applied  to  tendencies  in  the  Christian 
church,   deemed   polytheistic. 

PAGE,  a  youth  attached  to  the  service 
of  a  royal  or  noble  personage,  rather 
for  formality  or  show  than  for  servi- 
tude. The  name  "pages"  appears  to 
have  been  confined  to  slaves  and  at- 
tendants of  an  inferior  class,  in  modern 
Europe,  till  the  reigns  of  Charles  VI. 
and  Charles  VII.  of  France.  As  chiv- 
alric  institutions  prevailed,  the  office,  by 
whatever  name  it  may  be  called,  became 
of  importance.  Courts  and  castles  were 
the  schools  in  which  the  young  noble 
passed  through  the  degree  of  page,  in 
order  to  reach  the  higher  grades  of  es- 
quire and  knight,  when  he  became  hors 
de  page.  Pages  are  still,  or  were  until 
recently,  in  the  household  of  th  Queen 
of  Great  Britain,  with  the  title  of 
"Pages  of  the  Presence"  etc.  The  word 
Is  also  applied  to  messenger  boys  in 
National,  State,  and  municipal  legisla- 
tive bodies. 

PAGE,  CARROLL  SMALLEY.  United 
States  Senator  from  Vermont.  Bom 
1843  at  Westfield,  Vt.  Educated  at  dif- 
ferent New  England  academies,  he  en- 
tered business  in  Lamoille,  Vt.  He 
rapidly  made  headway  and  served  as 
president  of  the  Lamoille  County  Sav- 
ings Bank  and  Trust  Co.,  and  was  direc- 
tor in  many  important  railroad  and 
banking  corporations.  From  1869-1872 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Vermont  House 
of  Representatives,  and  later  of  the 
State  Senate.  Prominent  in  the  activi- 
ties^ of  the  Republican  party,  he  was 
Chairman  of  the  Vermont  delegation  to 
the  National  Convention  in  1912.  Fi-om 
1890  to  1892  he  was  Governor  of  Ver- 
mont. Senator  Proctor  of  Vermont 
died  in  1908  and  Page  was  elected  to 
fill  his  unexpired  term.  He  was  twice 
re-elected. 


PAGE 


PAGE,      CURTIS      HIDDEN.      An 

American  editor  and  translator.  He 
was  born  at  Greenwood,  Mo.,  in  1870,  and 
graduated  from  Harvard  as  A.  M.  and 
Ph.  D.  in  1894.  He  then  went  to  reside 
in  France  and  Italy,  and  returned  to 
teach  the  Romance  languages  and  Eng- 
lish at  Western  Reserve  University,  Har- 
vard, Columbia,  the  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity and  Dartmouth.  He  translated 
Bergerac's  "A  Voyage  to  the  Moon"; 
Ronsard's  "Songs  and  Sonnets";  "The 
Best  Plays  of  Moliere";  and  Anatole 
France's  "The  Man  Who  Married  a 
Dumb  Wife."  He  has  edited  "Poet  Lore," 
and  some  poetical  reprints. 

PAGE,  HERMAN,  an  American 
Protestant  Episcopal  bishop,  born  in 
Boston  in  1866.  He  graduated  from 
Harvard  in  1888  and  studied  in  the 
Episcopal  Theological  School.  He  was 
ordained  priest  in  1891  and  from  that 
year  to  1900  was  in  charge  of  mission 
churches   in   Idaho.     In  the  latter  year 


THOMAS   NELSON   PAGE 

he  became  rector  of  St.  John's  Church, 
Fall  River,  Mass.  He  was  later  rector 
of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Chicago.  He  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Spokane,  Wash.,  in 
1914. 

PAGE,  THOMAS  NELSON,  an  Amer- 
ican novelist;  born  in  Oakland,  Va., 
April  23,  1853.  He  was  educated  at 
Washington  and  Lee  University,  and 
practiced    law    at    Richmond,    Va.     His 


PAGE 


80 


PAGEANTS 


first  story,  "Marse  Chan"  (1887),  at- 
tracted immediate  attention.  "Two  Lit- 
tle Confederates"  (1888);  "On  New- 
Found  River"  (1891);  "Elsket  and 
Other  Stories"  (1891);  "The  Old 
South"  (1892);  "Pastime  Stories" 
(1894);     "Unc'     Edinburgh"      (1895); 


WALTER  HINES  PAGE 

"Social  Life  in  Old  Virginia"  (1897); 
•'Santa  Claus'  Partner"  (1899);  "Gordon 
Keith"  (1903);  "Sword  of  the  Spirit" 
(1913),  etc.  Appointed  Ambassador  to 
Italy  1913.  He  resigned  his  office  in 
1920,  and  was  succeeded  by  R.  U. 
Johnson. 

PAGE,  WALTER  HINES.  Editor 
and  diplomat.  Bom  in  1855  at  Cary, 
N.  C,  and  educated  at  Randolph- 
Macon  College,  Virginia.  He  entered 
newspaper  work  in  1880  as  editor 
of  a  paper  in  St.  Joseph  (Mo.).  Later 
he  served  on  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
"New  York  World"  and  the  "New  York 
Evening  Post."  From  1890-1895  he  was 
the  editor  of  "The  Forum,"  and  later  be- 
came editor  of  the  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
and  the  "World's  Work."  He  was  a 
member  of  the  firm  of  Doubleday,  Page, 
and  Co.  publishers,  from  1899  until  his 
death  in  1918.  In  1913  President  Wilson 
appointed  Page  Ambassador  to  Great 
Britain,  and  both  during  the  period  of 
American   neutrality   and   later  partici- 


pation he  handled  affairs  with  consum- 
mate ability  and  tact. 

PAGEANTS  AND  CELEBRATIONS. 
The  celebration  of  historic  events  by 
dramatic  reproductions  of  scenes  con- 
nected with  them  is  at  least  as  old  as 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  In  modern 
times,  in  many  countries  of  Europe, 
developments  have  been  added  to  them 
according  to  the  time  and  place,  and 
carnivals,  masques,  popular  parades,  ex- 
positions, and  military^  maneuvers  are 
some  of  the  exercises  in  vogue  in  dif- 
ferent lands.  In  the  United  States  the 
celebrations  attendant  on  the  commem- 
oration of  Independence  Day  led  to  the 
development  of  many  of  the  elements  in 
pageantry,  and  a  great  fillip  to  the 
movement  was  given  during  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  centennial  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  in  1876. 
_  The  central  idea  of  the  pageant  is 
simply  that  of  the  unspoken  drama  given 
on  a  larger  scale  out  of  doors,  the  pre- 
dominating feature  being  that  of  a  mov- 
ing tableau  in  which  a  procession  ol 
characters  take  part.  The  scale  is  con- 
fined simply  to  the  number  of  persons 
taking  part,  and  the  dress,  bearing,  man- 
ners, and  grouping  is  in  accordance  with 
the  period  represented  and  the  event 
commemorated.  In  France  the  art  of 
the  pageant  has  been  carried  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection,  and  as  a  rule  its 
frequency  and  success  has  been  most 
marked  in  countries  like  France,  Italy, 
and  Spain  where  the  climate  is  favora- 
ble to  outdoor  representations  of  that 
kind.  From  France  the  idea  spread  to 
Great  Britain,  where  in  recent  years  a 
succession  of  successful  pageants  have 
been  given,  despite  the  uncertainty  of 
the  English  weather.  Thus  in  1905  an 
historical  pageant  on  a  scale  surpassing 
that  known  to  the  modern  generation  of 
Englishmen  was  carried  out  with  suc- 
cess at  Dorset.  The  fashion  spread 
throughout  England,  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land, and  since  then  many  successful 
pageants  have  been  given  in  those  coun- 
tries. The  celebrations  have  usually 
been  held  on  several  days  in  a  week,  and 
the  proceeds  have  been  used  for  public 
purposes. 

The  equable  climate  of  America  has 
tended  to  the  development  of  the  pageant 
and  historic  tableaus  have  become  the 
fashion,  particularly  at  women's  col- 
leges, during  the  milder  half  of  the  year. 
In  1889  New  York  saw  a  national  pag- 
eant reproducing  "Dramatic  Events  in 
the  History  of  New  York."  The  car- 
nivals of  the  Southern  States  have  never 
been  without  their  pictorial  representa- 
tions.    At  New  York  in  1914  was  staged 


PAGODA 


81 


PAINE 


a  pageant  of  the  various  nationalities  of 
America  who  exhibited  their  national 
costumes  and  sang  historic  songs. 
Tableaux  of  various  kinds,  in  which 
large  numbers  of  children  take  part, 
have  become  increasing  features  of  cen- 
tennial and  similar  celebrations.  The 
Hudson-Fulton  celebration  of  1909,  the 
'Lake  lErie  celebration  of  1913,  and  the 
Star-Spangled  Banner  celebration  of 
1914,  had  also  numerous  dramatic  fea- 
tures, and  were  conducted  on  a  scale  un- 
known in  Europe.  The  course  of  the 
World  War,  particularly  after  the 
United  States  had  entered  into  it,  led  to 
numerous  celebrations  intended  to  excite 
the  warlike  ardor  of  the  people.  In 
1920  the  events  connected  with  the  can- 
onization of  St.  Jeanne  d'Arc  gave  oc- 
casion to  pageants  in  New  York  and 
elsewhere  reproducing  episodes  in  the 
career  of  the  girl-warrior  and  expressive 
of  sympathy  with  France  as  chief  suf- 
ferer in  the  World  War. 

PAGODA,  the  temple  of  an  idol  in  In- 
dia. They  belong  both  to  antiquity  and 
modern  times.  Some  are  wonderfully 
large  and  magnificent.  They  consist  of 
one  or  more  quadrangular  courts  with 
towers  at  the  corners,  surrounded  by  a 
wall.  Large  pyramids  rising  in  stages 
cover  the  entrance,  behind  which  extend 
colonnades.  Inside  the  courts  are  lustral 
pools,  colonnades,  and  large  halls,  called 
Tschultris,  which  are  used  to  lodge  pil- 
grims in.  Small  side  temples  appear 
with  cupolas  surmounting  the  accessory 
buildings.  Behind  the  first  court  _  is 
often  a  second  and  a  third,  in  which, 
finally,  the  chief  temple  stands.  The 
most  celebrated  is  that  of  Juggernaut, 
in  the  island  of  Ramisseram,  completed 
toward  the  end  of  the  12th  century. 

Also  a  coin  of  gold  or  silver,  current 
in  Hindustan,  and  varying  in  value  in 
different  localities  from  $2  to  $2.25.  Its 
value,  when  made  of  gold,  by  weight  is 
equivalent  to  about  $1.80  of  American 
standard  gold  coinage. 

PAGO  PAGO,  a  harbor  in  the  island 
of  Tutuila,  Samoa.  It  is  a  long  L-shaped 
expanse  of  water,  extending  mostly  in 
an  E.  and  W.  direction,  and  surrounded 
by  tall,  almost  precipitous  cliffs,  that 
run  up  into  peaks  from  2,000  to  3,000 
feet  high. 

The  harbor  was  ceded  to  the  United 
States  for  a  naval  and  coaling  station, 
first  in  1872,  and  afterward  confirmed 
by  a  treaty  signed  in  Washington,  Jan. 
17,  1878,  and  ratifications  exchanged  on 
Feb.  13  of  the  same  year,  by  which  the 
United  States  was  given  the  right  to 
establish  at  that  harbor  a  station  for 
coaling,     naval     supplies,     freedom     of 


trade,  commercial  treatment,  etc.  This 
harbor  was  occupied  by  the  United 
States  in  1898.  Tutuila,  the  island  on 
whose  coast  this  harbor  is  located,  has 
a  population  of  ^  about  6,000,  area  77 
square  miles,  while  Upolu  has  an  area 
of  340  square  miles,  and  Savaii  659 
square  miles.  The  German  and  British 
governments  withdrew  their  claims  to 
this  island  in  favor  of  the  United 
States. 

PAGUMA,  a  group  of  mammals, 
genus  Paradoxurus,  family  Viverridss 
(civets  and  genets),  inhabiting  eastern 
Asia.  The  peculiar  masked  paguma  {P. 
larvatus)  has  a  white  streak  down  the 
forehead  and  nose,  and  a  white  circle 
round  the  eyes,  which  give  it  the  appear- 
ance of  wearing  an  artificial  mask. 

PAHANG,  a  state  on  the  E.  coast  of 
the  Malay  Peninsula;  area,  14,000  square 
miles,  pop;  about  85,000.  By  the  treaty 
concluded  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
Sultan  of  Pahang  in  1888  the  control  of 
the  foreign  relations  of  that  state  was 
conveyed  to  the  government  of  the 
Straits  Settlements;  and  Pahang  is  now 
practically  a  dependency  of  that  colony. 
In  1895  it  was  united  with  the  Malay 
Federation.     Capital,  Kuala  Lipis. 

PAHLANPUR,  or  PALANPUR,  a 
town  of  India,  capital  of  a  native  state 
of  the  same  name;  83  miles  N.  of  Ahma- 
dabad  in  Bombay  presidency.  Pop. 
about  20,000.  The  Pahlanpur  agency 
comprises  Pahlanpur  and  12  other  states 
in  the  N.  of  Bombay,  with  an  area  of 
8,000  square  miles,  and  pop.  about 
235,000. 

PAIN,  an  uneasy  sensation  of  body, 
resulting  from  particular  impressions 
made  on  the  extremities  of  the  nerves 
transmitted  to  the  brain.  It  is  often  of 
great  service  in  aiding  the  physician  at 
arriving  at  a  correct  diagnosis  of  a  dis- 
ease, and  still  more  obviously  in  fre- 
quently being  the  only  intimation  which 
a  patient  has  of  the  fact  of  there  being 
a  disease  which  demands  a  remedy. 

PAINE,  ALBERT  BIGELOW*  An 
American  author.  Bom  at  New  Bed- 
ford, Mass.,  in  1861.  He  became  in  1899 
the  editor  of  a  department  in  the  "St. 
Nicholas  Magazine,"  a  position  which  he 
held  for  ten  years.  He  is  the  author  of 
numerous  works,  but  perhaps  is  best 
known     by     his     "Biography     of     Mark 

Twain,"  published  in  1912.  Later  he 
wrote  "The  Boy's  Life  of  Mark  Twain" 
(1916)     and     "Mark     Twain's    Letters" 

(1917).  He  was  a  life-long  friend  of 
Twain,  who  appointed  Paine  his  literary 
executor.  The  more  important  of  his 
other  works  are  "The  Autobiography  of 


PAINE 


82 


PAINTING 


a  Monkey"  (1897);  "The  Commuters" 
(1904) ;  "Thomas  Nast — His  Period  and 
His  Pictures"   (1904). 

PAINE,  JOHN  KNOWLES,  an  Amer- 
ican organist  and  composer;  born  in 
Portland,  Me.,  Jan.  9,  1839;  was  Profes- 
sor of  Music  from  1874  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege. His  compositions  are  chiefly  piano 
pieces,  with  a  mass  in  D,  an  oratorio, 
"St.  Peter,"  the  "(Edipus  Tyrannus" 
(incidental  music  for  Sophocles'  trag- 
edy), the  opera  "Azara,"  Columbus 
march  and  hymn  for  the  World's 
Columbian  Exposition  (1892),  etc.  He 
died  April  25,  1906. 

PAINE,     RALPH    DELAHAYE,    an 

American  writer,  born  at  Lemont,  111., 
in  1871.  Graduated  from  Yale  in  1894 
and  at  once  engaged  in  newspaper  work, 
acting  as  correspondent  during  the  Span- 
ish-American War  and  in  China  during 
the  Boxer  uprising.  He  wrote  many 
books,  chiefly  for  boys,  and  was  a  con- 
tributor to  periodicals  and  magazines. 

PAINE,  ROBERT  TREAT,  an  Amer- 
ican jurist,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence;  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Mai-ch  11,  1731;  was  a  delegate  to  pro- 
vincial and  continental  congresses,  and 
held  offices  of  attorney-general  of  Mas- 
sachusetts and  judge  of  Supreme  Court; 
was  an  able  judge.  He  died  in  Boston, 
May  11,  1814. 

PAINE,  THOMAS,  an  American  po- 
litical writer;  born  in  England,  in  1737. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary 
War  he,  in  1774,  emigrated  to  the  United 
States;  became  editor  of  the  "Pennsyl- 
vania Magazine,"  and  gave  an  impulse 
to  the  Revolution  by  his  famous  pam- 
phlet called  "Common  Sense,"  in  which 
he  advocated  the  policy  of  separation  and 
independence.  He  went  to  Paris  in 
1789,  and  published,  in  1791,  his  "Rights 
of  Man,"  in  reply  to  Burke's  speech  on 
the  French  Revolution.  In  September, 
1792,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
French  National  Convention,  acted  with 
the  Girondists,  narrowly  escaped  death 
in  the  Reign  of  Terror,  and  brought  out, 
in  1795,  his  celebrated  deistical  work 
entitled,  "The  Age  of  Reason."  He  re- 
turned to  the  United  States  in  1802,  and 
died  in  New  York,  June  8,  1809. 

PAINLEVE,  PAUL,  French  states- 
man^ born  in  Paris,  1863;  educated  in 
the  Ecole  Normale  Superieure,  where  he 
especially  distinguished  himself  in  math- 
ematics. After  graduating,  in  1886,  he 
was  sent  by  the  Government  on  a  con- 
fidential mission  to  Germany.  On  his 
return,  the  following  year,  he  taught 
mechanics   in   the    University   of    Lille, 


xj-^here  he  remained  until  1892.  During 
the  latter  part  of  this  period,  and  later, 
he  lectured  at  the  Sorbonne,  a  distinc- 
tion accorded  only  to  men  of  the  highest 
degree  of  learning.  In  1895  .he  began 
teaching  mathematics  at  the  Ecole  Nor- 
male, and  in  1903  he  became  Professor 
of  mathematics  at  the  University  of 
Paris.     In  1900  he  was  elected  a  member 


THOMAS  PAINE 

of  the  Institute.  In  1915  he  was  ap- 
pointed Minister  of  Public  Instruction 
and  Inventions  Connected  with  National 
Defense,  and  in  1917  he  assumed  the 
post   of   War    Minister. 

PAINTERS'  COLIC,  a  disease  which 
derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that 
painters  are  more  frequently  attacked 
by  it  than  persons  of  other  occupations, 
though  habitual  cider  drinkers,  and  peo- 
ple of  various  callings,  are  sometimes 
liable  to  its  attack.  The  cause  in  all 
cases  is  the  presence  of  lead^  in  the  sys- 
tem. This  very  serious  disease  com- 
mands the  prompt  attendance  of  a  phy- 
sician. Iodine  of  potassium  is  said  to 
be  an  effective  remedy  for  lead  and  mer- 
curial poisoning. 

PAINTING,  an  art  which,  by  means 
of  light,  shade,  and  color,  represents  on 
a  plane  surface  all  objects  presented  to 
the  eye  or  to  the  imagination.  It  was 
practiced  by  the  Egyptians  several  thou* 
sand    years    b«fore    the    Christian    era. 


FAISH 


83 


PALACIO    VALDES 


Painting  appears  to  have  had  its  origin 
among  all  nations  as  a  species  of  writ- 
ing. Considered  as  an  art,  it  may  be 
said  to  consist  of  two  chief  parts — out- 
line and  design.  Outline  is  a  design 
without  color,  and  examples  of  it  may 
be  seen  in  the  cartoons  of  Raphael, 
Retzsch,  Flaxman,  and  others.  Design, 
properly  so  called,  includes  outline,  rep- 
resenting the  contour  of  objects,  together 
with  color,  which  gives  to  the  image  not 
only  the  hue,  but  also  the  form  and 
relief  proper  to  the  object.  The  techni- 
cal processes  of  painting  are  oil  paint- 
ing, water  color  painting,  encaustic 
painting,  miniature  painting,  fresco 
painting,  enamel  painting,  etc.  There 
are  at  least  10  branches  of  the  art,  viz., 
history,  grotesques,  portraits,  fancy,  ani- 
mals, flowers  and  fruits,  seascape,  land- 
scape, still  life,  and  battle  pieces. 

PAISH,  SIR  GEORGE,  British 
financier.  He  was  born  in  1867  and  be- 
came attached  to  the  staff  of  the  "Stat- 
ist," the  chief  London  economic  journal, 
before  he  was  twenty,  becoming  subeditor 
in  1888,  assistant  editor  in  1894,  and  as- 
sociate editor  in  1900.  He  became  rec- 
ognized throughout  England  as  an 
authority  on  economics  and  was  made 
governor  of  the  London  School  of  Eco- 
nomics. During  the  World  War  he 
made  frequent  visits  to  the  United  States 
to  negotiate  loans,  and  raised  a  commo- 
tion in  1919  by  suggesting  the  issue  of 
several  billions  to  rehabilitate  Europe. 
His  books  include:  "Savings  and  Social 
Welfare";  and  "Railroads  of  the  United 
States." 

_  PAISIELLO,  GIOVANNI,  an  Italian 
singer  and  musician;  born  in  1741.  Hav- 
ing early  shown  musical  ability,  he  was 
well  trained;  and  in  1763  his  first  opera 
("The  Pupil")  was  performed  with 
great  applause  at  Bologna.  From  this 
period  commenced  a  long  career  of  suc- 
cess, at  Modena,  Parma,  Venice,  Rome, 
Milan,  Naples,  and  Florence.  By  the 
year  1776  he  had  composed  nearly  50 
operas,  partly  serious  and  partly  comic, 
the  chief  of  which  are:  "Demetrius"; 
"  Artaxerxes";  "The  Ridiculous  Vir- 
tuosos"; "The  Chinese  Idol";  "The  Mar- 
quis of  Tulipano";  etc.  In  that  year  he 
entered  the  service  of  Catharine  II.  of 
Russia.  Here  during  eight  years'  resi- 
dence he  composed  his  best  productions, 
"The  Maid  Mistress,"  and  "The  Barber 
of  Seville."  He  then  visited  Vienna, 
where  he  composed  "King  Theodore," 
another  of  his  best  operas,  and  12  sym- 
phonies for  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  He 
died  in  1816. 

PAISLEY,  a  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary burgh  of  Scotland,  in  Renfrew- 


shire, on  the  White  Cart,  about  3  miles 
above  the  confluence  of  the  united  White 
and  Black  Cart  with  the  Clyde,  and  7 
miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Glasgow.  It  consists 
of  an  old  town  on  the  W.  or  left,  and  a 
new  town  on  the  E.  or  right  bank  of 
the  river,  communicating  by  three  hand- 
some bridges.  The  most  noteworthy 
building  is  the  Abbey  Church,  now  a  par- 
ish church,  belonging  to  a  monastery  (of 
which  little  else  now  remains)  founded 
in  1163  by  Walter,  son  of  Alan,  the  first 
of  the  house  of  the  Stewarts.  In  1889 
a  monument  was  erected  by  Queen  Vic- 
toria in  memory  of  her  ancestors  buried 
here.  In  St.  Mirren's  Chapel  or  the 
Sounding  Aisle,  on  the  S.  side,  stands  a 
tomb  supposed  to  have  been  built  in 
honor  of  Bruce's  daughter  Marjory. 

Paisley  has  been  long  noted  for  its 
manufactures,  especially  of  textile 
goods.  The  shawl  manufacture,  intro- 
duced about  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century,  and  long  a  flourishing  industry, 
is  not  now  a  staple,  but  the  textile  manu- 
facture is  still  large,  and  to  it  has  been 
added  that  of  sewing  cotton,  for  which 
Paisley  is  celebrated  all  over  the  world. 
Among  the  other  manufactures  are  tap- 
estry, embroidery,  tartans,  and  carpets. 
There  are  also  dye  and  print  works, 
engineering  works,  soap  works,  manufac- 
tories of  starch,  corn  flour,  mustard,  and 
chemicals;  distilleries,  breweries,  and 
shipbuilding  yards,  chiefly  for  river 
steamers  and  dredgers.  Wilson,  the 
ornithologist;  the  poet  Tannahill,  and 
Professor  Wilson  (Christopher  North) 
were  natives  of  Paisley,  which  possesses 
a  bronze  statue  of  the  ornithologist  and 
of  the  poet.  Paisley  is  a  town  of  an- 
cient origin,  having  been  at  one  time  a 
Roman  station  under  the  name  of  Van- 
duara.     Pop.  estimated  (1918)  89,425. 

PAKHOI,  a  seaport  of  China;  opened 
to  foreign  trade  in  1876;  on  the  N.  shore 
of  the  Gulf  of  Tonkin.  The  harbor  is 
shallow.  Trade  does  not  flourish.  The 
imports — cottons,  woolens,  opium,  rice — 
average  $4,048,500  per  annum;  the  ex- 
ports— tin,  sugar,  indigo,  aniseed,  hides, 
groundnut  oil — $1,148,500.  Pop.  over 
20,000. 

PALACIO  VALDES,  ARMANDO.      A 

Spanish  novelist.  He  was  born  in  1853, 
at  Entralgo,  Asturias,  and  studied  law 
at  Madrid.  He  there  became  editor  of 
"La  Revista  Europea,"  and  while  so  en- 
gaged began  to  write  fiction.  His  first 
success  came  with  "El  Seiiorito  Octavio" 
in  1881,  but  this  was  excelled  by  "Marrta 
y  Maria"  which  immediately  won  pop- 
ular favor.  His  other  works  include: 
"Aguas  Fuertes";  "Jose";  "El  cuatro 
poder";    "La    Hermana    San   Sulpicio"; 


PALiEARCTIC    REGION 


84 


I-ALENCIA 


"La  espunia";  "La  fe";  "El  niaes- 
trante";  ''El  origen  del  personiento" ; 
"Tristan,  o  el  pesimismo,"  etc.  Nearly 
all  are  translated  into  English  and  other 
languages. 

PAL^ARCTIC  BEGION,  a  very  ex- 
tensive region,  comprising  all  temperate 
Europe  and  Asia,  from  Iceland  to  Bering 
Straits,  and  from  the  Azores  to  Japan. 
To  the  S.  it  includes  the  extra-tropical 
part  of  the  Sahara  and  Arabia,  and  all 
Persia,  Kabul,  and  Baluchistan  to  the 
Indus.  It  comes  down  to  a  little  below 
the  upper  limit  of  forests  in  the  Hima- 
layas, and  includes  the  larger  N.  portion 
of  China,  not  quite  so  far  down  the  coast 
as  Amoy. 

PAL^ICHTHYES,  or  PALEICH- 
THYES,  a  sub-class  of  fishes.  The 
heart  has  a  contractile  conus  arteriosus, 
intestine  with  a  spiral  valve;  optic 
nerves  non-decussating  or  only  partly 
decussating.  It  embraces  two  orders, 
Chondropterygii  and  Ganoidei. 

PALEOGRAPHY,  or  PALEOGRA- 
PHY, an  ancient  manner  of  writing; 
ancient  manuscripts  collectively.  Also 
the  art  or  science  of  deciphering  ancient 
inscriptions,  writings,  manuscripts,  docu- 
ments, etc.,  by  a  knowledge  of  the  char- 
acters, signs,  and  abbreviations  used  by 
the  writers  or  sculptors  of  various  na- 
tions at  different  times;  the  study  of  an- 
cient writings  and  inscriptions,  and 
modes    of   writing. 

PAL.ffiOLOGTJS,  an  illustrious  Byzan- 
tine family,  first  mentioned  about  1078, 
when  George  Palaeologus  was  a  faithful 
servant  of  the  Emperor  Nicephorus  III. 
He  was  killed  while  defending  Dyrrha- 
chium,  or  Durazzo,  against  the  Normans 
in  1081.  The  Palaeologi,  the  last  Greek 
family  that  occupied  the  throne  of  Con- 
stantinople, reigned  from  1260  to  1453. 
A  branch  of  the  Palaeologi  ruled  over 
Montferrat  in  Italy  from  1305  to  the  end 
of  1530. 

PAL.ffiOTHERIUM,  or  PALEOTHE- 
RITJM,  the  type-genus  of  the  family 
Palseotheridse,  resembling  the  antelope. 
It  was  founded  on  remains  discovered  by 
Cuvier  in  the  quarries  of  Montmartre, 
and  named  by  him  P.  magnum.  Several 
species  are  known,  varying  in  size  from 
that  of  a  roedeer  to  that  of  a  tapir. 

PALEOZOIC,  or  PALEOZOIC,  in  ge- 
ology, the  term  generally  applied  to  the 
series  of  strata  commencing  with  the 
first  rocks  which  have  traces  of  life,  and 
ending  with  the  upper  part  of  the  Per- 
mian.   See  Fossil:  Geology. 

PALAMEDES,  a  Grecian  hero,  the 
son  of  Nauplius,  King  of  Eubcea. 


PALATE,  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 
The  fore  part  is  called  the  hard  palate 
and  the  back  part  the  soft  palate,  the 
former  having  an  osseous  framework  and 
a  membrane  provided  with  many  muci- 
parous glands.  In  botany,  the  prom- 
inent lower  lip  of  a  ringent  corolla. 

PALATINATE,  LOWER,  or  PALAT- 
INATE OF  THE  RHINE,  the  name  for- 
merly given  to  two  states  of  Germany, 
which  were  designated,  by  way  of  dis- 
tinction, the  Upper  and  Lower  Palati- 
nate, and  though  not  contiguous,  were 
under  the  control  of  the  same  sovereign 
till  1620.  The  word  palatinate  is  of  feu- 
dal origin,  and  signifies  the  province  or 
seigniory  of  a  palatine,  i.  e.,  of  a  high 
dignitary  during  the  Middle  Ages,  who 
originally  held  office  in  the  court  of  the 
sovereign,  and  was  designated  the  comes 
palatii,  but  who  afterward  obtained, 
within  his  own  province  or  district,  the 
same  power,  rank,  and  jurisdiction, 
which  the  comes  palatii  possessed  in  the 
palace.  Hence  the  old  German  title 
pfalzgraf,  count-palatine;  in  English, 
palsgrave. 

PALATINE  HILL,  one  of  the  seven 
hills  of  Rome.  It  borders  on  the  Forum 
and  is  said  to  be  the  site  of  the  city 
founded  by  Remus. 

PALATKA,  a  town  and  county-seat 
of  Putnam  co.,  Fla.,  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast  Line,  the  Georgia  Southern  and 
Florida,  the  Florida  East  Coast  and  the 
Ocala  Northern  railroads;  30  miles  S. 
W.  of  St.  Augustine.  It  is  noted  for  its 
large  shipments  of  oranges  and  as  a 
winter  resort  for  Northern  invalids.  It 
also  has  large  shipments  of  cotton, 
sugar,  and  various  fruits.  Pop.  (1910) 
3,779;    (1920)   5,102. 

PALEMBANG,  capital  of  a  residency 
(formerly  an  independent  kingdom)  near 
the  S.  end  of  Sumatra;  on  the  Musi  river, 
50  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  houses  of 
the  town  are  built  on  great  log  rafts  on 
either  bank.  Manufactures,  trade  in 
silk  goods,  carved  wood,  ornaments  in 
gold  and  ivory,  and  krises,  as  well  as 
shipbuilding,  are  carried  on.  In  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  Palembang  was  one  of  the 
most  important  centers  of  Arabian  trade 
with  China.  Pop.  over  60,000;  and  of 
the  residence  about  775,000. 

PALENCIA  (the  ancient  Pallantia), 
a  walled  city  of  Sp^in,  in  Old  Castile 
(province  of  Palencia)  in  a  fruitful  plain, 
180  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Madrid.  The 
Gothic  cathedral  was  built  1321-1504. 
The  first  university  of  Castile  was  found- 
ed here  in  1208,  but  was  removed  to 
Salamanca  in  1239.     Blankets  and  coarse 


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JERUSALEM.       A    STREET    SCENE    INSIDE    THE    JAFFA    GATE 


A  CEDAR  GKOVE   ON    MT.   LEBANON,   PALESTINE 


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THE   GARDEN    OF   GETHSEMANE,    NEAR    JERUSALEM 


PALENQUE 


85 


PALERMO 


"Woolen  cloths  are  manufactured.  The 
vine  is  cultivated,  and  there  is  a  good 
trade  in  wool.  Pop.  (1917)  city,  13.256; 
province,  199,689. 

PALENQUE,  a  village  of  Mexico, 
State  of  Chiapas,  about  100  miles  E.  N. 
E.  of  Ciudad-Real.  About  7  miles  S.  W. 
Off  it  are  extensive  and  magnificent  ruins. 
They  consist  of  vast  artificial  terraces, 
or  terraced  truncated  pyramids,  of  cut 
stone,  surmounted  by  edifices  of  peculiar 
and  solid  architecture,  also  of  cut 
stone,  covered  with  figures  in  relief,  or 
figures  and  hieroglyphics  in  stucco,  with 
remains  of  brilliant  colors.  Most  of  the 
buildings  are  of  one  story,  but  a  few  are 
two,  three,  and  some  have  been  four 
stories.  The  principal  structure,  known 
as  the  Palace,  is  228  feet  long,  180  feet 
deep,  and  25  feet  high,  standing  on  a 
terraced  truncated  pyramid  of  corre- 
sponding dimensions.  On  slabs  of  stone 
are  carved  numerous  colossal  figures, 
and  the  remains  of  statues  more  resem- 
ble Grecian  than  Egyptian  or  Hindu  art. 
These  ruins  were  only  discovered  in 
1750.  (See  Stephens'  "Incidents  of 
Travel  in  Central  America,"  etc.;  and 
Catherwood's  "Views  of  Ancient  Monu- 
ments of  Central  America,"  etc.) 

PALEONTOLOGY.  The  study  of  the 
life  which  inhabited  the  earth  during 
past  geological  periods.  It  is  based  on 
the  study  of  fossils.  Although  it  was 
long  recognized  that  fossils  were  the  re- 
mains of  past  life,  and  some  attempt  at 
study  has  been  made,  paleontology  was 
placed  on  a  scientific  basis  by  Culver 
(1769-1832)  and  given  great  impetus 
by  the  publication  of  Darwin's  "Origin 
of  Species"  in  1859,  which  presented 
the  theory  of  evolution  which  was  de- 
pendent upon  the  paleontologist  for  its 
proof. 

There  are  two  branches  of  paleontol- 
ogy— the  branch  of  the  science  which 
studies  the  biological  features  of  the  fos- 
sils, and  the  more  comprehensive  geo- 
logical branch  which  studies  the  rela- 
tions between  the  fossils  and  the  rocks 
and  determines  their  period  by  them. 
Needless  to  say,  the  science  is  closely  re- 
lated to  physical  geography  as  well  as 
biology  and  geology. 

A  very  large  portion  of  the  life  of  for- 
mer geological  periods  has  not  been  pre- 
served for  us  in  the  form  of  fossils, 
either  because  it  was  not  of  such  a  type 
as  would  lend  itself  to  fossilization,  or 
the  evidences  of  the  fossilization  have 
been  destroyed  by  erosion  or  the  meta- 
morphosis of  the  rocks  in  which  they 
were  imbedded,  but  in  spite  of  these  many 
gaps  the  history  of  organic  development 
is  rapidly   being  compiled   and  the   ad- 


vance of  various  types  of  life  through 
successive  geological  periods  has  been 
studied. 

Of  course  the  animal  and  vegetable 
life  inhabiting  the  earth  at  the  time  a 
rock  is  formed  will  be  the  fossils  which 
are  found  in  that  rock,  and  evidence  of 
the  predominance  of  different  types  of 
life  in  various  geological  periods  and  the 
sequence  of  these  periods  has  been  de- 
termined. The  major  geological  periods 
or  eras  take  their  names  from  the  type  of 
life  predominating,  and  the  divisions  of 
these  periods  are  named  from  the  spe- 
cies. During  the  Paleozoic  era  the  earth 
was  inhabited  by  invertebrates,  by  rep- 
tiles during  the  Mesozoic  era  and  by 
mammals  in  the  Cenozoic  era. 

The  fauna  which  are  found  in  the 
lowest  strata  are  those  which  originally 
were  best  adapted  to  the  locality  and 
which  had  conquered  in  the  struggle  for 
existence.  These  are  indigenous  faunas. 
Often  the  changes  in  the  climate  or  topog- 
raphy of  the  locality  cause  the  intro- 
duction of  a  new  type  of  life  called  ex- 
otic fauna,  which  may  either  die  out,  or 
thrive  and  become  the  predominating  or 
indigenous  fauna  of  the  locality. 

Bionomy  is  that  branch  of  paleontolo- 
gy which  deals  with  marine  organisms 
and  its  branches  are:  Plankton,  which 
considers  those  forms  of  life  which  drift 
with  the  current;  Nekton,  the  study  of 
the  swimming  types;  and  Benthos,  the 
life  of  the  bottom  of  the  ocean.  The  de- 
posits found  at  beaches  and  in  shallow 
places  are  called  Littoral  Facies;  those 
in  moderately  deep  water  Sub-littoral 
Facies,  and  the  deposits  of  the  deep  sea 
are  Abyssal  Facies. 

The  study  of  the  ranges  of  tempera- 
ture and  the  temperature  zones  of  geo- 
logical time,  the  discovery  of  extinct  spe- 
cies and  even  orders,  the  proof  of  changes 
in  type  in  adaptation  to  circumstances 
have  been  some  of  the  results  of  paleon- 
tological  research. 

PALERMO  (ancient  Panormus)  (Pa- 
lermo province),  the  capital  city,  and  a 
seaport  of  Sicily,  on  the  N.  W.  extremi- 
ty. It  is  built  on  the  S.  W.  of  an  ex- 
tensive bay,  in  a  plain,  which,  from  its 
luxuriance  and  from  being  surrounded 
by  mountains  on  three  sides,  has  been 
termed  the  "golden  shell."  In  the  front 
of  the  city  is  the  Mariana,  a  raised  ter- 
race, extending  more  than  1  mile  along 
the  bay,  and  is  about  200  feet  wide.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are,  the  royal 
palace,  the  tribunal  of  justice,  the  cus- 
tom house  (formerly,  palace  of  the  In- 
quisition), etc.  Manufactures  silk  and 
cotton  fabrics,  glass,  oil  cloth,  and  leather. 
Nearly  1,000  boats,  and  3,500  fishermen 
are  engaged  in  the  tunny  fishery.     Ex- 


PALERMO,    GTJLF    OF  86 

ports  principally  sumach,  fruits,  wine, 
manna,  and  brimstone.  Palermo,  the 
ancient  Panormus,  is  first  mentioned  in 
history  480  B.  C,  when  the  Carthagin- 
ians made  it  a  naval  station.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Romans  254  B.  C,  and  it 
became  one  of  their  principal  naval  sta- 
tions. The  Normans  took  it  in  1072,  and 
in  1282  it  was  the  scene  of  the  massacre 
called  the  "Sicilian  Vespers."  Palermo 
was  taken  by  Garibaldi  in  May,  1860. 
Pop.,  city,  about  350,000;  province,  about 
810,000. 

PALERMO,  GTJLF  OF,  a  bay  or  arm 

of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  near  Palermo. 

PALESTINE,     or    HOLY    LAND,     a 

country  of  southwestern  Asia,  compris- 
ing the  S.  part  of  Syria,  and  forming 
before  the  World  War  the  pashalics 
of  Acre,  Gaza,  and  the  S.  part  of  Damas- 
cus; having  N.  the  pashalic  of  Tripoli, 
S.  E.  and  S.  the  Arabian  Desert,  and  W. 
the  Mediterranean;  length,  193  miles; 
average  breadth,  75  miles;  area,  11,000 
square  miles.  The  surface  is  generally 
mountainous,  interspersed  from  N.  to  S. 
by  the  mountain  chain  of  Lebanon, 
Mount  Hermon,  the  highest  peak,  attain- 
ing an  elevation  of  10,000  feet.  There  are 
numerous  other  peaks  famous  in  sacred 
history,  viz.:  Mount  Carmel;  Mount 
Tabor,  the  modern  Jebel  Toor;  Gilead, 
and  Nebo  or  Pisgah;  and  Zion,  Moriah, 
and  the  Mount  of  Olives,  in  or  near 
Jerusalem. 

Judsea  proper,  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
Judah,  comprises  the  territory  extend- 
ing from  Lake  Asphaltites  to  the  sea, 
and  consists  of  hills  and  valleys  of  great 
beauty  and  fertility.  In  proceeding  E.  to 
the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea  the  scene  be- 
comes more  decidedly  barren.  To  the  N. 
of  ancient  Judsea  was  Samaria,  a  moun- 
tainous district,  but  flourishing  and  well 
cultivated.  To  the  N.  of  Samaria,  but  still 
communicating  with  Judsea  by  the  banks 
of  the  Jordan,  is  Galilee,  distinguished  by 
its  natural  beauty  and  fertility.  The 
plain  of  Esdraelon  is  one  vast  meadow, 
covered  with  the  richest  pasture.  The 
Lake  of  Tiberias,  or  Gennesareth,  is  sur- 
rounded by  lofty  and  picturesque  hills. 
The  regions  beyond  Jordan  include  many 
tracts  once. fertile  and  flourishing.  Here 
are  the  Hauran  and  Dschaulan,  a  vast 
plain,  not  watered  by  any  great  river; 
yet  the  inhabitants  contrive,  by  collect- 
ing the  torrents  and  rain  water  into 
ponds,  to  obtain  a  sufficient  supply  for 
agriculture;  so  that  very  extensive  crops 
of  grain  are  raised.  The  rivers  are  the 
Jordan,  Jarmuth,  Kishon,  and  the  Nahr, 
Naman  or  Belus.  The  lakes  Tiberias, 
Gennesareth,  and  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
climate  is  very  fine  in  the  dry  season. 


PALEStRINA 


Products,  wheat,  barley,  millet,  tobacco, 
and  fruits. 

Its  most  ancient  name  was  Canaan,  its 
inhabitants  being  descended  from  Ca- 
naan, the  fourth  son  of  Ham  and  grand- 
son of  Noah.  Under  the  reigns  of  David 
and  Solomon  it  became  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  kingdoms  of  Asia.  It  was 
conquered,  however,  by  the  kings  of 
Nineveh  and  Babylon,  who  carried  cap- 
tive first  Israel  and  then  Judah,  into  the 
E.  provinces  of  their  empire.  After  the 
conquest  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  the  Jews 
were  allowed  to  return  to  their  country. 
Palestine  continued  thus  a  province  of 
Persia  till  after  the  conquest  of  Alexan- 
der. The  Jews  were  again  exposed  to 
oppression  from  some  of  the  Ptolemies, 
who  having  attempted  to  enforce  the 
adoption  of  the  Grecian  idolatiy,  were 
met  with  the  most  determined  resistance 
by  the  Maccabees,  and  Judaea  now  became 
an  independent  country.  It  subse- 
quently fell  under  the  dominion  of  Rome, 
who  established  the  Herods  as  tributary 
kings.  The  country  remained  in  the 
power  of  the  Romans  till  the  conversion 
of  the  empire  to  Christianity.  In  the  6th 
century  it  fell  under  the  sway  of  the 
Mohammedans,  which  gave  occasion  to 
the  Crusades.  Jerusalem  was  taken  by 
the  European  forces,  and  was  under 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon  erected  into  a  Latin 
kingdom,  which  endured  for  above  80 
years,  during  which  the  Holy  Land 
streamed  with  Christian  and  Saracen 
blood.  In  1187  Judaea  was  conquered  by 
Saladin,  on  the  decline  of  whose  kingdom 
it  passed  through  various  hands,  till,  in 
1517,  it  was  finally  added  to  the  Turkish 
empire.  A  railroad  connecting  Jaffa 
with  Jerusalem  has  been  constructed, 
and  a  harbor  made  at  Jaffa. 

In  the  World  War  (1914-1918)  the 
Anglo-Indian  army  captured  Jerusalem 
(pop.  85,000)  on  March  11,  1917,  and 
the  whole  of  Palestine  was  occupied  in 
the  following  year.  The  British  con- 
stituted it  a  Jewish  state  after  the  war, 
with  General  Allenby  High  Commission' 
er  (also  of  Egypt).  The  Rt.  Honorable 
Herbert  Samuel  was  appointed  Higb 
Commissioner  in  1920. 

PALESTINE,  a  city  of  Texas,  the 
county-seat  of  Anderson  co.  It  is  on  the 
International  and  Great  Northern  rail- 
road. It  has  an  important  trade  in  cot- 
ton, lumber,  beef,  iron,  fruit,  and  vege- 
tables. There  are  iron  and  salt  mines 
in  the  vicinity.  It  has  a  public  library, 
a  county  court  house,  and  the  general 
offices  of  the  Great  Northern  railroad. 
Pop.   (1910)   10,482;   (1920)   11,039. 

PALESTRINA  (the  ancient  Prae- 
neste),  an  Italian  city,  22  miles  E.  by  S. 
of  Rome,  on  the  slope  of  an  offset  of  the 


PAIiESTRINA 


87 


PALGEAVE 


Apennines.  It  contains  the  chief  castle 
of  the  Colonnas  and  the  palace  of  the 
Barberini  family,  the  owners  after  1630. 
It  is  built  almost  entirely  upon  the  gi- 
gantic substructions  of  the  ancient  Tem- 
ple of  Fortune,  one  of  the  greatest  re- 
ligious edifices  in  all  Italy,  celebrated  not 
only  for  its  splendor,  but  also  for  its 
oracle,  Avhich  was  consulted  down  to  the 
time  of  Constantine.  Its  elevated  and 
healthy  situation,  at  no  great  distance 
from  the  capital,  made  it  a  favorite  sum- 
mer resort  of  the  Romans.  Augustus  and 
Tiberius  frequented  it;  Horace  found  it 
a  pleasant  retreat;  Hadrian  built  there 
an  extensive  villa;  and  Antonius  erected 
a  palace.  Numerous  valuable  works  of 
art  and  other  remains  have  been  re- 
covered, dating  principally  from  the  8th, 
and  from  the  3d  and  2d  centuries  B.  C. 

PALESTRINA,  GIOVANNI  PIETRO 
ALOYSIO  DA,  an  Italian  musician  and 
composer;  born  in  Palestrina,  an  ancient 
city  20  miles  from  Rome,  in  1529;  and 
was  admitted  into  the  Pope's  Chapel  in 
1559.  This  musician  holds  the  most 
prominent  rank  as  a  composer  of  ec- 
clesiastical music  of  that  age,  his  mo- 
tets, masses,  and  chants  being  still  in 
use.  Palestrina  has  been  regarded  as 
the  Homer  of  ancient  music  and  the  fath- 
er of  choral  melody.     He  died  in  1594. 

PALEY,  WILLIAM,  an  English  the- 
ologian; born  in  Peterborough,  in  1743. 
He  was  appointed  archdeacon  of  Carlisle, 
1782;  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's,  London, 
1794;  dean  of  Lincoln,  1795.  His  prin- 
cipal writings  are:  "Principles  of  Moral 
and  Political  Philosophy"  (1785) ;  "Horae 
Paulinae;  or,  "The  Truth  of  the  Scripture 
History  of  St.  Paul  Evinced,"  etc. 
(1791) ;  "View  of  the  Evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity" (1794) ,  his  most  celebrated  work ; 
"Natural  Theology;  or,  Evidences  of  the 
Existence  and  Attributes  of  the  Deity 
Collected  from  the  Appearances  of  Na- 
ture" (1802),  in  some  respects  the  most 
remarkable  of  all  his  writings.  He  died 
May  25,  1805. 

PALFREY,     JOHN     GORHAM,     an 

American  clergyman;  born  in  Boston, 
May  2,  1796.  He  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard; \7as  pastor  of  Brattle  Street  Uni- 
tarian Church,  Boston;  professor  in 
Harvard,  1830-1839;  member  of  the 
State  Legislature,  1842-1843;  secretary 
of  State  of  Massachusetts,  1844-1848; 
and  member  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Con- 
gress at  Paris,  1867.  He  published 
"The  Relation  betw'een  Judaism  and 
Christianity"  (1854).  His  enduring 
work,  however,  is,  "The  History  of  New 
England"  (4  vols.  1858-1864).  He  died 
in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  April  26,  1881. 


PALGHAT,  a  town  in  the  district  of 
Malabar,  Madras,  India.  It  has  several 
important  educational  institutions  and 
a  Swiss  Protestant  Mission.  There  is 
considerable  trade  in  grain,  tobacco,  lum- 
ber, and  oil.     Pop.  about  45,000. 

PALGRAVE,  SIR  FRANCIS,  an 
English  historian;  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, in  1788.  He  was  a  Jew,  and  his 
original  name  was  Cohen,  which  he 
changed  to  Palgrave  on  embracing  Chris- 
tianity in  1823.  He  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1827,  and  made  himself  known  by 
his  edition  of  the  "Parliamentary  Writs 
from  1273  to  1327"  (1827-1834);  "His- 
tory of  England"  (1831);  "Rise  and 
Progress  of  the  Commonwealth"  (1832). 
In  1832  he  was  knighted.  His  other  works 
include  "Truths  and  Fictions  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages"  (1844) ;  "Reports  of  the  Depu- 
ty-Keeper of  the  Public  Records"  (1840- 
1861)  ;  and  "History  of  Normandy  and 
England"  (1851-1860).  He  died  in 
Hampstead,  July  6,  1861. 

PALGRAVE,  FRANCIS  TURNER, 
an  English  poet  and  critic,  eldest  son  of 
the  preceding;  born  in  London,  England, 
Sept.  28,  1824.  He  was  educated  at 
Charterhouse  School,  became  scholar  of 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  Fellow  of 
Exeter,  filled  for  five  years  the  office  of 
vice-principal  of  the  Training  College  for 
Schoolmasters  at  Kneller  Hall,  was  pri- 
vate Secretary  to  Earl  Granville,  and  an 
official  in  the  Educational  Department 
of  the  Privy-council.  He  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Poetry  at  Oxford  in  1886.  His 
works  are  "Idylls  and  Songs"  (1854) ; 
"Essays  on  Art"  (1866);  "Hymns" 
(1867);  "Lyrical  Poems"  (1871);  and 
the  "Visions  of  England"  (1881).  He 
is  best  known,  however,  as  the  editor  of 
"Golden  Treasury  of  English  Lyrics" 
(1861,  and  a  2d  series  in  1895)  ;  "The 
Children's  Treasury  of  Lyrical  Poetry" 
(2  vols.  1875);  "The  Sonnets  and  Songs 
of  Shakespeare"  (1877);  "Selected  Lyri- 
cal Poems  of  Herrick"  (1877),  of  Keats 
(1885);  and  "Treasury  of  Sacred  Song" 
(1889).    He  died  Oct.  24,  1897. 

PALGRAVE,  WILLIAM  GIFFORD, 
an  English  traveler,  son  of  Sir  Francis; 
born  in  Westminster,  England,  Jan.  24, 
1826.  He  was  educated  at  the  Chai'ter- 
house  School  and  Oxford,  graduating 
with  great  distinction  in  _  1846.  _  Next 
year  he  obtained  a  commission  in  the 
Bombay  Native  Infantry,  which  he  re- 
signed to  become  a  priest  in  the  Society 
of  Jesus.  After  studying  in  France  and 
at  Rome  he  was  sent  at  his  own  request 
as  a  missionary  to  Syria,  where  he  ac- 
quired a  wonderfully  intimate  knowledge 
of  Ai-abic.     Summoned  to  France  in  1860 


PALI 


88 


FALLEN 


by  Napoleon  III.  to  give  an  account  of  the 
Syrian  massacres,  he  went  disguised  as 
a  physician  on  a  daring  expedition  at  the 
emperor's  expense  through  central  Ara- 
bia, traversing  the  entire  Wahabi  king- 
dom, and  returning  to  Europe  through 
Bagdad  and  Aleppo  (1862-1863).  His 
"Narrative  of  a  Year's  Journey  Through 
Central  and  Eastern  Arabia"  (1865),  is 
one  of  the  best  books  of  travel  in  the 
English  language.  Palgrave  quitted  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  1864.  He  was  nomi- 
nated consul  at  Sukhum-Kale  in  1866,  at 
Trebizond  in  1867,  St.  Thomas  in  1873, 
at  Manila  in  1876,  and  consul-general  in 
the  principality  of  Bulgaria  in  1878,  and 
in  Siam  in  1880.  He  was  appointed  Brit- 
ish minister  to  Uruguay  in  1884.  His 
other  works  are:  "Essays  on  Eastern 
Questions"  (1872);  "Hermann  Agha: 
an  Eastern  Narrative"  (1872);  "Dutch 
Guiana"  (1876)  ;  and  "Ulysses,  or  Scenes 
and  Studies  in  Many  Lands"  (1887). 
He  died  in  Montevideo,  Sept.  30,  1888. 
PALI,  an  Indian  language,  originally 
the  popular  dialect  of  Maghada,  now 
Behar.  Buddha  preached  in  it,  and  the 
writings  embodying  his  faith  were  com- 
posed in  it,  on  which  account  it  became 
the  sacred  language  of  Buddhism.  It  is 
closely  akin  to  Sanskrit. 

PALILIA,  A  Roman  goddess  of 
shepherds. 

PALIMPSEST,  a  piece  of  parchment 
whose  original  writing  has  been  removed 
to  fit  it  for  a  subsequent  record. 

PALINGENESIS,  a  biological  law 
which  states  that  the  characteristics  of 
the  offspring  are  inherited  from  the  par- 
ents, in  contrast  to  the  theory  of  ceno- 
genesis,  which  states  that  the  character- 
istics are  the  result  of  environment. 

An  illustration  of  the  first  case  is  the 
development  of  the  frog,  which  under- 
goes a  complete  change,  not  only  in  out- 
ward appearance,  but  in  respiratory  sys- 
tem, in  the  change  from  the  polliwog, 
with  the  long  tail  and  respiratory  gills, 
to  the  tailless  frog  with  lungs  for 
breathing. 

Research  has  proved  that  this  has  al- 
ways been  the  development  of  this  type 
of  animal.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
case  of  many  insects,  the  offspring  were 
born  in  the  form  of  the  parent,  but  have 
recently  (biologically  speaking)  devel- 
oped a  laval  stage  of  development — ^for 
example,  the  change  of  the  caterpillar 
into  the  moth. 

PALISADE,  a  fence  or  fencing  of 
pales  or  stakes  driven  into  the  ground, 
to  form  an  inclosure,  as  a  protection  to 
property.  In  fortification,  a  row  of 
stakes  set  firmly  in  the  ground  and  pre- 


senting a  sharp  point  to  an  advancing 
party.  The  stakes  are  placed  vertically 
at  the  foot  of  the  slope  of  the  counter- 
scarp, or  presented  at  an  angle  at  the 
foot  of  a  parapet,  or  on  the  banquette  of 
the  covered  way. 

PALISSY,  BERNABD,  a  French  pot- 
ter and  chemist;  born  in  Agen  about 
1508.  He  wrote  several  works  on 
natural  philosophy,  and  on  subjects 
connected  with  the  art  of  pottery. 
His  pottery  has  become  celebrated, 
and  few  things  are  more  prized  by  the 
connoisseur  than  the  famous  "Palissy 
ware."  Being  a  Protestant,  he  was  ar- 
rested by  the  Leaguers  toward  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  Henri  III.,  and  died  in 
the  Bastille  in  1589. 

PALISSY  WARE,  a  peculiar  pottery 
first  manufactured  in  France  by  Bernard 
Palissy  of  Saintes,  about  1555.  His 
works  are  remarkable  for  the  high  re- 
lief of  his  figures  and  ornament,  which 
consist  frequently  of  models  from  na- 
ture of  fish,  reptiles,  shells,  leaves,  etc., 
all  most  carefully  and  naturally  colored. 
The  art  may  be  said  to  have  died  with 
him. 

PALK  STRAIT,  a  channel  between 
the  mainland  of  India  and  the  N.  part 
of  Ceylon,  abounding  in  shoals,  currents, 
sunken  rocks,  and  sand-banks. 

PALLADIUM,  in  classical  antiquities, 
a  celebrated  statue  of  Pallas  or  Minerva, 
on  the  preservation  of  which  depended 
the  safety  of  the  city  of  Troy.  This  cir- 
cumstance being  known  to  the  Greeks 
during  the  Trojan  War,  Ulysses  and  Dio- 
medes,  by  the  advice  and  aid  of  Helenus, 
son  of  Priam,  climbed  secretly  by  night 
over  the  ramparts  of  Troy  and  carried 
it  off. 

In  chemistry,  a  tetrad  metallic  ele- 
ment discovered  by  Wollaston  in  1803. 
It  is  found  associated  with  platinum  and 
gold,  in  South  America.  It  resembles 
platinum  in  its  malleability  and  ductility, 
but  is  more  fusible,  less  dense,  and  has 
a  more  silvery  appearance. 

In  mineralogy,  an  isometric  native 
metal,  not  found  pure,  but  mostly  al- 
loyed with  a  little  platinum  and  iridium. 
Sometimes  found  in  minute  octahedrons, 
but  mostly  as  grains,  with  native  plati- 
num, in  Brazil. 

PALLAS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
goddess  of  wisdom.  Her  attributes  and 
character  were  similar  to  those  of  the 
Roman  Minerva. 

PALLEN,  CONDE  BENOIST,  an 
American  journalist  and  writer,  born  at 
St.  Louis,  in  1858.  Graduated  from 
Georgetown    University    in     1880,    and 


PALLIUM 


89 


PALM 


afterward  carried  on  post-graduate 
courses  in  other  universities.  From  1887 
to  1^97  he  was  editor  of  the  "Church 
Progress"  and  "Catholic  World."  He 
had  charge  of  the  Roman  Catholic  de- 
partment in  a  number  of  encyclopjedias 
and  was  managing  editor  of  the  "Catho- 
lic Encyclopedia."  He  was  author  of 
"The  Philosophy  of  Literature,"  (1897); 
"What  is  Liberalism?"  (1899);  "Educa- 
tion of  Boys,"  (1916).  He  also  produced 
several  volumes  of  poems. 

PALLITJM,  a  square  woolen  cloak, 
much  resembling  the  chlamys,  from 
which  it  can  only  be  distinguished  by  its 
greater  length  and  amplitude.  It  was 
capable  of  enveloping  the  entire  person, 
which  it  could  cover  at  night  as  a  blan- 
ket.   It  was  much  worn  by  the  Greeks, 


'direct  from  the  ground;  others  are  sar- 
mentose,  twining  about  the  stems  and 
branches  of  neighboring  trees,  by  means 
of  books  or  prickles,  or  trailing  on  the 
ground  with  stems  of  almost  incredible 
length  and  extreme  slenderness,  as  in 
the  case  of  many  of  the  Calami.  The 
interior  of  the  stem  is  generally  soft 
and  pithy,  intermingled  with  bundles  of 
fiber  longitudinally.  The  leaves  vary 
much  in  form  superficially,  but  all  the 
variations  belong  to  two  types — the  fan 
veined  and  the  pinnate-veined.  In  the 
former  the  general  outline  is  that  of  a 
fan.  In  the  other  type  the  leaves  are 
more  or  less  elongated.  Leaves  of  this 
type  are  sometimes  entire,  but  more 
generally  pinnate,  and  impart  much  ele- 
gance and  grace  to  the  figure  of  the  par- 
ticular   species    to    which    they    belong. 


1.  Betel  nut  palm. 


2.  Palmyra  palm. 


PALMS 

3.  Cocoanut  palm. 


4.  Double  cocoanut  palm. 


corresponding  to  the  toga  of  the  Ro- 
mans. In  ecclesiology,  a  pall,  an  orna- 
mental band  of  white  wool  three  fingers 
broad,  to  be  worn  around  the  shoulders, 
with  pendants  a  span  in  length  before 
and  behind,  the  ends  ornamented  with 
red  crosses.  In  the  time  of  Gregory  VII. 
(1073-1085)  archbishops  went  for  it  to 
Rome;  afterward  the  Popes  sent  it  to 
them  when  they  received  their  appoint- 
ment. In  zoology,  the  mantle  of  a  bi- 
valve mollusk. 

PALM  (Palmx  or  Palmacex),  a  nat- 
ural order  of  endogenous  plants,  the 
products  of  which  are  of  extreme  im- 
portance and  utility  to  man.  They  are 
arborescent,  with  erect  stems,  usually 
slender  as  compared  with  the  extreme 
height  to  which  some  of  the  species  at- 
tain; and  simple  or  rarely  branching; 
some  are  stemless,  their  leaves  springing 


The  size  of  palm  leaves  varies  extremely, 
some  being  only  a  few  inches  in  length, 
as  in  some  species  of  Malortia,  while  in 
Manicaria  saccifera  they  attain  the 
enormous  proportions  of  35  feet  in 
length  by  5  or  6  feet  in  breadth.  The 
flowers  are  small  individually,  but  nu- 
merous, usually  of  a  yellow  tint,  and  in 
some  species  powerfully  odorous.  They 
are  unisexual,  bisexual,  or  polygamous, 
the  male  and  female  flowers  being  borne 
in  some  species  on  diff'erent  plants.  The 
fruit  when  ripe  is  berry-like,  drupaceo\is, 
plum-like,  or,  as  in  the  cocoanut,  nut- 
like. 

Palms  are  native  chiefly  of  the  tropi- 
cal regions  of  the  earth.  Their  stems 
when  young  and  tender  are  delicious 
and  nutritious  food;  when  old  and  ma- 
ture those  of  certain  species  yield  valu- 
able farinaceous  substances;  some  are 
valuable  as  timber  trees,  and  the  termi- 


PALM 


90 


PALM 


nal  bud  of  several  consists  of  a  mass  of 
tender  mucilaginous  leaves,  vi^hich  are 
esteemed  a  delicate  and  delicious  vege- 
table. Many  yield  by  incision  or  other- 
wise an  abundance  of  sweet  sap,  from 
which  sugar,  refreshing  drinks,  wines, 
spirits,  and  vinegar  are  obtained.  Their 
leaves  are  used  for  thatch,  and  for  the 
making  of  mats,  baskets,  hats,  umbrel- 
las, thread,  cord,  and  clothing.  They 
yield  excellent  and  inexhaustible  mate- 
rials and  they  are  in  some  cases  a  natural 
substitute  for  writing  paper,  the  records 
and  writings  of  many  Eastern  peoples 
being  inscribed  upon  them. 

The  order  comprises  between  130  and 
140  genera,  and  the  number  of  species 
known  is  variously  estimated  by  differ- 
ent authorities  as  from  600  to  1,000. 

The  genus  Chamsedorea,  composed  of 
about  60  species,  are  used  in  South 
America  for  making  bridges.  The  flow- 
ers of  several  of  the  species  are  highly 
esteemed  as  a  culinary  vegetable  in  some 
of  the  countries  of  Central  America. 
The  fruit  of  Leopoldma  major,  called  by 
the  natives  of  Brazil  Jara-assu,  is  col- 
lected by  them  and  burned,  and  the  ash, 
after  being  washed,  is  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  salt.  Euterpe  edulis — also  a 
native  of  Brazil — produces  fruit  like  the 
sloe  from  which  a  beverage  is  made 
and  Oncosperma  filamentosa  furnish  ed- 
ible cabbage.  From  the  fruit  of  the 
CEnocarpus  batava  a  wholesome  bever- 
age called  Patawa-yukisse  is  made  on 
the  Rio  Negro.  The  fruit  of  Oreodoxa 
regia,  an  extremely  handsome  palm,  a 
native  of  Cuba,  is  too  acrid  for  human 
food,  but  is  used  there  for  fattening 
hogs. 

Areca  catechu  is  the  betel-nut  palm, 
the  fruit  is  much  used  in  India.  Be- 
sides being  used  as  a  masticatory  and 
medicine  in  cases  of  dysentery,  the  sub- 
stance is  employed  in  tanning  leather 
and  in  dyeing  calico.  But  the  true  cab- 
bage palm  is  A.  oleracea,  indigenous  to 
the  West  Indies,  attaining  the  height  of 
170  to  200  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  stem 
of  about  7  feet.  The  terminal  bud  or 
"cabbage"  has  the  flavor  of  the  almond, 
but  with  greater  sweetness,  and  is  boiled 
and  eaten  with  meat.  Its  removal 
causes  the  death  of  the  tree.  The  in- 
florescence is  extracted  from  the  spathes 
before  they  open,  are  pickled,  and  es- 
teemed a  delicate  relish  with  meat.  The 
nuts  yield  a  useful  oil  by  decoction.  The 
shell  or  outer  hard  crust  of  the  stem  is 
employed  in  making  gutters,  and  the  pith 
yields  a  kind  of  sago  if  extracted  im- 
mediately the  tree  is  felled. 
^  Ceroxlyon  {Iriartia)  a^idicola,  a  na- 
tive of  Peru,  growing  at  an  elevation  of 
8,000-10,000    feet   above   sea-level,   is   a 


handsome  species  rising  to  the  height  of 
160  or  more  feet.  The  stem  exudes  from 
the  annular  cicatrices  of  the  fallen  leaves 
a  resinous  substance  called  by  the  in- 
habitants cera  de  palma.  It  is  em- 
ployed in  candle  making.  Besides  the 
resinous  exudation  the  trunk  yields  a 
valuable  and  durable  timber,  the  leaves 
are  excellent  and  durable  material  for 
thatch,  and  they  supply  a  strong,  useful 
fiber  for  the  manufacture  of  ropes  and 
cordage.  The  kiziuba  palm  (C.  exor- 
rhiza)  is  a  native  of  Central  and  South 
America.  The  timber  is  used  in  floor- 
ing and  for  making  umbrella  sticks,  mu- 
sical instruments,  etc.  Blowpipes  for 
poisoned  arrows  are  made  from  the 
stems  of  C.  setigera  (see  Blowpipe). 

The  sugar  palm  (Arenga  saccharif  era) 
is  a  native  of  the  Moluccas,  Cochin- 
China,  and  the  Indian  Archipelago.  It 
yields  an  abundant  sweet  sap,  from 
which  a  chocolate-colored  sugar  named 
jaggery  is  made.  The  sap  fermented 
makes  an  intoxicating  drink  variously 
named  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  differ- 
ent countries  neroo  or  brum.  From  the 
pith  of  the  stem  sago  is  obtained  in 
great  quantity,  a  single  stem  yielding  as 
much  as  from  150  to  200  pounds.  The 
leaves  supply  Gomuto  fiber,  which  is  cel- 
ebrated for  its  great  strength  and  dura- 
bility when  formed  into  cordage  and 
ropes,  and  at  the  base  of  the  leaves  a 
fine  woolly  material,  named  baru  is  em- 
ployed in  caulking  ships,  stuffing  cush- 
ions, and  making  tinder. 

Caryota  urens,  one  of  the  noblest 
palms  of  India,  yields  some  remarkable 
products.  From  the  terminal  bud  a 
sweet  watery  liquor  is  obtained.  The 
terminal  bud  is  also  eaten  as  a  cabbage. 
From  the  pith  of  the  stem  sago  is  ob- 
tained, which  is  made  into  bread,  and 
prepared  in  various  other  ways,  and  is 
a  valuable  article  of  food  to  the  natives. 

The  genus  Calamus  and  its  immediate 
allies  are  regarded  as  forming  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  palms  and  the 
grasses.  Certain  species — viz.  C.  Rox- 
burghii,  C.  Royleanus  furnish  the  rat 
tan  canes  employed  in  making  ropes  and 
cables,  chair  bottoms,  couches,  baskets, 
mats,  etc.  The  walking  sticks  known 
as  Malacca  canes  are  made  from  the 
stems  of  C  scipionum,  a  species  which 
grows  not  in  Malacca,  but  in  Sumatra. 
The  stems  of  the  great  rattan  (C.  ru-< 
dentium)  and  others  are  of  prodigious 
length  with  a  dense  siliceous  crust  on 
the  surface.  C.  draco  furnishes  the  fin- 
est quality  of  the  resinous  substance 
known  as  "dragon's  blood."  Zalacca 
edulis  is  regularly  cultivated  by  the  Bur- 
mese for  the  sake  of  its  pleasantly  acid- 
ulous  fruit.     Raphia   vinifera,   a   native 


PALM  91 

of  Guinea,  jdelds  a  rather  abundant  sap, 
from  which  a  strongly  spirituous  wine  is 
obtained.  One  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  singular  of  palms  is  R.  tasdegera, 
an  inhabitant  of  the  banks  of  the  Ama- 
zon. The  trunk  of  the  tree  is  short,  from 
6  to  10  feet  high,  but  from  the  summit 
the  leaves  rise  almost  perpendicularly  to 
the  height  of  40  feet  or  more.  The  foot- 
stalk of  these  enormous  leaves  are  often 
12  or  15  feet  long  by  4  or  5  inches  in 
diameter.  The  integument  being  easily 
split  into  straight  strips,  is  made  into 
window-blinds,  baskets,  etc.,  by  the  In- 
dians. 

The  true  "sago"  of  commerce  (see 
Sago)  is  derived  from  various  species 
of  the  genus  Sag  us.  The  tree  is  small, 
rarely  exceeding  30  feet  in  height  of 
stem,  which  consists  of  a  hard  shell 
about  2  inches  thick  inclosing  a  mass  of 
spongy  pith — the  sago.  When  felled  the 
stem  is  cut  into  lengths  of  6  or  7  feet, 
which  are  split,  the  better  to  remove 
the  pith.  Washing  and  straining  are 
the  principal  features  of  every  process. 
A  single  tree,  it  is  said,  will  yield  from 
500  to  600  pounds  of  sago.  The  bache 
(Mauritia  flexuosa),  a  native  of  Guiana, 
furnishes  timber  for  building  dwellings, 
the  leaves  thatch  for  the  same,  and  ma- 
terial for  mats,  couches,  hammocks,  etc.; 
the  pith  yields  sago;  the  juice  by  fermen- 
tation gives  an  excellent  beverage;  the 
kernels  of  the  fruits  are  ground  into  meal 
and  made  into  bread;  and  the  fiber  is 
converted  into  cordage  and  clothing. 
The  Palmyra  palm  (Borassus  flabeUi- 
f  or  mis)  is  one  of  the  most  common  of 
its  tribe  in  India.  It  furnishes  the 
greater  part  of  the  palm  wine  of  India. 
A  tree  yields  about  three  quarts  daily. 
The  liquor  is  drunk  fresh,  and  will  only 
keep  sweet  for  about  three  days,  when 
it  undergoes  fermentation  and  becomes 
sour,  and  is  distilled  into  arrack.  Jag- 
gery is  also  made  from  the  juice.  The 
young  plants  when  a  few  inches  high 
are  cooked  and  eaten  as  a  vegetable.  In 
India  the  leaves  are  almost  universally 
used  for  writing  upon  with  an  iron  sty- 
lus. 

The  double  cocoanut,  or  sea  cocoanut 
as  it  has  been  called,  is  Lodoicea  seychel- 
larum.  The  nuts  of  this  tree  are  often 
beautifully  polished  and  carved  by  na- 
tive workmen,  and  formed  into  caskets 
and  other  ornaments.  The  tree,  a  native 
of  the  Seychelle  Islands,  is  very  beauti- 
ful, attaining  a  height  of  from  50  to  80 
feet,  with  leaves  20  feet  long  supported 
on  stalks  of  equal  length.  The  chief 
products  of  the  tree  are  timber  and  fiber 
for  cordage,  and  a  downy  kind  of  fiber 
which  envelops  the  young  leaves  is  used 
for  filling  mattresses  and  pillows. 


PALM 


The  Talipat  palm  of  Ceylon  (Corypha 
umbraculifera)  is  notable  only  for  the 
variety  of  uses  to  which  its  leaves  are 
put  in  Ceylon  and  other  parts  of  India. 
They  are  readily  formed  into  umbrellas 
and  tents;  also  very  much  used  for  the 
books  or  colahs  of  the  inhabitants. 
Many  of  these  alleged  to  be  made  of 
Egyptian  papyrus  are  formed  of  the 
leaves  of  this  palm.  The  tree  grows  to 
the  height  of  100  feet.  Licuala  peltata 
is  the  Chittah-pat  of  Assam,  the  leaves 
of  which  are  extensively  used  for  mak- 
i-g  umbrellas,  punkahs,  and  hats.  The 
stems  of  L.  acutifolia  are  made  into  walk- 
ing sticks,  named  by  Europeans  "Penang 
Lawyers."  Copernicia  cerifera,  a  native 
of  northern  Brazil,  produces  an  edible 
fruit;  and  from  the  leaves  is  obtained  an 
inferior  vegetable  wax  used  in  candle 
making. 

Of  the  American  palmetto  palm,  a 
native  of  the  Carolinas  and  Florida,  the 
most  important  species  is  the  cabbage 
palmetto  {Sabal  palmetto).  Its  prod- 
ucts are  timber  and  the  leaves,  the 
former  being  exceedingly  durable,  very 
porous,  and  especially  valuable  for 
wharf  building,  as  it  resists  water  and 
is  not  attacked  by  the  teredo.  The 
palmetto  of  Europe  is  Chamserops  hu- 
milis,  which  inhabits  the  countries  on 
both  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  oc- 
cupying great  tracts.  It  rarely  reaches 
10  feet  in  height,  and  usually  is  much 
less.  The  leaves  are  fan-shaped  and 
abound  in  excellent  fiber,  with  which  the 
Arabs,  combining  it  with  camel's  hair, 
make  tent  covers;  in  Spain  it  is  made 
into  ropes  and  sailcloth,  and  in  France 
into  carpets  named  African  haircloth. 
The  French  in  Algeria  make  paper  and 
pasteboard  of  it.  The  fruit  is  edible, 
and  is  eaten  by  the  Arabs  and  the  in- 
habitants of  Sicily  and  southern  Italy. 
C.  Ritchieana,  a  native  of  Scinde  and 
Afghanistan,  and  C.  excelsa,  a  native  of 
China  and  Japan,  both  produce  excel- 
lent fiber.  The  leaves  of  Thrmax  ar- 
gentea  supply  the  material  called  "chip," 
of  which  ladies'  hats  and  bonnets  of  that 
name  are  made.  The  trunks  of  T.  par- 
viflora,  a  native  of  Jamaica,  though  of 
slender  diameter,  are  said  to  be  very 
suitable  for  piles  and  marine  buildings. 

The  Piritu  of  Venezuela,  the  Paripon 
of  Guiana,  and  the  Papunba  of  the  Ama- 
zon are  the  local  names  of  one  species 
of  palm — GiiUelma  speciosa.  It  pro- 
duces fruits  somewhat  triangular  in 
shape,  about  the  size  of  an  apricot,  and 
bright  reddish  yellow  in  color.  They 
have  a  peculiar  oily  flavor,  and  are  eaten 
boiled  or  roasted,  when  they  resemble 
chestnuts.  They  are  also  ground  into 
meal,    which    is    baked    in    cakes.     The 


PALMA 


92 


PALMAS,    CAPE 


Great  Macaw  tree  of  the  West  Indies 
(Ac7'oco7nia  sclerocarfM)  is  a  native  of 
Jamaica,  Trinidad,  and  the  adjacent  is- 
lands and  continent.  In  Brazil  it  is 
called  Macahuba,  and  in  Guiana  Macoya. 
The  fruit  yields  an  oil  of  yellow  color, 
sweetish  taste,  and  having  the  odor  of 
violets,  which  is  employed  by  the  na- 
tives as  an  emollient  for  painful  affec- 
tions of  the  joints;  and  in  Europe  it  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  toilet  soaps. 
The  Tucum  palm  {Astrocaryum  tu- 
cuma),  a  native  of  the  Rio  Negro  and 
the  upper  Amazon,  yields  a  very  supe- 
rior fiber.  The  fleshy  outer  covering  of 
the  fruit  is  eaten  by  the  natives.  The 
Murumuru  palm  (A.  murumuru)  pro- 
duces a  very  agreeable  fruit  with  the 
fragrance  of  musk.  Cattle  eat  it  with 
avidity.  Attalea  funifera  furnishes  the 
whalebone-like  fiber  now  so  much  used  for 
making  brooms  and  brushes.  The  tree 
attains  the  height  of  20  or  30  feet.  At 
the  base  of  the  leaves,  which  are  used 
for  thatching,  the  fiber  known  in  com- 
merce as  piassava  fiber,  is  employed  in 
the  countries  in  which  it  grows  to  make 
coarse  but  strong  and  durable  cables. 
The  fruit  is  the  well-known  Coquilla  nut, 
much  used  in  turnery  for  the  making  of 
knobs  to  walking  sticks  and  umbrellas, 
handles  to  bell  pulls,  etc.  The  print  of 
A.  cohune  yields  from  its  kernel  a  valua- 
ble oil  called  cohune  oil.  It  is  a  native 
of  Honduras  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
The  trunk,  which  attains  the  height  of 
about  40  feet  and  is  crowned  with  leaves 
some  30  feet  long,  yields  by  tapping  a 
kind  of^  palm  vsrine.  The  palm  oil  of 
Africa  is  the  product  of  the  fruit  of 
Elseis  giiineensis.  The  tree  is  cultivated 
now  in  the  West  Indies  and  tropical 
South  America  for  the  sake  of  the  oil. 
It  is  used  by  the  natives  universally  as 
butter  is  in  Europe.  The  quantity  of 
palm  oil  now  exported  is  enormous.  It 
is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  can- 
dles,_  toilet  and  common  soaps,  and  as  a 
lubricant  of  railway  carriage  wheels,  etc. 
The  Coquito  of  Chile  is  Jubsea  spectabilis. 
From  its  trunk  a  syrup  is  extracted, 
called  miel  de  pahna,  which  is  much  es- 
teemed by  the  Chileans  and  Europeans. 

PALMA.  (1)  The  capital  of  the  island 
of  Majorca  (q.  v.)  and  of  the  Balearic 
Islands,  on  the  Bay  of  Palma,  on  the 
S.  coast.  The  cathedral,  a  Gothic  edi- 
fice (1322-1601),  contains  the  tomb  of 
King  Jayme^  II.  of  Aragon  and  a  valu- 
able collection  of  church  ornaments. 
The  tomb  of  Raymond  Lully  is  in  the 
church  of  St.  Francis.  There  are,  fur- 
ther, a  beautiful  exchange  (1426-1446), 
an  old  Moorish  palace,  and  a  16th-cen- 
tury town  hall,  with  pictures.     Its  in- 


habitants weave  silks  and  woolens,  make 
jewelry,  and  various  articles  of  com- 
mon use.  The  port  is  protected  by 
a  mole,  and  the  town  by  a  wall  and  bat- 
teries. Pop.  about  70,000.  (2)  A  town 
of  Sicily,  pop.  12,000.  (3)  The  name  of 
one  of  the  larger  of  the  Canary  Islands. 

PALMA,  TOMAS  ESTRADA,  a  Cuban 
statesman  and  soldier,  called  the  "Frank- 
lin of  Cuba";  born  in  Bayamo,  Santiago 
de  Cuba,  July  9,  1835.  He  was  educated 
at  Havana  and  studied  law  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Seville,  Spain.  In  1867  he  al- 
lied himself  with  the  patriots  working  for 
Cuban  independence,  became  a  leader 
and  the  bosom  friend  of  Cespides  and 
Aguilera,  the  first  president  and  first 
vice-president.  When  Cespides  raised 
the  standard  of  revolt,  Oct.  10,  1868, 
Palma  freed  his  slaves  and  aided  the 
movement  to  the  utmost.  He  took  the 
field  and  his  devoted  mother  shared  the 
dangers  of  camp  life  with  him.  During 
his  absence  one  day  his  detachment  was 
surprised  by  the  Spanish  and  his  mother 
captured.  She  was  compelled  to  walk 
behind  the  troops  till  she  fell  from  ex- 
haustion, and  was  abandoned  in  the 
woods,  where  her  son  found  her,  two 
weeks  later,  starving.  She  died  a  few 
days  later. 

After  the  capture  of  Bayamo,  Palma 
was  elected  to  the  Cuban  assembly  and 
became  secretary  of  the  republic  under 
the  presidency  of  Spoturno.  On  the 
resignation  of  Spoturno,  the  Cuban  As- 
sembly elected  Palma  president,  March 
29,  1876.  He  performed  the  duties  of 
the  office  with  ability,  but  was,  through 
the  treachery  of  a  Cuban,  captured  by 
a  force  of  Spanish  soldiers  while  on  a 
journey.  He  was  sent  to  Spain  and  im- 
prisoned for  a  year  in  the  castle  of 
Fieuras.  On  the  subsequent  surrender 
of  the  revolutionists  he  was  set  at  liberty 
and  went  first  to  Paris,  and  from  there 
to  New  York.  Later  he  went  to  the 
republic  of  Honduras,  where  he  began 
work  as  a  schoolmaster  and  became  post- 
master-general. He  there  married  the 
daughter  of  President  Guardiola  and  re- 
turned to  the  United  States,  where  he 
settled  in  Orange  co..  New  York.  In 
July,  1895,  he  was  elected  delegate  or 
president  of  the  Associated  Cuban  clubs 
in  the  United  States,  to  fill  the  vacancy 
caused  by  the  death  of  Jose  Marti.  In 
September  of  the  same  year  he  was  made 
minister  or  delegate  plenipotentiary 
abroad  of  the  republic  of  Cuba.  On  Dec. 
31,  1901,  he  was  elected  first  president  of 
the  new  Cuban  republic,  was  re-elected  in 
1906,  but  resigned.     He  died  Nov.  4,  1908. 

PALMAS,  CAPE,  headland  of  west- 
ern Africa,  on  the  Guinea  coast,  lat.  4* 


PALMBLAD 


93 


PALMER 


22'  6"  N.,  Ion.  V  44'  15"  W.  There  is  a 
lighthouse  with  a  fixed  light,  and  the 
adjacent  harbor  is  the  only  one  between 
Sierra   Leone  and  Benin. 

PALMBLAD,  VILHELM  FREBBIK, 
a  Swedish  historian;  born  in  Liljested, 
East  Gothland,  Dec.  16,  1788.  He  stud- 
ied at  Upsala,  and  became  Professor 
of  Greek  in  the  same  university  in  1835. 
Among  his  works  are  the  "Biographical 
Dictionary"  (23  vols.  1835-1859)  and  the 
hi?:torical  novel  "Aurora  Konigsmark" 
(1847).     He  died  Sept.  2,  1852. 

PALMER,  a  town  of  Massachusetts, 
which  includes  several  villages,  in  Hamp- 
den CO.  It  is  on  the  Chicopee  river,  and 
on  the  Central  Vermont  and  the  Boston 
and  Albany  railroads.  Its  industries  in- 
clude cotton  goods,  foundry  and  machine- 
shop  products,  carpets,  wire,  etc.  It  has 
a  public  library,  and  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  build- 
ing. It  is  the  seat  of  the  Massachusetts 
Hospital  for  Epileptics.  Pop.  (1910) 
8,610;    (1920)    9,896. 

PALMER.  A.  MITCHELL,  Attorney- 
General  of  the  United  States.  Born  in 
Pennsylvania  in  1872;  graduated  from 
Swarthmore  College  in  1891.    Admitted  to 


A.    MITCHELL    PALMER 

the  bar  in  1893,  and  practiced  law  in  his 
home  town  of  Stroudsburg,  Pa.  In  1909 
he  was  elected  Congressman  on  the  Dem- 
ocratic ticket  from  the  26th  Pennsyl- 
vania District,  and  held  that  office  un- 
voi.  vn— cfc 


til  1915.  On  the  outbreak  of  war  with 
Germany  President  Wilson  appointed 
Palmer  Alien  Property  Custodian,  an 
office  which  he  held  until  he  resigned  to 
become  Attorney-General  of  the  United 
States  in  ii7l9.  During  the  major  part 
of  his  term  as  Attorney-General  he  has 
been  occupied  in  investigating  and  halt- 
ing the  various  "Red"  activities  in  the 
United  States.  Attorney-General  Palm- 
er directed  the  fight  made  by  the  Gov- 
ernment to  reduce  the  high  cost  of  liv- 
ing by  prosecuting  profiteering  wherever 
it  showed  itself.  When  the  coal  miners 
struck  in  1919  the  Attorney-General  had 
the  United  States  Court  at  Indianapolis 
issue  an  injunction  compelling  the  strike 
leaders  to  recall  their  order.  This  ac- 
tion was  bitterly  assailed  by  the  leaders 
of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor 
and  by  union  men  generally.  Early  in 
1920  Mr.  Palmer  announced  himself  a 
candidate  for  the  Democratic  nomina- 
tion for  President  to  succeed  President 
Wilson,  but  failed  of  nomination. 

PALMER,  ALICE  FREEMAN  (1855- 
1902).  An  American  educator  and  a 
leader  in  the  movement  for  the  higher 
education  of  women.  Born  in  New 
York  State,  she  graduated  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  in  1876.  After 
teaching  in  the  schools  of  Wisconsin  and 
Michigan,  in  1879  she  became  professor 
of  history  in  Wellesley  College  and  three 
years  later  became  president.  Under 
her  leadership  Wellesley  attained  the 
front  rank  of  women's  colleges  in  Amer- 
ica. In  1887  she  married  George  Her- 
bert Palmer,  a  professor  in  Harvard 
University.  From  1892  until  her  death 
ten  years  later  she  was  associated  in  a 
non-resident  capacity  with  the  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago. 

PALMER,  FREDERICK,  an  Amer- 
ican newspaper  correspondent  and  writ- 
er, bom  at  Pleasantville,  Fa.,  in  1873. 
Graduated  from  Allegheny  College  in 
1893,  he  engaged  at  once  in  newspaper 
work.  He  was  for  several  years  Lon- 
don correspondent  and  in  1897  was  cor- 
respondent for  several  papers  in  the 
Greek  War.  He  was  in  the  Philippines 
in  1897-1898  and  accompanied  the  expe- 
dition for  the  relief  of  Peking  in  1900. 
He  took  part  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
for  several  papers.  Following  this  he 
accompanied  the  forces  to  the  Balkan 
War,  in  1912,  having  in  the  meantime 
carried  on  investigations  in  Central 
America.  He  was  a  credited  correspond- 
ent of  the  American  Press  with  the 
British  Army  and  Fleet,  serving  in  1914 
and  1916.  He  was  appointed  official  re- 
porter with  the  American  Expeditionary 
Forces  with  the  rank  of  major  in  1917, 


PALMER  94 

and  served  as  such  during  the  war.  He 
wrote  two  books  covering  the  Word 
War,  "My  Year  of  the  War"  (1915); 
and  "My  Second  Year  of  the  War 
(1917);  "America  in  France"  (1918), 
"Our  Greatest  Battle"  (1919).  He 
contributed  many  articles  on  the  war 
and  on  other  subjects  to  leading  peri- 
odicals. 

PALMER,  GEORGE  HERBERT,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  March  19,  1842;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1864;  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tubingen  1867-1869;  was  as- 
sistant Professor  of  Philosophy  at  Har- 
vard in  1883-1889;  and  in  1889  became 
Professor  of  Natural  Religion,  Moral 
Philosophy  and  Civil  Polity  there.  He 
wrote  "The  New  Education"  (1887); 
•'Life  and  Works  of  George  Herbert" 
(1905);  "Life  of  Alice  Freeman  Palm- 
er" (1908);  "Trades  and  Professions" 
(1915). 

PALMER,  JOHN  McAULEY,  an 
American  lawyer;  born  in  Eagle  Creek, 
Scott  CO.,  Ky.,  Sept.  13,  1817.  In  1839 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  in  1843 
was  elected  probate  judge  of  Macoupin 
CO.,  111.;  in  1847  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  constitutional  convention,  and  in 
1849  county  judge  of  Macoupin  co.  He 
was  elected  to  the  State  Senate  in  1852, 
and  1854.  He  presided  over  the  Repub- 
lican State  Convention  in  1856.  He  made 
an  unsuccessful  canvass  for  Congress  in 
1859;  elector  on  the  Lincoln  ticket  in 
1860.  In  1861  he  was  State  delegate  to 
the  peace  congress  in  Washington.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1861,  retiring  in 
1866  with  the  rank  of  Major-General, 
U.  S.  A.  He  then  settled  in  Springfield, 
111.  In  1868  he  was  elected  the  16th 
governor  of  Illinois,  and  served  four 
years  from  January,  1869.  In  1872  he 
returned  to  the  Democratic  party  and 
supported  Greeley  for  President.  He 
was  nominated  by  the  Democrats  in  the 
Legislature  in  1877  and  twice  afterward 
as  their  candidate  for  United  States 
Senator,  without  however,  being  elected; 
was  delegate-at-large  to  the  National 
Democratic  convention  in  1884,  and  was 
nominated  by  the  Democratic  State  con- 
vention for  governor  in  1888  and  defeat- 
ed. In  1896  he  was  the  candidate  of 
the  Gold  Democrats  for  President  of  the 
United  States.     He  died  Sept.  25,  1900. 

PALMERSTON,  HENRY  JOHN 
TEMPLE,  VISCOUNT,  an  English 
statesman;  born  in  1784.  In  1807  he 
was  named  a  lord  of  the  Admiralty  un- 
der the  Tory  administration  of  the  Duke 
of  Portland.  In  1809  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  War,  and  remained  in  the 


PALMERSTON 

office  nearly  20  years.  His  political 
views  having  changed,  he  retired  from 
Wellington's  administration  in  1828. 
Resumed  his  work  in  the  Foreign  Office 
the  following  year,  after  the  fall  of  the 
Peel_  ministry.  He  became  famous  as 
foreign  minister  in  the  six  years  of 
office.  Was  appointed  Foreign  Secretary 
in  the  Whig  administration  of  Lord  John 
Russell.  Serious  differences  with  his 
colleagues  over  Napoleon's  coup  d'etat, 
forced  his  resignation.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  the  Coalition  Administration 
in  the  following  year,  he  took  the  office 


LORD  PALMERSTON 

of  Home  Secretary.  The  mismanage- 
ment of  affairs  in  the  Crimea  caused  the 
fall  of  the  Coalition  ministry  in  1855;  im- 
mediately after  which  Lord  Palmerston 
reached  the  apex  of  power  as  First  Lord 
of  the  Treasury,  and  prime  minister  of 
Great  Britain.  As  prime  minister  he 
successfully  carried  out  the  policy  of  al- 
liance with  France  and  the  war  with 
Russia  which  ended  with  the  fall  of  Se- 
bastopol,  in  September,  1855,  Feebly 
supported,  however,  by  his  colleagues, 
he  lost  strength  in  the  House,  and  his 
administration  finally  fell,  February, 
1858,  on  the  Conspiracy  Bill.  The  sec- 
ond Derby  administration  succeeded,  but 
a  year  later  Palmerston  was  again  called 
to  be  prii?ie  minister.     With  surprising 


PALMETTO 


95 


PALO    ALTO 


energ:y  and  industry,  he  directed  the  Eng- 
lish policy  through  the  Italian  War,  the 
American  War,  and  the  Polish  insurrec- 
tion.    He  died  Oct.   18,  1865. 

PALMETTO,  a  fan  palm  growing  in 
the  West  Indies,  Bermuda,  and  the  S. 
part  of  the  United  States.  Its  leaves 
are  woven  into  hats,  like  those  made  of 
chip.  The  trunks  form  good  stockades, 
and  were  used  for  the  purpose  during 
the  War  of  Independence.  Also  Cham- 
ierops  humilis,  a  palm  from  southern 
Europe. 

PALMETTO  STATE,  South  Carolina. 
On  its  coat  of  arms  is  a  delineation  of 
one  of  these  trees,  for  the  growth  of 
which  the  State  is  famous. 

PALMI,  a  town  of  Italy  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Reggio  di  Calabria.  It  is  on  the 
slope  of  Mount  Elia.  It  is  in  the  midst 
of  a  grape  producing  region.  Olives 
and  oranges  are  also  grown  in  abun- 
dance. There  is  an  excellent  harbor 
which  affords  good  fishing.  Pop.  about 
15,000. 


LINES  OP  THE  PALM 

A,  will;  B,  logic;  0,  mount  of  Venus;  D, 
mount  of  Jupiter ;  E,  mount  of  Saturn ;  F,  mount 
of  Apollo;  Q,  mount  of  Mercury;  H,  mount  of 
Mars ;  I,  mount  of  tlie  Moon ;  K,  the  rascette ; 
a,  a,  line  of  life ;  b,  b,  line  of  the  head ;  c,c,  line 
of  heart;  d,  d,  line  of  Saturn  or  fate;  e,  e,  line 
of  liver  or  health;  f,  f,  line  of  Apollo  or  fortune; 
g,  g,  the  girdle  of  Venus;  R,  the  quadrangle; 
m,  m,  m,  bracelets  of  life. 

PALMISTRY,  or  CHIROMANCY,  the 
art    which    professes    to    discover    the 


temperament  and  character  of  anyone, 
as  well  as  the  past  and  future  events  of 
his  life,  from  an  examination  of  the 
palm  of  his  hand;  and  of  the  lines 
traced  upon  it.  The  other  branch  of 
this  general  science  has  been  called 
Chirognomy,  and  is  concerned  with  the 
interpretation  of  the  form  and  charac- 
ter of  the  hand  and  fingers,  while 
chiromancy  treats  of  the  palm  only. 

PALM  OIL,  palm  butter;  a  fat  ob- 
tained from  the  fruit  of  certain  kinds  of 
palm,  and  imported  from  the  coast  of 
Guinea.  It  has  the  consistence  of  but- 
ter, an  orange  color,  a  smell  resembling 
violets,  and  consists  mainly  of  tripalmi- 
tin,  with  a  little  olein.  Palm  oil  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  the  manufacture  of 
soap  and  candles,  and  is  a  common  con- 
stituent of  railway-carriage  grease.  It 
is  frequently  adulterated  with  wax,  tal- 
low, lard,  resin,  etc. 

PALM  SUNDAY,  the  Sunday  inmiedi- 
ately  preceding  Easter.  It  commemo- 
rates the  triumphal  entry  of  Jesus  into 
Jerusalem,  when  the  multitude  strewed 
palm  "branches,"  or  rather  leaves,  for 
the  typical  palms,  like  those  of  Palestine, 
have  no  branches  (John  xii:  13). 

PALMYRA,  an  ancient  city,  in  a 
fruitful  and  well-watered  oasis  of  the 
Syrian  desert.  It  was  the  Tadmor  or 
Thadmor  of  the  Hebrews,  founded,  or 
enlarged  by  Solomon,  about  1001  B.  c. 
Both  its  Greek  name  Palmyra,  and  its 
Hebrew  name  Tadmor,  signify  the  city 
of  palms,  and  the  Arabs  call  it  Tedmor. 
It  submitted  to  the  Emperor  Hadrian 
in  130,  after  having  repelled  Marc  An- 
tony aljout  58  B.  c,  and  rose  to  its  high- 
est power  in  the  3d  century.  Sapor  I., 
King  of  Persia,  was  defeated  here  by 
Odenathus  in  262.  Odenathus  was  mur- 
dered about  267,  and  his  wife  Zenobia 
assumed  the  title  of  Queen  of  the  East. 
Her  army  having  been  defeated  at  An- 
tioch  and  at  Emesa,  Zenobia  was  be- 
sieged in  her  capital  by  the  Emperor 
Aurelian  in  272.  She  was  taken  pris- 
oner, and  Palmyra  surrendered  in  274. 
The  citizens  slew  the  Roman  garrison, 
and  Aurelian  destroyed  Palmyra.  It 
was  restored  by  Justinian  I.  in  527,  and 
again  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  744. 
It  was  plundered  by  Tamerlane  in  1400. 
It  had  an  immense  temple  dedicated  to 
the  sun,  of  which  60  columns  out  of  300 
still  remain. 

PALNI  HILLS,  a  range  of  southern 
India,  linking  the  S.  extremities  of  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Ghats;  average 
height  of  the  higher  ridge,  7,000  feet. 

PALO  ALTO,  the  name  of  a  plain  in 
southern   Texas,   8  miles   from   Browns- 


PALOLO 


96 


PAMIKS,    THE 


ville,  where  the  first  battle  of  the  Mexi- 
can War  was  fought,  May  8,  1846.  Gen. 
Zachary  Taylor  was  in  command  of  the 
.^  United  States  troops  of  2,300  men, 
while  the  Mexicans,  under  General 
Arista,  had  about  3,500.  The  battle  was 
fought  principally  with  artillery  and  the 
Mexicans  were  defeated. 

PAIiOLO  (Palolo  viridis),  an  edible 
annelid,  allied  to  the  lug  worm,  extremely 
abundant  at  certain  seasons  in  the  sea 
above  and  near  the  coral  reefs  which 
surround  many  of  the  Polynesian  Is- 
lands. The  body  is  cylindrical,  slightly 
tapering  at  both  ends,  divided  into  nearly 
equal  joints,  each  joint  with  a  small 
tuft  of  gills  on  each  side.  In  thickness 
the  palolo  resembles  a  very  fine  straw; 
in  length  it  varies  from  9  to  18  inches. 
These  annelids  made  their  appearance 
in  great  multitudes,  apparently  rising 
out  of  the  coral  reefs.  They  are  eagerly 
sought  after  by  the  islanders.  They 
often  occur  in  such  numbers  that  they 
niay  be  grasped  by  handfuls.  After  sun- 
rise the  creatures  break  into  pieces  and 
the  shoals  are  not  seen  till  the  next 
period;  the  two  stated  periods  being  in 
October  and  again  in  November. 

PALPITATION,  a  sensible  abnormal 
beating  of  the  heart,  most  frequent  in 
adolescents,  particularly  females,  and  in 
advanced  life,  indicating  want  of  power 
and  laborious  efforts  rather  than  in- 
creased excitement  and  action.  It  is  fre- 
quently associated  with  dyspepsia,  and 
morbid  states  of  the  heart. 

PALSY,  the  loss  of  the  power  of  mo- 
tion. It  is  a  symptom  of  disease,  usually 
of  apoplexy.  The  two  causes  on  which 
it  depends  are  an  affection  of  a  nerve  or 
nerves,  or  a  morbid  state  of  the  nervous 
centers,  the  brain  or  spinal  cord.  Under 
the  former  head  poisoning  of  nervous 
matter  or  any  morbid  process  impairing 
the  nerves  or  solution  of  continuity,  or 
pressure  may  cause  it;  under  the  latter, 
it  is  due  to  a  morbid  state  of  the  centers 
of  the  nervous  system.  The  commonest 
form  is  hemiplegia,  a  paralytic  stroke 
on  one  side  or  half,  which  may  be  com- 
plete, profound,  or  incomplete.  There 
are  six  forms :  Cerebral,  spinal,  epileptic, 
choreic,  hysterical,  and  peripheral,  their 
frequency  being  in  the  order  named. 
Palsy  is  uncommon  but  serious  in  the 
young,  and  most  common  in  advanced 
life.  There  are  four  modes  of  termina- 
tion: (1)  Death;  (2)  complete  recovery 
with  wasting  muscles;  (3)  partial  re- 
covery with  rigid  muscles;  (4)  complete 
recovery.  In  hysterical  hemiplegia  the 
lower  hmb,  instead  of  being  dragged  by 


a  rotary  movement,  is  usually  dragged 
straight  forward. 

PALTSITS,      VICTOR      HUGO,      an 

American  historian,  born  in  New  York 
in  1867.  He  was  educated  in  public  and 
private  schools  in  New  York  and  took  a 
scientific  course  at  Cooper  Institute.  He 
also  studied  European  and  other  lan- 
guages. For  many  years  he  was  as- 
sistant of  the  New  York  Public  Library. 
He  was  appointed  State  historian  in 
1907,  serving  until  1911.  In  1914  he 
was  appointed  keeper  of  manuscripts  in 
the  New  York  Public  Library  and  in 
1916  became  chief  of  the  Division  of 
American  History  in  the  same  institu- 
tion. He  was  a  member  of  many  his- 
torical societies  and  was  a  prolific  writer 
on  historical  subjects,  and  edited  a  large 
number  of  historical  works  and  con- 
tributed largely  to  encyclopjedias  on  his- 
torical subjects. 

PAMIRS,  THE,  ("roof  of  the  world") 
the  name  given  to  that  part  of  central 
Asia  where  the  frontiers  of  Russia, 
China,  and  Afghanistan  adjoin.  It 
forms  the  nucleus  of  the  central  Asiatic 
highland  system,  uniting  the  Himalaya 
and  the  mountains  of  the  Tian  Shan 
range  with  the  Hindukush,  and  is  tra- 
versed by  a  number  of  mountain  ridges 
interspersed  with  broad  valleys,  the  aver- 
age altitude  of  the  intervening  table 
lands  being  13,000  feet.  It  was  tra- 
versed by  Marco  Polo  and  in  recent  years 
has  been  visited  and  described  by  Lord 
Dunmore,  Lord  Curzon,  Col.  T.  E.  Gor- 
don, Mons.  Bonvolet,  Maj.  C.  S.  Cumber- 
land, Captain  Younghusband  and  Sven 
Hedin. 

The  term  pamir  implies  a  mountain 
valley  of  glacial  formation.  During  the 
brief  summer  these  valleys  are  strewn 
with  patches  of  grass,  which  serve  as 
pasturage  for  the  herds  of  the  nomadic 
Kirghiz,  while  for  the  rest  of  the  year 
the  whole  of  the  pamirs  are  covered  with 
snow.  The  pamirs  contain  much  game. 
The  only  population  existing  in  the 
region  are  Kirghiz  of  the  lowest  type 
In  1895  the  Russo-Afghan  border  line 
across  the  pamirs  was  settled  by  a  con- 
vention drawn  up  by  an  Anglo-Russian 
boundary  commission.  The  Russian- 
Chinese  frontier  was  not,  however,  af- 
fected by  this  convention,  the  only  under- 
standing existing  being  that  entered  into 
between  Russia  and  China  in  1894,  by 
which  Russia  undertook  never  to  inter- 
fere with  that  portion  of  the  pamirs 
occupied  by  China.  In  1899,  however, 
the  Russians  manifested  a  desire  to 
annex  Sirikul,  a  province  of  the  Kirghiz, 
and  to  break  their  treaty  with   China. 


PAMLICO 


97 


PAN 


Their  trade  through  the  pamirs  is  quite 
large  and  constantly  growing. 

PAMLICO,  a  tribe  of  Indians  living 
on  the  Pamlico  river,  in  Beaufort  co., 
N.  C.  They  were  greatly  reduced  in 
numbers  by  the  smallpox  in  1696,  and 
by  the  Tuscarora  War  of  1711.  Those 
left  were  absorbed  in  the  Tuscarora 
tribe. 

PAMLICO  SOUND,  a  shallow  lagoon 
of  the  United  States,  on  the  S.  E.  coast 
of  North  Carolina.  It  is  80  miles  long, 
from  8  to  30  miles  wide,  and  separated 
from  the  ocean  by  long,  narrow,  sandy 
islands. 

PAMPAS,  properly  treeless  pasture 
land  covered  with  grass,  but  used  more 
comprehensively  for  the  whole  table-land 
of  South  America,  from  the  boundary 
of  Brazil,  where  the  regular  seasons  of 
the  tropics  cease,  across  the  states  of 
La  Plata  and  Patagonia  nearly  to  Cape 
Horn.  It  may  be  divided  into  three  bo- 
tanical zones:  the  Interior  Northwestern 
Chanar-steppe,  the  True  Pampas,  and 
the  Southern  Plains  of  Patagonia. 

PAMPAS  GRASS  (Gynerium  argen- 
teum) ,  a  grass  which  grows  in  the  pam- 
pas in  the  S.  parts  of  South  America. 
It  has  been  introduced  into  Europe  as 
an  ornamental  plant. 

PAMPEAN  FORMATION,  a  forma- 
tion deposited  and  upheaved  since  the 
present  Atlantic  mollusca  have  been 
brought  into  existence. 

PAMPELUNA,     or     PAMPLONA,     a 

fortified  city  of  Spain;  on  a  tributary  of 
the  Ebro;  111  miles  N.  W.  of  Saragossa. 
It  has  a  citadel  (a  copy  of  that  of  Ant- 
werp), a  Gothic  cathedral  (1397),  a  vice- 
regal palace,  a  fine  aqueduct,  a  natural 
history  collection,  a  college  of  surgery, 
and  a  bull  ring,  manufactures  of  pottery, 
leather,  cloth,  hardware,  etc.,  and  a  trade 
in  wine.  It  was  called  by  the  ancients 
Pompeiopolis,  because  built  by  Pompey  in 
68  B.  c.  It  was  taken  by  the  Goths  in 
466,  by  the  Franks  in  542,  and  by  Char- 
lemagne in  778.  From  907  it  was  the 
capital  of  Navarre.  It  was  during  the 
siege  by  the  French  in  1521  that  Loyola 
received  his  wound.  The  town  was 
seized  by  the  French  in  1808,  and  held 
by  them  till  1813,  when  it  was  captured 
by  Wellington.  It  again  capitulated  to 
the  French  in  1823.  In  the  Carlist  wars 
it  was  held  by  Queen  Christina's  adher- 
ents from  1836  to  1840,  and  in  1873-1876 
it  was  vainly  attacked  several  times  by 
the  Carlists.     Pop.   (1917)   30,779. 

PAMPHYLIA,  anciently  a  country  on 
the  S.  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  with  Cilicia 


on  the  E.  and  Lycia  on  the  W.  It  was 
origfinally  bounded  on  the  inland  or  N. 
side  by  Mount  Taurus,  but  afterward 
enlarged,  so  as  to  reach  the  confines  of 
Phrygia.  Pamphylia  is  mountainous, 
was  formerly  well  wooded,  and  had 
numerous  maritime  cities.  The  inhabit- 
ants were  a  mixed  race  of  aborigines, 
Cilicians,  and  Greek  colonists. 

PAMUNKEY,  a  small  river  in  Vir- 
ginia formed  by  the  union  of  the  North 
and  South  Anna.  It  unites  with  the 
Mattapony  at  West  Point  to  form  the 
York  river.  In  conjunction  with  the 
South  Anna  it  is  over  100  miles  in 
length. 


PAN 

PAN,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  god  of 
shepherds,  of  huntsmen,  and  of  all  rural 
inhabitants.  He  was  the  son  of  Mer- 
cury, and  was  a  monster  in  appearance, 
having  two  small  horns  in  his  head,  a 
ruddy  complexion,  a  flat  nose;   and  his 


PANAMA 


98        PANAMA-CALIFORNIA  EXPOS'N" 


legs,  thighs,  tail,  and  feet  were  like  those 
of  a  goat. 

PANAMA,  a  republic  of  Central 
America,  between  Costa  Rica  and  Colom- 
bia, bounded  on  the  S.  by  the  Pacific 
Ocean  and  on  the  N.  by  the  Caribbean 
Sea.  Its  extreme  length  is  about  480 
miles,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  37 
to  110  miles.  Its  total  area  is  13,380 
square  miles.  The  population  in  1912 
was  336,742,  excluding  the  Canal  Zone. 
The  population  for  1920  was  given 
as  401,428.  The  inhabitants  are  a 
mixed  race,  comprising  Spaniards,  In- 
dians, and  negroes.  The  republic  is 
divided  into  eight  provinces.  The  Canal 
Zone,  over  which  the  United  States  has 
sovereign  rights,  by  treaty,  is  a  strip 
of  territory  extending  to  a  width  of  5 
miles  from  either  side  to  the  middle  of 
the  Panama  Canal,  and  excluding  the 
cities  of  Panama  and  Colon.  It  has  an 
area  of  474  square  miles. 

Production. — The  soil  of  Panama  is 
exceedingly  fertile.  Only  about  one- 
eighth  is  under  cultivation.  The  most 
important  product  is  the  banana. 
Caoutchouc  is  collected  by  the  Indians  or 
is  obtained  from  trees  planted  by  Eu- 
ropeans near  the  cost.  About  130  tons 
is  produced  annually.  Coffee  is  grown 
at  Chiriqui  to  the  amount  of  500,000 
pounds  per  year.  The  raising  of  cocoa 
is  of  some  importance.  The  other  prod- 
ucts of  the  soil  are  cocoanuts,  mahogany 
and  other  woods,  sugar,  and  tobacco. 
The  production  of  sugar  is  40,000  quin- 
tals. For  the  most  part  the  industries 
of  the  republic  are  not  developed. 

Transportation. — There  are  about  200 
miles  of  railway  open  to  traffic,  includ- 
ing the  Panama  railway,  which  crosses 
the  Isthmus,  connecting  Panama  with 
Colon.  There  is  communication  on  both 
sides  between  the  Isthmus  and  American 
and  European  countries.  Traffic  with 
Panama  and  Colon  is  carried  on  through 
the  ports  of  the  Canal  Zone.  The  total 
imports  in  1918  were  valued  at  about 
$8,000,000,  and  the  exports  at  about 
$5,000,000.  Practically  all  the  imports 
came  from  the  United  States^  and  the 
remaining  portion  from  the  United  King- 
dom, from  China,  Japan,  France,  and 
Spain. 

Finance. — Gold  is  the  standard  of  cur- 
rency and  the  unit  is  the  balboa,  which 
is  equivalent  to  the  United  States  dollar. 
For  the  two-year  period,  Jan.  1,  1917, 
to  Jan.  1,  1919,  the  budget  balanced 
at  $7,189,170.  The  two  years'  budget 
for  1919-1921  was  estimated  at 
$7,220,474. 

Government. — The  executive  power  is 
in  the  hands  of  a  president,  three  vice- 


presidents,  and  a  cabinet  of  five  ministers. 
There  is  a  National  Assembly  of  31  mem- 
bers, one  for  each  10,000  inhabitants. 
Each  of  the  provinces  has  a  governor. 
The  constitution  was  adopted  on  Feb.  13, 
1904,  and  was  amended  on  Dec.  26,  1918. 
The  president  is  elected  for  a  term  of 
four  years  by  direct  vote,  and  is  not 
eligible  for  re-election. 

Histo)-y. — Panama,  until  1903,  formed 
a  province  of  Colombia.  On  Nov.  3  of 
that  year  a  bloodless  revolt  secured  its 
independence  as  an  independent  republic. 
The  action  of  Panama  in  acquiring  inde- 
pendence was  supported  by  the  United 
States.  The  first  president,  Manuel 
Amador  Guerrero,  was  elected  in  1904. 
Largely  as  a  result  of  its  proximity  to 
the  Canal  Zone,  Panama  has  enjoyed 
peace  and  prosperity.  The  American 
Government  practically  remade  the 
cities  of  Panama  and  Colon,  so  improv- 
ing the  sanitation  that  these  cities  from 
being  among  the  most  unhealthy  in  the 
world,  are  now  among  the  most  health- 
ful. Panama  followed  the  United  States 
in  the  declaration  of  war  against  Ger- 
many on  April  7,  1917.  In  1919  a  gen- 
eral population  census  was  ordered  to  be 
held  in  1920.  Dr.  Belisario  Porras  was 
elected  president  for  a  third  term,  and 
assumed  office  on  Oct.  1»  1920.  A  bound- 
ary dispute  with  the  neighboring  republic 
of  Costa  Rica  was  settled  in  1921  by  the 
arbitration  of  the  United  States. 

PANAMA,  a  city  of  the  republic  of 
Panama,  capital  of  the  State  of  the 
Canal  Zone,  on  the  Gulf  of  Panama  and 
on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama.  The  city  lies  on  a  tongue  of 
land,  across  which  its  streets  stretch 
from  sea  to  sea.  The  harbor  is  shallow, 
but  affords  secure  anchorage.  Panama 
is  chiefly  important  as  the  terminus  of 
the  interoceanic  railway  and  also  of  the 
Panama  Canal  (q.  v.).  The  railway, 
which  has  been  in  operation  since  1855, 
runs  across  the  isthmus  from  Panama  to 
Colon  or  Aspinwall  on  the  Atlantic,  and 
accommodates  a  large  traffic.  Pop. 
about  65,000. 

PANAMA-CALIFORNIA  EXPOSI- 
TION. This  exposition,  held  at  San 
Diego,  Cal.,  during  the  entire  year  of 
1915,  was  in  celebration  of  the  comple- 
tion of  the  Panama  Canal.  The  work  of 
preparation  took  over  three  years,  and 
the  commemorative  buildings  reproduced 
the  Moorish  architecture  of  Spain,  and 
the  Spanish  colonies  of  America.  The 
groups  of  buildings,  divided  by  streets 
shaded  in  the  Spanish  style,  with  cathe- 
dral and  theaters,  and  palaces,  studded 
with  parks  and  lakes,  covered  612  acres, 


PANAMA    CANAL 


99 


PANAMA    CANAL 


and  the  initial  capital  expended  was 
$2,250,000.  The  exhibits  were  repre- 
sentative of  the  various  arts  and  sci- 
ences, with  particular  reference  to  those 
especially  distinctive  of  California  and 
Spanish  America.  Round  the  Isthmus 
were  gathered  various  amusements,  and 
nearby  was  the  Painted  Desert,  with  cliff 
dwellings  and  Pueblo  Indians  from  A.ri- 
zona.  During  its  course  the  Exposition 
was  visited  by  many  millions  of  sight- 
seers from  all  over  the  United  States 
and  from  other  countries. 

PANAMA  CANAL.  The  Panama 
Canal  was  opened  to  navigation  Aug.  15, 
1914.  It  was  a  colossal  work  and  the 
difficulties  met  in  its  construction  were 


pleted  and  the  Canal  opened  for  traffic 
in  1914. 

The  Canal  crosses  the  Isthmus  of  Pan- 
ama at  very  nearly  its  narrowest  point. 
From  deep  water  in  the  Atlantic  to  deep 
water  in  the  Pacific  is  43.8  nautical 
miles.  The  minimum  depth  of  the  Canal 
is  41  feet.  Starting  on  the  Atlantic  side 
at  Limon  Bay,  the  sea-level  extends  5.7 
miles  to  Gatun.  Here  there  are  three 
pairs  of  locks  that  lift  the  vessel  to 
Gatun  Lake,  85  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  vessel  proceeds  along  this  through 
the  famous  Culebra  Cut  to  Pedro  Migruel 
Lock  and  Dam,  where  it  is  lowered  to 
Miraflores  Lake,  which  is  55  feet  above 
sea-level  and  about  a  mile  long.  At  its 
southern  end  are  the  Miraflores  Locks, 


GATUN   LOCK,   PANAMA  CANAL 


almost  insuperable.  The  project  of  join- 
ing the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  had  existed 
for  centuries,  and  it  was  one  of  the  com- 
panions of  Balboa  who  first  broached  the 
idea.  The  plan  first  took  tangible  form 
when  the  French  began  actual  work  on 
Jan.  20,  1882.  The  work  was  under  the 
direction  of  Count  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps, 
who  had  achieved  fame  as  the  builder  of 
the  Suez  Canal.  A  terrific  scandal 
arose,  however,  when  the  work  had  only 
gotten  fairly  under  way,  fraud  and  em- 
bezzlement were  charged,  and  the  com- 
pany went  into  the  hands  of  a  receiver 
in  1889.  The  receivers  resumed  work  in 
1894  and  continued  until  May  4,  1904, 
when  the  United  States  Government 
undertook  to  complete  it.  The  rights  of 
the  French  were  bought  for  $40,000,000. 
The  Republic  of  Panama  ceded  to  the 
United  States  a  strip  of  land  five  miles 
wide  on  either  side  of  the  Canal  in  con- 
sideration of  $10,000,000.  After  ten 
years  of  work  and  the  expenditure  of 
over   $300,000,000,   the   work   was   com- 


which  lower  the  vessel  to  the  level  of 
the  Pacific,  and  from  there  a  channel 
seven  miles  long  carries  the  vessel  past 
Balboa  and  into  the  ocean.  The  locks 
are  miracles  of  engineering  construction. 
Their  chambers  have  a  width  of  110  feet 
and  a  length  of  1,000  feet,  which  makes 
them  capable  of  handling  the  largest 
ships  yet  built.  In  connection  with  the 
building  and  operation  of  the  Canal, 
there  are  great  terminals  at  both  en- 
trances, with  docks,  warehouses,  foun- 
dries, repair  shops,  and  all  the  adjuncts 
of  great  commercial  ports. 

Receipts  from  tolls  average  over  $6,- 
250,000  annually.  The  Panama  railroad 
practically  parallels  the  Canal  from 
Colon  to  Panama  on  the  east  side. 
There  was  more  traffic  through  the  Canal 
in  1919  than  in  any  year  since  it  was 
opened,  and  the  receipts  for  the  fiscal 
year  that  ended  June  30,  1919,  ex- 
ceeded operating  expenses  by  $241,822. 
Two  thousand,  three  hundred  and  ninety- 
six     ships     with     a     total     tonnage     of 


PANAMA    HATS 


100       PAN-AMERICAN    CONGRESS 


7,128,000  passed  through  the  Canal. 
These  were,  according  to  nationality: 
United  States,  786;  British,  602;  Bel- 
gian, 1;  Canadian,  2;  Chilean,  93;  Chi- 
nese, 4;  Colombian,  1;  Costa  Rican,  12; 
Danish,  79;  Dutch,  19;  Ecuadorian,  1; 
French,  104;  Greek,  3;  Japanese,  87; 
Mexican,  1;  Panamanian,  128;  Peruvian, 
65;  Russian,  3;  Spanish,  5;  Swedish,  29; 
Salvador,  1.  The  entire  investment  of 
the  United  States  in  the  Canal  up  to 
June  30,  1919,  was  $365,416,000.  The 
governor  of  the  Canal  Zone  in  1921  was 
Colonel  Jay  J.  Morrow. 

PANAMA  HATS,  very  fine  plaited 
hats  made  from  the  fan-shaped  leaves  of 
Carludovica  palmata,  a  dwarf  palm  tree 
which  grows  in  Peru,  Ecuador,  Colombia, 
and  Venezuela,  and  is  called  Jipijapa  in 
Central  America. 

PANAMA,  ISTHMUS  OF,  formerly 
called  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  has  a 
breadth  of  from  30  to  70  miles,  connects 
North  with  South  America,  and  sepa- 
rates the  Pacific  from  the  Atlantic.  The 
coast  is  low  and  swampy  along  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  but  less  unwholesome  along  the 
Pacific. 

PANAMA-PACIFIC  EXPOSITION, 
Exhibition  held  in  San  Francisco  in  1915, 
contemporaneously  with  the  fair  at  San 
Diego,  and  with  a  like  object,  namely  the 
celebration  of  the  completion  of  the  Pan- 
ama Canal.  A  total  of  $2€,500,000  was 
raised  for  the  purpose,  but  the  initial  cost 
wai5  estimated  to  have  exceeded  twice 
that  figure.  The  buildings  included 
twelve  great  palaces,  and  around  these 
were  the  pavilions  of  the  various  States 
of  the  Union  and  of  foreign  nations,  with 
race  track,  thoroughfares,  drill  and 
pleasure  grounds  alternating.  The  pre- 
liminary work  took  nearly  four  years 
and  the  area  covered  635  acres.  The 
Court  of  the  Universe,  with  sunken  gar- 
dens, formed  the  core  of  the  exposition, 
having  decorative  features  representative 
of  the  different  nations  of  the  world. 
The  Arch  of  the  Rising  Sun,  the  Court  of 
Abundance,  the  Court  of  the  Four  Sea- 
sons, the  Tower  of  Jewels,  the  Palace  of 
Fine  Arts,  the  palaces  of  mines,  metal- 
lurgy, machinery,  transportation,  horti- 
culture, education,  and  manufactures, 
formed  a  wonderful  ensemble.  The 
pieces  of  statuary  ran  into  thousands. 
Over  eighty  different  States  and  nations 
participated  and  sent  exhibits. 

PAN-AMERICAN  CONFERENCE,  an 
assemblage  of  delegates  from  all  the  gov- 
ernments of  South  and  Central  America, 
convened  at  Washington  in  1889-1890, 
at  the  instance  of  James  G.  Blaine,  then 
Secretary  of  State.     The  conference  had 


for  its  immediate  object  the  furtherance 
of  international  comity  and  commerce 
among  the  races  of  the  American  con- 
tinent. The  sittings  were  protracted  for 
nearly  six  months,  the  delegates  mean- 
time visiting  every  city  of  importance  in 
the  United  States.  The  conference  pos- 
sessed no  legislative  or  executive  func- 
tions, its  duties  being  purely  advisory. 
The  definite  recommendations  included  a 
coinage  of  uniform  weight  and  fineness, 
a  common  method  of  legalization  of  docu- 
ments, the  metrical  decimal  system,  and  a 
uniform  system  of  weights  and  measures, 
regulation  of  the  fees  of  consular  agents, 
and  certain  conveniences  of  method  in 
customs  administration.  Other  impor- 
tant propositions  were  unanimously 
adopted,  such  as  a  great  N.  and  S.  trunk 
railway;  government  subsidies  for  steam- 
ship lines  connecting  the  American  coun- 
tries represented;  uniform  protection  for 
literary  and  art  property,  trade  marks, 
and  patents;  uniform  quarantine  regula- 
tions; a  uniform  extradition  treaty;  and 
a  great  international  bank. 

The  second  conference,  in  response  to 
an  invitation  issued  during  the  previous 
year  by  the  Mexican  Government,  met  in 
the  City  of  Mexico,  Oct.  22,  1901.  A 
third  conference  was  held  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  in  1906,  and  a  fourth  at  Buenos 
Aires  in  1910.  There  were  delegates 
from  19  states. 

PAN-AMERICAN    EXPOSITION,     a 

fair  held  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  from  May  1 
till  Nov.  3,  1901.  It  was  distinctively 
an  American  exposition,  the  exhibits 
from  the  various  States  of  the  Union  and 
of  South  and  Central  America  being  un- 
usually full.  The  buildings  were  made 
of  staff  tinted  a  soft  greenish-blue. 
Power  for  the  electrical  exhibit,  the  finest 
ever  given,  was  derived  from  Niagara 
Falls.  Over  5,000  horse  power,  and 
200,000  incandescent  lamps  were  used. 
The  electric  tower  alone  had  44,000  elec- 
tric lights  on  its  sides.  Financially  the 
exposition  was  a  failure,  due  largely  to 
the  setback  the  exposition  received  at  the 
time  of  President  McKinley's  assassina- 
tion, which  caused  a  temporary  closing. 
The  total  cost  of  the  exposition  was 
$8,860,757.20;  the  total  receipts  were 
$5,534,643. 

PAN-AMERICAN  SCIENTIFIC  CON- 
GRESS. The  second  meeting  of  the 
Pan-American  Scientific  Congress  was 
held  in  Washington,  D.  C,  from  Dec.  27, 
1915,  to  Jan.  8,  1916.  The  meeting, 
which  resulted  in  the  exchange  and  ad- 
vancement of  new  ideas  and  views  in  the 
scientific  and  educational  world  in  the 
Pan-American  aspects,  was  held  for  the 
advancement    of    civilization.     Eduardo 


TAN-AMERICAN    UNION 


101 


PANDIT 


Suarez,  Chilean  Ambassador  to  the 
United  States,  presided  over  the  meeting, 
which  was  largely  attended  by  public 
men,  scientists  and  educators  of  Ameri- 
can countries. 

The  discussions  covered  almost  the  en- 
tire range  of  human  activity  and  prog- 
ress. To  facilitate  progress,  the  congress 
was  divided  into  9  sections,  which  were 
in  turn  divided  into  45  subsections,  and 
the  various  pkases  of  the  matters  under 
discussion  were  considered  by  the  proper 
sub-sections  or  group  meetings. 

Elihu  Root  delivered  a  notable  address 
before  the  Congress,  asking  protection 
for  the  weaker  nations  by  the  adoption 
of  international  rules  of  conduct.  On 
Jan.  6,  1916,  Woodrow  Wilson  urged  a 
plan  proposed  by  Robert  Lansing,  Secre- 
tary of  State,  on  an  agreement  between 
all  American  nations  which  would  guar- 
antee the  independence  and  territorial 
right  of  each  party  to  the  agreement, 
and  provide  for  the  settlement  of  all 
disputes  by  arbitration. 

The  members  of  the  Congress  were 
guests  at  a  banquet  given  by  Secretary 
of  State  Lansing  on  Jan.  8. 

The  next  meeting  of  the  Congress  will 
be  held  in  Lima,  Peru,  in  1921,  the  time 
of  the  celebration  of  the  centennial  of 
Peruvian  independence. 

PAN-AMERICAN  UNION,  the  official 
international  organization  of  the  21  inde- 
pendent governments  of  the  western  hem- 
isphere. It  was  originally  organized  as 
the  Bureau  of  the  American  Republic, 
and  was  founded  at  the  first  Pan-Ameri- 
can Conference  held  in  Washington  in 
1889-1890,  and  was  continued  through 
the  second,  third  and  fourth  conferences. 
The  name  was  changed  to  the  Pan- 
American  Union  at  the  latter  conference 
held  in  Buenos  Aires  in  1910.  The  or- 
ganization is  supported  by  the  govern- 
ments and  is  controlled  by  a  governing 
board,  composed  of  the  Secretary  of 
State  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
diplomatic  representatives  of  the  other 
American  governments  in  Washington. 
The  Union  has  a  handsome  building  in 
Washington.  It  publishes  the  Pan- 
American  "Bulletin"  and  a  number  of 
other  reports  and  papers.  The  chief  of 
this  organization  was  John  Bassett,  who 
acted  as  its  president  until  1920,  when  he 
was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Leo  S.  Rowe.  The 
Union  has  charge  of  the  Pan-American 
conferences  which  are  held  periodically 
and  are  attended  by  representatives 
from  the  American  countries.  See  Pan- 
American  Conference. 

PANAY,  one  of  the  Philippine  Islands, 
belonging  to  the  Visayan  group.  The 
island  in  shape  is  nearly  that  of  a  tri- 


angle. In  general  it  is  mountainous, 
though  there  are  many  extensive  and 
very  fertile  valleys.  The  island  com- 
prises the  three  provinces  of  Capiz,  Iloilo, 
and  Antique;  area,  4,611  square  miles; 
pop.  about  750,000.  It  is  celebrated  for 
forest  products,  there  being  in  the  single 
province  of  Capiz  as  many  as  87  varieties 
of  excellent  building  woods.  From  the 
forests  are  also  gathered  honey,  wax,  and 
pitch.  Several  quarries  are  worked,  pro- 
ducing fine  marble  and  tonalite.  Lime 
of  an  excellent  quality  is  abundant  in 
the  province  of  Iloilo.  Besides  these  in- 
dustries, cotton,  corn,  chocolate,  pepper, 
coffee,  tobacco,  sugar  cane,  and  rice  are 
cultivated  with  much  success. 

PANCRAS,  ST.,  the  son  of  a  heathen 
noble  of  Synnada  in  Phrygia,  lost  both 
parents  while  a  boy,  and  was  taken  to 
Rome  by  an  uncle,  and  there  baptized, 
but  immediately  afterward  was  slain 
(304)  in  the  Diocletian  persecution,  being 
only  14  years  old.  The  first  Church  that 
St.  Augustine  consecrated  in  England 
was  dedicated  to  St.  Pancras;  it  stood  at 
Canterbury. 

PANCREAS,  in  anatomy,  an  organ 
situated  within  the  curve  formed  by  the 
duodenum;  its  main  duct  opening  into 
the  intestine  there,  and  secreting  the  pan- 
creatic fluid,  which  resembles  saliva,  the 
gland  itself  resembling  the  salivary 
glands.  Its  function  is  to  secrete  this 
fluid  which  has  a  strong  digestive  action 
on  starchy  matter,  and  in  a  less  degree 
on  fatty  matters  and  albuminoid  sub- 
stances. 

PANCREATIN,  a  mixture  of  fer- 
ments, or  enzymes,  obtained  from  the 
pancreas  of  the  ox  or  hog.  Occurs  as 
a  yellowish,  amorphous  powder,  or  as 
transparent  yellowish  scales,  almost  com- 
pletely soluble  in  water  and  insoluble  in 
alcohol.  When  exposed  to  the  air  it 
absorbs  water  and  loses  its  activity. 
Pancreatin  has  the  property  of  bringing 
starchy,  proteid  and  fatty  foods  into  a 
more  digestible  form.  This  renders  it 
valuable  for  treating  digestive  disorders, 
and  cases  where  defective  nutrition  is 
indicated.  It  is  also  used  in  treating 
diabetes  and  cancer.  In  conjunction 
with  sodium  bi-carbonate,  it  is  used  in 
peptonizing  milk  for  feeding  infants,  and 
is  also  added  to  beef  tea,  gruel  and  other 
invalid  foods. 

PANDECTS,  a  collection  of  laws,  sys- 
tematically arranged,  from  the  works  of 
Roman  writers  on  jurisprudence,  to 
which  the  Emperor  Justinian  gave  the 
force  of  law,  533  A.  D. 

PANDIT,  or  PUNDIT,  a  learned 
Brahman;    one   versed   in   the    Sanskrit 


PANDORA 


102 


PANGOLIN 


language,  and  in  the  sciences,  laws,  and 
religion  of  the  Hindus. 

PANDORA,  the  first  mortal  female, 
according  to  Hesiod.  She  was  made  by 
Vulcan  out  of  clay,  at  the  command^  of 
Jupiter,  who  wished  to  punish  the  im- 
piety of  Prometheus  by  giving  him  a 
companion.  When  the  statue  was  ani- 
mated, each  god  and  goddess  bestowed 
on  her  some  special  charm  or  attribute, 
beauty,  grace,  music,  wisdom,  fascina- 
tion, and  eloquence;  while  Jove  himself 
presented  her  with  the  "Pandora's  box," 
full  of  secret  wonders,  which  could  be 
only  opened  by  the  mortal  she  selected 
for  her  husband.  Mercury  carried  her 
to  earth,  and  presented  her  to  Prome- 
theus, who  refused  her.  His  brother, 
however,  asked  for  and  obtained  Pandora 
for  his  wife,  upon  which  she  presented 
him  with  the  casket.  When  Pandora 
opened  the  lid,  a  host  of  evils  flew  out 
and  spread  themselves  over  the  world; 
and  the  consequences  would  have  been 
still  more  fatal,  had  there  not  been  Hope 
at  the  bottom,  to  ameliorate  the  pains 
and  sufferings  of  life. 

In  zoology,  a  genus  of  bivalve  mollusks, 
having  unequivalved  shells,  and  found  at 
a  considerable  depth  in  the  sandy  shores 
of  Europe  and  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In 
astronomy,  an  asteroid,  discovered  by  G. 
Searle  in  1858.  In  music,  a  kind  of  lute, 
furnished  with  strings  of  brass. 

PANDOURS,  a  people  of  Serbian  ori- 
gin who  lived  scattered  among  the  moun- 
tains of  Hungary,  near  the  village  of 
Pandour,  in  the  county  of  Sohl.  The 
name  used  to  be  applied  to  that  portion 
of  the  light  armed  infantry  in  the  Aus- 
trian service  raised  in  the  Slavonian  dis- 
tricts on  the  Turkish  frontier.  They 
originally  fought  after  the  fashion  of  the 
"free-lances,"  and  were  a  terror  to  the 
enemy. 

PANGBORN,    GEORGIA    WOOD,    an 

American  writer;  born  in  Malone,  N.  Y., 
in  1872.  Graduated  from  Packard  In- 
stitute in  1894,  and  in  the  same  year 
married  H.  L.  Pangborn.  She  wrote 
"Roman  Biznet"  (1902)  ;  "Interventions" 
(1911).  She  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  magazines. 

PAN-GERMANISM,  a  movement 
among  German  nationalists  and  im- 
perialists, embodying  the  idea  that  all 
German-speaking  peoples  should  be 
united  into  one  dominating  empire.  For 
long  only  an  ideal,  it  finally  found  con- 
crete expression  in  the  formation  of  the 
Universal  German  League  in  1891,  which 
in  1894  changed  its  name  to  the  Pan- 
German  League.  In  the  propaganda  of 
the    more    enthusiastic    leaders    of    this 


organization  was  expressed  the  idea 
which  gradually  prepared  the  German 
people  to  support  the  military  plans  of 
the  Imperial  Government  when,  in  1914, 
it  precipitated  its  great  war  of  world 
conquest.  In  1903  the  League  formu- 
lated its  program  into  the  following  main 
points : 

(1)  Intensification  of  patriotic  educa- 
tion, and  bitter  opposition  to  all  the 
ideas  of  "world  brotherhood,"  advocated 
by  the  Socialists; 

(2)  To  Germanize  more  thoroughly  the 
public  school  system,  by  removing  all 
sources  of  instruction  detrimental  to  the 
Pan-German  idea; 

(3)  To  support  all  German  minorities 
in  other  European  countries,  to  keep 
alive  their  race  consciousness  and  to  give 
them  all  possible  ai-d  in  fighting  for  polit- 
ical power  that  eventually  all  these  units 
might  unite  and  make  a  German-ruled 
Europe; 

(4)  To  foster  German  influence  and 
culture  in  over-seas  colonies. 

In  1902  the  League  had  enrolled  22,000 
members,  by  which  time  it  was  carrying 
on  a  tremendous  propaganda.  During 
the  war  it  was  generally  taken  for 
granted  that  the  Pan-German  League 
worked  closely  hand  in  hand  with  the 
Imperial  Government,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  connection  was  any  closer 
than  between  any  ultra-patriotic  society 
and  the  government  of  any  country  dur- 
ing war  time.  That  military  conquest 
was  the  idea  of  a  majority,  or  even  of 
any  large  minority,  of  the  League  mem- 
bers, is  doubtful.  A  peaceful  penetra- 
tion of  the  civilized  world  by  German 
"culture"  was  the  openly  expressed  de- 
sire of  the  majority.  The  Pan-German 
League  still  wields  some  influence,  even 
under  the  Republic.  It  is  naturally 
strongly  anti-Socialistic. 

PANGOLIN,  in  zoology,  scaly  ant- 
eater;   the  popular  name  for  any  indi- 


PANGOLIN" 


vidual  of  the  genus  Manis.  They  range 
in  size  from  one  foot  to  three  feet  in 
length,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which,  in 
some   species,   is   twice   as   long  as   the 


PANIC 


103 


PANTHEON 


body;  legs  short,  ears  very  small,  tongue 
long  and  vermicular,  to  which  ants  are 
held  fast  by  the  copious  flow  of  saliva 
with  which  it  is  lubricated.  There  are 
seven  species. 

PANIC,  a  sudden  flight  or  alarm,  es- 
pecially one  without  any  real  cause  or 
ground;  sudden  flight  or  terror  inspired 
by  some  trifling  cause.  A  commercial 
panic,  a  panic  produced  in  commercial 
circles.  When  such  a  panic  takes  place 
a  run  commences  on  the  banks,  the  price 
of  securities  falls,  and  other  abnormal 
commercial  conditions  ensue. 

PANICLE,  in  botany,  a  kind  of  in- 
florescence, in  which  the  flowers  are  ar- 
ranged on  the  lengthened  axis,  with 
branched  peduncles  and  leng:thened  cen- 
tripetal clusters   of  flowers. 

PANIPAT,  a  town  of  the  Punjab,  In- 
dia; 53  miles  N.  of  Delhi,  near  the  old 
bank  of  the  Jumna,  and  on  the  great 
military  road  of  northern  India  between 
Afghanistan  and  the  Punjab.  The  first 
great  battle  of  the  Panipat  was  fought 
in  1526,  when  Baber,  at  the  head  of 
12,000  Mongols,  defeated  the  army, 
100,000  strong,  of  the  Emperor  of  Delhi. 
The  second  in  1556  by  the  Mongols  under 
Akbar,  grandson  of  Baber,  and  third  of 
the  Mogul  emperors,  against  Hemu,  an 
Indian  general  of  the  Afghan  Sher  Shah, 
the  latter  being  defeated.  The  third  bat- 
tle was  fought  Jan.  7,  1761,  between 
Ahmed,  ruler  of  Afghanistan,  and  the 
till  then  inAancible  Mahrattas,  suffered 
a  total  defeat  and  great  slaughter. 
Manufactures  copper  utensils,  cloth, 
blankets,  hardware,  silver  and  glass 
ornaments.     Pop.  about  35,000. 

PANKHTJRST,       CHRISTABEL, 

daughter  of  Emmeline  Pankhurst;  born  in 
1882,  at  Manchester,  where  she  graduated 
in  1906  from  Victoria  University  as  LL. 
B.  She  seconded  her  mother's  militant 
tactics  in  the  work  for  women's  suffrage 
in  Great  Britain,  and  from  1905  onward 
addressed  public  meetings,  and  heckled 
cabinet  ministers  with  the  result  that 
she  was  frequently  imprisoned.  In 
1912  she  fled  to  Paris,  and  from  there 
edited  the  "Suffragette."  She  lectured  in 
the  United  States  in  1914-1915,  and  wrote 
a  book,  "The  Great  Scourge  and  How 
to  End  It."  In  1919  she  made  an  un- 
successful attempt  to  get  in  Parliament. 
In  1920  she  visited  Russia,  and  spoke  in 
sympathy  for  the  Bolshevist  Government. 

PANKHURST,  EMMELINE  (nee 
GOTJLDEN),  English  suffrage  leader. 
F^^e  was  born  in  1858  at  Manchester, 
England,  and  in  1879  married  Dr.  Rich- 
'ird   M.    Pankhurst,   who   died   in    1898. 


She  had  always  worked  for  woman's 
suffrage,  but  first  came  into  prominence 
at  the  elections  of  1906,  when  she  and 
other  women  endeavored  to  break  up 
public  meetings  and  to  fire  public  build- 
ings. As  a  result  of  these  activities  she 
and  other  suffragettes  were  sent  to  jail, 
but  they  resorted  to  the  hunger  strike 
and  had  to  be  released.  In  1913  she 
escaped  to  lecture  in  the  United  States, 
and  when  the  war  broke  out  ended  mili- 
tant tactics  and  aided  the  government. 
The  result  was  the  admission  of  women 
to  the  vote  at  the  close  of  the  war,  a 
measure  for  which  Mrs.  Pankhurst  re- 
ceived the  chief  credit.  In  1919-1920  she 
again  visited  the  United  States. 

PANNONIA,  a  large  extent  of  coun- 
try in  Europe,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the 
Danube,  S.  by  Illyricum  and  Mcesia,  E. 
by  the  Danube,  and  W.  by  Noricum,  in- 
habited by  Celtic  tribes  and  including 
the  parts  now  known  as  Hungary  and 
the  Republic  of  Austria.  It  was  attacked 
by  the  Romans,  under  Octovianus,  35 
B.  c,  and  made  a  Roman  province  by 
Tiberius  in  8.  It  was  ceded  to  the  Huns 
by  Theodosius  II.  about  447,  came  into 
the  hands  of  the  Ostrogoths  at  the  death 
of  Attila  in  453,  and  to  the  Longobardi 
(527-565),  from  whom  it  passed  to  the 
Avari  in  568.  The  Ungri,  or  Hunga- 
rians, settled  here  in  889 ;  and  from  them 
a  large  part  of  Pannonia  received  the 
name  of  Hungary. 

PANTELLARIA,  a  volcanic  island  in 
the  Mediterranean,  36  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  lying  60  miles  S.  W.  of  the 
Sicilian  coast.  In  the  chief  town  (Pan- 
tellaria)  is  a  great  convict  prison. 

PANTHEISM,  the  view  that  God  and 
the  universe  are  identical.  It  was  taught 
in  India  in  the  Vedantic  system  of  phil- 
osophy, one  of  the  six  leading  schools  of 
thought,  and  to  this  day  it  is  widely 
accepted,  both  by  the  instructed  Brah- 
mans  and  by  the  common  people.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  12th  century  it  was 
taught  by  Almaric  of  Chartres,  a  dialec- 
tician and  theologian.  Pope  Innocent 
III.  forced  him  to  recant  his  views.  By 
many  Spinoaa  is  considered  to  have  re- 
vived pantheism,  but  his  teaching  in  this 
respect  has  been  misunderstood  (see 
Spinoza).  In  the  pantheism  of  Schell- 
ing  God  is  considered  as  the  Absolute 
Being,  revealing  Himself  in  external 
nature  and  in  human  intelligence  and 
freedom. 

PANTHEON,  a  famous  temple  at 
Rome,  built  by  M.  Agrippa,  son-in-law 
of  Augustus,  about  27  B.  C,  and  dedi- 
cated to  Mars  and  Jupiter  the  Avenger, 
in   memory  of  the  victory  obtained  by 


PANTHER 


104 


PAPAW 


Augustus  over  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 
The  Pantheon  is  now  commonly  called 
the  Rotunda,  from  its  circular  form.  It 
was  given  to  Boniface  IV.  by  the  Em- 
peror Phocas,  A.  D.  609,  and  dedicated  as 
a  Christian  church  to  the  Virgin  and 
holy  martyrs,  and  in  830  Gregory  IV. 
dedicated  it  to  all  the  saints.  It  is  the 
finest  specimen  of  a  circular  building  not 
surrounded  by  columns.  The  external 
diameter  is  188  feet,  and  the  height,  ex- 
clusive of  the  flat  dome  surmounting  the 
upper  cornice,  102  feet,  the  dome  being 
36  feet  high.  The  porch  is  octastyle, 
and  is  103  feet  wide.  There  is  an  ex- 
cellent cast  of  the  Pantheon  in  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art,  New  York  City. 
Also  all  the  deities  collectively  worshiped 
by  a  nation;  the  divinities  of  a  nation; 
and  a  treatise  or  discourse  upon  the  col- 
lective body  of  deities  of  a  nation. 

PANTHER,  one  of  the  Felidx  or  cat 
tribe,  of  a  yellow  color,  diversified  with 
roundish  black  spots,  a  native  of  Asia 
and  Africa.  The  name  panther  (in  vul- 
gar language  painter)  is  given  to  the 
puma  in  America. 

PANTOGBAPH,  or  PANTAGRAPH, 

an  instrument  used  in  copying  plans, 
maps,  and  other  drawings,  so  that  the 
copy  may  be  either  similar  to,  or  larger, 
or  smaller  than  the  original.  The  pan- 
tograph is  principally  useful  to  the 
draughtsman  in  enabling  him  to  mark  off 
the  principal  points  in  a  reduced  copy, 
through  which  the  lines  may  afterward 
be  drawn  by  the  usual  methods  of  con- 
struction. 

PANTOMIME,  a  theatrical  represen- 
tation, in  which  the  entire  plot  is  exhib- 
ited by  gesticulations  and  scenic  agency, 
without  speeches  or  conversation.  The 
ancient  pantomime  were  persons  who 
could  mimic  all  sorts  of  actions  and  char- 
acters, and  were  first  introduced  on  the 
Greek  stage  to  imitate,  by  actions  of 
feature,  hands,  and  body,  the  substance 
or  plot  of  what  the  chorus  was  sing- 
ing; subsequently,  they  were  employed 
as  a  sort  of  interlude  to  divert  the  audi- 
ence after  the  chorus  and  actors  had  left 
the  stage. 

PAOLA,      ST.      FRANCIS      OF.     See 

Francesco  di  Paula. 

PAOLI,  PASQUALE,  a  Corsican  pa- 
triot, born  in  1725.  In  1755,  being  in- 
vited by  the  Corsicans  to  become  their 
captain-general,  he  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  his  countrymen,  and,  during  12 
years,  waged  a  fierce  war  with  the  Gen- 
oese, who  were  in  the  end  driven  from 
almost  every  fort  in  the  island.  Genoa, 
however,  gave  up  the  island  to  France 


in  1765 ;  and  soon  afterward  a  large  force 
was  landed,  under  the  command  of  Count 
Marboeuf,  against  whom  Paoli  and  his 
followers  fought  desperately.  But  the 
Corsicans  being  totally  routed  at  Pont^ 
enuovo,  the  island  submitted.  Paoli 
went  to  England,  where  he  remained 
till  1789,  in  which  year,  Mirabeau  hav- 
ing moved  in  the  National  Assembly  the 
recall  of  all  Corsican  patriots,  Paoli  re- 
paired to  Paris,  and  was  created  by 
Louis  XVI.  military  commandant  in  Cor- 
sica. At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution, 
he  conceived  a  scheme  for  making  Cor- 
sica an  independent  republic.  He  had 
been  on  the  best  terms  with  the  Bona- 
parte family,  but  they  now  joined  the 
Jacobin  party,  while  he  allied  himself 
with  Great  Britain,  favored  the  landing 
of  2,000  British  troops  in  the  island  in 
1794,  and  joined  them  in  driving  out  the 
French.  He  then  surrendered  the  island 
to  George  III.,  but  becoming  dissatisfied 
with  the  government,  left  the  island  in 
1796,  and  went  to  London,  where  he  died 
in  1807. 

PAPA,  a  town  of  Hungary  in  the 
county  of  Vesprem,  on  the  Tapolcza 
river.  It  is  about  60  miles  S.  E.  of 
Presburg.  It  has  several  extensive  pal- 
aces and  a  Protestant  gymnasium.  Be- 
fore the  World  War  the  town  was  of 
considerable  importance  as  a  manufac- 
turing center,  its  chief  industry  being  the 
manufacture  of  pottery,  tobacco  and  tex- 
tiles.    Pop.  about  22,000. 

PAPAL       STATES.     See       CHURCH, 

States  of  the. 

PAP  AVERAGES,  poppyworts;  an 
order  of  hypogynous  exogens,  alliance 
Ranales.  Herbaceous  herbs  or  shrubs, 
often  with  milky  juice.  Poppyworts  are 
narcotic,  emetic,  purgative,  or  acridly 
poisonous.  Two  thirds  of  the  species  are 
found  in  Europe,  the  others  in  Asia, 
Africa,  Australia,  and  tropical  America. 

PAPAW  (Carica  papaya),  a  small 
South  American  tree  of  the  natural  or- 
der Passifloracese  (formerly  made  the 
type  of  a  small  family,  Papayacese) , 
which  has  now  been  introduced  into 
many  tropical  and  subtropical  countries. 
The  fruit  is  eaten  either  raw  or  boiled. 
The  juice  of  the  fruit  and  the  sap  of  the 
tree  render  tough  meat  tender,  even  the 
exhalations  from  the  tree  have  this  prop- 
erty, and  joints  of  meat,  fowls,  etc.,  are 
hung  among  its  branches  to  prepare 
them  for  the  table.  The  Chamburu  of 
Brazil  is  remarkable  for  the  extremely 
acrid  and  poisonous  character  of  its 
juice,  and  the  disgusting  stercoraceous 
odor  of  its  flowers.  In  the  United  States 
the  name  papaw  is  given  a  small  tree 


PAPE 


105 


PAPER 


of  the  natural  order  Anonacese,  the  fruit 
of  which,  a  large  oval  berry,  three  inches 
long,  with  soft,  insipid  pulp,  is  eaten  by 
negroes. 

PAPE,  EBIC,  an  American  artist, 
born  in  San  Francisco  in  1870.  Studied 
art  in  Paris  and  traveled  and  lived  in 
England,  France,  Germany,  Egypt, 
Mexico  and  other  countries.  He  was  the 
founder  and  director  and  instructor  of 
the  Eric  Pape  School  of  Art  until  1913. 
He  was  a  frequent  visitor  to  European 
art  expositions.  He  also  designed  many 
important  monuments  and  illustrated 
many  notable  publications.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Arts  and  other 
associations  of  artists. 

PAPER,  a  material  made  in  thin 
sheets  from  a  pulp  of  rags,  esparto  grass, 
straw,  wood  or  other  fibers,  and  used  for 
writing  or  printing  on,  or  for  wrapping. 
The  earliest  paper  was  doubtless  that 
made  from  the  Egyptian  papyrus, 
whence  all  similar  writing  material  is 
named.  Many  books  and  newspapers 
have  been  printed  entirely  of  one  ma- 
terial, such  as  bamboo,  straw,  jute, 
Phormm/ni  tenax,  maize  leaves,  esparto, 
etc.  In  Japan  a  species  of  mulberry 
osier  is  grown  specially  for  its  bark  for 
paper  making.  Only  two  vegetable 
fibers  have  come  into  general  use  for 
paper  making;  these  are  esparto  and 
wood  pulp.  The  best  sources  of  fiber 
are  linen  and  cotton  rags  for  white  pa- 
per and  hempen  cordage  for  brown.  A 
caustic  soda  or  soda-ash  is  required  in 
the  preparation  of  many  fibers. 

Raw  fibers  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes:  (1)  that  which  is  easily  re- 
duced and  easily  bleached;  (2)  that 
which  is  difficult  to  bleach;  (3)  that 
which  is  difficult  to  reduce  but  easily 
bleached;  and  (4)  that  wherein  perfect 
bleaching  effects  the  integrity  of  the 
fiber.  The  longer  the  fibers  and  the  more 
intricate  the  mixture  of  them  when  wet, 
the  stronger  vdll  be  the  sheet  of  paper 
when  dry.  The  culms  of  various  cereal 
grasses  are  employed  where  obtainable; 
rice  straw  in  Asia,  wheat,  oat,  and  other 
kinds  of  straw  in  Europe.  Straw  was 
used  a  century  ago  for  paper  making, 
but  its  extensive  use  is  of  comparatively 
recent  date.  The  deficiency  in  the  sup- 
ply of  rags  and  the  absence  of  any  cheap 
substance  to  supplement  esparto  have  led 
to  a  great  run  on  wood  pulp  for  the  pa- 
per mills  in  most  countries.  Its  manu- 
facture and  use  dates  practically  back 
only  to  about  1870;  indeed  its  general 
adoption  may  be  referred  to  10  years 
later.  The  conifers  giving  the  strongest 
and    toughest    fiber    seem    to    be    best 


adapted  for  conversion  into  pulp,  though 
many  other  species  are  used.  The  pro- 
duction has  centered  chiefly  in  America 
and  the  two  Scandinavian  countries, 
Norway  and  Sweden.  They  also  make 
a  large  quantity  of  paper  and  paste- 
board for  export.  Wood  pulp  iz  now  the 
principal  ingredient  in  cheap  paper.  It 
is  deficient  in  fiber,  but  a  moderate  ad- 
mixture of  rags,  esparto,  or  other  fib- 
rous material  strengthens  it.  Much  of 
the  paper  made  is  used  up  a  second  time. 
Cotton  and  linen  rags  are  the  mainstays 
of  the  paper  maker,  and  all  countries 
draw  largely  on  these  waste  substances. 
In  order  to  reduce  the  price  many  mak- 
ers introduce  into  their  pulp  sawdust 
and  various  mineral  matters,  such  as 
kaolin  or  china  clay. 

The  varieties  of  paper  made  are  chiefly 
the  following  four  classes:  (1)  news 
and  printing  papers;  (2)  writing  papers 
of  various  kinds,  blue,  cream  and  yellow 
laid,  and  wove  and  tinted,  and  for  ac- 
count books,  etc.;  (3)  wrapping  or  pack- 
ing papers,  brown  and  purple,  heavy 
manila  for  cartridges  and  bags;  (4)  mis- 
cellaneous, such  as  light  copying,  tissue, 
and  pottery  papers,  blotting  and  filter- 
ing, cigarette,  etc.  Lastly,  there  are  all 
kinds  of  cardboards  and  millboards  made. 
The  principal  kinds  of  papers  embrace 
2,000  names  of  various  kinds  and  quali- 
ties. In  1772  there  were  60  varieties  of 
paper  made  from  as  many  different  ma- 
terials, and  10  or  12  years  later  the  num- 
ber had  been  extended  to  103.  In  those 
days  all  paper  was  manufactured  by 
hand,  each  sheet  separately.  The  rags 
were  pulped  in  mortars  by  trip-hammers, 
and  several  days  were  required  to  turn 
out  a  sample  of  dry  finished  paper.  The 
workman  dipped  a  rectangular  sieve  or 
mould  into  the  vat  and  deposited  the 
sheet  of  fluid  pulp  on  a  piece  of  felt  to 
dry. 

This  simple  mode  of  manufacture, 
which  is  still  largely  practiced  in  Hol- 
land and  Italy,  has  been  superseded  very 
generally  by  continuous  machines,  and 
only  a  small  quantity  of  paper  for  spe- 
cial books,  editions  de  luxe,  etc.,  besides  a 
superior  writing,  bank-note,  and  draw- 
ing paper  is  now  made  by  hand.  The 
various  machines  for  making  paper  in 
continuous  lengths  are  wonderful  pro- 
ductions of  mechanical  skill.  These 
machines  consist  of  contrivances  for 
causing  an  equal  supply  of  pulp  to  flow 
on  an  endless  wire-gauze  apron,  which 
revolves  and  carries  on  the  paper  till  it 
is  received  on  an  endless  sheet  of  felt, 
passing  around  and  between  large 
couching  cylinders.  At  the  Pittsburgh 
Exhibition  there  was  a  roll  14  miles 
long,  18  inches  wide,  and  weighing  2,658 


PAPHLAGONIA 


106 


PAPYRUS 


pounds.  Some  of  the  machines  are  75 
to  100  feet  long  and  120  inches  wide, 
requiring  a  building  to  themselves,  and 
making  a  sheet  of  paper  7  feet  in  width. 
In  the  United  States,  for  fine  book-work, 
the  paper  receives  a  white  coating  after 
it  has  been  made;  the  finish  thus  given 
to  the  surface  renders  possible  the  il- 
lustrations seen  in  our  best  magazines. 
The  productive  power  of  a  modern  paper- 
making  machine  is  very  great;  it  moves 
at  a  rate  of  from  20  to  200  feet  per  min- 
ute, spreading  pulp,  couching,  drying 
and  calendering  as  it  goes,  so  that  the 
stream  of  pulp  flowing  in  at  one  end  is 
in  two  minutes  passed  out  as  finished 
paper  at  the  other. 

Paper  Production  of  the  World. — In 
the  United  States  great  progress  has 
been  made  in  paper  manufacture.  The 
first  mill  was  established  in  1690  on 
ground  now  included  within  Philadelphia. 
In  1770  there  were  40  paper  mills  in 
Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  Dela- 
ware, and  only  three  or  four  in  New 
England.  In  Great  Britain  and  Eu- 
rope there  are  over  3,000  mills;  Canada 
has,  in  recent  years  become  a  chief  pro- 
ducer of  pulp  for  paper.  In  1918  the 
product  in  that  country  was  valued  at 
$119,309,434.  In  1919  nearly  150,000 
tons  were  exported. 

The  United  States  leads  all  nations  in 
paper  production,  between  9  and  10 
million  tons  annually.  In  1909  news- 
print paper  was  included  in  the  free 
tariff  list.  Much  of  the  wood  pulp  was 
obtained  from  Canada  until  the  war 
when  shortage  of  help  made  it  neces- 
sary to  obtain  the  material  from  Scan- 
dinavia. The  blockade  cut  off  this  supply 
and  paper  prices  in  the  United  States 
rose  to  prohibitive  figures.  In  1919  and 
1920  the  United  States  Government 
warned  great  users  of  paper  that  they 
must  reduce  their  demands  on  the  market 
supply. 

The  production  of  newsprint  paper  in 
1919  was  over  1,000,000  tons. 

PAPHLAGONIA,  in  ancient  geogra- 
phy, a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  Euxine;  on  the  S.  by 
Galatia;  on  the  E.  by  the  Halys,  which 
separates  it  from  Pontus,  and  on  the  W. 
by  the  river  Parthenius,  which  parts  it 
from  the  Bithynia.  Paphlagonia  con- 
tained seven  principal  cities,  of  which 
Sinope  (the  capital),  Gangra,  Amastris, 
and  Sora,  were  the  most  important.  It 
is  mentioned  by  Homer,  962  B.C.;  was 
incorporated  in  the  Lydian  empire  by 
Croesus,  560-546  B.C.;  and  in  that  of 
Persia  by  Cyrus,  546  B.  c.  It  was  united 
to  Pontus  by  Mithridates  III.,  290  B.C.; 
formed  a  part  of  the  province  of  Gala- 


tia, under  the  Romans,  25  B.C.;  and  was 
made  a  separate  province  by  Constantino 
I.    (323-337). 

PAPHOS,  in  ancient  geography,  the 
name  of  two  towns  in  the  Isle  of  Cyprus. 
The  older  city,  Palaipaphos  (now  Kuklos, 
or  Kouklia),  was  situated  in  the  W. 
part  of  the  island,  about  1^  miles  from 
the  coast.  ^  It  was  probably  founded  by 
the  Phoenicians,  and  was  famous  for  a 
temple  of  Venus,  who  was  said  to  have 
here  risen  from  the  sea  close  by,  whence 
Aphrodite,  "foam-sprung,"  and  who  was 
designated  the  Paphian  goddess.  The 
other  Paphos,  called  Neopaphos  (now 
BafFa),  was  on  the  sea  coast,  about  7  or 
8  miles  N.  W.  of  the  older  city,  and  the 
place  in  which  the  apostle  Paul  pro- 
claimed the  Gospel  before  the  proconsul 
Sergius,  and  struck  the  sorcerer  Elymas 
blind. 

PAPIER-MACHE,  a  material  com- 
posed principally  of  paper.  The  com- 
moner varieties  are  prepared  by  pulp- 
ing any  kind  or  mixture  of  different 
kinds  of  paper  into  a  homogeneous  mass 
of  a  doughy  consistence.  Some  earthy 
material  may  be  mixed  with  the  pulp,  as 
well  as  chemicals,  resinous  substances, 
and  glue  to  harden  it  and  prevent  the 
attacks  of  insects.  The  pulp  is  rolled 
into  thick  sheets,  and  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity is  taken  to  form  the  article  of  orna- 
ment desired;  this  is  subjected  to  heavy 
pressure  between  cameo  and  intaglio  dies 
and  afterward  dried.  Its  surface  may 
now  be  gilded,  painted  with  oil  or  size 
colors,  or  varnished.  The  toughness  and 
lightness  of  this  material  peculiarly 
adapt  it  for  table  ware,  table  and  desk 
furniture,  interior  architectural  and 
other  ornaments. 

PAPILIO,  a  butterfly;  in  entomology, 
the  typical  genus  of  the  family  Papi- 
lionidse.  It  has  long  antennae  and  very 
short  palpi.  About  500  species  are 
known,  many  of  them  from  Africa  and 
the  Eastern  Archipelago. 

PAPUA.    See  New  Guinea. 

PAPYRUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
Cyperese,  having  the  inflorescence  in 
spikelets,  with  many  flowers,  surrounded 
by  long  bracts;  the  seeds  three  cornered. 
P.  antiquorum,  sometimes  called  Cyperus 
papyrus,  is  the  plant  from  which  the 
ancients  made  paper.  It  has  an  under- 
ground stem,  at  intervals  sending  up  or- 
dinary stems  8  or  10  feet  high.  It  grows 
on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  the  Jordan  and 
in  the  S.  of  Italy.  The  paper  was  made 
from  thin  slices  of  the  stem  cut  verti- 
cally. It  was  made  also  into  boats  and 
its  fibers  used  for  cordage.     P.  corym^ 


FABA 


107 


PARACELSUS 


hosus,  or  Pangorei,  is  manufactured  into 
Indian  mats;  also  in  literature,  rolls  of 
papyrus  with  writings  on  them  consti- 
tuting an  ancient  book. 

PARA,  a  state  of  Brazil,  in  the  N.  E., 
bounded  by  the  Guianas,  Maranhao, 
Goyaz,  Matto  Grosso,  Amazonas,  and  the 
Atlantic.  The  estuary  of  the  Amazon, 
also  called  Para,  covers  a  large  part  of 
the  state,  which  rises  by  series  of  plateaus 
to  an  elevation  of  26,000  feet.  The  thick 
forests  are  rich  in  rubber,  and  cereals 
and  tobacco  are  raised  in  the  plains. 
Cocoa,  nuts,  leather,  and  rubber  are  the 
principal  exports.  The  area  totals  443,- 
789  square  miles,  and  is  rich  in  unde- 
veloped minerals.  Capital,  Para.  Pop. 
about  660,000. 

PARA  (official  name  Belem),  a  thriv- 
ing city  and  seaport  of  Brazil,  capital  of 
the  state  of  the  same  name,  on  the  E. 
bank  of  the  Para  river,  70  miles  from  its 
mouth,  on  a  point  of  land  formed  by  the 
entrance  of  the  Guandu.  The  harbor  is 
nearly  landlocked  by  wooded  islands,  and 
admits  vessels  of  large  size.  Tram  cars 
and  telephones  are  in  general  use,  and 
there  is  a  railway  to  Braggan^a  (108 
miles).  The  principal  buildings  are  the 
theater,  the  government  building,  custom 
house,  and  cathedral  (1720).  The  city 
contains  a  small  fort  and  botanic  gar- 
dens. The  place  is  not  unhealthy, 
though  the  wet  season  extends  over 
nearly  two-thirds  of  the  year.  Para  is 
the  emporium  of  the  Amazon  river  trade, 
supplying  the  towns  of  the  interior  with 
foreign  goods,  and  exporting  india-rub- 
ber, cacao,  Brazil  nuts,  the  piraiicu  fish, 
etc.  The  annual  value  of  the  exports 
exceeds.     Pop.  about  285,000. 

PARA,  the  name  which  the  Tocantins 
river  receives  in  its  lower  course,  from 
Cameta  downward  (138  miles).  It  is 
20  miles  broad  opposite  the  city  of  Para, 
and  40  miles  broad  at  its  mouth.  The 
Paranan,  an  arm  of  the  Amazon,  which 
cuts  off  Maraj6  Island  from  the  main- 
land, pours  into  it  part  of  the  waters  of 
the  gTeat  river. 

PARABLE,  a  comparison,  a  simili- 
tude; specifically  a  fable  or  allegorical 
relation  or  representation  of  something 
real  in  life  or  nature,  from  which  a 
moral  is  drawn  for  instruction.  An  al- 
legorical or  mystical  saying  or  expres- 
sion; a  proverb, 

PARABOLA,  in  conic  sections,  a  plane 
curve  pi  such  a  form  that  if  from  any 
point  in  the  curve  one  straight  line  be 
drawn  to  a  given  fixed  point,  the  other 
perpendicular  to  a  straight  line  given  in 


position,  these  two  straight  lines  will  al- 
ways be  equal  to  one  another. 

PARABOLOID,  in  geometry,  a  volume 
bounded  by  a  surface  of  the  second  or- 
der, such  that  sections  made  by  planes 
passed  in  certain  directions  are  common 
parabolas.  It  is  a  characteristic  prop- 
erty of  paraboloids  that  they  have  no 
centers  except  in  the  extreme  cases,  when 
they  have  an  infinite  number  of  centers. 
There  are  three  varieties  of  paraboloids, 
elliptical,  hyperbolic,  and  parabolic. 

PARACELSUS,  a  German  theosophist, 
physician,  and  chemist;  born  in  Einsie- 
deln,  near  Zurich,  Switzerland,  in  1493. 
His  real  name  was  Philip  Theophrastus 
Bombastus  von  Hohenheim,  but  he 
assumed    the     high-sounding    name    of 


PARACELSUS 

Aureolus  Theophrastus  Paracelsus.  He 
learned  the  rudiments  of  alchemy,  as- 
trology, and  medicine  from  his  father, 
and  then  became  a  wandering  scholar, 
visiting  almost  all  parts  of  Europe.  He 
made  some  fortunate  cures,  and  an- 
nounced that  he  had  discovered  an  elixir 
which  would  prolong  life  indefinitely; 
whereby  he  made  himself,  for  a  time, 
an  immense  reputation  of  physic  and 
surgery  in  the  University  of  Basle. 
But  his  arrogance,  language,  drunken- 
ness and  debauchery,  soon  destroyed  his 
fame  and  influence,  and  he  lost  his  pro- 
fessorship, and  left  Basle  in  1527.  The 
rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  roving,  prac- 
ticing medicine,  indulging  in  low  habits, 


PABACHTJTE 


108 


PARAGUAY 


and  writing  his  books,  which  were  pub- 
lished in  10  volumes.  Notwithstanding 
all  his  faults,  errors,  and  absurdities, 
Paracelsus  gave  a  new  direction  to  medi- 
cal science,  by  his  doctrine  that  the  true 
use  of  chemistry  is  not  to  make  gold, 
but  to  prepare  medicines;  and  from  his 
day  the  study  of  chemistry  became  a 
necessary  part  of  medical  education. 
He  died  in  Salzburg  in  1541. 

PARACHUTE,  a  device  by  which  a 
descent  is  made  from  a  balloon  or  an 
eminence.  It  is  a  light  structure,  and 
affords  a  large  area  of  resistance  to  the 
atmosphere.  It  is  usually  in  shape  like 
an  umbrella,  20  to  25  feet  in  diameter. 
It  remains  closed  like  an  umbrella  while 
the  balloon  to  which  it  is  attached  is  as- 
cending, opening  as  soon  as  the  descent 
begins,  the  expanded  top  serving  to  mod- 
erate its   velocity. 

It  was  sometimes  used  by  aviators 
during  the  World  War  (1914-1918) 
to  escape  from  damaged  aeroplanes. 
Every  observation  balloon  used  in  the 
war  was  equipped  with  parachutes. 

PARACLETE,  the  being  who,  both  in 
the  authorized  and  revised  versions  of 
the  New  Testament,  is  called  the  "Com- 
forter," alternative  renderings  being 
given  in  the  margin  of  the  latter.  Ad- 
vocate, Helper,  or  Paraclete.  He  is  "the 
Spirit  of  Truth"  (John  xv:  26,  xvi:  13), 
the  Holy  Ghost  (xiv:  26).  His  function 
with  regard  to  the  world  is  to  convict  it 
in  respect  of  sin,  of  righteousness,  and 
of  judgment  (xvi:  8-11)  (Revised  Ver- 
sion). Montanus  in  the  2d  century. 
Manes  in  the  3d,  and  Mohammed  in  the 
7th  century,  each  claimed  to  be  the  prom- 
ised Paraclete,  whom  none  of  the  three, 
however,  identified  with  the  Holy  Ghost. 

PARADISE  FISH,  a  popular  name 
for  Macropus  viridiauratus  (lacepede), 
from  the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  Its 
coloration  is  brilliant  and  it  is  frequently 
found  in  aquaria. 

PARADISEID^,  birds  of  paradise; 
a  family  of  passerine  birds.  The  family 
differs  from  the  Corvidse,  to  which  it  is 
closely  allied,  in  the  outer  being  shorter 
than  the  middle,  and  longer  than  the 
inner  toe,  the  hind  toe  being  very  large 
and  equaling  the  middle  in  length.  In 
his  monograph  on  the  family,  D.  G.  El- 
liot divides  it  into  three  sub-families: 
Paradiseinae,  Epimachinse,  and  Tecton- 
archinse. 

PARADOX,  a  tenet  or  statement  con- 
trary to  received  opinion;  an  assertion 
which  is  contrary  to  appearance,  and 
seemingly  absurd,  impossible,  or  at  vari- 
ance with  eommon  sense,  but  which  may, 


on  examination,  be  found  to  be  perfectly 
correct  and  well  founded. 

PARADOXES,  COUNTRY  OF.  Hol- 
land, where  the  ocean  is  higher  than  land. 

PARAFFIN,  or  PARAFFINE,  a  solid, 
fatty  substance,  produced  along  with 
other  substances  in  the  dry  or  destruc- 
tive distillations  of  various  organic  mat- 
ters, such  as  coal,  bituminous  shale,  lig- 
nite, peat,  etc.,  at  a  low  red  heat.  It  is 
found  along  with  liquid  oils  in  petroleumi, 
and  in  the  native  state  in  coal  and  bi- 
tuminous strata,  known  as  fossil,  wax, 
ozokerite,  etc.  Paraffin  is  a  mixture  of 
several  hydrocarbons,  probably  homo- 
logues  of  marsh  gas  of  high  atomic 
weight.  Many  of  the  paraffins  are  found 
ready  formed  in  petroleum  and  other 
mineral  oils.  In  mining,  a  name  adopted 
for  a  group  cf  native  hydrocarbons,  hav- 
ing the  general  composition:  Carbon, 
85.71 ;  hydrogen,  14.29  =  100.  It  em- 
braces the  species  urpethite,  hatchettite, 
ozocerite,  zietrisikite,  and  elaterite. 

PARAGUAY,  a  republic  of  South 
America;  bounded  on  the  N.  and  N.  E. 
by  Brazil,  on  the  S.,  S.  E.,  and  S.  W.  by 
the  Argentine  Republic,  and  on  the 
N.  W.  by  Bolivia;  area,  about  98,000 
square  miles;  pop.  (1905)  631,347; 
(1920)   about  1,000,000. 

Topography. — A  mountain  chain  called 
Sierra  Amamboy,  running  in  the  ger^- 
eral  direction  of  N.  to  S.,  and  bifurcat- 
ing the  E.  and  W.  toward  the  S.  extrem- 
ity, under  the  name  of  Sierra  Maracayu, 
divides  the  tributaries  of  the  Parana 
from  those  of  the  Paraguay,  none  oi 
which  are  very  considerable,  though  they 
are  liable  to  frequent  and  destructive 
overflows.  The  N.  portion  of  Paraguay 
is  in  general  covered  by  low,  gently 
swelling  ridges,  separated  by  large  grass 
plains,  dotted  with  palms.  There  are 
mountains  in  the  N.  E.  and  N.  W.  cor- 
ners. The  S.  portion  is  one  of  the  most 
fertile  districts  of  South  America,  con- 
sisting of  hills  and  gentle  slopes  richly 
wooded,  of  wide  savannas,  which  afford 
excellent  pasture  ground,  and  of  rich  al- 
luvial plains,  some  of  them  marshy,  or 
with  shallow  pools  of  water,  but  a  large 
proportion  are  of  extraordinary  fertility 
and  highly  cultivated. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  temperate, 
reaching  as  high  as  100°  in  summer,  but 
in  winter  being  generally  45°. 

Production. — The  meat  packing  and 
curing  industry  has  been  greatly  devel- 
oped in  recent  years,  and  hides,  jerked 
beef,  and  other  animal  products  are  ex- 
ported in  considerable  quantities.  Yerba 
mate,  or  Paraguay  tea,  a  natural  prod- 
uct of  the  forests,  is  one  of  the  chief 


PARAGUAY 


109 


PARAGUAY 


articles  of  export.  There  were  sent 
abroad  in  1918  3,628,436  kilos  of  yerba. 
Tobacco  is  one  of  the  principal  products, 
and  about  220,000  cwts.  are  exported  an- 
nually. Paraguay  also  produces  que- 
bracho extract  to  the  amount  of  about 
25,000  tons  annually.  The  area  de- 
voted to  sugar,  which  is  used  largely  for 
the  manufactui-e  of  spirits,  is  about  12,- 
000  acres  and  the  sugar  production  is 
about  1,700  tons  annually.  Agriculture 
is  for  the  most  part  primitive,  but  the 
cultivation  of  cotton  has  been  encour- 
aged, but  is  not  yet  developed.  Iron, 
manganese,  copper,  and  other  miner- 
als occur  in  various  parts  of  the 
country. 

Commerce. — The  total  imports  in  1918 
amounted  to  £1,030,345,  and  the  exports 
to  £1,234,264.  The  chief  imports  are 
textiles,  provisions,  hardware,  wines, 
and  spirits.  The  chief  exports  are 
hides,  yerba,  oranges,  tobacco,  timber, 
canned  and  preserved  beef,  and  que- 
bracho extract. 

Transportation. — There  is  a  railway 
from  Asuncion  to  Encamacion,  a  dis- 
tance of  232  miles.  There  are  also  sev- 
eral other  lines  and  roads.  There  is  a 
national  telegraph  line  with  about  2,050 
miles  of  wire.  There  are  three  wireless 
telegraph  stations.  In  1918,  3,705  ves- 
sels entered  the  port  of  Asuncion,  and 
3,708  cleared. 

Education. — Education  is  free  and 
nominally  compulsory.  There  were  in 
1918  1,086  primary  schools,  with  65,612 
pupils  and  1,607  teachers.  There  are 
several  private  schools,  including  com- 
mercial schools.  There  are  7  National 
Colleges  with  an  attendance  of  about 
1,500.  There  is  also  a  university  which 
has  about  250  students. 

Finances. — The  revenue  and  expendi- 
tures amount  to  about  £ljOOO,000  annu- 
ally. The  external  debt  in  January  1, 
1919,  amounted  to  about  37,000,000  paper 
dollars. 

Government. — On  Nov.  25,  1870,  a  new 
constitution  was  proclaimed.  There  is  a 
Congress  composed  of  a  Senate  and  a 
House  of  Deputies.  The  members  of 
both  houses  are  elected  by  popular  vote 
at  the  ratio  of  one  senator  for  every 
12,000  inhabitants,  and  one  representa- 
tive for  every  6,000  inhabitants.  The 
executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  presi- 
dent, whose  term  of  office  is  four  years. 
There  are  five  departments  in  the  presi- 
dent's cabinet,  viz..  Interior,  Finance, 
Justice  and  Worship,  War  and  Foreign 
Affairs.  By  the  law  of  1919  there  are 
20  senators  and  40  deputies. 

History. — The  history  of  Paraguay  is 
highly  interesting.  It  was  discovered  by 
Vol.  VII— Cyc 


Sebastian  Cabot  in  1526,  but  the  first 
colony  was  settled  in  1535  by  Pedro  de 
Mendoza,  who  founded  the  city  of  Asun- 
cion and  established  Paraguay  as  a  pro- 
vince of  the  vice-royalty  of  Peru.  In  the 
latter  half  of  the  16th  century  the  Jesuit 
missionaries  were  sent  to  the  aid  of  the 
first  preachers  of  Christianity  in  Para- 
guay; but  for  a  long  time  they  were  al- 
most entirely  unsuccessful,  the  effect  of 
their  preaching  being  in  a  great  degree 
marred  by  the  profligate  and  cruel  con- 
duct of  the  Spanish  adventurers,  who 
formed  the  staple  of  the  early  colonial 
population.  In  the  17th  century  the 
home  government  consented  to  place  in 
their  hands  the  entire  administration, 
civil  as  well  as  religious,  of  the  province ; 
and,  in  order  to  guard  the  natives 
against  the  evil  influences  of  the  bad  ex- 
ample of  European  Christians,  gave  to 
the  Jesuits  the  right  to  exclude  all  other 
Europeans  from  the  colony.  From  this 
time  forward  the  progress  of  civiliza- 
tion as  well  as  of  Christianity  was  rapid. 
In  1811  Paraguay  declared  itself  inde- 
pendent of  Spain,  and  from  that  time  to 
the  present  has  existed  as  a  republic 
ruled  by  dictators  or  presidents,  some  of 
whom  have  really  been  great  despots. 
The  central  department,  in  which  the 
capital,  Asuncion,  is  situated,  contains 
nearly  one-third  of  the  whole  inhabi- 
tants; and  the  capital  itself,  45,000.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  towns  consist  chiefly 
of  whites,  or  of  half-breeds,  speaking 
Spanish.  The  native  population  of  the 
provinces  are  chiefly  Guaranis,  speaking 
the  Guarani  language. _  In  1865-1870 
Paraguay  was  at  war  with  the  combined 
forces  of  Brazil,  the  Argentine  Confed- 
eration, and  Uraguay,  and  as  a  result  of 
that  struggle  lost  much  territory. 

The  significant  feature  of  the  history 
of  the  country  during  recent  years  has 
been  the  development  of  agriculture  and 
railways.  There  have  been  slight  po- 
litical disturbances.  There  was  a  civil 
war  in  1911  and  1912,  but  in  the  latter 
year  Eduardo  Sherer  became  president 
and  began  an  epoch  of  peace.  Many  re- 
forms were  made  by  administration  of 
the  laws  and  measures  were  taken  to  se- 
cure the  prosperity  of  the  people.  There 
was  a  revolt  against  his  rule  in  1915 
but  it  was  repressed.  In  the  same  year 
the  government  signed  a  treaty  with  Bo- 
livia providing  for  the  settlement  of 
boundary  disputes.  Paraguay  remained 
neutral  in  the  World  War  until  Ger- 
many proclaimed  its  submarine  blockade. 
It  then  severed  diplomatic  relations. 
The  Assembly  on  Nov.  13,  1919,  ap- 
proved the  League  of  Nations.  Dr. 
Manuel  Gondra  was  inaugurated  presi- 
dent on  Aug.  15,  1920. 


PARAGUAY 


110 


PARALYSIS 


PARAGUAY,  a  large  river  of  South 
America,  an  affluent  of  the  Parana,  rises 
in  the  Brazilian  province  of  Matto 
Grosso,  9,535  feet  above  sea-level.  Pur- 
Fuing  a  S.  W.  course,  and  after  flowing 
through  a  level  country  covered  with 
thick  forests,  the  Paraguay  is  joined 
from  the  W.  by  the  Jauru,  in  lat.  16°  30' 
S.  It  then  continues  to  flow  S.  through 
the  marsh  of  Xarayes,  which,  during  the 
season  when  the  stream  rises,  is  an  ex- 
pansive waste  of  waters,  extending  from 
N.  to  S.  over  about  200  miles.  The 
river  still  pursues  a  circuitous  but  gen- 
erally S.  course,  forming  the  boundary 
line  between  Brazil  and  Bolivia,  thence 
flowing  S.  S.  W.  through  the  territories 
of  Paraguay  to  its  junction  with  the 
Parana,  a  few  miles  above  the  town  of 
Corrientes.  Its  chief  affluents  are  the 
Cuyaba,  Tacoary,  Mondego,  and  Apa  on 
the  left;  and  the  Jauru,  Pilcomayo,  and 
Vermejo  on  the  right.  The  entire  length 
of  the  river  is  estimated  at  1,800  miles; 
it  is  on  an  average  about  half  a  mile  in 
width,  and  is  navigable  for  steamers  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Cuyaba,  100  miles  above 
the  town  of  Corumba 

PARAHYBA,  capital  of  the  Brazilian 
state  of  Parahyba,  on  the  river  of  the 
same  name,  10  miles  from  the  sea.  Its 
chief  buildings  are  the  cathedral  and  the 
government  palace  (formerly  the  Jesuit 
college.)  A  large  sugar  mill  was  erected 
in  1889.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  is  a 
bar;  but  a  railway  (12  miles)  was  built 
in  1889  to  the  port  of  Cabedello,  there 
terminating  in  a  pier  in  deep  water. 
The  annual  exports  are  sugar,  cotton, 
and  cottonseed,  chiefly  to  Great  Britain. 
Pop.  (1917)  32,000.  The  state,  the  east- 
ernmost in  the  republic,  has  an  area 
of  28,854  square  miles,  pop.  (1917)  682,- 
350.  A  more  important  Parahyba  river 
farther  south,  enters  the  Atlantic,  in 
the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  after  a 
course  of  nearly  500  miles.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  50  miles  from  its  mouth. 

PARALDEHYDE,  CoH^^Os,  3  polymer 
of  acetaldehyde.  A  water-white  liquid, 
with  a  peculiar,  but  not  unpleasant  odor, 
and  a  burning,  but  subsequently  cooling 
taste.  Specific  gravity  0.995,  melting 
point  12.6°  C.  boiling  point  124°  C.  Pre- 
pared from  acetaldehyde  by  the  action 
of  hydrochloric  acid,  sulphur  dioxide  or 
zinc  chloride.  Paraldehyde  is  a  hyp- 
notic, and  differs  from  choral  in  its 
greater  speed  of  action  and  in  that  it  has 
no  depressant  effect  on  the  heart.  Its 
administration  sometimes  causes  an  out- 
break on  the  skin,  and  in  large  doses  it 
may  cause  digestive  trouble.  It  is  also 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  dyes. 


PARALLAX,  the  difference  of  direc- 
tion of  a  body  as  seen  from  two  differ- 
ent points.  It  is  generally  applied  to 
the  direction  of  the  heavenly  bodies  as 
seen  from  the  earth's  center  and  from 
some  point  of  its  surface.  The  parallax 
is  greater  the  nearer  the  body  and  the 
greater  the  distance  between  the  points 
in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  that  of 
the  body.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
the  difference  in  direction  of  a  body  seen 
from  different  points  of  the  earth's  orbit, 
the  longest  diameter  of  which  is  insuf- 
ficient in  case  of  some  fixed  stars. 

_  PARALLEL  LINES,  two  straight 
lines  are  parallel  to  each  other  when 
they  lie  in  the  same  direction.  Any 
number  of  straight  lines  are  parallel  to 
each  other  when  they  have  the  same  di- 
rection, or  when  they  are  respectively 
parallel  to  a  given  straight  line. 

PARALLELOPIPED,  or  PARAL- 
LELOPIPEDON,  in  geometry,  a  regular 
solid  bounded  by  six  plane  surfaces,  or 
parallelograms,  the  opposite  pairs  of 
which  are  similar,  parallel,  and  equal  to 
each  other.  If  the  parallelograms  are 
squares,  the  solid  is  a  cube. 

PARALLELS,  in  astronomy  and  geog- 
raphy small  circles  of  the  celestial  sphere 
or  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  which  are 
parallel  to  the  equator,  having  a  com- 
mon pole  with  the  latter.  On  the  earth's 
surface  they  are  generally  called  par- 
allels of  latitude,  and  in  the  sky  parallels 
of  declination. 

PARALYSIS,  the  loss  of  the  natural 
power  of  sensation  or  motion  in  any  part 
of  the  body.  It  is  owing  to  some .  dis- 
eased condition  of  the  nervous  system, 
either  of  the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  or  of 
the  nerves.  If  the  nerves  of  sensation 
or  their  centers  be  affected,  there  will 
be  loss  of  sensation;  if  of  motion,  then 
loss  of  motion ;  to  the  latter  of  which  the 
term  paralysis  is  by  some  exclusively  ap- 
plied. The  most  usual  form  is  when  one 
side  or  half  of  the  body  is  deprived  of 
sensation  or  motion,  or  both,  called 
hemiplegia;  paraplegia  is  when  the 
lower  part  of  the  body  is  paralyzed, 
while  the  upper  retains  both  sensation 
and  motion;  and  general  paralysis  is 
when  the  loss  of  nervous  power  extends 
over  nearly  every  part  of  the  body.  In 
hemiplegia,  the  seat  of  the  disease  is 
one  side  of  the  brain,  usually  that  op- 
posite to  the  affected  side  of  the  body; 
in  paraplegia,  the  lesion  is  within  the 
spinal  cord;  and  when  more  limited  in 
extent,  the  disease  usually  arises  from 
some  abnormal  state  of  a  particular 
nerve.     Paralysis      frequently      follows 


PARAMARIBO 


111 


PARANOIA 


apoplectic  attacks,  and  this  usually  in  its 
most  severe  and  dangerous  form.  The 
prognosis  must  be  looked  on  as  extremely 
unfavorable  when  the  attack  is  sudden, 
the  paralysis  extensive  and  complete, 
and  the  loss  of  consciousness  protracted; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  when  the  pa- 
ralysis advances  gradually,  there  is  more 
reason  to  hope  for  prolonged  life,  if  not 
for  a  complete  restoration  of  health. 

Among  the  other  causes  that  may  give 
rise  to  paralysis  are  various  injuries  and 
diseases  of  the  brain  or  spinal  cord;  as 
tumors,  inflammation,  external  injuries, 
etc.  When  paralysis  takes  place  with- 
out any  previous  apoplectic  attack,  the 
premonitory  symptoms  are  a  general 
torpor  or  lassitude,  occasional  giddiness, 
or  a  sense  of  weight  and  pain  in  the 
head,  and  loss  of  memory.  When  it  is 
the  result  of  injury  of  the  spinal  cord, 
then,  of  course,  the  paralysis  takes  place 
instantly.  Paraplegia  sometimes  lasts 
for  many  years  without  greatly  interfer- 
ing with  any  function  except  locomotion; 
but  when  it  occurs  during  fevers  and  ad- 
vances rapidly,  it  is  of  very  sinister  au- 
gury, especially  if  it  involves  the  sphinc- 
ter muscles  of  the  anus  and  bladder. 
Paralysis  is  not  a  disease  of  itself,  but 
only  a  sign  of  some  disorder  of  the  ner- 
vous system,  probably  at  a  distance  from 
parts  affected. 

PARAMARIBO,  the  capital  of  Dutch 
Guiana,  on  the  Surinam,  about  10  miles 
from  its  mouth.  It  has  broad,  tree- 
shaded  streets,  with  clean  wooden  houses, 
painted  light  gi'ay,  and  numerous  canals 
and  churches.  There  are  also  a  gov- 
ernor's palace,  two  forts,  a  park,  etc. 
The  Herrnhuters  (Moravian  Brethren) 
are  a  strong  body  in  the  town.  Except 
for  the  small  harbor  of  Nickerie,  all  the 
trade  of  the  colony  is  at  Paramaribo. 
Pop.   (1918)   37,051. 

PARANA,  a  city  of  Argentina,  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Entre  Rios. 
It  is  on  the  Parana  river,  370  feet  from 
its  mouth.  The  town  is  well  built  and 
has  a  number  of  handsome  public  build- 
ings, including  a  normal  school  and 
handsome  college.  It  has  an  important 
trade  and  steamship  connection  with 
Santa  Fe.  Pop.  about  40,000.  From 
1853  to  1861  Parana  was  the  capital  of 
Argentina. 

PARANA,  a  state  of  Brazil,  in  S. 
E.  bounded  by  Atlantic  Ocean,  Sao  Paulo, 
Paraguay,  Matto  Grosso,  Argentina,  and 
Santa  Catharina,  Rises  from  sea-level 
to  a  plateau  on  which  elevations  further 
rise  to  5,000  feet  above  the  sea.  There 
are  dense  forests,  but  on  the  plains  cocoa, 
coffee,    mate,    and    rice    are    cultivated. 


Tributaries  of  the  Parana  river  irrigate 
the  state.  Area  67,570  square  miles. 
Capital,  Curitiba.     Pop.  480,400. 

PARANA,  a  river  in  South  America, 
the  largest  except  the  Amazon,  and 
draining  a  larger  basin  than  any  othei 
river  in  the  New  World  except  the 
Amazon  and  the  Mississippi.  It  is 
formed  by  the  junction  of  two  streams, 
the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Paranahyba, 
which  meet  in  Brazil,  and  it  discharges 
itself  into  the  estuary  of  the  La  Plata, 
its  course  latterly  being  through  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic.  Its  principal  tribu- 
taries are  the  Paraguay  and  the  Salado, 
both  from  the  right.  Its  length,  from  its 
sources  to  its  junction  with  the  Para- 
guay, is  probably  1,500  miles,  and  thence 
to  the  sea  600  miles  more.  In  breadth, 
current,  and  volume  of  water,  the  Pa- 
rana has  10  times  the  magnitude  of  the 
Paraguay. 

PARANOIA,  a  mental  disease  of  the 
psychosis  type,  characterized  by  marked 
delusions,  tending  toward  persecutory 
ideas  and  apt  to  terminate  in  a  form  of 
mental  degeneration.  The  progressive 
psychosis  may  begin  almost  from  child- 
hood, with  a  systematizing  of  one  or  sev- 
eral hallucinations,  the  symptoms  of 
which  are  indicated  in  extravagance  of 
speech  or  eccentricity  of  conduct,  and 
easily  aroused  emotions.  An  element  is 
the  hereditary  or  acquired  predisposition, 
though  physical  injury  may  be  a  pre- 
dispcjing  cause. 

The  paranoiac  is  usually  a  person  of 
fixed  ideas,  who  is  not  amenable  to  out- 
side influences,  but  whose  persistence  in 
a  wrong  line  of  conduct  springs  from 
emotional  conditions  that  will  not  yield 
to  rational  exposition.  The  patient  is 
apt  to  show  himself  unduly  sensitive  and 
suspicious,  to  imagine  conspiracies  di- 
rected against  him,  and  to  show  an  in- 
disposition to  mingle  with  others.  The 
effects  of  these  ideas  and  impulses  are 
shown  in  the  patients'  inability  to  get 
on  in  the  world,  a  preference  for  soli- 
tary pursuits,  and  a  dislike  for  syste- 
matic work  in  any  field  except  in  that 
which  leaves  them  at  liberty  to  indulge 
in  their  ideas  and  delusions.  The  per- 
sonal delusion  may  sometimes  take  a  so- 
cial or  patriotic  or  religious  form,  and 
may  display  itself  in  an  extreme  fervor 
for  which  there  is  no  rational  basis. 
Where  the  hallucinations  are  strongly 
developed  the  paranoiac  is  apt  to  show 
distinct  homicidal  tendencies.  In  such 
cases  the  only  remedy  is  the  removal  of 
the  patient  to  surroundings  where  he 
can  do  no  harm,  and  to  improve  his  con- 
dition by  such  diversions  and  discipline 
as  may  suit  his  individual  case. 


PARAPET 


112 


PARCHMENT 


PARAPET,  in  architecture,  a  wall 
raised  breast  high;  the  upper  part  of  a 
house  which  is  above  the  springing  of  a 
roof  and  guards  the  gutter;  the  upper 
part  of  a  well,  a  bridge,  a  terrace,  or 
balcony,  etc.  Parapets  around  the  flat 
roofs  of  houses  in  the  East  are  of  very 
ancient  date.  Also  a  breast-high  de- 
fense of  earth  or  stone  around  a  work 
for  shielding  troops  from  the  enemy's 
fire.  It  is  so  formed  that  the  earth  of 
the  excavation  is  sufficient  for  the 
ramparts  and  parapets.  Inside  is  the 
body  of  the  place;  outside  are  the  ditch, 
glacis,  etc. 

PARAPHRASE,  a  free  translation  or 
rendering  of  a  passage;  a  restatement  of 
a  passage,  sentence,  or  work,  in  which 
the  sense  of  the  original  is  retained,  but 
expressed  in  other  words,  and  generally 
more  fully,  for  the  purpose  of  clearer 
and  fuller  explanation;  a  setting  forth 
in  ampler  and  clearer  terms  of  the  sig- 
nification of  a  text,  passage,  or  word. 
In  Scotland  it  is  applied  specially  to  67 
versifications  of  Scripture^  passages  used 
with  psalms  and  hymns  in  divine  wor- 
ship. 

PARASANG,  a  Persian  measure  of 
length,  varying  in  different  places  from 
30  to  60  stadia.  According  to  Herodotus 
it  was  30  stadia,  i.  e.,  about  3%  English 
miles.  Used  to  denote  a  long  distance, 
as  we  say  a  mile. 

PARASITE,  in  botany,  the  parasites 
on  plants  are  either  animals  or  vege- 
tables. Some  of  the  latter  are  of  high 
organization,  as  loranthus  and  oro- 
banche  among  exogens,  and  epiphytal 
orchids  among  endogens.  Many  crypto- 
gams in  certain  ferns,  mosses,  lichens, 
and  fungals  are  parasites.  The  roots  of 
the  more  highly  organized  parasites  pen- 
etrate the  substance  of  the  herb  at  whose 
expense  they  feed.  The  lower  parasites, 
by  means  of  their  cells,  penetrate  other 
cells  to  live  in  and  on  them. 

In  mineralogy,  a  plumose  variety  of 
boracite  occurring  in  the  interior  of  crys- 
tals of  the  same,  and  resulting  from 
their  partial  alteration. 

In  zoology,  an  animal  which  lives  in, 
on,  or  at  the  expense  of  the  actual  sub- 
stance of  another.  Van  Beneden  di- 
vided parasites  into  three  classes:  (1) 
Parasites  proper,  living  at  the  expense 
of  the  organic  substance  of  the  hosts,  as 
the  tapeworm;  (2)  commensals,  who  live 
with,  or  on,  but  not  at  the  expense  of 
their  hosts,  as  sea  anemones  often  live 
on  shells  of  hermit  crabs,  and  come  in 
for  a  share  of  their  prey;  and  (3)  mu- 
tualists,  a  class  not  cleariy  defined,  and 
now     generally     abandoned.     Leuckhart 


divided  parasites  into  ecto-  and  endo- 
parasites,  according  as  they  lived  Dn  or 
within,  their  hosts.  Of  the  latter,  by 
far  the  larger  number  belong  to  the  type 
Vermes.  Vertebrate  parasites  are  rare, 
but  exist  among  the  Pisces.  Myxine 
(the  hagfish  or  borer)  penetrates  the 
abdominal  cavity  of  gadoids,  and  feeds 
on  their  flesh. 

PARASITIC  PLANTS,  those  which, 
unable  to  nourish  themselves,  prey  upon 
other  plants  or  animals;  becoming  at- 
tached, they  gain  access  to  the  tissues  of 
their  host  and  feed  upon  its  juices.  The 
mistletoe  has  no  roots  in  the  ground; 
its  seed  is  left  by  a  bird  on  an 
apple  or  an  oak  tree,  to  which,  when 
it  begins  to  grow,  it  becomes  attached 
by  means  of  special  organs  called  haus- 
toria,  which  act  as  roots  and  enable  it 
to  draw  crude  sap,  water,  and  salts  from 
its  host,  and  having  green  leaves  it  can 
absorb  carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  and 
elaborate  food  for  its  tissues.  In  the 
case  of  the  dodder,  again,  which  begins 
life  as  an  independent  plant,  the  seed 
germinates  underground ;  when  the  young 
plant  reaches  the  surface  it  fastens  upon 
some  host,  twining  round  it,  sending 
its  haustoria  deep  into  the  tissues,  and 
drawing  all  its  nourishment  from  them; 
it  bears  no  green  leaves,  but  only  flowers, 
while  the  part  in  the  ground  dies.  There 
are  some  parasites  which  are  attached 
to  the  roots  instead  of  the  stems  of  their 
hosts — e.  g.,  yellow  rattle,  cow  wheat, 
eyebright.  The  attachment  by  the  haus- 
toria is  always  remarkably  intimate; 
their  tissues  are  always  joined  to  the 
corresponding  ones  of  the  host,  often  in 
such  a  way  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  to 
which  plant  they  belong.  Allied  to 
parasitism  is  S5rmbiosis,  a  sort  of 
mutually  arranged  parasitism  for  the 
benefit  of  both  parties;  as  in  the  case  of 
the  lichens,  which  consist  of  algae  and 
fungi  in  partnership. 

But  the  most  important  and  interest- 
ing of  the  vegetable  parasites  are  those 
belonging  to  the  schizomycetes  or  bac- 
teria, whose  study  has  assumed  such 
prominence.  The  relations  of  these  or- 
ganisms to  their  host  are  much  more 
intimate  than  in  the  case  of  the  larger 
parasites,  and  the  problems  presented  by 
the  disease  associated  with  them  are  con- 
sequently aiuch  more  difficult  of  solution ; 
but  in  son:  a  cases  the  parasitic  nature  of 
these  diseases  has  been  completely  estab- 
lished. 

PARCJE.    See  Fates. 

PARCHMENT,  the  skin  of  a  very 
young  calf,  sheep,  or  goat,  dressed  and 
prepared  for  writing  on,  etc.     After  re- 


PARDO    BAZAN 


113 


PARESIS 


moving  the  wool,  the  skin  is  steeped  in 
lime  and  stretched  in  a  wooden  frame, 
and  its  face  is  scraped  with  a  half-round 
knife.  The  skin,  previously  sprinkled 
with  powdered  chalk  or  slacked  lime,  is 
then  rubbed  and  scraped  with  a  knife, 
and  it  is  then  rubbed  with  a  lambskin 
having  the  wool  on  to  smooth  the  sur- 
face and  raise  a  very  fine  nap.  The 
grain  surface  is  then  removed  with  a 
knife  and  the  skin  pumiced,  if  necessary, 
to  give  it  an  equal  thickness.  Extra  fine, 
thin  parchments  are  made  from  the  skins 
of  still-born  lambs,  kids,  and  calves. 
Coarse  parchment  for  drumheads,  etc., 
is  made  from  calves',  asses',  and  he- 
goats'  skins. 

PARDO  BAZAN,  EMILIA,  COUNT- 
ESS OF.  Spanish  novelist.  She  was 
born  at  La  Corufia,  Galicia,  in  1851,  and 
after  marrying  Jose  Quiroga,  lived  in 
Madrid,  later  journeying  in  several  Eu- 
ropean countries.  She  edited  a  journal 
in  Madrid,  *'Nuevo  Teatro  Critico,"  and 
wrote  essays  voluminously.  Her  books 
made  her  a  considerable  figure  early  and 
she  was  eventually  made  a  countess  and 
given  a  responsible  position  in  Public  In- 
struction. Her  works  include :  "Pascuel 
Lopez";  "Un  Viaje  de  Novios";  "Los 
Pazos  de  Ulloa";  "El  Cisne  de  Vila- 
morta";  "La  Madre  Naturaleza";  some 
of  them  translated  into  English. 

PARDON.  The  pardoning  power  is 
a  prerogative  of  the  sovereign  power  in  a 
state,  whether  representative  or  mon- 
archical. In  the  United  States  the  par- 
doning power  for  offenses  against  the 
general  government  is  vested  in  the 
President,  the  authority  being  delegated 
by  the  people  through  the  medium  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  country.  For  of- 
fenses against  the  States  the  pardoning 
power  is  vested  in  the  several  governors, 
or  as  in  a  few  cases,  the  governor  and 
State  legislature  conjointly.  The  signifi- 
cation of  pardon  is  to  be  differentiated 
from  that  of  amnesty,  which  latter  is  the 
obliteration  of  a  peculiar  line  of  offenses 
arising  on  a  special  occasion,  and  does 
not  bar  prosecution  for  offenses  other 
than  those  specified,  while  pardon  in- 
cludes all  offenses  of  which  a  person  may 
have  up  to  date  been  guilty  and  absolves 
the  offender  entirely. 

PARDUBITZ,  a  town  of  Czecho- 
slovakia, at  the  junction  of  the  Chru- 
dimka  and  the  Elbe  rivers.  Prior  to  the 
World  War  it  was  in  a  province  of 
Bohemia  and  part  of  the  former  Austro- 
Hungarian  empire.  It  has  a  palace, 
several  churches  and  public  institutions. 
Before  the  war  there  were  manufactories 
of    spirits,    sugar,    agricultural    imple- 


ments,  lumber   and   flour.     Pop.    (1910) 
20,419. 

PAREGORIC,  the  compound  tincture 
of  opium,  benzoic  acid,  camphor,  and  oil 
of  anise,  every  fluid  ounce  containing  2 
grains  each  of  opium  and  benzoic  acid, 
and  1^/^  grains  of  camphor.  This  prep- 
aration is  much  used  both  by  the  pro- 
fession and  the  public  for  coughs,  colic, 
etc.  It  has  also  been  found  useful  in 
chronic  rheumatism,  and  especially  in 
the  case  of  children,  to  relieve  slight 
pains  in  the  stomach  and  bowels. 

PARENT,  a  term  of  relationship  ap- 
plicable to  those  from  whom  we  imme- 
diately receive  our  being.  Parents,  by 
the  law  of  the  land,  as  well  as  by  the 
law  of  nature,  are  bound  to  educate, 
maintain,  and  defend  their  children,  over 
whom  they  have  a  legal  as  well  as  a 
natural  power;  they  likewise  have  inter- 
ests in  the  profits  of  their  children's 
labor,  during  their  nonage,  in  case  the 
children  live  with  and  are  provided  for 
by  them;  yet  the  parent  has  no  interest 
in  the  real  or  personal  estate  of  a  child, 
otherwise  than  as  his  guardian. 

PARENTHESIS,  a  sentence  or  part 
of  a  sentence  inserted  in  the  middle  of 
another  sentence,  with  the  subject  of 
which  it  is  cognate,  but  from  which 
it  may  be  omitted  without  impairing 
the  grammatical  construction  or  the 
substantial  meaning.  It  is  commonly 
marked  off  by  upright  curved  lines  (  ) , 
but  frequently  also  by  dashes . 

PAREPA-ROSA,  MADAME  (EUPHRO- 
SYNE  Parepa  de  Boyesku),  a  British 
operatic  singer;  born  in  Edinburgh,  May 
7,  1836;  made  her  debut  in  Malta  in 
1855;  first  appeared  in  England  in  1857 
and  in  the  United  States  in  1866.  In 
1867  she  married  Carl  Rosa  and  they 
organized  an  opera  company  in  which 
she  was  very  successful.  Her  voice  was 
a  soprano  of  great  power  and  compass 
and  she  was  greatly  admired  in  oratorio 
singing.  She  died  in  London,  Jan.  21, 
1874. 

PARESIS,  a  form  of  paralysis,  called 
softening  of  the  brain,  characterized  by 
chronic  progressive  psychosis,  affecting 
the  nervous  system  in  early  adult  life, 
with  increasing  mental  degeneration, 
ending  in  death.  The  indication  of  the 
disorder  is  first  shown  in  the  moods  of 
the  patient,  who  becomes  irritable,  slov- 
enly, and  distrait.  Detail  loses  attrac- 
tion for  him,  and  he  is  full  of  grandiose 
plans,  new  in  him,  and  beyond  his  ordi- 
nary capacity.  With  increasing  in- 
capacity a  sense  of  his  own  importance 
is  gradually  developed,  and  he  revels  in 


PAHIA,    GULF 


114 


PARIS 


imaginary  magnificence,  either  antici- 
patory or  retrospective.  Meanwhile  his 
physical  condition  is  lowered,  and  he  be- 
comes increasingly  unable  to  attend  to 
his  own  wants.  His  irritability  may  lead 
him  into  unrestrained  profanity  of  lan- 
guage or  indecency  of  behavior.  There 
are  strong  emotional  periods.  His  limbs 
and  features  tremble,  articulation  be- 
comes impaired,  as  well  as  the  power  of 
writing.  Finally,  after  a  period  seldom 
extending  over  five  years,  paralysis  and 
convulsions  bring  death  from  exhaustion, 
though  a  complication  of  diseases  is  apt 
to  hasten  the  process. 

The  disease  is  much  more  frequent  in 
men  than  in  women,  and  is  apt  to  first 
show  itself  in  the  late  thirties  or  the 
forties.  The  almost  invariable  cause  is 
now  believed  to  be  syphilis,  aggravated 
by  alcoholic  or  similar  excess,  sunstroke, 
and  injury  to  the  nervous  system.  In 
the  early  stages  rest,  diversion,  diet  and 
hydropathic  treatment  will  help  the  pa- 
tient. In  the  later  stages  constant  at- 
tendance at  home  or  in  a  hospital  be- 
comes imperative. 

PARIA,  GULF  OF,  an  inlet  of  the 
Atlantic  on  the  N.  E.  coast  of  South 
America,  between  the  island  of  Trinidad 
and  mainland  of  Venezuela,  inclosed  on 
the  N.  by  the  Peninsula  of  Paria.  It 
possesses  good  arK^horage,  and  receives 
some  arms  of  the  Orinoco. 

PARIAH,  in  southern  India,  one  of 
that  section  of  the  community  with  which 
even  the  lowest  recognized  castes  will  not 
eat,  though  there  are  Hindus  inferior 
even  to  the  pariahs.  The  latter  are 
Turanian,  and  originally  constituted  that 
section  of  the  aborigines  of  the  S.  of 
India  who  submitted  to  the  Aryan  and 
pther_  conquerors  during  the  successive 
invasions  of  the  land.  Many  pariahs  are 
servants  of  Europeans,  hence  more  civil- 
ized than  the  castes  above  them;  and  a 
number  of  them  have  embraced  Christi- 
anity. 

PARIAN  MARBLE,  a  white,  large- 
grained  and  considerably  translucent 
marble,  called  by  the  Greeks  lychintes, 
from  lychnos  =  light,  because  quarried  by 
lamplight.  It  was  the  most  celebrated 
statuary  marble  of  antiquity,  and  was 
found  in  the  island  of  Faros,  also  in 
Naxos  and  Tenos.  The  celebrated 
statues  of  the  Venus  de  Medicis,  the 
Venus  Capitolini,  etc.,  are  made  of  this 
marble. 

PARIMA,    or   PARIME    SIERRA,    a 

mountain  range  situated  in  the  N.  E.  of 
Venezuela.  In  general  it  is  composed  of 
bare  plateaus,  and  its  highest  paaks  rise 
to   a   height   of  about   8,000   feet.     The 


Essequibo,  Orinoco,  and  Rio  Branco  have 
their  rise  in  this  range. 

PARIS  (anciently,  Lutetia  Parisi- 
orum),  the  capital  of  France  and  of 
the  department  of  the  Seine.  The  city 
lies  in  the  Seine  valley  surrounded  by 
heights,  those  on  the  N.  being  Charonne 
La  Villette,  the  Buttes-Chaumont  and 
Montmartre,  those  on  the  S.  St.  Gene- 
vieve, Montroug"e,  and  the  Butts-aux- 
Cailles.  Through  the  valleys  between 
these  heights  the  river  runs  from  E.  to 
W.,  inclosing  two  islands,  upon  which 
part  of  the  city  is  built.  It  is  navigable 
by  small  steamers.  The  quays  or  em- 
bankments, which  extend  along  the  Seine 
on  both  sides,  being  built  of  solid  mas- 
onry, protect  the  city  from  inundation 
and  form  excellent  promenades.  The 
river,  which  within  the  city  is  fully  530 
feet  in  width,  is  crossed  by  numerous 
bridges,  the  more  important  being  Pont 
Neuf,  Pont  des  Arts,  Pont  du  Carrousel, 
Pont  Royal,  Pont  de  I'Alma,  etc.  The 
city  is  surrounded  by  a  line  of  fortifica- 
tions which  measures  22  mile's;  outside 
of  this  is  the  enceinte,  while  beyond 
that  again  are  the  detached  forts.  These 
now  form  two  main  lines  of  defense. 
The  inner  line  consists  of  16  forts,  the 
outer  line  of  18  forts,  besides  redoubts; 
the  area  thus  inclosed  measuring  430 
square  miles,  with  an  encircling  line  of 
77  miles.  The  climate  of  Paris  is  tem- 
perate and  agreeable.  The  city  is 
divided  into  20  arrondissements,  at  the 
head  of  which  is  a  maire.  Each  arron- 
dissement  is  divided  into  four  quarters, 
each  of  which  sends  a  member  to  the 
municipal  council.  The  council  discuss 
and  vote  the  budget  of  the  city.  At  the 
head  is  the  prefect  of  the  Seine  and 
the  prefect  of  police.  The  water  supply 
of  the  city  is  derived  from  the  Seine  and 
the  Marne,  from  the  Ourcq  canal,  from 
artesian  wells,  and  from  springs. 

Streets,  Boulevards,  Etc. — The  houses 
of  Paris  are  almost  all  built  of  white  cal- 
careous stone,  and  their  general  height 
is  from  five  to  six  stories,  arranged  in 
separate  tenements.  Many  of  the  mod- 
ern street  buildings  have  mansard  roofs, 
and  are  highly  enriched  in  the  Renais- 
sance manner.  In  the  older  parts  of  the 
city  the  streets  are  narrow  and  irregular, 
but  in  the  newer  districts  the  avenues 
are  straight,  wide,  and  well  paved. 
What  are  known  as  "the  boulevards" 
include  the  interior,  exterior,  and  mili- 
tary. That  which  is  specifically  called 
"The  Boulevard"  extends,  in  an  irregular 
arc  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Seine,  from  the 
Place  de  la  Bastille  in  the  E.  to  the  Place 
de  la  Madeleine  in  the  W.  It  includes 
the  Boulevards  du  Temple,  St.  Martin, 
St.  Denis,  des  Italiens,  Capuchins,  Made- 


PARIS 


115 


fabxs 


leine,  etc.,  and  its  length  of  nearly  3 
miles  forms  the  most  stirring  part  of  the 
city.  Here  may  be  noted  also  the  mag- 
nificent triumphal  arches  of  Porte  St. 
Denis  and  Porte  St.  Martin,  the  former 
of  which  is  72  feet  in  height.  On  the 
S.  side  of  the  Seine  the  boulevards  are 
neither  so  numerous  nor  so  extensive, 
the  best  known  being  the  Boulevard  St. 
Germain,  which  extends  from  Pont  Sully 
to  the  Pont  de  la  Concorde.  The  ex- 
terior boulevards  are  so  named  because 
they  are  outside  the  old  city  limits;  and 


Place  de  la  Concorde,  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  elegant  squares  in  Europe,  sun 
rounded  by  fine  buildings  and  adorned  by 
an  Egyptian  obelisk,  fountains,  and 
statues;  Place  de  I'Etoile,  in  which  is 
situated  the  Arc  de  Triomphe,  a  splendid 
structure,  152  feet  in  height;  the  Place 
Vendome,  with  column  to  Napoleon  I.; 
Places  des  Victoires,  with  equestrian 
statues  of  Louis  XIV.;  Place  de  la  Bas- 
tille, with  the  Coluinn  of  July;  Place  de 
la  Republique,  with  colossal  statue  of  the 
Republic;  etc.     Within  the  city  are  situ- 


THE  PANTHEON  AT  PARIS 


the  military  boulevards,  still  farther  out, 
extend  round  the  fortifications.  After 
the  boulevards  mentioned  the  best  streets 
are  the  Rue  de  Rivoli,  Rue  Castiglione, 
Rue  de  la  Paix,  Rue  de  la  Chaussee 
d'Antin,  the  Rue  des  Pyramides,  and  12 
fine  avenues  radiating  from  the  Place  de 
I'Etoile.  There  are  six  passenger  sta- 
tions for  the  railways  to  the  various 
parts  of  the  country,  and  a  railway 
around  the  city  (the  ceinture) ,  by  means 
of  which  interchange  of  traffic  between 
the  different  lines  is  effected.  There  are 
also  tramway  lines  to  Versailles,  St. 
Cloud,  and  other  places  in  the  suburbs, 
and  an  underground  electric  road. 

Squares,   Parks,  Etc. — The   most  not- 
able   public   squares   or   places   are   the 


ated  the  gardens  of  the  Tuileries,  which 
are  adorned  with  numerous  statues  and 
fountains;  the  gardens  of  the  Luxem- 
bourg, in  which  are  fine  conservatories 
of  rare  plants;  the  Jardin  des  Plantes, 
in  which  are  the  zoological  gardens,  hot- 
houses, museums,  laboratories,  etc.,  which 
have  made  this  scientific  institution 
famous;  the  Buttes-Chaumont  Gardens, 
in  which  an  extensive  old  quarry  has 
been  turned  to  good  account  in  enhanc- 
ing the  beauty  of  the  situation;  the  Pare 
Monceaux;  and  the  Champs  Elysees,  the 
latter  being  a  favorite  holiday  resort  of 
all  classes.  But  the  most  extensive 
parks  are  outside  the  city.  Of  these  the 
Bois  de  Boulogne,  on  the  W.,  covers  an 
area  of  2,150  acres,  gives  an  extensive 


PARIS 


116 


PARIS 


view  toward  St.  Cloud  and  Mont  Va- 
lerien,  comprises  the  race  courses  of 
Longchamps  and  Auteuil,  and  in  it  are 
situated  lakes,  an  aquarium,  conserva- 
tories, etc.  The  Bois  de  Vincennes,  on 
the  E.,  even  larger,  is  similarly  adorned 
with  artificial  lakes  and  streams,  and  its 
high  plateau  offers  a  fine  view  over  the 
surrounding  country.  The  most  cele- 
brated and  extensive  cemetery  in  Paris  is 
Pere  la  Chaise  (106i/^  acres),  finely  situ- 
ated and  having  many  important  monu- 
ments. The  Catacombs  are  ancient 
quarries  which  extend  under  a  portion 
of  the  S.  part  of  the  city,  and  in  them 
are  deposited  the  bones  removed  from  old 
cemeteries  now  built  over. 

Churches. — Of  the  _  churches  of  Paris 
the  most  celebrated  is  the  cathedral  of 
Notre  Dame,  situated  on  one  of  the  is- 
lands of  the  Seine,  called  the  He  de  la 
Cite.  It  is  a  vast  cruciform  structure, 
with  a  lofty  W.  front,  flanked  by  two 
square  towers,  the  walls  sustained  by 
many  flying  buttresses,  and  the  E.  end 
octagonal.  The  whole  length  of  the 
church  is  426  feet,  its  breadth  164  feet. 
The  foundation  of  Notre  Dame  belongs 
to  the  6th  century;  the  present  edifice 
dates  from  1163;  but  was  restored  in 
1845.  The  interior  decorations  are  all 
modern.  The  church  of  La  Madeleine,  a 
modern  structure  in  the  style  of  a  great 
Roman  temple,  entirely  surrounded  by 
massive  Corinthian  columns,  stands  on 
an  elevated  basement  fronting  the  N.  end 
of  the  Rue  Royale;  the  church  of  St. 
Genevieve,  built  about  the  close  of  the 
18th  century,  was  after  its  completion 
set  apart,  under  the  title  of  the  Pan- 
theon, as  the  burying  place  of  illustrious 
Frenchmen;  St.  Eustache  (1532-1637), 
a  strange  mixture  of  degenerate  Gothic 
and  Renaissance  architecture;  St.  Ger- 
main I'Auxerrois,  dating  from  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries;  St.  Gervais;  St. 
Roch;  St.  Sulpice;  Notre  Dame  de  Lo- 
rette;  St.  Vincent  de  Paul;  etc.  On  the 
very  summit  of  Montmartre  is  the  church 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  a  vast  structure  in 
mediaeval  style,  estimated  to  cost  $4,800,- 
000.  The  Protestant  churches  are  the 
Oratoire  and  Visitation,  and  chapels  be- 
longing to  English,  Scotch,  and  Ameri- 
can denominations.  There  are  also  a 
Greek  chapel  and  several  synagogues. 

Palaces  and  Public  Buildings. — Not- 
able among  the  public  buildings  of  Paris 
are_  its  palaces.  The  Louvre,  a  great 
series  of  buildings  within  which  are  two 
large  courts,  is  now  devoted  to  a  museum 
which  comprises  splendid  collections  of 
sculpture,  paintings,  engravings,  bronzes, 
pottery,  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  antiqui- 
ties, etc.  (see  Louvre)  ;  the  palace  of 
the  Tuileries,  the  main  front  of  which 


was  destroyed  in  1871  by  the  Commun- 
ists,  has   since   been   restored,  with   the 
exception    of    its    principal    facade,    the 
ruins  of  which  have  been  removed  and 
its    site    converted    into    a    garden;    the 
Palais   du   Luxembourg,  on   the   S.   side 
of  the  river,  has  very  extensive  gardens 
attached  to  it,  and  contains  the  Musee 
du    Luxembourg,    appropriated    to    the 
works    of   modern    French    artists;    the 
Palais    Royal    is    a    famed    resort;    the 
Palais  de  I'Elysee,  situated  on  the  Rue 
St.  Honore,  with  a  large  garden,  is  now 
the    residence    of   the    President    of    the 
Republic;  the  Palais  du  Corps  Legislatif, 
or  Chambre  des  Deputes,  is  the  building 
in  which  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  meets ; 
the   Palais   de   I'lndustrie,  built  for   the 
first  international  exhibition  in   1855,  is 
used    for   the    annual    salon    of   modern 
paintings,  etc.     The  City  Hall  is  situated 
in  the  Place  de  I'Hotel  de  Ville,  formerly 
Place  de  Greve,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river.     It  was   destroyed   by   the    Com- 
munists in   1871,  but  has  now  been  re- 
erected    on    the    same    site    with    even 
greater  magnificence.     It  ■  is  a  very  rich 
example     of    Renaissance    architecture. 
The  Hotel  des  Invalides,  built  in  1670, 
with   a   lofty    dome,   is   now    used    as    a 
retreat  for  disabled  soldiers  and  is  cap- 
able   of   accommodating    5,000.     It    con- 
tains the  burial  place   of  the  first   Na- 
poleon.    The  Court  House  is  an  irregular 
mass  of  buildings  occupying  the  greater 
part  of  the  W.  extremity  of  the  He  de  la 
Cite.     Opposite  the  Court  House  is  the 
Tribunal  de  Commerce,  a  quadrangular 
building  inclosing   a  large   court  roofed 
with  glass.     The  Mint   (Hotel  des  Mon- 
naies)   fronts  the  Quai  Conti,  on  the  S. 
side  of  the  Seine,  and  contains  an  im- 
mense   collection    of    coins    and    medals. 
The  other  principal  government  buildings 
are  the  Treasury  (Hotel  des  Finances), 
in  the  Rue  de  Rivoli;  the  Record  Office 
(Hotel  des  Archives   Nationales).     The 
Exchange    (La   Bourse)    was   completed 
in  1826;  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  parallelo- 
gram, 212  feet  by  126  feet,  surrounded 
by  a  range  of  Q&  columns.     A  distinctive 
feature  are  the  extensive  markets,  among 
the    most   important    of    which    are    the 
Halles    Centrales,    where    fish,    poultry, 
butcher   meat   and   garden   produce    are 
sold.     A  notable  and  unique  structure  is 
the  Eiffel  Tower,  built  in  connection  with 
the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1889,  and  which 
is  to  have  a  permanent  existence.     It  is  a 
structure  of  iron   lattice-work,  984  feet 
high,  and  having  three   stages   or  plat- 
forms.    It  is  as  yet  the  highest  building 
in  the  world. 

Education,  Libraries,  Etc. — The  chief 
institution  of  higher  education  is  the 
academy  of  the  Sorbonne,  where  are  the 


PARIS 


117 


PARIS 


university  "faculties"  (see  France,  sec- 
tion Education)  of  literature  and  science, 
■while  those  of  law  and  medicine  are 
in  separate  buildings.  There  are,  be- 
sides, numerous  courses  of  lectures  in 
science,  philology,  and  philosophy  de- 
livered in  the  College  de  France,  and 
courses  of  chemistry,  natural  history, 
etc.,  in  the  museum  of  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes.  Among  other  Parisian  schools 
are  the  secondary  schools  or  lycees,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  Descartes 
(formerly  Louis  le  Grand),  St.  Louis, 
Corneille  (formerly  College  Henry  IV.), 
Charlemagne,  Fontanes  (formerly  Con- 
dorcet),  De  Vanves;  the  Ecole  Polytech- 
nique  for  military  and  civil  engineers, 
etc.;  Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts;  School  of 
Oriental  Languages;  Conservatoire  des 
Arts-et-Metiers,  and  the  Conservatoire 
de  Musique.  Of  the  libraries  the  most 
important  is  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale, 
the  largest  in  the  world.  The  number  of 
printed  volumes  which  it  contains  is 
estimated  at  2,500,000,  besides  3,000,000 
pamphlets,  manuscript  volumes,  histor- 
ical documents,  etc.  The  other  libraries 
are  those  of  the  Arsenal  St.  Genevieve, 
Mazarin,  De  la  Ville,  De  I'lnstitut,  and 
De  rUniversit6  (the  Sorbonne).  There 
are  also  libraries  subsidized  by  the  mu- 
nicipality in  all  the  arrondissements. 
Among  museums,  besides  the  Louvre  and 
the  Luxembourg,  there  may  be  noted  the 
Musee  d'Artillerie,  in  the  Hotel  des  In- 
valides,  containing  suits  of  ancient  ar- 
mor, arms,  etc.;  the  Conservatoire  des 
Arts  et  Metiers;  the  Trocadero  Palace, 
containing  curiosities  brought  home  by 
French  travelers,  casts  from  choice  spe- 
cimens of  architecture,  etc.;  and  the 
Cluny  Museum,  containing  an  extensive 
collection  of  the  products  of  the  art  and 
artistic  handicrafts  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  chief  of  the  learned  societies  is  the 
Institute  of  France. 

Hospitals. — There  are  many  hospitals 
in  Paris  devoted  to  the  gratuitous  treat- 
ment of  the  indigent  sick  and  injured; 
and  also  numerous  establishments  of  a 
benevolent  nature,  such  as  the  Hotel 
de  Invalides,  or  asylum  for  old  soldiers, 
the  lunatic  asylum  (Maison  des  Alienes, 
Charenton),  blind  asylums;  the  deaf  and 
dumb  institute  (Institution  des  Sourds- 
Muets)  ;  two  hospitals  at  Vincennes  for 
wounded  and  convalescent  artisans;  the 
creches,  in  which  infants  are  received 
for  the  day  at  a  small  charge;  and  the 
otiyroirs,  in  which  aged  people  are  sup- 
plied with  work. 

Theaters. — The  theaters  of  Paris  are 
exceedingly  numerous.  The  most  im- 
portant are  the  Opera  House,  a  gor- 
geous edifice  of  great  size;  the  Opera- 
Comique,    the     Theatre     Frangais,     the 


Odeon;  the  Theatre  de  la  Gaite,  for 
vaudevilles  and  melodramas;  Theatre 
des  Folies  Dramatiques,  Theatre  du 
Chatelet,  Theatre  du  Vaudeville,  Theatre 
des  Varidtes,  Theatre  de  la  Porte-St.- 
Martin,  and  the  Theatre  de  I'Ambigu 
Comique. 

Industries  and  Trade, — The  most  im- 
portant manufactures  are  articles  of 
jewelry  and  the  precious  metals,  trinkets 
of  various  kinds,  fine  hardware,  paper 
hangings,  saddlery,  and  other  articles  of 
leather,  cabinet  work,  carriages,  various 
articles  of  dress,  silk  and  woolen  tissues, 
particularly  shawls  and  carpets.  Gobelin 
tapestry,  lace,  embroidery,  artificial 
flowers,  combs,  machines,  scientific  in- 
struments, types,  books,  engravings,  re- 
fined sugar,  tobacco  (a  government  mo- 
nopoly), chemical  products^  etc.  That 
which  is  distinctively  Parisian  is  the 
making  of  all  kinds  of  small  ornamental 
articles,  which  are  called  articles  de 
Paris.  _  A  large  trade  is  carried  on  by 
the  Seine  both  above  and  below  Paris, 
as  well  as  by  canals. 

Population. — According  to  approxi- 
mate estimates  the  population  of  Paris 
was,  in  1474,  150,000;  under  Henry  II. 
(1547-1559),  210,000;  in  1590,  200,000; 
under  Louis  XIV.  (1643-1715),  492,600; 
in  1856  (before  the  annexation  of  the 
suburbs),  1,174,346;  1861  (after  the  an- 
nexation), 1,667,841;  1881,  2,269,023; 
1886,  2,256,050;  1896,  2,536,834;  1906, 
2,763,393;  1911,  2,888,110;  1920,  3,- 
300,000. 

History. — The  first  appearance  of 
Paris  in  history  is  on  the  occasion  of 
Cjesar's  conquest  of  Gaul,  when  the 
small  tribe  of  the  Parisii  were  found 
inhabiting  the  banks  of  the  Seine,  and 
occupying  the  island  now  called  He  de  la 
Cite.  It  was  a  fortified  town  in  A.  D. 
360,  when  the  soldiers  of  Julian  here 
summoned  him  to  fill  the  imperial  throne. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  it 
suffered  much  from  the  northern  hordes, 
and  ultimately  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Franks,  headed  by  Clovis,  who  made  it 
his  capital  in  508.  In  987  a  new  dynasty 
was  established  in  the  person  of  Hugo 
Capet,  from  whose  reign  downward  Paris 
has  continued  to  be  the  residence  of  the 
kings  of  France.  In  1437  and  1438, 
under  Charles  VII.,  Paris  was  ravaged 
by  pestilence  and  famine,  and  such  was 
the  desolation  that  wolves  appeared  in 
herds  and  prowled  about  the  streets. 
Under  Louis  XI.  a  course  of  prosperity 
again  commenced.  In  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.  the  Paris  walls  were  leveled  to  the 
ground  after  having  stood  for  about  300 
years,  and  what  are  now  the  principal 
boulevards  were  formed  on  their  site 
(1670).     Only  the  Bastille  was  left  (till 


PARIS 


118 


PARIS,  DECLARATION    OP 


1789),  and  in  place  of  the  four  principal 
gates  of  the  old  walls,  four  triumphal 
arches  were  erected,  two  of  which,  the 
Porte  St.  Denis  and  Porte  St.  Martin, 
still  stand.  Many  of  the  finest  edifices 
of  Paris  were  destroyed  during  the 
Revolution,  but  the  work  of  embellish- 
ment was  resumed  by  the  directory,  and 
continued  by  all  subsequent  governments. 
The  reign  of  Napoleon  III.  is  specially 
noteworthy  in  this  respect;  during  it 
Paris  was  opened  up  by  spacious  streets 
and  beautified  to  an  extent  surpassing  all 
that  had  hitherto  been  effected  by  any 
of  his  pi'edecessors.  The  most  recent 
events  in  the  history  of  Paris  are  the 
siege  of  the  city  by  the  Germans  in  the 
War  of  1870-1871,  and  the  subsequent 
siege  carried  on  by  the  French  national 
government  in  order  to  wrest  the  city 
from  the  hands  of  the  Commune.  Paris 
has  been  the  scene  of  international  ex- 
hibitions in  1855,  1867,  1878,  1889,  and 
1900.  During  the  World  War  Paris  was 
subjected  to  repeated  air  raids  from  Ger- 
man aeroplanes,  and  to  bombardment 
from  a  great  gun  70  miles  distant.  The 
aggregate  loss  of  life  and  damage  to 
property  was  relatively  small.  See 
World  War. 

PARIS,  a  town  and  county-seat  of 
Lamar  co.,  Tex.;  on  the  Texas  and  Pa- 
cific, Texas  Midland,  and  other  railroads; 
64  miles  E.  of  Sherman.  It  contains  a 
court  house,  hospitals,  private  schools. 
National  banks,  and  several  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers.  It  has  manufac- 
tories _  of  furniture,  fplows,  cotton-seed 
oil,  brick,  and  large  wholesale  and  ship- 
ping interests,  wagons,  blind  and  sash 
industry,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  11,269; 
(1920)   15,040. 

PARIS,  in  Homeric  mythology,  the 
seducer  of  Helen,  and  the  cause  of  the 
Trojan  War;  a  younger  son  of  Priam, 
King  of  Troy,  by  Hecuba,  his  queen. 
His  mother,  before  the  birth  of  Paris, 
having  dreamed  that  she  had  brought 
forth  a  firebrand  that  would  destroy 
both  the  palace  and  the  city,  consulted 
the  oracle,  and  the  priests  advised  the 
killing  of  the  child  as  soon  as  born. 
Pans  was,  accordingly,  intrusted  to  a 
slave,  who  was  bound  to  execute  the 
decree;  and  carried  the  child  to  the  side 
of  Mount  Ida,  where,  touched  with  pity, 
the  man  left  him;  and  where  he  was 
found  by  shepherds,  taken  home,  and 
.•eared.  As  Paris  grew  up  he  showed 
such  nobility  of  soul  and  daring,  as  to 
obtain  the  title  of  "The  Defender,"  or 
Alexander.  At  the  marriage  of  Peleus, 
King  of  Thessaly,  and  Thetis,  the  god- 
dess of  Discord — out  of  envy  at  being 
left   out    of    the    list    of   invited    guests 


— secretly  entered  the  nuptial  hall  and 
flung  down  a  golden  apple,  on  which  was 
inscribed  "The  Prize  of  the  Fairest." 
All  the  females  claimed  the  apple  as  their 
own;  and  the  angry  feeling  was  only 
partially  appeased  by  appointing  an  um- 
pire, and  allowing  Minerva,  Juno,  and 
Venus  to  stand  as  candidates  before  the 
judge.  So  general  had  the  reputation 
of  the  shepherd  Paris  become  that  he 
was  unanimously  selected  for  that  re- 
sponsible office.  His  decision  fell  to 
Venus.  This  judgment  of  Paris  so  en- 
raged Minerva  and  Juno  that  they  vowed 
eternal  enmity  against  both  Paris  and 
his  family.  Priam,  having  been  subse- 
quently informed  of  the  preservation  of 
his  son,  and  finding  him  so  noble  in 
appearance  and  heroic  in  his  bearing, 
at  once  acknowledged  him  as  his  son. 

Some  time  after  his  restoration  his 
father  dispatched  him  to  Greece  on  some 
political  mission,  when,  remembering  the 
promise  made  to  him  by  Venus,  that  he 
should  possess  the  most  beautiful  woman 
in  the  world  for  his  wife,  and  having 
heard  the  report  of  the  surpassing  at- 
tractions_  of  the  Spartan  Helen,  he 
steered  his  fleet  for  Lacedaemon,  and  visit- 
ing the  court  of  Menelaus,  King  of 
Sparta,  where  he  found  the  lovely  Helen, 
who  had  become  the  wife  of  the  Spartan 
king,  far  exceeded  all  the  accounts  he 
had  received  of  her  fascination  and 
beauty.  While  the  monarch  was  away 
Paris  persuaded  Helen  to  elope  with  him 
to  Troy,  where  they  were  welcomed  by 
Priam  and  installed  in  Ilium. 

This  violation  of  good  faith,  and  the 
breach  of  hospitality  committed  by  the 
Trojan,  so  enraged  the  Spartan  king, 
that  he  called  upon  the  other  states  oi 
Greece  to  make  a  common  cause  of  the 
indignity  he  had  suff'ered,  and  declare  a 
war  of  extermination  against  Troy. 
Every  state  and  kingdom  in  Greece  re- 
sponded and  Troy  was  besieged  for  10 
years.  Paris,  abashed  by  the  injury  he 
had  inflicted  on  Menelaus,  avoided  on  all 
occasions  meeting  the  Spartan  king  in 
the  frequent  battles  that  ensued.  Once, 
however,  according  to  Homer,  they  met, 
when  Paris  would  have  fallen  but  for 
the  interposition  of  Venus.  It  was  a 
javelin,  hurled  by  Paris,  that  found  the 
vulnerable  spot  in  Achilles,  and  brought 
that  hero  down.  The  death  of  Paris  is 
variously  told;  he  fell  at  or  previous  to 
the  sack  of  Troy,  Helen  returned,  as  a 
prize,  with  her  husband  to  Greece. 

PARIS,  LOUIS  ALBERT  PHILIPPE, 
D'ORLEANS,  COUNT  OF.  See 
Orleans. 

PARIS,  DECLARATION  OF.  In 
1856  the  representatives  of  the   Powers 


PARIS,    TREATIES    OF 


119 


PARK 


agreed  to  four  points  in  international 
law — viz.:  (1)  Privateering  is  abolished; 
(2)  the  neutral  flag  covers  enemies' 
goods,  excepting  contraband  of  war;  (3) 
neutral  goods,  with  the  same  exception, 
are  not  liable  to  be  seized  even  under  an 
enemy's  flag;  (4)  blockades,  in  order  to 
be  binding,  must  be  effective.  The 
United  States  refused  to  accept  the  first 
point,  because  the  European  Powers  de- 
clined to  affirm  that  hereafter  all  private 
property  should  be  exempted  from  cap- 
ture by  ships  of  war.     See  Neutrality. 

PARIS,      TREATIES      OF.     Of     the 

numerous  treaties  bearing  this  designa- 
tion a  few  only  of  the  most  important 
can  be  mentioned  here.  On  Feb.  10, 
1763,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  be- 
tween France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Eng- 
land in  which  Canada  was  ceded  to  Great 
Britain,  On  Feb.  8,  1778,  was  signed 
that  between  France  and  the  United 
States,  in  which  the  independence  of  the 
latter  country  was  recognized.  A  treaty 
was  signed  between  Napoleon  I.  and  the 
allies,  ratified  April  11,  1814,  by  which 
Napoleon  was  deposed  and  banished  to 
Elba.  The  treaty  for  the  conclusion  of 
peace  between  Russia  on  the  one  hand, 
and  France,  Sardinia,  Austria,  Turkey, 
and  Great  Britain  on  the  other,  at  the 
end  of  the  Crimean  War,  was  ratified 
March  30,  1856.  The  treaty  of  peace 
with  Germany,  at  the  end  of  the  Franco- 
German  War,  was  concluded  May  10, 
1871,  and  modified  by  the  convention  of 
Oct.  12,  1871,  by  which  France  lost  a 
great  part  of  the  Rhine  provinces.  The 
treaty  between  Spain  and  the  United 
States  at  the  end  of  the  American- 
Spanish  War  was  concluded  Dec.  10, 
1898;  was  ratified  by  the  United  States 
Senate,  Feb.  6,  1899;  was  signed  by 
President  McKinley,  Feb.  10,  1899;  and 
by  the  Queen  Regent  of  Spain,  March 
17,  1899.  The  most  important  treaty 
signed  at  Paris  was  that  which  con- 
cluded the  World  War.  The  Peace  Con- 
ference which  concluded  this  treaty  met 
on  Jan.  18,  1919,  and  its  deliberations 
■were  continued  at  the  Palace  of  Ver- 
sailles until  June  28,  1919,  when  the 
instrument  was  signed  by  the  German 
and  the  Allied  and  Associated  repre- 
sentatives. See  World  War:  Peace 
Treaty. 

PARIS,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a  notable 
French  institution  that  came  into  exist- 
ence in  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century, 
and  was  long  the  most  famous  center  of 
learning  in  Europe.  It  was  suppressed 
by  a  decree  of  the  Convention  of  1793. 

PARIS  GREEN,  a  poisonous  green 
powder  composed  of  a  mixture  of  double 
salts  of  the  acetate  and  the  arsenite  of 


copper;  used  to  destroy  the  potato  bug, 
or  Colorado  beetle. 

PARISH,  a  district  marked  out  as 
that  belonging  to  one  church,  and  whose 
spiritual  wants  are  to  be  under  the  par- 
ticular charge  of  its  own  minister;  or, 
to  give  the  sense  which  the  word  often 
has  in  acts  of  Parliament,  a  district 
having  its  own  offices  for  the  legal  care 
of  the  poor,  etc. 

PARK,  in  a  legal  sense,  a  large  piece 
of  ground  inclosed  and  privileged  for 
wild  beasts  of  chase,  by  the  monarch's 
grant,  or  by  prescription.  The  only  dis- 
tinction between  a  chase  and  a  park  was 
that  the  latter  was  inclosed,  where  a 
chase  was  always  open.  The  term  now 
commonly  means  a  considerable  piece  of 
ornamental  ground  connected  with  a 
gentleman's  residence;  or  an  inclosed 
piece  of  public  ground  devoted  to  recre- 
ation, and  generally  in  or  near  a  large 
town.     See  National  Parks. 

PARK,  MUNGO,  a  celebrated  Scotch 
traveler;  born  in  Selkirkshire,  Scotland, 
Sept.  10,  1771.  He  was  sent  to  Africa 
under  the  auspices  of  the  African  Asso- 
ciation, and  explored  the  Gambia  and 
Upper  Niger,  publishing  on  his  return 
the  well-known  "Travels  in  the  Interior 
of  Africa"  (1799).  On  his  second  ex- 
pedition, which  was  equipped  by  the 
British  Government,  he  descended  the 
Niger  some  1,500  miles;  and  after  losing 
the  majority  of  his  men  from  fever,  was 
treacherously  murdered  by  natives,  in 
1806. 

PARK,  NATIONAL  MILITARY. 
In  the  United  States  the  name  is  given 
to  a  group  of  battlefields,  celebrated  in 
the  Civil  War,  cared  for  by  the  War 
Department,  and  containing  memorials 
commemorative  of  personages  and  events 
in  that  war.  The  most  famous  of  them 
is  the  Gettysburg  National  Military 
Park,  established  in  1895,  with  an  area 
of  24,460  acres,  comprising  the  field  on 
which  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  was 
fought  in  1863.  Another  is  the  Chicka- 
mauga  and  Chattanooga  Park,  in 
Georgia  and  Tennessee,  established  in 
1890,  with  6,966  acres,  comprising  the 
Missionary  Ridge  and  Lookout  Moun- 
tain, and  the  battle  grounds  of  the 
Chickamauga  and  Chattanooga  engage- 
ments. Shiloh  National  Military  Park 
contains  the  field  of  Shiloh,  where  a  bat- 
tle was  fought  in  1862.  Vicksburg  Na- 
tional Military  Park,  in  Mississippi,  is 
commemorative  both  of  the  Confederate 
and  Union  forces,  and  the  positions  held 
by  them  in  the  spring  of  1863.  These 
sites  were  not  established  as  national 
property  immediately  after  the  war,  but 


FABKEB 


120 


FABKEB 


after  the  passage  of  a  number  of  years 
had  given  them  a  reminiscent  and  hal- 
lowed character.  An  endeavor  is  made 
to  preserve  them  in  the  condition  they 
were  in  when  the  events  commemorated 
occurred. 

PARKEB,      ALTON      BEOOKS,      an 

American  jurist  and  publicist;  born  in 
Cortland,  N.  Y.,  in  1852.  Studied  at 
academies  and  schools  and  graduated 
from  the  Albany  Law  School  in  1873. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  practiced 
in  Ulster  co.  from  1877  to  1885.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  appointed  chairman 
of  the  State  Democratic  Committee.  He 
was  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  New 
York  in  1885  and  a  member  of  the  Court 
of  Appeals  from  1889  to  1902.  From 
1898  to  1904  he  was  chief  justice  of  this 
court  and  resigned  to  accept  the  Demo- 
cratic nomination  for  the  presidency. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  political 
affairs,  serving  as  chairman  of  the  Demo- 
cratic   State    Convention    in    1908.     He 


ALTON  B.   PARKER 


served  as  chief  counsel  in  many  impor- 
tant cases  in  New  York  and  elsewhere. 
He  was  president  of  the  American  Bar 
Association  in  1906  and  1907. 

PARKEB,  EDWARD  MELVILLE,  an 
American  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop; 


born  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1885.  He 
was  educated  at  St.  Paul's  School,  Con- 
cord, N.  H.,  and  at  Keble  College,  Oxford, 
England.  He  was  ordained  priest  in 
1881.  From  1879  to  1906  he  was  master 
of  St.  Paul's  School.  He  was  made 
bishop  coadjutor  of  New  Hampshire  in 
1906  and  became  bishop  in  1914. 

PARKER,  GILBERT,  a  Canadian 
novelist;  born  in  Ontario,  in  1862, 
Among  his  works  are:  "Pierre  and  His 


Sm  GILBERT  PARKER 

People";  "Tales  of  the  Far  North";  "An 
Adventurer  of  the  North";  "A  Romany 
of  the  Snows";  "A  Lover's  Diary" 
(1894);  "The  Trail  of  the  Sword" 
(1894)  ;  "When  Valmond  Came  to  Pon- 
tiac";  "The  Seats  of  the  Mighty";  "Lad- 
der of  Swords"  (1904);  "The  Judgment 
House"  (1913)  ;  "World  in  the  Crucible" 
(1915);  "Wild  Youth  and  Another" 
(1919).  He  served  for  several  years  in 
Parliament,  Knight,  1902;  baronet,  1915, 

PARKER,    HERSCHEL    CLIFFORD, 

American  mountain  climber.  He  was 
born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  1867,  and 
graduated  from  the  Columbia  School  of 
Mines  in  1890.  Some  years  later  he  ex- 
plored the  Canadian  Alps,  prospecting, 
surveying,  and  studying  mineralogy  and 
general  physics.  He  began  to  teach 
physics  in  Columbia  University  in  1903, 
and  at  intervals  explored  the  mountains 
of  Alaska,  ascending  to  the  summit  of 
Mt.  McKinley,  after  a  previous  attempt 


PARKER 


121 


PARKER 


hi  which  Frederick  A.  Cook  accompanied 
him.  He  has  written  articles  for  sci- 
entific journals  and  published  "A  Sys- 
tematic Treatise  on  Electrical  Measure- 
ments." 

PARKER,  HORATIO  WILLIAM,  an 
American  composer;  born  at  Auburn- 
dale,  Mass.,  in  1863.  He  was  educated 
in  the  United  States  and  Europe  and 
studied  music  at  the  Royal  Conserva- 
tory at  Munich.  From  1885  to  1887  he 
was  professor  of  music  at  the  Cathedral 
School  of  St.  Paul  and  Garden  City,  L.  I., 
and  was  organist  of  Trinity  Church  from 
1888  to  1893.  From  the  latter  year  he 
was  organist  of  Trinity  Church  in  Bos- 
ton. From  1894  he  was  professor  of 
the  theory  of  music  at  Yale  University. 
His  first  opera,  "Hora  Novissima,"  was 
performed  at  Chester,  England,  Festi- 
val in  July,  1899,  and  at  other  festivals 
in  England,  He  was  awarded  the  Metro- 
politan Opera  prize  of  $10,000  for  the 
opera  "Mona,"  and  the  second  prize  of 
the  same  amount  given  by  the  National 
Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  for  the 
opera  "Fairyland,"  in  1914.  He  com- 
posed other  operas  and  other  music, 
sacred  and  secular.    Died  1919. 

PARKER,  JOSEPH,  an  English 
preacher  and  orator;  born  April  9,  1830, 
in  Hexham,  Northumberland;  was  edu- 
cated privately  and  at  University  College, 
London ;  elected  Chairman  of  the  Congre- 
gational Union,  1884;  minister  of  the  City 
Temple,  London,  from  1869;  author  of 
"Ecce  Deus,"  "The  Paraclete,"  "The  Peo- 
ple's Bible,"  a  gigantic  undertaking  in  25 
volumes,  and  "Weaver  Stephens,"  a  novel. 
In  the  autumn  of  1887  Dr.  Parker  visited 
the  United  States,  and  delivered  a  me- 
morial eulogy  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher 
in  the  Academy  of  Music,  Brooklyn.  He 
died  in  1902. 

PARKER,  LOUIS  NAPOLEON,  mod- 
ern English  dramatist;  born  in  1852  at 
Calvados,  France,  and  first  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  music  in  Freiburg  and 
later  at  the  Royal  Academy  in  London. 
For  nineteen  years  he  was  director  of  a 
famous  English  music  school,  the  Sher- 
borne School.  Since  1896  his  work  has 
been  entirely  literary,  and  his  fame  rests 
on  this  and  not  on  his  musical  composi- 
tions. Among  his  most  celebrated  and 
successful  dramas  are:  "Pomander 
Walk"  (1910);  "Disraeli"  (1911); 
"Drake"  (1912) ;  and  "Joseph  and  His 
Brethren"  (1918).  Perhaps  his  best 
dramas  are  his  two  patriotic  ones  of 
"Disraeli"  and  "Drake,"  the  former  made 
famous  by  the  actor,  George  Arliss. 

PARKER,  MATTHEW,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury;  born  in  Norwich  in  1504; 


was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  after 
having  been  licensed  to  preach  was  ap- 
pointed dean  of  Stoke  College  in  Suffolk, 
a  king's  chaplain  and  a  canon  of  Ely. 
In  1544  he  was  appointed  master  of 
Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  and 
elected  later  vice-chancellor.  Queen 
Mary  deprived  Parker  of  his  offices,  and 
he  remained  in  concealment  till  the  ac- 
cession of  Elizabeth  in  1558,  by  whom 
he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. While  he  held  this  office  he  had 
the  Bible  translated  from  the  text  of 
Cranmer,  and  published  at  his  own  ex- 
pense. He  founded  the  Antiquarian  So- 
ciety, and  was  editor  of  the  "Chronicles 
of  Walsingham,"  "Matthew  Paris,"  and 
"Roger  of  Wendover."     He  died  in  1575. 

PARKER,  THEODORE,  an  American 
theologian;  born  in  Lexington,  Mass.,  in 
1810.  He  entered  Harvard  College  in 
1830,  continuing,  however,  for  a  time  to 


THEODORE  PARKER 

work  on  his  father's  farm;  afterward 
teaching  school  at  Boston.  In  1834  he 
entered  the  Theological  School.  He  was 
chosen,  in  1837,  minister  of  a  Unitarian 
congregation  at  West  Rrxbury.  He  had 
there  leisure  for  study,  and  read  exten- 
sively, enjoying  the  society  of  Dr.  Chan- 
ning.  His  views  of  Christianity  had 
diverged  considerably  from  the  standard 
of  his  sect,  and  great  excitement  was 
occasioned  by  his  sermon  "On  the 
Transient    and    Permanent    in    Christi- 


PARKER 


122 


PARLIAMENT 


anity,"  preached  in  1841.  Wearied  with 
the  bitterness  and  opposition  of  his  ad- 
versaries, he  visited  Europe  in  1843, 
The  prejudice  against  him  led  to  his  quit- 
ting West  Roxbury,  and  settling  at 
Boston  in  1846,  as  minister  of  the 
Twenty-eighth  Congregational  Society. 
In  the  following  year  he  became  joint- 
editor  with  Emerson  and  Cabot  of  the 
"Massachusetts  Quarterly  Review."  He 
distinguished  himself  as  the  fearless  op- 
ponent of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  and 
sheltei-ed  slaves  in  his  own  house.  He 
was  very  active  as  a  public  lecturer  on 
various  political  and  social  topics,  and 
v/as  the  correspondent  of  many  eminent 
men.  Early  in  1859  he  was  compelled 
to  relinquish  his  duties  and  seek  health 
in  France  and  Italy.  His  earliest  pub- 
lished work  was  the  "Discourse  of  Mat- 
ters Pertaining  to  Religion"  (1847).  It 
has  been  widely  read  in  Europe  as  well 
as  in  America,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
important  contributions  to  religious 
philosophy.  Among  his  other  works  are : 
"Critical  and  Miscellaneous  Writings"; 
"Theism,  Atheism,  and  the  Popular  The- 
ology"; "Discourses  of  Politics";  "Ex- 
periences as  a  Minister,"  etc.  He  died 
in  Florence  in  1860. 

PARKER,  WILLARD,  an  American 
physician  and  surgeon;  born  in  New 
Hampshire  in  1800 ;  Professor  of  surgery 
in  the  New  York  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons,  1839-1869;  and  subse- 
quently Professor  of  Clinical  Surgery  in 
the  same  institution;  he  made  many  im- 
portant discoveries  in  practical  surgery. 
He  died  in  1884. 

PARKERSBURG,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Wood  CO.,  W.  Va.,  on  the  Ohio 
river  at  the  mouth  of  the  Little  Kan- 
awha, and  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Southwestern,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
and  the  Little  Kanawha  railroads;  96 
miles  _  S.  W.  of  Wheeling.  The  Ohio 
river  is  crossed  here  by  a  railroad  bridge 
constructed  in  1869-1871.  It  is  1%  miles 
long  and  has  six  spans.  Here  are  water- 
works, a  high  school,  Academy  of  the 
Visitation,  a  seminary.  United  States 
Government  building,  electric  light  and 
street  railroad  plants,  National  and  State 
banks  and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
Its  manufactories  include  lumber  mills, 
barrel  _  factories,  machine  shops,  iron 
foundries,  veneer  and  panel  works,  fur- 
niture factories,  and  an  oil  refinery. 
The  assessed  valuation  is  over  $6,000,000. 
Pop.  (1910)   17,842;   (1920)  20,050. 


College  in  186G;  studied  theology  in  Ger- 
many. After  1880  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Madison  Square  Presbyterian  Church, 
retiring  in  1917.  In  1891,  as  president 
of  the  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Crime,  he  began  his  attack  on  the  police 
department  of  New  York  City,  and  was 
prominent  in  the  Lexow  investigation 
which  followed.  His  writings  include: 
"The  Blind  Man's  Creed"  (1883)  : 
"Three  Gates  on  a  Side"  (1887)  ;  "Our 
Fight  with  Tammany"  (1895);  "The 
Sunny  Side  of  Christianity"  (1901) ; 
"A  Little  Lower  Than  the  Angels" 
(1909). 

PARKMAN,  FRANCIS,  an  American 
historian;   born  in   Boston,  Mass.,   Sept. 
16,  1823;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1844;   studied  law  for  two  years;   then 
traveled  in  Europe;  and  returned  to  ex- 
plore the  Rocky  Mountains.     The  hard- 
ships he  endured  among  the  Dakota  In- 
dians seriously  injured  his  health,  yet  in 
spite  of  this  and  defective  sight  Parkman 
worked  his  way  to  recognition  as  a  his- 
torical writer  on  the  period  of  rise  and 
fall  of  the  French  dominion  in  America. 
He   paid  many   visits  to   France  to  ex- 
amine   archives.     His    books    are    "The 
California   and    Oregon   Trail"    (1849) 
"The    Conspiracy    of    Pontiac"    (1851) 
"Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World' 
(1865);   "The   Book  of  Roses"    (1866) 
"Jesuits     in    North    America"     (1867) 
"Discovery  of  the  Great  West"   (1869) 
"The   Old   Regime   in    Canada"    (1874), 
"Count  Frontenac  and  New  France  under 
Louis    XIV."     (1877);    and    "Montcalm 
and  Wolfe"  (1884).     He  died  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Nov.  8,  1893. 

PARKS,  liEIGHTON,  clergyman.  He 
was  born  in  New  York  in  1852  and 
studied  at  the  General  Theological  Semi- 
nary, from  which  he  graduated  in  1876. 
After  becoming  ordained  he  became  rec- 
tor of  Emmanuel  Church,  Boston,  holding 
that  charge  till  1904,  when  he  became 
rector  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Church,  New 
York.  From  the  first  he  established  his 
reputation  as  a  preacher  and  in  addition 
showed  considerable  literary  talent.  His 
books  include:  "His  Star  in  the  East"; 
"The  Winning  of  the  Soul  and  Other 
Sermons";  "Moral  Leadership  and  Other 
Sermons." 

PARKS,  NATIONAL.  See  NATIONAL 
Parks. 

PARLEY,  PETER.  See  GOODRICH, 
S.  G. 


PARKHURST,    CHARLES    HENRY,  PARLIAMENT.     Blackstone          says 

an  American   clergyman   and  reformer;  that  the   first   use   of  the    French  word 

born   in   Framingham,   Mass.,   April   17,  parlement,  to  signify  a  General  Assembly 

1842.     He   was    graduated    at   Amherst  of  the  State,  was  under  Louis  VII.  of 


PABLIAMENT 


123 


PARLOW 


France  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury. 

The  British  Parliament. — The  legis- 
lature of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  con- 
sists of  the  sovereign  and  the  Houses 
of  Lords  and  Commons.  It  arose  long 
prior  to  the  union  of  the  kingdoms  as 
the  English  Parliament.  The  first  use 
of  the  word  parliament  in  the  statutes 
of  England  is  in  the  preamble  to  the 
Statute  of  Westminster,  A.  D.  1272.  The 
germ  of  the  institution  existed,  however, 
long  before  the  name  arose.  Each  of  the 
kingdoms  of  the  Saxon  heptarchy,  or 
octarchy,  seems  to  have  had  its  wittena- 
gemote,  or  meeting  of  wise  men,  which, 
on  the  union  of  the  several  kingdoms, 
became  united  into  one  great  assembly 
or  council.  The  powers  of  Parliament 
are  very  great.  Not  merely  can  it  de- 
stroy any  ministry,  it  can  alter,  and  has 
in  fact  altered,  the  succession  to  the 
throne.  At  the  Reformation  it  trans- 
ferred property  enjoyed  by  the  Church 
of  Rome  and  altered  the  National  re- 
ligion, endowing  Protestantism  with 
money  given  for  Roman  Catholic  pur- 
poses. Parliament  is  called  together  by 
the  sovereign,  who  appoints  the  time  and 
place  of  meeting,  and  opens  the  proceed- 
ings by  the  delivery  of  a  speech,  either 
personally  or  by  deputy.  Each  house 
can  adjourn,  but  neither  can  be  pro- 
rogued except  by  the  sovereign.  Each 
judges  of  its  own  privileges.  Members 
of  both  houses  are  free  from  arrest  or 
imprisonment  on  civil  actions,  but  their 
property  can  be  seized  for  debt.  No 
quorum  is  needed  for  the  transaction  of 
business  in  the  Upper  House;  40  is  the 
quorum  in  the  Lower. 

French  Parliament. — A  parliament 
arising  about  987.  It  met  at  different 
places.  In  1190  Philip  Augustus  insti- 
tuted the  Parliament  of  Paris.  In  1302 
it  was  divided  into  three  chambers.  It 
was  suppressed  in  1771,  revived  in  1774, 
demanded  a  meeting  of  the  States-Gen- 
eral in  1787,  and  was  superseded  by  the 
National  Assembly  Nov.  3,  1789.  A 
French  parliament  still  exists,  but  not 
the  name. 

Irish  Parliament. — A  parliament  held 
in  Ireland  when  it  was  an  independent 
country.  In  1295  writs  for  knights  of 
the  shires  were  issued.  It  met  for  the 
last  time  on  Aug.  2,  1800,  the  union 
with  Great  Britain  having  terminated  its 
existence. 

Scotch  Parliament. — A  parliament 
held  in  Scotland  when  it  was  an  inde- 
pendent country.  It  has  been  traced 
back  to  a  council  held  at  Scone  under 
the  auspices  of  John  Balliol,  in  1282. 
There  was  but  a  single  house,  consisting 
of   lords   temporal    and   spiritual,   occa- 


sionally with  burgesses.  Having  passed 
the  Act  of  Union  with  England  on  Jan. 
16,  1707,  its  last  meeting  took  place  on 
April  22,  of  that  year. 

In  English  Laiv. — An  assembly  of  the 
members  of  the  Middle  and  Inner  Temple 
to  consult  on  the  affairs  of  the  society. 

PARLIAMENTARY  LAW.  The 
rules  which  govern  deliberative  assem- 
blies. Their  object  is  to  place  restric- 
tions upon  individual  members  so  as  to 
insure  that  the  sense  of  the  meeting  be 
ascertained  without  needless  waste  of 
time.  The  officers  necessary  for  an  as- 
sembly to  transact  business  under  par- 
liamentary law  are  a  presiding  officer 
called  a  president  or  speaker,  and  a  sec- 
retary. It  is  the  duty  of  such  a  pre- 
siding officer  to  call  the  meeting  to  order, 
to  state  clearly  the  motions  made  and 
see  that  due  order  of  precedence  is  given 
to  the  various  members.  The  secretary 
or  clerk  keeps  the  minutes  of  the  meet- 
ing, lists  of  committees  appointed,  and 
copies  of  resolutions  passed. 

A  resolution  or  motion  is  made  by  a 
member,  and  according  to  most  authori- 
ties must  be  seconded  before  the  matter 
is  considered  to  be  opened  for  discussion. 
The  member  proposing  the  motion  has 
the  right  to  speak  first  upon  it.  In  case 
the  debate  is  being  needlessly  prolonged 
by  the  opposition  a  motion  can  be  made 
from  the  floor  to  lay  the  question  upon 
the  table,  which  postpones  action  upon 
the  original  motion,  or  the  previous  ques- 
tion can  be  moved  which  demands  that 
the  chairman  put  the  original  motion  to 
a  vote  at  once.  In  case  a  decision  by  the 
chair  is  questioned  an  appeal  can  be 
taken  to  the  entire  body  and  the  ruling 
revised,  but  a  two-third's  vote  is  neces- 
sary for  this. 

In  considering  what  motions  to  bring 
before  the  assembly  the  speaker  can  use 
his  judgment  except  in  matters  known 
as  privileged  questions.  Privileged  ques- 
tions include  motions  relating  to  rights 
and  privileges  of  members,  or  to  adjourn, 
or  to  fix  a  time  for  adjournment;  the 
last-named  motion  taking  precedence  of 
all. 

An  amendment  can  be  offered  to  all 
motions  except  privileged  questions  and 
if  they  do  not  strike  out  anything  in 
the  original  motion  must  be  declared  in 
order  even  if  they  change  the  entire 
sense  of  the  resolution. 

PARLOW,  KATHLEEN,  an  Amer- 
ican violinist;  born  at  Calgary,  Canada, 
in  1890.  She  went  with  her  parents  to 
California  at  the  age  of  five  years.  She 
first  appeared  on  the  stage  in  San  Fran- 
cisco at  the  age  of  six.  In  1905  she 
went   to    London   and    played   with    the 


FABMA 


124 


PARNELL 


London  Symphony  Orchestra.  She  made 
tours  in  various  countries  of  Europe  and 
in  the  United  States.  For  several  sea- 
sons she  played  as  soloist  for  the  Boston 
Symphony  Orchestra. 

PARMA,  a  province  and  former 
duchy  of  northern  Italy;  having  N.  Lom- 
bardy,  E.  Modena,  S.  and  W.  Tuscany; 
area,  3,766  square  miles.  The  surface 
is  diversified,  and  the  soil  fertile  in  the 
plains.  The  climate  is  healthy  except 
in  the  low-lying  districts  along  the  rivers 
Po,  Trebbia,  and  Enza.  Products,  maize, 
wheat,  tobacco,  hemp  and  fruits.  Nu- 
merous cattle  are  also  reared;  and  it  is 
noted  for  its  cheese  from  the  milk  of 
goats.  Minerals,  iron,  copper,  salt,  etc. 
Manufactures,  silk,  linen,  and  cotton 
goods,  paper,  glass,  gunpowder,  brass, 
etc.  Capital,  Parma;  pop.  about  160,000. 
During  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire, 
Parma  became  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Lombardy.  It  was  taken  by  Charle- 
magne, and  transferred  to  the  papal  see 
In  774.  In  1543  Paul  III.  erected  Parma 
and  Piacenza  into  a  duchy,  which  he  be- 
stowed upon  the  Farnese  family,  whose 
line  became  extinct  in  1731.  The  treaty 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748,  gave  posses- 
sion of  Parma  to  Philip,  son  of  Philip  V. 
and  Elizabeth  Farnese.  In  1815  Parma, 
Piacenza,  and  Guastala  were  formed  into 
a  duchy,  and  bestowed  upon  Maria 
Louisa,  wife  of  Napoleon  I.,  with  rever- 
sion after  death  to  Ferdinand  Charles, 
Duke  of  Lucca,  the  son  of  Maria  Louisa 
of  Spain,  and  the  rightful  heir.  A 
revolution  occurred  in  1859,  on  which 
Marie  Therese  de  Bourbon,  widow  of 
Charles  III.,  and  regent  for  her  infant 
son,  left  the  country,  and  Parma  was 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1860. 
Pop.  about  350,000. 

PARMA,  a  fortified  city,  capital  of 
the  above  province,  72  miles  S.  E.  of 
Milan.  It  has  a  fine  Gothic  cathedral, 
and  the  ducal  palace,  which  contains  a 
library  of  90,000  volumes,  and  a  museum 
of  antiquities.  Parma  has  also  a  public 
library  _  of  34,000  volumes.  Manufac- 
tures, silk,  cotton,  and  woolen  goods,  lace, 
cutlery,  glass,  and  musical  instruments. 
Pop.  about  50,000. 

PARMIGIANO,  or  PARMIGIANINO, 

the  nickname  of  Girolamo  Francesco 
Maria  Mazzola,  an  Italian  painter  of 
the  Lombard  school,  and  the  most  dis- 
tinguished of  those  who  followed  the 
style  of  Correggio;  born  in  Parma,  Jan. 
11,  1504.  He  began  to  paint  when  little 
more  than  14  years  of  age.  In  1523  he 
went  to  Rome,  and  was  employed  by 
Clement  VII.  When  that  city  was 
stormed  by  the  imperalists  under   Con- 


stable Bourbon  in  1527  Parmigiano  sat 
calmly  at  work  on  his  picture  of  "The 
Vision  of  St.  Jerome"  (now  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery,  London) ,  and  was  pro- 
tected from  the  soldiers  by  their  leader. 
After  this  event  he  went  to  Bologna, 
where  he  painted  the  altar-piece,  the 
"Madonna  and  Child,"  and  returned  to 
Parma  in  1531.  Having  engaged  to 
execute  a  series  of  frescoes  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Maria  Steccata,  and  being  paid 
the  money  in  advance,  he  delayed  the 
work  so  long  that  he  was  imprisoned. 
After  release  he  fled  to  Casal  Maggiore: 
territory  of  Cremona,  where  he  died  on 
Aug.  24,  1540.  His  best-known  picture 
is  "Cupid  Shaping  a  Bow";  he  painted 
portraits,  too,  as  of  Charles  V.,  Amerigo 
Vespucci  and  himself. 

PARNAHYBA,  a  river  of  Brazil,  rises 
in  the  Serra  Mangabeiras,  about  lat.  9° 
S.,  and  throughout  its  course  (650  miles) 
forms  the  boundary  between  the  states 
of  Maranhao  and  Piauhy.  It  enters  the 
Atlantic  by  six  mouths.  The  stream  is 
swift,  but  navigable  by  boats  for  nearly 
350  miles.  On  the  E.  bank,  14  miles 
from  its  mouth,  is  the  unhealthy  town  of 
Parnahyba,  with  a  considerable  trade. 

PARNASSUS,  a  famous  mountain  of 
Greece,  government  of  Phocis,  N.  W.  of 
Mount  Helicon.  It  has  three  peaks,  the 
highest  of  which  reaches  an  elevation  of 
8,068  feet.  On  the  W.  side  lay  Delphi, 
the  seat  of  the  famous  oracle,  and  the 
fountain  of  Castalia.  The  highest  peak 
was  dedicated  to  Bacchus,  and  was  the 
scene  of  the  orgies  of  his  worship.  The 
rest  of  the  mountain  was  sacred  to 
Apollo  and  the  Muses;  hence,  poets  were 
said  "to  climb  Parnassus." 

PARNELL,     CHARLES     STEWART, 

an  Irish  statesman;  born  at  his  father's 
estate  of  Avondale,  Wicklow  co.,  Ireland, 
in  1846,  connected  on  his  father's  side 
with  a  family  that  originally  belonged  to 
Congleton,  Cheshire,  and  whose  members 
included  Parnell  the  Poet,  and  Sir  John 
Parnell,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in 
Grattan's  Parliament;  while  his  mother 
was  the  daughter  of  Admiral  Stewart  of 
the  United  States  navy.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Magdalen  College,  Cambridge; 
became  member  of  Parliament  for  Meath 
in  1875;  organized  the  "active"  Home 
Rule  Party,  and  developed  its  obstruction 
tactics;  and  in  1879  formally  adopted 
the  policy  of  the  newly  formed  Lnnd 
League,  and  was  chosen  president  of  the 
organization.  In  1880  he  was  returned 
for  the  city  of  Cork,  and  was  chosen 
as  leader  of  the  Irish  party.  In  the  ses- 
sion of  1881  he  opposed  the  Crimes  Act 
and  the  Land  Act;  was  arrested,  along 


PARNELL 


125 


PAROLE 


with  other  members  of  his  party;  and 
was  lodged  in  Kilmainham  jail,  and  not 
released  till  the  following  May.  In  1883 
he  was  the  recipient  of  a  large  money 
testimonial  (chiefly  collected  in  America) , 
and  was  active  in  organizing  the  newly 
formed  National  League.  At  the  gen- 
ei-al  election  of  1885  he  was  re-elected 
for  Cork,  and  next  year  he  and  his  fol- 
lowers supported  the  Home  Rule  pro- 
posals introduced  by  Mr.  Gladstone.  In 
1887  he  and  other  members  of  his  party 
were  accused  by  the  "Times"  of  com- 
plicity with  the  crimes  and  outrages  com- 
mitted by  the  extreme  section  of  the 
Irish  Nationalist  party.  A  commission 
of  three  judges  was  appointed  by  the 
government  in  1888,  with  the  result  that, 
in  February,  1890,  Mr.  Parnell  was 
acquitted  of  all  the  graver  charges.  He 
died  in  Brighton,  England,  Oct.  6,  1891. 

PARNELL,  THOMAS,  an  Irish  poet; 
born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1679;  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  and  taking 
orders  in  1705  was  presented  to  the 
ai-chdeaconry  of  Clogher,  but  resided 
chiefly  in  London.  He  was  at  first  asso- 
ciated with  Addison,  Congreve,  Steele, 
and  other  Whigs;  but  later  joined  the 
Tory  wits.  Swift,  Pope,  Gay,  and  Arbuth- 
not.  He  assisted  Pope  in  his  transla- 
tion of  Homer,  and  wrote  the  Life  pre- 
fixed to  it.  By  Swift's  recommendation 
he  obtained  a  prebend  in  the  Dublin 
Cathedral  and  the  valuable  living  of 
Finglass.  After  his  death  a  collection 
of  his  poems  was  published  by  Pope  in 
1721.     He  died  in  1717. 

PAROCHIAL  SCHOOLS.  schools, 
mostly  elementary,  maintained  by  re- 
ligious denominations  to  provide  instruc- 
tion in  matters  of  religious  faith  as 
well  as  in  secular  studies.  Two  denomi- 
nations only  have  provided  a  sufficient 
number  of  parochial  schools  for  any  con- 
siderable number  of  their  children:  the 
Roman  Catholic  and  the  Lutheran.  Of 
these  two  denominations  the  former  has 
much  the  larger  system,  and  because  of 
its  extent  Catholic  authorities  have 
claimed  exemption  from  school  taxes  for 
their  people,  asserting  that  by  supporting 
parochial  schools  their  parishioners  have 
more  than  met  their  share  of  the  general 
educational  expense.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  it  would  cost  the  nation  one 
hundred  million  dollars  to  accommodate 
the  children  now  in  the  Catholic  paro- 
chial schools. 

Roman  Catholics  have  always  asserted 
that  religious  instruction  should  be  in- 
separable from  education  in  secular  mat- 
ters, so  as  to  secure  the  proper  type  of 
Christian  citizenship.  Consequently,  at 
plenary  and  provincial  councils  Catholics 

Vol.  VII— Cyo 


have  been  exhorted  and  commanded  to 
send  their  children  to  the  parochial 
schools.  A  system  of  supervision  of 
teachers  in  the  schools  was  started  in 
1884,  and  since  that  date  the  number  of 
children  in  Catholic  schools  has  steadily 
increased.  In  1900  there  were  3,812 
schools,  in  1910,  4,972  and  according  to 
latest  available  figures  there  were  5,286 
schools  with  1,360,761  pupils.  These 
schools  are  under  the  general  charge  of 
the  bishop  of  the  diocese  who  appoints 
school  boards  for  the  parishes  and  gen- 
eral superintendents  to  supervise  school 
activities.  The  parish  priest  is  also  a 
controlling  influence  in  each  local  school. 
The  subjects  studied  are  similar  to  those 
of  the  public  schools  with  the  addition, 
however,  of  considerable  instruction  in 
the  Catholic  faith.  The  teachers  are 
usually  members  of  some  of  the  religious 
orders  in  the  church  or  are  in  training 
for  such  membership.  In  1911  a  teach- 
ers' college  was  established  for  the 
training  of  teachers  in  the  Catholic 
schools.  For  the  most  part  these  schools 
have  confined  themselves  to  elementary 
work,  but  after  1905  a  number  of  Cath- 
olic High  Schools  have  been  established 
under  the  direct  control  of  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese.  There  is  also  established 
at  present  a  course  of  instruction  start- 
ing in  the  elementary  schools  continuing 
in  the  high  schools,  and  closing  with  a 
degree  from  the  Catholic  Universities  in 
America. 

The  other  denomination  supporting 
parochial  schools  is  the  Lutheran. 
Here  the  schools  are  under  the  charge  of 
the  separate  congregations  and  no  at- 
tempt is  made  to  coerce  the  parents  to 
send  their  children  to  Lutheran  schools. 
They  have  been  patronized  for  the  most 
part  by  Germans  and  Norwegians  who 
desire  their  children  to  retain  some  of 
the  traditions  of  their  homeland.  The 
progress  of  the  schools  has  been  slow,  in 
1913  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  children 
of  Lutheran  parents  attended  these  pa- 
rochial schools.  Like  all  else  that  sav- 
ored of  Teutonic  culture  these  schools 
were  severely  criticized  during  the  years 
1914-1920  and  the  result  has  been  a 
decline  in  the  number  of  children 
attending. 

PAROLE,  a  word  of  promise;  a  word 
of  honor;  faith  plighted;  specifically  a 
promise  given  by  a  prisoner  on  his  honor 
that  he  will  not  attempt  to  escape  if  al- 
lowed his  liberty,  or  that  he  will  return 
to  custody  on  a  certain  day  if  released, 
or  that  he  will  not  bear  arms  against 
his  captors  for  a  certain  time,  etc.  Also 
a  password;  a  word  given  out  each  day 
in  orders  by  the  commanding  officer  in 

9 


PAROS 


126 


PARROT 


camp  or  garrison,  by  which  friends  and 
foes  may  be  distinguished.  It  differs 
from  a  countersign  in  being  given  only 
to  officers,  or  those  who  inspect  and  give 
orders  to  the  guard,  while  a  counter- 
sign is  given  to  all  guards. 

PAROS,  one  of  the  larger  islands  of 
the  Cyclades  division  of  the  Greek  Archi- 
pelago; a  low  pyramid  in  shape,  it  has 
an  area  of  64  square  miles;  pop.  (1918) 
about  10,000,  of  whom  some  3,000  live  in 
the  capital,  Paroekia.  Wine,  figs,  and 
wool  are  exported.  The  quarries  of  the 
famous  white  Parian  marble  are  near  the 
summit  of  Mount  St.  Elias  (ancient 
Marpessa),  and  are  not  yet  exhausted. 
Archilochus  and  Polygnotus,  the  painter, 
were  born  on  Paros. 

PARR,  CATHARINE,  the  6th  wife 
of  King  Henry  VIII.;  daughter  of  Sir 
Thomas  Parr;  born  in  1512.  Married 
first  to  one  Edward  Borough,  possibly 
Lord  Borough,  and  afterward  to  Lord 
Latimer,  she  on  July  12,  1543,  became 
queen  of  England  by  marriage  with 
Henry  VIII.  She  was  distinguished  for 
her  learning  and  knowledge  of  religious 
subjects,  her  discussion  of  which  with 
the  king  had  well  nigh  brought  her  to  the 
block.  Her  tact,  however,  saved  her; 
for  she  made  it  appear  to  the  king's 
vanity  that  she  had  only  engaged  him  in 
discourse  about  the  Reformation  to  de- 
rive profit  from  his  majesty's  conversa- 
tion. ^  She  persuaded  Henry  to  restore 
the  right  of  succession  to  his  daughters. 
After  Henry's  death  she  married  (1547) 
Sir  Thomas  Seymour,  and  died  in  the 
following  year. 

PARR,  SAMUEL  WILSON,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  at  Granville,  111.,  in 
1857.  He  graduated  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois  in  1884,  afterward  study- 
ing in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  In 
1891  he  was  appointed  professor  of  ap- 
plied chemistry  at  the  University  of  Illi- 
nois and  was  also  director  and  consult- 
ing chemist  of  the  Illinois  State  Water 
Survey.  From  1905  he  was  State  Ge- 
ologist of  Illinois.  He  was  a  member  of 
many  engineering  societies  and  wrote 
much  on  subjects  relating  to  chemistry. 

PARR,  THOMAS,  better  known  as 
Old  Parr,  born,  it  is  said,  in  1483  in 
Winnington,  Shropshire,  England.  He 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey  where 
a  monument  records  his  longevity.  His 
age  however,  has  been  disputed.  He 
died  in  1635. 

PARRAKEET,     or     PARAKEET,     a 

popular  name  for  any  of  the  smaller 
long-tailed  parrots.  The  word  is  in  com- 
mon use,  but  is  applied  without  any  strict 


scientific  limitation  to  birds  of  different 
genera,  and  even  of  different  families. 
Generally  speaking,  any  old-world  par- 
rot with  a  moderate  bill,  long  and  more 
or  less  graduated  tail,  with  the  ends  of 
the  feathers  narrowed,  and  high  and 
slender  tarsi,  is  called  a  parrakeet. 

PARRAMATTA,  a  town  of  New 
South  Wales;  on  a  W.  extension  of  Port 
Jackson,  14  miles  W.  of  Sydney,  with 
which  it  is  connected  both  by  steamer 
and  railway.  The  streets  are  wide  and 
regular.  "Colonial  tweeds,"  "Parra- 
matta  cloths"  (first  made  at  Bradford 
from  wool  exported  hence).  Much  fruit, 
especially  the  orange,  is  grown  here. 
Parramatta,  formerly  called  Rosehill,  is, 
after  Sydney,  the  oldest  town  in  the  col- 
ony, having  been  laid  out  in  1790.  Pop. 
(1917)   12,250. 

PARRICIDE,  one  who  murders  his 
father,  ancestors,  or  any  one  to  whom 
reverence  is  due.  The  Athenians  had  no 
law  against  parricides,  from  an  opinion 
that  human  atrocity  could  never  reach 
to  the  guilt  of  parricide.  This  was  also 
originally  the  case  at  Rome;  but  at  a  la- 
ter period  the  delinquent,  after  being 
scourged,  was  placed  in  a  leathern  sack, 
with  a  dog,  a  cock,  a  viper,  and  an  ape, 
and  so  cast  into  the  Tiber.  The  English 
and  American  law  treat  this  crime  as 
simple  murder. 

PARRISH,  MAXFIELD,  an  Amer- 
ican decorator  and  painter.  Born  in  Phil- 
adelphia in  1870  and  studied  at  Drexel 
Institute  and  Pennsylvania  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts.  His  work  soon  became 
widely  known  for  its  rich  colored  effects, 
which  are  especially  good  in  his  illus- 
trations of  the  imagination  of  childhood. 
Probably  his  most  successful  work  in 
illustrating  books  was  achieved  in  the 
Arabian  Nights.  His  later  work  has 
been  chiefly  in  mural  decoration  and  his 
largest  single  piece  of  work  as  well  as 
his  most  successful  is  the  series  of  sev- 
enteen panels  in  the  Curtis  Publishing 
Company's  Building  in  Philadelphia. 

PARRISH,  RANDALL,  an  American 
writer,  born  in  Henry  co.,  111.,  in  1858. 
Studied  at  the  University  of  Iowa  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  that  State. 
He  later  went  to  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico,  and  engaged  in  newspaper  work 
in  several  cities  in  the  West.  He  was 
the  author  of  "When  Wilderness  Was 
King"  (1904);  "Gordon  Craig"  (1912); 
"The  Red  Mist"  (1914);  "The  Devil's 
Ovm"  (1917),  and  many  other  books. 

PARROT,  the  popular  name  for  any 
individual  of  a  well-known  group  of 
birds  from  the  warmer  regions  of  the 


PABROTT 


127 


PARSEES 


globe,  remarkable  for  the  brilliant,  and 
in  some  cases  gaudy,  coloration  of  their 
plumage,  and  the  facility  with  which 
many  of  them  acquire  and  repeat  words 
and  phrases. 


PARROTS 

(A)  Hawk-Billed  Parrot. 

(B)  Red  and  Blue  Macaw. 

(C)  Parrakeet. 

PARROTT,  ROBERT  PARKER,  an 
American  inventor;  born  in  Lee,  N.  H., 
Oct.  5,  1804;  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1824;  was  Professor  of  Natural  and  Ex- 
perimental Philosophy  at  the  Academy 
in  1824-1826,  and  of  Mathematics  in 
1826-1828.  Commissioned  a  lieutenant, 
he  served  through  the  Greek  war,  and 
was  afterward  assigned  to  the  Ordnance 
Bureau  at  Washington.  He  invented  the 
well-known  Parrott  gun.  He  died  in  Cold 
Spring,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  24,  1877. 

PARRY,  SIR  (CHARLES)  HUBERT 
HASTINGS,  a  British  composer.  He 
was  born  at  Bournemouth,  Eng.,  in  1848 
and  made  attempts  at  music  at  Eton,  and 
at  Oxford,  graduating  as  M.  A.  in  1874, 
and  studying  music  under  Bennett,  Mac- 
farren,  and  Dannreuther.  He  held  musi- 
cal positions  at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and 
Dublin,  becoming  professor  of  composi- 
tion and  musical  history  and  finally  di- 
rector at  the  Royal  College  of  Music. 
He  was  made  a  knight  in  1898,  and  a 
baronet  in  1903.  He  died  in  1918.  His 
works  include  "Judith";  "Job";  "King 
Saul"    (oratorios) ;    several    symphonies 


and  much  incidental  music.  "Glories  of 
Our  Blood  and  State";  "Blest  Pair  of 
Sirens";  "Ode  to  St.  Cecilia's  Day"; 
"The  Soul's  Ransom,"  are  his  chief 
choral  works. 

PARRY,  SIR  WILLIAM  EDWARD, 
an  English  navigator;  born  in  Bath  in 
1790.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1803,  and 
in  1818  accompanied  Sir  John  Ross,  as 
second  in  command,  to  Baffin's  Bay,  in 
an  expedition  for  the  discovery  of  the 
Northwest  Passage,  which  was  unsuc- 
cessful. But  the  year  following.  Lieu- 
tenant Parry  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  "Hecla"  and  "Griper";  and 
this  voyage  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  Northwest 
Passage,  the  ships  wintering  at  Melville's 
Island.  Captain  Parry  commanded  two 
other  expeditions  that  failed  of  success. 
In  1827  he  again  commanded  the  "Hecla" 
in  an  attempt  to  reach  the  North  Pole. 
The  ship  was  left  at  Spitzbergen,  and 
Parry  with  his  boats  succeeded  in  reach- 
ing the  highest  latitude  attained  up  to 
that  time  (82°  45'),  but  the  drift  of  the 
ice  S.  prevented  further  advance.  He 
died  in  1855. 

PARRY  ISLANDS,  an  archipelago  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  lying  for  the  most 
part  N.  of  the  seventy-fifth  parallel  of 
latitude.  The  islands  extend  toward  the 
W.  from  Baffin  Bay.  The  most  impor- 
tant are  North  Devon,  Cornwallis, 
Bathhurst,  Milville  and  Prince  Patrick. 
The  islands  are  not  inhabited.  They 
were  first  explored  by  Parry  in  1819. 

PARSEES,  or  GUEBRES,  the  name  of 
the  small  remnant  of  the  followers  of  the 
ancient  Persian  religion,  as  established 
or  reformed  by  Zoroaster  (Zarathustra 
or  Zerdusht).  The  relation  in  which 
Zoroaster  stood  to  the  ancient  Iranian 
faith  and  his  date  have  been  much  de- 
bated. It  has  been  alleged  that  at  first 
the  doctrine  was  a  pure  monotheism; 
that  Zoroaster  taught  the  existence  of 
but  one  deity,  the  Ahura-Mazdao  (Or- 
muzd),  the  creator  of  all  things,  to 
whom  all  good  things,  spiritual  and 
worldly,  belong.  The  principle  of  his 
philosophy,  was  dualism:  there  being  in 
Ahura-Mazdao  two  primeval  causes  of 
the  real  and  intellectual  world — the 
Vohu  Mano,  the  Good  Mind  or  Reality 
(Gaya),  and  the  Akem  Mano,  or  the 
Naught  Mind  or  Nonreality  (Ajyaiti). 
Certainly,  however,  the  pure  idea  of  mo- 
notheism, if  it  ever  existed,  did  not  long 
prevail.  The  two  sides  of  Ahura-Maz- 
dao's  being  were  taken  to  be  two  distinct 
spirits,  Ahura-Mazdao  and  Angro- 
Mainyush  (Ahriman),  who  represented 
good    and    evil — God   and    Devil.     These 


PAESEES 


128 


PARSNIP 


each  took  their  due  places  in  the  Parsee 
[pantheon  ere  long  and  Parsism  became 
a  characteristic  dualism. 

The  Zoroastrian  creed  flourished  up  to 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
throughout  ancient  Irania,  including  Up- 
per Tibet,  Sogdiana,  Bachtriana,  Media, 
Persia,  etc.  On  the  establishment  of  the 
Sassanians  (a,  D.  212),  a  native  Persian 
dynasty,  by  Ardashir  (Artaxerxes),  the 
first  act  of  the  new  king  was  the  general 
and  complete  restoration  of  the  partly 
lost,  partly  forgotten  books  of  Zerdusht, 
which  he  effected,  it  is  related,  chiefly 
through  the  inspiration  of  a  Magian 
sage,  chosen  out  of  40,000  Magi.  The 
sacred  volumes  were  translated  out  of 
th3  original  Zend  into  the  vernacular 
and  disseminated  among  the  people  at 
large,  and  fire  temples  were  reared 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of 
the  land.  The  Magi  or  priests  were  all- 
powerful,  and  their  hatred  was  directed 
principally  against  the  Greeks.  The 
fanaticism  of  the  priests  often  also 
found  vent  against  Christians  and  Jews. 
In  return  the  Magi  were  cordially  hated 
by  the  Jews ;  but  later  we  frequently  find 
Jewish  sages  on  terms  of  friendship  and 
confidence  with  some  of  the  Sassanian 
kings.  From  the  period  of  its  re-estab- 
lishment the  Zoroastrian  religion  flour- 
ished uninterruptedly  for  about  400 
years,  till  in  A.  D.  651,  at  the  great  bat- 
tle of  Nahavand  (near  Ecbatana),  the 
Persian  army  under  Yezdejird  was 
routed  by  the  Caliph  Omar.  The  great 
mass  of  the  population  was  converted  to 
the  Mohammedan  faith;  the  small  rem- 
nant fled  to  the  wilderness  of  Khorasan. 
Some  9,000  Guebres  are  still  found  in 
Persia,  mainly  in  Yezd,  Kerman,  and  at 
Teheran.  Others  found  a  resting  place 
along  the  W.  coast  of  India,  chiefly  at 
Bombay,  Surat,  Ahmedabad,  and  the 
vicinity,  where  they  now  live  under  Eng- 
lish rule,  being  for  the  most  part  mer- 
chants and  landed  proprietors.  Parsee 
traders  have  also  settled  at  Calcutta, 
Madras,  Aden,  Zanzibar,  in  Burma,  and 
in  China.  They  bear  equally  with  their 
poorer  brethren  in  Persia  the  highest 
character  for  honesty,  industry,  and 
peacefulness,  while  their  benevolence,  in- 
telligence, and  magnificence  outvie  that 
of  most  of  their  European  fellow-sub- 
jects. In  all  civil  matters  they  are  sub- 
ject to  the  laws  of  the  country  they 
inhabit;  and  its  language  is  also  theirs, 
except  in  the  ritual  of  their  religion, 
when  Zend,  the  holy  language,  is  used  by 
the  priests.  They  are  forward  to  em- 
brace the  advantages  of  English  educa- 
tion, and  not  a  few  have  studied  law  in 
England.  Conspicuous  among  Parsee 
merchant-princes  was  Sir  Jamsetjee  Je- 


jeebhoy.  In  1918  there  were  at)out  100,- 
000  Parsees  in  British  India,  five-sixths 
of  them  in  Bombay  city. 

Parsees  do  not  eat  anything  cooked  by 
a  person  of  another  religion;  they  also 
object  to  beef  and  pork,  especially  to 
ham.  Marriages  can  only  be  contracted 
with  persons  of  their  own  caste  and 
creed.  Polygamy,  except  after  nine 
years  of  sterility  and  consequent  divorce, 
is  forbidden.  Fornication  and  adultery 
are  punishable  with  death.  Their  dead 
are  not  buried,  but  exposed  on  an  iron 
grating  in  the  Dakhma,  or  Tower  of  Si- 
lence, till  the  flesh  has  disappeared,  and 
the  bones  fall  through  into  a  pit  beneath. 

Ahura-Mazdao  being  the  origin  of 
light,  his  symbol  is  the  sun,  with  the 
moon  and  the  planets,  and  in  default  of 
them  the  fire.  Temples  and  altars  must 
for  ever  be  fed  with  the  holy  fire,  brought 
down,  according  to  tradition,  from 
heaven,  and  the  sullying  of  whose  flame 
is  punishable  with  death.  The  priests 
themselves  approach  it  only  with  a  half 
mask  over  the  face,  and  never  touch  it 
but  with  holy  instruments.  The  fires 
are  of  five  kinds.  There  are  also  five 
kinds  of  "sacrifice,"  which  term,  how- 
ever, is  rather  to  be  understood  in  the 
sense  of  a  sacred  action — including  the 
slaughtering  of  animals;  prayer;  the 
sacrifice  of  expiation,  consisting  eithe* 
(1)  in  flagellation  or  (2)  in  gifts  to  the 
priests;  and,  lastly,  the  sacrifice  for  the 
souls  of  the  dead.  The  purification  of 
physical  and  moral  impurities  is  effected, 
in  the  first  place,  by  cleansing  with  holy 
water,  earth,  etc.;  next,  by  prayers  and 
the  recitation  of  the  divine  word;  but 
other  self-castigations,  fasting,  celibacy, 
etc.,  are  considered  hateful  to  the  Divin- 
ity. The  ethical  code  may  be  summed 
up  in  the  three  words — purity  of 
thought,  of  word,  and  of  deed. 

PARSLEY,  carum  petroselinum  or 
Petroselinum  sativum.  The  leaves  are 
tripinnate,  the  flowers  yellow.  Found  on 
walls,  and  in  waste  places,  as  a  garden 
escape.  There  are  three  leading  vari- 
eties of  the  plant,  the  common  or  plain- 
leaved,  the  curled,  and  the  Hamburg 
sage  or  carrot-rooted  parsley.  The  sec- 
ond is  that  more  generally  cultivated  as 
a  culinary  vegetable;  sheep  feeding  on  it 
are  said  to  be  less  liable  than  others  to 
the  rot. 

PARSNIP,  peucedaniim  sativum,  or 
pastinaca  sativa.  Leaves  pinnate,  leaf- 
lets sessile,  ovate,  inciso-serrate,  flowers 
bright  yellow.  The  boiled  root  is  eaten 
as  a  vegetable;  sheep  and  oxen  fatten 
rapidly  upon  it;  a  kind  of  wine  may  be 
made  from  it;  its  seeds  are  aromatic  and 
contain  an  essential  oil. 


PARSONS 


129 


PAKSONS 


PAHSONS,  a  city  of  Kansas,  in  La- 
bette CO.  It  is  on  the  Missouri,  Kansas, 
and  Texas  and  the  St.  Louis  and  San 
Francisco  railroads.  Its  industries  in- 
clude flour  and  feed  mills,  grain  eleva- 
tors, chicken-feed  factories,  clothing  fac- 
tories, etc.  It  has  the  State  hospital  for 
epileptics,  a  high  school,  a  public  library, 
a  Federal  building,  Masonic  Temple,  etc. 
Pop.   (1910)   12,463;   (1920)   16,028. 

PARSONS,  FRANK  ALVAH,  an 
American  lecturer  on  art  subjects,  born 
at  Chesterfield,  Mass.,  in  1868.  He  was 
educated  at  Wesleyan  Seminary  and 
afterward  studied  art  in  Italy,  Fi-ance, 
England  and  Austria.  He  graduated 
from  the  department  of  Fine  Arts  at 
Columbia,  in  1905.  He  was  lecturer  on 
art  in  Columbia  and  other  colleges  and 
was  president  and  director  of  the  New 
York  School  of  Fine  and  Applied  Arts, 
from  1905  to  1914.  He  also  lectured  on 
interior  decoration  for  women's  clubs  and 
other  bodies.  He  carried  on  yearly  a 
course  of  lectures  at  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art  and  conducted  summer 
study  classes  in  Europe  yearly.  He 
wrote  several  books  on  interior  decora- 
tion and  other  subjects  relating  to  art. 

PARSONS,  HERBERT,  an  American 
lawyer  and  politician,  born  in  New  York 
in  1869.  He  graduated  from  Yale  in 
1890  and  afterward  studied  at  several 
law  schools.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1895.  After  serving  as  alderman 
in  New  York  City  he  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress,  serving  from  1905  until 
1911.  For  many  years  he  was  chairman 
of  the  Republican  County  Committee  and 
was^  also  a  member  of  the  Republican 
National  Committee,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  Seventh  Regiment  and  for  a  time 
served  as  major  and  as  judge-advocate 
on  the  staff  of  the  1st  Brigade  of  the 
New  York  National  Guard.  In  1917  he 
was  commissioned  major  in  the  Aviation 
Service.  He  was  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent Republican  supporters  of  Gov.  J. 
M.  Cox  for  president  in  1920. 

PARSONS,    FATHER    ROBERT,    the 

chief  of  the  English  Jesuits  in  their 
golden  age;  born  in  Somersetshire,  Eng- 
land, in  1546.  When  18  he  passed  from 
the  free  school  at  Taunton  to  St.  Mary's 
Hall,  Oxford,  and  after  two  years  to 
Balliol  College,  where  he  took  his  degrees 
of  bachelor  and  master,  and  became  a 
fellow  and  tutor.  Here  he  twice  took 
the  oath  abjuring  the  papal  supremacy, 
but  he  never  received  orders  in  the  Eng- 
lish Church.  His  enemies  in  college 
brought  charges  against  him  which  led 
to  his  forced  retirement  from  Oxford  in 
1574.    He  shortLv  afterward  became  a 


Roman  Catholic  and  set  out  on  foot  to 
Rome,  and  offered  himself  to  the  So- 
ciety of  Jesus.  He  was  ordained  priest 
in  1578.  When  in  the  following  year  Dr. 
(afterward  Cardinal)  Allen,  superior  of 
the  Douay  seminary,  succeeded  in  per- 
suading  the  Jesuits  to  join  with  the  semi- 
nary priests  in  the  work  of  the  English 
mission,  Parsons  and  Campion  were  se- 
lected. Parsons  in  1580  landed  at  Dover, 
disguised  as  a  merchant  of  jewels.  He 
employed  six  printers  on  a  secret  press, 
and  for  12  months  baffled  all  the  at- 
tempts of  the  government  to  catch  him. 
But  after  the  apprehension  of  his  com- 
panion. Campion,  in  July,  1581,  Parsons 
escaped  to  the  Continent,  where  he 
schemed  for  the  subjection  of  England 
to  the  Pope  by  force  of  arms.  He  con- 
spired in  France  with  the  Duke  de  Guise, 
the  Provincial  of  the  French  Jesuits,  the 
Papal  Nuncio  and  others  for  an  invasion 
of  England.  Now  began  his  intimacy  and 
influence  with  the  Spanish  king,  and  the 
series  of  political  enterprises  which  cul- 
minated in  the  Armada  of  1588.  At 
Rouen  in  1582  he  had  finished  his  book, 
the  "Christian  Directory,"  which  has 
found  favor  with  Protestant  divines; 
and,  with  the  aid  of  the  Duke  of  Guise, 
he  founded  at  Eu  a  seminary  for  youth. 
After  the  failure  of  the  Armada  he  or- 
ganized seminaries  or  clerical  establish- 
emnts  for  his  countrymen  at  Valladolid 
in  1589,  St.  Lucar  in  1591,  Seville  and 
Lisbon  in  1592,  and  at  St.  Omer  in  1593. 
Parsons,  who  went  from  Madrid  to  Rome 
to  again  assume  the  rectorship  of  the 
English  college,  now  persuaded  the  Pope 
to  appoint  George  Blackwell,  a  partisan 
of  the  Jesuits,  an  archpriest  over  the 
secular  clergy,  with  the  view  of  keep- 
ing the  chief  direction  of  affairs  in  his 
own  hands.  The  appointment  was  re- 
sisted by  the  leaders  of  the  seculars. 
Parsons,  upon  whom  the  odium  of  the 
appointment  chiefly  fell,  was  accused  of 
deceiving  the  Pope,  of  tyranny  over  the 
clergy,  and  of  continued  treason  against 
his  country.  An  appeal  carried  to  Rome 
by  four  delegates  of  the  secular  clergy 
led  to  a  diminution  of  the  Jesuits'  power. 
His  industry  and  power  of  work  were 
extraordinary.  His  domineering  spirit 
and  political  partisanship  created  for 
him  bitter  enemies,  while  his  mode  of 
prosecuting  his  ends  justly  exposed  him 
to  charges  of  double  dealing,  equivoca- 
tion, and  reckless  slander  of  his  oppo- 
nents. Among  the  best  known  of  his 
voluminous  publications  is  "The  Con- 
ference on  the  next  Succession  to  the 
Crown,"  written  with  the  assistance  of 
Allen  and  Sir  Francis  Englefield  in  fa- 
vor of  the  infanta  of  Spain.  He  here  in- 
sists on  the  right  of  the  people  to  set 


PARSONS 


130 


PABTHIA 


aside,  on  religious  grounds,  the  natural 
heir  to  the  throne;  and  advocates  prin- 
ciples which  afterward  obtained  for  him 
the  title  of  the  first  English  Whig.  Par- 
liament made  it  treason  to  possess  a 
copy  of  the  book,  which  was  reprinted 
in  the  interests  of  Cromwell  in  1648. 
It  was  again  reprinted  in  1681,  and 
publicly  burned  at  Oxford  in  1683.  An- 
other curious  work  by  Parsons,  was  his 
"Memorial  for  the  Reformation,"  in 
which  he  lays  down  rules  for  the  guid- 
ance of  the  government,  in  the  expected 
event  of  England's  subjection  to  the 
Pope.  His  "Apology"  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  archpriest  (1601)  is  his- 
torically interesting,  while  his  "Manifes- 
tation of  the  Great  Folly  and  Bad  Spirit 
of  Certain  in  England  Calling  Them- 
selves Secular  Priests,"  a  passionate  at- 
tack upon  the  conduct  and  morals  of  his 
clerical  brethren,  exhibits  him  on  his 
weakest  side.  He  died  in  Rome,  as  rec- 
tor of  the  English  college,  April  15,  1610. 

PARSONS,  THEOPHILUS,  an  Amer- 
ican jurist;  born  in  Essex  eo.,  Mass., 
Feb.  24,  1750;  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  1769,  and  studied  law 
at  Falmouth  (now  Portland) ,  in  Maine, 
where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1774.  He  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention which,  in  1779,  framed  the  State 
constitution  of  Massachusetts  and  of  the 
convention  called  to  ratify  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States  in  1789.  In 
1800  he  removed  to  Boston.  He  was 
appointed  in  1806  chief  justice  of  Massa- 
chusetts. As  a  lawyer,  "he  had,"  accord- 
ing to  Justice  Story,  "no  equal  in  Massa- 
chusetts"; and  he  probably  had  few,  if 
any,  superiors  in  the  United  States.  A 
collection  of  his  judicial  opinions  was 
published;  "Commentaries  on  the  Law 
of  the  United  States."     He  died  in  1813. 

PARSONS,  THOMAS  WILLIAM,  a 
poet  and  translator  of  Dante.  He  was 
born  in  Boston  in  1819,  and  from  1836 
lived  in  Italy,  where,  after  some  years' 
study  of  the  language  of  the  country 
he  produced  his  "Dante's  Inferno,"  later 
adding  parts  of  the  Purgatorio  and 
Paradiso.  He  afterward  practiced  den- 
tistry in  Boston  and  London,  and  died 
in  1892.  His  other  works  include: 
"Ghetto  di  Roma";  "The  Magnolia  and 
Other  Poems";  "The  Old  House  at  Sud- 
bury"; "The  Shadow  of  the  Obelisk,  and 
Other  Poems." 

^  PARSONS,  WILLIAM  BARCLAY, 
civil  engineer,  of  New  York  City;  born 
in  1859,  and  educated  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, New  York.  In  1885  he  became 
consulting  engineer  of  New  York  City,  a 
position  he  has  held  to  the  present  time. 


From  1894  to  1905  he  was  the  chief  en- 
gineer for  the  Rapid  Transit  Co.  of  New 
York  and  constructed  their  great  subway 
system.  In  1898  he  conducted  explora- 
tion and  drew  up  plans  for  a  proposed 
railway  from  Hankow  to  Canton,  China. 
During  the  war  with  Germany  Colonel 
Parsons  largely  directed  the  engineering 
work  of  the  New  York  regiments  who 
were  with  the  American  Expeditionary 
Forces  in  France. 

PARTHENOGENESIS,  in  biology,  a 
term  introduced  by  Professor  Owen,  who 
calls  it  also  metagenesis.  It  signifies 
generation  by  means  of  an  unimpreg- 
nated  insect,  which,  moreover,  is  imma- 
ture, not  having  yet  passed  beyond  the 
larval  state.  Example,  the  genus  Aphis. 
The  winged  aphides  deposit  eggs  which 
produce  imperfect  wingless  offspring, 
apparently  mere  larvae.  These  larvse, 
however,  in  some  abnormal  way,  repro- 
duce their  species.  By  the  time  the 
pi'ocess  has  gone  on  for  9  or  10  genera- 
tions, the  season  is  about  closing,  and 
the  last  brood  of  the  larval  aphides  pro- 
duce fully  formed  and  winged  specimens 
of  the  species,  depositing  eggs  which  are 
hatched  in  the  following  spring. 

PARTHENON,  a  celebrated  temple  at 
Athens,  consecrated  to  Athena  or  Min- 
erva, the  protectress  of  the  city.  The 
Parthenon  was  built  on  an  elevated  rock 
near  the  Acropolis,  and  has  always  been 
regarded  as  the  most  perfect  example  of 
Grecian  architecture;  it  was  built  in  the 
Doric  style.  The  Parthenon  was  erected 
about  448  B.  c,  in  the  time  of  Pericles, 
Phidias  being  the  chief  sculptor.  It 
had  a  length  of  228  feet,  by  a  breadth  of 
100.  The  principal  object  of  art  was 
a  statue  of  Minerva,  26  cubits  high,  made 
of  ivory  and  gold,  in  an  erect  position, 
with  a  lance  in  her  hand,  a  shield  at  her 
feet,  and  Medusa's  head  on  her  chest — 
a  work  regarded  as  the  masterpiece  of 
Phidias.  It  had  resisted  the  ravages  of 
time  down  to  the  17th  century,  till  at 
the  siege  of  Athens  by  the  Venetians, 
in  1687,  a  shell  fell  on  the  roof  of  the 
Acropolis  or  citadel,  which,  firing  the 
magazine  beneath,  shattered  that  build- 
ing and  the  Parthenon.  Early  in  the 
19th  century,  it  was  mutilated  by  Lord 
Elgin,  who  removed  to  England  its 
noblest  sculpture. 

PARTHIA,  a  celebrated  country  of 
ancient  Asia,  called  by  the  ^  Greeks 
Parthycea  and  Parthyene,  which  was 
bounded  N.  by  Hyrcania,  S.  by  Carmania 
Deserta,  E.  by  Asia,  and  W.  by  Media. 
Parthia  was  a  wild  and  mountainous 
country  of  great  extent,  having  25  large 
cities.     When  Parthia  became  a  power- 


PARTICIPLE 


131 


PARTRIDGE 


ful  state,  the  empire  of  Parthia  was 
made  up  of  conquered  kingdoms,  extend- 
ing from  the  Caucasus  in  the  N.  to  the 
Erythraean  Sea  in  the  S.,  and  from  the 
Indus  in  the  E.  to  the  Tigris  in  the  W. 
The  Parthians,  originally  an  offshoot 
iTom  the  Scythians,  were  noted  for  their 
love  of  war  and  martial  glory;  they 
were  the  most  celebrated  horsemen  in 
the  world,  and  excellent  marksmen  with 
the  bow  and  arrow.  The  Parthians  be- 
came subject  to  Persia;  and  their  coun- 
try, with  Sogdiana  and  some  other  states, 
was  formed  into  a  province  called  a 
satrapy.  When  Alexander  conquered 
Persia,  he  united  Parthia  and  Hyrcania 
into  one  satrapy.  After  the  dissolution 
of  the  Greek  empire,  the  country  became 
subject  to  Eumenes;  next,  to  Antigones 


W.  of  the  city  of  that  name.  It  is  in 
a  corn  and  fruit  producing  region  and 
there  are  also  important  industries,  in- 
cluding the  manufacture  of  wine,  linen 
and  woolen  goods.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

PARTNERSHIP,  the  state  or  condi- 
tion of  being  a  partner,  associate,  or 
participator  with  another;  joint  interest. 
An  association  of  two  or  more  persons 
for  the  carrying  on  of  any  commercial, 
manufacturing,  or  other  business  under- 
taking, occupation,  or  calling;  or  a  volun- 
tary, verbal  or  written  contract  between 
two  or  more  persons  to  joint  together 
their  money,  labor,  goods,  skill,  etc  or 
all  or  any  of  them,  for  the  prosecution  of 
any  business  or  undertaking  upon  the 
understanding  that  the  profits  or  losses 


PARTHENON 


and  the  Seleucidae — ^the  Syrian  kings — 
till  256  B.  c.  when  the  Parthians  estab- 
lished their  independence  under  Arsaces 
I.,  from  whom  all  their  succeeding  mon- 
archs  received  the  name  of  Arsacidse. 
Under  this  dynasty,  the  empire  extended 
from  the  Indus  to  the  Euphrates,  and 
from  the  Oxus  in  the  N.  to  the  Persian 
Gulf  in  the  S.  This  empire  lasted  for 
about  480  years,  when  the  last  king, 
Artabanus,  was  murdered  by  Artaxerxes, 
who,  usurping  the  throne,  founded  the 
new  Persian  empire,  called  the  Sas- 
sanidas. 

PARTICIPLE,  a  part  of  speech,  so 
called  because  it  partakes  of  the  nature 
both  of  a  verb  and  an  adjective.  A  par- 
ticiple differs  from  an  adjective  in  that 
it  implies  the  relation  of  time,  and  there- 
fore is  applied  to  a  specific  act,  while 
the  adjective  denotes  only  an  attribute 
as  a  quality  or  characteristic  without 
regard  to  time. 

PARTINICO,  a  town  of  Sicily  in  the 
province  of  Palermo,  about  14  miles  S. 


shall  be  divided  between  them  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  of  capital,  stock, 
labor,  etc.,  supplied  by  each  partner. 

PARTON,  JAMES,  an  American 
writer;  born  in  Canterbury,  England, 
Feb.  9,  1822.  He  wrote  many  valuable 
biographies,  as :  "Life  of  Horace  Gree- 
ley" (1885);  "Life  and  Times  of  Aaron 
Burr"  (1857)  ;  "Life  and  Times  of  Ben- 
jamin Franklin"  (1864)  ;  "Famous 
Americans  of  Recent  Times"  (1870) ; 
"Life  of  Thomas  Jefferson"  (1874) ; 
"Life  of  Voltaire"  (1881).  Among  his 
other  works  are:  "Humorous  Poetry  of 
the  English  Language"  (1857)  ;  "Cari- 
cature in  all  Times  and  Lands"  (1875). 
He  died  in  Newburj^jort,  Mass.,  Oct. 
17,  1891. 

PARTRIDGE,  the  genus  Perdix,  and 
especially  P.  cinerea,  the  common  or  gray 
partridge,  a  well-known  game  bird 
widely  distributed  in  Europe.  General 
tone  of  plumage  brown;  neck  and  upper 
part  of  the  breast,  sides,  and  flanks 
bluish   gray,   freckled   with   dark   gray, 


PABTBIDGE 


132 


PASCAL 


lower  breast  with  a  rich  chestnut  horse- 
shoe-shaped patch  on  a  ground  of  white ; 
sides  and  flanks  barred  with  chestnut; 
thighs  grayish  white;  legs  and  toes 
bluish  white,  claws  brown.  Length  of 
adult  male  about  12  inches.  It  feeds  on 
slugs,  caterpillars,  and  grubs  to  a  large 
extent,  and  so  compensates  the  farmer 
for  the  injury  it  does.  In  the  United 
States,  any  one  of  the  several  species 
belonging  to  the  genus  Colinus,  including 
the  bobwhite  and  other  quail-like  birds. 
Also  a  large  bombard  formerly  used  in 
sieges  and  defensive  works. 

PABTBIDGE,  WILLIAM  OBDWAY, 
an  American  sculptor  and  writer  on  art; 
born  in  France,  in  1861.  Among  his 
most  notable  works  are:  "Christ  and  St. 
John"  (Brooklyn  Museum  of  Fine  Arts) ; 
"Hamilton"  (Columbia  University) ; 
"Shakespeare"  and  "Edward  Everett 
Hale"  (Chicago),  and  the  Kaufmann 
and  other  memorial  publications — "Art 
for  America"  (1894) ;  "The  Technique  of 
the  Sculptor"    (1895),  etc. 

PABTBIDGE  WOOD,  believed  to  be 
derived  from  various  West  Indian  and 
South  American  trees,  specially  Andira 
inermis.  It  is  beautifully  variegated, 
and  was  formerly  used  in  Brazil  for  ship- 
building. In  dockyards  it  is  called  cab- 
bage wood. 

PASADENA,  a  city  in  Los  Angeles 
CO.,  Cal.;  on  the  Southern  Pacific,  Atchi- 
son, Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  and  Salt  Lake 
railroads;  9  miles  N.  E.  of  Los  Angeles. 
It  is  a  famous  health  resort,  built  at 
the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Madre  Mountains 
in  a  region  of  equable  climate  and  such 
superb  scenery  that  it  has  been  named 
the  "Italy  of  America."  There  being  no 
marsh  lands,  malarial  fevers  and  like 
ailments  are  entirely  unknown.  The  soil 
of  the  region  is  very  fertile  and  almost 
every  kind  of  fruit  belonging^  to  temper- 
ate and  semi-tropical  climes  is  grown  in 
great  profusion.  Pasadena  contains  the 
Throop  Polytechnic  Institute,  high  school, 
kindergartens,  a  public  library,  a  number 
of  churches,  banks,  and  many_  hotels. 
There  are  large  packing  industries,  can- 
neries, flour  mills,  and  other  manufac- 
tories. The  city  was  settled  by  a  colony 
from  Indianapolis  in  1874,  since  which 
time  it  has  greatly  developed  in  horti- 
cultural enterprises.  Pop.  (1910) 
30,291;   (1920)  45,334. 

PASCAGOULA,  a  navigable  river  in 
the  S,  E.  part  of  Mississippi,  and  formed 
by  the  junction  of  the  Leaf  and  Chicka- 
sawha.  It  flows  85  miles  S.  to  a  small 
bay  of  the  same  name  on  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 


PASCAL,  BLAISE,  a  French  author; 
born  in  Clermont,  Auvergne,  France,  in 
1623.  His  family  was  one  of  consider- 
able distinction,  his  grandfather  having 
been  a  treasurer  of  France  at  Riom,  and 
his  father  president  of  the  Court  of  Aids, 
in  Auvergne,  From  his  earliest  child- 
hood he  exhibited  precocious  proofs  of 
genius,  especially  in  mathematics.  At 
12  years  of  age  he  was  surprised  by  his 
father  in  the  act  of  demonstrating,  on 


BLAISE  PASCAL 

the  pavement  by  means  of  a  rude  dia- 
gram traced  with  a  piece  of  coal,  a  prop- 
osition which  corresponded  to  the  32d  of 
the  first  book  of  Euclid.  At  the  age  of 
16  he  composed  a  small  treatise  on  conic 
sections,  which  excited  the  admiration  of 
Descartes.  At  19  he  invented  his  cele- 
brated arithmetical  machine,  and  at  26 
he  had  composed  the  greater  part  of  his 
mathematical  works,  and  made  those 
brilliant  experiments  in  hydrostatics  and 
pneumatics,  which  have  ranked  him 
among  the  first  natural  philosophers  of 
his  age.  But  a  strong  religious  impulse 
having  been  imparted  to  his  mind  at  this 
period,  he  thenceforward  devoted  himself 
to  theology  and  polemics,  and  to  the  pro- 
motion of  the  spiritual  and  temporal  wel- 
fare of  his  fellow  men.  He  retired  to 
Port  Royal  in  1654,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  days.  The  two  works 
by  which  he  is  best  known  are  his  "Pro- 
vincial Letters";  a  caustic  satire  upon 


PASCHAL 


188 


PASICH 


the  Jesuits  (1656),  under  the  name  Louis 
de  Montalte,  and  posthumous  "Pensees," 
regarded  as  among  the  richest  reposi- 
tories of  eloquent  thought  and  profound 
theology.     He  died  in  1662. 

PASCHAL  I.,  Pope,  was  a  Roman 
and  succeeded  Stephen  V.  in  817.  He 
crowned  Lothaire,  the  emperor  at  Rome. 
He  died  in  824. 

PASCHAL  II.,  Pope;  a  native  of  Tus- 
cany, succeeded  Urban  II.  in  1099.  He 
had  a  contest  with  the  Emperor  Henry 
IV.,  and  also  with  Henry  I.,  King  of 
England,  respecting  the  right  of  investi- 
tures. The  former  visited  Rome,  to  be 
crowned  by  the  Pope,  who  refused  to  per- 
form the  ceremony  unless  he  yielded 
the  matter  in  dispute.  Henry  caused 
Paschal  to  be  seized  by  his  troops.  The 
Romans  rose  in  behalf  of  their  pontiff, 
and  Henry  retired  from  Rome,  but  car- 
ried the  Pope  with  him.  Paschal,  after 
a  captivity  of  two  months,  conceded  his 
claim  to  the  investitures.  This  conces- 
sion was  afterward  canceled.  He  died 
in  1118. 

PASCHAL  III.,  became  Pope  in  oppo- 
sition to  Alexander  III.  in  1164,  through 
the  influence  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  I. 
He  remained  in  possession  of  the  papal 
chair  while  Alexander  was  absent  at 
Benevento.     He  died  in  1168. 

PASCO,  or  CERJIO  DE  PASCO 
(JTJNIN),  a  town  of  Peru,  capital  of 
the  province  of  its  own  name,  depart- 
ment of  Junin,  about  130  miles  N.  E.  of 
Lima.  It  is  situated  11,000  feet  above 
sea-level.  Its  former  importance  was 
due  to  the  rich  silver  mines  in  the  vicin- 
ity.    Pop.  about  400,000. 

PAS-DE-CALAIS,  a  department  in  the 
N.  of  France,  formed  out  of  Artois  and 
Picardy,  and  bounded  on  the  W.  by  the 
Strait  of  Dover  and  the  English  Chan- 
nel; area,  255  square  miles.  The  sur- 
face is  level,  with  the  exception  of  a  low 
ridg'e  running  to  the  N.  W.,  and  ending 
in  Cape  Gris-nez.  The  soil  is  fertile, 
mostly  under  cultivation,  and  watered  by 
numerous  short  rivers,  the  majority  of 
which  are  navigable  and  connected  by 
oanals.  The  coast  line  is  80  miles  in 
length.  Fishing  is  actively  carried  on, 
particularly  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Boulogne.  Coal,  iron,  and  other  miner- 
als are  mined  and  worked.  The  indus- 
trial establishments  are  iron  foundries, 
beet  root  sugar  factoi'ies,  glass  works, 
potteries,  tanneries,  and  others.  Bou- 
logne and  Calais  are  the  principal  har- 
bors. The  capital  is  Arras.  Pop.  (1911) 
26,000.  In  the  first  week  of  October, 
1914,   the    Germans    attempted    to   take 


Arras  by  storm,  but  were  repulsed  by 
the  French.  The  attack  was  renewed  on 
Oct.  20,  when  the  town  was  bombarded. 
This  continued  for  six  days.  The  Ger- 
mans attacked  on  Oct.  24,  but  the  French 
lines  held  fast.  On  ()ct.  26  General 
Maud'huy  made  a  drive  against  the 
enemy,  who  was  forced  back  so  far  that 
Arras  was  soon  beyond  the  range  of  the 
howitzers.  The  Germans'  effort  was  to 
break  the  Allied  line,  which  would  have 
enabled  them  to  reach  the  Channel  ports 
and  open  up  the  northern  road  to  Paris. 

PASEWALK,  a  town  of  Prussia,  26 
miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Stettin,  has  varied 
industries.  It  was  plundered  and  burned 
three  times  by  the  Imperialists  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  by  the  Poles  in  1657, 
and  by  the  Russians  in  1713.  Pop.  about 
12,000. 

PASHA,  or  PASHAW,  a  Turkish  title 
of  honor  bestowed  originally  on  princes 
of  the  blood,  but  now  also  on  gover- 
nors of  provinces,  military  officers  of 
high  rank,  etc.  Pashas  are  of  three 
grades,  distinguished  by  the  number  of 
horsetails  which  they  are  entitled  to  bear 
on  a  lance  as  a  distinctive  badge. 
Pashas  of  the  highest  rank  bear  three 
horsetails;  governors  of  the  more  im- 
gpprtant  provinces,  two;  and  minor  gov- 
ernors, one. 

PASICH,  NICOLA,  Serbian  states- 
man; born  in  Saitehar,  1846;  educated 
in  Belgrade,^  and  studied  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Engineering  in  Zurich,  Switzer- 
land. Fought  with  his  countrymen 
against  the  Turks  in  1876-1878,  then 
entered  politics,  becoming  leader  of  the 
Radical  party  in  the  Popular  Assembly. 
Being  suspected  of  plotting  against  King 
Milan,  he  was  exiled  abroad  in  1883,  but 
was  pardoned  in  1889,  when  he  returned 
to  Belgrade.  Re-entering  politics,  he 
was  elected  Mayor  of  Belgrade.  In  1891 
he  was  called  upon  to  form  a  Cabinet, 
and  for  a  year  was  Premier.  In  1893- 
1894  he  was  Serbian  ambassador  to 
Russia.  In  1899  he  again  became  impli- 
cated in  a  conspiracy  against  the  throne, 
for  v/hich  he  was  sentenced  to  death, 
but  Russian  influence  brought  him  a 
speedy  pardon.  The  ascent  to  the  throne 
of  the  present  king,  Peter  I.,  in  1903, 
brought  him  into  favor  again,  and  he 
became  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs 
(1904-1905)  and  Premier  in  1906-1908, 
and  in  1912-1913.  In  1914  he  was  again 
Premier,  and  was  chiefly  responsible  for 
the  diplomatic  negotiations  which  re- 
sulted in  the  great  war.  With  the  king, 
he  remained  in  the  field  with  the  troops, 
until  Serbia  was  invaded,  when  he  found 
refuge    in    Corfu,    under    English    and 


PASIG 


134 


PASSCHENDAELE 


French  protection,  until  the  victorious  re- 
entry of  the  Serbian  army  into  Belgrade, 
after  the  final  defeat  of  the  Central 
Powers  in  1918. 

PASIG,  a  city  of  the  Philippines,  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Rizal  in  Luzon. 
The  city  suffered  from  the  insurrection 
>f  1897  when  a  large  part  of  the  city 
was  burned.  Its  chief  industry  is  the 
manufacturing  of  pottery.  Pop.  about 
12,000. 

PASIPHAE,  the  wife  of  Minos,  and 
mother  of  the  Minotaur. 

PASQUE  FLOWER,  or  PASCHAL 
PLOWER,  Anemone  Pulsatilla,  it  has 
a  tuberous  root  and  is  common  in  bor- 
ders. It  is  a  very  handsome  plant,  with 
purple,  externally  silky  flowers. 

PASSAIC,  a  city  in  Passaic  co.,  N.  J.; 
on  the  Passaic  river,  and  on  the  New 
York,  Susquehanna  and  Western,  the 
Lackawanna  and  the  Erie  railroads;  12 
miles  N.  W.  of  New  York.  It  contains 
Vv^aterworks,  electric  street  railroads  con- 
necting with  Hoboken,  Paterson  and 
Newark,  electric  lights.  Emergency  Hos- 
pital, public  library.  National  and  State 
banks,  and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
It  has  extensive  print  works,  woolen 
mills,  silk  mills,  bleachery,  shoddy  mills, 
whip  factory,  manufactory  of  blankets, 
tanneries,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  54,773; 
(1920)   63,834. 

PASSAMAQUODDY  BAY,  in  North 
America,  opens  out  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Croix  river,  be- 
tween Maine  and  New  Brunswick.  It  is 
15  miles  long  by  10  wide,  and  shut  in 
by  a  cluster  of  islands  so  as  to  form  an 
excellent    harbor. 

PASSAROWITZ,        or        POSHARE- 

WATZ,  a  town  of  Serbia,  9  miles  S.  of 
the  Danube  and  40  S.  E.  of  Belgrade. 
Here  was  signed,  July  21,  1718,  the 
treaty  between  Venice  and  the  emperor, 
on  the  one  side,  and  the  Porte  on  the 
other,  by  which  a  truce  of  25  years  was 
established,  and  the  Banat  of  Temesvar, 
the  W.  portion  of  Wallachia  and  Serbia, 
Belgrade,  and  part  of  Bosnia  were  se- 
cured to  Austria.  Pop.  4,000.  It  was 
occupied  by  the  Germans  in  1915. 

PASSAU,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  on  a 
rocky  tongue  of  land,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Danube,  beside  the  influx  of  the 
Inn,  and  opposite  the  confluence  of  the 
Hz  with  the  Danube,  close  to  the  frontier 
of  Austria.  The  cathedral  was  rebuilt 
after  a  fire  in  1680;  the  bishop's  palace 
is  now  in  part  converted  into  public 
offices.  The  Passau  Agreement  between 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  es- 


tates of  the  empire  was  signed  here  on 
July  29,  and  Aug.  15,  1552.  Passau  was 
long  an  important  fortified  post,  being 
the  key  of  the  Danube  in  that  part  of  its 
course.  There  were  two  strong  citadels, 
one  dating  from  737,  the  other  from 
1215-1219.  The  town  grew  up  around 
an  old  Roman  camp,  and  in  739  was 
made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  founded  by 
St.  Boniface.  The  town  came  into  the 
hands  of  Bavaria  in  1803.  It  has  impor- 
tant manufactures  of  leather,  porcelain, 
and  parquet  floors,  besides  boats,  metal 
ware,  and  mirrors,  and  considerable  trade 
in  salt,  timber,  corn,  and  Passau  tiles. 
Pop.  about  12,000. 

PASSCHENDAELE,  a  small  village  in 
northern  Belgium,  near  Ypres,  around 
which  centered  some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant military  operations  on  the  western 
front,  during  the  World  War.  The 
village  gives  its  name  to  a  ridge,  on 
whose  slopes  it  stands,  which  was  of 
great  strategic  value  and  the  object  of 
severe  fighting,  especially  during  the  fall 
of  1917. 

Beginning  on  Oct.  4,  1917,  Field  Mar- 
shal Haig,  in  command  of  the  British 
forces  based  on  Ypres,  delivered  a  strong 
attack  on  the  German  lines,  east  of  the 
city.  The  ground  covered  by  the  British 
assault  was  from  the  N.  of  Langemarck, 
on  the  Ypres-Staden  railway,  to  a  point 
S.  of  Tower  Hamlets,  a  height  S.  of  the 
Ypres-Menin  high  road. 

On  the  north  wing  the  British  pushed 
on  to  within  a  short  distance  of  Poelcap- 
pelle,  and  gained  a  footing  on  Gravens- 
tafel  Ridge,  projecting  from  Passchen- 
daele  Ridge  on  the  W.,  along  which  the 
Germans  had  constructed  a  very  elabo- 
rate system  of  works.  This  advance  into 
the  enemy  country  had  been  preceded  by 
a  heavy  artillery  fire,  which  forestalled 
an  attack  which  had  been  in  preparation 
by  the  Germans  that  morning.  Three 
whole  German  divisions  were  here  ad- 
vancing against  the  British,  when  they 
were  caught  in  the  barrage,  and  almost 
annihilated. 

By  the  dashing  advance  which  fol- 
lowed, the  British  were  able  to  penetrate 
the  German  lines  to  a  depth  of  2,500 
yards.  To  the  S.  the  British  were  thus 
able  to  overlook  parts  of  the  main  Pas- 
schendaele  Ridge,  and  in  places  they  had 
descended  into  the  valley  beyond.  For 
several  days  the  fighting  raged  furiously 
back  and  forth,  the  Germans  defending 
their  positions  with  a  keen  sense  of  their 
importance.  The  French  troops,  advanc- 
ing on  the  left  of  the  British  line,  N.  of 
Ypres,  penetrated  the  German  lines  to  a 
depth  of  over  a  mile,  along  a  front  of 
n^arlv  two  miles.     From  the  S.  the  Brit- 


PASSER 


135 


PASSOVER 


ish  pushed  N.  E.  from  Grafenstafel 
Ridge,  to  a  point  about  a  thousand  yards 
S.  W.  of  the  village  of  Passchendaele,  up 
to  the  main  heights. 

It  was  a  notable  success  on  the  part 
of  the  Allies,  in  that  it  gave  the  British 
command  of  the  surrounding  region  and 
established  a  foothold  in  Belgium.  In 
this  important  advance  the  Allied  troops 
gained  possession  of  most  of  the  obser- 
vation points  that  commanded  a  view  of 
the  great  plain  of  Flanders. 

PASSER,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  of 
Fringillidsey  which  in  many  classifications 
has  been  allowed  to  lapse.  According  to 
Brisson,  the  generic  characters  are:  Bill 
hard,  strong,  sub-conical,  bulging  above 
and  below;  nostrils  basal,  lateral, 
rounded,  almost  hidden  by  projecting 
and  recurved  frontal  plumes.  Gape 
straight.  First  primary  small  and  at- 
tenuated, but  distinctly  developed;  third 
or  foui-th  rather  the  longest.  Tail  mod- 
erate, nearly  square.  Tarsus  stout, 
nearly  as  long  as  the  middle  toe.  Claws 
moderately  curved,  rather  short.  Profes- 
sor Newton  makes  the  house  sparrow 
P.  domesticus  and  the  tree  sparrow  P. 
montanus. 

In  the  plural,  Passeriformes,  Inses- 
sores,  an  order  of  Aves,  now  generally 
placed  first,  and  including  the  great  mass 
of  the  smaller  birds — crows,  finches,  fly- 
catchers, creepers,  etc. 

PASSION  FLOWER,  the  genus  Passi- 
ftora.  The  three  stigmas  seemed  to  the 
devout  Roman  Catholics  of  South  Amer- 
ica to  represent  nails;  one  transfixing 
each  hand,  and  one  the  feet  of  the  cruci- 
fied Saviour;  the  five  anthers,  His  five 
wounds;  the  rays  of  the  corona.  His 
crown  of  thorns,  or  the  halo  of  glory 
around  His  head;  the  digitate  leaves, the 
hands  of  those  who  scourged  Him;  the 
tendrils,  the  scourge  itself;  while,  finally, 
the  10  parts  of  the  perianth  were  the  10 
apostles — that  is,  the  12,  wanting  Judas 
who  betrayed,  and  Peter  who  denied,  his 
Lord. 

PASSIONISTS,  a  congregation  of  Ro- 
man Catholic  priests  founded  by  Paul 
Francis  (1694-1775)  surnamed  Paul  of 
the  Cross,  in  1737.  The  first  convent 
was  established  on  the  Celian  Hill  at 
Rome.  It  has  been  revived  since  1830, 
and  new  houses  have  been  founded  in 
England,  Ireland,  Belgium,  and  Aus- 
tralia. They  were  introduced  in  1852 
in  the  United  States,  where  they  now 
possess  ten  monasteries.  The  special  ob- 
jects of  the  institute  was  to  instil  into 
men's  minds  by  preaching,  by  example, 
a  sense  of  the  mercy  and  love  of  God  as 
manifested    in    the    passion    of    Christ. 


Hence  the  cross  appears  everywhere  as 
their  emblem.  A  large  crucifix,  more- 
over, forms  part  of  their  very  striking 
costume.  They  go  bare-footed,  and  prac- 
tice many  other  personal  austerities,  and 
their  ministerial  work  consists  chiefly  in 
holding  what  are  called  "missions,"  wher- 
ever they  are  invited  by  the  local  clergy, 
in  which  sermons  on  the  passion  of 
Christ,  on  sin,  and  on  repentance,  to- 
gether with  the  hearing  of  confessions, 
hold  the  principal  places. 

PASSION  PLAY,  a  mystery  or 
miracle  play  founded  on  the  passion  of 
our  Lord;  a  dramatic  representation  of 
the  scenes  of  the  passion.  The  only 
Passion  play  of  importance  still  main- 
tained is  that  periodically  represented 
at     Oberammergau     in     Bavaria.       The 


PASSION  FLOWER 

World  War  (1914-1918)  was  the  cause 
for  postponing  the  usual  representation. 
Passion  plays  were  introduced  into 
America  by  the  Spaniards,  and  at  this 
day  (1920)  are  still  given  in  certain 
Mexican  towns. 

PASSOVER,  a  festival  instituted  to 
commemorate  Jehovah's  "passing  over" 
the  Israelite  houses  while  "passing 
through"  those  of  the  Egyptians,  to  de- 
stroy in  the  latter  all  the  first-born 
(Exod.  xii:  11,  12,  23,  27).  The  first 
passover  (that  in  Egypt),  those  subse- 
quently occurring  in  Old  Testament 
times,  and  those  of  the  New  Testament 
and  later  Judaism,  were  all  somewhat 
different.     In  the  first  of  these  a  lamb 


PASSPORT 


136 


PASTON    LETTERS 


without  blemish  was  taken  on  the  10th, 
and  killed  on  the  14th,  of  the  month 
Abib,  thenceforward  in  consequence  to 
be  reckoned  the  first  month  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical year.  The  blood  of  the  lamb  was 
to  be  sprinkled  on  the  two  side  posts 
and  the  single  upper  door  post,  and  the 
flesh  eaten  "with  unleavened  bread  and 
bitter  herbs"  before  the  morning  (Ex- 
odus xii:  1-13).  That  night  Jehovah, 
passing  over  the  bloodstained  doors,  slew 
the  first  born  in  the  Egyptian  houses  not 
similarly  protected;  and,  as  the  emanci- 
pated Jews  that  night  departed  from 
Egypt,  that  first  passover  could  have  con- 
tinued only  one  day.  But  the  festival 
was  to  be  an  annual  one.  Connected 
with  it  was  to  be  a  feast  of  unleavened 
bread  (Exod.  xii:  14-20;  Num.  xxviii: 
16). 

Sometimes  the  term  passover  is  limited 
to  the  festival  of  the  14th  of  Abib;  some- 
times it  includes  that  and  the  feast  of 
unleavened  bread  also,  the  two  being 
viewed  as  parts  of  one  whole  (Ezek.  xlv: 
21).  When  the  Jews  reached  Canaan, 
3very  male  was  required  to  present  him- 
self before  God  thrice  a  year,  viz.,  at  the 
passover,  or  feast  of  unleavened  bread, 
at  that  of  "harvest,"  and  that  of  "in- 
gathering" (Exod.  xxiii:  16).  In  the 
Old  Testament  six  passovers  are  men- 
tioned as  having  been  actually  kept.  In 
modern  Judaism  no  lamb  is  sacrificed, 
but  the  shank  bone  of  a  shoulder  of  that 
animal  is  eaten,  leaven  put  away,  and 
other  ceremonies  observed. 

PASSPORT,  a  warrant  of  protection 
and  authority  to  travel,  granted  to  per- 
sons moving  from  place  to  place,  by  a 
competent  authority.  In  some  states  no 
foreigner  is  allowed  to  travel  without  a 
passport  from  his  government.  In 
Russia  and  Turkey,  in  particular,  a  pass- 
port is  indispensable.  Passports  to 
British  subjects  are  granted  at  the 
Foreign  Office,  London.  In  the  United 
States  passports,  with  description  of  the 
applicant,  are  issued  by  the  State  De- 
partment at  Washington.  They  are 
issued  only  to  citizens,  native  born  and 
naturalized. 

PASTEUR,  LOUIS,  a  French  chemist 
and  physicist;  born  in  Dole,  Jura,  in 
1822;  educated  at  Jena  University  and 
the  Ecole  Normale,  Paris,  where  in  1847 
he  took  his  degree  as  doctor.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  was  appointed  Professor 
of  Physics  in  Strassburg,  where  he  de- 
voted much  research  to  the  subject  of 
fermentation;  in  1857  he  received  the 
appointment  of  dean  in  the  Faculty  of 
Sciences,  Lille;  in  1863  he  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Geology,  Chemistry,  and 
Physics   at  the    filcole    des   Beaux-Arts, 


Paris;  and  in  1867  Professor  of  Chem- 
istry at  the  Sorbonne.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1882. 
He  has  been  especially  successful  in 
proving  the  part  played  by  microbes  in 
fermentation  and  decomposition,  in  in- 
troducing a  successful  treatment  of  dis- 
ease in  silkworms  and  cattle,  and  has 
achieved  great  success  in  his  efforts  to 
check  hydrophobia  by  means  of  inocu- 
lation. To  enable  him  to  deal  with  this 
disease  under  the  best  conditions  a  Pas- 
teur Institute  was  opened  in  Paris,  where 
patients  are  received  from  all  parts  of 


LOUIS  PASTEUR 

Europe.  A  similar  institution,  in  New 
York  City,  has  proved  very  successful. 
He  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  28,  1895. 

PASTO,  a  town  in  the  S.  W.  of  Colom- 
bia, in  a  fertile  valley  8,350  feet  above 
sea-level.  Above  it  rises  the  volcano  of 
Pasto  (14,000  feet  above  the  sea)  ;  and 
in  1827  the  town  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake.     Pop.  about  20,000. 

PASTON  LETTERS,  THE.  a  collec- 
tion of  letters  written  by  and  to  mem- 
bers of  the  Paston  family  in  Norfolk 
during  the  period  of  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses.  These  letters  deal  freely  with 
the  domestic  affairs,  and  all  the  relations 
of  English  popular  life  in  the  period  in 
which  they  were  written.     An  accurate 


PASTOR 


137 


PATENT 


and  extended  edition  in  three  volumes, 
by  Mr.  Gairdner  was  published  (1872- 
1875).  A  four-volume  edition  by  the 
same  author  was  published  (1900-1901). 

PASTOR,  a  shepherd;  now  used  al- 
most exclusively  in  its  figurative  sense, 
for  one  who  feeds  the  Christian  flock; 
a  minister  of  the  Gospel,  having  charge 
of  a  church  and  congregation.  In  or- 
nithology, the  rose-colored  ousel.  Head, 
wings,  and  tail  blue  black,  the  feathers 
on  the  head  forming  a  crest;  back,  scapu- 
lars, and  rump,  rose-colored.  It  has  a 
wide  geographical  range  and  in  habits 
resembles  the  starling.  It  is  often  called 
the  locust  bird. 

PASTORAL  POETRY,  poetry  which 
deals,  in  a  more  or  less  direct  form,  with 
rustic  life.  It  has  generally  flourished  in 
highly  corrupted  artificial  states  of  so- 
ciety. Thus  Theocritus,  the  first  pas- 
toral poet,  made  artistic  protest  against 
the  licentiousness  of  Syracuse;  and  Ver- 
gil wrote  his  "Bucolics"  and  "Eclogues" 
in  the  corrupt  Roman  court.  In  the  16th 
century  pastoral  poetry  received  notable 
expression  in  "Arcadia"  of  G.  Sannazaro, 
the  "Aminta"  of  Tasso,  and  the  "Pastor 
Fido"  of  Guarini;  and  in  England,  in 
the  "Shepherd's  Calendar"  of  Spenser, 
the  "Arcadia"  of  Sidney,  the  "Faithful 
Shepherdess"  of  Fletcher,  "As  You  Like 
It"  of  Shakespeare  and  the  "Comus"  of 
Milton.  The  "Gentle  Shepherd"  of  Allan 
Ramsay  (1725)  was  the  last  successful 
dramatic  pastoral. 

PATAGONIA,  the  name  applied  to 
that  extreme  portion  of  South  America 
which  is  bounded  E.  by  the  Atlantic,  W. 
by  the  Pacific,  S.  by  the  Strait  of  Magel- 
lan, and  N.  by  the  Rio  Negro.  Since 
1881  this  large  territory  has  been,  by 
treaty,  divided  between  Chile  and  the 
Argentine  Republic,  so  that  the  portion 
W.  of  the  Andes  (63,000  squai-e  miles) 
belongs  now  to  the  former  (called  Magal- 
lones),  and  the  part  E.  of  the  Andes 
(860,000)  belong  to  the  latter  (Rio 
Negro,  Chubut,  Santa  Cruz  districts). 
The  Straits  of  Magellan  form  a  S.  boun- 
dary of  360  miles,  and  separate  the  main- 
land from  the  numerous  islands  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego.  ^  Here  the  Chilean  Govern- 
ment established  the  settlement  of  Punta 
Arenas,  with  stations  along  the  coast. 
Patagonia  E.  of  the  Andes  consists 
mainly  of  vast,  undulating  plains,  fre- 
quently covered  with  shingle  and  broken 
up  by  ridges  of  volcanic  rock.  The  vege- 
tation is  scanty,  except  adjoining  the 
Andes,  and  there  are  shallow  salt  lakes 
and  lagoons.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Rio  Negro,  the  Chupat,  the  Rio  Desire, 
and   the    Rio   Chico,    which    have    their 


sources  in  the  Andes.  The  Patagonians 
are  a  tall,  muscular  race  averaging  fully 
six  feet  in  height,  with  black  hair,  thick 
lips,  and  skin  of  a  dark  brown  color. 
They  are  a  nomad  race,  divided  into  nu- 
merous tribes,  whose  chief  occupation  is 
in  hunting  and  cattle  breeding.  The 
country  was  first  discovered  by  Magellan 
in  1520. 

PATAN,  a  walled  town  of  India, 
in  the  Nepal  province;  64  miles  N.  W. 
from  Ahmadabad,  stands  on  a  tributary 
of  the  Banas.  It  manufactures  swords, 
spears,  pottery  and  silk  and  cotton  goods. 
Standing  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Anhil- 
wara,  and  the  capital  of  native  dynasties 
from  the  8th  century  to  the  present  day, 
Patan  is  surrounded  with  lofty  walls, 
and  has  numerous  architectural  ruins. 
Pop.   (1918)   30,000. 

PATAPSCO  RIVER,  a  stream  in 
Maryland  which  flows  into  Chesapeake 
Bay,  about  14  miles  S.  of  the  city  of 
Baltimore.  It  is  nearly  80  miles  long. 
The  part  of  it  below  Baltimore  is  an 
estuary  3  miles  wide,  and  navigable  for 
large  ships. 

PATELLA,  the  same  as  knee  cap. 
See  Knee.  In  zoology  and  palaeontology, 
rock  limpet;  the  typical  genus  of  the 
family  Patellidse.  The  shell  is  oval,  vvith 
a  subcentral  apex,  the  animal  with  a 
continuous  series  of  branchial  lamellae, 
sessile  eyes,  and  six  lingual  teeth.  Re- 
cent species  144,  from  the  shores  of  Great 
Britain,  Norway,  and  other  countries, 
living  between  high  and  low  water 
marks.  Fossil  about  100  from  the'  Silu- 
rian onward. 

PATEN,  a  plate  used  from  early 
Christian  times  to  receive  the  Host  conse- 
crated at  Mass.  At  first  the  paten  was 
made  of  glass,  but  the  use  of  this  mate- 
rial was  forbidden  in  the  6th  century. 
In  England  it  was  often  made  of  the  less 
precious  metals,  though  gold  or  silver 
should  properly  be  employed.  Larger 
patens,  called  tninisteriales,  were  used  to 
hold  the  small  Hosts  for  the  communion 
of  the  laity.  In  the  Roman  Church  the 
paten  is  consecrated  by  the  bishop  with 
chrism,  and  evidence  exists  that  this  rite 
was  in  use  in  the  8th  century. 

PATENT,  an  exclusive  right  granted 
by  a  government  (in  letters  patent  or 
open,  whence  the  name)  to  any  person 
or  persons  to  manufacture  and  sell  a 
chattel  or  article  of  commerce  of  his  own 
invention.  A  patent  obtained  in  Eng- 
land extends  to  14  years,  and  several  of 
the  colonies  have  machinery  for  granting 
Patents  for  a  like  period.  In  France  the 
term  is  5,  10,  or  15  years  at  the  option 


PATENT 


138 


PATENT 


of  the  applicant;  in  Prussia  for  15  years; 
in  Russia  for  3,  5,  or  15  years;  in  Spain 
for  5,  10,  or  20  years;  in  Belgium  for 
20  years;  in  Holland  there  are  no  patent 
laws;  in  Austria  not  more  than  15  years; 
in  Hungary  15  years.  In  the  United 
States  the  person  applying  for  a  patent 
may  present  a  petition,  specification,  oath, 
and  filing  fee,  with  a  drawing  if  the 
nature  of  the  case  admits  of  it.  Sec. 
4884  "Revised  Statutes  of  the  United 
States"  reads:  "Every  patent  shall  con- 
tain a  short  title  or  description  of  the 
invention  or  discovery,  correctly  indi- 
cating its  nature  and  design,  and  a  grant 
to  the  |)atentee,  his  heirs,  or  assigns, 
for  the  term  of  17  years  of  the  exclusive 
right  to  make,  use  and  vend  the  inven- 
tion or  discovery  throughout  the  United 
States  and  the  Territories  thereof." 
Design  patents  are  granted  for  periods  of 
three  years  and  six  months,  seven  years, 
or  14  years,  at  discretion  of  the  appli- 
cant. Patents  are  extended  only  by 
special  congressional  legislation.  The 
filing  of  a  caveat  power  to  applying  for 
a  patent  entitle?  the  inventor  to  notice 
of  an  interfering  application  filed  during 
the  life  of  the  caveat  (one  year),  during 
which  he  may  perfect  his  invention.  The 
alleged  inventions  set  forth  in  caveats 
are  transferable.  Special  facilities  are 
given  American  inventors  for  securing 
patents  in  foreign  countries,  by  a  pro- 
vision for  keeping  an  application  in  the 
secret  archives  of  the  patent  office  for  six 
months,  to  enable  the  inventor  to  ar- 
range foreign  patents. 

Patentable  Inventions. — By  the  statute 
of  1870  it  was  enacted  that  an  invention 
to  be  patentable,  must  possess,  among 
other  qualifications,  that  of  newness. 
He  who  produces  an  old  result  by  a  new 
mode  or  process  is  entitled  to  a  patent 
for  that  mode  or  process;  but  he  cannot 
have  a  patent  for  a  result  merely  without 
using  some  new  mode  or  process  to  pro- 
duce it.  A  man  is  entitled  to  all  the 
benefits  of  the  article  which  he  has  in- 
vented and  patented.  Another  who  hap- 
pens to  discover  an  additional  use  to 
which  the  invention  may  be  applied  does 
not,  by  that  discovery  and  application 
create  a  patentable  novelty.  When  there 
j^-J^"  °"^"^^  principle  of  operation,  a 
different  result  in  kind,  or  a  new  com- 
bination, there  exists  a  patentable  nov- 
elty. When  either  the  manufacture  pro- 
duced or  the  manner  of  producing  an  old 
one  is  new,  there  is  the  novelty  contem- 
plated by  the  patent  laws.  The  safest 
guide  to  accuracy  in  making  the  distinc- 
tion between  form  and  principle  has  been 
adjudged  to  be  to  ascertain  what  is  the 
result  to  be  secured  by  the  discovery. 
Whatever  is  essential  to  that  object,  in- 


dependent of  the  mere  form  and  propor- 
tions of  the  thing  used  for  the  purpose, 
may  generally,  if  not  universally,  be 
considered  as  the  principle  of  the  inven- 
tion. As  a  cumulative  definition,  it  may 
be  said  that  novelty  consists  in  producing 
a  new  substance,  or  an  old  one  in  a  new 
way,  by  new  machinery,  or  by  a  new 
combination  of  the  parts  of  an  old  ma- 
chine, operating  in  a  peculiar,  better, 
cheaper  or  quicker  method,  or  a  new 
mechanical  employment  of  principles 
already  known.  No  person  otherwise 
entitled  thereto  is  debarred  from  receiv- 
ing a  patent  for  his  invention  or  dis- 
covery by  reason  of  its  having  been  first 
patented  or  caused  to  be  patented  by 
the  inventor  or  his  legal  representatives 
or  assigns  in  a  foreign  country,  unless 
the  application  for  said  foreign  patent 
was  filed  more  than  seven  months  prior 
to  the  filing  of  the  application  in  this 
country. 

Applications. — Applications  for  a  pat- 
ent must  be  made  in  writing  to  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents.  The  applicant 
must  also  file  in  the  Patent  Oflfice  a  writ- 
ten description  of  the  same,  and  of  the 
manner  and  process  of  making,  con- 
structing, compounding,  and  using  it  in 
such  full,  clear,  concise  and  exact  terms 
as  to  enable  any  person  skilled  in  the 
art  or  science  to  which  it  appertains  or 
with  which  it  is  most  nearly  connected, 
to  make,  construct,  compound,  and  use 
the  same;  and  in  case  of  a  machine  he 
must  explain  the  principle  thereof  and 
the  best  mode  in  which  he  has  contem- 
plated applying  that  principle,  so  as  to 
distinguish  it  from  other  inventions,  and 
particularly  point  out  and  distinctly 
claim  the  part,  improvement  or  combina- 
tion which  he  claims  as  his  invention  or 
discovery.  The  specification  and  claim 
must  be  signed  by  the  inventor  and  at- 
tested by  two  witnesses. 

When  the  nature  of  the  case  admits  of 
drawings  the  applicant  must  furnish  a 
drawing  of  the  required  size,  signed  by 
the  inventor  or  his  attorney  in  fact,  and 
attested  by  two  witnesses.  In  all  cases 
which  admit  of  representation  by  model, 
the  applicant,  if  required  by  the  Patent 
Office,  shall  furnish  a  model  of  conveni- 
ent size  to  exhibit  advantageously  the 
several  parts  of  his  invention  or  dis- 
covery. 

The  applicant  shall  make  oath  that  he 
believes  himself  to  be  the  original  and 
first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  the  art, 
machine,  manufacture,  composition  or 
improvement  for  which  he  solicits  a  pat- 
ent; that  he  does  not  know  and  does  not 
believe  that  the  same  was  ever  before 
known  or  used  before  his  invention  or 
discovery  thereof,  and  shall  state  of  what 


PATENT 


139 


PATEENOSTER 


country  he  is  a  citizen  and  where  he 
resides.  In  every  original  application 
the  applicant  must  distinctly  state  under 
oath  that  the  invention  has  not  been 
patented  or  described  in  any  printed  pub- 
lication in  any  country  before  his  inven- 
tion or  discovery  thereof  or  more  than 
two  years  prior  to  his  application.  If 
any  application  for  patent  has  been  filed 
in  any  foreign  country  by  the  applicant 
in  the  United  States,  or  by  his  legal  rep- 
resentatives or  assigns,  prior  to  his 
application  in  the  United  States,  he  shall 
state  the  country  or  countries  in  which 
such  application  has  been  filed,  giving 
the  date  of  such  application,  and  shall 
also  state  that  no  application  has  been 
filed  in  any  other  country  or  countries 
than  those  mentioned;  that  to  the  best 
of  his  knowledge  and  belief  the  invention 
had  not  been  in  public  use  or  on  sale  in 
the  United  States,  for  more  than  two 
years  prior  to  his  application. 

On  the  filing  of  such  application  and 
the  payment  of  the  fees  required  by  law, 
if,  on  examination,  it  appears  that  the 
applicant  is  justly  entitled  to  a  patent 
under  the  law,  and  that  the  same  is 
sufficiently  useful  and  important,  the 
Commissioner  will  issue  a  patent  there- 
for. Every  patent  or  any  interest 
therein  shall  be  assignable  in  law  by  an 
instrument  in  writing;  and  the  patentee 
or  his_  assigns  or  legal  representatives 
may,  in  like  manner,  grant  and  convey 
an  exclusive  right  under  his  patent  to 
the  whole  or  any  specified  part  of  the 
United  States. 

Reissues. — A  reissue  is  granted  to  the 
original  patentee,  his  legal  representa- 
tives or  the  assignees  of  the  entire  in- 
terest when,  by  reason  of  a  defective  or 
insufficient  specification,  or  by  reason  of 
the  patentee  claiming  as  his  invention  or 
discovery  more  than  he  had  a  right  to 
claim  as  new,  the  original  patent  is  in- 
operative or  invalid,  provided  the  error 
has  arisen  from  inadvertence,  accident, 
or  mistake,^  without  any  fraudulent  or 
deceptive  intention.  Reissue  applica- 
tions must  be  made  and  the  specifications 
sworn  to  by  the  inventors  if  they  be 
living. 

Fees. — Fees  paid  in  advance  are  as 
follows:  On  filing  each  original  applica- 
tion for  a  patent,  except  in  design  cases, 
$15.  On  issuing  each  original  patent, 
except  in  design  cases,  $20.  In  design 
cases,  for  three  years  and  six  months 
$10;  for  seven  years  $15,  for  14  years 
$30.  On  every  application  for  the  re- 
issue of  a  patent  $30.  On  filing  each  dis- 
claimer $10. 

Following  are  the  figures  for  patents 
granted  and  applied  for  at  the  Patent 
Office  in  1920. 


Granted — Patents  on  mechanical 

inventions    37,316 

Granted — Reissue  patents   227 

Granted — Design  patents 2,102 

Registered — Trade-marks 6,984 

Registered — Labels    622 

Registered — Prints    158 

Total   47,409 

Number     of     applications     filed 
for — 

Inventions    81,948 

Designs  4,110 

Reissues    322 

Trade-marks    14,710 

Labels  1,280 

Prints   570 

Total  102,940 

PATEB,  WALTER,  an  English  au- 
thor; born  in  London,  England,  Aug.  4, 
1839,  and  educated  at  King's  School, 
Canterbury,  and  at  Queen's  College,  Ox- 
ford, taking  a  classical  second  class  in 
1862.  He  was  elected  to  an  open  fellow- 
ship at  Brasenose;  traveled  in  Italy, 
France,  and  Germany,  and,  both  by  his 
subtle  critical  insight  and  the  exquisite 
finish  of  his  style,  earned  his  rank  among 
the  best  prose  writers  of  his  time.  His 
books  are  "Studies  in  the  History  of  the 
Renaissance"  (1873),  a  series  of  essays 
on  art  and  letters,  on  such  men  as 
Leonardo,  Botticelli,  Joachim  du  Bellay, 
and  others;  "Marius  the  Epicurean:  his 
Sensations  and  Ideas"  (1885),  an  imag- 
inary biography  of  a  young  man  brought 
up  in  Roman  paganism,  who  passes 
through  varied  spiritual  experience, 
meets  Marcus  Aurelius  himself,  and  at 
last,  shortly  before  his  unexpected  death, 
makes  acquaintance  with  the  mysterious 
new  Eastern  religion;  "Imaginary  Por- 
traits" (1887);  "Appreciations"  (1889), 
a  volume  of  admirable  criticism  on 
Charles  Lamb,  Wordsworth,  Coleridge, 
Rossetti,  Sir  Thomas  Brovme,  Blake, 
and  on  style  itself.  He  died  July  30, 
1894. 

PATERNO,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the 
province  of  Catania.  It  is  on  the  south- 
ern slope  of  Mount  Etna.  On  an  emi- 
nence overlooking  the  city  is  an  ancient 
Norman  castle  and  chapel.  The  town 
has  a  trade  in  mineral  waters,  wine,  oil, 
and  hemp.     Pop.  (1911)  20,923. 

PATERNOSTER,  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
from  the  first  two  words  of  the  Latin 
version;  every  10th  large  bead  in  the 
rosary  used  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in 
their  devotions.  At  this  they  repeat  the 
Lord's   Prayer,   and   at  the   intervening 


PATERSON 


140 


PATMORE 


small  beads  an  Ave  Maria.  Also  a 
rosary.  In  architecture,  a  kind  of  orna- 
ment in  the  shape  of  beads.  In  angling, 
a  name  given  to  a  line  to  which  hooks 
are  attached  at  certain  intervals,  and 
also  leaden  beads  or  shot  to  sink  it. 

PATERSON,  a  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Passaic  co.,  N.  J.;  on  the  Passaic 
river,  the  Morris  canal,  and  on  the  Erie, 
the  New  York,  Susquehanna  &  Western, 
and  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  West- 
ern railroads;  17  miles  N.  W.  of  New 
York.  The  city  is  chiefly  noted  for  its 
silk  industries,  on  account  of  which  it  is 
called  the  "Lyons  of  America."  It  is 
built  partly  on  the  slopes  of  ranges  of 
hills  which  surround  it  and  partly  on  a 
broad  plain. 

Business  Interests. — Paterson  is  an 
important  manufacturing  center.  Its 
silk  mills  are  the  largest  in  the  United 
States,  having  an  output  of  over  $200,- 
000,000  per  annum  and  employing  about 
30,000  persons.  Its  other  manufactures 
include  aeroplane  motors,  electrical  mo- 
tors, locomotives,  -nd  other  machinery, 
linen  thread,  twine,  yarns,  and  shirts. 
The  city  has  three  National  banks,  one 
savings  institution,  and  five  trust  com- 
panies. The  assessed  valuation  of  the 
property  is  $131,000,000  and  the  net 
bonded  debt  about  $5,833,000. 

P^iblic  Interests. — The  city  has  an  area 
of  8^/^  square  miles;  115  miles  of  paved 
streets  and  a  sewer  system  covering  120 
miles.  The  streets  are  lighted  by  elec- 
tricity and  gas.  The  Police  Department 
has  a  force  of  175  men.  The  Fire  De- 
partment is  completely  motorized.  The 
annual  cost  of  maintaining  the  city  gov- 
ernment is  about  $4,150,000.  The  streets 
are  well  paved  and  broad.  Among  the 
local  attractions  are  the  Passaic  Falls, 
the  river  dropping  over  a  70-foot  preci- 
pice at  this  point.  The  principal  public 
buildings  are  the  city  hall,  court  house, 
postofRce  and  the  high  school. 

History. — Paterson  was  founded  in 
1791  by  a  society  formed  by  Alexander 
Hamilton.  The  society  had  a  capital  of 
$1,000,000  and  Hamilton's  idea  in  organ- 
izing it  and  founding  the  city  was  to  en- 
courage American  manufacture  and 
make  the  United  States  industrially  as 
well  as  politically  independent  of  "Europe. 
The  city  was  named  in  honor  of  William 
Paterson,  Governor  of  New  Jersey.  In 
1851  it  was  incorporated  as  a  city.  Pop. 
(1910)    125,600;    (1920)    135,866. 

PATERSON,  ROBERT,  popularly 
knovim  as  "Old  Mortality,"  an  English 
stone  cutter,  born  near  Hawick,  in  1712 
or  1715,  served  his  apprenticeship  as  a 
stone  mason  to  an  elder  brother  near 
Lochmaben.     He     married     soon     after 


1740,  and,  renting  a  quarry  for  himself, 
took  to  carrying  gravestones  into  Gallo- 
way. From  about  1758  he  neglected  to 
return  to  his  wife  and  five  children,  and 
for  upward  of  40  years  devoted  himself 
to  the  task  of  repairing  or  erecting  head- 
stones to  Covenanting  martyrs.  Pater- 
son died  in  Bankend,  England,  Jan.  29, 
1801,  and  was  buried  at  Caerlaverock, 
where  a  monument  was  erected  to  him 
by  the  Messrs.  Black  in  1869. 

PATERSON,  WILLIAM,  an  English 
financier;  born  in  Dumfriesshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1658.  He  went  through  Eng- 
land as  a  peddler,  settled  for  a  time  at 
Bristol,  subsequently  resided  in  the  Ba- 
hama Islands.  Returning  to  London  he 
engaged  in  trade  with  success,  and  in 
1694  proposed  and  founded  the  Bank  of 
England,  being  one  of  its  first  directors. 
When  the  Treaty  of  Union  between  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  was  concluded  in  1707, 
Paterson,  one  of  its  warmest  advocates, 
received  an  indemnity  (of  $90,000)  for 
the  losses  he  had  sustained.  Paterson 
was  a  great  financial  genius,  but  most 
of  his  views  (such  as  his  advocacy  of 
free  trade)  were  far  in  advance  of  his 
time.     He  died  in  London  in  1719. 

PATHOLOGY,  the  branch  of  medical 
science  which  treats  of  disease.  It  in- 
vestigates its  predisposing  and  existing 
cause,  its  charr.cteristic  symptoms,  and 
its  progress  from  first  to  last.  Human 
pathology  occupies  itself  with  the  dis- 
eases of  man,  and  comparative  pathology, 
which  makes  comparison  between  the 
diseases  of  man  and  those  of  the  inferior 
animals.  Vegetable  pathology  treats  of 
the  diseases  of  plants. 

PATIALA,  the  name  of  a  state  and 
city  of  Punjab,  India.  The  state  has 
an  area  of  3,542  square  miles,  with  a 
population  of  about  1,500,000.  Included 
in  this  is  timber  land  and  fertile  region, 
producing  grain,  barley,  maize  and 
wheat.  There  are  also  industries  of 
iron  and  brass  ware.  The  city  and  capi- 
tal has  a  population  of  about  50,000. 

PATMORE,  COVENTRY  KEARSEY 
DIGHTON,  an  English  poet;  born  in 
1823.  He  published  his  first  volume  of 
poems  in  1844,  became  assistant  librarian 
at  the  British  Museum,  and  associated 
himself  with  the  pre-Raphaelite  move- 
ment. His  reputation  as  a  poet  was 
established  by  the  publication  of  the  four 
parts  of  "The  Angel  in  the  House" 
(1854-1863),  which  he  revised  in  succes- 
sive editions.  Besides  this  he  published 
"The  Unknown  Eros  and  other  Odes,"  a 
poetical  anthology  called  the  "Children's 
Garland,"  a  "Memoir  of  B.  W.  Proctor" 
(Barry  Cornwall),  and  several  contribu- 


PATMOS 


141 


PATRIARCH 


tions  to  periodicals.     He  died  in  Lyming- 
ton,  England,  Nov.  26,  1896. 

PATMOS,  a  rocky  and  barren  island, 
of  most  irregular  outline,  in  the  JEgean 
Sea,  one  of  the  Sporades,  lying  to  the  S. 
of  Samos,  now  called  Patino;  area,  16 
square  miles.  It  is  celebrated  as  the 
place  to  which  the  apostle  John  was 
exiled;  in  a  cave  here,  it  is  said,  he  saw 
the  visions  recorded  in  the  Book  of  Reve- 
lations. On  the  top  of  a  mountain 
stands  the  famous  monastery  of  "John 
the  Divine,"  built  in  1088.  The  island 
was  awarded  to  Greece  by  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Italians  in  the  Turko-Italian  War 
(1912). 

PATNA,  called  also  Azimabad,  a  city 
of  Bengal,  140  miles  E.  of  Benares,  ex- 
tends 9  miles  along  the  Ganges.  Apart 
from  the  Gola  or  government  gi-anary 
(1786),  Patna  College,  the  shrine  of  Shah 
Arzani,  the  mosque  of  Sher  Shah,  a 
Roman  Catholic  church,  and  a  Moham- 
medan college,  there  are  no  buildings 
of  moment.  Its  railway  communication, 
and  its  central  position  at  the  junction 
of  three  great  rivers,  the  Son,  the  Gan- 
dak,  and  the  Ganges,  avenues  for  the 
traffic  of  the  northwest  provinces,  render 
Patna  of  great  importance  as  a  commer- 
cial center.  The  chief  imports  are  cot- 
ton goods,  oil-seeds,  salt,  sugar,  wheat, 
and  other  cereals.  The  exports,  princi- 
pally oil  seeds  and  salt,  with  cotton, 
spices,  English  piece  goods,  cocoanuts, 
and  tobacco.  Patna,  under  its  early 
name  of  Pataliputra,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  about  600  B.  c.  In  modern 
times  Patna  is  notable  as  the  scene  of  a 
massacre  of  British  prisoners  by  Mir 
Kasim  in  1763,  which  led  to  war  and 
annexation  by  the  English,  and  for  the 
mutiny  at  Dinapur,  the  military  station 
of  Patna,  in  1857.     Pop.  (1918)  140,000. 

PATNA,  a  native  state  of  the  Central 
provmces,  India;  area,  2,399  square 
miles;  pop.  about  145,000.  It  has  been 
under  the  management  of  a  British  polit- 
ical agent  since  1871.  Patna  is  the  chief 
town;  pop.  about  3,000. 

PATON.  JAMES  MORTON,  an  Amer- 
ican archseologist ;  born  in  New  York,  in 
1863.  He  graduated  New  York  Uni- 
versity in  1883,  afterward  taking  post- 
graduate courses  at  Harvard  and  in 
other  European  universities.  From  1887 
to  1891  he  was  professor  of  Latin  at 
Middlebury  College.  From  1889  to  1905 
r^  was  associate  professor  of  Greek  at 
Wesleyan  University.  In  1917  he  was 
editor  in  chief  of  the  "American  Journal 
of  Archaeology,"  and  was  a  member  of 
several  learned  societies. 

Vol.  VII— Cyc 


PATON,  JOHN  GIBSON,  a  Scotch 
missionary;  born  in  Kirkmahoe,  Dum- 
friesshire, Scotland,  May  24,  1824. 
After  some  experience  in  Glasgow  city 
mission,  he  offered  his  services  for  the 
foreign  mission  field  in  connection  with 
the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church,  and 
on  his  ordination  he  settled  down  toward 
the  end  of  1858  among  the  cannibal 
natives  of  Tanna.  Here  he  worked  amid 
trials  and  privations  till  1862,  when  the 
hostility  of  the  natives  forced  him  to 
leave.  For  20  years  he  labored  on  the 
neighboring  island  of  Aniwa,  the  whole 
population  of  which  became  Christian. 
Both  by  voice  and  pen  he  afterward  at- 
tracted public  attention  and  sympathy 
toward  this  field  of  mission  labor.  The 
thrilling  narrative  of  his  experiences 
was  first  published  in  1890.  He  died  in 
1907. 

PATRAS,  or  PATRJE.  a  fortified  sea- 
port town  and  the  most  important  in  the 
W.  of  Greece,  climbs  up  a  hillside  and 
spreads  out  at  its  foot  on  the  E.  shore 
of  the  Gulf  of  Patras,  81  miles  W.  by  N. 
of  Corinth  and  137  W.  of  N.  of  Athens. 
It  is  a  handsome  city,  having  been  almost 
entirely  rebuilt  after  the  ravages  of  the 
war  of  liberation  (1821).  It  is  defended 
by  a  citadel,  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop, 
and  has  a  spacious  new  harbor  (1880) 
protected  by  a  mole.  It  ships  great 
quantities  of  currants,  chiefly  to  Great 
Britain  and  France.  Besides  currants, 
olive  oil,  wine,  valonia,  etc.,  are  exported. 
Pop.  about  45,000.  Patrae  is  the  only 
one  of  the  12  cities  of  Achaia  which  still 
exists  as  a  town;  but  most  of  its  relics 
have  been  swept  away  by  earthquake 
(551,  1820)  and  siege.  It  was  an  early 
seat  of  Christianity,  having  an  arch- 
bishoR  before  347. 

PATRIARCH,  the  father  and  ruler 
of  a  family;  one  who  governs  his  family 
or  descendants  by  paternal  right.  The 
term  is  usually  applied  to  Abraham, 
Isaac,  Jacob,  and  his  sons,  or  the  heads 
of  families  before  the  flood.  In  Church 
history,  the  highest  grade  in  the  hier- 
archy of  ordinary  jurisdiction,  the  see  of 
Rome  excepted.  The  title  came  into  use 
in  the  5th  century.  In  the  4th  Constan- 
tinople and  in  the  5th  Jerusalem  occu- 
pied the  position  of  patriarchates. 
These  Eastern  sees  have  long  been  lost 
to  the  Latin  Church,  which  admits  a 
Maronite,  a  Melchite  and  a  Syrian  Pa- 
triarch of  Antioch,  a  Patriarch  of 
Cilicia,  of  the  Armenian,  and  a  Patriarch 
of  Babylon,  of  the  Chaldean  rite.  There 
are  also  three  minor  patriarchs  in  the 
Western  Church,  the  Patriarch  of  the 
Indies,  the  prelate  of  the  highest  rank 

10 


PATBICIA 


142 


PATBIOTIC    SOCIETIES 


in  the  church  of  Spain,  the  Patriarch  of 
Lisbon,  and  the  Patriarch  of  Venice. 

PATRICIA,  a  district  of  the  Province 
of  Ontario,  Canada.  It  has  an  area  of 
14,400  square  miles.  The  district  was 
added  to  the  Province  in  1912. 

PATRICIAN,  a  Roman  senator;  a 
person  of  noble  birth;  a  nobleman;  a 
wealthy  noble.  Also  one  who  is  familiar 
with  the  writings  of  the  early  fathers  of 
the  Church;  one  versed  in  patristic  learn- 
ing. The  Roman  patricians  consisted  of 
about  300  gentes,  houses,  or  clans,  who, 
descending  from  the  first  Roman  sena- 
tors, constituted  the  aristocracy  of  the 
city  and  territory.  At  first  the  patri- 
cians monopolized  all  high  offices  in  the 
state,  but  after  political  contests  with 
the  plebeians,  lasting  for  centuries, 
Licinius  (365  B.  c.)  carried  his  rogation, 
by  which  plebeians  were  admitted  to  the 
consulate  and  to  the  custody  of  the  Sibyl- 
line books. 

PATRICK,  MARY  MILLS,  educator 
and  author.  She  was  born  at  Canter- 
bury, N.  H.,  in  1850,  and  graduated  from 
Iowa  State  University  in  1890,  immedi- 
ately becoming  head  of  the  American 
College  for  Girls  in  Constantinople. 
After  two  years  in  that  city  she  resided 
m  different  parts  of  Europe  and  took  a 
philosophical  degree  at  Berne.  Hence- 
forth she  devoted  her  time  to  philosoph- 
ical studies  and  wrote  several  books, 
among  them:  "American  Translation  of 
a  Text-Book  of  Physiology";  "Sappho 
and  the  Island  of  Lesbos." 

PATRICK,   ST.,   or  PATRICIUS,  the 

apostle  or  patron  saint  of  Ireland;  said 
to  have  been  born  near  the  site  of  Kil- 
patrick,  Scotland.  His  zeal  prompted 
him  to  cross  the  channel  for  the  conver- 
sion of  the  pagan  Irish,  probably  between 
440-460.  His  endeavors  were  crowned 
with  great  success,  and  he  established 
there  a  number  of  schools  and  monas- 
teries. Nennius  states  that  his  missions 
continued  40  years  and  various  miracles 
are  attributed  to  him,  particularly  the 
expulsion  of  all  venomous  creatures 
from  Ireland.  The  order  of  St.  Patrick, 
the  third  in  rank  of  British  orders,  was 
instituted  in  1783. 

PATRIOTIC  SOCIETIES,  organiza- 
tions fostering  devotion  to  country  by 
the  commemoration  of  events  in  the 
establishment  of  the  country's  freedom 
and  the  preservation  of  traditions,  and 
the  restoration  of  historic  sites  and 
scenes.  In  the  United  States  the  greater 
number  of  the  societies  are  divided  be- 
tween those  whose  origin  goes  back  to 
the  Revolutionary  War  and  those  orig- 


inating in  the  Civil  War.  Other  so- 
cieties go  back  to  the  Colonial  period 
and  these  are  the  earliest.  The  Society 
of  Mayflower  Descendants,  Society  of 
the  Ark  and  Dove,  Society  of  Colonial 
Wars,  Society  of  Colonial  Dames  of 
America,  Order  of  the  Founders  and 
Patriots  of  America,  National  Society 
of  Scions  of  Colonial  Cavaliers,  National 
Society  of  Colonial  Dames,  Society  of 
Daughters  and  Patriots  of  America, 
Order  of  Washington,  Order  of  Pequot 
and  King  Phillip  are  other  societies  de- 
voted to  the  Colonial  period. 


BADGE  OF  THE  ORDER  OF   ST.    PATRICK 

The  Society  of  the  Cincinnati  is  one 
of  the  organizations  going  back  to  the 
wars  which  freed  the  United  States  from 
British  control,  membership  being  con- 
fined to  the  descendants  of  officers  who 
served  in  the  Continental  army  for  at 
least  three  years.  Other  societies  relat- 
ing to  the  Revolutionary  period  are :  Sons 
of  Revolutionary  Sires,  Society  of  the 
Sons  of  the  American  Revolution,  Naval 
Order  of  the  United  States,  Military 
Order  of  Foreign  Wars,  Saint  Nicholas 
Society  of  New  York.  Later  organiza- 
tions are  the  General  Society  of  the  War 
of  1812,  Veteran  Corps  of  Artillery, 
American  Order  of  the  Louisiana,  Aztec 
Club,  Association  of  Mexican  Veterans, 


PATROCLUS 


143 


PATTI 


Descendants  of  the  Signers  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  Society  of 
Dames  of  the  Revolution,  Daughters  of 
the  American  Revolution,  Children  of  the 
American  Revolution,  Society  of  the 
United  States,  Daughters  of  the  Republic 
of  Texas,  Daughters  of  1812. 

The  Military  Order  of  the  Loyal 
Legion  is  conspicuous  among  the  societies 
relating  to  the  Civil  War,  being  modeled 
on  the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati.  Other 
Civil  War  organizations  are:  Grand 
Army  of  the  Republic,  Union  Society  of 
the  Civil  War,  Union  Veteran  Legion, 
Sons  of  Veterans,  Union  Society  of  the 
Civil  War,  Society  of  the  Army  of  Cum- 
berland, Society  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  Society  of  the  Army  of  Ten- 
nessee, Eleventh  Army  Corps  Associa- 
tion, Second  Army  Corps  Association, 
Thirteenth  Army  Corps  Association, 
Union  Society  of  the  Civil  War,  Militai'y 
Order  of  the  Medal  of  Honor,  National 
Association  of  Naval  Veterans,  Medal 
of  Honor  Legion,  United  Confederate 
Veterans,  United  Daughters  of  the  Con- 
federacy, United  Sons  of  Confederate 
Veterans. 

Before  the  war  with  Spain  the  Order 
of  the  Indian  Wars  and  the  Society  of 
Veterans  of  Indian  Wars  were  estab- 
lished. The  Spanish  War  gave  birth  to 
the  Naval  and  Military  Order  of  the 
Spanish-American  War,  United  Spanish 
War  Veterans,  Rough  Riders'  Associa- 
tion and  others.  Societies  of  a  similar 
character  are  the  American  Scenic  and 
Historic  Preservation  Society,  Thomas 
Jefferson  Memorial  Association  and  the 
like. 

The  World  War  has  likewise  seen 
the  formation  of  many  societies,  such  as 
the  American  Legion  and  Veterans  of 
Foreign  Wars.  The  number  of  these 
societies  is  on  the  increase. 

PATROCLUS,  in  Greek  story,  the 
friend  of  Achilles,  whom  he  accompanied 
to  the  Trojan  war.  His  success  was  at 
first  brilliant;  but,  Apollo  having 
stunned  him  and  rendered  him  defense- 
less, he  was  slain  by  Euphorbus  and 
Hector.     See  Achilles. 

PATTEE,  FRED  LEWIS,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  in  Bristol,  N.  H.,  in 
1863.  He  was  graduated  from  Dart- 
mouth in  1888.  From  1894  he  was  presi- 
dent of  English  literature  at  the  Penn- 
sylvania State  College.  He  wrote  "A 
History  of  American  Literature," 
(1896);  "The  Foundation  of  English 
Literature,"  (1900) ;  "History  of  Amer- 
ican Literature  Since  1870,"  (1915). 
He  also  wrote  a  book  of  poems  and 
several  other  volumes  of  general  lit- 
erature. 


PATTEN,  SIMON  NELSON,  an  Amer- 
ican author  and  professor.  Born  at 
Sandwich,  111.,  in  1852,  and  educated  at 
Northwestern  University,  Illinois,  and 
Halle,  Germany.  In  1888  he  became 
professor  of  Political  Economy  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  a  position 
which  he  held  until  his  retirement  in 
1917.  His  most  important  work  is  his 
"Development  of  English  Thought"  in 
which  he  discusses  the  economic  phases 
underlying  the  progress  of  ideas.  The 
same  thesis — economic  explanation  of 
social  phenomena — underlies  _  all  his 
work.  Some  of  his  other  important 
works  are  "Theory  of  Social  Forces" 
(1896)  ;  "Heredity  and  Social  Progress" 
(1903);  "Social  Basis  of  Religion" 
(1911);  "Culture  and  War"   (1916). 

PATTESON,  JOHN  COLERIDGE,  an 

English  missionary;  born  in  London, 
April  1,  1827,  the  son  of  Sir  John  Pat- 
teson,  judge  in  the  Queen's  Bench,  and 
of  a  niece  of  Coleridge,  the  poet.  He 
passed  through  Eton  and  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  elected  a  Fellow  of  Merton  in 
1852,  and  appointed  curate  of  Alfing- 
ton,  Devonshire.  But  his  thoughts 
turned  to  missionary  work  and  in  1855 
he  sailed  with  Bishop  Selwyn  to  New 
Zealand.  The  next  16  years  he  spent 
among  the  Melanesian  Islands — New 
Hebrides,  Banks,  Solomon,  and  Loyalty 
Islands;  and  in  1861  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Melanesia.  A  most  unselfish 
man  and  a  true  Christian,  he  was 
greatly  beloved  by  the  islanders,  whom 
he  protected  against  the  white  kidnap- 
pers of  the  Pacific.  He  was  killed  by  the 
natives  of  Nukapu,  one  of  the  Santa 
Cruz  group,  Sept.  20,  1871. 

PATTI,  ADELINA  MARIA  CLO- 
RINDA,  a  popular  operatic  singer  of 
Italian  extraction;  born  in  Madrid, 
Spain,  in  1843.  After  a  course  of  pro- 
fessional study  she  sang  at  an  early  age 
in  New  York.  Her  debut  in  London  took 
place  in  1861  as  Amina  in  "La  Sonnam- 
bula,"  and  she  ever  afterward  was  looked 
upon  as  one  of  the  first  singers  of  her 
time.  Her  voice  was  a  high  soprano,  of 
rich  bell-like  quality  and  remarkable 
evenness  of  tone,  with  purity  of  style 
and  high  artistic  finish.  She  won  golden 
opinions  on  the  Continent  wherever  she 
appeared,  receiving,  in  1870,  the  Order 
of  Merit  from  the  Emperor  of  Russia. 
Her  greatest  success  was  generally 
considered  to  be  Marguerite  in  Gounod's 
"Faust."  In  1868  she  was  married 
to  the  Marquis  de  Caux,  from  whom, 
however,  she  was  divorced  in  _  1876. 
She  subsequently  married  M.  Nicolini, 
and  appeared  in  the  United  States, 
South   America,  and  Mexico  at  various 


PATTISON 


144 


PAU 


times  from  1880-1892.  M.  Nicolini  died 
in  1898.  In  1899  she  married  her  third 
husband.  Baron  Rolf  Cederstrom. 


ADELINA   PATH 

In  1903  Madame  Patti  made  a  success- 
ful concert  tour  of  the  United  States. 
She  died  in  1919. 

PATTISOW,  MABK,  an  English 
writer;  born  in  1813;  was  educated  at 
Oriel  College,  Oxford;  received  a  fellow- 
ship: in  1839 ;  and  two  years  subsequently 
was  ordained  and  won  the  Denyer  theo- 
logical prize.  In  1853  he  was  appointed 
tutor  of  his  college,  and  in  1861  became 
rector  (or  head)  of  Lincoln  College.  He 
devoted  himself  to  university  reform. 
He  was  a  contributor  to  the  famous 
"Essays  and  Reviews,"  and  published 
"Pope's  Epistles  and  Satires"  (1869), 
"Isaac  Casaubon"  (1875),  a  memoir  of 
Milton  in  the  Men  of  Letters  Series 
(1879),  the  "Sonnets  of  Milton"  (1883), 
and  numerous  articles  in  reviews,  etc. 
He  died  in  1884. 

PATTON,  FHANCIS  LANDEY,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  Warwick 
Parish,  Bermuda,  Jan.  22,  1843.  Edu- 
cated at  Knox  College,  University  of  To- 
ronto, and  graduated  at  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1865.  In  1865-1871 
he  was  pastor  of  several  churches;  was 
then  chosen  McCormick  Professor  in  the 
Theological  Seminary  of  the  Northwest; 
and  in  1881  Professor  of  Relations  of 
Philosophy  and  Science  to  the  Christian 
Religion  in  Princeton  University,  the 
chair  having  been  especially  created  for 


him.     In  1888  he  was  chosen  president  of 
the  university. 

He  resigned  in  1902  and  soon  after 
was  appointed  President  of  the  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary.  Publications: 
"The  Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures" 
(1869) ;  "Summary  of  Christian  Doc- 
trines" (1874),  etc. 

PAU,  the  chief  tovra  of  the  French  de- 
partment of  Basses-Pyrenees,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Gave-de-Pau,  66  miles 
E.  S.  E.  of  Bayonne  and  143  S.  S.  E.  of 
Bordeaux.  It  occupies  a  rocky  height, 
623  feet  above  sea-level,  and  commands 
toward  the  S.  most  magnificent  views  of 
the  serrated  Pyrenees.  The  ancient 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Beam  and 
French  Navarre,  it  has  a  noble  five-tow- 
ered castle,  rising  to  a  height  of  110  feet, 
rebuilt  about  1363  by  Gaston  Phoebus, 
Comte  de  Foix,  and  restored  by  Louis- 
Philippe  and  Napoleon  III.  Linen  and 
chocolate  are  its  chief  manufactures; 
and  in  the  vicinity  Juran^on  wine  is 
grown,  and  many  swine  are  fed,  whose 
pork  supplies  the  famous  hams  of  Bay- 
onne.    Pop.  about  40,000. 

PAU,  GENERAL  PAUL  MABY  CJE- 
SAB  GERALD,  a  French  general,  born 
in  Montelimar  in  1848;  graduated  from 
Saint  Cyr  Military  Academy  in  1867, 
served  in  Franco-Prussian  War  as  lieu- 
tenant of  infantry,  during  which  he  lost 
his  right  arm.     In  1897  he  had  attained 


GENERAL   PAU 

the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and  of 
division  in  1908.  At  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities,  in  1914,  he  was  given  an  im- 
portant command  in  Alsace,  where  he  re- 
mained  till    near   the   end    of   the   year. 


PAUL 


145 


PAUL 


In  1915  he  went  on  a  diplomatic  mission 
to  Russia,  the  Balkans  and  Italy,  and  to 
Australia  in  1918.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Inter-Allied  War  Council  and 
largely  influenced  Allied  military  plans 
on  the  western  front. 

PAUL,  the  name  of  five  Popes,  as 
follows : 

Paul  I.,  Pope;  the  successor  of  Ste- 
phen, in  757.  He  engaged  in  dispute 
with  Desiderius,  King  of  the  Longobards, 
but  was  taken  under  the  protection  of 
Pepin,  King  of  the  Franks.  He  died  in 
767. 

Paul  II.,  Pope;  succeeded  Pius  II.  in 
1464.  He  sought  to  organize  a  league 
of  the  Christian  princes  against  the 
Turks,  who  at  the  time  threatened  to  in- 
vade Italy,  and  also  endeavored  to  es- 
tablish peace  among  the  different  Italian 
States.  He  had  a  great  dislike  to  pro- 
fane learning,  but  he  established  the  first 
Roman  printing  press  (1463).  He  died 
in  1471. 

Paul  III.,  Pope;  named  Alexander 
Farnese;  was  elected  to  the  papal  chair 
in  succession  to  Clement  VII.  in  1534. 
In  his  reign  the  Council  of  Trent  was 
called.  He  established  the  Inquisition, 
confirmed  the  Society  of  Jesuits,  con- 
demned the  interim  of  Charles  V.,  and 
acted  with  rigor  against  Henry  VIII.  of 
England.     Died  in  1549. 

Paul  IV.,  Pope;  Giovanni  Pietro  Ca- 
raffa;  born  in  Naples,  in  1476;  succeeded 
Marcellus  II.,  in  1555.  He  established  a 
censorship,  and  completed  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Roman  Inquisition;  he  took 
measures  for  the  alleviation  of  the  bur- 
dens of  the  poorer  classes,  and  for  the 
better  administration  of  justice.  He 
was  embroiled  with  the  Emperor  Ferdi- 
nand, with  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  with 
Cosmo,  Grand-Duke  of  Tuscany.  He 
died  in  1559. 

Paul  V.,  Pope;  Camillo  Borghese, 
born  in  Rome,  in  1552;  was  elected  in 
1605,  after  the  death  of  Leo  XI.  He  had 
a  dispute  with  the  senate  of  Venice,  but 
it  was  so  firmly  resisted  that  the  Pope 
excommunicated  the  doge  and  senate. 
He  also  raised  forces  against  the  repub- 
lic; but  the  emperor  and  other  states 
interfered  and  peace  was  restored 
(1607).  He  embellished  Rome  with 
sculpture  and  painting,  and  an  aqueduct. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  Borghese  fam- 
ily, one  of  the  wealthiest  in  Italy.  He 
died  in  1621. 

PAUL  I.,  Emperor  of  Russia;  bom 
in  1754.  He  was  the  only  son  of  Peter 
III.  and  his  v/ife,  Catharine  II.  He  lost 
his  father  when  eight  years  old.  and  was 
brought  up  by  his  mother  with  great 
sererity  and  in  seclusion  from  public  af- 


fairs. His  marriage  to  the  Princess 
Mary  of  Wiirttemberg,  in  1776,  did  not 
free  him  from  harsh  treatment  till,  on 
the  death  of  Catharine,  in  1796,  he  was 
proclaimed  emperor.  The  hopes  excited 
by  some  liberal  measures  in  the  first 
days  of  his  reign  were  soon  extinguished. 
He  joined  the  second  coalition  against 
France;  and  Russian  armies  appeared 
in  Italy  under  Suwarrof,  in  Switzerland, 
and  in  Holland.  But  he  afterward  with- 
drew from  it,  and  entered  into  friendly 
relations  with  Napoleon.  His  conduct 
became  intolerable,  and  seemed,  in  fact, 
that  of  a  madman.  At  length  a  con- 
spiracy was  formed  against  him,  with 
Count  Pahlen  at  its  head;  and  he  was 
murdered  in  his  bedroom,  March  24, 
1801. 

PAUL,  ST.,  one  of  the  apostles  of 
Jesus  Christ;  originally  called  Saul;  a 
Hebrew  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  a 
native  of  Tarsus,  the  capital  of  Cilicia, 
and  was  born  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.  His  father  was  a  Phari- 
see of  the  most  rigid  cast,  and  Paul  him- 
self, up  to  the  time  of  his  conversion, 
was  a  most  bitter  and  intolerant  perse- 
cutor of  the  Christian  sect;  even  assist- 
ing at  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen. 
The  mode  of  his  conversion  is  fully  de- 
tailed in  the  New  Testament.  After  his 
conversion,  he  was  baptized  at  Damascus 
by  Ananias;  from  whence,  after  a  brief 
sojourn,  he  proceeded  to  Arabia,  where 
he  is  supposed  to  have  been  fully  in- 
structed in  the  duties  and  doctrines  of 
the  new  faith  by  special  revelation.  He 
was  martyred  about  A.  D.  66. 

PAUL,  ST..  EPISTLES  OF.  There 
are  14  epistles  in  the  New  Testament 
usually  ascribed  to  Paul,  beginning  with 
that  to  the  Romans  and  ending  with  that 
to  the  Hebrews.  Of  these  the  first  13 
have  never  been  contested;  as  to  the 
latter  many  good  men  have  doubted 
whether  Paul  was  the  author,  though 
the  current  of  criticism  is  in  favor  of 
this  opinion.  These  epistles,  in  which 
the  principles  of  Christianity  are  de- 
veloped for  all  periods,  characters,  and 
circumstances,  are  among  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  primitive  documents  of 
the  Christian  religion,  even  apart  from 
their  inspired  character. 

PAUL,  ST.  VINCENT  DE,  a  Roman 
Catholic  philanthropist;  born  of  poor 
parents  in  southern  France  in  1576;  was 
educated  at  Dax  and  Toulouse;  ordained 
a  priest  in  1600;  in  1605  he  was  captured 
by  pirates;  remained  in  slavery  in  Tunis 
for  two  years,  and  finally  escaped  to 
France.  He  afterward  visited  Rome, 
from  whence  he  was  sent  on  a  mission 


PAULDING 


146 


PAVEMENT 


to  Paris,  where  he  became  almoner  to 
Queen  Margaret  of  Valois.  In  1616  he 
began  the  labors  which  occupied  so  large 
a  portion  of  his  life,  and  which  included 
the  foundation  of  the  institution  called 
the  "Priests  of  the  Mission  or  Lazarists," 
the  reformation  of  the  hospitals,  the  in- 
stitution of  the  Sisterhood  of  Charity, 
the  instruction  of  idiots  at  his  Priory  of 
St.  Lazare,  etc.  Among  the  last  acts  of 
his  life  was  the  foundation  of  an  asylum 
for  aged  working  people  of  both  sexes, 
and  a  hospital  for  all  the  poor  of  Paris, 
which  was  opened  in  1657.  He  was  can- 
onized in  1737.     He  died  in  1660. 

PAULDING,  JAMES  KIRKE,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Dutchess  co., 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  ?2,  1779.  Self-educated,  he 
early  showed  a  tendency  to  literature, 
and,  being  a  friend  of  Washington  Irv- 
ing, wrote  a  portion  of  "Salmagundi." 
During  the  War  of  1812  he  published  the 
"Diverting  History  of  John  Bull  and 
Brother  Jonathan";  and  in  1814,  "The 
United  States  and  England,"  a  defense 
against  articles  in  the  "Quarterly  Re- 
view." This  gained  him  an  appointment 
on  the  Board  of  Naval  Commissioners. 
He  still  continued  to  write  minor  satires 
and  humorous  sketches,  and  in  1831  pub- 
lished the  very  successful  novel,  "The 
Dutchman's  Fireside,"  and  in  1832 
"Westward  Ho!"  "Life  of  Washington" 
(1835)  and  "Slavery  in  the  United 
States"  (1836),  in  which  the  institu- 
tion is  defended  on  social,  economical, 
and  physiological  grounds.  In  1837  Van 
Buren  appointed  him  Secretary  of  the 
Navy.  He  died  at  Hyde  Park,  N.  Y., 
April  6,  1860. 

PAXJLINUS,  an  English  missionary 
to  Northumbria,  counted  as  the  first  of 
the  archbishops  of  York.  He  was  a  na- 
tive of  Rome.  He  was  sent  on  his 
mission  by  Gregory  in  601,  and  first  la- 
bored under  Augustine  in  the  evangeli- 
zation of  Kent.  By  him  he  was  conse- 
crated bishop  in  625,  when  he  accom- 
panied Ethelburga  on  her  marriage  to 
the  still  heathen  Edwin,  King  of  North- 
umbria. For  a  long  time  he  made  no 
progTess;  but  at  length  a  great  gather- 
ing was  held  at  Goodmanham,  near 
York,  and  Edwin  and  his  court  submitted 
to  baptism  at  York,  in  a  wooden  chapel 
dedicated  to  St.  Peter,  the  foundation  of 
the  Minster,  Easter  Sunday,  627.  Pauli- 
nus  now  carried  the  Gospel  over  North- 
umbria, but  after  six  years'  constant 
labor  the  death  of  Edwin  in  battle  at 
Hatfield  put  a  sudden  end  to  his  work. 
In  the  same  year  he  received  the  "pal- 
lium" as  Archbishop  of  York  from  Rome, 
but   he   never   returned,   dying   Oct.    10, 


644.     He  was  buried  in  the  chapter  house 
at  Rochester. 

PAULIST  FATHERS,  a  modern 
American  society  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  founded  in  New  York  by  the  late 
Rev.  Isaac  T.  Hecker,  in  1858.  It  is 
composed  of  priests  who  are  engaged  in 
missionary  and  literary  work.  In  their 
work  they  adopt  methods  suitable  to  the 
customs  of  the  United  States,  but  for- 
eign to  those  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 
general.  By  this  they  have  brought 
upon  themselves  severe  criticism  from 
conservative  members  of  the  church  in 
Europe,  and  are  accused  of  a  desire  to 
build  up  an  American  church.  Their 
distinctive  work  is  the  endeavor  to  reach 
non-Catholics,  and  so  they  hold  their 
meetings  in  the  open  air,  or  in  school 
houses  and  town  halls  in  preference  to 
a  church;  they  also  use  congregational 
singing,  and  hymns  of  the  Protestant 
church.  They  have  a  printing  plant  of 
their  own  and  conduct  a  monthly  maga- 
zine called  the  "Catholic  World." 

PAULUS  HOOK,  FORT,  a  Revolu- 
tionary fortress  erected  by  the  British 
on  the  site  of  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

PAITR,  EMIL,  an  Austrian  conductor 
and  pianist.  Born  in  Austria-Hungary 
1855  he  became  a  student  in  the  Vienna 
Conservatory  and  in  1876  became  kapell- 
meister at  Cassel.  In  1891  the  Leipzig 
Stadt  Theater  elected  him  director  and 
in  1893  he  made  his  first  trip  to  Amer- 
ica to  succeed  Arthur  Nikisch  as  conduc- 
tor of  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra. 
From  1899-1900  he  conducted  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House.  In  1903  he 
returned  to  Europe,  this  time  to  Madrid 
to  the  Royal  Opera.  The  next  year  the 
Pittsburgh  Symphony  Orchestra  made 
him  their  conductor,  where  he  remained 
until  his  return  to  Berlin  in  1912  to  be- 
come the  conductor  of  the  Royal  Opera. 

PAUSANIAS,  a  Lacedaemonian  gen- 
eral, nephew  of  Leonidas.  He  com- 
manded the  allied  Greeks  against  the 
Persians  at  the  battle  of  Platsea  in  479 
B.  c.  He  afterward,  with  a  combined 
Greek  fleet,  delivered  Greece,  Cyprus, 
and  finally  Byzantium  from  the  Persian 
rule.  He  entered  into  secret  negotiations 
with  Xerxes  and  planned  to  make  him- 
self master  of  Greece.  To  escape  arrest 
he  sought  shelter  in  the  temple  of 
Athene  at  Sparta,  where  he  was  shut 
in  by  the  enraged  people  and  starved  to 
death  (467  B.  C). 

PAVEMENT,  the  hard  covering  of  the 
surface  of  a  board  or  footway;  a  floor  or 
covering  of  stones,  brick,  wood,  etc.,  laid 
evenly  on  the  earth,  so  as  to  form  a  level, 


PAVIA 


147 


PAYN 


hard,  and  convenient  passage.  Among 
the  pavements  now  in  use  the  most  com- 
mon are  macadam,  granite  cubes,  as- 
phalt, and  wood,  etc.  Also  a  decorative 
or  ornamental  flooring  of  colored  or  plain 
tiles,  stones,  or  brick. 

PAVIA,  a  city  of  northern  Italy,  capi- 
tal of  a  province  of  same  name,  on  the 
Ticino,  19  miles  S.  of  Milan.  In  the 
cathedral,  commenced  in  1448,  but  never 
finished,  are  the  ashes  of  St.  Augustine, 
in  a  sarcophagus  ornamented  with  50 
bassi-rilievi,  95  statues,  and  numerous 
grotesques.  The  Certosa  of  Pavia,  the 
most  splendid  monastery  in  the  world, 
lies  4  miles  N.  of  the  city.  It  was 
founded  in  1396,  contains  many  beauti- 
ful paintings,  and  abounds  in  the  rich- 
est ornamentation.  The  University  of 
Pavia  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Charlemagne  in  774.  It  consists  of 
numerous  colleges,  a  library  of  120,000 
volumes,  a  numismatic  collection,  ana- 
tomical, natural  history,  and  other  mu- 
seums, a  botanic  garden,  a  school  of  fine 
arts,  etc.  The  university  is  attended  by 
about  1,600  students.  Manufactures 
silk.  Here,  Feb.  24,  1525,  took  place  the 
battle  of  Pavia  (sometimes  called  the 
second  battle  of  Marignano),  in  which 
the  Imperialists,  under  Lanney,  defeated 
the  French,  and  took  Francois  I.  pris- 
oner.    Pop.  about  45,000. 

PAWNBROKER,  one  who  is  licensed 
to  lend,  or  make  a  business  of  lending 
money  on  goods  pawned  or  pledged. 

PAWNEES,  a  tribe  of  American  In- 
dians who  formerly  resided  in  Nebraska, 
with  branches  extending  into  Kansas  and 
Texas.  They  surrendered  their  lands  S. 
of  the  Platte  by  treaty  in  1833;  suffered 
much  thereafter  at  the  hands  of  their 
hereditary  enemies,  the  Sioux;  and  in 
1876  removed,  only  2,026  strong,  to  a 
reservation  of  283,020  acres  in  Indian 
Territory.  They  numbered  less  than 
1,000  in  1920. 

PAWTUCKET,  a  city  in  Providence 
CO.,  R.  I.,  on  the  Pawtucket  river,  at  the 
head  of  na\ngation,  and  on  the  New 
York  and  New  England,  and  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  rail- 
roads; 4  miles  N.  of  Providence.  The 
river  here  falls  50  feet,  and  this  fact, 
with  its  proximity  to  the  sea,  led  Sam- 
uel Slater  in  1790  to  select  it  as  the  site 
for  the  first  cotton  factory  built  in  the 
United  States.  Here  are  water-works, 
public  library,  public  and  parochial 
schools,  street  railroad  and  electric  light 
plants,  National  and  savings  banks,  and 
several  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
It  has  about  500  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments,   among   which   the    most   im- 


portant are  cotton,  woolen,  and  hair 
cloth  mills,  machine  shops,  and  foun- 
dries, print  works,  and  extensive  thread 
mills.     Pop.    (1910)    51,622;    (1920)   64,- 

248. 

PAX,   the   Roman   goddess   of  peace. 

PAX,  in  Church  history,  the  kiss  of 
peace.  In  the  early  Church  the  Roman 
osciilum  was  adopted  and  raised  to  a 
spiritual  significance  (Rom.  xvi:  16;  I 
Cor.  xvi:  20;  II  Cor.  xiii:  12;  I  Thess. 
v:  26).  To  obviate  possible  danger  from 
this  custom,  the  Apostolic  Constitutions 
strictly  decreed  the  separation  of  the 
sexes  at  public  worship.  The  pax  was 
given  at  mass  in  the  Western  Churches 
till  the  13th  century,  when  Archbishop 
Walter  in  1250  introduced  the  metal  pax, 
and  its  use  spread  to  the  Continent.  The 
pax  is  now  only  given  at  high  masses, 
and  the  formal  embrace  substituted  for 
the  kiss  is  confined  to  those  in  the  sanc- 
tuary. Also  an  osculatorium;  at  first 
probably  a  crucifix,  then  a  plate  of  metal 
adorned  with  a  figure  of  Christ  crucified, 
or  some  other  pious  picture  or  emblem, 
passed  among  the  congregation  to  be 
kissed  as  a  substitute  for  the  actual  kiss 
of  peace.  Its  use  is  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  religious  houses  and  seminaries. 
Called  also  Instrumentum,  Tabella  Pacis, 
Pacificale,  and  Freda. 

To  give  the  pax,  to  exchange  the  for- 
mal embrace  now  substituted  for  the  kiss 
of  peace. 

PAXO  (ancient  Faxes),  one  of  the 
Ionian  Islands,  lies  S.  E.  of  Corfu,  has, 
with  the  smaller  island  of  Antipaxo 
(1  square  mile),  an  area  of  8%  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1920)  about  5,000.  Pro- 
duces wine,  olives  and  olive  oil,  almonds, 
oranges,  lemons,  etc.  Capital,  Gaion, 
the  seat  of  a  bishoj^. 

PAYMASTER,  an  officer  in  the  army 
and  navy,  from  whom  the  officers  and 
men  receive  their  wages.  In  matters  of 
general  discipline  the  paymaster  is  sub- 
ordinate to  the  commanding  officer  of  his 
regiment;  but  in  regard  to  the  immediate 
duties  of  his  office  he  is  directly  responsi- 
ble to  the  war  office. 

PAYN,  JAMES,  an  English  novelist; 
born  in  Cheltenham,  England,  in  1830; 
was  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1854. 
From  1858  he  edited  "Chambers'  Jour- 
nal," for  which  he  wrote  exclusively  for 
many  years.  In  1882  he  became  editor 
of  the  "Cornhill  Magazine."  His  works 
reach  upward  of  100  books,  the  best 
known  being:  "Lost  Sir  Massingberd"; 
"By  Proxy";  "The  Luck  of  the  Dar- 
rells";  "The  Talk  of  the  Town";  "Some 
Literary     Recollections"      (1886) ;     and 


PAYNB 


148 


PATNB 


"Gleams  of  Memory"  (autobiograph- 
ical), (1894).  "The  Disappearance  of 
George  Driffield"  (1896);  "Another's 
Burdens"  (1897).  He  died  in  London, 
March  25,  1898. 

PAYNE,  BRUCE  RYBTJRN,  an 
American  educator,  born  at  Morgan- 
ton,  N.  C.,  in  1874.  He  graduated 
from  Trinity  College,  N.  C,  in  1896. 
After  serving  as  instructor  in  several 
institutions  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  philosophy  and  education  in  William 
and  Mary  College  in  1904.  From  1906 
to  1911  he  was  professor  of  psychology 
at  the  University  of  Virginia.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  appointed  president 
of  the  Greorge  Peabody  College,  of  Nash- 
ville, and  was  a  member  of  many  im- 
portant societies,  and  was  the  author  of 
the  work .  of  educational  systems  in 
various   European   countries. 

PAYNE,  JOHN,  an  English  poet  and 
Oriental  scholar;  born  in  London,  Aug. 
23,  1842.  He  studied  for  the  bar,  and  in 
1867  became  a  solicitor.  Among  his 
■works  are:  "The  Masque  of  Shadow" 
(1870);  "Intaglios"  (1871);  "Songs  of 
Life  and  Death"  (1872);  "Lautrec" 
(1878);  a  translation  of  the  "Poems  of 
Francis  Villon"  (1878) ;  "New  Poems" 
(1880);  "Francis  Villon— a  Biograph- 
ical Study"  (1881) ;  a  close  and  schol- 
arly translation  of  the  "Arabian  Nights* 
Entertainments,"  with  the  addition  of 
those  volumes  of  "Arabian  Tales"  not 
included  in  the  common  (1882);  and  a 
translation  of  the  "Rubaiyat"  of  Omar 
Khayyam,  including  over  800  quatrains, 
several  hundred  more  than  had  been  be- 
fore translated  (1897).  He  also  made  a 
translation  of  Dante's  "Divina  Corn- 
media,"  which  was  unpublished.  He 
translated  and  adapted  a  number  of 
works  including  "Poems  of  Hafiz" 
(1901);  "Flowers  of  France"  (1907) 
etc.     Died  1916. 

PAYNE,  JOHN  BARTON,  Secretary 
of  the  Interior  of  the  United  States. 
Born  in  Virginia  1855,  and  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  West  Virginia  in  1876.  In 
1883  he  removed  to  Chicago  where  he 
practiced  law  and  in  1893  was  elected 
Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Cook 
CO.  In  1898  he  resigned  his  judicial  po- 
sition and  entered  the  firm  of  Winston, 
Payne,  Strawn  and  Shaw,  in  which  he 
remained  until  1918.  In  that  year  he 
became  counsel  for  the  Shipping  Board 
of  the  United  States  Government  and 
later  became  its  chairman.  In  1920 
President  Wilson  appointed  him  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior. 

PAYNE,  JOHN  HOWARD,  an  Amer- 
ican dramatist;  born  in  New  York,  June 


9,  1792.  At  the  age  of  16  he  made  his 
first  appearance  at  the  Park  Theater  in 
the  character  of  Young  Norval  with 
brilliant  success.  He  also  played  in 
England  and  Ireland.  He  visited  Lon- 
don in  1813  and  there  founded  "The 
Opera  Glass."  In  1832  he  retired  from 
the  stage  and  in  1851  was  appointed 
United  States  consul  to  Tunis,  He 
wrote,  translated  and  adapted  over  60 
plays,  but  is  most  famous  as  the  author 
of  "Home,  Sweet  Home,"  originally  in 
the  opera  of  "Clari."  He  died  in  Tunis, 
April  10,  1852.  In  1883  his  remains 
were  removed  to  the  United  States  and 
interred  in  Oak  Hill  cemetery,  near 
Washington,  D.  C. 


JOHN   BARTON   PAYNE  . 

PAYNE,  SERENO  ELISHA,  Amer- 
ican legislator.  He  was  born  at  Ham- 
ilton, N.  Y.,  in  1843,  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Rochester,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1866.^  He  became  first  city 
clerk,  then  supervisor,  district  attorney 
and  head  of  the  education  board  at  Au- 
burn and,  elected  in  1883,  for  almost 
thirty  years  served  in  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives. In  politics  he  was  a  Re- 
publican, and  specialized  in  tariff  leg- 
islation, being  largely  responsible  for 
the  Payne-Aldrich  Act  of  1909.  He  died 
in  1914. 

PAYNE,  WILL,  an  American  journaU 
ist,  born  in  Whiteside  co.,  Ill,,  in  1865. 
He  was  educated  in  the  common  schools. 
In   1890   he   began   newspaper   work   in 


Photo,  Ewing  GaUoimy 


AVENUi:    OF    ROYAL    PALMS,    NEAR    HAVANA,    CUBA 


Knc.  Vol.  7  — p.  148 


@l'iihtislurs'  Photo  Scrzii 


THE    GAILLARD    CUT,    PANAMA    CANAL 


)i'ublislicrs'  Photo  Scriicc 


GATUN    LOCKS,    PANAMA    CANAL 


PAYNE 


149 


PEABODY 


Chicago  and  served  as  reporter,  editorial 
writer,  and  editor  on  the  Chicago  "Daily 
News,"  from  1890  to  1896.  He  was  finan- 
cial editor  of  the  Chicago  "Chronicle"  in 

1896  and  1897,  and  the  "Economist"  in 

1897  to  1904.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters. 
He  wrote  "Jerry  the  Dreamer,"  1896; 
"The  Story  of  Eva,"  1901;  "The  Auto- 
matic Capitalist,"  1909;  "The  Losing 
Game,"  1909.  He  also  contributed  short 
stories  to  magazines. 

PAYNE,         WILLIAM         MORTON, 

American  educator  and  author.  He  was 
born  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  in  1858, 
and  after  leaving  school  held  a  position 
in  the  Public  Library  at  Chicago,  taught 
in  high  school,  and  acted  as  literary  edi- 
tor of  the  Chicago  "Morning  News," 
Chicago  "Evening  Journal,"  and  "Dial." 
He  varied  the  rest  of  his  time  by  writing 
books  and  lecturing.  His  works  include : 
"The  New  Education";  "Little  Lead- 
ers"; "Various  Views";  "Greater  Eng- 
lish Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Century"; 
"Leading  American  Essayists";  "Bjorn- 
stjerne  Bjornson";  and  translations  of 
Segurd  Slembe  and  Ibsen.  He  died  in 
1919. 

PEA,  'pisiim  sativum,  an  annual  with 
a  rounded  stem,  many  alternate  com- 
pound leaflets,  two  stipules  larger  than 
the  leaflets,  and  tendrils  at  the  extremity 
of  the  stems  or  branches.  Peduncle 
axillary,  one  or  more  commonly  two 
flowered;  flowers  white  or  pale  violet; 
legumes  oblong  or  scimiter  shaped,  pen- 
dulous. It  is  believed  that  the  pea  is  a 
native  of  southern  Europe.  It  has  run 
into  many  varieties. 

PEABODY,  a  town  in  Essex  co., 
Mass.;  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  rail- 
road; 2  miles  W.  of  Salem.  It  com- 
prises North  Peabody,  South  Peabody, 
West  Peabody,  and  a  number  of  other 
villages.  Here  are  the  Peabody  Insti- 
tute and  Library,  the  Sutton  Reference 
Library,  a  high  school,  and  National  and 
savings  banks.  It  has  manufactures  of 
leather,  morocco,  sheep  skin,  boots  and 
shoes,  woolen  goods,  electric  supplies, 
thermometers  etc.  Prior  to  1868  the 
town  was  called  South  Danvers ;  and  was 
then  named  Peabody  in  honor  of  George 
Peabody,  who  was  born  here.  Pop. 
(1910)   15,721;   (1920)   19,553. 

PEABODY,  GEORGE,  an  American 
philanthropist;  born  in  Danvers,  Mass., 
in  1795.  He  was  descended  from  an 
English  family,  and  his  parents  being 
poor,  George  received  but  a  scanty  edu- 
cation, becoming  grocer's  clerk  at  the  age 
of  11.  He  became  chief  clerk,  and, 
afterward,  partner  with  his  uncle,  John 


Peabody,  in  Georgetown,  D.  C,  in  1812. 
Not  satisfied,  however,  with  their  busi- 
ness relations,  George  left  his  uncle  and 
joined  partnership  with  Mr.  Elisha  Riggs 
in  the  drygoods  business  in  Baltimore,  in 
1815.  In  1837  he  withdrew  from  the 
firm,  and  established  himself  as  banker 
in  London,  where  he  amassed  a  fortune 
which  enabled  him  to  fully  carry  out  his 
benevolent  ideas.  He  was  particularly 
devoted  to  promoting  education.  Com- 
mencing with  his  native  place  of  Dan 
vers,  Mass.,  where  he  bestowed  $270,00C 
for  the  cause  of  education,  his  purse 
was  always  open  to  assist  the  good  work, 
not  only  in  the  land  of  his  birth,  but 
throughout  the  world.  To  the  city  of 
Baltimore  he  donated  for  this  purpose 
the  sum  of  $1,400,000;  to  the  Board  of 
Trustees  for  the  promotion  of  education 
in  the  South,  he  gave  $3,500,000.  In 
1862  he  established  a  Board  of  Trustees 
for  the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of 
the  poor  of  London,  to  which  he  con- 
tributed at  various  times  trfe  amount  of 
$2,500,000.  After  his  decease,  in  1869, 
his  remains  were,  by  command  of  Queen 
Victoria,  temporarily  interred  in  the 
royal  vault  in  Westminster  Abbey  and, 
subsequently,  conveyed  with  state  by  the 
British  ship  of  war  "Monarch,"  escorted 
by  an  American  war-steamer,  to  the 
United  States,  to  be  finally  deposited, 
amid  imposing  manifestations  of  inter- 
national respect,  at  Danvers  (now  Peav 
body),  Mass.,  in  March,  1870. 

PEABODY,     GEORGE    FOSTER,     an 

American  banker  and  philanthropist. 
Bom  at  Columbus,  Ga.,  July  27, 
1852.  After  completing  his  education 
he  entered  business  and  rapidly  attained 
distinction.  Many  of  his  investments 
have  been  in  Mexico.  He  became  pres- 
ident of  the  Compania  Metallurgica 
Mexicana  and  a  director  in  at  least  five 
or  six  other  concerns  with  holdings  in 
Mexican  copper  and  lead.  In  politics 
he  belongs  to  the  Democratic  party,  being 
treasurer  of  the  National  Committee 
from  1896  to  1905.  A  great  deal  of  time 
and  money  have  been  spent  by  Mr.  Pea- 
body in  the  cause  of  Southern  education. 
He  is  a  trustee  of  both  Hampton  and 
Tuskegee  Institutes. 

PEABODY,  JOSEPHINE  PRESTON, 
an  American  poet  and  dramatist.  She 
was  born  in  New  York,  was  educated  at 
Radcliffe  College,  and  for  two  years  end- 
ing in  1903  taught  literature  at  Welles- 
ley.  She  married  Prof.  Marks  in  1906. 
Her  works  include  "The  Wayfarers";  "A 
Book  of  Verse";  "Fortune  and  Men's 
Eyes";  "New  Poems,  with  a  Play"; 
"Marlowe,"  a  drama;  "The  Singing 
Leaves";  "The  Wings,"  a  drama;  "The 


PEACE    MOVEMENT 


150 


PEACE    MOVEMENT 


Book  of  the  Little  Past";  "The  Piper,"  a 
drama  which  won  the  Stratford-on-Avon 
prize  in  1910;  "The  Singing  Man";  "The 
Wolf  of  Gubljio";  "New  Poems." 

PEACE  MOVEMENT,  THE.  Men 
have  dreamed  of  universal  peace  at  least 
since  the  days  of  the  Hebrew  prophets 
and  the  early  Church  fathers.  The 
Latin  poets  too,  Vergil  in  particular,  had 
their  conception  of  a  Pax  Romana.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  Dante  in  his  "De  Mon- 
archia"  (c.  1300)  laid  down  some  gen- 
eral principles  that  are  the  forerunners 
of  arbitration.  But  it  was  not  until  two 
or  three  centuries  later  that  definite 
plans  were  formulated  for  a  world  par- 
liament and  a  world  court.  The  most 
famous  proposals  were  those  of  the  King 
of  Bohemia  (1462)  for  an  international 
parliament  backed  by  an  international 
military  force;  of  Emeric  de  Lacroix 
(1623)  for  a  permanent  congress  of  na- 
tions sitting  at  Venice  with  universal 
free  trade;  of  the  great  jurist,  Grotius 
(1625)  who  in  his  famous  "De  Jure  Belli 
et  Pacis"  argued  for  an  international 
congress  and  an  arbitration  tribunal;  of 
William  Penn  (1693)  who  proposed  a 
representative  congress  of  nations,  an 
arbitration  tribunal  and  the  proposal  of 
coercion  of  any  state  which  should  refuse 
to  submit  disputes  to  arbitration.  Dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  century  there  was  a 
growing  interest  in  world  federation ;  but 
it  was  more  prevalent  among  philoso- 
phers such  as  Leibnitz,  Jeremy  Bentham 
and  Kant  than  among  statesmen  and 
men  of  affairs.  After  the  Napoleonic 
wars  there  was  much  popular  support  of 
the  idea  of  world  peace;  but  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Holy  Alliance  (1815),  osten- 
sibly designed  to  prevent  war,  degener- 
ated into  an  agency  of  reaction. 

That  same  year  (1815)  there  was 
founded  the  first  Peace  Society  the  world 
9ver  saw.  It  was  established  in  New 
York  by  the  merchant  David  Low  Dodge ; 
and  in  1815  the  Massachusetts  Peace  So- 
ciety was  started  in  Boston  by  Noah 
Worcester  and  William  EDery  Channing. 
By  1826  there  were  about  fifty  peace  so- 
cieties in  existence  in  America,  the  most 
notable  being  the  American  Peace  So- 
ciety organized  in  1828  in  New  York  by 
William  Ladd.  Indeed  the  first  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century  is  marked  by  the 
popularization  of  the  Peace  Movement 
through  societies  and  lectures  such  as 
those  of  Charles  Sumner.  In  1816  a 
Peace  Society  was  formed  in  London, 
and  in  1830  in  Geneva.  In  1843  an  in- 
ternational peace  congress  was  held  in 
London;  the  ideas  advanced  were  those 
already  familiar,  although  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  decrees  of  the  arbitration 


tribunal  was  to  be  left  to  international 
public  opinion.  In  1847  Elihu  Burritt, 
"the  learned  blacksmith"  of  Connecticut, 
went  to  Europe  to  agitate  for  a  congress 
and  court  of  the  nations.  The  next  year 
a  peace  congress  was  held  at  Brussels, 
and  in  1849  another  congress  met  there 
under  the  presidency  of  Victor  Hugo. 
An  interesting  feature  was  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  peace  movement  into  the  leg- 
islative bodies  of  various  States.  The 
resolution  of  Massachusetts  in  1832  in 
favor  of  arbitration  led  the  way;  in  1837 
a  petition  was  presented  to  Congress; 
and  in  1853  a  resolution  in  favor  of  in- 
ternational arbitration  was  adopted  by 
the  United  States  Senate.  The  move- 
ment spread  rapidly.  Leading  states- 
men, including  Cobden,  Peel,  Disraeli 
and  Garibaldi,  supported  it;  and  even 
Napoleon  III.  is  credited  with  the  desire 
to  call  a  European  Congress  to  bring 
about  arbitration  and  the  limitation  of 
armaments.     But    Prussia    objected. 

During  the  next  thirty  years  the  ad- 
vance of  the  peace  movement  was  delayed 
by  the  Crimean  War,  our  Civil  War,  and 
wars  in  Italy,  Austria,  France  and  Ger- 
many. There  were,  to  be  sure,  many 
peace  societies  formed;  and  eminent 
European  jurists  influenced  the  future 
development  of  the  movement  by  empha- 
sizing the  necessity  of  a  legal  basis 
for  international  relations.  Arbitration 
treaties  won  more  and  more  popular  sup-  • 
port.  In  1887  an  English  delegation  un- 
der the  leadership  of  William  Randall 
Cremer,  member  of  Parliament,  visited 
America  to  lay  before  President  Cleve- 
land a  document  signed  by  232  members 
of  Parliament  in  favor  of  a  British- 
American  arbitration  treaty.  In  1889 
the  first  World's  Peace  Congress  was 
held  at  Paris.  During  the  next  decade 
the  movement  spread  rapidly;  the  well 
known  Lake  Mohonk  conferences  in  the 
United  States  begun  in  1895;  the  work 
of  J.  de  Bloch  on  war  published  in  1898, 
and  the  attitude  of  the  Socialist  and  La- 
bor parties  in  Europe  were  important 
factors. 

An  important  step  forward  was  taken 
when  on  May  18,  1899,  the  first  Peace 
Conference  called  by  the  Czar  of  Russia 
met  at  The  Hague.  Twenty-one  Euro- 
pean states  were  represented  as  well  as 
the  United  States,  Mexico,  China,  Japan, 
Persia  and  Siam.  The  most  important 
act  was  the  establishment  of  a  Perma- 
nent Court  of  Arbitration  sitting  at  The 
Hague.  It  is  to  the  credit  of  the  United 
States  that  after  this  court  had  met  for 
two  years  without  being  called  to  ad- 
judicate. President  Roosevelt  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  Baron  d'Estournelles  de  Con- 
stant, arranged  with  President  Diaz  of 


PEACE    MOVEMENT 


151 


PEACH 


■Mexico  to  send  to  the  Tribunal  the  so- 
called  "Pious  Fund  Case."  Roosevelt 
also  referred  to  The  Hague  the  Venezue- 
lan case  which  had  been  sent  to  him  for 
arbitration. 

The  United  States  was  also  instru- 
mental in  calling  the  second  Hague  Peace 
Conference  which  finally  assembled, 
again  upon  the  invitation  of  the  Czar 
of  Russia,  on  June  15,  1907.  This  time 
forty-four  nations  were  represented. 
"Here  for  the  first  time  practically  the 
whole  world  met  together  under  one  roof 
and  for  world  business."  If  the  practi- 
cal results  were  disappointing,  the  con- 
ference nevertheless  adopted  some  im- 
portant conventions  looking  to  the  pacific 
settlements  of  international  disputes;  to 
limitations  upon  the  use  of  force  for  the 
collection  of  debts,  and  to  the  regulation 
of  explosives  in  time  of  war.  At  this 
conference  preliminary  steps  were  taken 
for  the  summoning  of  a  third  Confer- 
ence in  1915;  but  of  course  the  World 
War  (1914-1918)  effectively  interfered 
with  the  undertaking. 

The  World  War  also  ended  for  a  while 
the  peace  propaganda  in  the  belligerent 
countries,  although  it  accentuated  the 
need  of  a  better  world  organization.  In 
1914  there  was  started  in  England  a 
movement  to  do  away  with  secret  di- 
plomacy under  the  name  of  the  Union 
for  Democratic  Control.  In  1915  in  the 
United  States  there  was  organized  the 
League  to  Enforce  Peace,  having  for  its 
object  the  formation  of  a  league  of  na- 
tions bound  by  treaty  to  arbitrate  all 
disputes  and  to  use  joint  military  force 
to  coerce  recalcitrant  members.  Of  this 
league  ex-President  Taft  was  president. 
It  won  a  good  deal  of  popular  support 
and  was  particularly  active  in  the  days 
of  the  Paris  Conference  which  met  at 
the  end  of  the  war. 

Since  1918  most  of  the  discussion  of 
the  Peace  Movement  has  centered  about 
the  League  op  Nations  (q.  v.).  The  ob- 
jects of  the  League  as  stated  in  the  pre- 
amble are : 

"To  promote  international  co-operation 
and  to  secure  international  peace  and 
security  by  the  acceptance  of  obligations 
not  to  resort  to  war,  by  the  prescription 
of  open,  just  and  honorable  relations  be- 
tween nations,  by  the  firm  establishment 
of  the  understandings  of  international 
law  as  the  actual  rule  of  conduct  among 
governments  and  by  the  maintenance  of 
justice  and  a  scrupulous  respect  for  all 
treaty  obligations  in  the  dealings  of  or- 
ganized peoples  with  one  another." 
r\  The  Covenant  of  the  League  of  Na- 
tions was  made  an  integral  part  of  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles  which  during  the 
year  1919  was  ratified  by  all  the  leading 


nations  of  the  world  with  the  exception 
of  the  United  States.  The  League  was 
formally  organized  in  1920  with  a  per- 
manent Secretariat  seated  now  in  Ge- 
neva, Switzerland.  The  Council  of  the 
League  consisting  of  representatives  of 
nine  powers,  including  the  United  States, 
held  two  sessions  without,  however,  the 
presence  of  any  representative  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  Assembly  of  the 
League,  consisting  of  representatives  of 
all  the  nations  that  have  ratified  the 
Covenant,  met  in  September  at  Geneva. 

In  the  United  States  the  rejection  by 
the  Senate  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles 
with  the  Covenant  of  the  League  was  un- 
doubtedly a  disappointment  to  many  who 
were  eager  for  world  peace.  Others, 
however,  felt  that  the  Covenant  had 
many  faults  and  that  the  United  States 
could  contribute  more  by  forming  an- 
other less  rigid  association  of  nations  or 
by  holding  to  its  traditional  aloofness 
from  European  affairs.  In  the  campaign 
of  1920  both  great  political  parties  as- 
serted interest  in  the  cause  of  world 
peace,  the  Democrats  indorsing  without 
reserve  the  Covenant  of  the  League,  and 
the  Republicans  advocating  measures 
that  would  promote  world  peace  without 
committing  this  country  to  all  the  obli- 
gations of  the  League. 

Since  the  election  of  Mr.  Harding 
there  has  been  continued  discussion  of 
the  best  methods  to  promote  peace. 
The  World  War  has  had  great  influence 
upon  the  whole  peace  movement,  on  the 
one  hand  by  showing  the  fallacies  of 
pacificism,  and  on  the  other  hand  by  em- 
phasizing the  need  of  better  world  or- 
ganization. It  needs  no  prophet  to  as- 
sert that  in  the  coming  generation  the 
peace  movement  will  develop  along  the 
lines  of  a  league  to  enforce  peace,  an 
international  court  and  limitation  of 
armaments. 

PEACE  TREATY.  The  treaty  of 
peace  between  the  United  States  of 
America,  British  Empire,  France,  Italy, 
Japan,  Belgium,  and  other  allied  coun- 
tries with  Germany,  were  signed  at 
Versailles,  on  June  28,  1919.  This  treaty 
formally  ended  the  World  War.  The 
combined  provisions  for  cession  of  terri- 
tory belonging  to  Germany,  for  repara- 
tion, for  the  payment  by  Germany  of  the 
costs  of  occupation  of  its  territory  by 
the  forces  of  the  Allied  Powers,  and  pro- 
visions for  the  reduction  of  armament 
by  Germany.  Commissions  were  ap- 
pointed to  enforce  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  which  is  known  as  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles.     See  Treaty  of  Versailles. 

PEACH,  the  delicious  fruit  of  Amyg- 
dalus    Persica,    the    peach    tree,    genus 


PEACOCK 


152 


PEANUT 


Amygdalus.  It  is  distinguished  by  ob- 
long, lanceolate  cerrulate  leaves;  soli- 
tary flowers,  of  a  delicate  pink  color,  ap- 
pearing before  the  leaves;  and  the 
sarcocarp  of  the  drupe  succulent  and  ten- 
der, not  fibrous  as  in  the  almond. 
Many  varieties  are  cultivated  in  the 
United  States,  and  form  an  important 
branch  of  commerce,  chiefly  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland,  New  Jersey,  Delaware, 
western  New  York,  and  southern  Illi- 
nois, and  California.  Much  of  it  is 
canned,  preserved,  and  dried  for  the 
home  and  foreign  markets. 

PEACOCK,  any  individual  of  the 
genus  Pavo,  specifically,  the  common  pea- 
cock (P.  cristatus) ,  a  native  of  India, 
domesticated  in  Great  Britain.  The 
plumage   is   extremely   gorgeous.     Crest 


"Misfortunes  of  Elphin,"  "Crotchet  Cas- 
tle," "Gryll  Grange,"  and  a  goem  called 
"Rhododaphne."  He  was  the  friend  and 
executor  of  Shelly,  and  was  connected 
with  the  East  India  Office  for  nearly  40 
years.     He  died  in  1866. 

PEACOCK  BUTTERFLY,  the  Van- 
essa io,  a  beautiful  butterfly,  two  and 
one-half,  or  two  and  three-quarter  inches 
across  the  wings,  which  are  a  dull,  deep 
red,  each  with  an  eye-like  spot.  Larva 
spiny,  black,  with  many  white  dots.  It 
is  seen  in  numbers,  on  the  tops  of  nettles, 
in  June  and  July.  The  perfect  insect 
appears  in  August,  lives  through  the 
winter,  and  is  seen  in  March  and  April. 

PEALE,  BEMBBANDT,  an  American 
artist;  born  in  Bucks  co..  Pa.,  Feb.  22, 


PEACOCK 


of  about  24  feathers,  webbed  only  at  tip ; 
green,  with  blue  and  gold  reflections. 
Bill  and  legs  horny  brown. 

The  peahen  is  chestnut-brown  about 
the  head  and  nape;  breast  and  neck 
greenish,  edged  with  pale  whity-brown; 
upper  plumage  light  brown,  with  faint 
wavings,  increased  on  upper  tail  coverts; 
tail  deep  brown  with  whitish  tips;  ab- 
domen white;  lower  parts  and  under  tail 
coverts  brown.  Length  38  to  40  inches; 
crest  shorter  and  duller  than  in  the  male. 
Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  the  pea- 
cock was  sacred  to  Hera  or  Juno.  Quin- 
tus  Hortensius  (born  119  B.  c.)  was  the 
first  to  serve  up  peacocks  at  table.  The 
proverbial  reproach  "vain  as  a  pea- 
cock," is  scarcely  well-founded.  The 
display  of  his  train  is  intended  to  at- 
tract the  attention  of  the  hen  bird,  or  to 
outshine  the  display  of  some  rival. 

PEACOCK,  THOMAS  LOVE,  an  Eng- 
lish writer;  born  in  1785.  His  first  im- 
portant work  was  a  novel  entitled 
"Headlong  Hall,"  published  in  1815,  and 
this  was  followed  by  "Melincourt," 
"Nightmare  Abbey,"  "Maid  Marian,"  the 


1778.  When  17  years  old  executed  a  por- 
trait of  Washington,  from  whom  he  had 
three  sittings.  He  painted  portraits  of 
many  distinguished  men.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Academy,  and  also 
one  of  the  original  members  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Design.  His  portrait  of  Wash- 
ington (1823)  was  purchased  by  Con- 
gress. He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct. 
3,  1860. 

PEANUT,  the  pod  of  the  Arachis 
hypoffssa.  The  plant  is  an  annual  of 
diffuse  habit,  with  hairy  stem,  with  two 
paired,  abruptly  pinnate  leaflets.  The 
flowers  above  ground  are  sterile,  and  the 
pods  or  legumes  are  stalked,  oblong, 
cylindrical,  and  about  one  inch  in  length. 
After  the  flower  withers,^  the  stalk  of 
the  ovary  has  the  peculiarity  of  elongat- 
ing and  bending  down,  forcing  the  young 
pod  under  ground,  and  thus  the  seeds 
become  matured  at  some  distance  below 
the  surface.  As  to  the  native  country  of 
the  peanut  the  opinions  of  botanists  are 
divided  between  Africa  and  America.  It 
is  extensively  cultivated  in  all  tropical 
and  subtropical  countries,  especially  in 


PEANUT    OIL 


163 


FEABL 


America,  Africa,  India,  the  Malayan 
Archipelago,  and  China.  The  plant  af- 
fects a  light  sandy  soil,  and  is  very 
prolific.  The  pods  when  ripe  are  dug 
«p  and  dried.  When  roasted  they  are 
sweet  and  palatable.  Vast  quantities 
are  used  in  confectionery  and  the  manu- 
facture of  peanut  butter.  The  nuts  yield 
an  excellent  substitute  for  olive  oil.  Be- 
fore the  World  War  the  world  pro- 
duction of  peanuts  was  over  600,000,000 
pounds,  of  which  the  United  States  con- 
Iributed  5  per  cent. 

PEANUT  OIL.  Arachis  Oil.  A  pale 
yellow  oil  with  the  characteristic  odor 
and  flavor  of  peanuts.  Specific  gravity 
0.919.  Soluble  in  all  common  oil  sol- 
vents. Obtained  by  pressing  peanuts, 
either  with  or  without  the  application  of 
heat.  Pressing  usually  takes  place  in 
three  stages,  first  in  the  cold,  when  the 
choicest  oil  is  obtained,  then  at  a  tem- 
perature of  about  30°  C,  when  a  lower 
grade  oil  is  produced,  and  finally,  at  a 
temperature  of  65°  C,  the  product  being 
a  dark  colored  oil  used  in  soap  manu- 
facture. The  better  grades  of  oil  are 
deodorized  by  treatment  with  live  steam, 
and  bleached  with  fuller's  earth  or  car- 
bon. Refined  peanut  oil  is  largely  used 
as  a  salad  oil  and  for  culinary  pur- 
poses. 

PEAR,  the  Pyrus  communis.  It  is  a 
shrub  or  small  tree,  20  to  40  feet  high, 
with  the  branches  more  or  less  spinescent 
and  pendulous,  the  flowers  in  corymbose 
cymes,  and  the  fruit  pyriform,  one  or  two 
inches  long,  becoming  larger  and  sweeter 
in  cultivation.  Many  hundred  cultivated 
varieties  exist.  The  wood  of  the  pear  is 
almost  as  hard  as  box,  and  is  sometimes 
used  as  a  substitute  for  it  by  wood  en- 
gravers. 

PEARCE,  WILLIAM,  an  American 
Methodist  Episcopal  bishop;  born  at 
Hayle,  Cornwall,  England,  in  1862.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1884  and 
was  ordained  minister  of  the  Free 
Methodist  Church  in  1888,  afterward 
serving  in  several  pastorates  in  Califor- 
nia, Oregon,  and  New  York.  He  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  the  Free  Methodist 
Church  in  1908.  He  was  a  delegate  to 
the  World's  Missionary  Convention  in 
1910. 

PEA  RIDGE,  a  post  village  in  Benton 
CO.,  Ark.;  about  8  miles  E.  of  Bentonville. 
Here,  on  March  6,  7,  and  8,  1862,  oc- 
curred one  of  the  most  desperate  battles 
of  the  Civil  War.  Gen.  Samuel  R.  Cur- 
tis, in  command  of  about  11,000  Union 
troops,  with  49  pieces  of  artillery,  was 
attacked  by  a  superior  force  of  Con- 
federates (said  to  number  PO.OOO)  under 


Gen.  Earl  Van  Dorn,  and  a  series  of 
obstinate  and  sanguinary  conflicts  en- 
sued; which,  lasting  through  three  days, 
finally  ended  with  the  withdrawal  of 
Van  Dorn.  The  total  Union  loss  was 
1,351;  that  of  the  Confederates,  though 
never  officially  reported,  is  supfiosed  to 
have  been  more  severe. 

PEARL,  a  peculiar  product  of  cer- 
tain marine  and  freshwater  mollusks  or 
shellfish.  Most  of  the  molluscous  ani- 
mals which  are  aquatic  and  reside  in 
shells  are  provided  with  a  fluid  secretion 
with  which  they  line  their  shells,  and 
give  to  the  otherwise  harsh  granular 
material  of  the  shell  a  smooth  surface, 
which  prevents  any  unpleasant  friction. 
The  material  in  its  hardened  condition  is 
called  nacre  by  zoologists,  and  by  dealers 
mother-of-pearl.  Detached  and  gener- 
ally spherical  or  rounded  portions  of  the 
nacre  are  often  found  on  opening  the 
shells,  due  to  the  intrusion  of  a  grain  of 
sand  or  other  substance,  which,  by  irri- 
tating the  tender  body  of  the  animal, 
obliges  it  in  self-defense  to  cover  the 
cause  of  offense  which  it  has  no  power  to 
remove;  and  as  the  secretion  goes  on 
regularly  to  supply  the  growth  and  wear 
of  the  shell  the  included  body  constantly 
gets  its  share,  and  thereby  continues  to 
increase  in  size  till  it  becomes  a  pearl. 
The  true  pearl  of  price  is  only  found  in 
the  pearl  oyster.  The  most  famous 
pearls  are  those  from  the  East ;  the  coast 
of  Ceylon  or  Taprobane,  as  it  was  called 
by  the  Greeks.  They  are,  however,  ob- 
tained now  of  nearly  the  same  quality  in 
Panama  in  South  America,  St.  Marga- 
rita in  the  West  Indies,  the  Coromandel 
coast,  the  shores  of  the  Sooloo  Islands, 
the  Bahrien  Islands,  and  the  islands  of 
Karak  and  Corgo  in  the  Persian  Gulf. 
The  pearls  of  the  Bahrien  fishery  are 
said  to  be  even  finer  than  those  of  Cey- 
lon. 

The  single  pearl  which  Cleopatra  is 
said  to  have  dissolved  and  swallowed  was 
valued  at  $400,000,  and  one  of  the  same 
value  was  cut  into  two  pieces  for  ear- 
rings for  the  statue  of  Venus  in  the 
Pantheon  at  Rome.  False  pearls  are 
manufactured  extensively.  The  finest 
and  costliest  imitations  could  only  be 
distinguished  from  the  real  by  an  expert. 
Roman  pearls  differ  from  other  artificial 
pearls  by  having  the  coating  of  pearly 
matter  on  the  outside,  to  which  it  is 
attached  by  an  adhesive  substance.  The 
art  of  making  these  was  derived  from 
the   Chinese. 

The  Chinese  have  long  been  in  the 
habit  of  introducing  grains  of  sand  and 
little  knots  of  wire  into  the  shell  of 
the  pearl  oyster,  in  order  that  the  animal. 


FEABL    HARBOR 


154 


PEARY 


to  relieve  itself  from  the  irritation  so 
caused,  may  coat  the  foreign  substance 
with  pearl. 

PEARL  HARBOR,  a  United  States 
coaling  station  at  the  island  of  Oahu, 
Hawaii ;  acquired  prior  to  the  annexation 
of  the  islands.  The  harbor  has  been 
strongly  fortified,  and  is  a  United  States 
naval  station.  It  was  an  important 
point  during  the  World  War, 

PEARLY  NAUTILUS,  the  Nautilus 
po7npilius;  common  in  the  Pacific  and 
Indian  Oceans,  especially  toward  the 
Moluccas.  It  is  believed  to  inhabit  both 
deep  and  shallow  water.  Its  fine  mother- 
of-pearl  is  much  in  request  with  cabinet 
makers  and  jewelers.  The  smallest  and 
most  excavated  partitions  are  used  to 
make  pendants  for  the  ear.  By  remov- 
ing the  external  layer  of  the  shell  which 
is  not  nacreous,  drinking  vessels  of  great 
brilliancy  are  made  in  the  East,  as  they 
formerly  were  also  in  Europe. 

PEARSON,  SIR  (CYRIL)  ARTHUR, 
English  newspaper  proprietor.  He  was 
born  at  Wookey,  England,  in  1866,  and 
began  his  newspaper  career  on  Sir  George 
Newnes'  "Tit-Bits,"  which  enjoyed  a  cir- 
culation till  that  time  unknown  in  Eng- 
land. He  later  started  "Pearson's 
Weekly"  on  the  same  lines,  following 
this  with  similar  journals.  In  1900  he 
started  the  "Daily  Express"  in  imitation 
of  the  "Daily  Mail,"  which  had  then  an 
enormous  circulation.  Like  Harmsworth, 
later  Lord  Northcliffe,  he  came  into 
ownership  of  many  journals.  Later  he 
lost  his  eyesight,  and  has  since  devoted 
himself  to  philanthropic  work  among  the 
blind.  He  was  made  baronet  in  1916, 
and  in  1919  wrote  "Victory  Over  Blind- 
ness." 

PEARSON,  KARL,  an  English  physi- 
cist. He  was  born  in  1857  and  studied 
at  Cambridge,  Heidelberg,  and  Berlin, 
being  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1882.  He 
taught  mathematics  in  University  Col- 
lege, London,  and  became  Galton  profes- 
sor of  eugenics  in  London  University. 
His  works  include :  "History  of  the  The- 
ory of  Elasticity  and  Strength  of  Mate- 
rials"; "Ethic  of  Freethought";  "Gram- 
m.ar  of  Science";  "The  Chances  of 
Death";  "National  Life  from  the  Stand- 
point of  Science";  "The  Life,  Letters  and 
Labors  of  Francis  Galton." 

PEARY  LAND,  an  area  along  the 
most  northern  coast  of  Greenland,  dis- 
covered in  1882  by  Lockwood  and  Brain- 
ard  and  later  further  explored  by  Pearv 
in  1892. 

PEARY,  ROBERT  EDWIN,  an  Arc- 
tic  explorer   and    civil    engineer    in   the 


United  States  navy;  born  in  Cresson, 
Pa.,  May  6,  1856;  was  graduated  at  Bow- 
doin  College,  and  in  1885  became  a  civil 
engineer  in  the  United  States  navy,  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant.  In  1886  he  made 
a  journey  of  reconnoisance  to  Greenland^ 
advancing  for  over  100  miles  on  the  in- 
terior  ice.  In  1891  and  1893  he  made 
other  trips  to  the  Polar  regions,  in  which 
he  was  accompanied,  as  far  as  the  win- 
ter quarters,  by  his  wife,  Josephine 
Diebitseh  Peary,  author  of  "My  Arctic 
Journey."  In  these  expeditions  he  made 
excursions  on  a  sledge  along  the  coast  of 
Greenland,  and  traversed  the  inland  ice 
from  McCormick  Bay  to  the  N.  E.  angle 


Wi^mi^^ 


ROBERT  E.   PEARY 

of  Greenland  (Independence  Bay).  He 
proved  the  convergence  of  the  E.  and  W. 
coasts  of  northern  Greenland,  and  al- 
most with  positiveness  the  insularity  of 
the  mainland.  He  discovered  new  lands 
(Melville  Land  and  Heilprin  Land),  and 
named  many  glaciers.  In  May,  1896, 
Lieutenant  Peary  made  a  successful  ex- 
pedition to  Greenland  for  the  purpose  of 
collecting  specimens  in  natural  history. 
He  returned  to  Cape  Breton,  September 
27.  In  1897  he  was  given  leave  of  ab- 
sence by  the  government  for  the  purpose 
of  continuing  his  explorations,  and  to 
establish  a  station  in  the  far  N.  of 
Greenland,  which  should  be  provisioned 
and  supplied  and  made  the  basis  of  a 
series  of  annual  expeditions  into  the 
Polar  regions.  He  went  N.  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1897  to  take  the  necessary  pre- 
liminary measures,  such  as  securing  the 
aid  of  the  Eskimos,  fixing  the  site  of  a 
station,  etc.  He  returned  in  October  of 
that  year,  bringing  with  him  an  immense 
mass  of  meteoric  iron,  or  what  is  sup- 
posed   to    be    such,    from    Cape    York, 


PEASANTS'    WAR 


155 


FEBA 


Greenland,  which  was  placed  in  the  Mu- 
seum of  Natural  History  in  New  York 
City.  On  July  3,  1898,  Lieutenant  Peary 
again  sailed  in  the  "Hope"  from  St. 
John's,  Newfoundland,  to  Sidney,  Cape 
Breton,  and  from  there  to  Cape  York, 
Baffin's  Bay.  At  that  place  the  party 
and  stores  were  transferred  to  the 
"Windward."  In  the  party  with  Peary 
were  Dr.  T.  F.  Diedrich,  Jr.,  of  New 
Jersey,  Mathew  Henson,  his  colored  serv- 
ant, and  Shakapsi,  an  Eskimo.  They 
carried  provisions  for  four  years.  In 
September,  1901,  word  was  received  from 
Peary  that  he  had  rounded  the  Greenland 
archipelago      (the     extreme      N.      land 


lull  it  broke  out  again  early  in  1525,  on  a 
more  extended  scale,  the  peasants  of  Al- 
sace, Franconia,  Lorraine,  the  Palati- 
nate, and  Swabia  joining  in  the  move- 
ment. The  insurgents  were  defeated  by 
the  army  of  the  Archduke  Ferdinand, 
May  2;  again  at  Konigshofen,  June  2; 
and  were  put  down  after  100,000  persons 
had  perished,  in  June,  1525.  The  Ana- 
baptists took  part  in  the  movement. 

PEAT,  a  deposit  formed  in  bogs  by  the 
decay  of  vegetable  matter,  frequently 
consisting  almost  entirely  of  sphagnum, 
or  bog  moss.  In  composition  it  differs 
from  coal  only  in  the  relative  proportion 


THE  "ROOSEVELT 


known),  and  reached  lat.  83°  50'  N.  His 
final  expedition  in  the  ship  "Roosevelt" 
left  New  York  in  July,  1908.  He  left 
his  winter  base  at  Cape  Sheridan  in 
February,  and  reached  the  Pole  April  6, 
1909,  with  one  of  his  crew  and  four 
Eskimos. 

In  1911  Peary  received  the  thanks  of 
Congress  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  Rear-Admiral.  Many  of  the  principal 
scientific  and  geographical  societies  of 
Great  Britain  and  the  Continent  awarded 
medals  to  Admiral  Peary  for  his  discov- 
eries.    He  died  in  1920. 

PEASANTS'  WAR,  a  struggle  called 
the  "Bundschuhe,"  which  broke  out  in 
1502,  and  another,  the  War  of  Poor  Con- 
rad, in  Wurttemberg,  in  1514.  The  peas- 
ants of  the  small  towns  rebelled  in  Swa- 
bia, and  those  of  the  Thurgau  rose  in 
arms  in  June,  1524.     After  a  temporary 


of  its  constituents.  It  forms  extensive 
deposits  in  various  parts  of  northern 
Europe,  and  notably  in  parts  of  Ireland, 
where  it  is  commonly  known  as  turf. 

PEATTIE,  ELIA  WILKINSON,  an 
American  writer,  bom  at  Kalamazoo, 
Mich.,  in  1862.  In  1883  she  married 
Robert  Burns  Peattie.  For  many  years 
she  was  a  reporter  and  writer  on  Chicago 
papers  and  contributed  articles  to  many 
magazines.  She  was  the  author  of  "The 
Beleaguered  Forest,"  (1901) ;  "The  Edge 
of  Things,"  (1904) ;  "The  Newcomers," 
(1916). 

PEBA,  Dasypus  (Tatusia)  peba, 
called  also  the  black  tatou,  an  armadillo 
ranging  from  Texas  S.  to  Paraguay. 
The  ears  are  large,  long,  and  close  to- 
gether; the  head  small,  long,  and 
straight ;  mouth  large.    Scales  hexagonal ; 


PEBBLE 


156 


PECOS    RIVER 


the  bands  vary  in  number,  increasing 
with  the  age  of  the  animal.  It  is  noc- 
turnal, swift  of  foot,  and  a  good  bur- 
rower.  Its  flesh  is  said  to  resemble  suck- 
ing pig  in  flavor. 

PEBBLE,  or  PEBBLESTONE,  a  name 
given  to  roundish  nodules  and  geodes, 
especially  of  siliceous  minerals,  such  as 
rock  crystal,  agate,  etc.;  but  commonly 
and  more  correctly  applied  to  small  frag- 
ments of  rocks  and  minerals  which  have 
become  rounded  and  water  worn,  like  the 
shingle  forming  the  beach  on  a  seashore. 
Thus,  pebbles  may  be  composed  of  any 
rock  or  mineral.  Pebbles  of  gold  are 
known  by  the  name  of  nuggets  or  pepitas. 
The  term  pebble,  among  opticians,  gener- 
ally means  the  transparent  and  colorless 
rock  crystal  or  quartz  (pure  silica) 
which  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  glass  in 
spectacles. 

PECAN,  or  PECAN  NUT,  a  species 
of  hickory  {Gary a  olivieforniis)  and  its 
fruit,  growing  in  North  America.  It  is 
a  large  tree,  with  hard,  very  tough  wood, 
pinnate  leaves,  and  catkins  of  small  flow- 
ers. The  nut  has  a  thin  yellowish-brown 
shell,  and  is  of  a  sweet  and  agreeable 
flavor.  Pecan  nut  oil  is  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  olive  oil. 

PECCARY,  the  popular  name  for  two 
species  of  small  suilline  mammals  from 
the  New  World,  so  nearly  allied  that 
they  breed  freely  in  captivity,  but  never 
produce  more  than  two  at  a  birth.  The 
collared    peccary    {Dicotyles    torquatus) 


PECCARY 

ranges  from  Arkansas  S.  to  the  Rio 
Negro,  and  seldom  attacks  other  animals. 
The  white-lipped  peccary  (D.  labiatus) 
is  rarely  met  with  N.  of  British  Hon- 
duras or  S.  of  Paraguay.  It  associates 
in  large  droves,  is  very  pugnacious,  and 
does  not  hesitate  to  attack  man.  Both 
are  omnivorous,  and  possess  a  gland  in 
the  middle  of  the  back,  secreting  a  musky 
substance,  which  taints  the  meat  if  not 
speedily  removed  after  death. 

PECHILI,    GULF    OF,    a    land-locked 
extension  of  the  Yellow  Sea,  between  the 


base  of  the  Korean  peninsula  and  the 
Chinese  province  of  Shan-tung,  into 
which  the  Pei-ho  discharges. 

PECK,  a  dry  measure  of  two  gallons, 
or  eight  quarts,  for  grain,  pulse,  etc.;  the 
fourth  part  of  a  bushel.  So,  a  great 
deal,  number,  or  quantity. 

PECK,  ANNIE  SMITH,  an  American 
mountain  climber,  born  in  Providence,  R. 
I.  She  graduated  from  the  University 
of  Michigan  in  1878.  She  studied  archae- 
ology in  Athens  and  for  several  years 
taught  in  preparation  schools.  She  was 
also  professor  of  Latin  in  Purdue  Uni- 
versity and  of  Smith  College.  In  1895 
she  climbed  the  Matterhorn  and  several 
other  difficult  peaks  in  Europe,  She  also 
climbed  several  of  the  highest  mountains 
in  Central  and  South  America.  She 
made  explorations  in  Peru  and  climbed 
the  highest  peak  of  the  Raura  Range. 
In  1908  she  succeeded  in  ascending  Mt. 
Huascaran,  Peru,  the  highest  point  in 
America  yet  attained  by  any  American. 
She  also  climbed  several  other  moun- 
tains in  Peru  which  have  never  before 
been  ascended.  She  is  a  prolific  writer 
and  her  works  include  "A  Search  for  the 
Apex  of  America"  (1911);  "The  South 
American  Tour"  (1914).  She  has  re- 
ceived many  medals  from  foreign  coun- 
tries and  is  a  member  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphic Society. 

PECKHAM,  RUFUS  WILLIAM,  an 
American  lawyer.  He  was  born  at  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  in  1838,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1859,  serving  for  three 
years  as  district  attorney  of  Albany  co. 
After  a  varied  career  as  lawyer,  he  be- 
came in  1883  associate  judge  of  the  State 
Supreme  Court,  and,  from  1886,  of  the 
Court  of  Appeals  in  New  York,  and 
finally,  in  1895,  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court.  His  judgments  in  the 
Addystton  Pipe  and  other  cases  riveted 
national  attention.     He  died  in  1909. 

PECKHAM,    RUFUS   WILLIAM,    an 

English  statesman;  youngest  son  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel;  born  in  1829.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Oxford;  entered  Par- 
liament as  member  for  Warwick  and 
Leamington  in  1865;  was  parliamentary 
secretary  to  the  Poor-law  Board  (1868- 
1871);  secretary  to  the  Board  of  Trade 
(1871-1873)  ;  patronage  secretary  to  the 
treasury  (1873-1874)  ;  under-secretary 
for  the  Home  Department  (1880) ;  and 
on  the  retirement  of  Sir  Henry  Brand 
(Viscount  Hampden)  in  1884,  became 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons.  He 
was  created  1st  Viscount  Peel  in  1895. 
He  died  in  1912. 

PECOS  RIVER,  a  river  of  New  Mex- 
ico and  Texas,  which  has  a  S.  E.  course 


PEDAGOGUE 


157 


PEDAGOGY 


of  about  800  miles,  and  falls  into  the  Rio 
Grande  del  Norte,  but  in  summer  is  gen- 
erally dry. 

PEDAGOGUE,  in  classical  antiquity, 
a  slave  who  led  his  master's  children  to 
school,  places  of  amusement,  etc.,  till 
they  became  old  enough  to  take  care  of 
themselves.  In  many  cases  the  peda- 
gogues acted  also  as  teachers.  A  teacher 
of  young  children;  a  schoolmaster. 
(Used  generally  in  contempt  or  ridicule.) 

PEDAGOGY.  Pedagogy  is  the  art 
and  science  of  teaching.  Derived  from 
two  Greek  words  which  mean  the  leading 
or  the  guiding  of  a  boy,  the  term  has 
come  to  represent  the  methods  of  the 
education  of  youth.  It  refers  primarily, 
however,  to  training  the  teacher  in  the 
methods  of  education.  Its  point  of  appli- 
cation is  rather  the  teacher  than  the  stu- 
dent. Without  reference  to  the  content 
of  instruction,  pedagogy  stands  for  the 
giving  of  training  in  the  ways  and  meas- 
ures which  the  teacher  should  use  in 
the  practice  of  his  art.  It  does  not  pri- 
marily refer  to  the  personality  of  the 
teacher,  great  as  this  value  is  in  the 
securing  of  best  educational  results,  nor 
to  the  content  of  instruction. 

The  history  of  pedagogy,  in  its  origin 
and  first  years,  belongs  largely  to  the 
history  of  the  normal  schools  of  the 
United  States.  These  schools  have  an 
American  history  of  nearly  one  hundred 
years.  The  State  of  Massachusetts  es- 
tablished three  such  schools,  in  1839  and 
1840,  at  Lexington,  Barre,  and  Bridge- 
water.  Pennsylvania  established  one 
school  in  Philadelphia  in  1840,  Connecti- 
cut one  in  New  Britain  in  1849,  and 
Michigan  one  in  Ypsilanti  in  1850. 

Though  normal  schools  have  usually 
been  the  chief  schools  of  pedagogy,  yet 
many  universities  have  established 
courses  or  departments.  New  York  Uni- 
versity (under  a  different  institutional 
name)  established  such  a  course  as  early 
as  1832.  But  it  was  not  until  the  last 
years  of  the  last  century  that  such 
foundations  in  universities  became  com- 
mon. The  cause  or  condition,  lying  be- 
hind the  foundation,  was  the  progress  of 
mental  science  or  psychology.  The  bet- 
ter understanding  of  the  mind  of  the 
child  and  of  the  adult  resulted  in  the 
conviction  that  the  teacher  should,  in 
turn,  have  a  better  understanding  of  the 
methods  of  approach  to  that  mind  and  of 
the  ways  and  means  for  its  effective  in- 
struction. It  was  perceived  that  the 
mind  is  not  an  empty  pail  to  be  filled  by 
the  regular,  or  irregular,  pumping  of  the 
teacher  from  the  wells  of  knowledge.  It 
was  perceived  that  the  mind  was  not  a 
dray-horse,  slow  moving,   lazy,  antago- 

Vol.  VU— Cyc 


nistic,  to  be  beaten  into  obedience.  It 
was  seen  that  the  mind  is  a  force,  or 
organism,  to  be  quickened  into  its  own 
subjective  activities.  It  was  made  evi- 
dent that  the  teacher's  function  is  to 
draw  out  the  native  power  of  the  pupils, 
to  discipline  that  power  unto  an  alert 
and  comprehensive  service.  It  was  also 
made  clear  that  in  pedagogy  the  student 
and  the  teacher  are  to  co-operate.  Use- 
less is  each  without  the  other. 

The  science  and  the  art  of  pedagogy, 
for  many  years,  suffered  from  the  lack 
of  appreciation  among  college  teachers 
and  officers.  It  still  thus  suffers.  Not 
a  few  professors  believe  that  the  content 
of  instruction  is  the  chief  element  to  be 
considered  in  education.  They  also  be- 
lieve that,  when  the  proposed  teacher  has 
secured  a  sufficient  amount  of  knowledge 
of  his  subject,  he  will  also  be  found  to 
possess  a  proper  attitude  for  conveying 
this  knowledge  to  the  mind  of  the  pupil. 
The  falseness  of  this  interpretation  does 
not  prevent  its  prevalence  among  some 
college  teachers.  The  simple  truth  is 
that  the  profession  of  pedagogical  train- 
ing of  the  teacher  has  come  to  be  recog- 
nized among  educational  interpreters 
of  every  grade  as  possessing  an  im- 
portance quite  as  great  as  that  belonging 
to  the  professional  training  of  the  law- 
yer, or  of  the  doctor,  or  of  the  clergy- 
man. Most  leading  universities,  there- 
fore, have  departments,  or  chairs,  of 
pedagogy.  The  courses  in  these  depart- 
ments are  elected  by  the  great  majority 
of  students  who  propose  to  become  teach- 
ers. In  fact,  in  many  States  a  certain 
amount  of  training  is  required  of  all 
teachers  as  a  preliminary  condition  to 
the  granting  of  a  certificate  by  the  offi- 
cial educational  departments  of  the  com- 
monwealth. 

In  the  larger  interpretation  of  the  art 
and  science  of  pedagogy  are  found  the 
names  of  several  great  educators.  Such 
a  list  should  include,  at  the  beginning, 
the  name  of  Horace  Mann.  For  his 
service  in  Massachusetts  and  in  Ohio 
helped  to  dignify  the  profession  of  the 
teacher  and  to  quicken  the  people,  not 
only  of  Massachusetts,  but  of  every  com- 
monwealth, unto  the  tremendous  signifi- 
cance of  the  teacher's  work.  In  the  gen- 
erations following  the  death  of  Llann,  in 
1859,  great  progress  was  made  in  the 
pedagogical  science — and  great  names 
are  to  1^  added  to  its  promoters.  Among 
them  are  Francis  W.  Parker,  first  of 
Quincy,  Mass.,  and  then  of  Chicago; 
G.  Stanley  Hall,  of  Clark  Univer- 
sity, Worcester;  John  Dewey  and  Ed- 
ward L.  Thorndike,  of  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University;  Edward  B.  kitch- 
ener, of  Cornell  University;  and  in  cer- 

11 


PEDAL 


158 


PEDRO 


tain  ways,  most  significant,  William 
James,  of  Harvard.  The  name  of  Will- 
iam T.  Harris,  Superintendent  of  the 
Schools  of  St.  Louis,  and  later  National 
Commissioner  of  Education,  for  general 
philosophical  reasons,  and  somewhat  for 
particular  services,  is  also  illustrious  in 
this  field.  His  writings  formed  a  quick- 
ening influence  for  all  teachers. 

The  term  pedagogy  is,  at  the  present 
time,  less  commonly  used  than  formerly. 
The  term  "Educational"  or  "Experi- 
mental Pedagogy,"  or  "Teachers'  Train- 
ing Courses,"  or  "Experimental  Psychol- 
ogy" are  employed  as  substitutes.  _ 

In  the  universities,  and  in  certain  nor- 
mal schools,  the  department  of  pedagogy 
is  recognized  by  the  giving  of  a  degree 
on  the  completion  of  the  regular  course. 
This  degree  is  usually  Bachelor  of 
Pedagogy. 

PEDAL,  a  projecting  piece  of  metal 
or  wood,  which  is  to  be  acted  upon  or 
pressed  down  with  the  foot;  a  treadle; 
as,  the  pedal  of  a  bicycle.  In  musical 
instruments,  a  part  acted  on  by  the  feet. 
Also,  a  fixed  or  stationary  bass;  a  pedal 
bass,  pedal  note,  or  pedal  point,  over 
which  various  harmonies  or  contrapuntal 
devices  are  constructed;  they  chiefly  oc- 
cur in  fugues. 

PEDEE,     GREAT,     or    YADKIN,     a 

river  rising  in  Caldwell  co.,  N.  C,  and 
flowing  a  general  N.  E.  course  to  Stokes 
county,  turns  to  the  S.  E.,  and  following 
this  direction  rather  tortuously,  receiving 
several  small  tributaries  on  its  way,  it 
enters  South  Carolina,  and  takes  the 
name  of  Great  Pedee.  Thence  S.  S.  E. 
through  this  State,  it  enters  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  by  Winyaw  Bay  in  Georgetown 
district.  Little  Pedee  rises  in  Rich- 
mond CO.,  N.  C,  and  flowing  S.  by  E. 
into  South  Carolina,  enters  the  main 
stream  from  Horry  county. 

PEDRO  I.,  DOM  ANTONIO  JOSE 
D'ALCANTARA,  Emperor  of .  Brazil, 
eldest  son  of  John  VI.,  King  of  Portugal, 
elder  brother  of  Don  Miguel,  and  nephew 
to  Ferdinand  VII.,  King  of  Spain;  born 
in  1798,  and  was  taken,  in  1808,  with  the 
rest  of  the  royal  family,  to  Brazil.^  In 
1822,  the  Brazilians  having  proclaimed 
their  independence,  chose  Pedro  for  their 
emperor.  The  death  of  John  VI.,  in 
1826,  left  Dom  Pedro  the  crov.Ti  of  Portu- 
gal; he  soon  afterward  established  a  lib- 
eral government  in  that  country,  and 
granted  it  a  charter.  After  abdicating 
the  crown  of  Portugal  in  favor  of  his 
daughter.  Donna  Maria,  he  nominated 
his  brother,  Don  Miguel,  regent;  but 
scai'cely  had  he  quitted  Portugal,  than 
Don  Miguel  took  possession  of  the  throne. 


In  1831  he  was  compelled  to  abdicate  the 
throne  of  Brazil  in  favor  of  his  son,  Dom 
Pedro  II.  Returning  to  Europe,  he 
raised  troops  in  France  and  England, 
with  which  he,  in  1833,  drove  Don  Miguel 
from  the  throne  of  Portugal,  and  placed 


DOM   PEDRO   I.   OF  BRAZIL 

the  crown  upon  the  head  of  his  daughter. 
He  was  twice  married;  his  first  wife  be- 
ing Maria  Leopoldina,  Archduchess  of 
Austria,  and  the  second,  Amelia,  daugh- 
ter of  Prince  Eugene  de  Beauharnais. 
He  died  in  1834. 

PEDRO  II.,  Emperor  of  Brazil;  born 
in  Rio  Janeiro,  in  1825;  succeeded  to  the 
throne  on  the  abdication  of  his  father, 
Dom  Pedro  I.,  in  1831;  and  married  the 
Princess  Theresa  Christina  Maria  (died 
1890),  sister  of  Francis  I.,  King  of 
Naples,  in  1843.  Brazil  prospered 
greatly  under  the  rule  of  Pedro  II.,  who 
did  much  to  develop  its  resources  in  every 
direction.  In  1871  he  issued  an  impe- 
rial decree  for  the  gradual  abolition  of 
slavery,  which  totally  ceased  in  Brazil  in 
May,  1888.  He  made  several  visits  to 
Europe;  assisted  President  Grant  in 
opening  the  Centennial  Exposition  in 
Philadelphia  in  1876;  and  was  deposed 
by  the  revolution  of  November,  1889. 
He  died  in  1891. 

PEDRO  v.,  King  of  Portugal;  born 
in  1837,  was  the  son  of  Donna  Maria  II. 
and  Fernando  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
king-consort.  He  ascended  the  throne  in 
1855,  and  died  in  1861. 

PEDRO  THE  CRUEL,  King  of  Cas- 
tile and  Leon;  born  in  1334.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Alfonso  XL,  in  1350, 
and  in  1353  married  Blanche  de  Bour- 
bon, sister  of  the  King  of  France,  but  in 


PEEBLESSHIRE 


159 


PEELE 


three  days  deserted  her,  and  devoted 
himself  to  his  mistress,  Donna  Maria 
Padilla.  Subsquently  he  poisoned  his 
queen,  and  cruelly  persecuted  members 
of  his  own  family  and  Castilian  grandees, 
till  an  insurrection  was  raised  against 
him  under  the  lead  of  Harry  of  Trasta- 
mara,  who  finally  defeated  and  slew  him 
in  the  battle  of  Montiel,  March  14,  1369. 

PEEBLESSHIRE,  a  county  of  Scot- 
land, in  the  S.  E.,  with  ranges  of  hills, 
and  traversed  by  the  River  Tweed, 
which  empties  itself  into  the  North  Sea. 
There  are  many  villages,  but  no  large 
towns.  Manufactures  include  tweeds, 
and  there  is  dairy  farming,  with  ordi- 
nary agricultural  products  like  wheat, 
potatoes  and  green  crops.  Capital,  Fee- 
ble.    Pop.  about  16,000. 

PEEKSKILL,  a  village  in  Westchester 
CO.,  N.  Y.;  on  the  Hudson  river,  and  on 
the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River 
railroad;  42  miles  N.  of  New  York.  It 
is  noted  for  the  picturesque  mountain 
scenery  which  surrounds  it.  The  town 
contains  a  military  academy,  St.  Ga- 
briel's School,  Helping  Hand  Hospital, 
Field  Library,  the  New  York  State  Mili- 
tary Camp,  House  of  Good  Shepherd, 
waterworks,  gas,  and  electric  lights,  and 
several  weekly  newspapers.  It  has  man- 
ufactories of  fire  brick,  stoves,  foundry 
facings,  underwear,  and  hats.  Pop. 
(1910)  15,245;  (1920)  15,868. 

PEEL,  SIR  ROBERT,  an  English 
statesman,  son  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  a 
wealthy  manufacturer;  born  in  1788, 
and  studied  at  Harrow  and  Oxford. 
When  just  21  years  of  age  he  entered 
Parliament.  He  was  no  orator,  nor  was 
he,  properly  speaking,  a  natural  and  sim- 
ple debater.  His  manner  was  the  artifi- 
cial one  of  thorough  training,  and  the 
House  from  his  practice  got  to  like  it. 
In  1811  he  was  made  under-secretary  for 
the  colonies,  and  in  1812,  when  only  24, 
he  received  the  very  responsible  appoint- 
ment of  chief  secretary  for  Ireland. 
After  carrying  his  celebrated  currency 
measure  of  1819,  he  became,  in  1822, 
home  secretary.  Refusing  to  take  office 
under  Canning,  he  ioined  the  ministry 
of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  1828. 
Here,  by  conceding  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion (against  which  he  had  previously 
protested),  he  did  one  of  those  acts  which 
have  been  called  tergiversation  by  some. 
He  still,  however,  professed  to  belong  to 
the  Conservative  party,  and  he  became  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  Earl  Grey's  min- 
istry, and  the  Reform  Bill.  When  a  Con- 
servative government  was  established  in 
1834,  he  gallantly  undertook  the  attempt 
to  work  it,  though  conscious  that  the  task 


was  hopeless.  He  became  prime  minis- 
ter in  1841.  The  position  was  that  of 
the  head  of  a  protectionist  government, 
established  to  defeat  and  suppress  the 
free  trade  party.  As  circumstances  de- 
veloped from  1841  to  1846,  it  was  seen 
that  the  prime  minister,  becoming  con- 
vinced of  the  truth  of  free  trade,  was 
determined  to  carry  its  principles  into 
practice.  After  the  repeal  of  the  Corn 
Laws  and  other  measures  in  the  same 
spirit,  he  resig^ned  office  in  1846.  He 
died  in  1850. 


SIR  ROBERT  PEEL 

PEELE,  JOHN  THOMAS,  an  Amer- 
can  artist;  born  in  Petersborough,  Eng- 
land, in  1822 ;  settled  in  New  York  City  in 
1835;  early  manifested  a  genius  for  por- 
trait painting  and  went  to  Europe  to 
study;  returned  to  New  York  in  1846, 
and  studied  in  the  National  Academy 
of  Design,  of  which  he  became  an  As- 
sociate. Later,  he  devoted  himself  to 
genre  painting,  becoming  a  specialist  in 
studies  of  child  life.  His  chief  produc- 
tions include  "Children  in  the  Wood" 
(1847);  the  "Girl  and  Kitten";  "Sunny 
Days  of  Childhood";  "Jennie's  Pet"; 
"Music  of  the  Reeds";  "Grandma's  First 
Lesson  in  Knitting";  "Asleep  on  Duty"; 
"The  Wealth  of  Wild  Flowers";  "The 
Little      Laundress";      "Recitation      for 


FEEB 


160 


PEIRCE 


Grandpa";    "The   Bird's   Nest"    (1885); 
etc.     He  died  in  1897. 

PEER,  in  general,  an  equal,  one  of 
the  same  rank  and  station.  In  this  sense 
it  is  used  by  the  common  law  of  England, 
which  declares  that  every  person  is  to  be 
tried  by  his  peers.  Peer  also  signifies  in 
Great  Britain  a  member  of  one  of  the 
five  degrees  of  nobility  that  constitute 
the  "peerage"  (duk©,  marquis,  earl,  vis- 
count, baron),  or  more  strictly  a  mem- 
ber of  the  House  of  Lords.  The  dignity 
and  privileges  of  peers  originated  with 
the  growth  of  the  feudal  system,  the 
peers  being  originally  the  chief  vassals 
holding  fiefs  directly  from  the  crown, 
and  having,  in  virtue  of  their  position, 
the  hereditary  right  of  acting  as  royal 
counsellors.  Subsequently  not  all  the 
crown  vassals  appeared  at  court  as  ad- 
visers of  the  king,  but  only  those  who 
were  summoned  to  appear  by  writ.  This 
custom  grew  at  length  into  a  rule,  and 
these  summonses  were  considered  proofs 
of  hereditary  peerage.  Latterly  the 
honor  of  the  peerage  has  been  exclu- 
sively conferred  by  patent.  As  regards 
their  privileges  all  peers  are  on  a  per- 
fect equality.  The  chief  privileges  are 
those  of  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  of 
a  trial  by  persons  of  noble  birth  in  case 
of  indictments  for  treason  and  felony, 
and  misprision  thereof,  and  of  exemp- 
tion from  arrest  in  civil  cases.  The 
British  peerage  collectively  consist  of 
peers  of  England,  of  Scotland,  of  Great 
Britain,  of  Ireland,  and  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  but  only  a  portion  of  the 
Scotch  and  Irish  peers  are  peers  of 
Parliament. 

PEGASUS,  in  astronomy,  the  Flying 
Horse;  one  of  the  20  ancient  N.  constel- 
lations, bounded  on  the  N.  by  Lacerta 
and  Andromeda,  on  the  S.  by  Aquarius, 
on  the  E.  by  Pisces,  and  on  the  W.  by 
Equuleus  and  Delphinus.  It  is  on  the 
meridian  in  September  at  midnight. 
Alpha  Pegasi  is  Markab,  Beta  Pegasi  is 
Scheat,  and  Gamma  Pegasi  is  Algenib. 
These  with  Alpha  Andromedae  constitute 
the  great  square  of  Pegasus.  In  class- 
ical mythology,  a  winged  steed  which 
sprang  forth  from  the  neck  of  Medusa 
after  her  head  had  been  severed  by  Per- 
seus. As  soon  as  1^  was  born  he  flew 
upward,  and  fixed  his  abode  on  Mount 
Helicon,  where,  with  a  blow  of  his  hoofs 
\e  produced  the  fountain  Hippocrene. 
In  ichthyology,  the  only  genus  of  the  f arn- 
ily  Pegasidse.  Pectoral  fins  broad,  hori- 
zontal, long,  composed  of  simple  rays, 
sometimes  spinous.  Upper  part  of  the 
snout  produced.  Four  species  are 
known;  all  very  small  fishes. 


PEGOUD,  ADOLPHE,  a  French  avia- 
tor. He  was  born  in  1885,  and  following 
the  first  success  of  Santos-Dumont  and 
the  Wright  brothers  in  flying,  took  up 
the  profession  of  an  aeronaut.  In  1913 
he  astonished  Paris  by  his  feats  in  the 
air,  diving,  looping  the  loop,  flying  with 
his  machine  at  what  had  hitherto  been 
considered  impossible  angles.  During 
the  war  his  machine  was  repeatedly  hit 
by  enemy  bullets,  but  he  succeeded  in 
bringing  down  seven  or  eight  German 
machines,  winning  military  medals.  He 
was  killed  in  the  summer  of  1915. 

PEGU,  a  town,  division,  and  river  of 
Lower  Burma.  The  town  stands  on  the 
river  Pegu,  46  miles  N.  E.  of  Rangoon. 
The  old  city  was  founded,  in  573  and  was 
made  the  capital  of  a  powerful  indepen- 
dent kingdom.  European  travelers  in 
the  16th  century  speak  of  its  great  size 
and  magnificence.  It  was  destroyed  in 
the  middle  of  the  18th  century  by  Al- 
ompra;  but  was  rebuilt.  It  was  offered 
to  the  British  by  the  inhabitants,  in  the 
first  and  in  the  second  Burmese  War. 

PEG  WOFFINGTON.  See  WOFFING- 
TON,  Margaret. 

PEHLEVI,  PEHLAVI,  or  PAHLAVI, 

a  Parsee  sacred  language,  which  suc- 
ceeded the  Zend  and  preceded  the  mod- 
ern Persian.  It  was  a  development  of 
the  old  Zend.  The  Zend  Avesta  was 
translated  into  it. 

PEI-HO,  a  river  of  China,  rises  near 
the  borders  of  Mongolia,  flows  N.  E.  and 
S.  E.,  past  Peking  and  Tien-tsin,  and 
falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  after  a 
course  of  more  than  350  miles.  The 
mouth  of  the  river  is  defended  by  the 
powerful  forts  of  Taku.     See  China. 

PEINE    FORTE    ET    DURE,    in    Old 

English  law,  a  penalty  or  punishment  in- 
flicted on  those  who,  being  charged  with 
felony,  remained  mute,  and  refused  to 
plead.  It  was  introduced  by  a  statute 
of  Edward  I.,  and  was  vulgarly  called 
pressing  to  death,  whence  there  was  in 
Newgate  a  place  called  the  press  yard, 
where  such  penalty  was  inflicted. 

PEIRCE,  BENJAMIN,  an  American 
mathematician;  born  in  Salem,  Mass., 
April  4,  1809;  studied  at  Harvard,  where 
in  1833  he  became  professor.  In  1849,  he 
became  consulting  astronomer  to  the 
"American  Nautical  Almanac";  and 
from  1867  to  1874  he  was  superintendent 
of  the  Coast  Survey.  In  1836-1846  he 
issued  an  admirable  series  of  mathemat- 
ical text-books,  and  he  contributed  to 
various  mathematical  journals.  His  pa- 
per on  the  discovery  of  Neptune  (1848) 
attracted   universal    attention;   and.  his 


PEIXOTTO 


161 


PEKING 


papers  on  the  constitution  of  Saturn's 
rings  (1851-1855)  were  equally  remark- 
able. His  great  "Treatise  on  Analytic 
Mechanics"  appeared  in  1857;  and  he  left 
his  mark  on  various  departments  of 
mathematical  and  astronomical  investi- 
gation. He  died  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
Oct.  6,  1880. 

PEIXOTTO,  ERNEST  CLIFFORD, 
American  artist;  born  in  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  in  18&9.  Studied  art  in  Paris  and 
exhibited  at  the  Paris  Salons  and  in 
many  leading  American  exhibitions. 
From  1897  his  chief  work  was  that  of 
illustrator.  He  lived  for  many  years  in 
Europe,  where  he  wrote  and  illustrated 
articles  for  Scribner's  and  other  maga- 


railroads.  Its  industries  include  the 
manufacture  of  agricultural  implements, 
wagons,  carriages,  brick  and  tile,  foun- 
dry products,  etc.  It  is  the  center  of  an 
important  coal  producing  and  agricul- 
tural region  and  has  a  considerable  grain 
market.  It  has  an  important  shipping 
trade  by  rail  and  water.  Its  public 
buildings  include  a  library,  a  court  house, 
government  buildings,  and  public  school 
buildings.  Pop.  (1910)  9,897;  (1920) 
12,086. 

PEKING,  or  PEKIN,  the  capital  of 
the  Chinese  republic,  province  of  Chih-Je, 
or  Pechili,  in  a  vast  sandy  plain,  be- 
tween the  Pei-ho  and  its  important  af- 
fluent, the  Hoang-ho,  562  miles  N.  W.  of 


GATEWAY  OF  THE  HALL  OF  CLOSSUS,  PEKING 


zines.  He  was  an  associate  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy  and  a  member  of  the 
National  Society  of  Mural  Painters. 

PEKAN,  Mustela  pennanti,  Pennant's 
marten,  a  North  American  species,  larger 
than  those  found  in  Great  Britain,  be- 
ing about  four  feet  long,  including  the 
tail.  Its  face  is  dog-like;  fur  brown, 
with  white  patches  on  chest  and  belly. 
Its  favorite  food  is  said  to  be  the  Cana- 
dian porcupine  (Erythizon  dorsatus) , 
but  it  often  steals  the  fish  used  to  bait 
traps,  whence  it  is  sometimes  called  the 
fisher. 

PEKIN,  a  city  of  Illinois,  the  county- 
seat  of  Tazewell  co.  It  is  on  the  Illinois 
river,  and  on  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago,  and  St.  Louis,  the  Chicago  and 
Alton,   the    Illinois    Central,    and    other 


Nankin,  and  100  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  the 
Gulf  of  Pechili,  in  the  Yellow  Sea.  It 
consists  of  two  contiguous  cities,  each 
separately  surrounded  by  walls,  and  to- 
gether entered  by  16  gates.  The  entire 
circumference  is  25  miles.  The  north- 
ern city,  which  is  nearly  a  perfect  square 
(called  Nei-tching,  or  the  inner  city,  and 
sometimes  the  "Imperial"  and  "Tartar 
City"),  consists  of  three  inclosures.  The 
inner  inclosure,  or  "forbidden  city,"  sur- 
rounded by  walls  of  yellow  tiles,  2  miles 
in  circumference,  hence  called  the  "Yel- 
low Wall,"  contains  the  palaces  of  the 
former  emperor  and  empress.  The 
southern  city,  called  the  Wai-ching,  or 
"outer  city,"  is  also  square,  and  occu- 
pied by  the  Chinese,  and  is  both  the  seat 
of  business  and  the  residence  of  most  of 
the  population.  The  wall  is  30  feet  high, 
25  feet  thick  at  the  base,  and  12  feet  at 


PELAGIANS 


162 


PELARGONIUM 


the  top.  That  of  the  imperial  city  is  40 
feet  high.  The  principal  streets  are  very 
wide  and  regular,  running  between  op- 
posite gates.  These  are  mostly  filled 
with  shops,  extravagantly  gilded  and 
ornamented  with  blue  and  gold,  flags, 
etc.  The  houses  are  generally  one  story 
high,  and  built  of  brick.  Of  the  orna- 
mental buildings,  the  most  conspicuous 
are  those  commonly  called  triumphal 
arches.  They  consist  of  a  large  central 
gateway,  with  small  ones  on  each  side,  all 
covered  with  narrow  roofs,  and  like  the 
houses  are  splendidly  gilded,  varnished, 
and  painted.  Besides  these,  there  are 
numerous  pagodas,  a  beautiful  mosque, 
Greek  church,  and  convent.  Peking  is 
the  seat  of  government  and  is  not  dis- 
tinguished by  any  peculiar  manufacture; 
nor  has  it  any  foreign  commerce  or  trade 
other  than  that  directed  to  the  supply  of 
its  own  wants.  This,  however,  is  neces- 
sarily very  considerable.  The  country 
round  the  city  being  sandy  and  poor,  a 
large  portion  of  its  supplies  are  brought 
from  a  distance — partly  from  the  sea  by 
the  Pei-ho,  but  principally  by  the  Grand 
canal  and  the  Eu-ho,  which  connect  it 
with  Nankin  and  most  of  the  E.  prov- 
inces. The  early  history  of  Peking  is  in- 
volved in  obscurity.  It  was  besieged 
and  taken  by  the  Mongols,  led  by  Zinghis 
Khan.  Kublai  Khan  rebuilt  it,  and  made 
it  his  capital  in  1260.  The  Mongol  dy- 
nasty, founded  by  Kublai  Khan,  con- 
tinued to  occupy  this  city  till  it  was  ex- 
pelled from  China,  in  1367.  In  1421,  the 
third  emperor  of  the  Chinese  dynasty  of 
Ming  transferred  his  residence  thither 
from  Nankin,  since  which  it  has  been 
the  capital.  It  surrendered  to  the  allied 
armies  of  France  and  England  in  1860, 
on  which  occasion  the  Yueng-ming,  or 
summer  palace  of  the  emperor,  situated 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  city,  was  destroyed. 
During  the  "Boxer"  uprising  of  1900  the 
various  foreigners  in  Peking  were  be- 
sieged in  the  English  legation.  For 
weeks  they  were  given  up  as  lost,  but 
they  m.anaged  to  hold  out  till  the  arrival 
of  the  foreign  troops.  See  Boxers; 
China.     Pop.  about  2,000,000. 

PELAGIANS,  a  sect  of  heretics  that 
arose  in  the  Church  about  the  beginning 
of  the  5th  century.  Their  founder  was 
Pelagius,  a  monk,  a  native  of  Britain, 
whose  original  name  was  Morgan.  He 
was  greatly  scandalized  by  the  gross 
sensualities  and  immoralities  that  pre- 
vailed in  the  Church,  and  was  of  opinion 
that  they  arose  from  a  belief  in  the 
efficacy  of  the  sacraments  and  the  suf- 
ficiency of  faith.  The  remedy  for  all, 
he  thought,  would  be  a  creed  holding 
man's  salvation  to  be  dependent  on  his 


own  exertions.  Pelagius  went  to  Rome, 
and  afterward  to  Carthage,  where  he  was 
condemned  by  a  council  as  holding  the 
following  heresies :  ( 1 )  That  Adam  was 
by  nature  mortal,  and  would  have  died 
whether  he  had  sinned  or  not;  (2)  that 
the  consequences  of  Adam's  sin  were 
confined  to  himself,  and  did  not  affect 
the  human  race;  (3)  that  new-bom  in- 
fants are  in  the  same  condition  as  Adam 
was  before  his  fall;  (4)  that  the  law 
qualified  man  for  heaven,  as  well  as  the 
Gospel;  and  that  before  Christ  some  men 
had  lived  without  sin;  (5)  that  a  man 
may  keep  the  commandments  of  God 
without  difficulty,  and  preserve  himself 
in  a  state  of  perfect  innocence;  and  that 
the  grace  of  God  is  given  in  proportion 
to  our  merits.  These  are  the  chief  errors 
which  are  generally  reckoned  under  the 
name  of  Pelagianism.  Augustine  and 
Pope  Innocent  I.,  in  417,  anathemized 
the  rising  heresy.  His  successor,  Zosi- 
mus,  also  condemned  the  obnoxious  doc- 
trine, and  the  emperor  promulgated  de- 
crees of  confiscation  and  banishment 
against  them.  Pelagius  retired  into  ex- 
ile, where  he  died.  The  ninth  article  of 
the  English  Church  is  directed  against 
the  Pelagian  error  respecting  original 
sin. 

PELAGIC  SEALING,  the  taking  of 
seal  in  the  open  sea.  By  the  Paris 
award  of  1893,  pelagic  sealing  within  a 
zone  of  60  miles  off  the  Pribilof  islands 
was  forbidden.     See  Bering  Sea. 

PELAGIUS,  the  author  of  the  system 
of  doctrine  which  goes  by  his  name. 
See  Pelagians. 

PELAGIUS,  Pope;  a  native  of  Rome; 
ascended  the  papal  chair  in  succession  to 
Virgilius,  in  555.  He  endeavored  to  re- 
form the  clergy;  and  when  Rome  was 
besieged  by  the  Goths,  he  obtained  from 
Totila,  their  general,  many  concessions 
in  favor  of  the  citizens.     He  died  in  560. 

PELAGIUS,  II.,  Pope;  ascended  the 
papal  chair,  in  succession  to  Benedict  I., 
in  587.  He  opposed  John,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  who  had  assumed  the 
title  of  oecumenic  or  universal  bishop. 
He  died  of  the  plague  in  590. 

PELAEGONIC  ACID.  Nononic  Acid. 
CHs  (CH,),  COOH.  Contained  in  the 
oil  from  Pelargonmm  roseum,  melting 
point  12.5°  C,  boiling  point  253°  C.;  spe- 
cific gravity  0.907.  The  peculiar  odor 
of  the  quince  is  stated  to  be  due  to  the 
presence  of  ethyl  pelargonate.  It  may 
be  prepared  artificially  by  oxidizing  oil 
of  rue. 

PELARGONIUM,  a  large  genus  of 
Geraniacea?,  divided  into  about  15  sub- 


PELASGIAN 


163 


PELICAN 


genera.  Most  of  the  species  are  from 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  one  is  from  the 
Canary  Islands,  one  from  Asia  Minor, 
and  a  few  from  Australia.  Extensively 
cultivated  in  England  in  flower  pots  in 
houses,  in  greenhouses,  and  in  the  open 
air.  The  genus  readily  forms  hybrids, 
which  most  of  the  cultivated  species  are. 
They  are  popularly  called  geranium. 

PELASGIAN,  one  of  an  ancient  and 
widely  diffused  prehistoric  tribe  which 
was  the  common  parent  of  the  Greeks 
and  of  the  earliest  civilized  inhabitants 
of  Italy.  Most  authors  agree  in  repre- 
senting Arcadia  as  one  of  their  principal 
seats.  The  term  Pelasgi  was  used  by 
the  classic  poets  for  the  Greeks  in  gen- 
eral. 

PELEE,  MONT,  an  active  volcano 
on  the  island  of  Martinique  in  the  French 
West  Indies.  Although  previously  known 
to  be  in  action,  it  had  not  caused  much 
destruction  until  1902,  when  by  its  erup- 
tion it  destroyed  the  city  of  St.  Pierre 
with  its  30,000  people.  This  occurred  on 
May  8,  1902,  and  was  accompanied  by 
extraordinary  electrical  disturbances 
which  were  recorded  at  the  antipodal  re- 
gion of  the  earth  in  less  than  two  min- 
utes' time.  On  August  30  of  the  same 
year  the  volcano,  by  another  eruption, 
caused  a  loss  of  life  estimated  at  2,500 
people  in  the  villages  situated  on  the 
neighboring  islands. 

PELEUS,  in  mythology,  a  King  of 
Thessaly.  He  married  Thetis,  one  of  the 
Nereids,  the  only  one  among  mortals  who 
married  an  immortal.  Being  accessory 
to  the  death  of  his  brother  Phocus,  he  re- 
tired to  the  court  of  Eurytus,  who  reign- 
ed at  Phthia.  He  was  purified  of  his 
murder  by  Eurytus,  who  gave  him  his 
daughter  Antigone  in  marriage.  Peleus 
subsequently  killed  Eurytus  by  accident, 
while  in  the  chase  of  the  Calydonian 
boar.  This  event  obliged  him  to  retire  to 
lolchos,  when  the  wife  of  Acastus,  king 
of  the  country,  brought  certain  charges 
against  him,  which  caused  him  to  be  tied 
to  a  tree  on  Mount  Pelion,  that  he  might 
become  the  prey  of  wild  beasts;  but 
Jupiter,  aware  of  the  innocence  of  Pe- 
leus, ordered  Vulcan  to  set  him  at  lib- 
erty. Peleus  revenged  himself  on  Acas- 
tus, by  driving  him  from  his  possessions 
and  putting  to  death  his  wife.  After 
the  death  of  Antigone,  Peleus  fell  in  love 
with  Thetis,  who  rejected  his  suit  be- 
cause he  was  a  mortal.  Having  offered  a 
sacrifice  to  the  gods,  Proteus  at  length 
informed  him  that  to  obtain  Thetis  he 
must  surprise  her  asleep  in  her  grotto, 
near  the  shores  of  Thessaly.  This  ad- 
rice  was  followed;  and  Thetis,  unable  to 


escape  from  the  grasp  of  Peleus,  at  last 
consented  to  marry  him.  Their  nuptials 
were  celebrated  with  the  greatest  sol- 
emnity by  all  the  gods  but  the  goddess 
of  discord,  who  was  absent.  From  the 
marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis  was  born 
Achilles.  The  death  of  Achilles  was  the 
source  of  so  much  grief  to  Peleus,  that 
Thetis  promised  him  immortality,  and 
commanded  him  to  retire  to  the  grottos 
of  the  island  of  Leuce,  where  he  would 
see  and  converse  with  the  manes  of  his 


PELEW  ISLANDS,  or  PALAU,  a 
group  in  the  Pacific  formerly  belonging 
to  Spain,  lying  S.  E.  of  the  Philippines, 
at  the  W.  extremity  of  the  Caroline 
Archipelago,  with  which  they  are  some- 
times classed.  There  are  about  200 
islands,  mountainous,  wooded,  and  sur- 
rounded with  coral  reefs.  Total  area, 
170  square  miles.  The  principal  is  Ba- 
belthouap  or  Babeltop.  The  soil  is  rich 
and  fertile,  and  the  climate  healthy. 
Bread  fruit,  cocoanuts,  sugar  cane, 
palms,  areca  nuts,  yams,  etc.,  are  grovvoi. 
Turtles,  trepang,  and  fish  abound  od  the 
coasts.  The  men  go  entirely  naked  and 
the  women  nearly  so.  The  islands  were 
discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1543,  and 
visited  again  in  1696.  In  1899  Spain 
sold  this  group,  with  the  Carolines  and 
all  of  the  Ladrones  excepting  Guam,  to 
Germany. 

PELIAS,  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of 
Neptune,  and  King  of  lolchus.  The  leg- 
ends ascribe  to  him  the  Argonautic  ex- 
pedition, for  he  wished  to  be  rid  of  Ja- 
son.^ Medea  bade  his  daughters  cut  him 
in  pieces  and  boil  him,  to  make  him  young 
again,  but  he  died  while  undergoing  the 
process. 

PELICAN,  any  bird  of  the  genus  Pele- 
camis,  and  especially  the  common  peli- 
can, the  onocrotalos  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  the  Pelecanus  onocrotalus 
of  modern  science.  Pelicans  are  large 
piscivorous  water  fowl,  with  an  enor- 
mous pouch  capable  of  being  contracted 
when  not  in  use  as  a  depository  for  food. 
The  species  are  widely  distributed,  and 
frequent  the  shores  of  the  sea,  rivers, 
and  lakes,  feeding  chiefly  on  fish,  which 
they  hunt  in  shallow  water,  the  pelican 
of  the  United  States  (P.  ftiscus)  being 
the  only  species  which  dives  for  its  prey. 
The  common  pelican  is  about  the  size  of 
a  swan,  though  its  enormous  bill  and 
loose  plumage  make  it  look  considerably 
larger;  it  is  white,  slightly  tinged  with 
flesh  color,  and  the  breast  feathers  be- 
come yellow  in  old  birds.  It  usually 
nests  on  the  ground,  in  some  retired  spot 
near  the  water,  and  lays  two  or  three 


PELION 


164 


PELLICO 


white  eggs.  The  pelican  sits  during 
the  night  with  its  bill  resting  on  its 
breast;  and,  as  the  hook  at  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  bill  is  red,  this  may  have  given 
rise  to  the  legend  that  the  bird  feeds  its 
young  with  blood  from  its  own  breast. 
In  chemistry,  an  alembic  with  a  tubu- 


^JSJ'^ 


PELICAN 

lated  capital,  from  which  two  opposite 
and  crooked  beaks  passed  out,  entering 
again  at  the  belly  of  the  cucurbit.  In 
dental  surgery,  an  instrument  for  ex- 
tracting teeth,  curved  at  the  end  like  the 
beak  of  a  pelican.  In  art,  the  pelican  is 
the  symbol  of  charity.  It  is  generally 
represented  wounding  its  breast  to  feed 
its  young  with  its  own  blood — a  tale  told 
in  the  fabulous  natural  history  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  which  made  the  bird 
the  adopted  symbol  of  the  Redeemer. 

PELION,  in  ancient  geography,  the 
name  of  a  wooded  mountain  range  in 
Thessaly,  extending  along  the  E.  coast. 
Its  E.  side  descends  in  steep  and  rugged 
precipices  to  the  sea.  Further  to  the 
N.,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Peneus,  is  the 
steep  conical  peaks  of  Ossa,  which  ac- 
cording to  the  classic  myth,  the  Titans 
placed  on  the  summit  of  Pelion  in  order 
to  scale  Olympus,  the  abode  of  the  gods. 
The  modern  name  is  Zagora. 

FELLA,  the  ancient  capital  of  Mace- 
donia, and  the  birthplace  of  Philip  II. 
and  Alexander  the  Great;  situated  in 
the  midst  of  marshes,  a  few  miles  N.  W. 
of  Thessalonica,  which  stood  half  way  be- 
tween it  and  the  head  of  what  is  now  the 
Gulf  of  Saloniki.  Its  royal  castle  had 
wall  paintings  by  Zeuxis. 

PELLAGRA,  a  chronic  disease  oc- 
curring in  many  parts  of  the  world,  in- 
cluding the  southern  portions  of  the 
United  States.     Its  cause  is  not  certainly 


determined.  For  a  long  time  it  was 
thought  to  be  due  to  the  eating  of  dam- 
aged maize  (corn).  More  recently  Sam- 
bon  claims  to  have  discovered  a  proto- 
zoal organism  responsible  for  the  pella- 
gra symptoms  which  is  transmitted  by  a 
small  fly  Simulium  replans.  The  symp- 
toms of  pellagrra  are  sore  mouth,  gastric 
and  intestinal  disturbance,  a  skin 
eruption  in  summer  which  disappears  on 
the  approach  of  cold  weather  and  re- 
turns in  the  following  spring;  when  the 
disease  has  lasted  for  four  or  five  years 
the  skin  becomes  atrophied,  wrinkled, 
and  inelastic;  walking  is  difficult,  the 
victim  tending  to  fall  either  forward  or 
backward.  The  patient's  face  has  a 
characteristic  expression  of  anxiety.  In- 
somnia is  present,  with  great  mental  de- 
pression, and  either  moroseness  or  irri- 
tability. Various  forms  of  paralysis 
eventually  develop.  The  disease  may 
last  from  ten  to  fifteen  years. 

Treatment.  Arsenic  in  some  form, 
such  as  atoxyl  (see  Sleeping  Sickness), 
is  the  best  remedy. 

PELLICO,  SILVIO,  an  Italian  patriot; 
born  in  Saluzza,  in  Piedmont,  in  1789. 
In  early  life  he  gained  considerable  dis- 
tinction as  a  writer  for  the  stage;  and 
his  tragedy,  "Francesca  da  Rimini,"  may 


SILVIO  PELLICO 

still  be  read  with  interest.  In  1819  he 
became  connected  with  the  press,  and  in 
1820,  he  was  seized  as  a  carbonaro  by 
the  Austrians  at  Milan,  and  confined  in 
the  fortress  of  Spielberg  for  10  years. 
The  volume  on  which  his  fame  rests  tells 
the     story    of    his    imprisonment.     His 


PELOPONNESUS 


165 


PEMBKOKE    COLLEGE 


treatment  was  not  distinguished  by  the 
most  terrible  hardships  or  tortures  which 
other  more  illustrious  persons  have  un- 
dergone, but  it  tells  a  tale  of  solitude,  of 
patient  endurance,  and  of  pleasing  senti- 
ments. Released  by  the  amnesty  of  1830, 
he  found  shelter  at  Turin,  and  was  em- 
ployed as  librarian  in  the  house  of  the 
Marchesa  Barolo  till  he  died.  His  im- 
prisonment had  ruined  his  health,  and 
he  took  no  further  part  in  politics.  He 
died  in  1854. 

PELOPONNESUS,  the  ancient  name 
of  the  Morea.  Among  its  most  impor- 
tant cities  were  Sparta  in  Laconia,  and 
Argos  the  capital  of  Argolis.  Sparta 
acquired,  after  the  Messenian  war,  a  de- 
cided supremacy  over  the  other  states, 
and  disputed  the  supremacy  with  Athens 
in  a  war  of  almost  30  years'  duration 
(431-404  B.  C.) — the  famous  Peloponne- 
sian  War,  of  which  the  history  has  been 
written  by  Thucydides.  After  the  Ro- 
man conquest,  the  Peloponnesus  formed 
part  of  the  province  of  Achaia,  and  sub- 
sequently belonged  to  the  Byzantine  em- 
pire. 

PELOPS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
grand-son  of  Zeus,  and  the  son  of  Tanta- 
lus, was  slain  by  his  father,  and  served 
up  at  an  entertainment  which  he  gave  to 
the  gods,  in  order  to  test  their  omnis- 
cience. They  were  not  deceived,  and 
would  not  touch  the  horrible  food;  but 
Demeter,  absorbed  with  grief  for  the  loss 
of  her  daughter,  ate  part  of  a  shoulder 
without  observing.  The  gods  then  com- 
manded the  members  to  be  thrown  into  a 
cauldron,  out  of  which  Clotho  brought 
the  boy  again  alive,  and  the  want  of  the 
shoulder  was  supplied  by  an  ivory  one. 
According  to  the  legend,  Pelops  was  a 
Phrygian,  who,  being  driven  by  Ilos  from 
Sipylos,  came  with  great  treasures  to  the 
peninsula  which  derived  from  him  the 
name  of  Peloponnesus,  married  Hippo- 
damia,  obtained  her  father's  kingdom  by 
conquering  him  in  a  chariot  race,  and 
became  the  father  of  Atreus,  Thyestes, 
and  other  sons. 

PELVIS,  the  lower  portion  of  the 
great  abdominal  cavity,  bounded  by  the 
abdomen  above,  the  perineum  below,  the 
peritoneum,  muscles,  and  fascia  in  front, 
below,  and  at  the  side;  and  the  sacral 
plexus  of  nerves  and  the  sacrum  behind. 
It  contains  the  bladder,  prostate  gland, 
vesiculas  seminales,  and  rectum.  It  is 
composed  of  the  two  ossa  innominata,  the 
sacrum  and  the  coccyx.  There  are 
marked  differences  in  the  male  and  fe- 
male pelvis;  that  of  the  male  is  the 
stronger,  vdth  a  deeper  and  much  nar- 
rower cavity ;  that  of  the  female  is  much 
shallower  and  more  widely  expanded. 


PEMBA,  a  coral  island  off  the  E. 
coast  of  Africa,  in  British  East  Africa, 
Zanzibar  Protectorate,  50  miles  N.  E.  of 
Zanzibar  Island;  area,  372  square  miles. 
There  are  numerous  bays  on  the  E. 
coast;  on  one  of  them  stands  the  chief 
port,  Chaka.  Pop.  (1917)  9,000.  The 
trade  is  in  cattle,  rice,  cloves,  and  ebony. 
It  was  transferred  by  the  Sultan  of  Zan- 
zibar to  the  British  East  African  Com- 
pany in  1891.  Capital,  Weti.  Pop. 
(1917)    83,130. 

PEMBERTON,  a  town  in  the  county 
of  Lancashire,  England,  two  miles  S. 
W.  of  Wigan.  It  has  important  manu- 
factures, including  cotton,  chemicals  and 
iron  products.  There  are  extensive  coal 
mines  and  stone  quarries  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  about  25,000. 

PEMBERTON,  MAX,  an  English 
novelist.  He  was  born  in  1863  in  Bir- 
mingham, was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
and  in  1885  began  writing  for  "Vanity 
Fair"  and  other  journals.  His  first  ro- 
mance, "The  Iron  Pirate,"  appeared  in 
1893.  Since  then  he  has  written: 
"Queen  of  the  Jesters";  "The  Garden  of 
Swords";  "F^o";  "House  Under  the 
Sea";  "Beatrice  of  Venice";  "My  Sword 
for  Lafayette";  "The  Show  Girl";  "Cap- 
tain Black";  "The  Lady  Evelyn";  and 
"Garrick"  (a  play). 

PEMBROKE,  the  county-town  of  Pem- 
brokeshire, Wales;  on  a  navigable  creek 
of  Milford  Haven,  114  miles  W.  by  N.  of 
Cardiff.  On  the  extremity  of  the  ridge 
on  which  the  town  is  built  stands  Pem- 
broke Castle,  founded  in  1904  by  Ar- 
nulf  de  Montgomery,  a  very  imposing 
ruin.  The  birthplace  of  Henry  VII., 
this  castle  in  1648  was  taken  by  Crom- 
well after  a  six  weeks'  siege.  Monktown 
Priory,  with  its  roofless  decorated  choir, 
is  another  interesting  structure.  Pem- 
broke for  more  than  four  centuries  has 
given  the  title  of  earl  to  the  House  of 
Herbei't.  At  Pembroke  Dock,  or  Pater, 
2%  mile  N.  W.,  is  the  naval  dockyard 
and  arsenal,  established  in  1814.  Pop 
about  90,000. 

PEMBROKE  COLLEGE,  one  of  the 
colleges  included  in  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity, England.  It  was  founded  in  1347 
by  the  widow  of  the  earl  of  Pembroke. 
Henry  VI.  endowed  the  college  with  nu- 
merous gifts  during  the  years  1440-1450. 
The  college  buildings  are  mostly  of  the 
18th  century,  although  they  were  almost 
entirely  rebuilt  in  1874.  The  foundation 
consists  of  a  master,  and  thirteen  fel- 
lows, and  a  number  of  scholarships,  most 
of  which  have  been  established  after  the 
foundation.  Many  noted  names  in  Eng- 
lish  history    are    associated   with    Fern- 


PEMBROKE    COLLEGE 


166 


PENAL    SERVITUDE 


broke  College,  among  others  Spenser  and 
Thomas  Gray,  the  poets.  The  famous 
English  martyr  bishop,  Ridley,  and  the 
great  English  statesman,  William  Pitt, 
were  among  the  alumni.  The  library  of 
the  college,  consisting  of  about  20,000 
volumes,  contains  many  interesting  and 
valuable  v^rorks.  In  1913-1914  there  were 
293  undergraduates. 

PEMBROKE  COLLEGE,  a  college  at 
Oxford,  England.  Founded  in  1624, 
when  Thomas  Tesdale  bequeathed  a  sum 
of  money  for  the  support  of  scholars  in 
Oxford.  Richard  Wightwick  added  to 
Tesdale's  bequest,  and  because  the  latter 
had  indicated  Balliol  as  his  preference, 
that  college  claimed  the  endowment. 
James  I.,  however,  determined  to  found 
a  new  college,  and,  with  these  two  be- 
quests, founded  Pembroke,  named  after 
the  then  chancellor  of  the  university. 
The  buildings  are  very  picturesquely 
situated  and  are,  for  the  most  part,  of 
modern  construction.  The  college  con- 
sisted of  a  master,  7  fellowships,  and 
about  150  undergraduates.  During  the 
war  the  number  of  undergraduates  was 
reduced  to  a  third  of  that  figure.  Among 
its  famous  alumni  are  John  Pym, 
George  Whitefield,  Beaumont,  the  dram- 
atist, and  Samuel  Johnson.  Some  me- 
morials to  Johnson  have  been  erected, 
and  a  number  of  relics  from  his  student 
life  are  there. 

PEMBROKESHIRE,  county  of  Wales, 
on  W.  coast,  and  Bristol  Channel.  Is 
mountainous,  and  traversed  by  River 
Leife;  and  Milford  Haven  is  important 
harbor  for  commerce  and  war.  Coal 
mines  are  numerous,  and  iron  ore  and 
lead  are  leading  minerals.  In  the  valleys 
the  products  are  barley,  wheat,  and  green 
crops.  Pembroke,  capital;  St.  Davids, 
seat  of  ancient  episcopal  see.  Fop. 
89,600. 

PEMMICAN,  or  PEMICAIST,  meat  cut 
in  thin  slices,  divested  of  fat,  and  dried 
in  the  sun,  then  pounded  into  a  paste, 
mixed  with  melted  fat,  and  sometimes 
dried  fruit,  and  pressed  tightly  into  cakes 
or  bags.  It  is  an  easily  preserved  food, 
will  keep  for  a  long  time,  and  contains 
much  nutriment  in  a  small  compass. 

PEMPHIGUS,    or    POMPHOLYX,    a 

skin  disease  which  is  characterized  by  an 
eruption  of  large  vesicles,  filled  with 
serous  fluid,  and  known  as  bullae.  The 
disease  occurs  both  in  acute  and  in  the 
chronic  form.  In  a  mild  case  of  acute 
pemphigus,  bullae,  or  blisters,  from  the 
size  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  chestnut,  ap- 
pear^ in  succession  (chiefly  on  the  ex- 
remities),  and  having  continued  three 


or  four  days  break,  form  a  thin  scab,  and 
soon  heal,  unaccompanied  with  febrile 
or  inflammatory  symptoms.  In  severe 
cases  there  is  considerable  constitutional 
disturbance,  the  bullae  are  larger,  and  the 
scabs  heal  with  difficulty.  The  chronic 
form  differs  mainly  from  the  acute  by 
its  prolonged  continuance.  The  acute 
variety  chiefly  affects  children,  and  has 
been  ascribed  to  dentition,  errors  of 
diet,  etc.;  while  the  chronic  form  chiefly 
attacks  aged  persons,  and  is  probably 
due  to  debility  and  impaired  nutrition. 

PEN,  an  instrument  for  writing  with 
a  fluid.  The  metallic  stilus  for  the  pro- 
duction of  incised  letters  was  probably 
the  earliest  writing  implement.  It  was 
used  by  the  Romans  for  writing  on  tab- 
lets coated  with  wax;  but  both  they  and 
the  Greeks  also  used  what  is  the  true  an- 
cient representative  of  the  modern  pen, 
namely,  a  hollow  reed,  as  is  yet  common 
in  eastern  countries.  It  has  been  as- 
serted that  quills  were  used  for  writing 
as  early  as  the  5th  century  A.  D.  In  Eu- 
rope they  were  long  the  only  writing  im- 
plements, the  sorts  generally  used  being 
those  of  the  goose  and  swan.  Up  till  the 
end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury these  formed  the  principal  material 
from  which  pens  were  made.  In  1803 
Wise  produced  steel  pens  of  a  barrel 
form,  mounted  in  a  bone  case  for  carry- 
ing in  the  pocket.  Joseph  Gillott  com- 
menced the  manufacture  about  1820,  and 
succeeded  in  making  the  pen  of  thinner 
and  more  elastic  steel,  giving  it  a  higher 
temper  and  finish.  Mr.  Gillott  was  fol- 
lowed into  the  same  field  by  Mr.  Perry 
and  others,  and  their  improvements  re- 
duced the  cost  and  raised  _  the  quality. 
Cast-steel  of  the  finest  quality  is  used  in 
the  manufacture,  and  the  various  opera- 
tions are  performed  by  cutting,  stamping 
and  embossing  apparatus.  Birmingham 
was  the  first  hora.=  „nd  is  still  the  prin- 
cipal center  of  the  steel-pen  industry. 
Gold  pens  tipped  with  minute  particles  of 
iridium  are  now  in  extensive  use,  and  a 
good  one  vdll  last  for  years.  Fountain 
pens  and  penholders,  to  carry  a  consid- 
erable supply  of  ink  and  to  discharge  it 
in  an  equal  manner,  were  invented  by 
Joseph  Bramah. 

PENAL  LAWS,  laws  which  prohibit 
an  act,  and  impose  a  penalty  for  the  com- 
mission of  it. 

PENAL  SERVITUDE,  a  form  of  pun- 
ishment in  English  criminal  law,  substi- 
tuted, in  1853,  for  the  punishment  of 
transportation.  It  consists  in  imprison- 
ment with  hard  labor  for  a  term  of  years, 
from  two  up  to  the  duration  of  life,  in 
one  of  the  penal  establishments  in  Great 


PENANCE 


167 


PENCIL 


Britain,  or  in  any  of  the  British  domin- 
ions beyond  the  seas. 

PENANCE,  in  Roman  theology  and 
ritual:  1.  The  virtue  which  inclines  the 
soul  to  detest  sin  for  its  own  sake — that 
is,  because  it  is  an  offense  against  God. 
2.  The  outward  acts  by  which  sorrow  for 
sin  is  evinced.  3.  The  satisfaction  which 
a  priest  imposes  on  the  penitent  before 
giving  absolution,  often  called  sacra- 
mental penance.  4.  A  sacrament  of  the 
New  Law,  whereby  sins,  whether  mortal 
or  venial,  committed  after  baptism,  are 
forgiven.  The  Council  of  Trent  defines 
that  the  form  of  the  sacrament  consists 
in  the  words,  "Ego  te  absolvo,"  etc.,  the 
"quasi  materia"  in  the  acts  of  the  peni- 
tent— contrition,  confession  and  satisfac- 
tion. The  minister  of  the  sacrament  is 
a  priest  with  ordinary  or  delegated  power 
to  absolve,  and  the  subjects  those  who 
have  received  baptism.  It  is  not  of  obli- 
gation to  confess  venial  sins,  but  mortal 
sins  committed  after  baptism  must  be 
confessed. 

P  E  N  A  N  G,  PULO-PENANG,  or 
PRINCE  OF  WALES  ISLAND,  an  is- 
land belonging  to  Great  Britain,  lying  at 
the  N.  entrance  of  the  Straits  of  Ma- 
lacca, off  the  W.  coast  of  the  Malay  Pen- 
insula, from  which  it  is  separated  by  a 
channel  2  to  5  miles  across;  area,  107 
square  miles.  Two-fifths  of  Penang  is 
plain,  and  the  rest  hills,  which  rise  to  a 
height  of  2,734  feet  in  the  peak  now  used 
as  a  sanatorium.  The  climate  is  hot,  but 
very  healthy.  The  scenery  is  charming. 
The  island  produces  cocoanuts  and  areca 
nuts,  nutmegs  and  cloves,  rice,  sugar, 
coffee,  and  pepper.  Georgetown,  or  Pe- 
nang, the  capital  and  port  (Pop.  1915 
about  105,000)  has  a  large  commerce. 
The  harbor  is  the  strait  between  island 
and  mainland.  Penang  was  made  over 
by  treaty  to  the  East  India  Company  in 
1786  by  the  Rajah  of  Quedah,  and  with 
province  Wellesley,  a  long  strip  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula  opposite  (area,  270 
square  miles),  it  forms  one  of  the  Straits 
Settlements,  having  a  resident  councillor 
to  control  administration.  Pop.  (1915) 
294,858. 

PENATES,  the  Roman  gods  of  the 
storeroom  and  kitchen.  The  family 
hearth,  which  formerly  stood  in  the  at- 
rium, and  their  altar,  and  on  it  their  im- 
ages, two  in  number,  were  placed,  with 
the  image  of  the  Lar  between  them. 
These  penates  were  represented  danc- 
ing and  elevating  a  drinking  horn  in 
token  of  joy  and  plenty.  The  calends, 
nones,  and  ides  of  each  month  were  set 
apart  for  their  worship,  as  were  the  car- 
istia     (Feb.    22)     and    the    saturnalia. 


Each  family  had  its  own  penates,  and 
the  state  had  its  public  penates.  The 
worship  of  these  gods  was  closely  con- 
nected with  that  of  Vesta,  in  whose 
temple  the  public  penates  were  at  one 
time  worshipped,  though  they  had  a 
temple  of  their  own  near  the  Forum. 

PENCIL,  a  name  applied  to  instru- 
ments for  writing,  drawing,  or  painting, 
differing  as  much  in  their  construction 
as  in  the  use  to  which  they  are  applied. 
There  are  now  in  use  the  following  kinds 
of  pencils :  Hair  pencils,  black  lead  pen- 
cils, chalk  pencils,  and  slate  pencils. 
The  first  are  used  for  painting  or  writ- 
ing with  fluid  colors,  either  oil  or  water, 
and  in  China  and  Japan  ai'e  employed 
almost  entirely  instead  of  pens  for  writ- 
ing; the  color  used  being  the  black  or 
brown  pigment  obtained  from  various 
species  of  sepia  or  cuttle  fish.  The  well- 
known  black  lead  pencil  is  made  by  cut- 
ting black  lead  or  plumbago.  Some  pen- 
cils are  filled  with  colored  chalk  instead 
of  black  lead. 

The  ever-pointed  pencil  is  an  instru- 
ment for  using  cylindrical  pieces  of 
black  lead,  which  are  forced  forward  in 
the  pencil  just  so  far  as  to  allow  them  to 
be  used  without  breaking.  The  pencils 
for  using  liquid  colors  or  paints  are 
made  of  hog's  bristles,  camel's  hair,  fitch, 
sable,  etc.  Those  of  a  large  and  com- 
mon kind  are  described  under  Brush 
(q.  v.).  The  soft  pencils  for  artists  are 
made  as  follows:  The  tail  of  the  animal 
(sable,  badger,  marten,  etc.)  is  scoured 
in  a  solution  of  alum;  then  steeped  for 
several  hours  in  lukewarm  water;  then 
dried  in  linen  cloths;  and  finally  combed 
out  regularly.  The  hairs  are  seized  with 
pincers,  and  cut  off  near  the  skin,  and 
the  little  parcels  of  hair  are  sorted  into 
groups  according  to  their  length.  A  few 
hairs  are  then  taken — enough  for  one 
pencil — and  placed  in  a  little  receptacle, 
which  holds  them  while  a  thread  is  bound 
round  near  the  roots.  The  base  of  the 
pencil  is  then  trimmed  flat  by  scissors. 
The  hairs  thus  prepared  are  fitted  either 
into  quills  or  into  tin  tubes.  The  quills 
are  those  of  swans,  geese,  ducks,  lap- 
wings, pigeons,  or  larks,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  pencil.  Each  quill  is  softened 
and  swelled  in  hot  water;  and  the  bunch 
of  hairs  is  introduced  at  the  larger  end, 
and  pulled  forward  by  a  simple  appa- 
ratus to  the  smaller  end,  where  the 
shrinking  of  the  quill  binds  the  hairs 
closely.  Women  are  generally  more  suc- 
cessful than  men  in  preparing  the  small 
and  delicate  pencils.  Slate  pencils,  for 
writing  on  slate,  are  made  either  by  cut- 
ting slate  into  thin  sticks,  and  rounding 
them,  or  by  cutting  it  into  fine  square 


PENDANT 


168 


PENFIELD 


slips,  and  incasing  them  in  wood,  as  in 
the  case  of  black  lead,  etc. 

In  optics,  an  aggregate  or  collection  of 
rays  of  light  which  converge  to,  or  di- 
verge from,  the  same  point. 

PENDANT,  in  architecture  (1)  an 
ornament  which  is  suspended  from  the 
roof  of  a  Gothic  or  Tudor  building;  the 
hanging  pendants  of  a  vaulted  ceiling, 
uniting  solidity  with  ornament.  There 
are  some  excellent  samples  in  Henry 
VI.'s  Chapel  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
London.  In  vaulted  roofs  pendants  are 
formed  of  stone,  richly  sculptured,  and  in 
timber  work  they  are  of  wood  carved. 
(2)  A  hanging  keystone,  the  lower  face 
of  which  projects  beyond  the  intrados  of 
the  arch. 

In  art  (in  the  plural),  two  pictures, 
statues,  or  groups  of  sculpture  or  en- 
gravings, which,  from  their  similarity  of 
subject,  size,  form,  etc.,  can  be  placed  to- 
gether with  due  regard  to  symmetry. 
Nautically:  (1)  A  strap  or  short  rope 
depending  from  a  mast-head,  and  having 
thimbles  for  bearing  the  blocks,  which 
transmit  the  effects  of  tackles  to  distant 
points,  etc.  Used  especially  in  setting 
up  masts  and  rigging.      (2)   A  pennant. 

PENDLETON,  a  town  of  Oregon,  the 
county-seat  of  Umatilla  co.  It  is  on  the 
Umatilla  river  and  on  the  Oregon  Rail- 
road and  Navigation  Company  and  the 
Washington  and  Columbia  River  rail- 
roads. It  is  the  center  and  distributing 
point  of  an  important  wheat-growing 
and  cattle-raising  regions.  Its  indus- 
tries include  flour  mills,  woolen  mills, 
machine  shops,  etc.  Water  power  is 
supplied  by  the  river,  which  is  crossed 
by  four  bridges.  The  public  buildings 
include  a  court  house,  a  public  library, 
a  State  hospital  for  the  insane,  and  a 
Federal  building.  Pop.  (1910)  4,460; 
(1920)  7,387. 

PENDULUM,  in  mechanics,  a  simple 
pendulum  is  a  heavy  particle  suspended 
by  a  fine  thread  from  a  fixed  point, 
about  which  it  oscillates  without  fric- 
tion. The  time  of  its  vibration  is  di- 
rectly as  the  square  root  of  the  length, 
and  inversely  as  the  square  root  of  the 
accelerating  force  of  gravity.  The 
length  of  the  arc  through  which  it 
vibrates  does  not  affect  the  result.  No 
simple  pendulum  can  exist;  all  con- 
structed by  man  are  compound  pendu- 
lums in  which  there  gravitates,  not  a 
particle,  but  a  heavy  body  called  the  bob, 
the  law  of  friction  of  course  operating. 

In  horology,  the  ordinary  pendulum  is 
believed  to  have  been  the  invention  of 
Ebn  Junius  of  the  University  of  Cor- 
.dova,  about  a.  d.   1100,  his  companion, 


Gerbert  (poisoned  in  1102),  making  the 
first  escapement.  Henry  de  Wyck 
(1364),  Harris  (1641),  and  Huyghens 
(about  1657),  applied  it  to  clocks;  Ga- 
lilei, in  1581,  having  recommended  a  pen- 
dulous weight  as  a  true  measurer,  and 
Sanitorius,  in  1612,  the  combination  of  a 
pendulum  with  wheel  work.  Pendulums 
generally  move  in  arcs  of  circles.  In  the 
cycloidal  pendulum  the  rod  of  suspension 
describes  the  arc  of  a  cycloid,  and  in  the 
conical  a  cone.  Heat  lengthens,  and  cold 
contracts  the  rod  of  a  pendulum,  if  it  be 
of  a  single  metal,  as  steel  or  iron.  _To 
neutralize  these  effects  compensation 
pendulums  are  made;  the  gridiron  pen- 
dulum having  bars  of  iron  and  brass  to 
work  against  each  other,  and  the  mer- 
curial pendulum  making  the  center  of 
the  oscillation  of  the  bob  uniform  by  the 
expansion  and  contraction  of  mercury  in- 
side. The  curved  line  along  which  the 
bob  of  a  pendulum  moves  is  called  the 
arc  of  vibration,  the  horizontal  chord  of 
that  arc  the  axis  of  oscillation,  and  the 
point  around  which  the  pendulum  moves 
the  point  of  suspension,  or  the  center  of 
motion.  The  length  of  a  pendulum 
vibrating  seconds  is  directly  proportion- 
ate to  the  force  of  gravity  at  the  place. 
One  constructed  to  beat  seconds  at  Lon- 
don (lat.  of  Greenwich  Observatory,  51* 
28'  N.)  at  the  sea-level  must  measure 
39.13983  inches;  at  the  equator,  39.02074 
inches;  and  at  Spitzbergen,  39.21469 
inches. 

PENELOPE,  a  celebrated  Grecian 
princess,  daughter  of  Icarius,  wife  of 
Ulysses  (Odysseus),  and  mother  of  Tele- 
machus.  According  to  the  Homeric  leg- 
end, Ulysses,  during  his  long  wanderings 
after  the  fall  of  Troy,  was  generally  re- 
garded as  dead,  and  Penelope  was  vexed 
by  the  urgent  suits  of  many  lovers,  whom 
she  put  off  on  the  pretext  that  she  must 
first  weave  a  shroud  for  Laertes,  her 
aged  father-in-law.  To  protract  the 
time,  she  undid  by  night  the  portion  of 
the  web  which  she  had  woven  by  day. 
When  the  suitors  had  discovered  this  de- 
vice, her  position  became  more  difficult 
than  before;  but  fortunately  Ulysses  re- 
turned in  time  to  rescue  his  chaste 
spouse  from  their  distasteful  importun- 
ities. 

PENFIELD,  EDWARD.  American 
illustrator.  He  was  born  in  New  York 
in  1866,  studying  painting  first  in  hif 
native  city;  then  in  Holland  and  Eng- 
land. Returning  to  the  United  States 
he  became  art  editor  of  "Hai-per's"  in 
1891,  and  designed  many  magazine  cov- 
ers, posters,  calendars,  and  contributed 
the  illustrations  to  many  stories  and  ar- 
ticles.    His    larger   decorative   work  in- 


PENFIELD 


169 


PENICILLIUM 


eludes  ornamentations  at  the  Rochester 
County  Club,  and  in  Randolph  Hall, 
Cambridge,  Mass.  His  illustrated  works 
include:  i'Holland  Sketches":  and 
"Spanish  Sketches." 

PENFIELD,  FREDERIC  COXTRT- 
liAND.  Author  and  diplomat.  Born  in 
Connecticut,  1855,  and  after  completing 


FREDERIC  C.   PENFIELD 

his  education  in  England  and  Germany, 
became  in  1885  vice-consul  general  at 
London.  He  later  served  in  Egypt  as 
American  consul-general,  and  in  1913 
was  appointed  by  President  Wilson  am- 
bassador to  Austria-Hungary.  There  he 
remained  in  charge  of  United  States  af- 
fairs until  the  severance  of  diplomatic 
relations  in  1917.  During  the  period  of 
American  neutrality  (1914-1917)  he  took 
care  of  the  interests  in  Austria-Hungary 
of  several  of  the  belligerents. 

PENGUIN,  a  name  first  given  to  the 
great  auk  {Alca  impennis),  but  now  ap- 
plied to  any  member  of  the  family 
Sphxniscidae.  Pengnains  are  aquatic  birds 
confined  to  the  high  S.  latitudes  of  both 
hemispheres,  where  they  congregate  in 
large  flocks.  The  body  is  generally  el- 
liptical; neck  of  moderate  length;  head 
small;  bill  moderately  long,  straight, 
compressed ;  ^  tail  short.  They  have  no 
quills  in  their  wings,  which  are  as  rigid 
as  the  flippers  of  a  cetacean,  and  utterly 
useless  for  flight,  though  they  move 
freely    at    the    shoulder-joint,    forming- 


most  efficient  paddles,  and  are  usualb 
worked  alternately  with  a  rotatory  mo- 
tion. They  make  no  nests,  and  lay  a 
single  egg,  which  is  tended  by  both  birds, 
and  the  female  takes  charge  of  the  young 
for  nearly  12  months.  The  emperor  pen- 
guin is  Aptenodytes  patagonica,  and  the 
king  penguin  A.  longirostris.  Their 
molting  is  very  peculiar.  The  flipper- 
like wings  cast  off  short  scale-like  feath- 
ers; they  flake  off  like  the  shedding  of 
the  skin  of  a  serpent. 

In  botany,  the  broad-leaved  pineapple, 
Bromelia  pinguin,  of  which  penguin  is  a 
corruption.  It  is  very  common  in  Ja- 
maica, where  it  is  planted  as  a  fence 
around  pasture  lands,  on  account  of  its 
prickly  leaves.  When  stripped  of  their 
pulp,  soaked  in  water,  and  beaten  with  a 
wooden  mallet,  they  yield  a  fiber  whence 


PENGUIN 

thread  is  made.  The  juice  of  the  fruit 
in  water  makes  a  good  cooling  drink  in 
fevers. 

PENICILLIUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
hyphomycetous  fungi.  It  consists  of  a 
dense,  pasty  crust,  slimy  below  and  above, 
consisting  of  minute  pedicels,  terminat- 
ing in  a  pencil  of  moniliform  spores. 
One,  P.  glaticum,  is  green  mold. 


PENINSULA 


170 


PENN 


PENINSULA,  a  piece  of  land  almost 
surrounded  with  water,  and  connected  to 
the  mainland  by  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
or  isthmus.  With  the  definite  article  the 
term  is  specifically  applied  to  Spain  and 
Portugal. 

PENINSULAR  WAR,  the  war  carried 
on  in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century 
in  Spain  and  Portugal  by  the  British 
forces,  aided  by  the  native  troops,  against 
the  French.  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  aft- 
erward the  Duke  of  Wellington,  landed 
with  10,000  British  troops,  at  Figueras, 
in  Portugal,  Aug.  1-3,  1808,  and  on  the 
21st  defeated  the  French  at  Vimiera. 
On  August  30  the  Convention  of  Cintra 
was  signed,  by  which  Junot  agreed  to 
evacuate  the  country.  Wellesley  return- 
ing home,  the  command  of  the  army, 
now  increased  to  20,000  men,  was  given 
over  to  Sir  John  Moore,  who  was  forced 
by  Soult  to  fall  back  on  Corunna,  where 
a  battle  was  fought  on  Jan.  16,  1809,  in 
which  the  former  lost  his  life.  Welles- 
ley again  received  command  of  the  army, 
and,  after  a  series  of  sanguinary  but 
generally  successful  combats,  drove  the 
French  across  the  Pyrenees,  entering 
France  on  Oct.  7,  1813. 

PENITENTIARY,  a  prison  in  which 
convicted  offenders  are  confined  and  sub- 
jected to  a  course  of  discipline  and 
instruction  with  a  view  to  their  refor- 
mation. 

PENITENTIARY,  one  of  the  offices  of 
the  Roman  Curia,  taking  special  cogni- 
zance of  matters  relating  to  the  confes- 
sional and  dispensations  from  such 
impediments  to  marriage  as  are  not 
diriment.  The  dignitary  who  presides  over 
the  office  described  above.  He  is  a  car- 
dinal priest  and  must  be  a  doctor  of 
theology  or  canon  law.  That  part  of  the 
church  to  which  penitents  are  restricted 
Canon  penitentiary:  In  the  Roman 
Church  a  canon  appointed  in  compliance 
with  a  decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
which  directs  that  in  every  cathedral 
church,  if  possible,  a  penitentiary  should 
be  appointed.  He  must  be  40  years  of 
age,  master  of  arts,  a  doctor,  or  a  licen- 
tiate in  theology  or  canon  law.  His  duty 
is  to  deal  with  reserved  cases,  and  his  at- 
tendance in  confessional  is  considered 
equivalent  to  presence  in  choir.  A  pri- 
son:  a  reformatory  for  criminals. 

PENN,  WILLIAM,  founder  of  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania;  son  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Perm;  bom  in  London,  Oct.  13, 
1644.  He  received  a  good  education, 
completing  it  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
but  disappointed  his  father's  expectations 
by  turning  Quaker,  and  was  discarded 
by  him.     Sir  William  afterward  relented, 


and  sent  his  son  abroad.  Young  Penn 
visited  France  and  Italy,  and  returned 
to  his  native  country  in  1664.  He  spent 
two  years  in  the  study  of  law  at  Lincoln's 
Inn,  and  was  then  sent  to  Ireland  to 
manage  his  father's  estates;  but,  hap- 
pening to  hear  a  discourse  at  Cork,  by 
Thomas  Loe,  a  leading  Quaker,  he  re- 
verted to  his  former  opinions,  and  trav- 
eled to  propagate  this  new  faith.  He 
was  taken  up  for  preaching,  and  sent  to 
prison;  but  was  released  through  the  in- 
terest of  his  father.  After  his  return 
to  England,  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower,  on 
account  of  a  book  which  he  had  written? 


WILLIAM   PENN 

and,  while  there,  he  composed  his  princi- 
pal work,  entitled  "Nu  Cross,  no  Crown," 
intended  to  show  the  benefit  of  suffering. 
On  his  release,  he  resumed  his  former 
labors,  and  was  apprehended,  with  some 
others,  and  tried  for  preaching  at  a  con- 
venticle in  Gracechurch  Street.  The 
jury  persisted  in  finding  them  not  guilty, 
and  were  fined  for  acting  contrary  to  the 
dictates  of  the  judge.  Admiral  Penn 
was  reconciled  to  his  son  before  his 
death,  and  left  him  all  his  property.  He 
continued  firm  in  his  attachment  to  the 
Society  of  Friends.  In  1681  he  obtained 
from  the  crown,  in  lieu  of  the  arrears 
due  his  father,  the  grant  of  the  province 
in  North  America,  and  it  was  Charles  II. 
who,  in  honor  of  Penn,  proposed  the  nanie 
Pennsylvania.  The  code  of  _  laws  which 
Penn  prepared  for  the  province  was  ex- 
alted in  aim,  comprehensive  in  soope; 
yet,  with  slight  exceptions,  its  details 
were  marvelously  practical.  Accompan- 
ied by  emigrants,  Penn  sailed  from  Deal 
Sept.' 5,  1682,  for  America,  and  landed  at 
New  Castle,  Del.,  Oct.  24,  and  at  Upland, 
Pa.,  (now  Chester),  Oct.  29,  1682.  The 
work  of  organization  was  rapid.     A  few 


PENN 


171 


PENNSYLVANIA 


Swedes  and  Dutch  had  previously  settled 
in  Pennsylvania,  but  colonists  from  vari- 
ous regions  of  the  Old  World  now  poured 
in.  Universal  toleration  was  proclaimed, 
a  charter  of  liberties  was  solemnly  con- 
secrated, and  a  democratic  government 
was  established.  In  his  dealings  with 
the  Indians  and  their  chiefs,  Penn  mani- 
fested his  accustomed  magnanimity  and 
justice.  The  capital  city,  Philadelphia, 
was  planned  on  a  scale  commensurate 
with  Pennsylvania's  expected  greatness. 
Penn's  family  was  in  England.  Hearing 
that  his  wife  was  ill  and  that  his  friend 
Algernon  Sidney  had  perished  on  the 
scaffold,  he  sailed  for  England.  During 
the  reign  of  James  II.  Penn  was  contin- 
ually at  court.  James  had  been  his 
father's  friend,  and  he  had  always  been 
glad  and  prompt  to  help  Penn  himself. 
The  overthrow  of  James  was  in  more 
than  one  respect  a  misfortune  for  Penn. 
In  the  spring  of  1690  he  was  arrested  on 
the  charge  of  holding  treasonable  corre- 
spondence with  the  dethroned  monarch. 
The  absurdity  of  the  charge  being  swiftly 
and  glaringly  evident  Penn  was  set  at 
liberty.  Yet,  though  his  conduct  con- 
tinued to  be  blameless,  he  was,  by  an  or- 
der in  council,  stripped,  March  14,  1692, 
of  his  title  to  the  Pennsylvanian  govern- 
ment— a  tyrannical  act  involving  his  ut- 
ter ruin;  for,  besides  that  he  had  risked 
his  whole  substance  in  the  Pennsylvania 
experiment,  his  estates,  both  in  England 
and  in  Ireland,  had  been  grievously  mis- 
managed by  incompetent  or  dishonest 
overseers.  An  order  in  council  capri- 
ciously restored  to  Penn,  in  1694,  the 
Pennsylvania  government.  But  the  own- 
ership of  territories  so  extensive  was  al- 
most barren  to  him.  His  agents  were 
faithless,  and  the  colonists,  though  pro- 
fuse in  expressions  of  regard,  were  in 
reality  ungrateful  and  grasping.  A 
visit  to  his  Irish  estates  preluded  Penn's 
second  expedition  to  the  New  World. 
His  family  went  with  him  to  America, 
though  rather  from  necessity  than  choice. 
Penn's  residence  in  the  colony  was  more 
beneficial  to  the  colonists  than  to  him- 
self. He  branded  as  iniquitous  negro 
slavery,  and  to  the  aged,  the  sick,  and 
the  destitute  he  was  a  bountiful  almoner. 
In  1701  he  returned  to  England,  and  en- 
deavored to  negotiate  the  sale  of  Penn- 
sylvania to  the  crown  for  $60,000.  This 
negotiation  was  interrupted  in  1712, 
through  his  being  attacked  by  an  apo- 
plectic fit,  which,  happening  twice  after- 
ward, greatly  impaired  his  mental  facul- 
ties. He  survived  for  six  years  longer, 
quite  unfitted  for  any  serious  employ- 
ment. Penn  died  July  29,  1718;  and  was 
buried  at  the  village  of  Jordan,  Buck- 
in  g.hamshire. 


PENNANT,  a  small  flag  or  banner. 
In  naval  affairs,  a  long,  narrow  piece 
of  bunting,  worn  at  the  mast-heads  of 
vessels  of  war. 

P  E  N  N  E  L  L  ,  MRS.  ELIZABETH 
(ROBINS),  an  American  writer,  wife  of 
Joseph.  For  many  years  she  resided  in 
London,  and  traveled  extensively  in 
Europe.  Besides  contributions  to  the 
"Atlantic,"  the  "Century,"  and  other 
magazines,  she  published  numerous 
books,  illustrated  by  her  husband,  and  in 
some  cases  written  in  collaboration  with 
him,  the  best  known  being:  "A  Canter- 
bury Pilgrimage"  (1885);  "Two  Pil- 
grims' Progress"  (1886)  ;  "Our  Journey 
to  the  Hebrides"  (1889)  ;  "Play  in  Prov- 
ence" (1891);  "To  Gipsyland"  (1892); 
"Feasts  of  Autolycus"  (1896);  "Oui 
Philadelphia"  (1914);  "The  Lovers" 
(1917). 

PENNELL,  JOSEPH,  an  American  il- 
lustrator and  author;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  July  4,  1860.  Besides  works 
written  in  collaboration  \vith  his  wife,  he 
published:  "Pen  Drawings  and  Pen 
Draughtsmen"  (1889);  "The  Jew  at 
Home"  (1892);  "Modern  Illustrations"; 
"The  Work  of  Charles  Keene"  (1897); 
"Lithography  and  Lithographers" 
(1900);  "Life  of  Whistler"  (with  Mrs. 
Pennell,  1910) ;  "The  Wonder  of  Work" 
(1916).  Was  awarded  the  Grand  Prize 
at  St.  Louis  Exposition  (1904);  Milan 
Exposition  (1906);  London  (1913);  and 
Florence  (1914). 

PENNSYLVANIA,  a  State  in  the 
North  Atlantic  Division  of  the  United 
States,  bounded  by  New  York,  New  Jer- 
sey, Delaware,  Maryland,  West  Virginia, 
Ohio,  and  Lake  Erie;  one  of  the  original 
13  States;  capital,  Harrisburg;  counties, 
67;  area,  45,126  square  miles;  pop. 
(1890)  5,258,014;  (1900)  6,302,115; 
(1910)    7,665,111;    (1920)    8,720,017. 

Topography. — The  State  presents 
three  well  defined  physical  divisions,  the 
E.  plain,  middle  hills,  and  W.  highlands. 
A  number  of  parallel  ridges  cross  it  from 
N.  to  S.  with  a  maximum  altitude  of 
2,500  feet.  The  Appalachian  system  in 
Pennsylvania,  aside  from  its  general 
division  in  two  ranges,  the  Blue  or  Kitta- 
tinny,  and  the  Allegheny,  is  subdivided 
into  a  great  number  of  smaller  ranges,  in- 
tersected by  numerous  broad  and  fertile 
valleys.  The  W.  table-land,  occupying 
one-half  the  area  of  the  State,  is  a  broad 
rolling  plateau,  gradually  descending  to- 
ward Lake  Erie  on  the  N.  W.,  and  has 
several  isolated  peaks.  There  are  six 
distinct  water  basins  draining  the  State; 
the  Delaware,  the  Susquehanna,  the  Gen- 
esee, the  Potomac,  and  the  Ohio  rivers; 


PENNSYLVANIA 


172 


PENNSYLVANIA 


and  Lake  Erie.  The  Ohio  is  formed  by 
the  union  of  the  Monongahela  and  Alle- 
gheny at  Pittsburgh.  The  Susquehanna, 
though  rising  in  New  York,  is  a  Penn- 
sylvania river.  The  Delaware  forms  the 
entire  E.  boundary  and  passes  through 
the  Delaware  Water  Gap,  a  narrow 
gorge,  whose  sides  rise  perpendicularly 
to  a  height  of  1,200  feet.  The  Lehigh 
river  joins  the  Delaware  at  Easton. 
This  river  rises  in  the  coal  regions  and 
flows  through  a  region  of  magnificent 
scenery.  Lake  Erie  forms  45  miles  of 
the  N.  boundary  of  the  State  and  has  an 
excellent  harbor  at  Erie. 

Geology. — The  geological  formations  of 
the  State  are  of  the  Azoic,  Mesozoic,  and 
Palaeozoic  periods.  The  first  is  situated 
in  the  S.  E.  and  is  crossed  by  a  narrow 
belt  of  the  Mesozoic.  The  Palaeozoic 
formations  cover  the  remainder  of  the 
State.  Drift  deposits  in  the  shape  of 
sand  and  gravel  occur  in  the  N.  and  N. 
W.  counties.  The  Lower  Silurian  occurs 
in  Lancaster,  Berks,  and  Lehigh  counties. 

Mineral  Production. — Pennsylvania  ex- 
ceeds any  other  States  in  the  value  of  the 
mineral  products.  This  is  due  chiefly  to 
the  production  of  coal.  The  production 
of  anthracite  coal  in  the  State  in  1919 
was  86,200,000  tons,  and  the  bituminous 
coal,  145,300,000  tons.  Both  of  these  fig- 
ures show  a  considerable  decrease  from 
1918.  The  bituminous  coal  production 
reached  the  lowest  level  since  1915. 
Over  150,000  men  are  employed  in  and 
about  the  anthracite  coal  mines,  with 
about  185,000  men  in  and  about  the  bi- 
tuminous coal  mines.  Pennsylvania 
ranks  first  in  the  production  of  petro- 
leum, but  of  late  years  the  production  has 
fallen  off',  while  that  in  other  States  has 
greatly  increased.  The  production  of 
crude  petroleum  in  1918  was  7,407,812 
barrels,  valued  at  $29,606,079.  The 
State  is  a  large  producer  of  natural  gas. 
The  value  of  the  production  in  1918  was 
$24,344,324.  The  production  of  iron  ore 
was  515,845  tons,  valued  at  $982,173. 
The  pig  iron  produced  was  14,701,- 
252  long  tons.  In  addition  the  other 
more  important  mineral  products  are 
cement,  clay  products,  and  coke.  The 
production  of  the  latter  in  1918  was  26,- 
723,645  short  tons,  valued  at  $160,357,- 
274. 

Agriculture. — As  an  agricultural 
State,  Pennsylvania  stands  high.  It 
ranks  first  in  the  United  States  in  the 
production  of  rye,  and  has  large  crops  of 
other  cereals.  The  S.  E.  counties  are  re- 
markably fertile,  Chester  being  noted  for 
its  nurseries,  and  Lancaster  for  its  to- 
bacco crop.  The  acreage,  production 
and  value  of  the  principal  crops  in  1919 
were  as  follows:   corn,   1,536,000   acres, 


production  72,192,000  bushels,  value 
$106,122,000;  buckwheat,  256,000  acres, 
production  5,530,000  bushels,  value,  $7,- 
742,000;  oats,  1,189,000  acres,  production 
36,859,000  bushels,  value  $29,487,000; 
wheat,  1,664,000  acres,  production  29,- 
055,000  bushels,  value  $62,758,000;  rye, 
228,000  acres,  production,  3,648,000 
bushels,  value  $5,727,000;  tobacco,  41,000 
acres,  production  54,120,000  pounds, 
value  $9,200,000;  hay,  2,978,000  acres, 
production  4,318,000  tons,  value  $103,- 
632,000;  potatoes,  254,000  acres,  produc- 
tion 25,400,000  bushels,  value  $39,116,- 
000.  The  natural  forest  trees  include 
pine,  poplar,  beech,  sugar  maple,  chest- 
nut, birch,  wild  cherry,  walnut,  oak, 
hickory,  ash,  cherry,  elm,  sycamore,  and 
hemlock.  Considerable  attention  is  paid 
to  stock  raising,  and  dairying  is  becom- 
ing one  of  the  leading  industries. 

Manufactures. — Pennsylvania  ranks 
second  in  the  United  States  in  the  value 
of  her  manufactures.  Besides  the  lead- 
ing industries  of  coal  mining,  coke,  iron 
and  steel  manufacture,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  petroleum,  the  State  has  exten- 
sive manufactures  of  plate  and  bottle 
glass,  paper  bags,  rag  carpets,  woolen 
goods,  glue,  railroad  cars,  drugs  and 
chemicals,  gunpowder,  leather,  and  lum- 
ber. Pittsburgh,  Homestead,  Johnstown, 
and  Bethlehem  are  noted  for  their  exten- 
sive iron  works,  Pittsburgh,  for  glass; 
Pittston,  Hazleton,  Wilkesbarre,  Shenan- 
doah, Ashland,  Pottstown,  and  Scranton, 
for  their  anthracite  coal;  Monongahela 
City,  Irwin,  Mercer,  Towanda,  Connells- 
ville,  Johnstown,  Idlewood  and  Philips- 
burg  for  their  bituminous  coal;  Philadel- 
phia for  general  manufactures,  locomo- 
tives and  ship  building;  Connellsville,  for 
coke;  Altoona  and  Reading  for  railroad 
cars  and  repair  shops;  and  Scranton  for 
its  collieries  and  steel  works.  Other  im- 
portant manufacturing  centers  are  Erie, 
Lancaster,  Easton,  Allentown,  Chester, 
York,  Oil  City,  Norristown,  Carbondale, 
Pottsville,  Harrisburg,  Corry,  Phcenix- 
ville,  Bristol,  and  Titusville.  In  1914 
there  were  27,521  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, employing  924,478  wage  earn- 
ers. The  capital  invested  was  $8,149,- 
411,000,  and  the  value  of  the  finished 
product  $1,688,921,000. 

Banking. — On  Oct.  31,  1919,  there  were 
reported  838  National  banks  in  opera- 
tion, having  $120,569,000  in  capital,  $85,- 
072,000  in  outstanding  circulation,  and 
$444,621,000  in  United  States  bonds. 
There  were  also  224  State  banks,  with 
$19,076,000  capital,  and  $328,536,000  re- 
sources; 315  loan  and  trust  companies, 
with  $108,987,000  capital,  and  $152,804,- 
000  surplus.  The  exchange  at  the 
United  States  Clearing  Houses  at  Phila- 


PENNSYLVANIA 


173 


PENNSYLVANIA    COLLEGE 


delphia,  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30, 
1919,  aggregated   $21,320,246,000. 

Education. — School  attendance  is  com- 
pulsory for  children  from  8  to  14  years, 
of  age.  In  1919  there  were  42,749  public 
elementary  schools,  ^vith  44,992  teachers 
and  1,741,143  pupils.  There  were  911 
public  high  schools,  with  5,155  teachers 
and  124,015  pupils.  There  were  13 
State  normal  schools,  with  4,331  pupils 
and  282  teachers.  The  total  expenditure 
for  education  in  1919  was  about  $70,- 
000,000.  The  principal  colleges  include 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  at 
Philadelphia;  Lehigh  University,  at 
South  Bethlehem;  Lafayette  College, 
Easton;  Bucknell  University  at  Lewis- 
burg;  Haverford  College,  at  Haverford; 
Swarthmore  College,  at  Swarthmore; 
Pennsylvania  State  College,  at  State 
College;  Dickinson  College,  at  Carlisle; 
Franklin  and  Marshall  College,  at  Lan- 
caster; Washington  and  Jefferson  Col- 
lege, at  Washington;  and  the  Carlisle  In- 
dian Training  School,  at  Carlisle.  The 
women's  colleges  include  Wilson  College, 
at  Chambersburg;  Pennsylvania  College 
for  Women,  at  Pittsburgh;  Irving 
Female  College,  at  Mechanicsburg;  and 
the  Moravian  College  and  Seminary  for 
Women,  at  Bethlehem. 

Churches. — The  strongest  denomina- 
tions in  the  State  are  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic; Methodist  Episcopal;  Presbyterian; 
Lutheran,  General  Council;  Reformed; 
Regular  Baptist;  Lutheran,  General 
Synod;  Protestant  Episcopal;  Evangeli- 
cal Association;  United  Presbyterian; 
United  Brethren  in  Christ;  and  Dunk- 
ards,  Conservative. 

Railways. — The  total  railway  mileage 
in  1919  was  13,139.  The  roads  having 
the  longest  mileage  are  the  Pennsylvania, 
the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  Western, 
and  the  Erie. 

Finances. — The  total  receipts  for  the 
year  ending  Nov.  1,  1919,  amounted 
to  $41,656,169,  and  the  expenditures  to 
$46,382,701.  There  was  a  balance  on 
Nov.  1,  1918,  of  $9,513,436,  and  on 
Nov.  1,  1919,  of  $4,786,904.  The  assessed 
value  of  real  property  in  1917  was  $6,- 
141,384,210. 

State  Government. — The  governor  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  four  years.  Legis- 
lative sessions  are  held  biennially  in  odd 
years,  beginning  on  the  first  Tuesday  in 
January,  and  are  unlimited  in  length. 
The  Legislature  has  50  members  in  the 
Senate  and  207  members  in  the  House. 
There  are  36  Representatives  in  Con- 
grress. 

History. — The  country  about  Dela- 
ware Bay  was  first  settled  by  the  Swedes, 
but  they  made  comparatively  little  prog- 
ress  in  the   occupation  of  the   country. 

Vol.  VII— Cyo 


and  passed  under  the  English  jurisdic- 
tion generally  established  in  1664.  In 
1681  the  territory  W.  of  the  Delaware 
was  granted  by  royal  charter  to  William 
Penn  who  colonized  it;  and,  by  the  in- 
dustry and  high  character  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  by  cultivating  peace  with  the 
Indians,  and  encouraging  emigration, 
founded  a  flourishing  State,  which,  long 
before  the  Revolution,  became  the  seat 
of  learning,  wealth,  and  refinement.  Un- 
der the  charter  granted  to  William  Penn, 
the  region  forming  the  present  State  of 
Delaware  was  included,  and  the  two  col- 
onies continued  to  be  so  joined  till  the 
Revolution  of  1776.  During  the  War  of 
the  Revolution,  Philadelphia  was  the 
chief  city  and  capital  of  the  Federation, 
and  Brandywine,  Germantown,  Valley 
Forge,  and  other  points,  were  the  scenes 
of  memorable  events,  which  belong  to  the 
National  history.  Independence  was 
first  proclaimed  here,  and  the  whole  col- 
ony took  a  decided  part  in  the  final  es- 
tablishment of  American  liberty.  In  the 
Civil  War,  too,  they  were  not  less  dis- 
tinguished, the  commonwealth  sending  to 
the  National  army  270  regiments  and 
several  unattached  companies  of  vol- 
unteers, numbering  in  all  387,284  men. 
Pennsylvania  was  also  the  scene  of  one 
of  the  most  important  and  most  sangui- 
nary battles  of  the  Civil  War,  that  of 
Gettysburg,  the  field  of  which  has  been 
converted  into  a  National  park,  and 
abundantly  adorned  with  statues  and 
monuments.  Next  to  the  Friends,  the 
most  important  immigrations  were  those 
of  the  Germans,  who  have  peopled  almost 
entirely  several  counties  adjoining  Phila- 
delphia, and  still  speak  the  patois  known 
as  "Pennsylvania  Dutch,"  and  the 
Scotch-Irish,  who  settled  in  the  Cumber- 
land county  region,  and  in  many  of  the 
counties  W.  of  the  Allegheny  range,  and 
who  have  played  a  most  important  part 
in  the  history  of  the  development  of  the 
State. 

PENNSYLVANIA  COLLEGE,  a  coed- 
ucational institution  in  Gettysburg,  Pa., 
founded  in  1832  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Lutheran  Church;  reported  at  the 
close  of  1919:  Professors  and  instructors, 
35;  students  500;  president,  W.  A.  Gran- 
ville, Ph.  D. 

PENNSYLVANIA  COLLEGE  FOR 
WOMEN.  An  institution  founded  by 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in  1869  to  pro- 
vide women  with  a  college  education,  and 
also  instruction  in  the  social  service  work 
of  the  Church.  It  is  situated  in  the 
residential  section  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
and  had  in  1915  a  total  enrollment  of 
250.  The  buildings  and  grounds  are  now 
valued  at  $700,000. 

12 


PENNSYLVANIA    DUTCH 


174 


PENOBSCOT 


PENNSYLVANIA  DUTCH,  a  patois 
that  is  not,  as  some  erroneously  suppose, 
a  corruption  of  German,  originating  in 
Pennsylvania,  but  a  South-German  dia- 
lect, brought  from  Europe,  and  due  to  a 
mixture  of  forms  existing  on  the  upper 
Rhine  in  Rhenish  Bavaria,  Baden,  Darm- 
stadt, Wiirttemberg,  German  Switzer- 
land, and  Alsace.  In  the  United  States, 
chiefly  in  Pennsylvania,  the  dialect  has 
taken  up  an  English  element.  A  more 
correct  name  would  be  Pennsylvania 
German. 

PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  COLLEGE, 

a  coeducational  non-sectarian  institution 
in  State  College,  Pa.;  founded  in  1855; 
reported  at  the  close  of  1919:  Professors 
and  instructors,  350;  students,  3,065; 
volumes  in  the  library,  74,000;  produc- 
tive funds,  $567,000;  income,  $1,165,877; 
president,  Edwin  Erie  Sparks,  Ph.  D., 
LL.  D. 

PENNSYLVANIA,  UNIVERSITY 
OP,  a  coeducational  non-sectarian  institu- 
tion in  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  founded  in 
1740;  reported  at  the  close  of  1919:  Pro- 
fessors and  instructors,  935;  students, 
9,921;  volumes  in  the  library,  481,000; 
productive  funds,  $10,802,420;  income, 
$472,886;  provost,  Edgar  Fahs  Smith, 
Ph.  D. 

PENNY,  a  British  coin  (formerly  of 
copper,  since  1860  of  bronze)  and  money 
of  account,  the  12th  part  of  a  shilling.  It 
was  at  first  a  silver  coin  weighing  about 
221/2  grains  troy,  or  the  240th  part  of  a 
Saxon  pound.  Till  the  time  of  Edward 
I.  it  was  so  deeply  indented  by  a  cross 
mark  that  it  could  be  broken  into  halves 
(thence  called  half-penny)  or  quarters 
(fourthings  or  farthings).  Its  weight 
was  steadily  decreased  till  at  last,  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  it  was  fixed  at  7 
grains,  or  the  62d  part  of  an  ounce  of 
silver.  Copper  pennies  were  first  coined 
in  1797,  but  copper  half-pennies  and 
farthings  had  been  in  use  from  1672. 
The  old  Scotch  penny  was  only  a  12th  of 
a  penny  sterling  in  value,  the  pound 
being  equal  to  20  pennies  sterling. 

In  the  United  States  the  term  penny  is 
commonly  used  for  "cent,"  the  100th  part 
of  a  dollar.  It  consists  of  95  per  cent,  of 
copper  and  5  per  cent,  tin  and  zinc. 
There  are  1,000,000,000  pennies  in  circu- 
lation throughout  the  country  and  the 
Philadelphia  mint  is  turning  them  out  at 
the  rate  of  4,000,000  a  month  to  keep  up 
the  supply.  Copper  blank  sheets  are 
bought  by  the  government  large  enough 
to^  cut  100  cents  from.  On  reaching  the 
mint  the  sheets  are  cut  into  strips,  from 
which  the  round  blanks  called  planchets 
are    punched,    and    these    run    directly 


through  the  stamping  machines.  Then 
they  go  to  an  automatic  weighing  ma- 
chine, which  throws  out  all  the  imperfect 
coins.  In  1897  Pennsylvania  took  the 
most  pennies,  11,000,000.  New  York 
came  next  with  a  demand  for  9,000,000, 
and  in  New  Mexico,  where  the  penny 
is  little  used,  only  4,000  were  asked  for. 
It  is  estimated  that  100,000  pennies  a 
year  are  lost  in  various  ways. 

PENNYPACKER,  SAMUEL  WHIT- 
AKER.  Born  1843  at  Phcenixville,  Pa. 
died  Sept.  2,  1916.  After  graduating 
at  Gettysburg  University  in  1863  he 
took  up  the  practice  of  law,  becoming 
in  1889  judge  of  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas  in  Philadelphia.  From  1896-1902 
he  was  president- judge  of  the  same  court. 
In  1903  he  was  elected  governor  of  Penn- 
sylvania. Governor  Pennypacker  was 
later  a  member  of  important  railroad 
and  historical  conunissions  of  the  State, 
and  for  many  years  v/as  president  of 
the   Pennsylvania    Historical   Society. 

PENNYROYAL  (Mentha  pulegium), 
a  species  of  mint,  a  native  of  Europe 
and  western  Asia,  abundant  in  England 
and  in  some  parts  of  Ireland,  not  found 
wild  in  Scotland,  though  sometimes 
grown  there  in  gardens  for  its  reputed 
medicinal  qualities.  It  enjoys  a  high 
popular  reputation  as  an  emmenagogue, 
but  no  dependence  may  be  placed  in  its 
efficacy.  The  name  pennyroyal  is  given 
in  North  America  to  a  small  plant, 
hedeoma  2:>iilegioides,  allied  to  the  mints, 
and  having,  like  them,  a  pleasant  aro- 
matic smell  and  a  warm  pungent  taste. 
It  is  much  in  use  in  domestic  medicine,  in 
the  form  of  a  warm  infusion,  to  promote 
perspiration  and  as  an  emmenagogue. 

PENNYWEIGHT,  a  Troy  weight, 
containing  24  grains,  each  grain  being 
equal  to  a  grain  of  wheat  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  ear,  well  dried.  Twenty  pen- 
nyweights make  one  ounce  Troy  weight. 
The  name  is  derived  from  its  having  been 
originally  the  weight  of  the  silver  penny. 

PENNYWORT,  a  trailing  herb  {Li- 
nariu  cymbalaria) ,  with  roundish  reni- 
form  leaves,  often  cultivated  in  hanging 
baskets.  Marsh  or  water  pennywort  is 
a  name  used  for  any  species  of  the  um- 
belliferous genus  hydrocotyle,  low  herbs 
with  roundish  leaves,  growing  in  marshy 
places. 

PENOBSCOT,  a  river  of  Maine,  hav- 
ing two  branches.  The  W.  branch  rises 
near  the  Canadian  frontier,  and  flows  E. 
and  S.  E.  to  where  it  meets  the  E.  branch 
or  Seboois  river.  Afterward  its  course 
is  S.  S.  W.  to  Penobscot  Bay,  a  broad  and 
sheltered  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  35 


PENOLOGY 


175 


PENROSE 


miles  long  and  20  wide,  with  numerous 
islands.  It  is  tidal  and  navigable  for 
large  vessels  to  Bangor,  60  miles  from  its 
mouth.     The  chief  trade  is  in  lumber. 

PENOLOGY,  the  treatment  of  crime. 
In  primitive  times  it  had  but  one  mean- 
ing, the  extirpation  of  the  criminal  by 
the  death  sentence.  In  more  modern 
times  the  object  of  penology  has  been  to 
reform  the  criminal,  and  to  make  the 
punishments  vary  with  the  extent  of  the 
crime.  Transportation  has  been  em- 
ployed by  France,  England,  and  Russia, 
but  is  now  absolutely  abandoned  by  Eng- 
land and  Russia  and  not  frequently  em- 
ployed by  France.  Imprisonment  in 
some  of  its  forms  is  at  present  the  only 
punishment  for  crime  outside  of  the 
death  penalty. 

Because  of  their  crowded  and  alto- 
gether neglected  conditions  the  prisons 
of  the  world  up  to  1776  were  instruments 
of  torture  more  inhuman  than  many  de- 
vised by  the  famous  Inquisition.  About 
that  time  John  Howard,  an  English  gen- 
tleman, began  his  effort  to  improve  the 
conditions  in  the  English  prisons,  and 
since  his  time  imprisonment  has  ceased 
to  be  so  inhuman. 

The  modern  penologist  is  now  not  so 
much  interested  in  reforming  conditions 
in  the  prison  as  he  is  interested  in  mak- 
ing these  conditions  such  as  will  restore 
the  prisoner  to  society  as  a  useful  mem- 
ber. Crime,  it  is  held,  is  a  disease,  and 
the  prison  should  be  a  hospital  for  those 
infected  with  crime.  Under  this  princi- 
ple there  have  developed  three  ways  of 
treating  a  prisoner  while  in  jail,  the  first, 
keeping  him  entirely  separate  night  and 
day  from  all  the  other  prisoners;  the 
second,  keeping  him  separate  only  at 
night,  the  third,  a  system  in  which  the 
prisoner  holds  converse  with  other 
prisoners  in  proportion  as  he  is  seen  to 
improve  in  conduct  and  attitude.  It  is 
claimed  for  the  first  method  of  keeping 
the  prisoners  separate,  that  it  prevents 
his  continued  association  with  other 
criminals,  gives  time  for  reflection,  and 
enables  the  influence  of  his  teachers  to 
have  some  effect.  The  objections  to  the 
system  are  its  expense,  its  failure  to 
teach  the  prisoners  co-operation,  and  its 
bad  mental  effect.  That  it  does  have 
some  effect  in  preventing  criminals  from 
again  relapsing  into  crime  after  they 
have  been  released  from  prison,  was  the 
general  opinion  of  the  last  International 
Prison  Congress.  The  second  method,  of 
having  a  common  workshop  by  day  and 
yet  keeping  in  separate  cells  at  night, 
has  been  chiefly  practiced  at  the  Auburn 
Penitentiary  in  New  York,  and  its  finan- 
cial   success,   because   of  the   ability   to 


turn  out  a  considerable  amount  of  goods 
from  the  prison  factory,  has  led  to  its 
adoption  in  numerous  other  places.  The 
third  method  begins  with  cellular  con- 
finement, then  among  a  certain  class  of 
"good"  prisoners  association  is  permit- 
ted and  finally  leads  to  the  release  of  the 
prisoner  on  his  parole. 

Many  modern  penologists  have  identi- 
fied themselves  with  the  movement  to 
have  put  in  force  the  indeterminate  sen- 
tence; viz.,  the  judge  fixing  the  maximum 
penalty  for  the  crime  but  allowing  the 
prison  authorities  permission  to  release 
the  prisoner,  keeping  him  under  watch 
all  the  time.  It  is  claimed  that  it  would 
be  just  as  ridiculous  for  a  doctor  to  pre- 
scribe a  certain  amount  of  medicine  to  be 
taken  by  the  patient,  regardless  of  how  it 
affected  him,  as  it  is  to  sentence  a  man 
for  a  certain  number  of  years  regardless 
of  his  progress  during  the  period  for 
which  he  was  sentenced.  Under  the 
method  of  the  indeterminate  sentence  the 
jailer  can  after  a  few  months  allow  the 
prisoner  liberties,  and  finally  release  him 
on  parole.  The  fact  that  the  conduct  of 
the  prisoner  in  the  outside  world  is  the 
sure  test  of  the  sincerity  of  his  reform 
has  given  this  method  considerable  popu- 
larity among  penologists.  It  is  also 
claimed  for  it  that  it  makes  co-opera- 
tion more  possible  between  the  prison  au- 
thorities and  the  prisoner. 

PENRHYN  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  lat.  9°  2'  S.;  Ion.  157°  35' 
W.  They  are  densely  wooded  and  popu- 
lous. The  British  flag  was  hoisted  on 
the  Penrhyn  Islands  in  1888. 

PENRITH,  a  market  town  of  Cumber- 
land, England,  in  a  picturesque  and  fer- 
tile valley,  on  the  outskirts  of  the  Lake 
District,  18  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Carlisle. 
It  has  a  fine  old  ruined  castle,  where 
Richard  III.  (then  Duke  of  Gloucester) 
is  said  to  have  resided,  and  a  grammar 
school  (1395;  refounded  1564).  In  the 
churchyard  are  two  ancient  monuments, 
the  "Giant's  Grave"  and  the  "Giant's 
Thumb,"  often  visited  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott;  and  N.  E.  of  the  town  is  the 
wooded  Beacon  (937  feet).  There  are 
sawmills,  tanneries,  and  breweries,  but 
the  chief  trade  is  agricultural. 

PENROSE,  BOIES,  United  States 
Senator  from  Pennsylvania.  Born  in  1860 
at  Philadelphia,  and  graduated  from 
Harvard  University  in  the  class  of  1881. 
Two  years  later  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  Philadelphia,  but  he  has^  neve|; 
practiced  law  very  extensively,  his  time 
being  taken  up  by  the  politics  of  the  Re- 
publican party  and  his  public  duties. 
He  first  entered  politics  as   Republican 


PENROSE 


176 


PENSIONS,    MOTHERS' 


member  of  the  State  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, and  later,  in  1887,  was  elected 
to  the  State  Senate.  In  1897  the  Repub- 
licans elected  him  to  the  United  States 
Senate  and  have  since  regularly  renomin- 
ated and  elected  him.  In  1919  he  became 
Chairman  of  the  Finance  Committee  of 
♦■'he  Senate. 


BOIES  PENROSE 

PENROSE,  RICHARD  ALEXANDER 
ITULLERTON,  JR.,  an  American  geolo- 
gist, born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  1863. 
Graduated  Irom  Harvard  in  1884,  took  a 
post-graduate  course  in  the  same  uni- 
versity. He  was  in  charge  of  the  survey 
of  eastern  Texas  in  1888  and  afterward 
made  detailed  surveys  in  Arkansas  and 
other  states.  From  1892  to  1895  he  was 
associate  professor  of  economic  geology 
at  the  University  of  Chicago  and  was 
full  professor  from  1895  to  1911.  He 
acted  as  special  geologist  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  and  reported  on 
several  important  western  gold  fields. 
He  was  associate  editor  of  the  "Journal 
of  Geology"  and  a  member  of  many 
American  and  foreign  geological  socie- 
ties. He  wrote  many  works  on  geologi- 
cal subjects,  including  "Geology  of  the 
Gulf  Tertiary  of  Texas"  (1889)';  "Man- 
ganese; Its  Uses,  Ores,  Deposits" 
(1890) ;  and  "Iron  Deposits  of  Arkansas" 
(1892). 


PENRYN,  "head  of  the  river,"  a  town 
of  Cornwall,  England;  at  the  head  of  a 
creek  of  Falmouth  harbor,  3  miles  N.  W. 
of  Falmouth  town.  Scarce  a  trace  re- 
mains of  Glasney  College,  founded  in 
1264  for  13  Black  Augustinian  Canons; 
and  none  of  a  palace  of  the  bishops  of 
Exeter.  Neighboring  quarries  supply 
the  famous  Penryn  granite — the  mate- 
rial of  Waterloo  Bridge,  the  Chatham 
docks,  and  other  great  public  works;  and 
the  town  has  besides  some  manufactures 
of  paper,  woolen  cloth,  gunpowder,  etc. 
Incorporated  by  James  I.,  it  was  taken 
by  Fairfax  in  1646. 

PENSACOLA,  a  city,  port  of  entry 
and  county-seat  of  Escambia  co.,  Fla.; 
on  Pensacola  Bay,  and  on  the  Pensacola, 
Alabama,  and  Tennessee,  the  Louisville 
and  Nashville,  and  the  Gulf,  Florida  and 
Alabama  railroads;  7  miles  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  has  several  orphans' 
and  widows'  homes,  electric  light  plant, 
National  banks,  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers, a  custom  house,  court  house,  and 
Marine  Hospital.  The  city  annually  re- 
ceives vast  quantities  of  yellow  pine  from 
the  forests  of  Alabama,  and  ships  it  to 
all  parts  of  the  world.  The  other  indus- 
tries include  the  shipment  of  iron,  coal, 
cotton,  and  naval  stores.  Pensacola  was 
settled  by  Spanish  colonists  before  1700. 
In  1719  it  was  captured  by  Bienville,  but 
soon  afterward  was  restored.  The  Brit- 
ish had  possession  of  western  Florida  in 
1763-1781,  and  during  the  wars  with 
Napoleon  were  permitted  to  hold  Pensa- 
cola, and  organize  expeditions  in  its  har- 
bor. General  Jackson  seized  the  town 
Nov.  6,  1814,  and  the  British  withdrew, 
after  blowing  up  the  fort.  In  1818  Jack- 
son again  seized  the  place  in  prosecution 
of  the  Seminole  War,  on  the  plea  that 
the  Spanish  authorities  aided  the  In- 
dians. Pop.  (1910)  22,982;  (1920)  31,- 
035. 

PENSACOLA  BAY,  an  inlet  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  the  W.  extremity  of 
Florida,  defended  at  its  entrance  by  Fort 
Pickens,  on  Santa  Rosa  Island,  and  Fort 
McRea  on  the  mainland.  The  entrance 
between  Santa  Rosa  Island  and  the  main- 
land is  a  mile  wide.  Besides  a  light- 
house, there  are  a  navy  yard,  marine  hos- 
pital and  barracks,  and  in  the  vicinity 
the  villages  of  Bagdad  and  Milton. 

PENSIONS.     See  United  States. 

PENSIONS,  MOTHERS',  the  grant- 
ing of  state  subsidies  to  widowed,  de- 
serted and,  sometimes,  divorced  women 
with  dependent  children.  Mothers'  pen- 
sions are  entirely  of  modern  origin,  and 
may  be  considered  as  a  phase  of  the  gen- 
eral tendency  toward  recognition  of  the 


PENSIONS,    OLD    AGE 


177 


PENTECOST 


responsibility  of  the  state  in  regard  to 
the  welfare  of  its  more  handicapped  citi- 
zens. In  this  country  it  may  be  said  that 
the  sentiment  for  mothers'  pensions  first 
found  practical  expression  in  1912,  when 
the  State  of  Washington  passed  a  law 
granting  a  subsidy  to  widowed  women 
with  dependent  children.  Divorced  and 
deserted  women  were  excluded  from  the 
benefits  of  the  law,  on  the  theory  that  it 
tended  to  encourage  divorce  and  deser- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  husbands.  This 
law  was  amended  in  1919  to  include 
divorced  and  deserted  women  as  well. 
The  example  of  Washington  was  rapidly 
followed  by  other  State  legislatures,  un- 
til, in  1920,  thirty-six  States  made  more 
or  less  provision  for  unsupported  women 
with  dependent  children.  As  illustra- 
tions: in  California  only  widows  are  in- 
cluded; in  Colorado  any  parent  unable 
to  care  for  its  children  is  included;  in 
Illinois  pensions  are  granted  to  widows 
or  women  with  incapacitated  husbands; 
in  Idaho  the  recipient  must  be  a  widow, 
or  a  woman  with  a  husband  in  the  peni- 
tentiary or  in  an  insane  asylum;  in  Kan- 
sas pensions  are  granted  to  women 
widowed,  divorced,  or  with  husbands 
physically  incapacitated  or  in  the  peni- 
tentiary or  in  an  insane  asylum,  or  de- 
serted by  her  husband  for  more  than 
three  months.  Throughout  all  the  States 
the  pensions  average  from  $21  to  $24  a 
month. 

PENSIONS,     OLD     AGE.     See     Old 

Age  Pensions. 

PENTACRINUS,  in  zoology,  the  typi- 
cal genus  of  the  Pentacrinidss.  The 
column  is  pentagonal.  P.  caput  viedusse 
is  found  in  the  Caribbean  Sea;  P.  euro- 
pasus  is  the  larva  of  Antedon  rosacea. 
In  palaeontology,  seven  species  are  kno^vn 
in  the  Lias,  seven  in  the  Jurassic,  three 
in  the  Cretaceous,  and  three  in  the 
Eocene  strata.  Of  these,  P.  {extracri- 
niis)  briareus,  from  the  Lower  Lias  of 
Lyme  Regis,  has  extraordinarily  ramified 
arms  or  rays. 

PENTAGON,  a  figure  of  five  sides 
and  five  angles;  if  the  sides  and  angles 
be  equal  it  is  a  regular  pentagon;  other- 
wise, irregular. 

PENTAMERA,  one  of  the  primary 
sections  into  which  coleopterous  insects 
(beetles)  are  divided,  including  those 
which  have  five  joints  on  the  tarsus  of 
each  leg. 

PENTAMETER,  a  verse  of  five  feet, 
used  especially  in  Latin  and  Greek 
poetry,  in  which  the  first  two  feet  may 
be  either  dactyls  or  spondees,  the  third 


must  be  a  spondee,  and  the  last  tw^j  ana- 
paests; or  it  may  be  considered  as  con- 
sisting of  two  parts,  each  containing  two 
feet  and  a  syllable;  the  first  half  consists 
of  two  dactyls  or  spondees  and  a 
long  syllable,  the  second  half  must  con- 
sist of  two  dactyls  and  a  syllable.  Hexam- 
eter and  pentameter  verses  used  alter- 
nately constitute  what  is  called  elegiac 
measure. 

PENTATEUCH,  a  term  applied  ex- 
clusively to  the  first  five  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  collectively,  termed  in  Hebrew 
torah=the  law.  The  first  mention  of  the 
five-fold  division  is  made  by  Josephus. 
It  seems  to  have  been  made  by  the 
Septuagint  translators,  who  then  be- 
stowed on  the  volume  a  Greek  name  ex- 
pressive of  what  they  had  done.  Samar- 
itan Pentateuch,  the  Pentateuch  in  use 
among  the  Samaritans.  Words  which 
have  in  them  d  and  r,  and  again  i  and  v, 
letters  unlike  in  the  Samaritan,  but  very 
similar  in  Hebrew  1(d)  and  (r),  also 
(i)  and  (v)],  are  sometimes  inter- 
changed, showing  that  the  work  was  de- 
rived from  a  Hebrew  original.  The  pas- 
sages attributed  to  Ezra  are  in  it.  It 
substitutes  Mount  Gerizim  for  Mount 
Ebal  in  Deut.  xxvii:  4.  The  text  in 
various  places  differs  from  the  Hebrew, 
generally  however  agreeing  with  the 
Septuagint.  The  chronology  also  is  in 
places  at  variance  with  that  of  the  He- 
brew Bible.  If  Josephus  is  correct  as  to 
the  date  of  the  building  of  the  Temple 
on  Mount  Gerizim,  the  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch was  made  probably  about  330  b.  c, 
though  the  popular  belief  is  that  it  is 
much  older. 

PENTECOST,  one  of  the  three  great- 
est Jewish  festivals.  Its  Greek  name 
was  given  because  it  was  held  on  the  50th 
day,  counting  from  the  second  of  the 
Passover  (Lev.  xxiii:  15,  16),  whence  it 
was  called  in  Hebrew  the  Feast  of  Weeks 
(Deut,  xvi:  9,  10).  It  was  called  also 
the  Feast  of  Harvest,  or  Firstfruits  of 
Wheat  Harvest  (Exod.  xxiii:  16;  xxxiv: 
22).  When  it  came  every  Jewish  male 
had  to  present  himself  before  Jehovah 
(Exod.  xxiii:  17;  xxxiv:  23).  Meat  or 
wave  offerings,  especially  two  wave 
loaves,  and  sacrifices  were  presented  at 
the  festival  (Lev.  xxiii:  16,  17,  etc.; 
Num.  xxviii:  26-31;  Deut.  xvi:  9-12). 
The  Holy  Spirit  descended  on  the  mem- 
bers of  the  infant  Christian  Church  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  imparting  the  gift 
of  tongues  (Act.  ii:  1-20).  In  ancient 
times  the  pentecost  lasted  but  a  single 
day,  but  modern  Judaism  extends  it  to 
two.  Also,  Whitsuntide,  a  feast  which, 
reckoned  inclusively,  is  50  days  after 
Easter. 


PENTECOSTAL    CHUECH 


178 


PENZANCE 


PENTECOSTAL  CHURCH  OF  THE 
NAZARENE,  a  religious  organization 
established  in  the  United  States  in  1908, 
having  as  its  fundamental  tenet  the 
sanctification  of  those  believing  by  faith, 
as  a  work  of  grace  subsequent  to  and 
separate  from  justification.  The  com- 
munity was  formed  by  the  association  of 
numerous  church  bodies,  having  230 
churches  and  over  11,000  members.  Its 
ministers  numbered  on  its  formation 
nearly  600  and  it  has  since  established  a 
theological  seminary  at  Los  Angeles, 
Cal.,  schools  and  bible  institutes  at  Pilot 
Point,  Tex.,  and  a  college  at  North 
Scituate,  R.  I.  In  addition  there  are  in- 
stitutions belonging  to  the  community  in 
other  centersj  among  them  the  Holiness 
College  at  Vilonia,  Ark.,  and  the  Holi- 
ness University  at  Peniel,  Tex.  The  of- 
ficial organs  are  the  "Nazarene  Messen- 
ger," the  "Holiness  Evangel,"  and  the 
"Beulah  Christian."  Since  its  formation 
the  number  of  communicants  belonging 
to  it  has  more  than  doubled. 

PENTLAND  FIRTH,  a  channel  be- 
tween the  Atlantic  and  German  Oceans, 
separating  the  mainland  of  Scotland 
from  the  Orkney  Islands.  It  is  14  miles 
long  and  6^/4  miles  broad  at  the  narrow- 
est. The  Pentland  Skerries,  5  miles  N. 
E.  of  Duncansbay  Head,  consists  of  two 
islets  and  of  several  contiguous  rocks. 
On  the  larger  of  the  islets  is  a  light- 
house (1794).  Although  navigation 
of  the  Pentland  Firth  is  more  dan- 
gerous than  that  of  any  other  portion 
of  the  Scotch  seas,  over  5,000  vessels 
with  cargoes  pass  through  the  Firth 
annually. 

PENTLAND  HILLS,  in  the  Lowlands 
of  Scotland,  extend  16  miles  S.  W.  from 
a  point  3  miles  S.  of  Edinburgh,  through 
the  counties  of  Midlothian,  Peebles,  and 
Lanark,  have  a  breadth  of  4  to  6  miles, 
and  attain  a  maximum  height  in  Car- 
nethy  (1,890  feet)  and  Scald  Law 
(1,898).  In  the  battle  of  the  Pentlands 
or  Rullion  Green,  2  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Penicuik,  Sir  Thomas  Dalyell  routed  900 
Westland  Covenanters,  Nov.  28,  1666. 

PENTONVILLE,  a  populous  district 
in  London  in  the  parish  of  St.  James, 
Clerkenwell;  the  first  buildings  in  which 
were  erected  in  1773  on  fields  belonging 
to  Henry  Penton.  The  name  has  since 
been  extended  to  part  of  the  parish  of 
Islington,  in  which  stands  the  Penton- 
ville  Prison,  built  in  1840-1842,  and  con- 
structed on  the  radiating  principle,  so  as 
to  admit  of  thorough  inspection.  The 
treatment  is  designed  to  "enforce  strict 
separation,  with  industrial  employment 
and  moral  training." 


PENTSTEMON,  or  PENTESTEMON, 
a  genus  of  plants,  order  Scrophulariaeex. 
They  are  perennial  herbs,  rarely  having 
woody  stems,  branching,  paniculate,  with 
opposite  leaves;  and  showy  red,  violet, 
blue,  or  white  flowers.  P.  pubescens,  the 
beard  tongue,  is  a  handsome  plant  grow- 
ing on  river  banks,  bluffs,  hills,  and  bar- 
rens, in  the  United  States. 

PENUMBRA,  a  faint  shadow  thrown 
by  a  luminous  body.  It  is  brighter  than 
the  true  shadow,  though  less  so  than  the 
luminous  body  itself.  It  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  true  shadow  produced  by  the 
commingling  with  it  of  rays  emitted  by 
a  portion  of  the  luminous  body.  In  an 
eclipse  of  the  moon,  the  rays  which  have 
just  grazed  the  edge  of  the  earth  are 
bent  inward  by  the  refraction  of  the  at- 
mosphere, besides  having  become  tinged 
with  a  ruddy  or  copper  hue.  Falling  on 
the  moon,  then  in  shadow,  they  often 
render  it  faintly  visible,  and  though  of 
a  copper  hue,  yet  bright  enough  to  per- 
mit markings  on  its  surface  to  be  seen. 
Yet  at  this  time  the  moon  is  so  much  be- 
hind the  earth  that  it  cannot  be  reached 
by  any  direct  rays  from  the  sun.  In  an 
eclipse  the  periods  when  the  first  and 
the  last  contact  with  the  penumbra  will 
take  place  are  always  carefully  noted. 

PENZA,  a  government  of  Russia.  It 
has  an  area  of  about  15,000  square  miles. 
The  surface  of  the  country  is  rolling,  and 
slopes  toward  the  N.  W.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Moksha  and  the  Sura. 
The  climate  is  severe.  The  chief  occu- 
pation is  agriculturing,  and  rye,  oats, 
and  wheat  were  produced  in  large  quan- 
tities before  the  World  War.  Ther*^ 
are  also  important  manufacturing  indus- 
tries which  employed,  before  the  war, 
over  12,000  men,  with  an  annual  produc- 
tion valued  at  $10,000,000.  The  chief 
products  were  paper,  flour,  oil,  and 
matches.^  Pop.  about  1,875,700.  The 
capital  is  the  city  of  the  same  name. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  Greek  Catholic 
Bishop  and  has  a  monastery  and  convent 
and  several  schools.  There  were,  before 
the  war,  important  manufactures  of  pa- 
per, lumber,  flour  and  iron.  Pop.  about 
80,000. 

PENZANCE,  a  town  of  Cornwall, 
England;  at  the  head  of  Mount's  Bay,  10 
miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Land's  End.  Stand- 
ing on  a  finely-curved  shore,  surrounded 
by  rocky  eminences,  it  is  famous  for  its 
mild,  equable  climate,  though  the  annual 
rainfall  is  heavy  (43  inches).  Its  fine 
esplanade  commands  splendid  land  and 
sea  views;  and  its  chief  buildings,  con- 
structed largely  of  granite,  include  a 
market  hall  (1837)  with  a  statue  before 


PEONAGE 


179 


PEPPElt 


it  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy;  and  public 
rooms  (1867),  Italian  Renaissance  in 
style,  and  comprising  a  guildhall,  mu- 
seum, library,  etc.  The  harbor  has  two 
piers  (1772-1845)  half  a  mile  long,  form- 
ing a  tidal  basin  of  21  acres;  and  docks 
have  been  added  since  1882.  Penzance 
is  a  headquarters  of  the  mackerel  and 
pilchard  fisheries.  Pop.  (1917)  about 
15,000.  Burned  by  Spaniards  in  1595, 
and  sacked  by  Fairfax  in  1646,  it  was 
incorporated  in  1614,  and  from  1663  to 
1838,  was  one  of  the  five  "coinage  towns." 

PEONAGE,  a  system  of  agricultural 
servitude  common  in  Mexico,  and  some 
other  parts  of  Spanish  America.  The 
peon  in  debt  to  his  employer  was  by  the 
Spanish  colonial  system  bound  to  labor 
for  his  employer  till  the  debt  was  paid. 
Peonage  in  New  Mexico  was  abolished 
by  Act  of  Congress  in  1867;  it  was  also 
abolished  in  the  Argentine  Republic. 

PEONY,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Rammculacese,  and 
very  generally  cultivated  in  gardens  for 
the  sake_  of  their  large  showy  flowers. 
The  species  are  mostly  herbaceous,  hav- 
ing perennial  tuberous  roots  and  large 
deeply-lobed  leaves.  The  flowers  are 
solitary,  and  of  a  variety  of  colors,  crim- 
son, purplish,  pink,  yellow,  and  white. 
The  flowers,  however,  have  no  smell,  or 
not  an  agreeable  one,  except  in  the  case 
of  a  shrubby  species,  P.  Moutan,  a  na- 
tive of  China,  of  which  several  varieties, 
with  beautiful  whitish  flowers  stained 
with  pink,  are  cultivated  in  gardens. 
The  roots  and  seeds  of  all  the  species  are 
emetic  and  cathartic  in  moderate  doses. 
P.  officinalis  or  f estiva,  the  common  peony 
of  cottage  gardens,  was  formerly  in  great 
repute  as  a  medicine. 

PEORIA,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Peoria  co..  111.;  on  the  Illinois  river,  and 
on  the  Chicago,  Peoria,  and  St.  Louis,  the 
Chicago  and  Alton,  the  Chicago,  Rock 
Island  and  Pacific,  the  Burlington  Route, 
and  other  railroads;  160  miles  S.  W.  of 
Chicago.  It  is  built  at  the  foot  of  Peoria 
Lake,  an  expansion  of  the  Illinois  river, 
and  has  a  water  frontage  of  about  four 
miles.  It  covers  an  elevated  plateau, 
extending  back  to  a  high  bluff,  on  which 
many  fine  residences  have  been  erected. 
A  beautiful  system  of  parks  and  drive- 
ways is  laid  out.  The  city  contains  35 
miles  of  paved  streets,  electric  light  and 
street  railroad  plants,  high  and  graded 
schools,  a  public  libraiy,  Peoria  Law 
Library,  hospitals,  National  and  private 
banks,  and  many  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers. There  is  an  excellent  street 
system.  It  also  has  barrel  factories, 
foundry  and  machine  products,  planing 


mills,  flour  and  grist  mills,  glucose  fac- 
tories, strawboard  mills,  rolling  mills, 
lead  works,  stock  yard,  meat  packing 
plants,  wagon  and  buggy  factories,  grain 
elevators,  etc.,  comprising  in  all  over 
600  establishments.  The  site  of  Peoria 
was  first  chosen  by  La  Salle  in  1680  as  a 
trading  post.  It  was  settled  in  1779,  and 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1845.  The  as- 
sessed property  valuation  is  nearly  $9,- 
500,000.  Pop.  (1890)  41,024;  (1900, 
with  South  and  West  Peoria  annexed 
since  1890)  56,100;  (1910)  66,950; 
(1920)  76,121. 

PEPIN,  grandson  of  Charlemagne, 
and  son  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  became 
King  of  Aquitaine  in  817.  He  died  in 
838  or  839. 

PEPIN,  THE  SHORT,  a  King  of 
France,  the  first  of  the  Carlovingian 
kings.  He  was  at  first  mayor  of  the 
palace  under  Childeric  III.;  but  in  752 
he  dethroned  that  monarch  and  confined 
him  in  a  monastery.  Having  requested 
and  obtained  the  sanction  of  the  Pope, 
Pepin  was  constituted  king.  He  assisted 
Pope  Stephen  III.  against  the  Longo- 
bards,  defeated  the  Saxons,  Bavarians, 
and  other  German  nations,  and  united 
Aquitaine  to  his  crown.  After  a  reign 
of  16  years,  he  died  in  St.  Denis,  in  768. 
His  son  Charlemagne  succeeded  him  as 
King  of  the  Franks. 

PEPPER,  GEORGE  WHARTON,  a 
Philadelphia  lawyer  and  church  author- 
ity. Born  in  Philadelphia  in  1867,  and 
graduated  from  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  the  class  of  '87.  For  a  few 
years  he  practiced  law,  and  then  in 
1893,  became  professor  of  law  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  In  addition 
to  his  legal  studies  he  has  taken  a  great 
interest  in  the  law  and  polity  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  He  is  the 
author  of  a  number  of  works  on  eccle- 
siastical and  legal  matters. 

PEPPER,  WILLIAM,  an  American 
physician  and  university  president;  born 
in  1843.  He  was  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  and  took  up 
the  practice  of  medicine  in  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  where  he  became  connected 
with  several  large  hospitals.  In  1868  he 
became  professor  of  anatomy  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  and  from  1881 
to  1894  was  provost  of  the  University. 
He  devoted  much  time  and  attention  to 
the  medical  school,  which,  under  his 
direction,  took  a  front  rank  among  the 
leading  medical  schools  in  the  United 
States.     He  died  in  1898. 

PEPPER,  the  dried  immature  fruit 
or  berry  of  P.  nigrum,  used  as  a  condi- 


PEPPEBMINT 


180 


PERAK 


tnent,  whole  or  gi'ound.  White  pepper 
is  the  berry  deprived  of  its  outer  husk. 
It  is  imported  into  this  country  chiefly 
from  Java,  Sumatra,  Malacca,  and  Bor- 
neo, and  is  named  after  the  locality 
from  which  derived;  thus,  Penang, 
Malabar,  Sumatra,  Trang,  etc.  The 
ground  peppers  of  commerce  are  gener- 
ally mijctures  of  different  kinds  of  ber- 
ries; e.  g.,  Malabar  is  used  to  give 
weight,  Penang  or  Trang  to  give 
strength,  and  Sumatra  to  give  color. 
Long  pepper  (P.  longum) ,  which  belongs 
to  the  same  natural  order,  and  contains 
almost  the  same  constituents,  must  be 
considered  a  true  pepper,  though  of  less 
value  commercially. 

PEPPERMINT,  Mentha  'piperita,  a 
mint  with  oblong,  lanceolate,  serrate, 
glabrous  leaves;  pedicels  and  flowers 
nearly  smooth;  flowers  in  cylindrical 
spikes,  interrupted  below.  Probably  a 
garden  form  of  M.  aquatica.  Oil  of  pep- 
permint, the  oil  distilled  from  the  fresh 
flowers  of  M.  piperita. 

PEPSIN,  an  azotized  ferment,  re- 
lated to  the  proteids,  and  contained  in 
gastric  juice.  It  possesses  the  power,  in 
conjunction  with  hydrochloric  acid,  of 
dissolving  the  insoluble  proteids  and  con- 
verting them  into  peptones.  Pepsin  is 
prepared  from  the  stomach  of  the  pig  or 
calf  on  a  commercial  scale. 

PEPTONE,  the  products  of  the  action 
of  pepsin,  or  acid  gastric  juice  on  albu- 
minous substances.  They  are  only  found 
in  the  stomach  and  small  intestines,  are 
highly  diffusible,  readily  soluble  in  water, 
and  are  not  coagulated  with  boiling. 

PEPYS,  SAMUEL,  an  English  author, 
secretary  to  the  admiralty  in  the  reigns 
of  Charles  II.  and  James  II, ;  born  in 
Brampton,  Huntingdonshire,  in  1632, 
and  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  early 
acquired  the  patronage  of  Sir  Edward 
Montagu,  afterward  Earl  of  Sandwich, 
who  employed  him  as  secretary  in  the 
expedition  for  bringing  Charles  II.  from 
Holland.  On  his  return  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  principal  officers  of 
the  navy.  In  1673,  when  the  king  took 
the  admiralty  into  his  own  hands,  Pepys 
was  appointed  secretary  to  that  ofiice, 
and  performed  his  duties  with  great 
credit.  During  the  excitement  of  the 
Popish  Plot  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower,  but  was  after  some  time  dis- 
charged without  a  trial,  and  reinstated 
in  his_  office  at  the  admiralty,  which  he 
held  till  the  abdication  of  James  II.  He 
was  president  of  the  Royal  Society  for 
two  years;  but  his  title  to  fame  rests 
upon  his  "Diary"  (1659-1669),  which  is 
a  most  entertaining  work,  revealing  the 


writer's  own  character  very  plainly,  giv- 
ing an  excellent  picture  of  contemporary 
life,  and  of  great  value  for  the  history 
of  the  court  of  Charles  II.  It  is  in  short- 
hand, was  discovered  among  a  collec- 
tion of  books,  prints  and  manuscripts  be- 
queathed by  Pepys  to  Magdalene  College 
Cambridge,  and  was  first  printed  in  1820 
He  died  in  1703. 


SAMUEL  PEPYS 

PEQUOT,  FORT,  an  old  Indian  fort 
on  Pequot  Hill,  about  8  miles  N.  E.  of 
New  London,  Conn. 

PEQTJOTS,  or  PEQTJODS,  a  tribe  of 
American  Indians,  a  branch  of  the  Mohi- 
cans, were  warlike  and  powerful  in  the 
country  round  the  Thames  river  when 
Connecticut  was  first  settled,  and  made 
treaties  with  the  Dutch  and  English. 
Hostilities,  however,  broke  out  in  1637; 
and  the  tribe  was  cut  to  pieces  and  scat- 
tered; yet  a  few  descendants  may  be 
found  at  Green  Bay,  Wis, 

PER.ZE3A,  a  term  applied  to  many  dis- 
tricts beyond  a  river  or  sea;  most  fre- 
quently to  great  part  of  Palestine  beyond 
the  Jordan. 

PERAK,  a  Malay  state  on  the  W. 
side  of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  under 
the  protection  of  Great  Britain  since 
1874;  estimated  area,  7,800  square  miles. 
The  interior  ranges  up  to  8,000  feet.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  and  for  the  most  part  cov- 
ered with  luxuriant  vegetation.  Ele- 
phants, leopards,  huge  snakeSj,  and  deer 
swarm  in  the  forests  of  the  interior. 
The  soil  produces  rice,  sugar,  tobacco, 
coffee,  tea,  vanilla,  and  spices.  But  the 
principal  production  of  the  state  is  tin. 
Lead  also  exists  in  great  quantity.     The 


PEECEPTION 


181 


PERCY    ANECDOTES 


feapital  is  Kwala  Kansar.  Taiping  and 
Kinta  are  the  principal  tin  mining  towns. 
There  are  over  70  miles  of  railway. 
Pop.  (1911)  494,057. 

PERCEPTION,  the  reception  of  knowl- 
edge through  the  senses,  and  the  faculty 
by  which  knowledge  is  so  received  and 
communication  maintained  between  the 
subject  and  the  external  world.  Percep- 
tion differs  from  conception,  in  dealing 
with  things  that  have  an  actual,  not 
merely  a  possible  existence;  and  from 
consciousness,  in  that  it  is  concerned 
with  objects  external  to  the  mind  of  the 
percipient.  It  is,  in  brief,  the  taking 
cognizance  of  impressions  received  by  the 
senses. 

PERCH,  Perca  fluviatilis,  the  river 
perch.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  of 
a  warm,  greenish-bi-own  tint,  becoming 
golden  on  the  sides,  and  white  on  the 
belly;  there  are  always  broad,  vertical, 
dark  bands  passing  down  the  sides.  The 
perch  is  generally  distributed  over 
America,  Europe,  and  northern  Asia, 
frequenting  still  waters,  and  sometimes 
descending  into  brackish  waters.  Perch 
feed  on  smaller  fish,  insects,  and  worms. 
The  female  deposits  her  eggs,  united  by 
a  viscous  matter,  in  long  bands,  on  aqua- 
tic plants.  The  Great  Lakes  in  the 
United  States  abound  in  perch. 

PERCHLORIC  ACID,  (CIHO4)  a 
colorless  liquid  obtained  by  distilling  po- 
tassium perchlorate  with  sulphuric  acid. 
"When  brought  in  contact  vdth  organic 
substances,  it  explodes  with  great  vio- 
lence. 

PERCUSSION,  a  method  of  physical 
examination,  performed  by  gently  strik- 
ing some  part  of  the  body — especially  the 
chest  or  the  abdomen — with  the  fingers 
or  an  instrument,  to  ascertain  its  healthy 
or  diseased  condition.  Also  in  music,  an 
ingenious  contrivance  whereby  a  hammer 
strikes  the_  tongue  of  a  reed  and  sets  it 
in  motion  simultaneously  with  the  admis- 
sion of  air  from  the  wind  chest,  thus  se- 
curing the  rapid  speech  of  the  reed.  It 
is  commonly  used  in  cabinet  organs,  but 
has  also  been  applied  to  the  largest  reeds 
of  a  church  organ. 

PERCY,  the  name  of  a  noble  family 
who  went  to  England  with  William  the 
Conqueror,  and  whose  head,  William 
DE  Percy,  obtained  30  knights'  fees  in 
the  N.  of  England.  A  descendant,  also 
named  William,  who  lived  in  the  early 
part  of  the  12th  century,  left  behind  him 
two  daughters,  the  elder  of  whom  died 
childless,  and  the  younger,  Agnes,  mar- 
ried Josceline  of  Lorain,  brother-in-law  of 
Henry  I.,  who  assumed  the  surname  of 


his  bride.  His  son,  Richard  de  Percy, 
was  one  of  the  25  barons  who  extorted 
Magna  Charta  from  King  John.  His 
great-grandson,  Henry,  Lord  Percy, 
was  created  Earl  of  Northumberland  in 
1337.  He  was  marshal  of  England  at 
the  coronation  of  Richard  II.,  against 
whom,  however,  he  took  up  arms,  and 
succeeded  in  placing  the  crown  on  the 
head  of  the  Lancastrian  aspirant,  Henry 
IV.  He  took  up  arms  against  this  king 
also,  but  his  forces  were  beaten  at 
Shrewsbury  (1403),  whei-e  his  son, 
Henry  Percy  (Hotspur),  fell;  and  again 
at  Bramham  Moor  (Feb.,  1408),  where  he 
himself  fell.  His  titles  were  forfeited, 
but  were  revived  in  favor  of  his  grand- 
son Henry,  who  was  appointed  lord  high 
constable  of  England,  and  who  fell  fight- 
ing in  the  Lancastrian  cause  at  St.  Al- 
bans (1453).  For  the  same  cause  his 
son  and  successor  shared  the  same  fate  at 
Towton  (1461).  The  4th  earl  was  mur- 
dered during  a  popular  rising,  caused  by 
his  enforcing  a  subsidy  ordered  by  the 
avaricious  Henry  VII.  The  6th  and  7th 
earls  fell  by  the  hands  of  the  executioner 
in  the  reigns  of  Edward  VI.  and  Eliza- 
beth respectively.  The  8th  died  a  violent 
death  in  the  Tower,  where  he  was  con- 
fined on  a  charge  of  taking  part  in  a  plot 
in  favor  of  Mary  of  Scotland.  Alger- 
non, the  10th  earl,  took  part  in  the  civil 
war  against  Charles  I.,  and  afterward 
used  all  his  influence  to  bring  about  the 
Restoration.  Josceline,  the  11th  earl, 
died  without  male  issue;  his  only  daugh- 
ter married  Charles,  Duke  of  Somerset, 
and  became  the  mother  of  Algernon, 
Duke  of  Somerset,  who  was  created 
Earl  of  Northumberland,  with  remainder 
to  his  son-in-law,  Sir  Hugh  Smithson,  a 
Yorkshire  baronet  of  good  family.  The 
latter  succeeded  to  the  earldom  in  1750, 
assuming  the  name  of  Percy,  and  in  1766 
received  the  ducal  title.  The  present 
uuke  thus  represents  the  female  line  of 
the  ancient  historical  house. 

PERCY,  THOMAS,  an  English  poet; 
born  in  Bridgenorth,  Shropshire,  April 
13,  1728  or  1729;  was  a  minister  of  the 
English  Church;  was  made  dean  of  Car- 
lisle in  1778,  and  bishop  of  Dromore  in 
1782.  He  made  a  collection  of  old  popu- 
lar ballads  and  songs,  published  under 
the  title  "Reliques  of  Ancient  English 
Poetry"  (1765),  which  ultimately  trans- 
formed English  poetic  style  and  matter. 
He  vn-ote  the  ballad  "The  Hermit  oi 
Warkworth,"  and  the  song  "0  Nanny, 
Wilt  Thou  Gang  wi'  Me?"  He  died  in 
Dromore,  Ireland,  Sept.  30,  1811. 

PERCY  ANECDOTES,  a  collection  of 
extraordinary  popularity,  published  in 
monthly  parts    (1820-1823)    by  "Sholto 


PEREKOP 


182 


PERIANTH 


and  Reuben  Percy,  Brothers  of  the  Bene- 
dictine Monastery  of  Mount  Benger." 
Their  real  names  were  Thomas  Byerley 
{died  1826),  first  editor  of  the  "Mirror," 
and  Joseph  Clinton  Robertson  (died 
1852),  projector  and  editor  of  the  "Me- 
chanics' Magazine";  the  work  owed  its 
name  to  the  Percy  coffee  house  in  Rath- 
bone  Place,  their  usual  place  of  meeting 
during  its  progress.  An  edition  was 
prepared  by  John  Timbs  (1868),  and 
another  enlarged  edition  in  1887. 

PEREKOP,  ISTHMUS  OF,  in  S. 
Russia,  connecting  the  peninsula  of  the 
Crimea  with  the  mainland  of  European 
Russia.  In  the  N.  of  the  isthmus  is  the 
small  town  of  Perekop. 

PEREZ  GALDOS,  BENITO,  a  Spanish 
novelist.  He  was  born  in  the  Canary 
Islands  in  1845,  and  studied  law  at 
Madrid,  but  followed  literature  as  a 
career.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Cortes 
for  a  time,  and  while  there  gave  evi- 
dence of  the  revolutionary  ideals  that 
showed  in  his  historical  romances.  He 
wrote  voluminously,  and  completed  20 
stories  of  his  "Episodios  Nacionales" 
series  by  1883.  His  best  known  work  is 
"Doiia  Perfecta"  which  appeared  in  1876. 
Others  are  "Gloria";  "La  Familia  de 
Leon  Roch";  ''Marianela";  "El  Amigo 
Manso";  "El  Doctor  Centeno";  "Fortu- 
nata  y  Jacinta";  "Miau";  "Angel  Guer- 
ra";  "Nazarin";  "Misericordia."  He 
also  wrote  several  plays.  He  died  in 
1920,  statues  having  been  erected  to  him 
in  his  lifetime,  and  national  subscriptions 
being  gathered  to  honor  him. 

PERFECTIONIST,  in  ecclesiastical 
and  Church  history,  one  who  believes  in 
the  possibility  of  living  without  sin;  a 
perfectibilist.  Any  member  of  an  Amer- 
ican sect  of  Antinomian  Communists, 
which  was  founded  about  1854,  by  John 
Humphrey  Noyes,  who  had  been  an  In- 
dependent minister  at  Yale  College.  He 
professed  to  have  discovered  from  the 
writings  of  St.  Paul  that  all  Christian 
sects  were  in  spiritual  darkness,  and  de- 
termined to  establish  a  church  of  his  own. 
He  founded  a  community  at  Oneida,  N. 
Y.,  and  others  subsequently  at  Walling- 
ford.  New  Haven,  and  New  York,  in 
order  to_  carry  out  what  he  asserted  to 
be  a  divinely  revealed  system  of  society, 
based  on  the  following  principles:  (1) 
Reconciliation  with  God;  (2)  salvation 
from  sin;  (3)  brotherhood  of  man  and 
woman ;_  and  (4)  community  of  labor, 
and  of  its  fruits.  They  are  called  also 
Bible  Communists,  All  possessions  of 
the  sect  are  held  in  common. 

PERFTTMES,  substances  emitting  an 
agreeable  odor,  and  used  about  the  per- 


son, the  dress,  or  the  dwelling,  having 
also  some  value  as  disinfectants.  Per- 
fumes of  various  sorts  have  been  held  in 
high  estimation  from  the  most  ancient 
times.  The  Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Phoe- 
nicians, Assyrians,  and  Persians  are 
known  to  have  made  great  use  of  them, 
as  did  also  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
Perfumes  are  partly  of  animal  but 
chiefly  ^  of  vegetable  origin.  They  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  crude  and 
prepared.  The  former  consist  of  such 
animal  perfumes  as  musk,  civet,  amber- 
gris, and  such  vegetable  perfumes  as  are 
obtained  in  the  form  of  essential  oils. 
At  the  present  time  the  manufacture  of 
perfumes  is  chiefly  carried  on  in  Paris 
and  London,  and  in  various  towns  near 
the  Mediterranean,  especially  in  the  S. 
of  France.  Certain  districts  are  famous 
for  certain  productions;  as  Cannes  for 
its  perfumes  of  the  rose,  tuberose,  cassia, 
jasmine;  Nimes  for  thyme,  rosemary, 
and  lavender;  Nice  for  the  violet  and 
mignonette.  England  claims  the  supe- 
riority for  her  lavender,  which  is  culti- 
vated on  a  large  scale  at  Mitcham  in 
Surrey. 

PERGAMTTS,  in  ancient  geography,  a 
city  of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor,  noted  for 
the  magnificence  of  its  buildings,  and  as 
the  place  where  parchment  was  first 
made,  and  tapestry,  called  by  the  Ro- 
mans aulsea,  first  worked.  After  the 
battle  of  Issus  it  became  the  capital  of  a 
kingdom,  and  flourished  for  more  than 
150  years,  till  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
120  B.  C.  It  was  destroyed  during  the 
Turkish  wars,  but  its  extensive  ruins  are 
still  visible. 

PERI,  according  to  the  mythical  lore 
of  the  East,  a  being  begotten  by  fallen 
spirits,  which  spends  its  life  in  all  imag- 
inable delights,  is  immortal,  but  is  for- 
ever excluded  from  the  joys  of  Paradise. 
It  takes  an  intermediate  place  between 
angels  and  demons,  and  is  either  male  or 
female.  The  Peris  live  in  constant  war- 
fare with  the  Devs.  Otherwise,  they 
are  of  the  most  innocuous  character  to 
mankind,  and  are  just  like  the  fairies. 
They  belong  to  the  great  family  of  genii, 
or  Jinn. 

PERIANDER,  one  of  the  seven  re- 
puted sages  of  Greece,  a  tyrant  of  Cor- 
inth, who  succeeded  his  father,  Cypselus, 
625  B.  c,  and  died  with  the  reputation 
of  an  able  ruler,  585  B.  c.  He  was  a 
man  of  licentious  manners,  and,  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign,  became  a  cruel 
ruler. 

PERIANTH,  the  envelope  surround- 
ing the  reproductive  organs  in  a  flower, 
when  the  calyx  and  corolla  are  not  easily 


pericaedium: 


183 


PERICLES 


discriminated.     Example,  the  petaloid  or 
colored  portion  of  a  lily. 

PERICARDIUM,  a  conical  membra- 
nous sac  containing  the  heart  and  the 
commencement  of  the  great  vessels,  to  the 
extent  of  about  two  inches  from  their 
origin.  It  is  placed  with  its  apex  up- 
ward behind  the  sternum  in  the  interval 
between  the  pleurae — the  serous  sacs  in 
which  the  lungs  are  inclosed;  while  its 
base  is  attached  to  the  diaphragm.  It  is 
a  fibro-serous  membrane,  consisting  of 
an  external  fibrous  and  an  internal  se- 
rous layer.  The  outer  layer  is  a  strong, 
dense,  fibrous  membrane;  the  serous 
layer  invests  the  heart,  and  is  then  re- 
flected on  the  inner  surface  of  the  firbrous 
layer.  Like  all  serous  membranes,  it  is 
a  closed  sac;  its  inner  surface  is  smooth 
and  glistening,  and  secretes  a  thin  fluid 
which  serves  to  facilitate  the  natural 
movements  of  the  heart.  It  is  inflam- 
mation of  this  serous  sac  which  consti- 
tutes the  disease  that  is  known  as  peri- 
carditis. 

Pericarditis  is  a  disease  which  occa- 
sionally runs  a  very  rapid  course,  and 
terminates  fatally  in  48  hours  or  less. 
In  ordinary  cases,  however,  which  ter- 
minate in  apparent  recovery,  the  disease 
generally  begins  to  yield  in  a  week  or  10 
days,  and  excepting  that  adhesion  may 
remain,  the  cure  appears  to  be  complete 
in  three  weeks  or  less. 

The  treatment  of  pericarditis  at  pres- 
ent in  favor  is  much  less  active  than 
when  bleeding,  mercurialization,  etc., 
were  considered  necessary.  Complete 
rest  in  bed,  light  diet,  with  opium  or 
other  sedatives  as  required;  general  med- 
ication suited  to  the  disease  with  which 
the  pericarditis  is  associated,  local  ap- 
plication of  poultices  or  cotton  wool, 
sometimes  of  leeches  or  blisters,  are  the 
chief  measures  employed. 

PERICLES,  the  great  Athenian  states- 
man; born  in  Athens  about  495  B.  C,  of 
a  noble,  influential  and  wealthy  family. 
He  received  a  careful  education  from  the 
most  eminent  teachers.  He  applied  him- 
self to  the  study  of  philosophy  under  the 
guidance  of  Anaxagoras.  To  his  other 
acquirements  he  added  that  of  extraor- 
dinary eloquence,  and  thus  prepared,  he 
began  to  take  part  in  public  aflrairs  about 
469  B.  c,  and  the  popular  party  soon  rec- 
ognized him  as  their  chief.  He  effected  a 
great  change  in  the  constitution  of  the 
Areopagus,  the  stronghold  of  the  aristo- 
cratic party,  by  which  its  authority  was 
much  limited,  and  Cimon,  the  head  of 
that  party,  was  immediately  ostracized. 
Pericles  was  great  as  a  general,  and  he 
displayed  extraordinary  valor  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Tanagra;  he  commanded  the  expe- 


dition against  Sicyon  and  Acarnania; 
recovered  Delphi  from  the  Spartans,  and 
quelled  the  revolt  of  Eubcea.  In  444  B.  C. 
he  became  sole  ruler  of  Athens.  Under 
his  administration  the  navy  was  in- 
creased, commerce  extended,  general 
prosperity  advanced,  and  Athens  adorned 
with  noble  buildings.  Phidias  was  the 
friend  of  Pericles,  and  under  his  direc- 
tion the  Parthenon,  the  Propylsea,  the 
Odeon,  and  the  other  temples  and  monu- 
ments, the  admiration  of  all  time,  were 
erected.     In  444  b.  c.  Pericles  established 


PERICLES 

a  democratic  constitution  in  Samos,  ana 
a  counter-revolution  taking  place,  he  be- 
sieged the  town,  and  after  nine  months 
reduced  it.  Pericles  directed  Athens 
during  the  first  two  years  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War,  in  the  second  year  of  which 
the  plague  broke  out  at  Athens,  and  the 
popular  discontent  vented  itself  in  the 
pi'osecution  of  the  great  ruler.  He  was 
fined,  but  soon  regained  his  influence. 
The  plague  carried  off  many  of  his 
friends  and  relatives,  and,  last  of  all, 
his  favorite  son,  Paralus.  This  loss 
broke  his  heart,  and  after  a  lingering 
sickness  he  died  429  b.  c.  He  left  a  son 
by  Aspasia,  who  took  his  father's  name, 
and  was  ultimately  legitimated  by  the 
people. 


PERIDOTE 


184 


FEBIOD 


PERIDOTE,  a  name  given  by  jewel- 
ers to  the  gn^een  transparent  varieties  of 
olivine.  It  is  usually  some  shade  of 
olive-green  or  leek-green.  Peridote  is 
found  in  Brazil,  Ceylon,  Egypt,  and 
Pegu.  It  is  a  very  soft  gem  stone,  dif- 
ficult to  polish,  and,  when  polished,  liable 
to  lose  its  luster  and  to  suffer  by  wear. 

PERIGEE,  the  point  in  the  moon's 
orbit  at  which  she  is  nearest  the  earth. 

PERIGORD,  an  old  province  of 
France.  It  formed  part  of  the  military 
government  of  Guienne  and  Gascony,  and 
is  now  represented  by  Dordogne  and 
part  of  Lot-et-Garonne. 

PERIGUEUX,  a  town  of  France, 
formerly  capital  of  Perigord,  now  in  the 
department  of  Dordogne;  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Isle,  a  tributary  of  the  Dor- 
dogne; 95  miles  N.  E.  of  Bordeaux.  It 
consists  of  the  ancient  city,  which  is 
gloomy  in  aspect  and  has  narrow  streets, 
with  numerous  houses  and  other  re- 
mains of  mediseval  and  Renaissance  ar- 
chitecture, and  the  Puy  St.  Front,  which 
till  1269  was  a  separate  and  a  rival  town. 
The  cathedral  of  St.  Front  is  a  Byzan- 
tine edifice,  said  to  be  a  copy  of  St. 
Mark's  at  Venice,  built  in  984-1047,  but 
spoilt  by  "restoration"  in  1865.  The 
museum  is  especially  rich  in  Roman  and 
other  antiquities.  Statues  of  Montague, 
Fenelon,  and  the  soldiers  Daumesnil  and 
Bugeaud  adorn  public  places  in  the  town. 
Iron  is  mined  and  worked,  and  woolens 
are  manufactured.  The  celebrated  pates 
de  Perigueux,  made  of  partridges  and 
trufBes,  are  largely  exported.  Perigeux, 
a  town  of  the  highest  antiquity,  is  the 
Gallic  Vesunna  mentioned  by  Caesar. 
The  Romans  built  another  town  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river  at  the  junction 
of  five  Roman  roads.  Close  to  the  mod- 
ern town  are  the  remains  of  a  vast  am- 
phitheater, aqueducts,  baths,  and  tem- 
ples. The  tower  of  Vesunna  is  the  most 
remarkable  fragment  of  Roman  architec- 
ture. It  is  89  feet  high,  200  feet  in  cir- 
cumference, and  has  walls  6  feet  thick, 
but  has  neither  doors  nor  windows.  Its 
purpose  is  not  known.  The  district  of 
Perigord  is  noted  for  its  archseological 
finds.     Pop.  (1911)  33,548. 

PERIHELION,  or  PERIHELIUM, 
the  part  oi  a  planet's  or  comet's  orbit 
where  it  is  nearest  the  sun,  as  opposed 
to  aphelion.  One  of  these  is  said  to  be 
in  perihelion  when  it  is  at  the  extremity 
of  the  major  axis  of  the  elliptical  orbit 
learest  the  focus  occupied  by  the  sun. 

PERIM,  a  barren  island,  and  coaling 
and  telegraph  station,  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  in  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb, 
at  the  S.  entrance  to  the  Red  Sea,  97 


miles  W.  of  Aden.  It  is  about  BV2  miles 
long  by  2%  wide,  and  crescent  shaped, 
the  two  horns  embracing  a  deep  and 
spacious  harbor.  The  island  was  held  by 
the  British  in  1799-1800,  and  was  again 
occupied  in  1857.  In  1883  it  was  made 
a  coaling  station,  and  soon  began  to  be  a 
rival  to  Aden. 

PERIMETER,  in  geometry,  the 
bounds  or  limits  of  any  figure  or  body. 
The  perimeters  of  surfaces  or  figures  are 
lines;  those  of  bodies  are  surfaces. 

PERIOD,  in  geology,  one  of  the  larg- 
est divisions  of  geological  time.  In  this 
sense  there  are  at  least  three  periods,  the 
Primary,  the  Secondary,  and  the  Ter- 
tiary periods,  to  which  a  fourth  or  Qua- 
ternary one  is  sometimes  added;  also 
their  subdivisions;  as,  the  Glacial  period. 
In  mathematics,  a  number  of  figures  con- 
sidered together;  one  of  two  or  more 
sets  of  figures  or  terms  marked  off  by 
points  or  commas  placed  regularly  after 
a  certain  number,  as  in  numeration,  in 
circulating  decimals,  or  in  the  extraction 
of  roots.  In  music,  two  or  more  phrases 
ending  with  a  perfect  cadence.  In  pa- 
thology, an  interval  more  or  less  fixed  in 
point  of  time  at  which  the  paroxysms  of 
a  fever,  etc.,  recur.  In  printing,  the  full 
stop  (.)  which  marks  the  end  of  a  sen- 
tence in  punctuating,  or  indicates  an  ab- 
breviation, as  Mr.,  Jan.,  B.  C,  etc.  In 
rhetoric,  a  complete  sentence  from  one 
full  stop  to  another;  a  sentence  so  con- 
structed as  to  have  all  its  parts  mutually 
dependent. 

PERIOD,  a  term  used  in  chronology 
in  the  same  sense  as  cycle,  to  denote  an 
interval  of  time  after  which  the  astro- 
nomical phenomena  to  which  it  refers  re- 
cur in  the  same  order.  It  is  also  employed 
to  signify  a  cycle  of  cycles.  The  Chal- 
daeans  invented  the  Chaldaic  period,  or 
period  of  eclipses,  from  observing  that, 
after  a  certain  number  of  revolutions  of 
the  moon  round  the  earth,  her  eclipses 
recurred  in  the  same  order  and  of  the 
same  magnitude.  The  Egyptians  made 
use  of  the  dog-star,  Siriacal,  or  Sothric 
period,  as  it  is  variously  called,  to  com- 
pare their  civil  year  of  365  days  with  the 
true  or  Julian  year  of  365%,  days.  The 
period  consequently  consisted  of  1,460 
Julian  years,  corresponding  to  1,461 
Egyptian  years,  after  the  lapse  on  vv^hich 
the  dates  in  both  reckonings  coincided. 
By  comparing  the  solar  and  lunar  years 
Meton,  an  Athenian,  invented  (432  b.  C.) 
a  lunar  period  of  6,940  days,  called  from 
him  the  Metonic  cycle,  also  the  lunar 
cycle.  The  Calippic  period  was  invented 
by  Calippus,  and  concisted  of  four  Me- 
tonic cycles  less  by  one  day,  or  27,759 
days.     But  as   this  period   still   gave   a 


PERIODICALS 


185 


PERIODICALS 


difference  of  six  hours  between  the  solar 
and  lunar  reckonings,  it  was  improved 
by  Hipparachus,  who  invented  the  Hip- 
parchic  period  of  four  Calippic  periods, 
less  by  one  day,  or  111,035  days,  or  about 
304  Julian  years.  The  period  of  the  he- 
liacal or  solar  cycle,  after  which  the  same 
day  of  the  month  falls  upon  the  same 
day  of  the  week,  consists  of  28  Julian 
years.  The  solar  cycle  is  supposed  to 
have  been  invented  about  the  time  of  the 
Council  of  Nice  (A.  D.  325), but  it  is  ar- 
ranged so  that  the  first  year  of  the  first 
cycle  corresponds  to  9  B.  C.  In  calculat- 
ing the  position  of  any  year  in  solar  cy- 
cle care  must  be  taken  to  allow  for  the 
omission  of  the  intercalary  day  at  the 
beginning  of  each  century,  and  its  inser- 
tion in  the  last  year  of  every  fourth  cen- 
tury. The  Julian  period  is  a  cycle  of  cy- 
cles, and  consists  of  7,980  (=28X19X15) 
years,  after  the  lapse  of  which  the  solar 
cycle,  lunar  cycle,  and  the  indiction 
commence  together.  The  period  of  its 
commencement  has  been  arranged  so  that 
it  will  expire  at  the  same  time  as  the 
other  three  periods,  from  which  it  has 
been  derived.  The  year  4713  B.  c.  is 
taken  as  the  first  year  of  the  first 
period. 

PERIODICALS,  publications  which 
appear  at  regular  intervals,  and  whose 
principal  object  is  not  the  conveyance  of 
news  (the  main  function  of  newspapers), 
but  the  circulation  of  information  of  a 
literary,  scientific,  artistic,  or  miscellan- 
eous character,  as  also  criticisms  on 
books,  essays,  poems,  tales,  etc.  The  first 
periodical  was  published  in  France,  be- 
ing a  scientific  magazine,  the  "Scientists' 
Journal,"  issued  in  1665.  The  most 
famous  French  literary  periodical  is  the 
"Review  of  Two  Continents,"  begun  in 
1829.  The  earliest  English  periodical 
seems  to  have  been  the  "Weekly  Memo- 
rials for  the  Ingenious,"  the  first  number 
of  which  is  dated  January,  1681-1682, 
and  which  lasted  but  a  year.  In  the 
18th  century  a  number  of  monthly  re- 
views appeared,  including  the  "Monthly 
Review"  (1749-1844) ;  the  "Critical  Re- 
view" (1756-1817) ;  the  "British  Critic" 
(1793-1843);  the  "Anti-Jacobin  Re- 
view and  Magazine"  (1798-1821).  At 
length  in  1802  a  new  era  in  criticism 
was  introduced  by  the  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view," the  organ  of  the  Whigs,  which 
came  out  every  three  months,  and  soon 
had  a  formidable  rival  in  the  "Quarterly 
Review"  (1809),  the  organ  of  the  Tories. 
In  1824  the  "Westminster  Review"  was 
started  by  Bentham  as  the  organ  of  utili- 
tarianism and  radicalism,  and  with^  it 
was  afterward  incorporated  the  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  (1827-1846) ;  and  m 
1836   the    "Dublin   Review"   was    estab- 


lished as  the  organ  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic party.  To  meet  the  demand  for 
critical  literature  at  shorter  intervals 
than  three  months,  there  was  published 
in  1865  the  "Fortnightly  Review,"  which 
for  about  a  year  was  true  to  its  name, 
but  has  since  appeared  monthly.  It  was 
followed  by  the  "Contemporary  Review" 
(1866)  and  the  "Nineteenth  Century" 
(1877).  Among  the  more  recent  period- 
icals of  this  class  (in  which  literary 
criticism  occupies  but  a  small  space)  are 
the  "National  Review"  (1883),  a  Con- 
servative organ;  the  "New  Review,"  a 
monthly  begun  in  1889;  and  the  "Re- 
view of  Reviews,"  a  monthly  giving  ex- 
tracts from  all  the  current  periodicals, 
begun  in  1890.  The  "Athenaeum"  ( 1828 ) , 
"Academy"  (1869),  "Saturday  Review," 
"Spectator,"  and  "Speaker"  (all  weekly 
publications)  combine  the  character  of 
the  review  with  more  or  less  of  that  of 
the  newspaper. 

Passing  over  the  "Tatler"  (1709- 
1710),  "Spectator"  (1711-1712,  revived 
1714),  etc.,  which  may  be  considered  to 
be  sui  generis,  the  first  English  maga- 
zine properly  speaking  may  be  said  to  be 
the  "Gentleman's  Journal,  or  Monthly 
Miscellany,"  commenced  in  1692.  It 
was  followed  in  1731  by  the  "Gentleman's 
Magazine,"  published  by  Cave.  The  suc- 
cess of  Cave's  venture  brought  out  a 
host  of  imitators.  The  "London  Maga- 
zine" (1732-1784),  the  "Scots  Magazine" 
(1739-1817),  the  "European  Magazine" 
(1782-1826),  and  the  "Monthly  Maga- 
zine" (1796-1829),  were  among  the  chief 
of  this  class  which  were  originated  in  the 
18th  century.  In  1817  appeared  the  first 
number  of  "Blackwood's  Edinburgh  Mag- 
azine," which  soon  distanced  all  its  pre- 
decessors. Closely  approaching  it  in 
point  of  merit  stood  the  "New  Monthly 
Magazine,"  "Fraser's  Magazine,"  "Tait's 
Edinburgh  Magazine,"  and  the  "Dublin 
University  Magazine."  A  new  era  in 
this  kind  of  literature  was  inaugurated 
by  the  shilling  monthlies,  some  of  them 
with  excellent  illustrations,  the  first  be- 
ing "Macmillan's  Magazine"  ^859), 
"Cornhill  Magazine"  (1860),  "Temple 
Bar"  (1860) ;  closely  followed  by  a  num- 
ber of  others.  Another  step  in  the  direc- 
tion of  cheapness  was  shortly  afterward 
made  by  the  publication  of  monthly  mag- 
azines at  sixpence,  including  the  "Ar- 
gosy," "Good  Words,"  the  "Sunday 
Magazine,"  etc.,  followed  at  a  long  in- 
terval by  "Longman's  Magazine,"  the 
"English  Illustrated  Magazine,"  "The 
Strand,"  etc.  Weekly  periodicals  to  suit 
the  taste  of  all  classes,  at  prices  from  2 
to  6  cents,  have  come  into  fashion  since 
1832,  when  the  initiative  was  taken  by 
the  <Tenny  Magazine"  and  "Chambers* 


PEBIODICITY 


186 


PERISCOPE 


Journal."  The  most  popular  American 
reviews  and  magazines  of  our  times  are 
"Harper's  Monthly  Magazine,"  the  "At- 
lantic Monthly,"  "Scribner's  Magazine," 
"Century  Magazine,"  "The  Cosmopoli- 
tan," "The  Metropolitan,"  "Munsey's 
Magazine,"  "McClure's  Magazine," 
"American  Magazine,"  "Everybody's," 
"American  Review  of  Reviews,"  "The 
World's  Work,"  etc. 

PERIODICITY,  the  disposition  of  cer- 
tain things  or  phenomena  to  recur  at 
stated  periods.  It  denotes  the  regular 
or  nearly  regular  recurrence  of  certain 
phenomena  of  animal  life,  such  as  sleep 
and  hunger. 

PERIOPHTHALMUS,  a  genus  of 
Gohiidae,  from  the  coasts  of  the  Indo- 
Pacific,  remarkable  for  their  prominent 
retractile  eyes,  which  enable  them  to  see 
in  the  air  as  well  as  in  the  water,  and  for 
their  strong  ventral  and  pectoral  fins,  by 
the  aid  of  which  they  can  hop  freely  over 
the  ground,  when  they  leave  the  water, 
as  is  their  habit  at  ebb  tide,  to  hunt 
small  crustaceans.  The  species  are  few 
in  number;  but  P.  koelreuteri  is  one  of 
the  commonest  fishes  of  the  Indian 
Ocean. 

PERIOSTEUM,  a  dense  lining  mem- 
brane covering  the  whole  surface  of  bone, 
except  the  articulations,  which  have 
a  thin  cartilaginous  layer.  As  long 
as  a  single  portion  of  periosteum 
remains  alive  bone  is  capable  of  being 
reproduced. 

PERIOSTITIS,  inflammatior  of  the 
periosteum,  a  painful  ailment  frequently 
brought  on  by  sudden  exposure  to  cold 
after  being  heated. 

PERIPATETIC,  the  name  given  to 
the  followers  of  the  Aristotelian  philoso- 
phy. Aristotle  partly  adopted  the  re- 
sults of  Plato,  and  made  them  available 
for  the  world.  Both  teachers  admitted 
that  science  could  only  be  formed  from 
Universals,  but  Aristotle  took  the  \aew 
afterward  called  Nominalist,  and  con- 
tended that  such  Universals  were  noth 
ing  more  than  inductions  from  particular 
facts.  He  thus  made  experience  the 
basis  of  all  science.  In  the  Middle  Ages, 
Albertus  Magnus  (1193-1280)  did  much 
to  spread  the  Peripatetic  philosophy,  as 
well  as  the  ethical  and  physical  writings 
of  Aristotle,  and  his  pupil,  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas^  (1227-1274),  the  greatest  of  the 
Scholastics,  was  much  influenced  by 
them.  The  study  of  the  works  of  Aris- 
totle was  greatly  revived  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury, and  those  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas 
were  specially  recommended  to  clerical 
students  by  Pope  Leo  XIIL 


PERIPATUS,  the  sole  genus  of  thcJ 
group  Peripatidea  or  the  order  Onyco- 
phora.  They  are  vermiform  animals,  in- 
distinctly segmented,  with  soft  integu- 
ments. On  each  side  of  the  body  there 
are  a  number  of  short  legs,  terminated 
by  a  rudimentary  jointed  part,  and  a 
pair  of  hooked  claws.  The  head  bears  a 
pair  of  simple  annulated  antennae,  and  a 
pair  of  simple  eyes.  They  are  vivipa- 
rous, nocturnal  in  habit,  and  are  found 
in  decaying  wood.  Several  species  are 
known,  from  the  West  Indies,  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  South  America,  and  New 
Zealand. 

PERIPHERY.      See     CIRCUMFERENCE, 

PERISCOPE,  an  instrument  for  ob- 
servation from  a  concealed  position.  In 
its  most  elementary  form  it  is  a  tube  in 
each  end  of  which  are  reflecting  surfaces 
set  parallel  to  each  other  at  an  angle  of 
45°  with  the  axis  of  the  tube.  This  form 
of  periscope,  with  the  addition  of  a  simple 
lens,  v^as  much  used  for  observation  pur- 
poses in  the  trenches  during  the  World 
War. 

Hood. 
(ik^oejEcTtve; 


(POPRISM 

Inmer  tube 

(Ut)LEN& 

OuterTobe 


(b)i*o  I  GeARiN^ 


CnECTlN&P(?lSrt 


WHeei.  Pop 
-—Rotating 

TUBE 

>^PiEce 
DIAGRAM   OF  PERISCOPE 

The  principle  of  the  periscope  of  a 
submarine  is  essentially  the  same — re- 
flecting prisms  and  several  lenses  are 
used,  and  a  collecting  eye  piece  is  placed 
at  the  lower  end.  This  type  of  periscope 
is  protected  by  a  casing  tube  and  head. 
A  system  of  gears  is  used  to  turn  the 
inner  tube,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
trained  upon  a  desired  point. 

Although  the  periscope  in  some  form 


PERISSODACTYALA 


187 


PERITONITIS 


has  been  known  for  centuries,  its  develop- 
ment into  an  efficient  instrument  has  been 
comparatively  recent. 

PERISSODACTYLA,  in  Owen's  classi- 
fication, a  section  of  Ungulata.  The 
hind  feet  are  odd  toed  in  all,  and  the  fore 
feet  in  all  but  the  Tapiridse  and  the  Bron- 
totheridx.  Dorsolumbar  vertebrae  never 
less  than  23.  Femur  with  a  third  tro- 
chanter. Horns,  if  present,  not  paired, 
except  in  the  extinct  Diceratherium. 
Usually  there  is  but  one  horn;  if  two  are 
present,  they  are  in  the  median  line  of 
the  head,  one  behind  the  other,  not  sup- 
ported by  bony  horn  cores.  The  section 
is  now  usually  divided  into  seven  fami- 
lies, four  extinct. 


fluid,  like  the  liquid  white  of  an  egg,  al- 
lowing the  two  sides,  when  rubbed  to- 
gether, to  glide  over  each  other,  as  if 
oiled,  without  check  or  the  slightest  fric- 
tion. The  outside  of  this  is  rough  and 
granulated.  The  peculiarity  of  the  in- 
ner and  outer  sides  of  this  immense  bag 
lies  in  this,  that  the  surface  of  the  fir.st 
is  close,  smooth,  moist,  and  shiny,  and, 
however  firmly  pressed,  can  never  grow 
together,  or  keep  long  in  contact;  while 
that  of  the  other  is  rough,  dry,  and  ad- 
heres firmly  to  all  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact.  This  external  side,  then,  ad- 
heres to  the  muscles  of  the  abdomen,  and 
to  every  portion  of  the  intestines,  but  in 
such  a  manner  that  between  every  con- 
volution, or  twist  of  the  bowels,  a  fold 


DIAGRAM    OF    SUBMARINE    SHOWING   POSITION    OP     PERISCOPE 


PERISTYLE,  an  open  court  within 
a  house,  having  a  colonnade  around  it,  by 
which  the  principal  apartments  were 
reached;  the  exact  reverse  of  the  perip- 
teros,  though  the  same  in  character,  the 
one  being  inside,  the  other  outside  a 
building. 

PERITONEUM,  one  of  the  most  dif- 
ficult parts  in  the  human  anatomy  for  a 
teacher  to  explain  intelligibly  to  his 
pupils,  and  the  last  that  the  student  is 
able  thoroughly  to  understand.  From 
birth  till  death,  the  bowels  are  constantly 
moving  and  gliding  over  each  other,  in  a 
worm-like  perpetual  motion,  called  peris- 
taltic motion.  It  will  be  self-evident  that 
this  day  and  night  friction  of  such  deli- 
cate textures  as  those  composing  the  in- 
teguments would,  in  the  70  years  of 
man's  life,  wear  out,  or  at  least  in  time 
most  seriously  injure  them.  To  prevent 
this  friction,  nature  has  provided  the 
peritoneum,  an  immense  shut-bag.  The 
inside — that  portion  out  of  sight — pre- 
sents, when  cut  open,  a  smooth,  glairy 
surface,  studded  with  innumerable  ves- 
sels, always  pouring  out  a  thin,  smooth 


of  peritoneum  accompanies  it,  so  that 
between  the  bowel  above  or  below  there 
is  always  the  two  glairy  sides  rubbing 
against  each  other,  and  allowing  the  in- 
testines to  glide  about  without  let  or 
hindrance,  the  bowels  being  always  on 
the  outside  of  the  bag,  but  always  glid- 
ing over  the  two  inner  sides.  The  peri- 
toneum is  a  serous  membrane,  and,  in  the 
same  way  as  it  covers  the  bowels,  lines 
and  invests  every  organ  in  the  abdominal 
and  pelvic  cavities. 

PERITONITIS,  inflammation  of  the 
peritoneum;  it  is  exceedingly  painful  and 
dangerous,  from  its  extent  and  connec- 
tion with  important  organs.  Peritonitis 
may  exist  either  as  an  acute  or  chronic 
disease.  In  the  former  there  is  usually 
great  pain  and  tenderness  of  the  abdo- 
men, accompanied  with  fever,  and  a  fre- 
quent, small,  and  hard  pulse.  Some- 
times, at  first,  the  pain  is  confined  to  one 
spot,  but  it  generally  soon  extends  over 
the  whole  of  the  abdomen.  It  is  very 
severe,  and  much  increased  by  any  mo- 
tion, even  coughing,  sneezing,  or  drawing 
a  long  breath.     Its  causes  are  various,  as 


PERIWINKLE 


188 


PERKINS 


by  cold,  mechanical  Injuries  of  the  peri- 
toneum, the  development  of  tumors,  etc. 
Women  in  childbed  are  peculiarly  liable 
to  it.  After  the  disease  has  continued 
for  a  certain  time,  it  is  attended  with 
tension  and  swelling  of  the  belly ;  and  if 
not  checked,  it  usually  terminates  in 
from  5  to  10  days. 

PERIWINKLE  (Littorina),  a  genus 
of  marine  Gasteropods,  represented  by 
several  species  on   British  coasts.     The 


^C  OO 


PERIWINKLE 
Anatomy  of  body  removed  from  the  shell ;  Bk 
rostrum,  SG,  salivary  gland;  LG,  lingual  coil; 
S.  stomach;  L,  liver;  RO,  renal  organ;  A.  anue; 
H,  heart;  SM,  shell  muscle;  MC,  mucous  gland; 
C,  gill;  O,  ovary;  00,  ovarian  orifice;  P.  foot. 

commonest,  L.  littorea,  is  abundant  be- 
tween tide  marks  on  the  rocks,  and  is 
often  collected  and  used  for  food.  It  is 
boiled  in  its  shell,  extracted  as  eaten,  and 
is  very  palatable.  Periwinkles  crawl 
about  when  under  water,  but  usually  re- 
main passive  when  left  uncovered  by  the 
tide.  Without  water  they  can  survive 
for  many  hours,  and  they  are  also  able 
to  endure  a  considerable  freshening  of 
the  salt  water.  They  feed  on  sea  weeds, 
and  are  often  useful  in  keeping  beds  of 
young  oysters  from  being  smothered. 
Periwinkles  drawn  up  from  70  to  80 
fathoms  were  first  in  1889  used  as  bait 
for  cod  fishing  on  the  banks  of  New- 
foundland. The  edible  species  is  ovipa- 
rous, but  in  L.  rudis,  which  is  usually 
common  nearer  high  water  mark,  the 
young  are  hatched  and  have  a  hard  shell 
before  they  leave  the  mother.  Species 
of  Littorina  occur  on  almost  all  coasts, 
and  there  are  about  50  in  all. 

PERJURY,  the  taking  of  a  wilful 
false  oath  or  affirmation,  by  a  witness 
lawfully  required  to  depose  the  truth  in 
a  matter  of  some  consequence  to  the 
point  in  question.  A  false  oath,  there- 
fore, taken  before  no  court,  or  before  a 
court  incompetent  to  try  the  issue  in 
question,  does  not  constitute  the  off'ense 
of  perjury  at  common  law.  But  many 
statutes  in  the  United  States,  passed  by 
the  general  government  or  the  several 


States  on  the  matter,  provide  that  a  false 
oath  or  declaration  made  on  some  speci- 
fied occasions,  or  for  some  particular  pur- 
poses, shall  be  considered  to  be  perjury, 
and  punishable  accordingly.  Perjury  is 
a  misdemeanor  at  common  law,  and  by 
several  statutes  punishable  by  fine  and 
imprisonment,  and  by  penal  servitude  for 
a  term  not  sxceeding  seven  years. 

PERKINS,    GEORGE   WALBRIDGE, 

American  banker.  Born  in  Chicago  in 
1862.  After  graduating  from  the  public 
schools  in  Chicago  he  entered  business 
in  the  office  of  the  New  York  Life  In- 
surance Co,  He  rose  steadily  in  the  of- 
fices of  the  company  and  finally  became 
vice-president  in  1903.  From  1901  to 
1910  he  was  a  member  of  the  firm  of  J. 
P.  Morgan  &  Co,  In  the  latter  year, 
while  retaining  his  position  as  directcir 


GEORGE   WALBRIDGE   PERKINS 

in  many  of  the  large  corporations,  he  re- 
tired from  active  business  and  has  given 
his  time  and  money  to  many  public  en- 
terprises, such  as  the  Palisades  Inter- 
state Park  Commission,  the  New  York 
Scenic  and  Historic  Preservation  Society, 
etc. 


PERKINS 


189 


PERPENDICULAR 


PERKINS,  JAMES  BRECK,  an 
American  lawyer  and  historical  writer; 
born  in  St.  Croix  Falls,  Wis.,  Nov.  4, 
1847.  Congressman  1902-1905.  His  chief 
works  are :  "France  under  Mazarin" 
(1886) ;  "France  under  the  Regency" 
(1892) ;  "France  under  Louis  XV.,"  etc. 
He  died  Mar.  11,  1910. 

PERLITE,  a  variety  of  obsidian  with 
an  enamel-like  luster  and  a  gray  color. 
Structure,  usually  granular,  fine  to 
coarse-grained,  occasionally  spherulitic. 
Sub-translucent  to  opaque. 

PERM,  a  city  of  Russia,  the  capital 
of  the  former  government  of  the  same 
name.  Prior  to  the  World  War  there 
were  important  manufactories  of  tan- 
neries and  the  port  had  considerable 
trade.     Pop.  about  65,000. 

PERMANGANATE,  a  compound  of 
permanganic  anhydride,  Mn^Or,  and  a 
base.  Potassic  permanganate  is  used 
as  a  disinfectant,  and  as  a  chemical 
reagent. 

PERMIAN  PERIOD,  the  name  given 
to  the  closing  era  of  the  Carboniferous 
age,  which  was  a  time  of  decline  for 
Palaeozoic  life,  and  of  transition  toward 
a  new  phase  of  geological  history.  In 
the  United  States  the  Permian  rocks  are 
confined  to  the  interior  continental  basin, 
and  occur  in  the  portion  of  it  W.  of 
the  Mississippi,  especially  in  Kansas. 
The  rocks  are  limestones,  sandstones,  red, 
greenish,  and  gray  marls  or  shales,  gyp- 
sum beds  and  conglomerates,  among 
which  the  limestones  in  some  regions  pre- 
dominate. The  Permian  period  was  so 
called  by  Murchison,  because  he  found 
them  largely  developed  in  that  portion 
of  Russia  which  composed  the  an- 
cient kingdom  of  Permia,  of  which  the 
actual  government  of  Perm  forms  a 
part. 

PERMUTATION,  the  act  of  exchang- 
ing one  thing  for  another;  mutual 
change ;  interchange ;  intei'mutation. 
Also  in  mathematics,  change  or  combina- 
tion of  any  number  of  quantities.  The 
different  arrangements  which  can  be 
made  of  any  number  of  given  quantities, 
vvhen  a  certain  number,  or  the  whole  of 
them,  are  taken  together;  thus  the  per- 
mutations of  a,  b,  and  c,  taken  two  to- 
gether, are  ab,  ac,  ba,  be,  ca,  and  cb. 
The  number  of  permutations  of  n  things 
taken  two  together  is  n  (n-1)  ;  of  n 
things  taken  three  together,  n  (n-1) 
(n-2) ,  and  so  on. 

PERNAMBUCO,  a  town  in  Brazil, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  E.  coast.  It  consists  of  three  dis- 
tinct  parts:    Recife,  occupying  a   small 

Vol.  VII— Cyc 


peninsula;  Sao  Antonio,  on  an  island; 
and  Boa  Vista,  on  the  mainland,  the 
three  parts  being  connected  by  iron 
bridges.  Recife  is  the  principal  seat  of 
business.  In  it  are  the  custom  house, 
the  exchange,  a  marine  arsenal,  etc. 
San  Antonio  has  broad  streets  and  many 
fine  houses,  and  contains  the  episcopal 
palace,  the  theater,  the  military  arsenals, 
etc.  Boa  Vista  is  the  fashionable  resi- 
dential quarter.  The  principal  expoi'ts 
are  sugar  and  cotton;  and  the  chief  im- 
ports Manchester  goods  and  hardware. 
Pernambuco  was  founded  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  the  16th  century.  From  1630 
to  1654  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch, 
under  whom  it  prospered  greatly.  It  is 
now  the  third  largest  city  in  Brazil,  and 
the  second  in  commercial  importance. 
Pop.  about  220,000.  The  province  has 
an  area  of  49,625  square  miles.  Pop. 
about  2,100,000.  The  principal  culti- 
vated crops  are  the  sugar  cane  and  cot- 
ton ;  the  forests  yielding  valuable  timber, 
including  Brazil  wood,  often  called  Per- 
nambuco wood. 

PERONNE,  a  fortified  town  in  France, 
on  the  Somme,  94  miles  N.  of  Paris,  nota- 
ble only  on  account  of  being  the  center 
of  heavy  fighting  during  the  World 
War,  especially  during  the  great  German 
offensive  in  the  spring  of  1918.  (See 
PiCARDY,  Battles  of.)  Here,  on  March 
24,  1918,  the  British  were  heavily  at- 
tacked by  the  Germans  and  driven  back. 
Though  a  failure  in  its  main  objective, 
the  German  offensive  succeeded  in  gain- 
ing a  considerable  area  of  territory,  in 
the  form  of  a  wide  salient,  of  which 
Peronne  was  in  the  center. 

PEROXIDE,  a  term  applied  in  mineral 
chemistry  to  certain  dioxides  in  which 
the  second  atom  of  oxygen  is  held  in  a 
state  of  weak  combination,  as  in  the  case 
of  barium  peroxide,  BaO...  By  the  ac- 
tion of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  barium  sul- 
phate is  formed  and  oxygen  set  free.  In 
organic  chemistry  it  applies  to  certain 
peroxides  or  organic  radicals,  produced 
by  the  action  of  barium  peroxide  on  the 
anhydride  of  the  radical.  Acetic  anhy- 
dride  is   by   this   means   converted   into 

C=H.O  I 
peroxide  of  acetyl,  rO-. 

C^HaO  J 

PERPENDICULAR,  in  geometry,  a 
line  falling  directly  on  another  line,  so 
as  to  make  equal  angles  on  each  line.  A 
straight  line  is  said  to  be  perpendicular 
to  a  curve,  when  it  cuts  the  curve  in  a 
point  where  another  straight  line  to 
which  it  is  perpendicular  makes  a  tan- 
gent with  the  curve.  In  this  case  the 
perpendicular  is  usually  called  a  normal 
to  the  curve. 

13 


PERPENDICULAR    STYLE 


190 


PERRY 


PERPENDICULAR  STYLE,  the  third 
period  of  Pointed  Architecture.  It  origi- 
nated at  the  endof  the  11th  century,  and 
continued  till  the  close  of  the  16th,  when 
it  was  succeeded  by  the  Revived,  or  De- 
based Classic,  known  as  the  Elizabethan. 
It  is  also  known  as  the  Florid,  from  the 
multiplicity,  profusion,  and  minuteness 
of  ornamental  detail,  and  its  more  gen- 
eral name,  Perpendicular,  is  derived 
from  the  mullions  of  the  windows  and 
the  divisions  of  ornamental  panel  work 
running  in  straight  or  pependicular 
lines,  which  was  not  the  case  in  any 
earlier  style.  The  pointed  arches  are 
constructed  from  almost  every  radius. 
The  most  common  doorway  is  the  de- 
pressed four-centered  arch  (almost  pe- 
culiar to  this  style)  within  a  square  head, 
having  generally  a  hood  molding  over, 
the  spandrels  being  filled  with  quatre- 
foils,  paneling,  roses,  foliage,  small 
shields,  or  other  sculptured  ornaments. 
Pan-shaped  roofs,  ornamented  with  de- 
pendent pendants  resembling  stalactites, 
are  also  peculiar  to  the  Perpendicular 
style.  Richly  decorated  roof  trusses, 
which  are  left  clearly  visible,  are  also  of 
frequent  occurrence.  In  these  roofs  the 
spaces  between  the  highly  ornamented 
and  molded  beam  are  filled  with  rich 
tracery. 

PERPETUAL  MOTION,  a  motion 
which,  once  generated  by  mechanical 
means,  should  have  the  power  of  perpetu- 
ating itself.  A  machine  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  hopes  of  its  inventors,  after  it 
has  once  set  in  motion,  will  keep  in  mo- 
tion without  drawing  on  any  external 
source  of  energy.  As  early  as  1775  the 
Aeademie  des  Sciences  of  Paris  placed 
the  problem  in  the  same  category  with 
the  duplication  of  the  cube  and  the  quad- 
rature of  the  circle,  and  refused  to  re- 
ceive schemes  claiming  to  have  overcome 
the  difficulty — in  reality,  to  have  per- 
formed the  impossible.  The  overbalanc- 
ing wheel  was  a  favorite  contrivance 
with  the  seekers  after  a  perpetual 
motion.  It  appears  as  early  as  the  13th 
century. 

PERPETUITY,  uninterrupted  or  con- 
tinued duration  or  succession;  endless 
duration;  continuance  to  eternity;  some- 
thing of  which  there  will  be  no  end;  that 
which  continues  indefinitely.  The  num- 
ber of  years  in  which  the  simple  interest 
of  any  sum  invested  in  an  annuity  or  an- 
nuities becomes  equivalent  to  the  prin- 
cipal; also,  the  amount  which  will  pur- 
chase an  annuity  payable  forever.  In 
law,  quality  or  class  of  an  estate  by 
which  it  becomes  inalienable,  either  per- 
petually or  for  an  indefinitely  long  period 
of  time;  also,  the  estate  so  perpetuated. 


PERPIGNAN,  a  town  of  France,  and 
a  fortress  of  the  first  rank;  in  the  de- 
partment of  Pyren6es-0rientales,  on  the 
river  Tet,  7  miles  from  the  Mediterra- 
nean, 40  S.  of  Narbonne,  and  17  from 
the  Spanish  frontier.  It  commands  the 
passes  of  the  Eastern  Pyrenees,  and  is 
defended  on  the  S.  by  a  citadel,  which  in- 
closes the  old  castle  of  the  Counts  of 
Roussillon,  and  by  a  detached  fort.  The 
streets  are  narrow  and  the  houses  of  semi- 
Moorish  construction,  and  show  evidences 
of  Spanish  influence.  The  cathedral  (be- 
gun in  1324),  the  Moorish-Gothic  cloth 
hall  or  bourse  (1396),  the  town  house 
(1692),  the  building  of  the  former  uni- 
versity (1349-French  Revolution),  the 
court  house,  and  a  college  are  the  princi- 
pal public  buildings.  Good  red  wine  is 
made,  sheep  and  silkworms  are  bred, 
vegetables  and  fruit  grown,  brandy  dis- 
tilled, cloth  woven,  and  corks  cut;  and 
there  is  a  good  trade  in  wine,  spirits, 
wool,  cork  bark,  oil,  cloth,  and  silk.  As 
capital  of  the  former  county  of  Roussil- 
lon Perpignan  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
kings  of  Aragon  from  1172  to  its  capture 
by  France  in  1475;  it  was  restored  to 
Spain  in  1493;  but  Richelieu  retook  it  in 
1642,  and  France  has  possessed  it  ever 
since.     Pop.  (1911)  39,510. 

PERRANZABULOE,  a  Cornish  coast 

parish,  10  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Truro.  The 
rude  little  stone  oratory  (25  by  12% 
feet)  of  St.  Piran,  who  was  sent  to  Corn- 
wall by  St.  Patrick  in  the  5th  century, 
had  been  buried  in  the  sands  for  1,000 
years,  when  it  was  discovered  in  1835; 
it  is  probably  the  earliest  ecclesiastical 
structure  in  England.  Perran  Round  is 
a  circular  inclosure,  with  seven  rows  of 
seats  that  could  seat  2,000  spectators,  in 
which  miracle  plays  were  performed  of 
old. 

PERRY,  a  city  of  Iowa,  about  35 
miles  N.  W.  of  Des  Moines.  It  is  on  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  and  the 
Minneapolis  and  St.  Louis  railroads.  It 
is  the  center  of  a  rich  agricultural  dis- 
trict and  has  also  important  industries 
including  the  manufacturing  of  washing 
machines,  cement  blocks,  etc.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Jones  College.  Pop.  (1910)  4,- 
630;    (1920)  5,642. 

PERRY,  BLISS,  an  American  educa- 
tor and  editor;  born  in  Williamstown, 
Mass.,  Nov.  25,  1860.  He  was  Professor 
of  Oratory  and  Esthetic  Criticism  at 
Princeton  University,  resigning  to  become 
editor  of  the  "Atlantic  Monthly."  He 
has  published:  "The  Broughton  House" 
(1890);  "Salem  Kittredge,  and  Other 
Stories"  (1894);  "The  Plated  City" 
(1895);  "Walt  Whitman"   (1906);  "The 


PERRY 


191 


PERSEPHONE 


American  Mind"  (1911);  "Carlyle" 
(1915) ;  "American  Spirit  in  Literature" 
(1918). 

PERRY,  JAMES  DE  WOLF,  JR.,  an 

American  bishop,  born  in  Germantown, 
Pa.,  in  1871.  Graduated  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1891.  After  studying 
theology  at  the  Cambridge  Theological 
School  he  became  a  deacon,  in  1895, 
priest  in  the  following  year.  For  two 
years  following  he  was  pastor  of  Christ 
Church,  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  was  suc- 
cessively pastor  of  Christ  Church,  Fitch- 
burg,  Mass.,  and  St.  Paul's  Church,  New 
Haven,  Conn.  He  remained  in  the  latter 
position  until  1911,  when  he  was  conse- 
crated Bishop  of  Rhode  Island.  In  1898 
to  1904  he  was  chaplain  of  the  6th  Massa- 
chusetts Infantry. 

PERRY,  NORA,  an  American  author; 
born  in  Dudley,  Mass.,  in  1841.  For 
many  years  she  was  a  correspondent  of 
the  Chicago  "Tribune"  and  the  Provi- 
dence '^Journal."  Early  in  her  career 
she  gained  a  reputation  as  a  poet,  but 
was  more  widely  knoAvn  as  a  writer  of 
stories  for  girls.  Her  works  include: 
"After  the  Ball,  and  Other  Poems" 
(1875) ;  "For  a  Woman"  (1885),  a  novel; 
"New  Songs  and  Ballads"  (1886)  ;  "A 
Flock  of  Girls"  (1887) ;  "A  Rosebud  Gar- 
den of  Girls"  (1892);  "Hope  Benham" 
(1894).     She  died  in  1896. 

PERRY,      OLIVER      HAZARD,      an 

American  naval  officer;  born  in  South 
Kingston,  R.  I.,  Aug.  23,  1785;  famous 
for  his  defeat  of  a  British  force  on  Lake 
Erie    in    1813.     Perry,    who    had    nine 


OLIVER   HAZARD  PERRY 

vessels,  with  54  guns  and  492  offi- 
cers and  men,  fought  six  vessels, 
with  63  guns  and  502  officers  and 
men,     lost     four-fifths     of     the     crew 


of  his  flagship,  and  finally  won  a  com- 
plete victory,  which  he  announced  in  a 
brief  dispatch :  "We  have  met  the  enemy, 
and  they  are  ours — two  ships,  two  brigs, 
one  schooner,  and  one  sloop."  Perry  died 
of  yellow  fever  in  Trinidad,  Aug.  23, 
1819,  and  was  buried  in  Newport,  R.  I., 
where  there  is  a  bronze  statue  (1885). 

PERRY,  ROLAND  HENTON,  sculp- 
tor and  painter.  He  was  born  in  New 
York  in  1879,  and  studied  painting  and 
sculpture  in  Paris,  and  his  work  quickly 
won  recognition.  The  "Fountain  of  Nep- 
tune" in  front  of  the  Congressional 
Library,  Washington,  is  an  example  of 
his  first  plastic  work,  but  this,  and  his 
"Siegfried,"  were  progressively  excelled 
by  his  later  works,  among  them,  "The 
Lion  in  Love,"  "Circe,"  the  Langdon 
doors  of  the  Buffalo  Historical  Society, 
the  frieze  in  the  lobby  of  the  New  Am- 
sterdam Theater  in  New  York,  "Pennsyl- 
vania" on  the  capitol  at  Harrisburg. 
Sculpture  has  been  his  main  work  but  his 
painting  at  Detroit  "The  Death  of 
Sigurd"  shows  finish  in  that  field  also. 

PERSECUTION,  the  act  or  practice 
of  persecuting;  specifically,  the  act  of 
afflicting  with  suffering  or  loss  of  life  or 
property  for  adherence  to  particular 
opinions,  religious  creed,  political  views, 
nationality,  etc.,  either  as  a  penalty  or 
in  order  to  compel  the  sufferers  to  re- 
nounce the  principles  in  which  they  be- 
lieve. 

The  word  first  became  current  in 
Christian  circles  in  connection  with  10 
persecutions  of  Christians  under  the  Ro- 
man emperors.  The  first  was  the  perse- 
cution under  Nero,  A.  D.  64;  the  second, 
under  Domitian,  a.  d.  95;  the  third,  under 
Trajan,  a.  d.  106;  the  fourth,  under  Mar- 
cus Aurelius,  a.  D.  166;  the  fifth,  under 
Septimius  Severus,  a.  d.  198;  the  sixth, 
under  Maximinus,  A.  D.  285;  the  seventh, 
under  Decius,  a.  d.  250;  the  eighth,  un- 
der Valerian,  a.  d.  258;  the  ninth,  under 
Aurelian,  a.  d.  275;  and  the  tenth,  under 
Diocletian,  a.  d.  303.  The  mediaeval 
church  persecuted  all  whom  it  considered 
heretics,  and  the  Reformation  in  England 
everywhere  had  to  struggle  against  per- 
secution. When  it  became  powerful 
enough,  it  also  became  intolerant  to  those 
who  differed  from  it,  passing  and  carry- 
ing out  penal  laws  against  Roman  Cath- 
olics, dissenters,  and  unbelievers. 

PERSEPHONE,  in  Greek  mythology, 
the  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Demeter 
(Ceres).  While  she  was  gathering  flow- 
ers near  Enna  in  Sicily  Pluto  carried  her 
off  to  the  infernal  regions,  with  the  con- 
sent of  Zeus,  and  made  her  his  wife,  but 
in  answer  to  the  prayers  of  Demeter  she 
was  permitted  to  spend  the  spring  and 


PERSEPOLIS 


192 


PERSHING 


sunamer  of  each  j'ear  in  the  upper  world. 
In  Homer  she  bears  the  name  of  Perse- 
phoneia.  The  chief  seats  of  the  v/orship 
of  Persephone  were  Attica  and  Sicily. 
In  the  festivals  held  in  her  honor  in 
autumn  the  celebrants  were  dressed  in 
mourning  in  token  of  lamentation  for  her 
being  carried  off  by  Pluto,  while  at  the 
spring  festivals  they  were  clad  in  gay 
attire  in  token  of  joy  at  her  return. 

PERSEPOLIS,  the  Greek  translation 
of  the  lost  name  of  the  capital  of  ancient 
Persia,  was  situated  on  the  Araxes  river, 


A  BAS-RELIEF  AT   PERSEPOLIS 

to  the  E.  of  the  Medus  river,  in  the  plain 
of  Merdusht,  about  35  miles  to  the  N.  E. 
of  Shiraz,  on  the  road  to  Ispahan.  A 
number  of  most  remarkable  ruins  is  all 
that  now  remains  of  Persepolis.  Darius 
Hystaspes,  Xerxes,  Artaxerxes,  and  other 
A.rch«menides,  each  in  his  turn  con- 
tributed toward  its  aggrandizement. 

PERSEVERANCE,  the  Calvinistic 
doctrine  that  those  who  are  elected  to 
eternal  life,  justified,  adopted,  and  sanc- 
tified, will  never  permanently  lapse  from 
grace  or  be  finally  lost.  Called  more 
fully  the  perseverance  of  the  saints.  It 
is  founded  on  Matt,  xxiv:  24,  John  x: 
27-29;  Rom.  viii:  29-39;  Phil,  i:  6,  etc. 

PERSHING,  JOHN  JOSEPH,  an 
American  general.  He  was  born  in 
Lynn  co.,  Mo.,  in  1860,  and  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy, West  Point,  in  1886,  as  senior  cadet 
captain,  on  which  he  received  his  com- 
mission as  second  lieutenant  in  the  Sixth 
United  States  Cavalry,  getting  his  first 
experience  of  warfare  in  the  Apache  In- 


dian campaigns  in  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico.  He  was  also  named  to  com- 
mand the  Sioux  Indian  scouts  in  1890- 
1891  Sioux  campaign  in  Dakota.  His  next 
appointment  was  as  military  instructor 
in  the  University  of  Nebraska,  after 
which  he  was  transferred  to  the  10th 
Cavalry  in  1892,  continuing  his  lectures, 
when  in  1896  he  gained  distinction  in  the 
Cree  campaign,  and  in  1898  in  the  Santi- 
ago campaign.  He  organized  the  bureau 
of  insular  affairs  in  Cuba,  and  next  saw 
service  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  bcin 
active  there  at  Mindanao  in  operations 
against  the  Moros.  When  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War  broke  out  he  went  as 
United  States  military  attache  to  Japan, 
and  was  with  the  army  of  General  Ku- 
roki  during  the  Manchurian  campaign. 
He  returned  to  the  Philippines  in  1906, 
as  brigadier-general  and  governor  of  the 


GENERAL  JOHN   J.   PERSHING 

Moro  province^  continuing  his  campaigns 
till  they  culmmated  in  victory  in  June, 
1913.  He  then  was  engaged  in  depart- 
ment work  till  the  Mexican  crisis  of  1915, 
\vhen  he  was  put  in  command  of  the  puni- 
tive expedition  against  Francisco  Villa. 
It  was  in  this  year  that  he  lost  his  wife 
and  three  children  in  a  conflagration  at 
the  Presidio,  San  Francisco.  In  May, 
1917,  Pershing  was  made  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  American  Expeditionary 
Forces  destined  for  Europe  and  went 
ahead  of  the  army  in  the  following 
month.  In  October  he  was  made  full 
general,   and  following  the  appointment 


PERSIA 


193 


PERSIA 


of  Foch  as  generalissimo  of  all  the  Allied 
forces,  he  placed  the  American  army  at 
his  disposal.  During  the  war  he  worked 
in  close  association  with  the  French  gen- 
eral, and  on  his  return  to  the  United 
States  received  a  great  popular  welcome. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  war  French,  Ital- 
ian, British,  and  American  honors  were 
showered  upon  him.  Sept,  4,  1919,  con- 
firmed by  Senate  as  General  of  the 
Armies  of  the  United  States. 

PERSIA  (Persian  Iran),  an  extensive 
country  of  Asia,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the 
Caspian  Sea,  the  Transcaspian  and 
Transcaucasian  provinces  of  Russia;  S. 


mountains  appear  to  be  a  confused 
heap  of  hills  piled  upon  hills,  in 
grand  but  indefinite  order;  while 
each  individual  hill  appears  a  mass 
of  gray  rock  reared  block  on  block,  or 
starting  in  huge  bowlders  abruptly  from 
the  face  of  the  plains  or  plateaux.  The 
plains,  again,  are  vast  naked  steppes, 
destitute  of  trees  or  foliage ;  and  it  is  only 
on  the  margin  of  water  courses,  or  the 
banks  of  rivers,  that  either  villages  or 
vegetation  of  any  abundance  are  found. 
The  provinces,  however,  along  the  S.  and 
W.  margin  of  the  Caspian  are  an  excep- 
tion to  the  rest  of  the  country,  and  pre- 
sent some  of  the  most  beautiful  and  f ruit- 


TEMPLE  AT  URUMIAH,  PERSIA 


by  Persian  Gulf  and  Indian  Ocean;  E. 
by  Russian  territory,  Afghanistan  and 
Baluchistan,  and  W.  by  Asiatic  Turkey. 
Its  length  obliquely  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E. 
is  1,500  miles;  area,  about  628,000  square 
miles.     Pop.  about  10,000,000. 

Topography. — On  the  N.  W.  and  S., 
several  lofty  mountain  ranges — some  of 
considerable  length,  others  short  and 
abrupt — intersect  the  land  in  many  direc- 
tions, the  center  of  the  country  consist- 
ing in  general  of  a  vast  plain  or  table- 
land. The  lowest  or  most  level  portions 
of  the  country  lie  along  the  bed  of  the 
Tigris  and  the  shore  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Persia  possesses  many  extensive  plains 
and  barren  deserts,  and  the  interior  is 
generally    bare,    bleak,    and    arid.     The 


ful  pictures  of  richness  and  abundance 
to  be  found  in  Persia.  It  has  been  com- 
puted that  barely  a  third  of  the  entire 
kingdom  is  fit  for  cultivation;  and, 
though  husbandry  is  well  attended  to, 
and  the  advantages  of  copious  irriga- 
tion are  thoroughly  understood,  so  little 
encouragement  is  given  by  the  state  to 
agriculture  that  but  a  small  part  of  the 
capable  soil  is  tilled.  The  most  impor- 
tant rivers  are  the  Aras,  Murghab  or 
Bendemir,  Atrek,  Sefid-Rud,  and  the 
Tigris.  The  lakes  of  most  note  are  Uru- 
miah,  or  Shalu,  Bakhtegan,  and  Mah- 
digla;  from  these,  and  from  minor 
streams  and  bodies  of  water,  an  elaborate 
system  of  irrigation  is  effected  all  over 
the  cultivated  grounds,  while  vast  sub- 


PERSIA 


194 


PERSIA 


teri-anean  aqueducts  convey  the  water  to 
more  remote  situations. 

Productions  and  Climate. — The  vege- 
table productions  of  Persia  embrace  all 
kinds  of  legumes  and  cereals,  except  rye, 
oats,  and  rice;  barley  and  wheat  are  the 
most  abundant  crops.  Drugs  of  various 
kinds  are  obtained,  such  as  senna,  rhu- 
barb, gums,  opium,  etc.;  as  also  oils,  cot- 
ton, indigo,  sugar,  madder,  dates,  pista- 
chio nuts,  and  tobacco;  while  in  flowers, 
and  the  perfumes  extracted  from  them, 
especially  the  attar  of  roses,  no  country 
in  the  world  can  compare  with  Persia 
for  beauty,  fragrance,  and  abundance. 
Silk  is  an  important  item;  and  planta- 
tions of  mulberry  trees  of  great  extent 
are  very  numerous.  Vast  flocks  of  sheep 
and  goats  are  pastured  over  the  country, 
the  property  and  wealth  of  the  wander- 
ing tribes  of  the  interior,  the  Eelauts, 
a  kind  of  Bedouins,  devoting  themselves 
to  pastoral  habits.  The  animals  for 
which  Persia  is  famous  are  camels, 
horses,  mules,  oxen,  asses,  and  buffalos. 
The  mineral  wealth  consists  of  silver, 
copper,  lead,  iron,  antimony,  salt,  preci- 
ous stones — especially  turquoise — bitu- 
men, and  springs  of  naphtha.  There 
are  also  large,  undeveloped  fields  of  coal 
and  petroleum.  One  of  the  features  of 
Persia  is  the  abundance  of  salt  in  the 
soil,  and  the  large  number  of  its  salt 
lakes;  about  30  pure  salinas  have  no  out- 
let; and  one,  the  largest,  Urumiah,  is 
280  miles  in  circumference,  and,  though 
supplied  by  14  rivers,  its  water  is  so 
dense,  bitter,  and  loaded  with  salt,  that 
no  fish  can  live  in  it.  Another,  called 
the  Bakhtegan,  is  42  miles  long.  Situ- 
ated near  the  former  are  some  remark- 
able ponds,  whose  waters  are  petrifying. 
The  climate  of  Persia  embraces  the 
rigors  experienced  on  the  mountains  of 
the  snowy  N.,  and  the  heat  felt  on  the 
sandy  plains  of  Africa.  Cyrus  the 
younger  told  Xenophon  that  his  father's 
empire  was  so  vast  that  in  the  N.  the 
people  perished  of  cold,  and  in  the  S. 
were  suffocated  with  heat. 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  of 
Persia  are  numerous  and  important,  and 
embrace  all  kinds  of  silk  fabrics,  satins, 
taffetas,  textures  of  silk  and  cotton,  silk 
and  goat's  hair,  or  silk  and  camel's  hair; 
brocades,  camel's  hair  shawls,  gold  tis- 
sues, gold  velvet,  camlets,  carpets,  cot- 
tons, leather,  firearms,  sword  blades, 
saddlery  and  jewelry. 

Commerce. — The  imports  of  1917-1918 
amounted  to  £15,602,200,  and  the  exports 
to  £11,290,500.  ^  The  chief  imports  were 
cotton,  sugar,  rice,  manufactures  of  iron 
and  steel,  petroleum,  and  yarn.  The 
chief  exports  were  fruits,  cotton,  opium, 
animals,    petroleum,    and    carpets.     In 


1917-1918  the  industries  suffered  from 
drought  and  famine,  which  were  followed 
by  an  epidemic  of  influenza,  which  great- 
ly reduced  the  riopulation.  The  harvest 
of  1919  was  excellent  and  promised  a 
revival  of  activity.  Industry  in  general 
suffered  by  interruption  of  commerce 
with  Russia,  which  before  the  World 
War  had  been  large. 

Transportation. — In  August,  1919,  the 
British  Government  signed  an  agreement 
with  Persia  providing  for  the  construc- 
tion of  railways  and  other  forms  of 
transportation.  There  were  in  1920  less 
than  100  miles  of  railway.  Practically 
all  the  traffic  is  carried  on  by  roads,  and 
these  for  the  most  part  are  poor.  There 
are  about  6,500  miles  of  telegTaph  line. 

Finance. — There  are  no  available  fig- 
ures later  than  1913-1914.  At  that  time 
the  revenue  amounted  to  £1,480,778.  The 
gross  customs  receipts  in  1916-1917  were 
approximately  £850,000. 

Government. — Up  to  1906  Persia  was 
an  absolute  monarchy  resembling  in  its 
form  of  government  Turkey.  The  shah 
was  the  absolute  ruler.  In  1905  the  peo- 
ple demanded  representative  government 
and  in  January,  1906,  the  shah  gave  his 
consent  to  the  establishment  of  a  na- 
tional council.  This,  however,  was  never 
established  and  it  ceased  to  exist  as  a 
legislative  body  in  1915.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  country  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
cabinet  consisting  of  eight  ministers.  It 
is  divided  into  33  provinces,  each  of 
which  is  governed  by  a  governor-general. 

Language  and  History. — The  Persian 
language  is  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the 
Oriental  tongues,  for  strength,  copious- 
ness, beauty,  and  melody,  and  is  written 
from  the  right  to  the  left.  Persia  is 
divided  into  12  provinces,  namely:  Azer- 
baijan, Kurdistan,  Luristan,  and  Khusis- 
tan,  on  the  W. ;  Farsistan,  Laristan,  and 
Kirman,  on  the  shores  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  or  S.;  Irak-Ajemi  and  Khorassan, 
in  the  interior;  and  Ghilan,  Mazanderan 
and  Astrabad,  in  the  N.,  or  along  the 
Caspian  shores.  The  modern  capital  is 
Teheran.  The  earliest  account  we  pos- 
sess of  Persia  is  from  the  Bible,  from 
which  we  learn  that,  in  the  time  of  Abra- 
ham, 1921  B.  C,  that  portion  of  modern 
Persia  known  as  Elam,  or  Suisiana, 
southern  Persia,  was  a  powerful  mon- 
archy. But  the  Persians,  as  a  nation, 
first  rose  into  notice  on  the  ruins  of  the 
great  empires  founded  on  the  Euphrates. 
Babylon  was  taken  by  Cyrus,  and  his 
empire  extended  wider  than  any  before 
established  in  the  world.  It  comprised, 
on  one  side,  the  W.  of  India;  on  the 
other,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Egypt; 
and  was  only  bounded  by  the  prodigies 
of  valor  with  which  the  Greeks  defended 


PERSIA 


195 


PERSIA 


their  small  territory.  After  a  feeble 
struggle,  it  succumbed  to  the  brave  and 
disciplined  armies  of  Alexander.  It  was 
then  split  into  fragments  by  the  decease 
of  its  founder;  but  Greeks  and  Greek 
sovereigns  continued,  during  several  cen- 
turies, to  reign  over  Asia.  About  two 
centuries  before  Christ,  Arsaces  founded 
the  monarchy  of  the  Parthians;  and  in 
the  3d  century  arose  the  dynasty  of  the 
Sassanidae,  who  restored  the  name,  with 
the  religion  and  laws,  of  ancient  Persia. 
They  were  overthrovni  by  the  Moham- 
medan invaders,  who  suffered  in  their 
turn  from  the  successive  invasions  by  the 
descendants  of  Genghis,  Timur,  and  by 
the  Turks,  v/ho  entirely  changed  the  as- 
pect of  western  Asia.  At  length,  in 
1501,  a  native  dynasty  again  arose,  under 
Ismail,  who  placed  himself  on  the  throne. 
His  posterity  having  sunk  into  voluptu- 
ousness, Persia,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century,  was  overrun  by  the  Af- 
ghans, who  carried  fire  and  sword 
through  its  remotest  extremities,  and  re- 
duced its  proudest  capitals  to  ashes. 
The  atrocities  of  the  Afghans  were 
avenged,  and  the  independence  of  Persia 
vindicated  by  Nadir  Shah,  but  though 
the  victories  of  this  daring  chief  threw 
a  luster  on  his  country,  after  his  death 
it  was  almost  torn  to  pieces  by  civil  war, 
till  the  fortune  of  arms  gave  a  decided 
superiority  to  Kereim,  or  Kurreem  Khan. 
His  death  gave  rise  to  another  disputed 
succession,  with  civil  wars  as  furious  as 
before.  At  length,  Aga  Mahommed,  a 
eunuch,  raised  himself,  by  crimes  and 
daring,  to  the  sovereignty,  and  not  only 
swayed  it  during  his  lifetime,  but  found- 
ed a  dynasty  represented  by  Nassr-ed- 
Din,  who  was  born  in  1831,  and  ascended 
the  throne  in  1848.  His  son,  Muzaffar- 
ed-Din,  succeeded  him  in  1896.  He  died 
in  1907  and  was  succeeded  by  Mohammed 
Ali  Mirza,  his  son.  The  people,  dissatis- 
fied with  the  incompetency  and  corrup- 
tion of  the  government,  demanded  a  con- 
stitution in  1906.  The  shah  yielded  and 
a  national  mejliss  or  parliament  assem- 
bled on  Oct.  7,  1906.  Shortly  after  the 
shah  abdicated  and  was  succeeded  by 
Mohammed  Ali,  his  son.  By  the  new 
constitution,  parliament  gained  control 
of  the  finances  of  the  kingdom.  This 
was  bitterly  opposed  by  the  shah  and  the 
party  which  supported  him.  In  1909  the 
shah  compelled  the  cabinet  to  resign  and 
the  prime  minister  was  exiled.  Martial 
law  was  declared  and  the  parliament  was 
dissolved  by  a  body  of  Cossacks  sent  by 
Russia  to  aid  the  shah.  Civil  war  fol- 
lowed, in  which  the  Nationalists  were 
generally  successful.  The  larger  cities 
fell  into  their  hands  and  the  shah  fled  for 
safety  to  the  Russian  Legation.  Parlia- 
ment was  recalled  and  the  shah  was  de- 


posed. He  was  succeeded  in  1909  by  his 
son,  Mohammed  Ahmed  Mirza,  a  child 
of  eleven.  An  attempt  was  made  by  the 
government  to  reform  the  finances  by  the 
employment  of  W.  Morgan  Shuster,  an 
American,  as  Treasurer-General.  He  was 
given  large  powers  and  did  efficient  work, 
but  was  obliged  to  resign  through  the 
opposition  of  Russia.  His  dismissal  was 
followed  by  disorders  and  uprisings 
which  lasted  until  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War.  The  Persian  Government  in 
November,  1914,  declared  its  neutrality. 
In  spite  of  this,  however,  both  the  Turks 
and  Russians  considered  Persian  terri- 
tory adjacent  to  their  own  as  a  legitimate 
theater  of  war,  and  much  of  the  fighting 
between  the  Turks  and  the  Russians 
spread  from  the  Caucasus  over  north- 
west Persia,  and  there  were  successive 
invasions  by  armies  of  both  Russia  and 
Turkey.  The  Persian  Government  was 
unable  to  defend  its  neutrality  and  the 
Khurdish  tribesmen  took  advantage  of 
this  weakness.  They  overran  northwest 
Persia  and  massacred  thousands  of  Ar- 
menian and  Nestorian  Christians  resid- 
ing in  the  province  of  Azerbaijan.  At 
the  end  of  April,  1915,  over  40,000  Ar- 
menians and  other  Christians  had  been 
forced  to  flee  from  this  province.  The 
Russians  continued  their  advance  into 
Persia  toward  the  end  of  1916,  while  the 
S.  E.  corner  was  occupied  by  Anglo- 
Egyptian  forces  under  General  Sykes. 
Throughout  1917  and  1918  the  northern 
part  of  Persia  was  the  scene  of  much 
fighting,  in  which  Turkish,  Russian,  Brit- 
ish, and  Armenian  forces  took  part.  (See 
World  War.)  Persia  was  represented  at 
the  Peace  Conference  and  addressed  -a 
memorandum  to  the  Powers  declaring  it 
to  be  the  desire  of  Persia  to  be  com- 
pletely independent  and  self-governing, 
and  asserted  that  the  Anglo-Russian 
agreement  of  1907  and  1916  had  pro- 
duced great  harm,  and  requested  that 
it  be  annulled.  On  Aug.  9,  1919,  Great 
Britain  and  Persia  signed  an  agreement 
whereby  Great  Britain  undertook  to 
maintain  order  and  develop  the  resources 
of  the  country.  The  shah  visited^  Eng- 
land, France,  and  other  countries  of 
Europe  in  1919.  Early  in  1920  a  British 
syndicate  secured  permission  to  develop 
railway  lines  in  Persia.  There  were 
strong  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  Bol- 
shevik government  of  Russia  to  obtain 
political  possession  of  Persia,  in  1920, 
and  the  government  urged  Great  Britain 
and  the  League  of  Nations  to  aid  it  in 
repelling  the  invasion  of  the  Bolshevist 
troops  who  had  seized  the  province  of 
Ghilan,  where  they  had  established  a 
Soviet  republic.  The  Bolshevist  forces 
retired,  following  the  operations  against 
General  Wrangel  in  south  Russia. 


PEBSIAN    GULF 


196 


PERSPECTOGRAPH 


PERSIAN  GULF,  an  arm  of  the  In- 
dian Ocean  which  penetrates  between 
Arabia  and  Persia  to  the  extent  of  650 
miles  in  a  general  N.  W.  direction.  Its 
breadth  varies  from  55  miles  at  the 
mouth  to  250  miles,  and  the  area  is  esti- 
mated at  77,450  square  miles,  not  includ- 
ing the  islands,  which  are  scattered  over 
the  W.  half,  or  lie  close  inshore  along  the 
E.  side.  The  chief  of  these  islands  are 
Ormuz,  at  the  mouth;  Kishm,  810  square 
miles  in  extent ;  and  the  Bahrein  Islands. 
The  Great  Pearl  Bank  stretches  along 
the  W.  side  from  Ras  Hassan  to  nearly 
half  way  up  the  gulf.  The  coast  is 
mostly  formed  of  calcareous  rocks. 
With  the  exception  of  the  Shat-el-Arab, 
the  Persian  Gulf  receives  only  insignifi- 
cant streams.  Its  E.  side  presents 
abundance  of  good  anchorage,  either  in 
the  numerous  bays  or  in  the  lee  of  is- 
lands. The  greater  portion  of  its  S. 
shores  now  belongs  to  the  Imam  of  Mus- 
cat, while  the  whole  of  the  N.  shore  be- 
longs to  Persia.  The  order  of  the  peri- 
odic currents  in  this  gulf  is  precisely  the 
reverse  of  that  of  the  Red  Sea  currents, 
as  they  ascend, from  May  to  October,  and 
descend  from  October  to  May.  The 
greatest  depth  does  not  exceed  50 
fathoms. 

The  submarine  telegraph  cables  be- 
longing to  the  government  of  India,  and 
forming  part  of  the  system  of  the  Indo- 
European  Telegraph,  pass  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
pearl  fisheries  employed  before  the  World 
War  70,000  men  and  6,000  barks. 

PERSIAN  POWDER,  a  preparation 
made  from  the  flowers  of  Pyrethrum 
corneum  or  roseuni,  and  reduced  to  the 
form  of  powder.  It  is  used  as  an  in- 
secticide. 

PERSIMMON,  or  PERSIMON,  Dios- 
pyros  virginiana,  a  tree  60  feet  or  more 
in  height,  with  ovate,  oblong,  taper- 
pointed,  shining  leaves,  pale  yellow  flow- 
ers, and^  an  orange-colored  succulent 
fruit  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter;  very 
astringent  when  green,  but  eatable  when 
bletted.  It  grows  plentifully  in  the 
Southern  and  South  Atlantic  States. 
The  fruit  is  brewed  into  beer,  and  yields 
an  ardent  spirit  on  distillation. 

PERSONAL  EQUATION,  the  correc- 
tion of  personal  differences  between 
particular  individuals  as  to  exactness  in 
observations  with  astronomical  instru- 
ments. 

PERSONALTY,  or  PERSONAL 
PROPERTY,  movables;  chattels;  things 
belonging  to  the  person,  as  money,  jewels, 
furniture,  etc.,  as  distinguished  from  real 
estate  in  lands  and  houses. 


PERSONIFICATION,  the  act  of  per- 
sonifying, an  embodiment,  an  impersona- 
tion. In  rhetoric,  a  figure  of  speech,  or 
a  species  of  metaj)hor  which  consists  in 
representing  inanimate  objects  or  ab- 
stract notions  as  endued  with  life  and 
action,  or  possessing  the  attributes  of 
living  beings;  prosopopoeia;  as,  "Confu- 
sion heard  his  voice." 

PERSPECTIVE,  the  science  of  repre 
senting  appearances,  and  as  such  is  op- 
posed to  geometry,  which  is  the  science 
of  representing  facts.  It  is  founded  up- 
on such  rules  as  can  be  deduced  from  the 
facts  which  are  discovered  by  looking  at 
objects  through  a  sheet  of  glass  or  other 
transparent  medium  placed  upright  be- 
tween the  object  and  the  observer.  It  is 
found  when  objects  are  so  looked  at  that 
their  apparent  form  is  very  different 
from  their  real  one,  both  as  regards 
shape  and  distinctness.  The  portion  of 
the  subject  which  deals  with  the  changes 
in  form  is  absolutely  scientific;  it  is 
called  linear  perspective.  The  changes 
in  distinctness  are  effected  by  distance 
and  atmosphere,  and  differ  constantly 
with  different  conditions  of  light  and  at- 
mosphere. It  is  the  purely  artistic  side 
of  the  science  which  is  called  aerial  per- 
spective, and  success  in  its  application 
depends  on  the  individual  ability  of  the 
artist.  The  chief  point  with  which  linear 
perspective  has  to  deal  is  the  apparent 
diminution  in  size  of  objects  as  they  re- 
cede from  the  spectator.  A  practical 
knowledge  of  the  science  is  absolutely  a 
necessity  for  a  successful  artist. 

A  kind  of  painting  designed  expressly 
to  deceive  the  sight  by  representing  the 
continuation  of  an  alley,  a  building,  a 
landscape,  or  the  like.  Oblique  (or 
angular)  perspective,  where  the  plane  of 
the  picture  is  supposed  to  be  at  an  angle 
to  the  side  of  the  principal  object  in  the 
picture,  as,  for  instance,  a  building. 
Parallel  perspective,  where  the  plane  of 
the  picture  is  parallel  to  the  side  of  the 
principal  object  in  the  picture.  Perspec- 
tive plane,  the  surface  on  which  the  ob- 
jects are  delineated,  or  the  picture  drawn. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  placed  vertically  be- 
tween the  eye  of  the  spectator  and  the  ob- 
ject. Also  termed  the  plane  of  projec- 
tion, or  the  plane  of  the  picture. 

PERSPECTOGRAPH,  an  instrument 
for  the  mechanical  drawing  of  objects 
in  perspective.  The  object  is  placed  in 
front  of  the  eye,  which  is  applied  to  a 
small  hole.  A  movable  hinged  bar  is  so 
adjusted  as  to  bring  a  point  between  the 
eye  and  a  certain  part  of  the  object. 
The  bar  is  then  folded  down  and  the 
mark  transferred  to  the  paper.  A  series 
of  such  marks  affords  data  for  the  draw- 
ing of  the  object. 


PERSPIRATION 


197 


PERTINAX 


PERSPIRATION,  watery  matter 
"breathed  out,"  or  made  to  expire  from 
the  system  by  means  of  the  pores  in  the 
skin.  The  quantity  varies  greatly,  and 
is  affected  by  the  amount  of  heat  or  dry- 
ness in  the  atmosphere,  by  the  fluid 
drunk,  by  the  exercise  taken,  by  the  rela- 
tive activity  of  the  kidneys,  by  medicine, 
etc.  Besides  keeping  the  skin  in  a 
healthy,  moist  condition,  and  acting  as  a 
refrigerator,  perspiration  takes  its  share 
in  carrying  off  superfluous  or  noxious 
matter  from  the  system.  If  stopped, 
morbid  consequences  are  sure,  sooner  or 
later,  to  ensue. 

The  horse  perspires  freely  all  over  the 
body;  the  pig  does  so  on  the  snout;  the 
cat  chiefly  on  the  soles  of  the  feet;  the 
dog  from  the  same  part,  but  not  to  the 
same  extent.  Rabbits,  and  the  rodentia 
generally,  appear  not  to  sweat  at  all.  It 
is  used  also  of  the  transudation  of  water 
through  pores  of  plants.  According  to 
Hales,  the  perspiration  of  plants  is  pro- 
portionately 17  times  as  copious  as  that 
of  animals. 

PERTH,  a  city  and  royal  and  parlia- 
mentary burgh  of  Scotland,  capital  of 
the  county  of  the  same  name,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tay,  and  at  the  common 
junction  of  railways  from  Dundee,  Aber- 
deen, Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  and  Inver- 
ness. The  North  and  South  Inches,  two 
fine  public  parks,  and  a  fine  bridge  of 
nine  arches  lead  to  the  suburb  of  Bridg- 
end. Perth  has  many  handsome  public 
and  private  buildings.  St.  John's 
Church,  a  Gothic  building  partly  ancient ; 
the  Episcopal  cathedral,  the  county 
buildings,  the  municipal  buildings, 
the  penitentiary,  and  the  railway 
station,  the  largest  in  Scotland. 
Perth  is  celebrated  for  its  bleachfields 
and  dye  works.  It  manufactures  cotton 
goods,  ginghams,  winceys,  plaids,  table 
linen,  carriages,  castings,  etc.  The  river 
is  navigable  to  the  city  for  small  vessels. 
Perth  is  generally  supposed  to  be  of 
Roman  origin.  Its  earliest  known  char- 
ter is  dated  1106;  but  it  was  first  erected 
into  a  royal  burgh  in  1210  by  William 
the  Lion.  Till  the  death  of  James  I.,  in 
1437,  it  was  the  capital  of  Scotland. 
Pop.   (1918)   119,300. 

PERTH,  the  capital  of  Western  Aus- 
tralia, occupies  a  picturesque  site  on  the 
N.  bank  of  the  Swan  river,  12  miles  from 
Fremantle,  its  port,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  Perth  is  the  headquarters  of 
banking  for  the  colony,  and  the  center  of 
the  principal  railway  lines,  including 
the  Great  Southern  railway  to  Albany. 
Pop.   (1917)  130,000. 

PERTH,  THE  FIVE  ARTICLES  OF, 
a  measure  passed  in  a  General  Assembly 


of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  convened  at 
Perth  by  the  order  of  James  VI.  in  1618. 
The  first  of  these  articles  required  com- 
municants to  receive  the  elements  kneel- 
ing; the  second  permitted  the  dispensa- 
tion of  the  communion  privately  in  case 
of  sickness;  the  third  allowed  private 
baptism  on  sufficient  cause  being  shown; 
the  fourth  required  that  children  of  eight 
years  should  be  confirmed  by  the  bishop; 
and  the  fifth  enjoined  the  observance  of 
Chi'istmas,  Good  Friday,  Easter,  Ascen- 
sion, and  Whitsunday.  These  articles 
were  ratified  by  the  Estates  in  1621,  but 
in  the  Assembly  held  at  Glasgow  in  163S 
the  assembly  of  Perth  was  declared  to  be 
unlawful  and  null,  and  the  Five  Articles 
were  formally  condemned. 

PERTH  AMBOY,  a  city  and  port  of 
entry  in  Middlesex  co.,  N.  J. ;  at  the  head 
of  Raritan  Bay  and  the  mouth  of  Raritan 
river,  and  on  the  Staten  Island  Rapid 
Transit,  the  Central  of  New  Jersey,  the 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  Lehigh  Valley 
railroads;  27  miles  S.  W.  of  New  York; 
opposite  the  S.  end  of  Staten  Island. 
Here  are  a  high  school,  Old  Ministers' 
Home  (Pres.),  public  library,  water- 
works, electric  lights,  several  banks,  and 
a  number  of  daily  and  weekly  newspa- 
pers. It  has  manufactories  of  cork, 
stoneware  pottery,  firebrick,  chemicals, 
oil,  terra  cotta,  hollow  brick  and  emery. 
Perth  Amboy  was  settled  about  1680  by 
a  colony  from  Scotland.  It  received  a 
city  charter  in  1718.  William  Franklin, 
the  last  British  governor  of  New  Jersey, 
was  captured  here  in  1776.  Pop.  (1910) 
32,121;  (1920)  41,707. 

PERTHSHIRE,  an  inland  county  of 
Scotland,  mostly  in  the  highlands.  The 
Grampian  mountains  traverse  it,  Ben 
Lawers  reaching  a  height  of  3,984  feet, 
and  the  lakes  are  numerous.  The  rivers 
Forth  and  Tay  run  through  scenes  among 
the  most  romantic  in  Scotland.  There 
is  much  quarrying,  and  in  the  valleys 
agricultural  crops  are  plentiful.  Dairy 
farming,  sheep  breeding  and  weaving 
are  among  the  industries,  but  much 
of  the  land  is  given  over  to  deer 
preserves.  Capital,  Perth.  Pop.  about 
125,000. 

PERTINAX,  PTJBLIUS  HELVIUS,  a 
Roman  emperor;  born  in  a.  d.  126,  the 
son  of  a  freedman.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  army,  and  attracted  the 
attention  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  who  ele- 
vated him  to  the  consulate  in  179.  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Commodus,  Pertinax  was 
employed  in  Britain  and  Africa,  and  fin- 
ally made  prefect  of  Rome.  After  the 
murder  of  Commodus  he  was  proclaimed 
emperor  in  193,  but  in  three  months  was 
murdered  by  the  prastorian  guards. 


PERTURBATIOM" 


198 


PERU 


PERTTTRBATION,  any  disturbance  or 
irregularity  in  the  movement  of  a  planet 
in  its  orbit.  Every  heavenly  body,  by 
the  law  of  gravitation,  possesses  an  at- 
tractive power  over  every  other  one. 
When,  therefore,  the  orbits  of  any  tAvo 
approach,  each  causes  a  perturbation  in 
the  movement  of  the  other.  Magnetic 
perturbation,  irregular  declination  of  the 
magnetic  needle.  This  may  be  produced 
by  earthquakes,  by  volcanic  eruption,  by 
the  aurora  borealis,  etc. 

PEBU,  a  maritime  republic  of  South 
America,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Ecuador, 
on  the  W.  by  the  Pacific,  on  the  S.  and 
S.  E.  by  Bolivia  and  Chile,  and  on  the 
E.  by  Brazil;  area,  695,720  square  miles; 
pop.  (1910)  4,500,000;  (1920)  5,000,000; 
capital,  Lima. 

Topography. — The  general  outline  re- 
sembles a  triangle,  the  base  of  which  is 
formed  by  the  boundary  line  between 
Peru  and  Ecuador  on  the  N.  On  the  E. 
side  of  the  Andes,  and  between  the  Ama- 
zon and  the  Purus,  there  is  a  wide  and 
unexplored  expanse  of  country,  upon 
which  both  Peru  and  Brazil  have  claims, 
though  the  boundary  is  now  generally 
regarded  as  marked  by  the  Rio  Javary. 
The  country  is  1,100  miles  in  length,  780 
miles  in  extreme  width  along  the  N. 
boundary,  but  it  is  little  more  than  50 
miles  wide  in  the  extreme  S.  The  is- 
lands on  the  Peruvian  coast,  though  valu- 
able, are  extremely  few  in  number,  and 
small  in  extent.  In  the  N.  are  the  Lobos 
(i.  e.,  "Seal")  Islands,  forming  a  group 
of  three,  and  so  called  from  the  seals 
which  frequent  them.  The  largest  of 
them,  Lobos  de  Tierra,  is  5  miles  long  by 
two  miles  wide,  and  the  others,  lying  30 
miles  S.  W.,  are  much  smaller.  On  their 
E.  sides  they  are  covered  by  guano,  and 
the  quantity  on  the  whole  group,  when  it 
began  to  be  exported  from  them,  was 
stated  to  be  4,000,000  tons.  The  islands 
of  Macabi  and  Guanoi)e,  near  the  Lobos, 
were  originally  supposed  to  contain  2,- 
280,000  tons  of  guano;  but  the  guano 
exported  has  very  greatly  exceeded  that 
amount,  and  it  has  been  calculated  that 
there  are  still  750,000  tons  of  guano  on 
the  former  and  500,000  tons  on  the  latter. 

Physical  Features. — The  surface  of 
Peru  is  divided  into  three  distinct  and 
well  defined  tracts  or  belts,  the  climates 
of  which  are  of  every  variety,  from  tor- 
rid heat  to  Arctic  cold,  and  the  produc- 
tions of  which  range  from  the  stunted 
herbage  of  the  high  mountain  slopes  to 
the  oranges  and  citrons,  the  sugar  canes 
and  cottons  of  the  luxuriant  tropical  val- 
leys. These  three  regions  are  the  Coast, 
the  Sierra,  and  the  Montana.  The 
Sierra  embraces  all  the  mountainous  re- 
gion between  the  W.  base  of  the  maritime 


Cordillera  and  the  E.  base  of  the  Andes, 
or  the  East  Cordillera.  These  ranges 
are,  in  this  country,  about  100  miles 
apart  on  an  average,  and  have  been  esti- 
mated to  cover  an  area  of  200,000  square 
miles.  Transverse  branches  connect  the 
one  range  with  the  other,  and  high  pla- 
teaus, fertile  plains,  and  deep  tropical 
valleys  lie  between  the  lofty  outer  bar- 
riers. The  mountain  chains  which  girdle 
the  plain  of  Titicaca  trend  toward  the  N. 
W.,  and  form  what  is  called  the  Knot  of 
Cuzco;  the  Knot  comprises  six  minor 
mountain  chains,  and  has  an  area  thrice 
larger  than  that  of  Switzerland.  Here 
the  valleys  enjoy  an  Indian  climate,  and 
are  rich  in  tropical  productions;  to  the 
N.  and  E.  of  the  Knot  extend  luxuriant 
forests,  while  the  numberless  mountain 
slopes  are  covered  with  waving  crops  of 
wheat,  barley,  and  other  cereals,  and 
with  potatoes ;  and  higher  up  extend  rich 
pasture  lands,  where  huge  herds  of 
vicunas  and  pacas  feed.  The  valley  of 
the  Apurimac  is  30  miles  in  average 
width,  and  extends  N.  W.  for  about 
300  miles.  This  valley  is  the  most  popu- 
lous region  of  Peru.  From  Cuzco  pro- 
ceed two  chains  toward  the  N.  W.;  they 
unite  again  in  the  Knot  of  Pasco.  This 
Knot  contains  the  table-land  of  Bombon, 
12,300  feet  above  the  sea-level,  as  well 
as  other  table-lands  at  a  height  of  14,000 
feet,  the  highest  in  the  Andes ;  otherwise, 
however,  the  physical  features  of  the 
country  resemble  those  of  the  vicinity  of 
Cuzco.  The  valley  of  the  river  Maranon, 
which  is  upward  of  300  miles  in  length, 
is  narrow,  deep,  and  nearer  the  equator 
than  any  other  valley  of  the  Sierra,  and 
consequently  it  is  the  hottest  portion  of 
this  region,  and  its  vegetation  is  thor- 
oughly tropical  in  character.  The  con- 
formation of  the  surface  of  the  Sierra  is 
of  the  most  wonderful  description. 

After  the  table-lands  of  Tibet,  those  of 
the  Peruvian  Andes  are  the  highest  in 
the  world;  but,  unlike  those  of  Tibet,  the 
table-lands  of  Peru  are  the  seat  of  a 
comparatively  high  civilization,  and  are 
studded  over  with  towns  and  villages, 
perched  on  heights  exceeding  in  eleva- 
tion the  summits  of  the  Jungfrau  and 
the  Matterhorn.  ^  Nor  are  such  towns  the 
mere  eyries  of  miners  who  are  tempted  to 
ascend  thus  high  in  search  of  the  preci- 
ous metals;  for,  even  at  this  elevation, 
the  climate  is  pleasant,  and  wheat,  maize, 
barley,  rye,  and  potatoes  thrive  well. 
The  city  of  Cuzco,  situated  in  a  region  of 
rare  beauty,  and  enjoying  a  temperate 
climate,  is  11,380  feet  above  sea-level,  or 
2,000  feet  higher  than  the  Great  St.  Ber- 
nard. The  climate  of  the  Sierra,  how- 
ever, is  not  always  so  delightful.  In 
general  terms  it  may  be  described  as  mild 
and  variable,  with  moderate  rains.     In 


PERU 


199 


PERU 


the  (Jistrict  of  Paucartambo  rain  falls 
300  days  in  the  year.  A  country,  how- 
ever, of  such  an  uneven  surface,  of  snow- 
covered  peaks  and  tropical  valleys,  em- 
braces every  variety  of  climate.  The 
highest  peaks  of  the  country  reach  to  up- 
ward of  22,000  feet,  and  many 
peaks  in  both  ranges  are  from 
17,000  to  20,000  feet  high.  In  the  West 
Cordillera  and  in  the  S.  of  the  country 
are  four  volcanoes — Candarave,  Ubinas, 
Ornate,  and  Arequipa.  The  hydrog- 
raphy of  Peru  may  be  said  to  be  divided 
into  three  systems — those  of  Lake  Titi- 
caca,  the  Pacific,  and  the  Amazon.  The 
streams  that  flow  into  Lake  Titicaca  are 
few  and  inconsiderable.  The  rivers 
which,  having  their  sources  in  the  West 
Cordillera,  flow  W.  into  the  Pacific,  are 
60  in  number. 

Commerce. — The  sugar  production 
greatly  increased  following  the  outbreak 
of  the  World  War.  It  rose  from  185,000 
tons  in  1914  to  over  820,000  tons  in 
1916-1917.  In  1919  the  acreage  of  sugar- 
cane was  estimated  at  over  1,000,000  and 
efforts  were  being  made  to  increase 
the  area.  The  total  imports  for 
1918  amounted  to  £9,705,113,  and 
the  exports  to  £19,972,595.  The  chief 
imports  were  coal,  textile  bags, 
wheat,  lumber,  and  industrial  oils. 
The  chief  exports  were  sugar,  cot- 
ton, copper,  petroleum  and  wool.  In 
1918  395  vessels  of  790,133  tons  entered 
in  the  foreign  trade  at  Callao  and  364 
vessels  of  717,340  tons  cleared. 

Transportation. — The  total  length  of 
railways  in  Peru  was  1,889  miles.  Of 
these,  1,358  miles  were  state  railways 
under  the  control  of  the  Peruvian  Cor- 
poration. They  include  the  Peruvian 
Central,  from  Callao  and  Lima  to  Huan- 
cayo;  the  Southern  Railway  of  Peru, 
from  Mollendo  to  Puno;  the  Paita  to 
Piura  Railway;  and  the  Pacasmayo  to 
Guadalupe  Railway.  There  were  about 
274  telegraph  offices,  with  about  8,000 
miles  of  line.  Three  submarine  tele- 
graph cables  connect  Peru  and  Chile, 
and  one  connects  Peru  and  the  repub- 
lics to  the  north.  There  is  a  telephone 
system  with  about  3,000  miles  of  wire. 
In  1919  there  were  19  wireless  stations. 

Education. — Elementary  education  is 
compulsory,  but  the  law  is  loosely  en- 
forced. In  1919  there  were  2,880  pri- 
mary schools  with  195,689  pupils  and 
4,284  teachers.  There  were  about  300 
pupils  in  the  normal  schools  and  about 
5,000  in  the  government  high  schools. 
The  high  schools  are  maintained  by  the 
governments  in  the  capitals  of  the  differ- 
ent departments.  There  is  a  central 
university  at  Lima  called  the  University 
of  San  Marcos.  It  has  about  1,500  stu- 
dents.    There  is  also  in  Lima  a  school  of 


mines  and  civil  engineering,  a  national 
agricultural  school,  and  a  school  of  arts 
and  trades. 

Finances. — The  total  revenue  in  1919 
was  £2,972,997,  and  the  expenditure 
£2,680,767.  The  total  debt  on  Jan.  1. 
1919,  was  £5,802,144. 

Army  and  Navy. — Military  service  is 
compulsory  and  universal.  The  peace 
strength  of  the  army  is  11,000.  The  coun- 
try is  divided  into  5  military  districts, 
each  furnishing  a  complete  division. 
Military  instruction  is  given  in  the  mili- 
tary schools  and  in  special  schools.  The 
navy  consists  of  6  vessels;  3  cruisers,  2 
submarines,  and  one  submarine  de- 
stroyer. 

Government. — The  constitution  was 
amended  in  1919.  The  republic  is  di- 
vided into  departments  and  into  prov- 
inces. The  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representa- 
tives. The  former  is  composed  of  depu 
ties  from  the  provinces.  The  executive 
power  is  in  the  hands  of  a  president,  and 
there  are  two  vice-presidents  who  take 
the  place  of  the  president  only  in  case  of 
his  death  or  incapacity.  There  is  a  coun- 
cil of  State  consisting  of  6  members,  se- 
lected by  the  ministers  of  State,  to  be 
confirmed  by  the  Senate.  There  are 
three  regional  legislatures,  northern, 
central,  and  southern.  These  have  au- 
thority to  pass  legislation  for  local  mat- 
ters, which  is  reviewed  by  the  Central 
Congress  at  Lima.  The  Central  Con- 
gress is  elected  every  5  years.  Congress 
is  elected  for  5  years  as  well  as  the  presi- 
dent. The  Senate  consists  of  35  mem- 
bers and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  of 
110.  The  president  is  elected  by  a  popu- 
lar vote  and  only  in  the  case  of  his 
death  can  the  Congress  elect. 

History. — Peru,  the  origin  of  whose 
name  is  unknown,  is  now  passing  through 
its  third  historical  era,  and  is  manifest- 
ing its  third  phase  of  civilization.  The 
present  era  may  be  said  to  date  from  the 
conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Spaniards 
in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century; 
the  middle  era  embraces  the  rule  of  the 
Incas;  and  the  earliest  era,  about  which 
exceedingly  little  is  known,  is  that  of 
pre-Incarial  period  of  unknown  duration, 
during  which  a  nation,  or  nations, 
living  in  large  cities  flourished  in 
the  country,  and  had  a_  civilization, 
a  language,  and  a  religion  differ- 
ent, and  perhaps  in  some  cases  even 
more  advanced,  than  those  of  the  Incas, 
who  succeeded  them  and  overran  their 
territories.  Reg:arding  the  origin  of  the 
Incas  nothing  definite  can  be  said. 
There  are  no  authorities  on  the  subject 
save  the  traditions  of  the  Indians,  and 
these,  besides  being  outrageously  fabu- 
lous in  character,  are  also  conflicting.    It 


PERU 


200 


PERU 


appears,  however,  from  all  the  traditions, 
that  Manco,  the  first  Inca,  first  appeared 
on  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca,  with  his 
wife,  Mama  Ocilo.  He  announced  that 
he  and  his  wife  were  children  of  the  sun, 
and  were  sent  by  the  glorious  Inti  (the 
sun)  to  instruct  the  simple  tribes.  He 
is  said  to  have  carried  with  him  a  golden 
wedge,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  a 
wand.  Wherever  this  wedge,  on  being 
struck  on  the  ground,  should  sink  into 
the  earth  and  disappear  forever,  there  it 
was  decreed  Manco  should  build  his  cap- 
ital. Marching  N.  he  came  to  the  plain 
of  Cuzco,  where  the  wedge  disappeared. 
Here  he  founded  the  city  of  Cuzco,  be- 
came the  first  Inca  (a  name  said  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  Peruvian  word  for  the 
sun),  and  founded  the  Peruvian  race, 
properly  so  called.  The  Peruvian  sys- 
tem of  agriculture  was  brought  to  its 
highest  perfection  only  by  the  prodigious 
labor  of  several  centuries.  Not  only  was 
the  fertile  soil  cultivated  with  the  utmost 
care,  but  the  sandy  wastes  of  the  coast, 
unvisited  by  any  rains,  and  but  scantily 
watered  by  brooks,  were  rendered  pro- 
ductive by  means  of  an  artificial  system 
of  irrigation,  the  most  stupendous,  per- 
haps, that  the  world  has  ever  seen. 

Water  was  collected  in  lakes  among 
the  mountains,  led  down  the  slopes  and 
through  the  sands  of  the  coast,  appar- 
ently doomed  to  sterility,  by  canals  and 
subterranean  passages  constructed  on  a 
vast  scale,  and  the  ruins  of  which,  to  be 
seen  at  the  present  day,  attest  the  indus- 
try, ingenuity,  and  admirable  patience 
of  the  Peruvians.  The  aqueducts,  which 
were  sometimes  betv/een  400  and  500 
miles  in  length,  were  in  some  cases  tun- 
neled through  massive  rocks  and  carried 
across  rivers  and  marshes.  They  were 
constructed  of  large  slabs  of  freestone, 
fitting  so  closely  as  to  require  no  cement, 
and  answering  perfectly  the  purpose  for 
which  they  were  intended,  for  the  sandy 
wastes  were_  converted  into  productive 
fields  and  rich  pasture  lands,  and  the 
;oast  teemed  with  industrious  inhabi- 
tants. In  the  valley  of  Santa  there  were 
once  700,000  inhabitants;  there  are  now 
only  12,000;  in  that  of  Ancullama  there 
were  30,000  individuals;  there  are  now 
only  425.  The  edifices  of  Incarial  times 
are  oblong  in  shape  and  cyclopean  in  con- 
struction. The  materials  used  were 
granite,  porphyry,  and  other  varieties  of 
stone ;  _  but  in  the  more  rainless  regions 
sun-dried  bricks  were  also  much  used. 

The  religion  of  the  Peruvians,  in  the 
latter  ages  of  the  empire,  was  far  in  ad- 
vance of  that  of  most  barbarous  nations. 
They  believed  in  a  Great  Spirit,  the  Cre- 
ator of  the  universe,  who,  being  a  spirit, 
could  not  be  represented  by  any  image  or 
symbol,  nor  be  made  to  dwell  in  a  temple 


made  with  hands.  They  also  believed  in 
the  existence  of  the  soul  hereafter,  and  in 
the  resurrection  of  the  body.  The  after 
life  they  considered  to  be  a  condition  of 
ease_  and  tranquility  for  the  good,  and  a 
continual  wearisome  labor,  extending 
over  ages  for  the  wicked.  But  while  they 
believed  in  the  Creator  of  the  world,  they 
also  believed  in  other  deities,  who  were  of 
some  subordinate  rank  to  the  Great 
Spirit.  Of  these  secondary  gods  the  sun 
was  the  chief.  They  reverenced  the  sun 
as  the  source  of  their  royal  dynasty;  and 
everywhere  throughout  the  land  altars 
smoked  with  offerings  burned  in  his  wor- 
ship. 

The  modern  history  of  Peru  has  been 
in  general  one  of  peaceful  development. 
It  was  the  last  of  the  Spanish  South 
American  possessions  to  become  inde- 
pendent. Independence  was  obtained  in 
1821,  and  the  protectorate  was  assumed 
by  General  San  Martin.  By  the  spring 
of  1822  he  had  compelled  the  surrender 
of  the  last  large  body  of  Spanish  troops. 
The  government  was  formed  in  1823, 
with  Jose  de  la  Riva  Aguero  as  first 
president.  He  was  deposed  in  1823, 
through  the  influence  of  Bolivar,  who  se- 
cured possession  of  the  country  and  was 
appointed  supreme  dictator  in  1824. 
Fighting  with  the  Royalists  continued 
during  that  year.  In  these  the  patriots 
were  successful.  Bolivar  resigned  in 
1825,  but  was  reappointed  and  came  into 
control  of  the  government  in  1827,  when 
he  returned  to  Colombia.  A  constitution 
was  adopted  in  1828.  There  were  no  im- 
portant political  developments  until  1865, 
when  an  alliance  against  Spain  was  con- 
cluded with  Chile,  Ecuador,  and  Bolivia. 
The  Spanish  fleet  bombarded  Callao  in 
1866,  but  was  compelled  to  withdraw.  In 
1869  Peru,  with  Bolivia,  became  allied  in 
war  against  Chile.  In  this  the  Chileans 
were  successful,  and  Lima  and  other 
cities  were  captured.  A  treaty  of  peace 
Was  concluded  on  Oct.  20,  1883,  by  the 
terms  of  which  Peru  annexed  to  Chile 
the  province  of  Tarapaca,  and  the  terri- 
tories of  Tacna  and  Arica  for  a  term  of 
10  years.  The  people  of  these  territories 
were  to  decide  by  popular  vote  whether 
to  return  to  Peru  or  remain  with  Chile. 
The  question  has  never  been  settled  be- 
tween the  two  countries.  The  recovery 
from  the  war  was  slow,  but  the  financial 
conditions  gradually  readjusted  them- 
selves. During  the  years  following  there 
were  several  civil  struggles,  which,  how- 
ever, did  not  obtain  importance.  In  1912 
Guillermo  Billinghurst  became  president. 
His  drastic  efforts  to  reform  corrupt  po- 
litical practices  and  his  friendly  atti- 
tude toward  Chile  brought  about  a  revolt 
which  resulted  in  his  overthrow  and  ex- 
ile in  1914.    The  outbreak  of  the  World 


PERU 


201 


PEBUVIAN    BALSAM 


War  produced  serious  economic  disturb- 
ances. The  government  resorted  to  the 
issuing  of  paper  money,  which  caused 
furtl.  3r  unsettled  financial  conditions. 
Jose  Pardo  v/as  elected  president  in  1914. 
In  1915  Congress  passed  a  constitutional 
amendment  guaranteeing  religious  lib- 
erty Neutrality  was  preserved  in  the 
World  War  until  Oct.  6,  1917,  when  dip- 
lomatic relations  with  Germany  were  sev- 
ered. The  Germans  made  unsuccessful 
eflForts  to  blow  up  interned  steamers  at 
Callao.  In  May  18,  1918,  Augusto  B. 
Leguia  was  elected  president.  A  na- 
tional assembly  was  called  at  Lima  in  the 
same  year  and  fundamental  changes  in 
the  constitution  were  adopted.  In  Au- 
gust, 1920,  4  American  naval  officers,  at 
the  request  of  the  Peruvian  Government, 
began  the  reorganization  of  the  Peru- 
vian navy,  and  took  charge  of  the  Peru- 
vian Naval  Academy.  Peru  also  re- 
quested the  United  States  to  send  30 
American  educators;  15  to  fill  adminis- 
trative and  university  positions  and  15 
for  secondary  school  work. 

PERU,  a  city  in  La  Salle  co.,  111.; 
at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Illinois 
river,  and  on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
and  Pacific,  Chicago,  Burlington  arid 
Quincy,  and  the  Chicago,  Ottawa  anj^ 
Peoria  railroads;  100  miles  S.  W.  of  C^hi- 
cago.  Here  are  St.  Mary's  Hospital, 
high  school,  public  library,  street  rail- 
road and  electric  light  plants,  water- 
works. National  and  State  banks,  and 
several  weekly  newspapers.  It  has  grain 
elevators,  rolling  mills,  and  manufactor- 
ies of  clocks,  zinc,  plows,  sulphuric  acid, 
brick,  tile,  sash  doors,  blinds,  and  wheels. 
Pop.  (1910)  7,984;  (1920)  8,869. 

PERU,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Miami  eo.,  Ind.;  on  the  Wabash  river, 
and  on  the  Lake  Erie  and  Western,  the 
Wabash,  and  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
railroads;  75  miles  N.  of  Indianapolis. 
Here  are  a  public  library.  City  Hospital, 
waterworks,  electric  lights.  National  and 
State  banks,  and  several  daily  and  week- 
ly newspapers.  It  has  railroad  shops, 
and  manufactories  of  flax,  carriages, 
baskets,  foundry  products,  glass,  furni- 
ture, flour,  woolen  goods,  carbon,  etc. 
Pop.  (1910)  10,910;   (1920)  12,410. 

PERUGIA,  ancient  Perusia,  a  town 
of  central  Italy,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Umbria,  84  miles  N.  of  Rome.  It  is 
beautifully  situated  on  an  eminence 
above  the  Tiber,  has  irregular  but  spa- 
cious streets,  and  is  surrounded  by  old 
walls.  It  is  rich  in  art  and  literary 
treasures,  and  has  many  remarkable 
buildings,  including  a  Gothic  cathedral  of 
the  15th  century,  a  number  of  churches 
and   monasteries,   a  town  hall    (Italian 


Gothic,  begun  1281),  and  a  university, 
founded  in  1307.  The  manufactures,  not 
of  muc?i  consequence,  consist  of  velvet, 
silk  stuffs,  etc.  Perugia  was  an  old 
Etruscan  city,  and  was  conquered  by 
Rome  in  310  B.  c.  Pop.  about  70,000. 
Pop.  department,  about  715,000. 

PERUGIA,  LAGO  DI,  or  LAGO 
TRASIMENO,  a  lake  in  Italy,  9  miles 
W.  of  Perugia,  about  8  miles  long,  vary- 
ing in  breadth  from  7  miles  to  4  miles, 
surrounded  with  olive  plantations.  It 
contains  three  islands,  and  abounds  in 
fish.     It  has  no  visible  outlet. 

PERUGINO,  PIETRO,  an  Italian 
painter;  born  in  Citta  della  Pieve, 
about  1446.  His  real  name  was  Pietro 
Vanucci,  but  becoming  a  citizen  of  Peru- 
gia, he  acquired  the  name  by  which  he  is 


PIETRO   PERUGINO 

best  known.  He  was  employed  for  10 
years  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  and  the 
Stanze  of  the  Vatican,  and  on  his  return 
to  Perugia  opened  a  school,  and  had 
Raphael  among  his  pupils.  Perugino 
was  a  sordid  and  eccentric  man,  and  in 
his  latter  years  produced  many  works, 
unworthy  of  him,  for  gain.  His  best 
work  is  the  "Pieta,"  in  the  Pitti  Palace. 
Among  his  best  works  are  an  "Ascen- 
sion," at  Lyons;  the  "Infant  Christ 
Adored  by  the  Virgin,"  at  Rome;  "Ma- 
donna Enthroned,"  at  Bologna;  and  the 
fresco  of  the  "Baptism"  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel.     He  died  in  1524. 

PERUVIAN  BALSAM,  in  botany  and 
commerce,  the  balsam  flowing  from  in- 
cisions in  the  trunk  of  Myroxylon  pe- 
reirse.  It  is  a  thick,  viscid,  almost 
opaque,  balsam,  like  molasses,  with  a  red- 
dish hue,  and  translucent  when  in  thin 
layers;  its  odor  fragrant,  its  taste  acrid, 
but  aromatic.     It  is  brought  from  San 


PERUVIAN    BARK 


202 


PESTALOZZI 


Salvador,  in  South  America.  In  phar- 
macy, is  used  as  a  stimulant  and  expec- 
torant in  chronic  bronchitis,  rheumatism, 
also  to  arrest  excessive  discharges  from 
the  urethra,  and  as  an  external  applica- 
tion to  stimulate  bedsores  and  ulcers. 

PERUVIAN       BARK.     See       Bark, 

Peruvian. 

PESARO,  ancient  Pisaurum,  a  town  of 
Italy,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Foglia, 
here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  Trajan's  age, 
1  mile  from  the  Adriatic  and  37  miles  N. 
W.  of  Ancona.  Its  streets  are  broad, 
and  adorned  with  palaces  and  churches, 
and  the  town  is  surrounded  with  walls 
and  defended  by  a  citadel  (1474)  and  a 
fort.  It  is  a  bishop's  seat;  there  are  two 
cathedrals,  new  and  old.  Silks,  pottery, 
iron,  and  leather  are  manufactured;  and 
trade  is  carried  on  in  wine,  olive  oil,  and 
fruits.  The  city  is  associated  with  the 
name  of  Tasso,  some  of  his  MSS.  being 
preserved  in  one  of  the  town  museums; 
it  is  also  the  birthplace  of  Rossini. 
Made  a  Roman  colony  in  184  b.  c,  it  was 
destroyed _  by  the  Goths;  then,  having 
been  rebuilt  by  Belisarius,  it  became  one 
of  the  Pentapolis.  From  755  to  1285  it 
belonged  to  the  Popes,  then  to  the  Mala- 
testas  till  1445,  then  to  the  Sforzas  and 
Delle  Roveres,  in  1631  again  to  the  Popes, 
and  finally  in  1860  to  Italy.  Pop.  of 
town  (1915)  28,483.  Of  the  department 
of  Pesaro  and  Urbine,  270,696. 

PESCHIERA,  a  fortress  of  Italy,  a 
member  of  the  Quadrilateral,  stands 
partly  on  an  island  in  the  Mincio  and 
partly  on  the  right  bank  of  that  river,  at 
its  outlet  from  the  Lake  of  Garda.  Be- 
sides a  strong  citadel  and  an  arsenal, 
there  is  a  fortified  camp.  The  fortress 
has  played  a  prominent  part  in  warlike 
events,  especially  after  the  Napoleonic 
wars  began  dov/n  to  1859. 

PESHAWAR,  or  PESHAWUR,  a 
town  of  India,  10  ^/^  miles  from  the  en- 
trance of  the  Khyber  Pass,  190  E.  by  S. 
of  Kabul,  and  276  N.  W.  of  Lahore. 
Though  a  frontier  town  and  occupying 
a  strategic  position  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance, its  only  defenses  are  a  mud  wall 
aiid  a  small  fort;  but  2  miles  W.  of  the 
city  are  the  cantonments,  with  a  garri- 
son of  six  regiments  and  a  battery  of 
Royal  Artillery.  Peshawar  is  the  seat  of 
extensive  commerce  between  Afghanis- 
tan and  India;  gold,  silver,  lace,  hides 
(from  Bokhara),  horses,  mules,  fruits, 
woolen  and  skin  coats  (from  Kabul)  being 
exchanged  for  tea,  English  piece-goods, 
wheat,  salt,  rice,  butter,  oil,  and  sugar. 

PESO,  a  silver  coin  and  money  of  ac- 
count used  in  Mexico  and  other  parts  of 
Spanish  America,  and  often  considered 
equivalent  to  a  dollar. 


PESSIMISM,  that  mental  attitude 
which  induces  one  to  give  preponderat- 
ing importance  to  the  evils  and  sorrows 
of  existence ;  the  habit  of  taking  a  gloomy 
and  desponding  view  of  things.  Alsi 
the  name  given  to  the  system  of  philoso- 
phy denounced  by  Schopenhauer  (1788- 
1860)  in  "The  World  as  Will  and  Idea" 
(of  which  the  first  volume  was  pub- 
lished in  1819,  and  the  second  some  25 
years  after),  and  by  Von  Hartman  in  his 
"Philosophy  of  the  Unconscious"  (1860), 
It  was  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury that  pessimism  began  to  create  a  lit- 
erature of  its  own.  As  examples  may  be 
cited  Byron's  "Euthanasia"  and  Heine's 
"Fragen."  The  adherents  of  this  phi- 
losophy have  for  the  most  part  belonged 
to  the  German  races,  Leopardi  (1798- 
1837)  being  the  sole  Latin  writer  of  note 
who  has  advocated  pessimist  theories. 

PESTALOZZI,  JOHANN  HEINRICH, 
a  Swiss  philanthropist  and  educational 
reformer;  born  in  1746;  first  studied  the- 
ology, then  law.  Afterward  he  devoted 
his  time  and  substance  to  the  children 
of  paupers,  whom  he  collected  in  large 
numbers  in  his  own  house,  and  this  good 
work  he  carried  on  for  over  20  years 
without  outside  aid  or  even  sympathy. 
The  want  of  means  at  last  compelled  him 


JOHANN   PESTALOZZI 

to  abandon  his  gratuitous  institution,  and 
to  seek  pupils  who  could  pay  for  their 
maintenance  and  instruction.  He  opened 
a  school  in  the  Castle  of  Yverdun  (can- 
ton Vaud),  which  the  government  had 
placed  at  his  disposal.  His  novel  "Lien- 
hardt  and  Gertrud"  (1781-1789),  ex- 
erted a  powerful  moral  influence,  while 
his  educational  treatises  laid  the  foun- 
dation for  the  more  rational  system  of 
elementary   instruction    which   now    ob- 


PESTH 


203 


PETECHIA 


tains  in  Europe.  Pestalozzi's  method 
was  that  of  communicating  all  instruc- 
tion by  direct  appeal  to  the  sense?  and 
the  understanding,  selecting  the  sub- 
jects of  study  in  such  a  way  that  each 
step  should  best  aid  the  further  progress 
of  the  pupil.     He  died  in  1827. 

PESTH.     See  Budapest. 

PETAIN,  MABSHAL  HENRI 
PHILIPPE,  a  French  general,  born 
1856;  educated  in  Saint  Cyr  Military 
Academy,  and  Ecole  Superieure  de 
Guerre.  Entering  the  army,  he  was 
rapidly  promoted  on  account  of  his  re- 
markable capacity  for  training  cadets. 
In  1901  he  was  appointed  to  the  faculty 
of  the  Ecole  Superieure  de  Guerre. 
When  the  war  broke  out,  in  1914,  he  was 
a  colonel,  and  as  such,  was  in  command 
of  a  force  at  Charleroi,  in  Belgium, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  hold- 
ing back  a  vastly  superior  force  of  Ger- 
mans. His  skillful  retreat  on  this  occa- 
sion lead  to  his  being  given  command  of 
a  division  with  which  he  participated  in 
the  first  battle  of  the  Marne.     In  May, 


MARSHAL   HENRI   PETAIN 

1915,  in  the  Artois  sector,  he  captured 
over  10,000  Germans  and  a  correspond- 
ing amount  of  war  material.  In  the 
early  part  of  1916,  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  troops  defending  Verdun,  4 
days  after  the  German  attack  had  begun. 
At  that  moment,  and  at  that  point,  Ger- 


many niade  her  supreme  effort.  General 
Petain  met  the  Germans  with  a  counter- 
attack which  drove  them  back  and  de- 
feated them  decisively.  In  recognition  of 
this  deed,  he  was  made  a  marshal  of 
France.  In  April,  1917,  he  became  Chief 
of  Staff,  and  a  month  later  became 
French  Commander-in-Chief,  which  po- 
sition he  held  until  the  unification  of  all 
Allied  forces  under  General  Foch,  in 
April,  1918,  when  he  became  a  member 
of  the  General  Staff.  He  visited  the 
United  States  in  1920. 

PETAL,  in  botany,  one  of  the  divisions 
of  a  corolla  consisting  of  several  distinct 
pieces.  It  is  a  modification  of  a  leaf.  It 
is  generally  larger  than  the  calyx,  and, 
unlike  it,  is  as  a  rule  brightly  colored, 
i.  e.,  white,  red,  blue,  yellow,  or  some  of 
the  hues  produced  by  their  intermixture. 
Sometimes  the  margins  of  the  petals 
unite. 

PETALITE,  a  monoclinic  mineral, 
rarely  occurring  in  crystals,  but  mostly 
in  cleavable  masses.  The  crystallized 
form  is  the  castorite.  Found  on  the  Isle 
of  Uto,  Sweden,  and  at  a  few  other  locali- 
ties.    Related  to  spodumene. 

PETALTTMA,  a  city  of  California  in 
Sonoma  co.  It  is  on  the  Petaluma  river, 
the  Northwestern  Pacific  and  the  Peta- 
luma and  Santa  Rosa  railroads.  The 
city  is  an  important  agricultural  com- 
munity, and  the  raising  of  poultry  is  one 
of  the  chief  industries.  There  are  man- 
ufactories of  silk,  flour,  machine  shops 
and  foundries,  shoes,  gas  enecines,  etc. 
Pop.  (1910)  5,880;  (1920)  6,226. 

PETARD,  a  machine  formerly  used 
for  blowing  open  gates  or  barriers  in  for- 
tifications. It  was  bell  shaped,  charged 
with  powder,  and  fired  by  a  fuse.  The 
mouth  of  the  machine  was  placed  against 
the  obstacle,  and  kept  in  place  by  struts 
or  by  being  hung  on  a  hook  driven  into 
the  woodwork. 

PETCHORA,  a  large  river  in  the  N. 
of  European  Russia,  rises  on  the  W. 
slope  of  the  Urals,  flows  N.  through  the 
E.  parts  of  the  governments  of  Vologda 
and  Archangel,  then  S.  E.  for  about  150 
miles,  and  finally  sweeping  toward  the 
N.,  and  expanding  into  an  estuary  30 
miles  wide  and  full  of  islands,  falls  into 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  after  a  course  of  over 
1,000  miles.  It  is  navigable  by  boats  for 
upward  of^  700  miles.  The  country 
through  which  the  river  flows  is  thinly 
peopled,  and  quite  uncultivated. 

PETECHI-SJ,  spots  formed  by  ex- 
travasated  blood,  as  in  typhoid,  putrid 
and  malignant  fevers,  hemorrhagic 
smallpox,  etc. 


PETER 


204 


PETER 


PETER,  the  Greek  surname  of  an 
apostle  of  Jesus.  It  is  the  rendering  of 
the  East  Aramaean  kepha,  a  corruption 
or  derivation   from   Heb.   keph=a   rock, 


hWitm  -  m 


c?^ 


STATUE  OF   ST.   PETER,  FLORENCE,   ITALY 

and  was  given  by  Jesus  (John  i:  40-42). 
Peter's  real  name  w^as  Simon  (Matt,  x: 
2;  Luke  iv:  38,  v:  3,  5,  etc.),  his  father's 
Jonas  (John  xxi:  15),  his  brother's  An- 
drew (Matt,  iv:  18).     Peter  was  born  at 


Bethsaida  (John  i:  44),  but  had  removed 
to  Capernaum,  where  he  had  a  house, 
being  a  married  man  (Matt,  viii:  14; 
Mark  1:  30;  Luke  iv:  38;  I  Cor.  ix:  5). 
He  was  one  of  the  3  of  the  12  apostles 
selected  on  three  occasions  by  Jesus  for 
special  honor.  The  power  of  the  Keys 
was  first  bestowed  on  him  (Matt,  xvi: 
13-20),  though  afterward  also  on  the 
other  apostles  (xviii:  1).  Peter  was  of 
an  impulsive  temperament,  generous,  but 
too  forward  in  speech  (xvi:  22,  23),  and 
rash  in  action  (John  xviii:  10).  It  was 
not  natural  cowardice,  but  because 
through  his  rashness  he  had  committed 
himself,  and  was  in  danger  of  arrest, 
that  made  him  deny  his  Lord  (Matt, 
xxvi:  51-75).  After  the  Ascension,  he 
was  for  a  time  the  most  prominent  of  the 
apostles  (Acts  i:  15,  ii:  14,  etc.,  iii:  1- 
26;  iv:  8,  9,  v:  1-16),  and  though  spe- 
cially sent  to  the  Jews  (Gal.  ii:  8),  yet 
had  the  privilege  of  being  the  first  to  ad- 
mit Gentiles  into  the  Church  (Acts  x: 
1-48).  Afterward  he  was  somewhat 
cast  into  the  shade  by  the  eminence  of 
St.  Paul.  Tradition  makes  him  die  as  a 
martyr  at  Rome,  about  a.  d.  64,  crucified 
with  his  head  downward.  Roman  Cath- 
olics claim  him  as  the  first  Bishop  of 
Rome,  and  consider  that  the  authority 
delegated  him  by  Jesus  appertains  also 
to  his  successors,  the  Popes  of  Rome. 

The  First  Epistle  General  of  Peter,  an 
epistle  which  claims  to  have  been  writ- 
ten by  the  Apostle  Peter  (i:  1),  appar- 
ently from  Babylon  (v:  13),  "to  the 
strangers  scattered  throughout  Pontus, 
Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and  Bithynia" 
(i:  1),  all  places  in  Asia  Minor.  These 
strangers  were  obviously  Christian  con- 
verts, the  majority  apparently  Gentiles 
(i:  14,  ii:  10,  iv:  3).  Their  churches 
were  in  charge  of  elders  (v:  4).  They 
were  in  suffering  (i:  6),  which  the 
apostle  foresaw  would  deepen  into  severe 
persecution  (iv:  12-18).  He  exhorts 
them  to  steadfastness,  to  careful  avoid- 
ance of  crime  and  scandal.  Its  date  is 
uncertain,  probably  between  a.  d.  60  and 
A.  D.  64.  There  is  strong  evidence  for 
its  authenticity,  which  has  rarely  been 
doubted. 

The  Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  another 
epistle  claiming  to  have  been  penned  by 
the  Apostle  (i:  1),  the  author  also  re- 
ferring to  the  transfiguration  scene  as 
one  which  he  personally  witnessed  (i :  17, 
18),  and  to  a  previous  epistle  (iii:  1). 
In  this  second  letter  he  seeks  to  establish 
Christians  in  the  faith,  warns  them 
against  false  teachers-  and  predicts  the 
general  conflagi'ation  of  the  world.  Its 
style  is  different  from  that  of  the  first. 
When  it  was  published,  the  epistles  of 
St.  Paul  had  been  collected,  and  formed 


PETER 


205 


PETER 


part  of  New  Testament  Scripture  (iii: 
15-16).  The  evidence  for  its  authenticity 
is  much  less  strong  than  that  for  the 
first  epistle. 

PETER  I.,  ALEXEIEVITCH,  usually 
styled  Peter  the  Great,  Czar  of  Rus- 
sia; born  in  1672;  and  in  1689  he  ob- 
tained the  sole  authority,  on  the  re- 
tirement of  his  brother  Ivan,  with 
whom  he  had  been  before  associated  in 
the  government  of  the  empire.  After 
having  suppressed  a  conspiracy  of  the 
Strelitzes  against  his  life,  he  traveled  in 
foreign  countries,  not  in  the  character 
of  czar,  but  as  a  member  of  an  embassy. 
At  Amsterdam  he  worked,  incognito,  in 
a  shipyard,  went  to  the  village  of  Saar- 
dam,  where  he  caused  himself  to  be  en- 
rolled among  the  workmen,  under  the 
name  of  Peter  Michaeloff.  Induced  by 
his  love  for  the  sea  to  accept  the  invita- 
tion of  William  III.  to  visit  London,  he 


PETER  THE   GREAT 

spent  some  weeks  there,  keenly  observing 
and  learning  all  that  he  could  of  trade, 
manufactures,  and  the  arts.  Having 
proceeded  to  Vienna,  he  there  received 
intelligence  of  a  new  rebellion  of  the 
Strelitzes,  on  which  he  returned  home, 
crushed  the  insurrection,  and  visited  the 
rebels  with  fearful  severity.  In  1700  he 
entered  upon  a  war  with  Sweden.  He 
was  defeated  by  his  great  rival,  Charles 
XII.,  at  the  battle  of  Narva,  and  the 
war  went  on  with  various  results  till 
1709,  when  he  completely  defeated 
Charles  at  Pultawa.  In  the  following 
year  the  Sultan  declared  war  on  him, 
and  he  narrowly  escaped  capture  by  the 
Turks  in  the  campaign  of  1711.  This 
war  ended  in  1713.  Not  satisfied  with 
Vol.  VII— Cyc 


his  immense  power  as  czar,  Peter  had 
suppressed  the  patriarchate,  and  made 
himself  head  of  the  Church  as  well  as  of 
the  State.  In  1703  he  founded  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, and  began  the  fortifications  of 
Cronstadt.  Three  years  later  he  pri- 
vately married  Catharine,  a  girl  of  low 
origin  and  immoral  character;  married 
her  publicly  in  1710,  and  had  her  crowned 
in  1722.  Peter  extended  the  limits  of 
the  empire  both  in  Europe  and  Asia; 
changed  the  face  of  Russia  by  his  zeal- 
ous promotion  of  trade,  navigation,  man- 
ufactures, and  education;  and  after  a 
conclusion  of  peace  with  Sweden,  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Emperor  of  all  the 
Russias,  and  Father  of  his  Country. 
Reforming  others,  he  failed  to  reform 
himself,  but  remained  to  the  last  an  ig- 
norant, coarse,  brutal  savage.  His  state 
policy  has  been  adhered  to  by  his  succes- 
sors. Peter  I.  died  in  St.  Petersburg, 
after  very  severe  suffering,  Jan.  28, 1725. 

PETER  II.,  Emperor  of  Russia;  born 
in  1714;  the  son  of  Alexis  and  grandson 
of  Peter  the  Great.  He  succeeded,  in 
1727,  the  Empress  Catharine,  who  had 
declared  him  Grand-Duke  of  Russia  the 
year  preceding.  The  most  remarkable 
event  of  his  reign  was  the  disgrace  of 
the  prime  minister  Menschikoffj  who  was 
banished  to  Siberia.     He  died  in  1730. 

PETER  III.,  Emperor  of  Russia;  the 
son  of  Anne,  eldest  daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great;  born  in  1728,  and  succeeded  Eliza- 
beth in  1762.  He  married  the  Princess 
Sophia  Augusta  of  Anhalt,  whose  name 
he  changed  to  Catharine,  and,  being  in- 
spired with  grand  and  martial  thoughts, 
attempted  to  govern  his  empii-e  on  the 
model  of  Frederick  the  Great;  but,  want- 
ing capacity,  energy,  and  courage,  he 
signally  failed.  His  empress,  being  ap- 
prised of  his  intention  of  divorcing  her 
and  bastardizing  his  son,  Paul,  antici- 
pated his  design,  and,  exciting  a  revolu- 
tion, took  him  prisoner,  and  compelled 
him  to  sign  a  most  humiliating  abdica- 
tion. After  this,  being  sent  to  the  fort- 
ress of  Robscha,  he  there  mysteriously 
disappeared  in  1762. 

PETER     I.,     KARAGEORGEVITCH, 

King  of  Serbia;  born  in  Belgrade  in  1846, 
a  grandson  of  George  Petrovitch,  sur- 
named  "Black  George,"  (Kara-george), 
a  peasant  leader  of  the  people  who  led  a 
successful  revolution  against  Turkish 
sovereignty,  and  was  recognized  by  the 
Sultan  as  Prince  of  Serbia  in  1812.  His 
son,  Alexander,  father  of  Peter,  was  de- 
posed in  1858,  and  left  the  country  with 
his  son.  Peter  was  educated  in  Hun- 
gary, but  later  became  a  cadet  at  the 
French  _  military  school  at  St.  Cyr. 
Graduating,  he  received  a  commission  in 

li 


PETER,    PARLEY 


206 


PETERHEAD 


the  French  Army,  and  served  "vvith  dis- 
tinction during  the  Franco-Prussian 
War,  being  thrice  captured  by  the  Ger- 
mans, and  escaping  each  time.  After- 
ward he  lived  in  retirement  in  Paris  and 
Geneva-  In  1903,  King  Alexander  of 
Serbia,  a  member  of  the  Obrenovitch 
family,  rival  of  the  Karageorgevitch 
dynasty,  was  assassinated  by  army  of- 
ficers, and  Peter  was  proclaimed  ruler  in 
his  place.  In  1914,  he  went  into  the  field 
at  the  head  of  his  army,  and  remained 


PETER  I,   KING   OF   SERBIA 

with  his  troops  until  the  final  invasion 
by  the  forces  of  the  Central  Powers  in 
1916,  when  he  escaped  through  the  moun- 
tains of  Albania  to  the  Adriatic  Coast, 
where  he  was  rescued  by  the  Italian 
ships.  Until  the  collapse  of  the  Teutonic 
front  in  the  Balkans  in  1918,  he  remained 
in  Greece,  when  he  returned  to  Belgrade 
with  his  troops,  following  the  retreating 
Austrians. 


PETER,     PARLEY. 

Samuel  Griswold. 


See    Goodrich, 


PETER  PINDAR.  See  WOLCOTT, 
John. 

PETERBOROUGH,  a  city  partly  in 
Huntingdonshire,  but  chiefly  in  North- 
amptonshire, England,  the  latter  por- 
tion being  on  the  left  or  N.  bank  of  the 
Nen  river,  at  the  edge  of  the  fen  coun- 
try, 76  miles  N.  of  London.  Here,  at 
Medeshamstede,  in  655,  the  Mercian 
thane  Saxulf  founded  the  great  Benedic- 
tine abbey  of  SS.  Peter,  Paul,  and  An- 
drew, which,  destroyed  by  the  Danes  in 
870,  was  restored  in  966,  plundered  by 


Hereward  in  1069,  and  again  burned 
down  in  1116.  Its  noble  church,  the  ca- 
thedral since  1541  of  a  new  diocese 
carved  out  of  that  of  Lincoln,  was  built 
between  1118  and  1628,  and  thus,  while 
essentially  Norman,  offers  every  variety 
of  architecture  down  to  the  Perpendicu- 
lar. It  is  471  feet  long,  by  202  across 
the  transept,  and  81  high.  The  Early 
English  W.  front  (1200-1222)  consists 
of  three  mighty  arches.  Noteworthy  al- 
so are  the  flat  painted  wooden  ceilings  of 
the  12th  century,  the  portrait  of  "Old 
Scarlett"  the  sexton  (1496-1694),  the 
blue  slab  inscribed  "Queen  Catharine,  A. 
D.  1636,"  and  the  grave  for  25  years 
(1587-1612)  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 
In  1643  Cromwell  and  his  troopers  did 
hideous  havoc  to  monuments,  stained 
glass,  and  cloisters.  Of  the  abbots  may 
be  mentioned  Ernulf,  Bishop  of  Roches- 
ter (1115) ;  and  of  the  27  bishops,  Lloyd 
and  White  the  non-jurors,  Richard  Cum- 
berland, Archbishop  Magee  of  York,  and 
Mandell  Creighton  the  historian.  Paley 
was  a  native.  Two  ancient  gateways, 
the  bishop's  palace  and  the  deanery  (once 
the  abbot's  and  prior's  houses),  and  the 
chancel  of  a  Becket  chapel  (now  a  mu- 
seum) make  up  the  remaining  objects  of 
interest.  Peterborough  is  an  important 
railway  center,  has  manufactures  of  ag- 
ricultural implements,  and  carries  on  a 
large  trade  in  malt,  coal,  fai-m  produce, 
etc.  Incorporated  as  a  municipal  bor- 
ough in  1874,  it  has  returned  two  mem- 
bers to  Parliament  from  1547  till  1885, 
and  since  then  one.     Pop.  (1917)  33,574. 

PETERBOROUGH,  a  town  and  capi- 
tal of  Peterborough  co.,  Ont.,  Canada; 
on  the  Otonabee  and  Trent  Valley 
canal,  and  on  the  Grand  Trunk  and  Ca- 
nadian Pacific  railroads;  85  miles  N.  E. 
of  Toronto.  It  is  well  laid  out,  having 
wide  and  regular  streets.  The  town  is 
in  the  center  of  a  rich  agricultural  re- 
gion. It  exports  peas,  oats,  barley, 
wheat,  flour,  cheese,  wool,  and  pork. 
The  manufactures  include  steam  engines, 
agricultural  implements,  mill  machinery, 
etc.  The  largest  lift-lock  in  the  world 
designed  to  lift  vessels  140  feet  long,  65 
feet  in  the  air  in  one  motion,  was  built 
in  1904.  Peterborough  was  settled  in 
1825  by  Col.  Peter  Robinson,  in  whose 
honor  it  was  named.  Pop.  (1918)  about 
25,000. 

PETERHEAD,  a  seaport  and  burgh 
of  barony  of  Buchan,  Aberdeenshire, 
Scotland,  on  a  peninsula,  32  miles  N.  N. 
E.  of  Aberdeen.  Founded  in  1593,  it  is 
somewhat  irregular  in  plan,  but  clean 
and  largely  built  of  the  celebrated 
"Peterhead  granite,"  whose  reddish  va- 
riety is  so  much  used  for  monumental 
purposes.     The  Keiths,  Earls  Marischal 


PETEBHOF 


207 


i'ETERSBURG 


were  superiors  of  the  place  till  the  rebel- 
lion of  1715,  when  the  Old  Pretender 
landed  here,  and  after  which  their  for- 
feited estates  were  purchased  by  the  Ed- 
inburgh Merchant  Maiden  Hospital,  to 
whose  governors  many  improvements  are 
owing.  Of  Marshal  Keith  a  bronze 
statue  was  presented  to  the  town  in  1869 
by  King  William  of  Prussia ;  and  the 
market  cross,  a  granite  Tuscan  pillar 
(1833),  bears  the  arms  of  the  Earls 
Marischal.  The  public  buildings  in- 
clude the  town  hall  (1788),  with  spire 
125  feet  high;  the  parish  church  (1803), 
with  one  of  118  feet.  Of  industries  may 
be  mentioned  the  woolen  manufacture, 
boat  building,  and  granite  polishing. 
Peterhead  was  made  a  head  port  in  1838. 
From  1788  it  gradually  became  the  chief 
British  seat  of  the  seal  and  whale  fish- 
eries till  1852.  At  present  Peterhead  is 
chiefly  important  for  its  great  herring 
fishery,  which  during  the  herring  season 
brings  some  5,000  persons  to  the  place. 
The  S.  harbor  was  commenced  in  1773, 
and  the  N.  harbor  in  1818,  a  canal  being 
formed  between  them  in  1850;  while  a 
new  harbor  was  formed  and  the  S.  harbor 
deepened  under  acts  of  1873  and  1876. 
Their  three  basins,  hewn  out  of  the  solid 
rock,  together  cover  about  22  acres,  but 
are  as  nothing  compared  with  the  great 
harbor  of  refuge,  begun  in  1886,  which, 
but  for  the  World  War,  would  have 
been  completed  in  1921.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood are  the  ruins  of  Inverugie,  Ra- 
venscraig,  and  Boddam  castles,  all 
strongholds  of  different  branches  of  the 
Keiths;  Buchan  Ness,  the  most  E.  point 
of  Scotland,  with  a  lighthouse  (1827) ; 
and  the  Bullers  of  Buchan.  Pop.  (1918) 
14,000. 

PETEBHOF,  a  palace  of  the  emperor 
of  Russia,  on  the  S.  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  18  miles  W.  of  St.  Petersburg, 
built  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1711,  con- 
tains a  fine  collection  of  paintings,  and 
is  surrounded  by  beautiful  parks  and 
gardens  laid  out  on  the  model  of  those 
at  Versailles,  with  cascades,  terraces, 
and  summer  houses.  Pop.  (1918)  about 
15,000. 

PETER  MARTYR,  the  patron  saint 
of  the  Inquisition,  a  Dominican  of  Ver- 
ona, who,  for  the  severity  with  which  he 
exercised  his  inquisitorial  functions,  was 
in  1252  slain  at  Como  by  the  infuriated 
populace.  His  death  formed  the  subject 
of  a  masterpiece  by  Titian,  destroyed  by 
fire  in  Venice  in  1867. 

PETER  MARTYR,  an  Italian  reform- 
er; born  in  Florence,  Italy,  Sept.  8,  1500; 
entered  at  16  the  order  of  the  canons 
regular  of  St.  Augustine  at  Fiesole, 
studied  at  Padua,  and  became  abbot  of 
Spoleto,  and  later  prior  of  St.  Peter  at 


Aram  near  Naples.  Here  he  was  drawn 
into  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformers  by 
the  teaching  of  Juan  Valdes  and  Ochino, 
yet  was  appointed  visitor-general  of  his 
order  in  1541.  His  rigor  made  him  hate- 
ful to  the  dissolute  monks,  said  he  was 
sent  to  Lucca  as  prior  of  San  Frediano, 
but  soon  fell  under  the  suspicions  of  the 
Inquisition,  and  had  to  flee  to  Zurich 
(1542).  At  Strassburg  he  was  welcomed 
by  Bucer,  and  made  Professor  of  the  Old 
Testament.  In  1547  he  went  to  England 
on  Cranmer's  invitation,  lectured  at  Ox- 
ford on  I  Corinthians  and  Romans,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  great  contro- 
versy of  the  day.  Mary's  accession  drove 
him  back  to  Strassburg,  then  grown  too 
Lutheran  for  his  tastes,  and  at  length  in 
1555  he  repaired  to  Zurich,  where  he  died 
Nov.  12,  1562. 

PETERS,  CARL,  a  German  traveler 
and  administrator.  He  was  born  at 
Newhaus,  Hanover,  in  1856,  and  studied 
at  several  German  universities,  and  in 
London.  He  then  traveled  through  parts 
of  Africa,  suitable  for  German  coloniza- 
tion, becoming  head  of  several  German 
colonizing  organizations,  passing  be- 
tween Germany  and  Africa.  In  1888  he 
led  an  expedition  to  Victoria  Nyanza, 
and  went  to  the  aid  of  Stanley  and  Emir 
Pacha.  In  1891  he  acted  as  Reichscom- 
missar  in  East  Africa,  and  later  formed 
companies  for  gold  prospecting  in  Rho- 
desia, returning  to  Berlin  in  1914.  His 
works  include:  "Die  Deutsche  Emir 
Pascha  Expedition";  "Das  Goldene  Ophii 
Salomos";  "Im  Goldlande  des  Alter* 
tums";  "England  und  die  Englander''; 
"Die  Griindung  von  Deutsch-Ostafri- 
ka";  "Zur  Weltpolitik." 

PETERSBURG,  a  city  and  port  of 
entry  of  Dinwiddie  co.,  Va.;  on  the  S. 
bank  of  the  Appomattox  river,  the  Up- 
per Appomattox  canal,  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast  Line,  the  Norfolk  and  Western, 
and  the  Seaboard  Air  Line  railroads;  22 
miles  S.  of  Richmond.  Here  are  the 
Central  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane, 
Home  for  the  Sick,  and  Industrial  Insti- 
tute, libraries,  parks.  National  and  State 
banks,  street  railroads,  electric  lights, 
and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  The 
handling  of  cotton  and  tobacco,  with 
wheat,  corn,  and  general  country  produce, 
is  the  chief  business.  The  city  has  to- 
bacco factories,  cotton  factories,  flour 
and  grist  mills,  and  silk  mills.  The  so- 
called  siege  of  Petersburg  lasted  from 
June  16,  1864,  to  April  2,  1865;  and  dur- 
ing its  continuance  13  pitched  batUes 
were  fought  in  the  neighborhood.  The 
intrenchments  of  Lee  and  Grant  still 
form  conspicuous  features  in  the  land- 
scape; Grant's  lines  extended  from  the 
Appomattox  to  Fort  Fisher,  and  thence 


PETEB'S    PENCE 


208 


PETITIOIT 


E.  to  Fort  Bross,  a  distance  of  23  miles. 
One  of  the  best-known  engagements  was 
that  of  the  old  crater,  to  the  E.  of  the 
city,  on  Griffith's  farm,  where  a  small 
museum  of  war  relics  is  exhibited.  Pop. 
(1910)  24,127;  (1920)  31,002. 

PETER'S  PENCE,  a  tax  of  a  penny 
on  each  house  throughout  England,  which 
commenced  in  Saxon  times  as  an  occa- 
sional voluntary  contribution,  but  was 
finally  established  as  a  legal  tax  under 
Canute,  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror.  From  being  sent 
to  Rome  it  was  called  by  the  Saxons 
rome-feoh,  rome-scot  and  rome-penny- 
ing.  The  name  Peter's  pence  arose  from 
its  being  collected  on  St.  Peter's  Day. 
From  being  levied  on  every  private  and 
every  religious  house,  the  Abbey  of  St. 
Albans  only  excepted,  it  was  called  also 
hearth  money.  At  first  it  was  used 
chiefly  for  the  support  of  an  English 
college  at  Rome,  then  the  Pope  shared 
the  gift  with  the  college,  and  finally  ap- 

Eropriated  the  whole.  Edward  III.  for- 
ade  its  being  paid;  but  it  was  soon  re- 
stored. An  act  of  Henry  VIII.,  passed 
in  1534,  swept  it  away.  A  voluntary 
contribution  was  raised  among  Catholics, 
and  sent  to  the  Pope  for  his  private  use. 
PETER  THE  CRTTEL,  King  of  Castile 
and  Leon;  born  in  1334;  succeeded  his 
father,  Alfonso  XI.,  in  1350.  His  reign 
was  one  long  series  of  cruelties  and  des- 
potic acts.  The  year  following  his  coro- 
nation he  put  to  death  Eleanora  de  Guz- 
man, his  father's  mistress.  In  1353  he 
married,  though  contrary  to  his  will, 
Blanche  of  Bourbon,  one  of  the  most  ac- 
complished princesses  of  the  time,  whom, 
however,  he  abandoned  two  days  after 
his  marriage  to  rejoin  his  mistress, 
Maria  Padilla.  The  queen  was  impris- 
oned and  divorced.  He  then  married  the 
beautiful  Juana  de  Castro,  but  only  to 
abandon  her  after  a  few  months.  Two 
revolts  against  him  were  unsuccessful. 
In  1366,  Peter  fled,  and  was  dethroned, 
but  he  was  reinstated  the  following  year 
by  an  army  lent  by  Edward  the  Black 
Prince.  Executions  and  confiscations 
helped  to  swell  the  ranks  of  his  oppo- 
nents, of  whom  the  chief  was  his 
half-brother  Henry  of  Trastamare.  In 
1369  Henry  gained  a  signal  victory  over 
Peter  _  at  Montiel,  and  the  latter  was 
slain  in  a  sword  combat  with  his  brother 
in  1369. 

PETER  THE  HERMIT,  a  French 
gentleman  of  Amiens,  in  Picardy,  who 
renounced  a  military  life  to  embrace  that 
of  a  pilgrim.  At  the  end  of  the  11th  cen- 
tury, a  general  alarm  was  spread  that 
the  last  day  was  approaching;  on  which 
numbers  of  persons  flocked  to  the  Holy 
Land  from  all  countries  with  a  view  of 


ending  their  days  near  the  holy  sepul- 
cher.  Peter  was  of  the  number,  and  on 
his  return  to  Europe  made  so  pathetic  a 
representation  of  the  state  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  Palestine  to  Pope  Urban  II.,  that 
he  gave  Peter  leave  to  preach  up  the 
necessity  of  a  crusade  throughout  Chris- 
tendom. The  appearance,  zeal,  and  elo- 
quence of  the  hermit,  produced  a  prodi- 
gious effect,  and  all  ranks  and  ages,  of 
both  sexes,  pressed  eagerly  into  the  serv- 
ice. With  a  motley  army,  estimated  at 
100,000  men,  Peter  passed  through  Hun- 
gary. In  his  absence,  his  followers  at- 
tacked Solyman's  army  at  Nicea,  and 
all,  except  a  few  thousands,  perished. 
Peter  remained  in  Palestine,  and  was  at 
the  siege  of  Antioch  in  1097;  but  on  his 
attempting  to  make  his  escape,  shortly 
afterward,  was  brought  back,  and  com- 
pelled to  take  a  new  oath  of  fidelity  and 
obedience  to  the  holy  cause.  Two  years 
later  he  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem, where  he  displayed  great  bravery, 
and  when  the  place  was  taken,  was  made 
vicar-general.  Peter,  on  his  return  to 
France,  founded  the  abbey  of  Neufmou- 
stier,  at  Huy,  in  Liege,  where  he  died  in 
1115. 

PETER WARDEIN,  one  of  the  strong- 
est fortresses  in  Austria;  situated  in  a 
marshy,  unhealthy  locality  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube;  44  miles  N.  W.  of 
Belgrade;  and  connected  with  Neusatz 
opposite  by  a  bridge  of  boats.  The  for- 
tress was  held  by  the  Turks  from  1526  to 
1687.  In  1688  the  fortifications  were 
blown  up  by  the  imperialists,  and  the 
town  was  soon  after  burned  to  the  ground 
by  the  Turks ;  but  at  the  peace  of  Passa- 
rowitz  (1718)  it  remained  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  emperor.  Here,  on  Aug.  10, 
1716,  Prince  Eugene  obtained  a  great 
victory  over  the  Grand  Vizier  Ali.  The 
Hungarians  were  compelled  to  surrender 
the  fortress  to  the  Austrians  in  Septem- 
ber, 1849. 

PETIOLE,  the  leaf  stalk  of  a  plant, 
the  part  connecting  the  blade  with  the 
stem.  It  is  generally  half  cylindrical, 
often  channeled  above,  but  in  some  mono- 
cotyledons it  is  cylindrical,  and  in  others 
it  is  a  sheath. 

PETITION,  an  entreaty,  a  request,  a 
supplication,  a  prayer;  a  solemn,  earnest, 
or  formal  prayer  of  entreaty  addressed 
to  the  Supreme  Being,  or  to  a  superior  in 
rank  and  power.  A  single  article,  or 
several,  in  a  prayer;  as,  the  several  peti- 
tions of  the  Lord's  Prayer.  A  formal 
written  request  or  application  made  to 
one  vested  with  authority,  or  to  a  legis- 
lative or  administrative  body,  soliciting 
a  favor,  grant,  right,  or  act  of  mercy. 
The  paper  or  document  containing  such 
request  or  application;  especially  applied 


PETITION    OF    RIGHT 


209 


PETRARCH 


in  legal  language  to  an  application  to  a 
court  or  judge,  as  a  petition  for  a  divorce. 

PETITION  OF  RIGHT,  a  declaration 
of  the  rights  of  the  people  put  forward 
by  the  Parliament  of  England  in  the 
third  year  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  and 
assented  to  by  him.  They  are:  (1) 
That  no  man  be  compelled  to  pay  any 
moneys  to  the  state  without  common 
consent  by  act  of  Parliament.  (2) 
That  no  person  be  imprisoned  for  refus- 
ing the  same,  nor  any  freeman  be  im- 
prisoned without  any  cause  showed,  to 
which  he  might  make  answer.  (3) 
That  soldiers  and  mariners  be  not  bil- 
leted in  the  houses  of  the  people.  (4) 
That  commissions  be  no  more  issued  for 
punishing  by  the  summary  process  of 
martial  law. 

PETLURA,  SIMON,  nationalist  leader 
of  the  Ukrainians,  or  Little  Russians; 
born  in  Poltava,  south  Russia,  1880,  son 
of  a  coachman,  educated  in  the  lower 
clerical  schools,  then  expelled  from  the 
higher  schools  because  of  his  revolution- 
ary activities.  Inspired  a  peasant  upris- 
ing in  the  Ukraine  in  1902,  through  a 
pamphlet  entitled  "Uncle  Mitra."  The 
repression  of  the  rebellion  was  followed 
by  his  flight  into  Austrian  Galicia.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  war,  in  1914,  he  en- 
listed with  the  workers  behind  the  lines 
in  the  Zemstvo  Union,  for  which  he  did 
good  service  until  the  revolution  which 
dethroned  the  Czar.  It  was  not  till  the 
overthrow  of  the  Kerensky  government 
that  he  became  an  open  advocate  of  a 
separate  national  government  for  the 
Ukraine.  When  the  Germans  obtained 
control  of  the  Ukraine,  through  the  Sko- 
ropadsky  government,  Petlura  was  im- 
prisoned, and  remained  in  prison  until 
the  German  defeat  brought  about  the 
do\vnfall  of  Skoropadsky.  The  National 
Ukrainian  Union,  composed  of  the  peas- 
antry who  desired  an  independent  na- 
tional life,  then  set  up  a  government 
represented  by  an  executive  committee 
of  four,  chief  of  which  was  Petlura.  On 
Dec.  21,  1918,  Petlura,  having  organized 
an  army  in  the  name  of  this  government, 
entered  Kiev,  the  capital.  Though  a  So- 
cialist by  sympathy,  Petlura  resisted  the 
advance  of  the  forces  of  the  Bolshevist 
Soviet  Government.  He  was,  on  the 
other  hand,  also  hostile  to  the  reactionary 
forces  under  Denikine.  He  was  driven 
cfut  of  Kiev  by  the  Bolshevist  forces  in 
the  summer  of  1919.  Early  in  1920,  he 
reached  an  agreement  with  the  Polish 
Government,  whereby  he  joined  forces 
with  the  Poles  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
pelling the  Soviet  armies  from  the 
Ukraine.  Early  in  May,  1920,  his  forces, 
together  with  the  Polish  army,  entered 
and  took  possession  of  Kiev. 


PETRA,  a  ruined  city,  formerly  the 
Nabathaean  capital  of  Arabia  Petraea,  in 
a  narrow  valley  of  the  Wady  Musa,  about 
110  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Jerusalem.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  place  of  considerable 
extent  and  great  magnificence,  for  its 
ruins,  partly  temples,  etc.,  cut  out  of  the 
solid  rock,  cover  a  large  space.  It  seems 
to  have  been  the  Joktheel  of  the  Old 
Testament,  taken  by  Amaziah  from  the 
Edomites. 

PETRARCH,  FRANCESCO  PETRAR- 

CA,  an  Italian  poet;  born  in  Arezzo, 
Italy,  in  1304.  His  father,  a  friend  of 
Dante,  and,  like  him,  an  exile  from  Flor- 
ence, settled  afterward  at  Avignon,  and 
brought  him  up  to  the  law,  for  which  he 
had  no  relish.  He  studied  at  Montpellier 
and  Bologna  and  afterward  returned  to 
Avignon,  where  his  deep,  hopeless  pas- 
sion for  the  beautiful  Laura  gave  shape 
and  color  to  the  rest  of  his  life.  ^  Pe- 
trarch took  part  in  the  political  affairs  of 
his  time,  was  the  friend  of  popes  and 
princes,  and  was  employed  in  many  im- 


FRANCESCO   PETRARCH 

portant  negotiations.  He  rendered  very 
great  service  to  literature  and  learning 
by  his  diligent  researches  for,  and  col» 
lections  of,  ancient  manuscripts  and 
other  remains;  and  by  the  gift  of  his 
books  to  the  Church  of  St.  Mark,  Venice, 
he  became  the  founder  of  its  famous 
library.  He  was  the  friend  of  Boccaccio, 
who  shares  with  him  the  honor  of  reviv- 
ing classical  literature,  and  of  Rienzi. 
In  1341  Petrarch  was  crowned  laureate 
in  the  capitol  of  Rome.  Petrarch  was  at 
Rome  during  the  Jubilee  of  1350;  lived 
afterward    at   Vaucluse,    Milan,   Padua, 


PETBEL 


210 


PETROLEUM 


Venice,  and,  in  1370,  removed  to-  Arqua, 
in  the  Euganean  Hills.  His  works  are 
partly  in  Italian  and  partly  in  Latin. 
His  Italian  "Sonnets,"  "Canzoni,"  and 
''Triumphs,"  all  sweet,  exquisite,  glow- 
ing variations  on  one  theme,  Laura, 
have  placed  him  as  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated of  poets.  He  modeled  the  Ital- 
ian sonnet,  and  gave  to  it,  and  to  other 
forms  of  lyrical  poetry,  an  admirable 
polish,  diction  and  melody.  After  long 
continued  ill  health,  he  died  sitting 
among  his  books,  July  18,  1374. 

PETREL,  a  popular  name  for  any 
individual  of  the  family  Procellariidse, 
small  oceanic  birds  of  dusky  plumage, 
nocturnal  in  habit,  widely  distributed, 
but  most  abundant  in  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere. They  are  considered  by  sailors 
as  the  harbingers  of  stormy  weather. 
Many  of  them  nidificate  in  holes  and  the 
majority  lay  but  one  egg,  usually  white. 
(Est7'elata  hesitata,  the  capped  petrel 
whose  habitat  is  the  West  Indian 
Islands,  has  been  met  with  in  Hungary. 
Procellaria  (Thalassidroma)  pelagica  is 
Mother  Carey's  chicken,  or  the  storm 
petrel ;_  Cymochorea  leucorrhoa  is  the 
fork-tailed,  or  Leach's  petrel ;  and  Ocean- 
ites  oceanicus  is  Wilson's  petrel. 

PETRIE,  WILLIAM  MATTHEW 
FLINDERS,  an  English  Egyptologist, 
grandson  of  Captain  Flinders,  the  Aus- 
tralian explorer;  born  June  3,  1853.  He 
made  measurements  of  prehistoric  monu- 
ments in  Great  Britain  (1875-1880); 
discovered  and  excavated  the  Grseco- 
Egyptian  city  of  Naukratis,  in  the  Delta ; 
and  examined  the  interior  of  the  pyra- 
mids at  Hawara  and  Illahun.  The  re- 
sults of  his  researches  are  found  in 
"Stonehenge:  Plans,  etc."  (1881);  "Pyra- 
mids and  Temples  of  Gizeh"  (1883); 
"Tanis"  (1885-1888)  ;  "Ten  Years'  Dig- 
gings in  Egypt"  (1892),  a  popular  sum- 
mary of  his  Egyptian  work;  "Six  Tem- 
ples at  Thebes"  (1897);  "Researches  in 
Sinai"  (1906);  "Arts  and  Crafts  in 
Egypt"  (1909);  "Egypt  and  Israel 
(1911);  "Tools  and  Weapons"  (1917). 
Professor  of  Egyptology,  University  Col- 
lege, London. 

PETRIFACTION,  the  act  or  process 
of  petrifying  or  changing  into  a  stone; 
the  state  of  being  petrified;  conversion 
of  any  organic  matter,  animal  or  vege- 
table, into  stone,  or  a  substance  of 
stony  hardness.  A  "petrifaction"  is  not, 
strictly  speaking,  a  transformation  of 
the  original  animal  or  plant  into  stone. 
It  IS  merely  a  replacement  of  the  organic 
tissue  by  mineral  substance.  As  each 
particle  of  the  plant  or  animal  decays  and 
disappears  its  place  is  taken,  usually  in 
water  or  mud,  by  a  particle  of  mineral 


matter  deposited  from  the  water  which 
has  held  it  in  suspension.  Thus  the 
perishable  original  is  changed  into  im- 
perishable stone.  By  such  means  have 
the  skeletons  of  animals  millions  of  years 
old  been  preserved  in  the  rocks  of  the 
everlasting  hills.  In  the  same  way  whole 
forests  of  trees  in  the  Yellowstone  re- 
gion and  elsewhere  are  changed  into 
agate  and  other  forms  of  stone,  the  hol- 
low logs  of  the  forest  primeval  being 
often  found  filled  with  beautiful  crystals 
of  quartz  and  amethyst. 

PETROGRAD,  the  name  given  St. 
Petersburg,  the  capital  of  the  Russian 
Empire,  following  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War  in  1914.  The  estimated  popu- 
lation in  1920  was  600,000. 

PETROGRAPHY,  the  art  of  writing 
on  stone.  Also  the  study  of  rocks;  a 
scientific  description  of  or  treatise  on 
rocks ;  that  branch  of  geology  which  deals 
with  the  constitution  of  rocks;  petrology. 

PETROLATUM.  Vaseline,  petroleum 
jelly.  A  pale  yellow  to  amber  colored, 
oily,^  translucent,  semi-solid  substance, 
obtained  by  purifying  the  residue  from 
the  distillation  of  petroleum.  Soluble  in 
all  common  oil  solvents,  slightly  soluble 
in  alcoholj  insoluble  in  water.  Used  in 
medicine,  in  the  manufacture  of  shoe  and 
metal  polishes,  and  as  a  lubricant. 
^  Liquid  Petrolatu'in  is  a  colorless,  oily 
liquid,  obtained  from  petrolatum,  and 
consists  of  the  fraction  distilling  be- 
tween 330°  and  390°  C.  It  is  chiefly 
used  in  medicine  as  an  emollient. 

PETROLEUM,  a  natural  oil  found  in 
the  earth,  composed  mainly  of  hydro- 
carbons. Its  existence  has  been  known 
since  earliest  times,  but  it  was  found  in 
large  quantities  only  following  its  dis- 
covery in  Pennsylvania  in  1850.  Since 
that  time  there  has  been  rapid  develop- 
ment in  its  production.  There  was  a  dis- 
covery of  oil  fields  in  the  United  States, 
in  Mexico,  in  Russia,  and  in  Rumania. 
These  are  the  chief  producing  countries, 
although  oil  is  found  in  many  other 
places  on  the  earth's  surface. 

The  chief  feature  in  recent  years  has 
been  the  development  of  new  oil  fields  in 
the  mid-west  part  of  the  United  States 
and  in  California.  In  1919  377,719,000 
barrels  of  petroleum  were  marketed. 
The  total  production  in  1919  was  380,- 
000,000  barrels.  Of  this  over  100,000,- 
000  barrels  came  from  California,  116,- 
000,000  barrels  from  the  Oklahoma- 
Kansas  fields,  68,000,000  barrels  from 
the  central  and  north  Texas  fields,  and 
the  remainder  from  the  Gulf  Coast  and 
Rocky  Mountain  fields.  The  consump- 
tion of  domestic  crude  petroleum  in  1919 


PETROLEUSE 


211 


PFENNIG 


in  the  United  States  was  375,000,000 
barrels. 

The  development  of  the  internal  com- 
bustion engine,  driven  by  gasoline,  has 
resulted  in  the  growth  of  a  great  indus- 
try in  the  production  of  gasoline,  which 
is  a  by-product  of  petroleum.  The  in- 
creased use  of  petroleum  as  fuel  oil  has 
greatly  increased  the  consumption.  The 
fuel  oil  consumption  of  railroads  alone 
amount  to  about  40  million  barrels 
yearly.  The  gasoline  production  in  1919 
was  about  3,500,000,000  gallons. 

Mexico  is  one  of  the  great  petroleum 
countries.  In  1919  the  production  was 
nearly  100  million  barrels.  The  produc- 
tion in  Russia  decreased  greatly  on  ac- 
count of  the  conditions  resulting  from 
the  war. 

The  possibility  of  the  exhaustion  of 
petroleum  fields  in  the  United  States  has 
received  considerable  attention  and  steps 
are  being  taken  to  conserve  the  supply 
as  far  as  possible,  or  to  provide  for  the 
control  of  other  fields  from  which  addi- 
tional supplies  can  be  obtained.  The 
world  production  of  petroleum  in  1917 
was  506,702,902  barrels,  of  which  about 
335,000,000  barrels  were  produced  in  the 
United  States. 

PETROLEUSE,  a  name  given  to  the 
women  of  the  French  Commune  in  1871, 
accused  of  helping  to  burn  the  Tuileries, 
city  hall,  and  other  public  buildings  by 
pouring  petroleum  on  them.  The  charge 
has  been  denied  by  some  historians. 

PETROLOGY,  the  study  of  the  miner- 
alogical  and  chemical  composition  of 
rocks ;  including  the  various  changes  they 
have  undergone  through  physical  and 
chemical  agencies,  either  combined  or 
separate.  Macroscopic  and  microscopic 
examination,  together  with  chemical  an- 
alysis, are  the  methods  pursued. 

PETROPAVLOVSK,  a  town  of  Asiatic 
Russia,  in  the  province  of  Akmolinsk,  on 
the  river  Ishim,  175  miles  W.  N.  W.  of 
Omsk.  It  is  an  important  military  sta- 
tion, with  a  fort  founded  in  1752,  and 
has  a  large  transit  trade.  Pop.  (1913) 
42,340. 

PETROPAVLOVSKI,  a  fortified  town 
on  the  E.  coast  of  Kamchatka,  was  at- 
tacked by  an  English  and  French  squad- 
ron, Aug.  30,  1854.  They  destroyed  the 
batteries,  but  failed  in  taking  some  Rus- 
sian frigates,  except  the  "Sitka,"  a  store 
ship  and  the  "Pique."  Admiral  Price 
was  killed.  A  party  of  700  sailors  and 
marines  landed  to  assault  the  place,  but 
fell  into  an  ambuscade ;  many  were  killed, 
including  Captain  Parker  and  M.  Bou- 
rasset,  English  and  French  officers.  The 
objects  of  the  attack  were  not  attained. 


After  this  the  Russians  greatly  strength- 
ened their  defenses,  but  on  May  30,  1855, 
the  allied  squadron  in  the  Pacific  arriv- 
ing here  found  the  place  deserted.  The 
fortifications  were  destroyed,  but  the 
town  was  spared.  The  Russian  ships 
escaped. 

PETROZAVODSK,  a  town  of  Russia, 
on  the  W.  shore  of  Lake  Onega,  300  miles 
N.  E.  of  St.  Petersburg,  has  a  cannon 
foundry  and  small-arms  factory,  built  in 
1774. 

PETUNIA,  a  genus  of  American  her- 
baceous plants,  natural  order  Solanacex, 
nearly  allied  to  tobacco.  They  are  much 
prized  by  horticulturists  for  the  beauty 
of  their  flowers. 

PEWTER.  The  finer  pewter  is  an 
alloy  of  12  parts  tin,  one  part  anti- 
mony, and  a  small  quantity  of  copper; 
the  coarser,  of  80  parts  tin  and  20  of 
lead.  The  same  ingredients  as  the  finer 
pewter,  but  in  different  proportions  (nine 
of  tin  to  one  of  antimony)  constitute 
Britannia  metal.  Pewter  is  a  name  also 
for  a  polishing  material  used  by  marble 
workers  and  derived  from  the  calcination 
of  tin. 

PEZET,  FEDERICO  ALFONSO,  a 
Peruvian  diplomat.  He  was  born  in 
London,  England,  in  1859,  and  there 
partly  educated,  later  going  to  Peru, 
and  serving  in  the  war  with  Chile.  In 
1886  he  became  consul  at  Panama,  and 
later  in  England  and  New  York.  He 
was  Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  Panama 
in  1909,  and  from  that  year  to  1912 
special  envoy  to  Central  America  and 
Panama.  In  1912  he  became  minister 
to  the  United  States.  His  books  include : 
"Peru:  Its  Commerce  and  Resources"; 
"The  Question  of  the  Pacific";  "What 
the  Panama  Canal  Means  to  Peru." 

PFAFERS,  hot  springs  in  the  canton 
of  St.  Gall,  Switzerland,  in  the  deep  and 
gloomy  gorge  of  the  Tamina  torrent, 
which  joins  the  Rhine  at  Ragatz,  2V^ 
miles  to  the  N.  They  were  discovered 
toward  the  middle  of  the  11th  century, 
and  have  been  used  ever  since.  The  wa- 
ter is  conducted  in  pipes  to  Ragatz, 
though  there  are  bath  houses  (1704)  in 
the  ravine.  Near  the  village  of  Pfafers, 
which  stands  above  and  outside  the  ra- 
vine, is  a  Benedictine  abbey,  founded  in 
the  8th  century,  but  converted  into  a 
lunatic  asylum  after  its  dissolution  in 
1838. 

PFENNIG,  or  PFENNING,  a  small 
copper  coin  of  various  values,  current  in 
Germany  and  the  neighboring  states. 
The  pfennig  of  the  German  empire  is  the 
hundredth  part  of  the  mark. 


PFLEIDEBER 


212 


PHALAROPE 


PFLEIDERER,  OTTO,  a  German 
theologian;  born  in  Stetten,  Wiirttem- 
berg,  Sept.  1,  1839;  studied  under  Baur, 
at  Tubingen,  from  1857  till  1861 ;  became 
pastor  at  Heilbronn  in  1868,  and  super- 
intendent at  Jena  in  1870,  exchanged  for 
the  chair  of  Theology  there.  In  1875  he 
was  called  to  be  Professor  of  Systematic 
Theology  at  Berlin.  In  New  Testament 
criticism  Pfleiderer  belonged  to  the 
younger  critical  school.  He  made  his 
name  as  well  known  in  England  and 
America  as  in  Germany  by  a  series  of 
works  which  no  serious  student  of  phi- 
losophy or  theology  can  afford  to  over- 
look. Of  the<5e  the  chief  are  "Religion, 
its  Essence  and  History"  (1869);  "Paul- 
inism"  (1873  English  translation  1877) ; 
"Philosophy  of  Religion"  (1878) :  "Out- 
lines of  Christian  Faith  and  Ethics" 
(1880) ;  "The  Development  of  Theology 
since  Kant"  (1880);  "The  Philosophy 
and  Development  of  Religion"  (1904). 
He  died  July  18,  1908. 

His  brother,  Edmund  Pfleiderer,  born 
in  Stetten  Oct.  12,  1842,  studied  at  Tiibin- 
gen;  was  made  Professor  of  Philosophy 
at  Kiel  in  1873,  whence  he  was  called  to 
Tubingen  in  1878.  His  writings  include 
"Studies  on  Leibnitz"  (1870)  ;  "On  Em- 
piricism and  Scepticism  in  Hume's  Phi- 
losophy" (1874);  "Modern  Pessimism" 
(1875) ;  "Kantian  Criticism  and  English 
Philosophy"  (1881);  "Lotze"  (2d  ed. 
1884);  "Heraclitus  of  Ephesus"  (1886), 
etc.    He  died  April  2,  1902. 

PFORZHEIM,  a  manufacturing  town 
of  Baden;  at  the  JN.  border  of  the 
Black  Forest,  20  miles  S.  E.  of  Carls- 
ruhe.  In  contains  the  remains  of  an 
ancient  castle,  from  1300  to  1565  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Margraves  of  Baden-Dur- 
lach,  and  was  the  birthplace  of  Reuchlin. 
The  town  is  famous  for  the  manufacture 
of  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  has  chemi- 
cal and  iron  works,  machine-shops,  tan- 
neries, paper  and  other  factories.  There 
is  a  trade  in  timber,  cattle,  ornaments, 
etc.  The  town  was  burned  by  the  French 
in  1689.     Pop.  about  50,000. 

PH^DO,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  Elis, 
who  flourished  about  400  B.  C,  was 
originally  a  slave,  but  obtained  his  free- 
dom_  by  the  interest  of  Socrates,  whose 
disciple  he  became,  and  remained  with 
him  till  his  death.  After  this  he  settled 
at  his  native  place,  where  he  founded  a 
school  of  philosophy. 

PHAETON,  in  Greek  mythology,  ac- 
cording to  Ovid,  a  son  of  the  sun,  or 
Phoebus.  Venus  became  enamored  of 
him,  and  intrusted  him  with  the  care  ot 
one  of  her  temples.  This  favor  rendered 
him  vain,  and  led  to  his  asking  his 
father's  permission  to  drive  his  chariot 


one  day.  Phoebus  represented  the  dan- 
gers to  which  this  would  expose  him ;  but 
in  vain.  He  undertook  the  aerial  jour- 
ney. The  flying  horses  immediately  de- 
parted from  the  usual  track.  Phaeton 
repented  too  late  of  his  rashness;  heaven 
and  earth  were  threatened  with  a  uni- 
versal conflagration,  when  Jupiter  struck 
the  rider  with  a  thunderbolt,  and  hurled 
him  headlong  down  into  the  river  Po. 
His  body,  consumed  with  fire,  was  found 
by  the  nymphs  of  the  place.  There  was 
a  drama  by  Euripides  on  Phaeton.  Also 
an  open  carriage  like  a  chaise,  on  four 
wheels,  and  drawn  by  two  horses. 

PHAGOCYTES  (leucocites) ,  micro- 
scopic masses  of  protoplasm  capable  of 
ameboid  movements,  occurring  in  the 
blood  lymph,  and  bone  marrow,  where 
they  absorb  and  assimilate  bacteria  and 
microbes  appearing  therein. 

PHALANGES,,  in  zoology,  the  popular 
English  name  for  any  individual  of  the 
sub-family  Phalangistinse.  Phalangers 
are  small  woolly-coated  marsupials,  with 
opposable  great  toes,  which  are  destitute 
of  a  nail.  They  are,  for  the  most  part, 
vegetable  feeders,  though  some  are  in- 
sectivorous. They  may  be  grouped  in 
two  classes,  those  with,  and  those  with- 
out, a  flying  membrane. 

PHALANX,  in  Greek  antiquities,  the 
close  order  of  battle  in  which  the  heavy- 
armed  troops  of  a  Grecian  army  were 
usually  drawn  up.  In  anatomy,  pha- 
langes or  phalanxes  are  the  small  bones 
of  the  fingers  and  toes,  so  called  from 
their  regular  disposition.  Normally 
each  digit  has  three  phalanxes.  Called 
also  internodes. 

PHALARIS,  a  small  genus  of  grasses, 
of  which  the  seed  of  one  of  the  species,  P. 
canariensis,  or  canary  grass,  is  exten- 
sively employed  as  food  for  birds,  and 
commonly  known  as  canary  seed. 

PHALAROPE,  the  popular  name  of 
any  individual  of  the  genus  Phalaropus, 
extending  throughout  northern  Europe 
and  northern  Asia.  The  red  or  red- 
necked phalarope  (P.  hyperboreus) , 
about  the  size  of  a  sandpiper,  has  the 
upper  parts  blackish-grray,  the  feathers 
edged  with  red,  sides  of  the  neck  chest- 
nut; thorax,  breast,  and  belly  white. 
The  gray  phalarope  (P.  fulicarhts)  is  so 
called  from  the  prevailing  hue  of  its 
winter  plumage;  in  summer  the  upper 
parts  exhibit  a  mixture  of  black,  white, 
and  yellow;  breast  and  under  parts  red- 
dish chestnut.  It  is  rather  larger  than 
the  first  species.  Wilson's  phalarope  (P. 
wilsonii)  is  a  North  American  bird;  the 
lobes  of  the  toes  have  a  narrower  bor- 
der, and  the  legs  are  longer  and  slenderer 


PHALLISM 


213 


PHASCOLOMTS 


than  in  the  other  species.  They  feed  on 
minute  Crustacea,  and  their  flesh  is  oily 
and  unpalatable. 

PHALLISM,  the  worship  of  the  fer- 
tilizings power  of  nature  under  the  symbol 
of  the  phallus.  The  idea  that  natural 
productions  were  engendered  in  a  manner 
akin  to  the  propagation  of  man  and  the 
lower  animals  is  poetically  expressed  by 
Vergil  and  Lucretius.  Phallism  appears 
to  have  been  at  first  an  independent  cult, 
but  was  afterward  adopted  into  other 
forms  of  worship.  The  Phoenicians  as- 
cribed its  introduction  into  their  wor- 
ship to  Adonis;  the  Egyptians  to  Osiris, 
the  Phrygians  to  Atys,  and  the  Greeks  to 
Dionysos. 

PHARAOH,  the  name  borne  in  the 
Bible  by  10  kings  of  Egypt;  the  best 
known  of  which  are,  the  monarch  to 
whom  Joseph  explained  his  dream,  and 
who  loaded  him  with  honors ;  he  who  com- 
menced the  persecution  of  the  Hebrews, 
and  who  put  to  death  all  the  male  chil- 
dren; and  he  who  was  summoned  by 
Moses  to  permit  of  the  departure  of  the 
Hebrew  people,  and  who  was  afterward 
drowned,  with  all  his  host,  in  the  waters 
of  the  Red  Sea. 

PHARISEES,  the  most  numerous  of 
the  three  divisions  or  orders  of  Judaism 
in  the  time  of  Christ,  the  other  two  be- 
ing the  Essenes  and  the  Sadducees. 
They  were  so  called  because  they  kept 
aloof  from  Levitically  impure  food,  sepa- 
rated themselves  from  the  lawless  people 
of  the  land,  and  united  to  keep  the 
Mosaie  law.  They  arose  immediately 
after  the  return  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity.  As  all  the  students  of  the 
law  naturally  joined  this  association,  the 
appellation  Member,  Associate,  chaber,  or 
Pharisee,  parush,  became  synonymous 
with  student,  disciple,  lawyer,  scribe. 
Accordingly,  they  represented  the  na- 
tional faith  of  orthodox  Judaism.  Some 
Pharisees  fell  into  extravagances,  and 
laid  more  stress  on  trifling  and  petty 
formulse  than  on  the  spirit  of  the  law, 
to  whom  the  rebukes  of  Christ  refer,  and 
who  have  given  rise  to  the  term  Pharisee 
being  used  as  synonymous  with  a  strict 
observer  of  external  forms  of  religion 
without  the  spirit  of  it.     See  Sadducee. 

PHARMACOPCEIA,  a  book  contain- 
ing the  prescriptions  for  the  preparatj'^n 
of  medicines  recognnized  by  the  general 
body  of  practitioners.  Up  till  1863  sepa- 
rate pharmacopoeias  were  issued  by  the 
Colleges  of  Physicians  of  London,  Edin- 
burgh, and  Dublin.  Since  then  a  British 
pharmacopoeia,  issued  by  the  medical 
council  of  the  kingdom,  is  recognized  by 
the   whole   medical   profession   of  Great 


Britain.     There    is    also    an    American 
pharmacopoeia. 

PHARMACY,  or  PHARMACEUTICS, 
the  art  of  preparing,  compounding,  and 
combining  substances  for  medical  pur- 
poses; the  art  of  the  apothecary. 

PHARNACES,  a  King  of  Pontus;  the 
son  of  Pontus,  the  son  of  Mithridates  V., 
and  grandfather  of  Mithridates  the 
Great.  He  made  war  against  the  King 
of  Pergamus,  and  reigned  between  190- 
157  B.  C. 

PHARNACES,  King  of  the  Cimmerian 
Bosporus;  son  of  Mithridates  VL,  King  of 
Pontus,  and  revolted  with  the  army 
against  his  father,  who  slew  himself  in 
despair,  63  b.  c.  Pharnaces  cultivated 
the  friendship  of  the  Romans,  and  in  the 
war  between  Caesar  and  Pompey,  he  re- 
mained neutral;  but  Caesar  declared  war 
against  and  defeated  him  47  B.  c,  after 
a  struggle  of  three  days  only.  It  was 
on  that  occasion  that  Caesar  wrote  to  the 
Roman  senate,  in  allusion  to  his  easy 
triumph:  "I  came,  saw,  and  conquered" 
(Veni,  vidi,  vici) .  Pharnaces  died 
shortly   afterward. 

PHAROS,  a  lighthouse.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  island  of  Pharos,  close 
to  and  now  part  of  Alexandria,  which 
protected  the  port  of  that  city.  On  the 
E.  promontory  of  the  island  stood  the 
lighthouse  of  Alexandria,  so  famous  in 
antiquity,  and  considered  one  of  the  won- 
ders of  the  world,  built  300  years  B.  c. 

PHARSALUS,  now  Fersala,  a  town 
of  Thessaly,  to  the  S.  of  Larissa,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Salambria,  and  accord- 
ingly in  the  part  of  Thessaly  restored  to 
Greece  in  1881.  The  district,  Pharsalia, 
is  historically  notable  mainly  for  Caesar's 
great  victory  over  Pompey  on  Aug.  9, 
48  B.  c. 

PHARYNX,  the  dilated  commence- 
ment of  the  gullet.  There  may  be  a  dif- 
fused erysipelatous  inflammation,  an 
ordinary  or  a  syphilitic  ulcer  of  the 
pharynx,  or  foreign  bodies  may  become 
imbedded  in  it. 

PHASCOLOMYS,  wombat,  the  sole 
genus  of  the  family  Phascolomyidie. 
Tail  rudimentary;  stomach  simple;  cae- 
cum very  short,  wide,  and  with  a  pecu- 
liar vermiform  appendage.  Three  species 
are  known ;  they  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups:  (1)  P.  wmnhat  and  P.  platy- 
rhinus,  the  common  and  broad-nosed 
wombats;  and  (2)  P.  latifrons,  the 
hairy-nosed  wombat.  They  are  terrestrial, 
burrowing  animals,  vegetable  feeders, 
from  the  S.  of  Australia,  Tasmania,  and 
the  islands  of  Bass'  Straits. 


PHASE 


214 


PHEASANT 


PHASE,  or  PHASIS,  in  astronomy, 
one  of  the  gradual  changes  undergone  by 
the  moon  in  passing  from  an  unillumined 
state  (new  moon)  through  that  of  a  con- 
tinually broadening  crescent  to  a  com- 
plete orb  (full  moon),  and  back  to  new 
moon  again.  Similar  phases  are  under- 
gone by  the  inferior  planets,  Mercury  and 
Venus,  though,  o^ving  to  their  small  size 
and  the  excessive  brightness  of  the  latter 
planet  under  the  telescope,  the  phenom- 
enon is  not  so  easily  seen.  In  mineral- 
ogy,     transparent      green      quartz.     In 


etc.  In  physiology,  the  several  changes 
which  the  human  and  other  organisms 
undergo  in  the  progress  from  birth  to 
maturity,  and  thence  again  to  decline  and 
death. 

PHASIS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  river 
in  Colchis,  now  called  Rion  or  Faz.  It 
rises  in  the  Caucasus,  and  flows  W.  into 
the  Euxine  near  the  ancient  city  of 
Phasis. 

PHEASANT,  Phasianus  colchicus, 
and,  more  widely,  any  bird  of  the  sub- 


MONGOLIAN  PHEASANT 


physics,  any  one  point  or  portion  in  a 
recurring  series  of  changes,  especially 
when  contrasted  with  another  point,  as, 
the  phases^  in  the  waves  of  vibration,  in 
the  tides,  in  the  motion  of  a  pendulum, 


family  Phasianinas.  The  common  Euro- 
pean pheasant  probably  had  its  original 
home  in  the  East.  It  was  esteemed  by 
epicures,  but  was  then  only  within  reach 
of  the  wealthy.     It  is  one  of  the  most 


PHELAN 


215 


PHI    BETA    KAPPA 


highly  prized  game  birds.  The  adult 
male  pheasant  is  a  beautiful  bird,  about 
three  feet  long.  Head  and  neck  deep 
steel-blue,  shot  with  greenish-purple  and 
brown;  eye  surrounded  by  a  patch  of 
scarlet  skin,  speckled  with  blue-black; 
ear-coverts  brown;  back  a  light  golden- 
red,  the  feathers  of  the  upper  part  tipped 
with  velvet-black,  of  the  lower  part 
marked  with  brown.  Quill  feathers 
brown,  of  various  shades,  tail  feathers 
oaken-brown,  barred  with  a  darker  shade 
and  with  black.  Breast  and  front  of  the 
abdomen  golden-red  with  purple  reflec- 
tions, feathers  edged  with  black;  rest  of 
abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts  blackish- 
brown.  The  female  has  yellowish-brown 
plumage,  and  is  about  two  feet  in  length. 
Other  species  known  respectively  as 
Shaws,  the  Yarkand,  the  Mongolian,  the 
ring-necked,  the  Formosan,  the  ringless 
Chinese,  the  Japanese,  the  green-backed 
golden,  Wallich's,  Reeves',  and  Soemmer- 
ing's  pheasant,  the  golden,  Lady  Am- 
herst's pheasant  and  silver  pheasant. 

PHELAN,  JAMES  DUVAL,  United 
States  Senator  from  California.  Born 
in  San  Francisco  April,  1861;  graduated 
from  St.  Ignatius  College,  1881.  Al- 
though a  lawyer,  most  of  his  time  has 
been  occupied  with  the  affairs  of  his  city, 
state  and  nation.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  relief  work  which  took  place 
after  the  great  fire  in  San  Francisco,  and 
from  1896-1902  was  mayor  of  that  city. 
In  1913  President  Wilson  appointed  him 
special  commissioner  to  deal  with  Santo 
Domingo  affairs.  In  1915  the  Democrats 
of  California  sent  him  to  the  Senate. 

PHELPS,  AUSTIN,  an  American  cler- 
gyman and  author,  born  in  West  Brook- 
field,  Mass.,  Jai\,  7,  1820.  He  was  pas- 
tor of  the  Pin^  Street  Congregational 
Church,  Boston,  in  1842-1848;  and  Pro- 
fessor of  Sacred  Rhetoric  in  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  in  1848-1879. 
He  was  noted  as  an  original  writer  and 
an  eloquent  preacher.  His  works  in- 
clude: "The  Still  Hour"  (1859);  "The 
New  Birth"  (1867);  "Men  and  Books" 
(1882);  "English  Style  in  Public  Dis- 
course" (1883).  He  died  in  Bar  Harbor, 
Me.,  Oct.  13,  1890. 

PHELPS,  EDWARD  JOHN,  an  Amer- 
ican diplomatist;  born  in  Middlebury,  Vt., 
July  11,  1822;  was  graduated  at  Middle- 
bury  College  in  1840;  studied  at  the  Yale 
Law  School;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1843;  and  settled  in  Burlington  in  1845. 
In  1851  he  was  appointed  Comptroller 
of  the  Treasury.  In  1881-1885  he  was 
Professor  of  Law  in  the  Yale  Law  School 
and  also  lecturer  on  constitutional  law  in 
Boston  University.     He  was  minister  to 


England  in  1885-1889.  During  the  Ber- 
ing Sea  dispute  he  was  senior  counsel  for 
the  United  States.  He  died  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  March  9,  1900. 

PHELPS,  ELIZABETH  STUART. 
See  Ward,  Elizabeth  Stuart  (Phelps). 

PHELPS,  WILLIAM  LYON,  author 
and  university  professor.  Bom  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  in  1865;  graduated  from 
Yale  in  the  class  of  1887,  receiving  his 
doctor's  degree  four  years  later  from  the 
same  university.  The  year  following  he 
became  an  instructor  in  English  at  Yale 
University  and  in  1901  Lampson  profes- 
sor of  English  language  and  literature. 
He  has  edited  many  school  and  college 
textbooks  in  English  as  well  as  reviewed 
many  works  for  periodicals.  He  wrote 
several  volumes  of  essays  on  the  English 
classics,  especially  the  novelists. 

PHENACETIN,  a  drug  prepared  from 
carbolic  acid,  valuable  in  fevers,  and, 
like  antipyrin,  of  service  in  stilling  pain 
and  securing  rest  in  cases  of  severe  head- 
aches, insomnia,  and  nervousness. 

PHENOL,  a  name  for  Carbolic  Acid 
iq.v.). 

PHER^,  a  powerful  city  of  Thessaly, 
near  Mount  Pelion;  according  to  legend, 
the  ancient  royal  seat  of  Admetus  and 
Alcestis,  and  afterward  of  political  conse- 
quence under  "tyrants"  of  its  own,  who 
repeatedly  attempted  to  make  themselves 
masters  of  Thessaly. 

PHI  BETA  KAPPA,  the  oldest  of  the 
American  college  Greek-letter  societies. 
It  takes  its  name  from  the  initial  letters 
of  its  motto,  said  to  be  Philosophia  Biou 
Kubernetes,  "Philosophy  is  the  guide  of 
life."  It  was  founded  in  1776  in  the  old 
"Raleigh  Tavern"  at  Williamsburgh, 
Va.,  by  forty-four  undergraduates  of 
William  and  Mary  College,  of  whom 
John  Marshall  was  one.  Branches 
were  established  at  Yale  in  1780 
and  at  Harvard  in  1781,  and  to-day 
there  are  nearly  a  score  in  the  principal 
colleges  and  universities  of  the  Union. 
The  Phi  Beta  Kappa  is  now  simply  "an 
agreeable  bond  of  meeting  among  grad- 
uates." At  Harvard  there  is  an  annual 
Phi  Beta  Kappa  dinner,  oration,  and 
poem;  the  earliest  and  one  of  the  most 
striking  of  Edward  Everett's  great  ora- 
tions was  delivered  before  the  society, 
with  Lafayette  for  a  guest,  in  1824;  and 
among  the  early  poets  were  R.  T.  Paine 
("The  Ruling  Passion")  and  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes  (1829).  The  badge  of 
the  society  is  a  golden  watch  key  with 
the  initials  *BK.  Admission  to  mem- 
bership varies  with  different  cha]> 
ters. 


PHIDIAS 


216 


PHILADELPHIA 


PHIDIAS,  the  great  Greek  sculptor; 
born  in  Athens;  probably  between  490- 
480  B.  C.  He  began  to  distinguish  him- 
self about  464,  and  was  employed  in 
public  works  at  Athens  under  Cimon. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  intimate  friends 
of  Pericles,  under  whose  rule  he  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  all  the  great  temples 
and  monuments  which  were  to  be  erected 
in  the  city.  Of  these  the  most  important 
were  the  Parthenon,  or  temple  of  Athena, 
on  the  Acropolis,  and  the  Propylsea.     He 


PHIDIAS 

executed  a  colossal  statue  of  the  goddess 
for  the  interior  of  the  temple  with  his 
own  hand.  The  well-known  Elgin  Mar- 
bles of  the  British  Museum  were  the 
sculptured  decorations  of  that  unrivaled 
temple.  At  Olympia  he  executed  the 
most  magnificent  of  all  his  works — the 
statue  of  the  Olympian  Zeus.  Like  the 
Athena,  it  was  of  ivory  and  gold,  and 
nearly  60  feet  in  height.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  at  Constantinople,  whither 


it  had  been  carried  by  the  Emperor 
Theodosius.  Phidias  was  charged  with 
peculation  and  impiety  on  the  ground  of 
having  introduced  portraits  of  himself 
and  Pericles  on  the  shield  of  Athene. 
This  attack  was  made  on  him  as  the 
friend  of  Pericles.  The  prevailing  char- 
acteristic of  the  works  of  Phidias  appears 
to  have  been  an  ideal  sublimity  of  form 
never  since  equaled.  According  to  the 
generally  received  account,  he  died  in 
prison  432  B.  C. 

PHIGALIA,  an  ancient  town  of  Ar- 
cadia, situated  in  its  extreme  S.  W.  cor- 
ner. From  its  temple  of  Apollo,  at 
Bass£e,  5  to  6  miles  distant,  a  sculptured 
frieze  representing  the  contests  between 
the  Centaurs  and  Lapithse,  and  the  Ama- 
zons and  Greeks,  was  brought  to  the 
British  Museum  in  1812.  Next  to  the 
Theseum  at  Athens  it  is  the  most  perfect 
architectural  ruin  in  all  Greece.  It  was 
designed  by  Ictinus,  one  of  the  architects 
of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  and  meas- 
ured originally  125  V^  feet  long  and  48 
broad.  It  had  38  columns,  of  which  34 
still  stand. 

PHILADELPHIA,  a  city  coextensive 
with  Philadelphia  co..  Pa.,  on  the  Dela- 
ware and  Schuylkill  rivers,  and  on  the' 
Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia  and  Reading, 
and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroads;  85 
miles  S.  W.  of  New  York.  It  is  the  third 
largest  city  of  the  United  States;  area, 
130  square  miles;  pop.  (1910)  1,549,008; 
(1920)   1,823,779. 

Topography. — The  city  is  built  chiefly 
on  a  low  peninsula  between  the  two 
rivers.  In  the  portion  most  thickly  built 
up  the  highest  elevation  is  46  feet,  but 
rises  to  440  feet  in  the  suburbs.  It  ex- 
tends N.  and  S.  about  22  miles,  and  is 
from  5  to  10  miles  in  width.  There  is  a 
water  frontage  on  the  Delaware  river  of 
over  16  miles,  of  which  more  than  5  miles 
have  docks.  The  harbor  has  been  greatly 
improved  by  the  removal  of  the  islands  in 
the  middle  of  the  river,  and  in  front  of 
the  wharves  there  is  an  average  depth 
of  50  feet.  The  Schuylkill  river,  which 
runs  through  the  city,  is  navigable  for 
large  vessels  to  Walnut  street,  and  is 
crossed  by  many  bridges,  of  which  the 
most  costly  are  at  Walnut  street,  Gray's 
Ferry,  Spring  Garden  street,  and  Girard 
avenue.  Another  important  bridge  is 
the  Walnut  Lane  bridge  over  the  Wissa- 
hickon,  one  of  the  largest  ^  concrete 
bridges  in  the  world.  The  section  of  the 
city  W.  of  the  Schuylkill  is  locally  called 
West  Philadelphia;  another  noted  sec- 
tion is  known  as  (jermantown.  League 
Island,  containing  a  widely  noted  navy 
yard,  has  an  area  of  925  acres  and  lies 
just  above  the  mouth  of  the  Schuylkill. 


PHILADELPHIA 


217 


PHILADELPHIA 


Municipal  Imp^'ovements. — The  city 
owns  a  waterworks  sj'stem  which  cost 
about  $65,000,000.  They  have  a  daily 
capacity  of  320,000,000  gallons,  and  the 
water  is  distributed  through  1,800  miles 
of  mains.  There  are  in  all  1,733  miles 
of  streets,  of  which  1,549  are  paved. 
The  sewer  system  covers  1,386  miles. 
The  city  is  lighted  by  electricity  at  a  cost 
of  $1,244,696  per  annum.  The  average 
annual  cost  of  the  police  department  is 


of  the  Schuylkill  river,  and  more  than  6 
miles  on  both  banks  of  Wissahickon 
creek,  giving  it  an  area  of  over  3,000 
acres,  traversed  by  32^/^  miles  of  drive- 
ways. The  park  contains  four  reser- 
voirs of  the  Schuylkill  waterworks ;  Ran- 
dolph Rogers'  colossal  bronze  statue  of 
Abraham  Lincoln;  statues  of  Washing- 
ton, Garfield,  Grant  and  others;  the  man- 
sion (now  occupied  by  a  restaurant)  in 
which   Robert   Morris   lived   during  the 


INDEPENDENCE   HALL,   PHILADELPHIA 


almost  $5,000,000,  and  that  of  the  fire  de- 
partment $2,170,000.  The  annual  death 
rate  averages  24.19  per  1,000.  The  cost 
of  maintaining  the  city  government  in 
1919  was  $35,514,399.  Electric  street 
car  lines  traverse  the  principal  streets 
and  extend  to  the  various  suburbs. 

Fairmount  Park. — This  is  one  of  the 
largest  public  parks  in  the  world.  It  ex- 
tends more  than  7  miles  on  both  banks 


Revolutionary  War;  the  Solitude,  a  villa 
erected  by  John  Penn,  grandson  of  Wil- 
liam Penn,  in  1785;  the  Zoological  Gar- 
dens; Commercial  Museum;  Belmont 
Glen,  a  beautiful  ravine;  and  other  points 
of  interest.  In  1876  the  Centennial  Ex- 
position was  held  here.  Memorial  Hall, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  $1,500,000,  which 
was  used  for  the  art  gallery  of  the  Expo- 
sition, now  contains  a  permanent  indus- 


PHILADELPHIA 


218 


PHILADELPHIA 


trial  and  art  collection.  Here  also  is  the 
Horticultural  Building  filled  with  tropi- 
cal and  other  plants  and  surrounded  by 
35  acres  of  ground  devoted  to  horticul- 
ture. 

Notable  Buildings. — In  the  heart  of 
the  city,  at  the  intersection  of  Market 
and  Broad  streets,  stands  the  City  Hall, 
on  a  piece  of  ground  which  was  formerly 
Penn  Square.  This  great  structure, 
usually  called  the  Public  Buildings,  was 
built  of  white  marble  and  granite;  is 
4861/^  feet  long  by  470  wide;  contains  520 
rooms,  and  including  a  court  yard  200 
feet  square  in  the  center,  covers  an  area 
of  nearly  AVz  acres.  The  central  tower 
rises  to  a  height  of  547  feet,  3  inches, 
and  is  surrounded  by  a  colossal  statue  of 
William  Penn,  37  feet  in  height.  The 
total  cost  of  the  building  was  over  $20,- 
000,000.  Besides  this  there  are  many 
other  great  buildings  including  the 
Masonic  Temple,  costing  $2,000,000;  the 
United  States  mint;  the  postoffice;  the 
Bourse;  the  Stock  Exchange;  Independ- 
ence Hall,  famous  as  the  State  House  of 
the  colonial  period,  and  as  the  depository 
of  the  Liberty  Bell;  the  Pennsylvania 
Hospital,  covering  an  entire  square;  the 
building  of  the  Historical  Society  of 
Pennsylvania;  the  Philadelphia  Library, 
containing  upward  of  500,000  volumes; 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  containing  one  of 
the  most  extensive  collections  of  paint- 
ings, engravings,  bronzes,  and  sculptures 
m  the  United  States;  Odd  Fellows'  Hall; 
several  armories;  custom  house,  copied 
from  the  Parthenon,  and  considered  one 
of  the  best  samples  of  Doric  architecture 
m  the  world;  the  stations  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania, the  Philadelphia  and  Reading, 
and  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad?;  etc. 

Manufactures. — In  its  manufacturing 
products  Philadelphia  ranks  next  to  New 
York  and  Chicago.  There  are  upward 
of  8,000  manufacturing  establishments, 
with  more  than  250,000  employes.  The 
combined  output  amounts  to  more  than 
$750,000,000.  The  chief  products  are 
locomotives,  sugar  and  molasses,  men's 
clothing,  foundry  and  machine  shop  prod- 
ucts, carpets  and  rugs,  hosiery  and  knit 
goods,  woolen  and  cotton  goods,  morocco, 
chemicals,  packed  meat,  refined  petro- 
leum, and  silk  and  silk  goods.  The  great 
Cramp  shipbuilding  yards  are  on  the 
Delaware,  just  W.  of  the  heart  of  the 
city. 

Commerce.— In  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1920,  the  imports  of  merchan- 
dise aggregated  in  value  $219,167,601, 
and  the  exports  $449,691,705. 
.^-^^^^.s.— On  Sept.  12,  1919,  there  were 
29  National  banks  in  operation,  having  a 
o^^^JT^^^^^^P^*^^  ^^  $22,955,000;  surplus, 
$47,425,000;  loans  and  discounts,  $481,- 


256,000;  and  deposits  of  about  $400,000,- 
000.  The  exchange  at  the  United  States 
clearing  house,  in  the  year  ending  Sept. 
30,  1919,  aggregated  $21,320,246,000,  an 
increase  over  the  previous  year  of  $2,- 
392,202,000. 

Education. — At  the  close  of  the  school 
year  1918-1919  the  enrollment  in  the 
public  day  schools  was  221,069.  There 
were  5,884  teachers.  The  annual  cost  of 
maintaining  the  public  schools  was  $8,- 
510,501.  The  institutions  for  higher  edu- 
cation include:  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania; the  Jefferson  Medical  College; 
Woman's  Medical  College;  the  Hahne- 
mann Medical  College;  the  Philadelphia 
Polyclinic  and  College  for  Graduates; 
and  the  Medico-Chirurgical  College. 
There  are  several  colleges  of  dentistry, 
one  of  pharmacy  and  one  of  veterinary 
surgery.  There  are  also  Girard  College, 
which  was  founded  in  1831  by  Stephen 
Girard  for  white  orphan  boys^  Temple 
University,  and  the  Drexel  Institute. 

Churches  and  Institutions. — There  are 
more  than  700  churches  in  Philadelphia, 
representing  all  the  larger  denominations 
and  hundreds  of  charitable  institutions. 
The  most  important  hospitals  are  the 
University,  the  Insane,  the  Pennsylvania, 
the  Orthopaedic,  Municipal,  Woman's, 
Children's,  Wills',  Jewish,  Episcopal, 
German,  Presbyterian,  Homeopathic,  St. 
Mary's,  and  St.  Joseph's.  There  are  also 
many  orphanages,  homes  for  the  aged, 
and  other  institutions  of  similar  char- 
acter. 

Finances. — At  the  end  of  1920  the  total 
net  funded  debt  of  the  city  was  $137,676,- 
339.  The  assessed  property  valuation 
for  1920  was  $1,805,494,000;  tax  rate, 
$28.50  per  $1,000. 

History. — In  September,  1681,  a  small 
party  of  settlers,  sent  out  by  William 
Penn,  arrived  at  the  site  of  the  present 
city,  and  in  the  following  summer  the 
place  was  laid  out  and  named  Philadel- 
phia, the  "city  of  brotherly  love."  Penn 
himself  reached  New  Castle  on  the  Dela- 
ware, with  a  large  number  of  Quakers, 
on  Oct.  27,  1682.  He  was  well  received 
by  a  small  party  of  Swedes  who  lived  in 
a  part  of  the  present  city.  Shortly  af- 
ter his  arrival  he  made  the  first  treaty 
with  the  Indians  at  Shackamaxon.  In 
1683-1684,  and  for  some  time  afterward 
the  immigration  from  England  and 
Wales,  Germany  and  Holland  was  coni- 
siderable.  Philadelphia  was  incorpo- 
ated  in  1691,  but  its  charter  was  not 
received  till  1701.  The  city  was_  active  in 
resisting  British  aggression  in  1763- 
1764.  On  Sept.  5,  1774,  the  1st  Conti- 
nental Congress  met  here,  and  on  May 
10,  1775,  the  2d.  Col.  George  Washington  , 
was  appointed  General  and  Commander- 


PHILADELPHIA    ACADEMY 


219 


PHILIP 


in-Chief  of  the  American  army  in  the 
State  House  on  June  15,  1775.  Here 
also  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was 
adopted  July  4,  and  proclaimed  July  8, 
1776.  The  city  was  occupied  by  the 
British  from  September,  1777,  to  June, 
1778.  A  battle  was  fought  at  German- 
town  on  Oct.  4,  1777.  In  the  summer  of 
1787  delegates  from  the  various  States 
met  in  the  State  House,  and  framed  the 
Constitution. 

PHILADELPHIA  ACADEMY  OF 
NATURAL  SCIENCES,  an  association 
formed  to  promote  the  study  of  natural 
sciences,  discuss  subjects  of  scientific  in- 
terest and  encourage  research  in  the 
physical  sciences.  For  the  latter  purpose 
the  Jessup  Foundation  has  sufficient 
funds  to  provide  free  tuition  for  younger 
investigators  interested  in  the  sciences. 
The  museum  maintained  by  the  society  is 
reputed  to  possess  the  finest  collection  of 
shells  in  the  world,  and  has  many 
numerous  and  valuable  collections  of 
birds  and  fossils.  The  library  of  80,000 
volumes  contains  the  records  and  pro- 
ceedings of  all  the  learned  societies  in 
Europe  and  America  which  have  been 
published  since  the  foundation  of  the 
society  in  1812.  Since  1817  the  Philadel- 
phia society  has  published  a  "Journal" 
and  since  1841  its  "Proceedings." 

PHILADELPHIANS,  a  mystic  sect 
emphasizing  "brotherly  love"  (Greek 
Philadelphia),  founded  in  London  in  1652 
under  the  influence  of  Boehme  by  Dr. 
John  Pordage  (1608-1698)  and  Mrs. 
Leade  and  others.  It  had  for  a  time  a 
branch  in  Holland,  but  disappeared  early 
in  the  18th  century. 

PHIL.ffi,  an  island  in  the  Nile,  near 
Assuan  and  S.  of  Syene,  in  Nubia.  It  is 
a  small  granite  rock,  fringed  with  rich 
verdure,  about  1,200  feet  long  and  450 
broad,  almost  covered  with  ancient  build- 
ings of  great  architectural  beauty  and 
interest,  though  not  of  very  ancient  date. 
That  to  the  E.,  a  hypasthral  or  roofless 
hall,  commonly  called  "Pharaoh's  bed," 
belongs  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  period, 
and  consists  of  14  great  columns  with 
capitals  of  various  patterns,  connected 
at  the  lower  part  by  solid  walls;  the 
length  is  63  feet,  the  width  48.  The 
great  temple  of  Isis,  to  whom  the  island 
was  sacred,  was  mainly  built  by  Ptolemy 
Epiphanes,  and  continued  by  his  suc- 
cessors, especially  by  Ptolemy  III.,  Euer- 
getes.  To  the  N.  stood  the  great  propy- 
lon  or  gateway,  60  feet  high  and  over 
120  wide.  This  is  the  oldest  part  of 
the  temple,  and  bears  the  name  of 
Nectanebes  II.  (about  361  B.  c).  The 
temple  proper  contains  representations  of 


the  story  of  Osiris,  his  birth,  bringing  up, 
death.  The  building  of  the  Assuan  Dam 
has  partially  submerged  the  island. 

PHILEMON,  a  member  of  the  Colos- 
sian  church  (Col.  ii :  7;  iv:  9,  11,  14, 
Phil.  2,  10,  23,  24).  The  Epistle  of  Paul 
to  Philemon:  An  epistle  of  Paul,  in  con- 
junction with  Timothy,  (i:  1),  to  Phile- 
mon, whose  runaway  slave,  Onesimus, 
had  come  to  Rome,  and  been  converted  by 
the  apostles  while  the  latter  was  a  pris- 
oner (i:  10),  and  advanced  in  years  (9). 
Onesimus  was  most  useful  to  his  spiritual 
father  (13),  who,  however,  would  not  re- 
tain him,  unless  with  his  master's  per- 
mission (14).  He,  therefore,  sent  him 
back,  carrying  the  epistle  with  him,  and 
counseling  Philemon  to  receive  him  back 
now  as  a  brother  beloved  (16).  Antici- 
pating his  speedy  release,  he  also  re- 
quested Philemon  to  prepare  him  a  lodg- 
ing (22).  The  epistle  seems  to  have  been 
written  in  A.  D.  63  or  64.  Its  genuine- 
ness is  generally  admitted. 

PHILEMON  AND  BAUCIS,  in  classic 
mythology,  a  married  pair,  remarkable 
for  their  mutual  love.  Jupiter  and  Mer- 
cury, wandering  through  Phrygia  in 
human  form,  were  refused  hospitality  by 
everyone,  till  this  aged  pair  took  them 
in,  washed  their  feet,  and  gave  them  such 
humble  fare  as  they  could  provide.  On 
going  away,  the  gods  took  them  with 
them  to  a  neighboring  mountain,  on  look- 
ing from  which  they  saw  their  village 
covered  with  a  flood,  but  their  own  cot- 
tage changed  into  a  splendid  temple. 
Jupiter  permitted  them  to  make  any  re- 
quest they  chose,  but  they  only  asked  to 
be  servants  of  his  temple,  and  that  they 
might  die  at  the  same  time.  When,  ac- 
cordingly, they  were  seated  at  the  door  of 
the  temple,  being  now  of  great  age,  they 
were  changed,  Philemon  into  an  oak, 
and  Baucis  into  a  linden. 

PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY,  a  mu- 
sical organization  established  in  London, 
in  1813,  welcomed  Mendelssohn  to  Eng- 
land in  1829  and  again  in  1844,  The 
New  Philharmonic  was  founded  in  1852. 
The  Philharmonic  Society  of  New  York 
dates  from  1842. 

PHILIP,  one  of  the  12  apostles,  ac- 
cording to  John's  Gospel,  "of  Bethsaida, 
the  city  of  Andrew  and  Peter,"  and  who 
was  called  to  follow  Jesus  at  Bethany. 
After  the  resurrection  he  was  present  at 
the  election  of  Matthias  to  the  apostle- 
ship,  but  it  is  not  again  mentioned.  In 
the  Western  Church  he  is  commemorated 
May  1.  Philip  the  Evangelist,  often 
confounded  with  the  above,  is  first  men- 
tioned in  Acts  vi:  5.  He  preached  at 
Sm3rrna. 


PHILIP 


220 


PHILIP 


PHILIP,  the  name  of  various  Euro- 
pean rulers,  as  follows: 

MACEDON 

The  name  of  five  kings,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  whom  was  Philip  II.,  father  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  son  of  Amyn- 
thas  II.;  born  382  B.  C.  He  was  brought 
up  at  Thebes,  and  began  to  reign  after 
the  death  of  his  brother,  Perdiccas  III., 
in  359.  With  great  ability,  energy,  and 
success,  he  first  secured  the  internal 
peace,  improved  the  discipline  of  his 
army,  and  created  the  famous  phalanx. 
He  aspired  to  make  himself  master  of 
all  the  states  of  Greece,  and  then  to  in- 
vade and  conquer  Persia.  The  siege  and 
capture  of  Amphipolis,  Pydna,  and  Poti- 
dsea  took  place  between  358-356.  Four 
years  later,  after  taking  Methone,  and 
subduing  Lycophron,  tyrant  of  Pherae,  he 
advanced  toward  Greece,  but  his  course 
was  stayed  at  Thermopylae  by  the  Athe- 
nians. The  same  year  Demosthenes  deliv- 
ered the  first  of  his  famous  orations 
("Philippics")  against  the  Macedonian 
conqueror.  Philip  took  Olynthus  in  347, 
after  a  war  of  three  years;  soon  after 
made  peace  with  the  Athenians,  con- 
quered Phocis,  and  closed  the  Sacred 
War.  In  340  he  besieged  Perinthus  and 
Byzantium,  but  the  Athenians,  aroused 
by  the  successive  appeals  of  their  great 
orator,  sent  an  expedition  under  Phocion, 
and  Philip  had  to  raise  the  sieges  in  the 
following  year.  But  the  crisis  of  Greek 
independence  was  at  hand;  the  victory 
of  Chaeronea,  over  the  allied  Athenians 
and  Thebans,  338,  made  Philip  master  of 
Greece.  In  336  he  was  assassinated  at 
.^gea. 

ROME 

Philip,  born  in  Arabia  about  204,  and 
having  entered  into  the  military  service 
of  the  Romans,  became  praetorian  prefect 
243.  The  emperor  Gordian  was  com- 
pelled to  receive  him  as  a  colleague  on 
the  throne  by  the  army  which  had  con- 
quered Sapor,  King  of  Persia ;  and  in  the 
following  year,  244,  Philip  assumed  the 
whole  authority  by  putting  his  rival  to 
death.  He  was  killed  in  battle  by  the 
soldiers  of  Decius  in  249. 

GERMANY 

Philip,  the  youngest  son  of  Frederick 
Barbarossa;  bom  in  1178,  became  king 
of  Suabia  and  Tuscany  after  the  death 
of  his  father,  1190,  and  emperor  after 
the  death  of  his  brother,  Henry  IV., 
1198.  He  was  assassinated  in  1208,  and 
succeeded  by  Otho  IV. 

FRANCE 

Philip  I.,  son  of  Henry  I.  and  Anne  of 
Russia;  born  in  1052,  and  succeeded  to 
the   throne   under   the    guardianship   of 


Baldwin  V.,  count  of  Flanders,  1060; 
died,  after  a  troubled  reign,  mixed  up 
with  the  affairs  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, in  1108. 

Philip  II.,  surnamed  Augustus,  son  of 
Louis  VII.  and  of  Alix,  daughter  of  Thi- 
bault.  Count  of  Champagne;  born  in 
1165,  succeeded  his  father  1180,  accom- 
panied Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  to  the  Holy 
Land,  1190,  invaded  Normandy  during 
Richard's  captivity,  1193,  confiscated  the 
possessions  of  King  John  in  France,  after 
the  supposed  murder  of  Arthur,  1203, 
prepared  to  invade  England  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  Pope,  1213,  turned  his  arms 
against  Flanders,  and  gained  the  cele- 
brated  battle  of  Bouvines,  1214,  and  dier 
in  1223. 

Philip  III.,  called  the  Hardy,  the  sot 
of  Louis  IX.  and  Margaret  of  Provence. 
He  was  born  in  1245,  and  succeeded  his 
father  in  1270.  In  1271  he  possessed 
himself  of  Toulouse;  in  1272  he  repressed 
the  revolt  of  Roger,  Count  of  Foix,  and 
in  1276  sustained  a  war  against  Al- 
phonso  X.,  King  of  Castile.  The  inva- 
sion of  Sicily  by  Peter  of  Aragon,  and 
the  massacre  of  the  French,  known  as  the 
"Sicilian  Vespers,"  caused  him  to  make 
war  against  that  prince,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  died  in  1285. 

Philip  IV.,  called  the  Fair,  son  of  the 
preceding  by  his  first  wife,  Isabella  of 
Aragon;  born  in  1268,  and  succeeded  his 
father  1285.  He  was  engaged  in  wars 
with  the  English  and  Flemings,  and  in 
a  quarrel  with  the  Pope,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  was  excommunicated.  In  1303 
the  States-General  were  first  assembled. 
In  1312  he  suppressed  the  Templars.  He 
died  in  1314. 

Philip  V.,  called  the  Long,  second  son 
of  the  preceding;  born  about  1293,  and 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  virtue  of  the 
Salic^  law,  which  excluded  the  daughter 
of  his  brother  Louis  X.,  who  died  in 
1316.  In  his  reign  a  cruel  persecution 
began  against  the  Jews,  in  the  midst  of 
which  he  died,  in  1322. 

Philip  VI.,  called  De  Valois,  was  son 
of  Charles,  Count  of  Valois,  a  younger 
son  of  Philip  the  Hardy;  born  in  1293, 
and  succeeded  Charles  le  Bel,  1328.  In 
his  reign  occurred  the  wars  with  Edward 
III.  of  England,  who  claimed  the  French 
crown,  as  grandson,  by  his  mother,  of 
Philip  the  Fair.  Philip  lost  the  battle 
of  Cressy  in  1346,  when  30,000  men,  and 
the  chief  of  his  nobility,  were  slain.  He 
died  during  a  truce  with  the  English,  in 
1350. 

SPAIN 

Philip  I.,  surnamed  the  Handsome; 
born  in  1478,  was  the  son  of  Maximilian 
I.,  Emperor  of  Germany;  and  by  his  mar- 
riage with  the  heiress  of  Ferdinand  V., 


PHILIP 


221 


PHILIP 


King  of  Aragon,  and  Isabella,  Queen  of 
Castile,  he  obtained  the  Spanish  crown. 
He  died  in  1506. 

Philip  II.,  son  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
V.  and  Elizabeth  of  Portugal;  born  in 
Valladolid,  in  1527.  Of  a  cold  and 
gloomy  nature,  he  was  educated  by  ec- 
clesiastics, and  his  reign  was  marked  by 
a  crusade  against  political  and  religious 
freedom.  He  married,  in  1543,  his 
cousin  Mary  of  Portugal,  who  became 
the  mother  of  Don  Carlos,  and  died  in 
1545.  In  1554  he  received  from  his 
father  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  the 
same  year,  after  troublesome  negotia- 
tions, married  Mary,  Queen  of  England. 
He  was  disliked  in  England,  and  soon 
quitted  it.     His  father  gave  up  to  him 


PHILIP  II.  OF  SPAIN 

the  Netherlands  in  October,  1555,  and 
the  kingdom  of  Spain  early  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  He  declared  war  on 
France,  and  induced  Queen  Mary  to  join 
him;  won,  by  his  troops  under  the  Duke 
of  Savoy,  the  memorable  victory  of  St. 
Quentin  over  the  French  in  1557.  He 
vowed  never  to  witness  another  battle, 
and  he  never  did.  He  vowed  also  to 
show  his  gratitude  by  building  a  monas- 
tery, which  he  more  than  fulfilled  in  the 
magnificent  Escurial.  A  second^  victory 
over  the  French  at  Gravelines,  in  1558, 
was  followed  by  the  peace  of  Cateau- 
Cambresis.  Immediately  on  his  return 
to  Spain,  he  began  a  terrible  persecution 
of  "heretics." 

The  most  momentous  event  of  his  reign 
was  the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands,  first 

V<A  VU^Cyo 


excited  by  his  edict  against  heretics,  and 
attempt  to  establish  the  Inquisition  there 
in  1565,  and  resulting,  after  years  of  war, 
in  the  establishment  of  the  Dutch  Re- 
public. In  1565,  he  persecuted  the  Chris- 
tian Moors  of  Granada,  and  provoked  a 
revolt,  which  began  in  1569;  and  after 
the  greatest  atrocities  on  both  sides, 
ended  by  the  flight  or  submission  of  the 
Moors  in  1571.  On  the  death  of  Henry, 
King  of  Portugal,  in  1580,  Philip  con- 
quered that  country  and  annexed  it  to 
Spain.  He  made  immense  preparations 
for  an  invasion  of  England;  and  in  1588, 
the  year  after  Drake's  attack  on  Cadiz, 
his  great  fleet,  which  he  named  "the  In- 
vincible Armada,"  sailed  from  Lisbon; 
but  a  great  storm  and  contrary  winds 
damaged  and  threw  it  into  disorder,  and 
it  was  defeated  by  the  English.  It  was 
Philip  II.  who  removed  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment from  Toledo,  and  made  Madrid 
the  capital  of  Spain.  He  died  at  the 
Escurial,  Sept.  13,  1598. 

Philip  III.,  son  of  Philip  II.  and  his 
fourth  wife,  Anne  Mary,  of  Austria; 
born  in  1578.  He  succeeded  his  father 
in  1598,  and  the  following  year  married 
the  Princess  Margaret  of  Austria,  by 
whom  he  had  seven  children.  He  con- 
tinued the  war  in  the  Netherlands;  and 
his  general,  Spinola,  took  Ostend  in  1604, 
after  a  siege  of  three  years.  But  these 
successes  were  too  costly,  and  Philip  was 
compelled  to  recognize  the  independence 
of  the  United  Provinces,  and  to  make  a 
truce  with  them  in  1609.  One  of  the 
most  memorable,  and  for  Spain  most  dis- 
astrous, of  his  measures  was  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Moors — industrious  farmers 
and  traders,  most  of  them.  Whole  prov- 
inces were  depopulated.  He  died  in 
1621. 

Philip  IV.,  son  of  Philip  III.  and  Mar- 
garet; born  in  Valladolid,  in  1605,  mar- 
ried Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1621. 
He  chose  for  his  first  minister  the  Count 
of  Olivarez,  whose  despotic  administra- 
tion brought  so  many  calamities  on  the 
kingdom.  War  was  renewed  with  the 
Dutch,  and  only  ended  at  the  peace  of 
Westphalia;  war  with  France  began  in 
1635,  and  lasted  till  1659,  when  the  peace 
of  the  Pyrenees  was  concluded,  and  the 
Infanta  Maria  Teresa  was  married  to 
Louis  XIV.;  and  a  formidable  revolt 
broke  out  in  Catalonia,  which  was  finally 
reduced  by  Don  Juan  in  1652.  It  was  in 
the  third  year  of  this  reign  that  the 
strange  visit  of  Prince  Charles  of  Eng- 
land, with  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  to 
Madrid  took  place,  for  the  purpose  of 
wooing  the  Infanta.  Portugal  threw  off 
the  yoke  of  Spain  in  1640,  and  war  fol- 
lowed, which  was  terminated  by  the  vic- 

15 


PHILIP                             222  PHILIP 

tory  of  the  Portuguese  at  Villaviciosa,  In  the  early  summer  Philip's  squaw  and 

in   June,    1665.     This   last   of   the    long  little    son   were   captured,    and    sold   as 

series    of    losses    and    calamities    broke  slaves   for  the   West   Indies;   and  Aug. 

Philip's  heart,  and  he  died  in  September  12,   1676,   at  midnight,  he   and   his   re- 

of  the  same  year.  maining    followers    were    surprised    by 

PHILIP  v.,  Duke  of  Anjou,  the  second  Capt.  Benjamin  Church.  Philip  was 
son  of  Louis,  dauphin  of  France,  and  slam  and  his  head  cut  otf. 
Mary  Anne  of  Bavaria;  born  in  1683,  as- 
sumed the  title  of  King  of  Spain  in  1700,  PHILIP  THE  BOLD,  Duke  of  Bur- 
by  virtue  of  the  will  of  Charles  II.  His  gundy;  born  in  1342,  was  the  fourth  son 
claim,  however,  was  contested  by  the  of  John,  King  of  France.  He  fought  at 
house  of  Austria,  in  favor  of  the  Arch-  Poitiers  (1356),  where,  according  to 
duke  Charles.  This  introduced  the  great  Froissart,  he  acquired  the  surname  of 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  in  which  the  Bold.  He  shared  his  father's  captiv- 
Austria  was  supported  against  France  ity  in  England,  and  on  his  return  his 
and  Spain  by  England,  Holland,  Savoy,  father  made  him  Duke  of  Touraine,  gave 
Portugal,  and  Prussia.  The  beginning  him  the  Duchy  of  Burgundy,  and  made 
of  this  war  was  very  disastrous  to  him  premier  peer  of  France.  During 
Philip,  who  lost  Aragon,  Gibraltar,  and  the  insanity  of  Charles  VI.  he  acted  as 
the  islands  of  Minorca  and  Majorca,  also  regent,  retaining  the  regency  till  his 
Sardinia  and  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  death  in  1404. 
The  victories  of  the  Duke  de  Vendome, 

and  those  of  Marshal  Villars  in  Flan-  PHILIP  THE  GOOD,  Duke  of  Bur- 
ders,  confirmed  Philip  on  the  throne,  gundy,  one  of  the  most  powerful  sover- 
and  restored  peace  to  Europe  by  the  eigns  of  his  time,  son  of  John  "Sans 
treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1713.  The  war  Peur";  born  in  Dijon,  in  1396.  He  suc- 
was  renewed  in  1717,  and  the  Spanish  ceeded  on  the  assassination  of  the  duke, 
fleet  was  defeated  in  the  Mediterranean  his  father,  1419,  and  at  once  formed  an 
by  Sir  George  Byng.  Peace  was  re-  alliance  with  Henry  V.  of  England,  and 
stored  in  1720,  after  which  Philip  be-  joined  in  the  treaty  of  Troyes,  which  de- 
came  a  victim  to  confirmed  melancholy,  clared  Henry  regent  and  heir  of  France, 
and  in  1724  abdicated  the  throne  to  his  He  fought  on  the  English  side  for  sev- 
son  Louis,  and  retired  to  a  monastery,  eral  years,  and  gave  his  sister  Anne  in 
Louis  died  a  few  months  after  of  the  marriage  to  the  Duke  of  Bedford.  But 
smallpox,  and  Philip  was  compelled  to  jealousy  and  dissension  arose,  and  Philip 
resume  the  government.  His  subsequent  abandoned  the  English  alliance,  and  his 
conduct  was  characterized  by  greater  reconciliation  with  Charles  VII.  of 
spirit  and  judgment.  In  1733,  he  en-  France  was  effected  at  the  great  Con- 
tered  into  an  alliance  with  France  gress  of  Arras,  1435,  attended  by  legates 
against  the  emperor,  and  his  son  Don  of  the  Pope  and  the  Council  of  Basle. 
Carlos  conquered  Sicily  and  Naples,  of  He  had  married  in  1430,  for  his  third 
which  he  became  king.  In  1736  peace  wife,  Isabella  of  Portugal,  in  whose 
was  concluded;  but  a  new  war  broke  honor  he  instituted  the  Order  of  the 
out  in  1739.  He  died  in  1746.  Golden  Fleece.  Philip  extended  his  do- 
minions   by    the    conquest    of    Brabant, 

PHILIP,  the  sachem  of  the  Wampa-  Holland,  and  Hainault.     Some  towns  re- 

noag  tribe   of  Indians,  was  the   second  volted      and      Dinant      was      besieged, 

son    of    Massasoit,    who    for    nearly    40  stormed,  burnt  to  ashes,  and  all  its  in- 

years  had  been  the  first  and  staunchest  habitants  massacred,  Philip  being  pres- 

ally  of  the  Pilgrim  settlers  of  Plymouth,  ent.     He  died  in  Bruges,  June  15,  1467, 

and   had    obtained    English    names    for  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles 

his  two  sons.     In  1661  Philip  succeeded  the  Bold, 
his   brother,   and  formally  renewed  the 

treaties    of   his    father,    which    he   kept  PHILIP  I.,   THE   MAGNANIMOUS, 

for    some    years.     By     1671,    however,  Landgrave  of  Hesse;  born  in  1504.     He 

goaded    by    the    encroachments    of    the  began  to  reign  at  the  age  of  14,  and  in- 

whites,  he   had  formed  a   confederation  troduced     the     Lutheran     religion     into 

of  tribes  aggregating  nearly  10,000  war-  Hesse  in  1526.     In  1527  he  founded  the 

riorsj    and   in    1675   what    is   known    as  University    of    Marburg,    submitted    the 

King   Philip's   War   broke   out.     On  the  Confession  of  Faith  at  Augsburg  in  1530, 

Indian   side  it  was   a  war   of  surprises  and  in  1531  formed  with  the  Protestant 

and  massacres — 13  towns  were  destroyed,  princes  the   Schmalkalden  League.     The 

and   600   colonists   slain.     In    December,  Emperor  Charles  V.  in  1547,  kept  him  a 

1675,  Governor  Winslow  and  a  force  of  prisoner   for   five   years.     After   his    re- 

1,000  men  burned  the  great  fort  of  the  turn  he  sent  a  body  of  auxiliaries  to  as- 

Narragansetts,   slew   600   warriors,   and  sist  the  French  Huguenots.     He  died  in 

massacred    1,000    women    and    children.  1567. 


PHILIPHAUGH 


223 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 


PHILIPHAUGH,  on  Yarrow  Water, 
3  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Selkirk,  Scotland, 
the  property  from  1461  till  1889  of  the 
line  of  the  "Outlaw  Murray"  of  the  bal- 
lad. Here,  Sept.  13,  1645,  Montrose  was 
defeated  by  David  Leslie,  who  butchered 
more  than  100  Irish  prisoners. 

PHILIPPA,  QUEEN,  daughter  of  the 
Earl  of  Hainault;  married  to  Edward 
III.  of  England  in  1328.  She  accom- 
panied Edward  in  some  of  his  foreign 
expeditions,  and  at  other  times  de- 
fended the  kingdom  in  his  absence. 

PHILIPPEVILLE,  a  seaport  of  Al- 
geria, the  harbor  of  Constantine,  from 
which  it  lies  distant  54  miles  N.  N.  E. 
There  is  a  magnificent  harbor  (1882) 
protected  by  two  moles,  one  4,590  feet 
long,  the  other  1,310  feet.  The  town  is 
quite  new,  having  been  built  since  1838 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Rusicada. 
Pop.  about  30,000. 

PHILIPPI,  a  city  of  Macedonia; 
named  alter  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  who 
enlarged  it  because  of  the  gold  mines  in 
its  neighborhood.  It  is  famous  on  ac- 
count of  the  two  battles  fought  in  42  B. 
c.  between  Antony  and  Octavianus  on 
the  one  side  and  the  republicans  under 
Brutus  and  Cassius  on  the  other,  in  the 
second  of  which  the  republic  finally  per- 
ished. The  apostle  Paul  founded  a 
Christian  church  here,  to  which  one  of 
his  epistles  is  addressed. 

PHILIPPIAN,  of  or  pertaining  to 
Philippi  (q.  v.),  or  its  inhabitants;  also 
a  native  or  inhabitant  of  Philippi.  The 
Epistle  of  Paul  the  apostle  to  the  Philip- 
pians,  an  epistle  addressed  by  St.  Paul, 
in  conjunction  with  Timothy,  "to  all  the 
saints  in  Christ  Jesus  which  are  at 
Philippi,  with  the  bishops  and  deacons." 

PHILIPPIC,  the  title  of  several  ora- 
tions of  Demosthenes  against  Philip, 
King  of  Macedon,  the  spirit  and  ani- 
mosity of  which  caused  the  name  to  be 
transferred  to  similar  compositions  by 
other  orators. 

PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS,  a  group  of 
islands,  a  possession  of  the  United 
States,  forming  a  part  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago.  They  extend  between  lat. 
21°  10'  and  4°  40'  north,  116°  40'  and 
126°  34'  east.  The  total  length  is  about 
1150  statute  miles,  and  the  width  about 
650  miles. 

There  are  over  3,100  islands,  of  which 
1,473  are  without  names.  The  largest 
islands  are  Luzon,  40,969  square  miles; 
Mindanao,  36,292  square  miles;  Samar, 
5,031  square  miles;  Negros,  4,881  square 
miles;  Panay,  4,611  square  miles;  Pala- 
wan, 4,027  square  miles;  and  Mindoro, 
3,861  square  miles. 


Topography. — The  topography  of  the 
islands  is  varied.  Nearly  all  are  heavily 
wooded  and  most  of  them  are  traversed 
by  mountain  ranges.  The  two  largest  is- 
lands, Luzon  and  Mindanao,  have  broad 
plains  and  level  valleys.  The  east  coast 
of  Luzon  is  bordered  for  350  miles  by  a 
high  mountain  range,  the  Sierra  Madre. 
West  of  this  is  the  fertile  valley  of 
Cagayan  river,  where  the  largest  part  of 
the  tobacco  is  grov^Ti. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  archi- 
pelago is  warm,  as  it  lies  entirely  within 
the  tropics.  Northeast  trade  winds  pre- 
vail from  November  to  June,  and  the 
east  coasts  have  a  heavy  rainfall.  The 
temperature  does  not  vary  greatly  dur- 
ing the  day.  There  are  frequent  cyclonic 
storms  of  wind  and  rain  which  are 
known  as  typhoons.  These  frequently 
do  great  damage. 

Agnculture. — There  are  great  possibil- 
ities for  agriculture  and  these  have  been 
greatly  developed  during  the  American 
occupation.  The  chief  products  are  rice, 
abaca,  sugar,  coconuts,  corn,  and  tobacco. 
The  year  1918  was  the  best  yet  experi- 
enced in  the  agricultural  industry.  The 
total  value  of  the  leading  crops  was  about 
350,000,000  pesos  (a  peso  equals  $.50). 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  the  isl- 
ands has  greatly  increased  in  recent 
years.  The  trade  for  1919  exceeded  that 
of  any  other  year.  Imports  were  valued 
at  $107,774,263,  which  was  about  30  per 
cent,  more  than  in  1918,  and  about  double 
the  average  before  the  World  War.  The 
chief  imports  were  of  machinery,  cotton, 
textiles,  and  rice.  The  exports  for  1919 
were  valued  at  $122,729,238,  an  increase 
of  about  $6,000,000  over  the  value  of  the 
exports  for  1918.  The  remarkable  de- 
velopment of  the  coconut  oil  manufactur- 
ing industry  was  the  chief  feature  of 
trade  in  1918.  The  sugar  trade  of  the 
island  was  benefited  greatly  by  post-war 
conditions.  The  average  figure  received 
per  pound  was  4.3  cents.  Of  the  total 
foreign  trade,  imports  from  the  United 
States  were  valued  at  $64,645,144,  and 
the  exports  to  the  United  States  at  $79,- 
333,548. 

Mineral  Resources. — The  islands  are 
rich  in  minerals,  but  so  far  the  product 
has  not  been  greatly  developed.  Over 
one  hundred  mineral  species  and  varieties 
have  been  classified.  Coal  and  gold  have 
been  found  in  nearly  every  island  so  far 
investigated.  The  total  gold  production 
is  valued  at  over  $1,000,000  yearly. 
Great  quantities  of  coal  are  known  to 
exist,  but  its  deposits  have  not  yet  been 
exploited.  Iron  is  produced  to  a  small 
extent.  Other  minerals  which  occur  are 
Portland  cement,  asbestos,  gypsum,  pe- 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 


224 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 


troleum,  salt,  stone,  sulphur,  asphalt  and 
gravel. 

Education. — Under  American  rule  edu- 
cation has  been  fostered  and  there  has 
\  been  great  improvement  in  the  conditions. 
There  were  in  1918,  4,747  schools  in  the 
islands.  There  was  an  annual  enroll- 
ment of  671,398,  an  average  monthly  en- 
rollment of  669,475  and  an  average  daily 
attendance  of  521,377. 

Special  attention  has  been  given  to 
vocational  education  and  nearly  every 
community  of  any  size  is  provided  with 
facilities  for  teaching  useful  trades  to 
the  natives. 

Health  and  Sanitation. — Prior  ^  to 
American  occupation  sanitary  conditions 
were  extremely  bad.  Vigorous  steps 
were  taken  at  once  to  remedy  these  and 
the  results  have  been  marked.  In  spite 
of  the  improved  condition  there  are  fre- 
quent epidemics  which  kill  large  numbers 
of  people.  In  1919  there  were  an  es- 
pecially large  number  of  these.  Over 
13,000  deaths  occurred  from  small-pox, 
which  was  brought  from  Manila  in  De- 
cember, 1917,  by  sailors.  During  the 
same  year  there  were  two  epidemics  of 
influenza  which  resulted  in  the  deaths  of 
many  people.  Cholera  also  appeared  in 
several  provinces  during  the  year,  but  it 
was  confined  to  a  comparatively  small 
area.  Six  provinces  have  been  organized 
into  sanitary  divisions  and  only  seven 
provinces  remain  to  be  organized.  Spe- 
cial attention  is  given  to  the  health  of 
children.  Dispensaries  and  nurses  are 
maintained  to  instruct  mothers  in  the 
care  of  their  children. 

Finance. — The  expenditure  for  gov- 
ernment in  1918  amounted  to  57,496,043 
pesos,  and  the  receipts  were  86,690,105 
pesos.  The  budget  estimate  was  intro- 
duced in  1917.  The  total  amount  of 
money  in  circulation  at  the  end  of  1918 
was  131,151,883  pesos.  There  are  on  the 
islands  four  banks  which  engage  in  gen- 
eral^ banking  business.  Their  combined 
capital  is  about  three  million  dollars. 
The  government  supports  an  agricultural 
bank  and  postal  savings  system.  These 
have  both  been  successful. 

Religion. — The  greater  number  of  peo- 
ple are  Roman  Catholic.  Absolute  free- 
dom of  worship  is  guaranteed  by  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Spain 
made  in  1898.  Several  of  the  tribes,  in- 
cluding the  Moros  in  the  south,  are 
pagan. 

Govet^ment.—T'he  authority  of  the 
United  States  is  administered  by  a  gov- 
ernor-general. A  complete  civil  central 
government  was  established  in  1901, 
which  includes  four  executive  depart- 
ments in  charge  of  secretaries.  The 
work  of  these  is  divided  into  a  number  of 


bureaus.  Several  important  measures 
relating  to  the  administration  of  the 
government  have  been  passed  since 
American  occupation.  An  act  of  1902 
provided  for  the  creation  of  a  legislative 
lower  house  called  the  assembly.  An 
upper  house  also  was  created  and  the 
two  together  formed  the  Philippine 
Legislature.  The  Assembly  is  composed 
of  elected  members  from  the  regularly 
organized  provinces,  according  to  their 
population.  The  judicial  systeni  is  also 
established,  corresponding  practically  to 
the  system  in  the  United  States. 

History. — The  Philippines  were  discov- 
ered and  visited  by  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese explorers.  Magellan  discovered  in 
March  15,  1521,  a  group  of  islands  which 
he  named  after  St.  Lazarus.  This  ex- 
plorer lost  his  life  in  a  skirmish  with  the 
natives  a  few  weeks  later  on  Maetan  Is- 
land, near  Cebu.  The  islands  were 
taken  into  possession  by  Spain  in  1565, 
and  five  years  following  the  conquest  of 
Luzon  was  carried  on.  In  1571  Manila 
was  founded  and  rapidly  became  the 
seat  of  Spanish  power.  The  Spaniards 
remained  in  possession  of  the  islands 
practically  undisturbed  until  the  Span- 
ish-American War.  They  made  little 
progress  in  economic  development  and 
their  methods  with  the  natives  resulted 
in  bitter  feeling  which  gave  rise  to  sev- 
eral attempts  to  secure  independence. 
The  most  important  of  these  was  that 
under  Jose  Rizal,  in  1896.  This  attempt 
was  put  down  and  conditions  were  still 
in  a  threatening  state  when  the  United 
States  went  to  war  with  Spain  over  the 
independence  of  Cuba.  A  fleet  under 
Admiral  Dewey  was  sent  at  once  to  the 
PTiilippines  and  the  city  was  surren- 
dered after  a  brief  bombardment  on  May) 
17,  1898. 

By  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Spain 
signed  on  Dec.  10,  1898,  the  entire 
archipelago  was  ceded  to  the  United 
States.  On  June  12th,  however,  an  in- 
surrection broke  out  headed  by  Emilio 
Aguinaldo,  who  proclaimed  the  independ- 
ence of  the  Philippine  Islands.  This  re- 
sulted in  a  protracted  series  of  opera- 
tions in  which  Aguinaldo  was  finally 
captured  on  March  23,  1901.  This  put 
an  end  to  active  opposition,  although  it 
was  necessary  to  pacify  the  islands  by  a 
series  of  expeditions,  some  of  which  re- 
sulted in  considerable  losses  to  American 
troops.  Peace  was  finally  brought 
about.  The  first  session  of  the  Philip- 
pine Legislature  was  held  on  Oct.  15, 
1907.  Although  peace  has  prevailed 
in  the  islands  there  has  been  a  very 
definite  attempt  to  bring  about  their 
independence  by  peaceful  means,  and  by 
propaganda  carried  on  both  in  the  Phil- 


PHILIPPIUM 


225 


PHILLIPS 


ippines  and  in  the  United  States.  The 
American  Congress  has  expressed  a  de- 
sire to  give  their  independence  to  the 
Filipinos  when  they  had  reached  a  sta^e 
of  development  which  would  justify  it. 
Native  leaders  who  desire  the  independ- 
ence urge  that  this  point  has  already 
been  reached. 

On  the  whole,  the  people  of  the  islands 
have  been  satisfied  ^vith  American  rule. 
They  have  reached  the  point  of  economic 
and  intellectual  development  which  they 
failed  to  achieve  during  the  hundreds  of 
years  of  Spanish  domination.  During 
the  World  War  a  regiment  was  organ- 
ized and  although  it  was  not  called  upon 
for  active  service  it  was  ready  to  give 
such  services  if  they  were  needed. 

Population. — The  last  census  of  the 
islands  was  taken  in  1918,  when  the  pop- 
ulation was  10,350,640.  Of  these  about 
8,500,000  are  Christians,  316,000  Mo- 
hammedan, and  620,000  pagan.  The 
population  of  Manila,  the  chief  city,  in 
1918,  was  283,613,  of  whom  245,500  were 
Filipinos.  Exclusive  of  the  Army  and 
Navy,  there  are  about  5,000  Americans 
in  the  islands,  chiefly  in  Manila. 

PHILIPPIUM,  an  element  closely 
allied  to  cerium.  Though  described  by 
Delafontain  in  1888  as  a  newly  discov- 
ered element,  it  was  not  till  1897  that  it 
was  acknowledged  to  be  such  by  English 
chemists.  Philippium  has  been  found  in 
gadolinite,  samarskite  and  fergusonite. 

PHILIPPOPOLIS,  Bulgaria,  on  the 
navigable  Maritza;  110  miles  W.  by  N. 
of  Adrianople.  It  manufactures  silk, 
cotton,  tobacco,  leather,  etc.,  and  pre- 
pares and  exports  attar  of  roses.  An 
outpost  of  the  Macedonian  kingdom,  it 
was  ruined  by  the  Goths,  captured  by  the 
Turks  (1363),  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake (1818),  burned  (1846),  and  oc- 
cupied by  the  Russians  1878.  Pop.  about 
50,000,  of  whom  nearly  half  are  Turks, 
Greeks,  and  others  than  Bulgarians. 

PHILISTINES,  an  ancient  people, 
descended^  from  Ham,  the  son  of  Noah. 
They  emigrated  at  a  very  early  date 
from  Egypt  into  Syria,  called  after  them 
Philistia,  and  afterward  Palestine, 
though  they  possessed  only  the  portion 
on  the  S.  coast  bounded  by  the  hilly  coun- 
tries of  Ephraim  and  Judah,  and  extend- 
ing S.  W.  to  the  confines  of  Egypt.  Their 
chief  city,  Gaza,  is  mentioned  as  early 
as  2218  B.  c.  They  reduced  the  Israelites 
to  subjection  1156  B.  c.  (Judges  xiii:  1), 
but  were  compelled  to  set  them  at  liberty 
by  Samson,  who  destroyed  their  chief 
nobility  by  pulling  down  the  temple 
where  they  were  assembled,  1117  b.  c. 
(Judges  xvi:   30).     In  the  time   of  Wi, 


1116  B.  c.  (I  Sam.  iv:  11),  they  seized 
the  ark  of  the  Lord,  which  they  were 
compelled  to  restore  by  the  miraculous 
plagues  it  brought  upon  them;  and  they 
sustained  a  severe  defeat  from  Samuel 
at  Mizpeh,  1096  B.  c.  (I  Sam.  vii:  2-13). 
In  the  reign  of  Saul  they  harassed  the 
Israelites  (I  Sam.  xiv:  52),  and  the 
death  of  that  monarch  occurred  while 
fighting  against  them  in  Mount  Gilboa, 
1055  B.  C.  (1  Sam.  xxxi:  4).  David 
gained  several  victories  over  the  Philis- 
tines, and  Jehoshaphat  made  them  tribu- 
tary to  him,  912  B.  c.  (II  Chron.  xvii: 
11).  In  the  reign  of  Jehoram  they  in- 
vaded Judah,  and  carried  away  the 
king's  wives  and  sons  into  captivity,  887 
B.  c.  (II  Chron.  xxi:  17).  They  again 
invaded  Judah,  and  took  Bethshemesh 
and  Ajalon,  740  B.  c.  (II  Chron.  xxviii: 
18),  Their  country  was  invaded  by  the 
Assyrians  and  the  Egyptians,  who  took 
their  strong  city  of  Ashdod.  Pompey 
incorporated  Philistia  in  the  Roman 
province  of  Syria,  62  B.  c. 

PHILLIPS,     DAVID    GRAHAM,    an 

American  newspaper  man  and  novelist. 
Bom  in  1867  in  Madison,  Ind.,  and 
graduated  from  Princeton  at  twenty 
years  of  age.  He  soon  became  a  re- 
porter on  the  staff  of  the  New  York 
"Sun."  For  a  few  years  he  was  the  pri- 
vate secretary  of  Joseph  Pulitzer,  the 
owner  and  founder  of  the  "World."  He 
also  became  the  London  correspondent 
of  that  newspaper,  and  later  one  of  its 
chief  editorial  writers.  In  1901,  with  the 
publication  of  his  first  novel  he  ceased 
newspaper  work  to  give  himself  up  en- 
tirely to  the  writing  of  novels,  dealing 
mainly  with  pressing  social  and  ethical 
problems.  He  was  killed  by  a  lunatic  on 
Jan.  24,  1911.  Among  the  best  of  his 
novels  are:  "The  Hungry  Heart" 
(1909);  "The  Second  Generation" 
(1907) ;  "The  Fortune  Hunter"  (1906) ; 
"The  Worth  of  a  Woman"   (1908). 

PHILLIPS,  STEPHEN,  an  English 
poet.  Born  at  Oxford  in  1868;  entered 
Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1886.  For 
a  few  years  he  joined  a  company  of  play- 
ers and  played  in  Shakespearean  drama, 
playing  in  the  Globe  Theater  in  London 
as  well  as  in  other  large  cities  of  Eng- 
land. After  leaving  the  stage  he  turned 
to  literature.  In  1890  appeared  a  volume 
of  verse,  "Primavera."  In  the  few  suc- 
ceeding years  appeared  "Christ  in 
Hades,"  and  a  volume  entitled  "Poems" 
which  contained  "Marpessa,"  which  in 
some  respects  is  his  best  work.  These 
volumes  won  him  the  prize  from  the  Lon- 
don Academy  for  the  best  verse  of  the 
year.  Phillips  also  wrote  some  dramas, 
the  mo^^t  famous  of  which  are:  "Ulysses" 


PHILLIPS 


226 


PHILOLOGY 


(1902);  "Herod"  (1900);  "Paolo  and 
Francesca"  (1899);  "Pietro  of  Siena" 
(1910);  "Armageddon"  (1915).  This  was 
the  last  work  of  Stephen  Phillips.  He 
died  in  1915. 

PHILLIPS,  WENDELL,  an  American 
orator  and  abolitionist;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Nov.  29,  1811.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1831,  studied  law  there, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1834.  A 
timely  speech  in  Faneuil  Hall  in  1837 
made  him  at  once  the  principal  orator  of 
the  anti-slavery  party,  and  henceforth, 


WENDELL  PHILLIPS 

till  the  President's  proclamation  of  Jan. 
1,  1863,  he  was  Garrison's  loyal  and 
valued  ally.  He  also  championed  the 
cause  of  temperance,  and  that  of  women, 
and  the  rights  of  the  Indians.  In  1870 
he  was  nominated  governor  by  the  Prohi- 
bitionists and  the  Labor  party.  His 
speeches  and  letters  were  collected  in 
1863  (new  ed.  1884).  He  died  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  Feb.  2,  188-:. 

For  his  life  see  ''Wendell  Phillips, 
Orator  and  Agitator"  (New  York,  1909), 

PHILLIPS  ACADEMY,  a  school  for 
boys  located  at  Andover,  Mass.,  and  often 
called  Phillips  Andover.  The  school  was 
chartered  in  1780  and  was  founded  as 
the  result  of  a  gift  by  the  Phillips  fam- 
ily. In  1901  an  archaeological  depart- 
ment was  added  as  the  gift  of  two 
members  of  the  alumni.  The  endow- 
ment is  a  large  one,  being  cloa«  to  two 


million  dollars,  while  the  grounds,  build- 
ings and  equipment  are  valued  at  nearly 
three  million.  The  work  is  entirely  col- 
lege-preparatory; Yale  and  Harvard  b^ 
ing  the  colleges  most  frequently  selected 
by  the  students.  Among  its  alumni  have 
been  some  of  the  famous  names  of  Amer- 
ican history. 

PHILLIPSBURG,  a  city  in  Warren 
CO.,  N.  J.,  on  the  Delaware  river,  and  on 
the  Lackawanna,  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the 
Central  of  New  Jersey,  and  the  Penn- 
sylvania railroads;  50  miles  N.  N.  W. 
of  Trenton.  Two  fine  railroad  bridges 
cross  the  river  here  and  connect  with 
Easton,  Pa.  Phillipsburg  is  in  a  lime- 
stone and  iron-ore  region;  has  several 
iron  foundries,  machine  shops,  railroad 
shops,  a  rolling  mill,  and  manufactories 
of  boilers,  locomotives,  mowers  and  reap- 
ers, and  a  pop.  (1910)  13,903;  (1920) 
16,923. 

PHILLIPS    EXETER   ACADEMY,    a 

boys'  school  located  at  Exeter,  New 
Hampshire,  and  commonly  called  Phil- 
lips Exeter.  Like  Phillips  Andover,  it 
was  founded  by  a  gift  from  the  Phillips 
family  and  was  opened  for  students  in 
1781.  The  alumni  by  1920  numbered 
over  11,000.  Among  the  early  alumni 
were  Jared  Sparks,  Daniel  Webster, 
Edward  Everett  and  George  Bancroft. 
The  enrollment  in  1914-1915  was  57S. 
The  course  is  college-preparatory  for  the 
New  England  colleges.  The  school  is 
very  well  equipped  _  with  modern  school 
buildings,  laboratories,  gymnasium,  etc., 
the  total  value  of  which  exceeds  a  million 
dollars,  while  the  endowment  is  about 
$500,000. 

PHILLPOTTS,  EDEN,  an  English 
novelist,  born  in  India  in  1862.  He  was 
educated  at  Plymouth,  England,  and  at 
the  age  of  eighteen  became  a  clerk  in  an 
insurance  office,  a  position  which  he  held 
for  ten  years.  His  first  published  novel 
was  "Lying  Prophets,"  1896.  This  was 
followed  in  regular  succession  by  a  large 
number  of  books,  mostly  depicting  Devon- 
shire life.  His  works  include  "Sons  of 
the  Morning"  (1900);  "The  Good  Red 
Earth"  (1901);  "The  Secret  Woman" 
(1905);  "The  Forest  on  the  Hill" 
(1912);  and  "Brunei's  Tower"  (1915). 
He  also  published  several  plays. 

PHILOLOGY,  in  a  popular  sense:  (1) 
Etymology,  or  the  science  of  the  origin  of 
words.  (2)  Grammar,  or  the  science  of 
the  construction  of  language  in  general 
and  of  individual  languages.  (3)  Lit- 
erary criticism,  or  the  investigation  of 
merits  and  demerits  in  style  and  diction. 
Of  late  years,  however,  a  new  and  very 
extensive  province  has  been  ;^d(ied  toj^ji© 


PHILOLOGICAL  ASSOCIATION      227 


FHILTEB 


domain  of  philology.  The  term  compre- 
hends: (1)  Phonology,  or  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  sounds  of  the  human  voice; 
which  appears  to  include  orthography, 
or  the  system  to  be  adopted  when  we 
endeavor  to  render,  by  our  own  alphabet, 
the  sounds  of  a  foreign  language;  (2) 
Etymology;  (3)  Ideology,  or  the  science 
of  the  modification  of  language  by  gram- 
matical forms,  according  to  the  various 
points  of  view  from  which  men  con- 
template the  ideas  which  words  are 
meant  to  express. 

PHILOLOGICAL  ASSOCIATION, 

AMERICAN,  a  society  whose  object  is 
the  advancement  of  the  study  of  philol- 
ogy. Founded  in  1869,  at  Poughkeepsie, 
N.  Y.,  under  the  leadership  of  Prof. 
William  D.  Whitney  of  Yale  University. 
The  original  members  were  from  the 
classical  section  of  the  Oriental  Society. 
It  has  annual  meetings  in  different  cities 
of  the  United  States  and  publishes  its 
"Proceedings"  or  annual  minutes  of  these 
meetings.  In  addition  to  these  the  As- 
sociation publishes  the  ''Transactions" 
which  are  composed  of  learned  papers  on 
philology  submitted  to  the  society  and 
selected  by  the  executive  committee. 

PHILOPCEMEN,  called  the  last  of 
the  Greeks,  really  their  last  great  com- 
mander. He  was  born  in  Arcadia,  253 
B.  c,  became  in  210,  generalissimo  of  the 
Achaian  League,  and  conquered  the  Spar- 
tans. The  greatest  of  his  victories  in 
this  long  struggle  was  the  battle  of 
Mantinea.  He  was  put  to  death  by 
poison  when  a  prisoner  of  the  Messe- 
nians,  183  B.  C. 

PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY,  AMER- 
ICAN, a  learned  society,  the  oldest  now 
existing  in  America,  being  founded  as 
early  as  the  year  1727.  At  that  time  it 
was  merely  a  club  in  Philadelphia  where 
learned  men  repaired  for  conversation, 
and  among  them  Benjamin  Franklin. 
In  1743  Franklin  wrote  "A  Proposal  for 
Promoting  Useful  Knowledge  Among  the 
British  Plantations  in  America,"  in 
which  he  advocated  the  formation  of  a 
society  with  members  from  all  the  col- 
onies. The  society  was  forr.ied  the  next 
year  under  the  title  of  American  Phil- 
osophical Society  Held  at  Philadelphia 
for  Promoting  Useful  Knowledge. 
Franklin  was  the  first  president  and  he 
was  succeeded  by  David  Rittenhouse  and 
then  by_  Thomas  Jefferson.  The  present 
society  is  the  result  of  a  merger  of  two 
learned  societies  both  situated  in  Phil- 
adelphia. In  1785  a  London  gentleman, 
de  Magellan,  presented  200  guineas  to 
the  society  the  interest  on  which  was  to 
be  used  to  provide  a  gold  medal  to  be 
awarded  for  the  best  discovery  or  im- 


provement in  navigation,  natural  his- 
tory, or  astronomy.  The  medal  is  con- 
sidered a  great  honor  among  scientists. 
Membership  in  the  society  is  limited 
to  fifteen  new  members  each  year  from 
the  United  States  and  three  from  foreign 
countries.  The  hall  of  the  Society  is 
located  at  104  S.  Fifth  St.,  Philadelphia, 
where  there  are  interesting  scientific  col- 
lections, and  many  objects  of  great  his- 
torical interest. 

PHILOSOPHY,  a  term  said  by 
Diogenes  Laertius  to  have  been  suggested 
by  Pythagoras,  who,  on  being  compli- 
mented on  his  wisdom,  said  that  he  was 
not  wise,  but  a  lover  of  wisdom  {philos 
Sophia),  the  Deity  alone  being  wise. 
Philosophy,  while  earnest  in  amassing 
knowledge,  aimed  chiefly  at  penetrating 
to  the  principles  of  things.  Popularly, 
it  is  divided  into  natural  and  mental  phi- 
losophy, the  former  investigating  the 
physical  laws  of  nature,  the  latter  those 
regulating  the  human  mind.  The  terra 
philosophy  is  now  generally  restricted  to 
the  second  of  these.  Even  as  thus  re- 
duced it  has  a  very  v^dde  sphere.  Thus, 
there  is  a  philosophy  of  history  (see 
History).  All  the  nations  of  antiquity 
had  a  philosophy,  that  of  the  Greeks  be- 
ing specially  celebrated.  The  chief 
schools  were:  The  Pythagorean,  com- 
menced about  500  B.  c;  the  Platonic  374 
B.  c. ;  the  Peripatetic,  334  B.  C. ;  the  Scep- 
tic, 334  B.  c;  the  Cynic,  330  B.  c;  the 
Epicurean,  306  B.  c;  the  Stoic,  280  b.  c; 
the  Middle  Academy,  278  B.  c;  the  New 
Academy,  160  B.  c;  the  New  Platonists, 
A.  D.  200  (?).  Of  modern  systems  the 
perceptive  and  sensational  philosophy  of 
Locke  arose  about  1690;  the  idealistic  of 
Berkeley  and  Hume,  1710;  the  common- 
sense  philosophy  of  Reid,  etc.,  1750;  the 
transcendental  of  Kant,  1770;  the  scien- 
tific philosophy  of  Fichte,  1800;  the  ideal- 
istic philosophy  of  Hegel  in  1810;  the 
positive  philosophy  of  Comte  in  1830, 
and  the  evolutionary  philosophy  of 
Herbert  Spencer  in  1852,  or  more  deci- 
dedly in  1855.  Also  the  course  of  sciences 
read  in  the  schools,  and  required  for  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  in  the 
universities  of  Germany,  etc.,  and  cor- 
responding to  Arts  in  the  United  States. 

For  more  modern  philosophy  consult 
the  works  of  Jamles,  Royce,  Bergson, 
Von  Mach,  Sidgwick,  Taylor,  etc. 

PHILOSOPHY,    FATHER    OF.     See 

Thales. 

PHILTER,  a  potion  supposed  to  have 
the  power  of  exciting  love.  At  times, 
poisonous  drugs  were  employed,  the 
death  of  Lucretius  and  the  madness  of 
Caligula  being  alike  ascribed  to  philters 
administered  by  their  wives. 


PHIPPS 


228 


PHOCION 


PHIPPS,  HENRY,  an  American 
manufacturer  and  philanthropist.  Born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1839;  educated  in  the 
public  schools  of  Allegheny  City,  Pa. 
In  the  early  years  of  his  life  he  worked 
in  stores  in  Pittsburgh  and  later  became 
partner  in  a  small  iron  mill.  Some 
years  afterward  he  became  associated 
with  Andrew  Carnegie  in  the  steel  busi- 
ness and  built  up  an  enormous  fortune. 
Interested  in  the  fight  on  tuberculosis  he 
donated  the  Phipps  Institution  with  ap- 
proximately a  million  dollars  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.  To  Johns  Hop- 
kins University  he  gave  a  psychiatric 
clinic  and  endowment  for  maintenance. 

PHIPS,  or  PHIPPS,  SIR  WILLIAM, 

governor  of  Massachusetts;  born  in  Pem- 
maquid  (Bristol),  Me.,  Feb.  2,  1651.  He 
was  successively  a  shepherd,  a  carpenter, 
and  a  trader,  and  in  1687  recovered  from 
a  wrecked  Spanish  ship  off  the  Bahamas 
bullion,  plate,  and  treasure  valued  at 
$1,500,000;  this  gained  him  a  knighthood 
and  the  appointment  of  sheriff  of  New 
England.  In  1690  he  captured  Port 
Royal  (now  Annapolis)  in  Nova  Scotia, 
but  failed  in  the  same  year  in  a  naval 
attack  on  Quebec.  In  1692,  through  the 
influence  of  Increase  Mather,  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Massachusetts.  He 
at  once  put  a  stop  to  the  witchcraft  per- 
secutions by  appointing  a  commission  of 
seven  magistrates  to  try  all  such  cases. 
He  died  Feb.  18,  1694,  in  London,  Eng- 
land, whither  he  had  been  summoned 
to  answer  certain  charges  of  arbitrary 
conduct. 

PHIZ.     See 
Knight. 


Browne,       Hablot 


PHLEBITIS,  inflammation  of  the 
veins.  Though  seldom  an  original  or 
"idiopathic"  disease,  it  is  a  frequent  se- 
quence of  wounds,  and  is  not  uncommon 
after  delivery.  The  disease  is  indicated 
by  great  tenderness  and  pain  along  the 
course  of  the  affected  vessel,  which  feels 
like  a  hard  knotted  cord,  and  rolls  under 
the  fingers. 

PHLEBOTOMY,    or  VENESECTION, 

the  act  of  letting  blood  by  opening  a 
vein;  a  method  of  treatment  formerly 
applied  to  almost  all  diseases,  but  now 
chiefly  confined  to  cases  of  general  or 
local  plethora.  Another  mode  of  letting 
blood  is  by  cupping  or  by  the  application 
of  leeches.  It  has  been  one  of  the  proc- 
esses of  the  medical  profession  from  the 
earliest  times. 

PHLOGISTON,  a  substance  supposed 
by  the  earlier  chemists  to  exist  in  all 
combustible  matters,  and  to  the  escape  of 
this  principle  from  any  compound  the 
phenomenon  of  fire  was  attributed.     The 


views  held  regarding  it  were,  however, 
abandoned  by  chemists  some  time  aftei 
the  researches  of  Lavoisier  on  combusi 
tion  were  made. 

PHLOX,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Polemoniacex,  distin- 
guished by  a  prismatic  calyx,  salver- 
shaped  corolla,  and  unequal  filaments. 
The  species  are  pretty  numerous,  mostly 
perennial  plants  with  simple  leaves,  and 
mostly  natives  of  North  America.  A 
number  of  species  are  common  in  British 
flower-gardens. 

PHOCffiA,  an  Ionian  city,  in  Asia 
Minor,  originally  a  colony  from  Athens. 
It  stood  on  a  peninsula  between  the  gulfs 
of  Elais  and  Smyrna,  and  had  an  ex- 
cellent harbor;  and  the  Phocaeans  were 
distinguished  among  the  Greeks  for  their 
nautical  enterprise.  When  the  city  was 
besieged  by  the  Persians  in  the  time  of 
Cyrus,  many  of  its  inhabitants  emigrated 
to  Corsica;  Massilia  (Marseilles)  was  a 
Phoc£ean  colony.  The  ruins  of  Phocsea 
are  still  known  as  Karadscha  Tokia. 

PHOCAS,  Emperor  of  the  East,  at 
first  a  centurion  in  the  army  of  the 
Emperor  Maurice.  In  602  he  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  grievances  and  discontent 
of  the  soldiers  to  get  himself  elected  em- 
peror; a  revolt  at  Constantinople  fol- 
lowed, and  Maurice  and  his  five  sons 
were  murdered  at  Chalcedon.  Phocas 
was  of  low  origin;  ignorant,  cowardly, 
and  cruel.  The  Empress  Constantina, 
accused  of  conspiracy,  was  tortured,  and 
with  her  three  daughters  beheaded  at 
Chalcedon;  and  numberless  meaner  vic- 
tims perished.  Yet  Phocas  was  acknowl- 
edged both  in  the  East  and  West. 
Chosroes,  King  of  Persia,  declared  war  on 
him,  and  at  length  the  tyrant  was  over- 
thrown and  the  empire  delivered  by  Her- 
aclius,  son  of  the  Exarch  of  Africa,  who 
led  an  expedition  to  Constantinople  in 
610.  Phocas  was  seized,  put  in  chains, 
tortured,  and  beheaded,  and  his  body 
burned. 

PHOCION,  an  Athenian  general  and 
statesman;  born  about  400  B.  c.  He  was 
a  disciple  of  Plato  and  Xenocrates,  served 
under  Chabrias  at  the  naval  battle  of 
Naxos,  and  became  subsequently  head 
of  the  peace  party  at  Athens,  steadily 
opposing  Demosthenes  and  all  bold  pa- 
triots who  were  ready  to  fight  for  the 
independence  of  their  country  against  the 
Macedonian  invaders.  He  was  a  brave 
and  successful  soldier;  his  private  char- 
acter was  above  suspicion,  which  saved 
him  from  the  infamy  which  his  political 
course  deserved.  He  was  twice  sent  on 
embassies  to  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
acquired  his  friendship.  When  Athens 
was   occupied  by   Polysperchon,  Phocion 


)riibtisne>s  mou  ._.;:.. 

AN    INDIAN    GIRL    GATHERING    PAPAYAS    IN    THE    INTERIOR    OF    PERU 


o 

2 

o 
(^   o 

I  ^ 


K^ 


w. 


©Ewing  Galloway 

SOUTH   BROAD  STREET,   PHILADELPHIA,  LOOKING  NORTH   TOWARD  THE  CITY   HALL 


PHOCIS  229  PHOENIXVILLE 

fell  one  of  the  first  victims  to  the  enemies  torate  of  Tigranes  I.,  King  of  Armenia, 

of    his    country    whom    he    had    aided.  83  B.  c.     It  formed  part  of  the  Roman 

He  was   tried   and   sentenced   to   death,  province  of  Syria  62  b.  c,  and  was  de- 

317  B.  C.  prived   of  all  its  liberties  by  Augustus, 

'  PHOCIS,  a  division  of  central  Greece  ^^  ^-  ^• 
uiitil  the  Turkish  War  (1912)  and  with  PHCENIX,  or  PHENIX,  in  astrono- 
Bulgaria  (1913).  Now  forms  with  Phthi-  my,  one  of  the  constellations  of  the 
Otis  a  department.  Pop.  (1911)  174,-  Southern  Hemisphere,  N.  of  the  bright 
574.  The  greater  part  of  the  country  star  Achernar  in  Eridanus.  In  botany, 
is  occupied  by  the  mountain  range  of  the  typical  genus  of  the  family  Phoeni- 
Parnassus  {q.  v.).  The  state  derives  cidae.  Habitat,  northern  Africa  and 
its  chief  historical  importance  from  pos-  southern  Asia.  Known  species  about 
Bessing  the  famous  oracle  of  Delphi.  12.  P.  dactylifera  is  the  date  palm. 
During  the  Peloponnesian  war  the  Pho-  P.  sylvestris  is  the  wild  date,  a  tree  very 
cians  were  close  allies  of  the  Athenians,  common,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  in  In- 
In  the  time  of^  Philip  of  Macedon  they  dia.  The  fibrous  leaflets  and  the  fibers 
were  involved  in  a  10  years'  war,  com-  from  the  petioles  are  manufactured  into 
monly  known  as  the  Sacred  or  Phocian  mats,  ropes,  and  baskets;  sugar  is  made 
War,  which  ended  disastrously  for  the  from  the  sap  of  the  tree.  The  juice  of 
Phocians,  the  whole  of  whose  cities  (22  P.  furinifera,  a  small  species  in  sandy 
in  number)  were  destroyed,  with  one  ex-  parts  of  India,  yields  sago;  its  leaves  are 
ception,  and  the  inhabitants  parceled  out  used  in  mat  making,  and  those  of  P. 
among  the  hamlets.  pahidosa,  which  grows  in  the  Sunder- 
PHCEBUS  (I  e.,  "the  Bright"),  an  ^"'"^l'  fo^^^^^h  ropes  and  thatching, 
epithet,  and  subsequently  a  name,  of  The  fruit  of  P.  acai.iis,  a  stemless  species 
Apollo.  It  had  reference  both  to  the  from  the  Sub-Himalayas  and  central  In- 
youthful  beauty  of  the  god  and  to  the  ^'^'  '%^^^^?  ^y  the  natives.  In  entomol- 
radiance    of    the     sun,    when,    latterly,  ogy,Cidaria  ribesaria    a  geometer  moth, 

Apollo  became  identified  with  Helios,  the  ^^^  ^^^^^^  <^^  ^^'^^  ^^%^^  «"  ^li''^^*  ^"^ 

sun  eod  gooseberry     bushes.     In     mythology,     a 

^     ■  fabulous   female   bird   of   Arabia,  which 

PHOENICIA,    in    ancient    geography,  was  feigned  to  live  for  500  or  600  years 

in  the  largest  sense,  a  narrow  strip  of  in  the  desert,  when  she  built  for  herself 

country     extending     nearly     the     whole  a    funeral    pyre    of   wood    and    aromatic 

length  of  the  E.  coast  of  the  Mediter-  gums,  to  which  she  set  fire  by  the  fan- 

ranean  Sea,  from  Antioch  to  the  borders  ning  of  her  wings,  and  so  consumed  her- 

of  Egypt.     But  Phoenicia  proper  was  in-  self;  but  from  the  ashes  she  sprang  up 

eluded  between  the  cities  of  Laodicea,  in  again    in    youth    and    freshness.     Hence 

Syria,  and  Tyre,  comprehending  mainly  the  phoenix  is  depicted  as  an  emblem  of 

the  territories  of  Tyre  and   Sidon,  and  immortality.     In    heraldry    the    bird    is 

forming  then  only  a  part  of  the  country  represented    in    coat-armor    in    flames, 

of    Canaan.     Before    Joshua    conquered  Figuratively,    a    paragon;    a    person   or 

Palestine,  this  country  was  possessed  by  thing  of  extreme  rarity  or  excellence. 

Canaanites,   sons  of   Ham,   divided  into  .«^^.„„.,„        ..       «  *    •           j., 

11  families,  of  which  the  most  powerful  ,  F^P^,^^?'  ?  ^^^^  of  Arizona,  the  capi- 

was    that    of    Canaan,    the    founder    of  tfl  of  the  State  and  the  county-seat  of 

Sidon,  ^nd  head  of  the  Canaanites,  whom  Maricopa  co.     It  is  on  the  Maricopa  and 

the  Greeks  named  Phoenicians.     A  colony  Pj^o^nix  and  the  Santa  Fe,  Prescott,  and 

of  Phoenicians,  led  by  Elissa  or  Dido,  set-  ^em'^    railroads.     It    is    the    site    of 

tied   in   Africa   878   B.   c,  and   founded  ^^e    Agricultural    Experiment    Station. 

Carthage    {q.    v.).     Phoenicia    was    in-  Among  its  important  buildings  are  the 

vaded  by  Shalmaneser  IV.,  King  of  As-  capitol.     Federal     Building,     city     hall,   ^ 

Syria  723  B.  c;  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  King  .^0"^  house  and  handsome  school  build- 

of  Babylon,  587  B.  C;  and  by  Cyrus,  King  ^^Ss.,    The  city  has  important  commer- 

of  Persia,  536  B.  c.     The  Phoenicians  sub-  cial  interests  and  has  an  extensive  trade 

sequently  assisted  the  Persians  in  their  ^^  }^\^.  ^^^^K^  ^^/^'«/n\"^^^.«^^' /.nonY 

wars  with  the  Greeks,  and  sustained  a  ISn^^Q^^^^"       ^^'  ^       ^   11.134;   (1920) 

total   defeat  from   Cimon,  at  the   naval  -^9,053. 

battle  of  the  Eurymedon,  466  B.  c.    They  PHOENIXVILLE,  a  town  in  Chester 

revolted  from  Persia  352  B.  c,  and  were  co.,    Pa.,    at   the    confluence    of    French 

conquered  by  Alexander  III.  (the  Great)  creek  and  the  Schuylkill  river,  and  on  the 

331    B.    c.     After    his    death,   323    B.    c,  Pennsylvania   and  the   Philadelphia   and 

Phoenicia  was  annexed  to  the  dominions  Reading   railroads;    23   miles   N.    W.   of 

of  Ptolemy    (I.)    Soter,  King  of  Egypt.  Philadelphia.     Here  are  a  seminary,  sev- 

It  was  seized  by  Antigonus  of  Phrygia,  eral  banks,  many  schools,  bridge  works, 

315  B.  c.,  and  passed  under  the  protec-  silk   mill,   steel    mills,  etc.    Phoenixville 


FHOLAS 


230 


PHOSGENE 


also  has  manufactories  of  copper  and  cot- 
ton goods.  The  assessed  valuation  is 
$3,500,000.  Pop.  (1910)  10,734;  (1920) 
10,484. 

PHOLAS,  piddock;  the  typical  genus 
of  the  Pholadidse.  Shell  long,  cylindri- 
cal, accessory  valves  protecting  the 
dorsal  margin.  Animal  with  a  large, 
truncated  foot,  body  with  a  fan-like 
termination.  They  live  in  symmetrical 
vertical  burrows.  Recent  species  32, 
from  most  seas:  fossil  25,  from  the  Up- 
per Lias  onward. 

PHONETIC,  or  PHONETICAL,  rep- 
resenting sound;  pertaining  to  the  repre- 
sentation of  sounds;  a  term  applied  to 
alphabetic  or  literal  characters  which 
represent  sounds,  as  a,  b,  c;  as  opposed 
to  ideographic,  which  represent  objects 
or  symbolize  abstract  ideas,  as  in  Egyp- 
tian hieroglyphics.  Phonetic  spelling,  a 
system  of  spelling  in  which  the  words  are 
spelled  exactly  as  they  are  pronounced, 
the  sounds  being  represented  by  charac- 
ters each  of  which  represents  a  single 
sound.  Phonetic  printing  was  first  sug- 
gested by  Isaac  Pitman,  of  Bath,  Eng- 
land, and  reduced  to  a  system  by  him 
in  conjunction  with  A.  J.  Ellis,  in  the 
years  1843-1846.  Since  that  time  many 
systems  of  phonetic  spelling  have  been 
proposed  and  several  are  used  by  stenog- 
raphers in  the  United  States. 

PHONOGRAPH,  an  instrument  for 
recording  and  reproducing  sound.  The 
instrument  in  its  present  stage  of  per- 
fection has  been  evolved  through,  ex- 
tended laboratory  work  from  the  first 
principles  that  were  demonstrated  by  a 
device  invented  in  1855  by  Leon  Scott. 
In  Scott's  instrument  sound  was  collected 
by  an  ellipsoidal  receiver,  which  was  open 
at  one  end.  A  small  tube  was  fastened 
to  the  other  end  of  the  receiver  and  a 
tightly  stretched  membrane  to  which  a 
bristle  was  attached  was  fastened  to  the 
end  of  the  tube.  In  front  of  the  bristle 
was  a  cylinder  surfaced  with  material 
sufficiently  soft  to  take  impressions  from 
the  bristle  as  the  sound  waves  collected 
in  the  receiver  caused  the  membrane  to 
move  the  bristle;  and  at  the  same  time 
the  cylinder  was  made  to  move  so  that 
a  record  of  the  vibrations  was  made 
upon  the  soft  surface  of  the  cylinder. 

In  1877  Charles  Crass  placed  before 
the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  a 
method  of  reproducing  the  fragile  first 
cylinder  by  photoengraving  on  some 
harder  surface  and  Konig  of  Paris  made 
many  changes  and  improvements  on 
Scott's  first  machine. 

Because  of  the  great  possibilities  sug- 
gested by  the  early  laboratory  models 
Thomas  A.  Edison  started  an  intensive 


study  of  this  field  about  1877  and  the 
real  life  of  the  phonograph  began,  al- 
though his  efforts  were  not  concentrated 
in  this  field  until  a  later  date,  and  the 
machine  to-day  is  a  result  of  constant 
laboratory  experimentation  and  improve- 
ment. 

Other  names  that  should  be  mentioned 
in  the  development  of  the  instrument  are 
Bell  and  Tainter,  who  in  1885  invented 
the  gramophone  or  machine  which  used 
a  wax  cylinder  and  a  horizontal  groove, 
and  Emil  Berliner  who  introduced  the 
disk  record  in  which  the  record  of  vibra- 
tions was  made  in  the  horizontal  in  place 
of  the  vertical  plane. 

The  modern  machine  consists  essenti- 
ally of  a  reproducer  in  which  a  metal 
stylus  or  jeweled  point  transmits  the 
vibrations  to  some  tightly  stretched  sur- 
face; the  vibrations  are  carried  through 
an  arm  to  a  tone  chamber.  The  record 
is  revolved  by  a  turntable  which  is  ac- 
cuated  either  by  clockwork  or  an  electric 
motor. 

The  fact  that  the  early  records,  which 
were  made  of  a  composition  which  had 
wax  as  its  principal  ingn^edient,  were 
fragile  and  would  not  wear  well,  led  to 
experiments  which  would  produce  a  more 
durable  material.  A  method  in  which 
the  original  record  is  electro-plated  with 
gold  and  re-enforced  with  a  less  valuable 
material  and  used  as  a  die  which  stamps 
the  records  into  a  plastic  material  which 
is  afterward  hardened  is  now  used. 

Almost  every  musical  artist  of  note 
is  under  contract  by  one  of  the  companies 
manufacturing  phonograph  records,  and 
the  industry  of  making  phonographs 
and  records  has  grown  to  tremendous 
size;  many  thousands  of  people  are 
employed  in  the  making,  and  a  vast  staff 
of  research  workers  are  engaged  in  mak- 
ing studies  which  tend  toward  the  im- 
provement of  the  product.  See  Gramo- 
phone. 

PHONOGRAPHY,  a  descriptidh  of  the 
sounds  uttered  by  the  organs  of  speech. 
Also  the  representation  of  sounds  by  cer- 
tain characters,  each  of  which  represents 
one  sound,  and  always  the  same  sound. 
Its  special  application  is  to  alphabetical 
writing,  in  which  sounds  or  articulations 
are  represented  by  signs  or  letters,  as 
opposed  to  the  system  in  which  the  rep- 
resentation is  by  ideas,  symbols,  or 
cipher.  Specifically,  a  method  of  writ- 
ing, or  graphically  representing  lan- 
guage, invented  by  Isaac  Pitman,  of 
Bath,  England.  See  Shorthand.  Also 
the  art  of  using,  or  registering  by  means 
of,  the  phonograph;  the  construction  of 
phonographs. 

PHOSGENE,  carbon  oxychloride,  car- 
bonyl  chloride,  chlorocarbonic  acid,  C  0 


PHOSPHATE 


231 


PHOTOCHEMISTRY 


Cla.  A  colorless  liquid,  occurring  as  a 
gas  at  ordinary  temperatures.  Boiling 
point  8-2  C,  specific  gravity  1-432  at  0° 
C.  Soluble  in  acetic  acid  and  benzine.  In 
contact  with  moisture  it  decomposes, 
forming  carbon  dioxide  and  hydrochloric 
acid. 

CO  CI.  +  H2O  =  CO2  +  2  HCl 
Combines  with  ammonia  to  form  urea 
and  ammonium  chloride.  Prepared  by 
passing  carbon  monoxide  and  chlorine 
through  charcoal  with  or  without  a  cat- 
alyst. It  is  a  very  poisonous,  asphyxiat- 
ing gas  at  temperatures  above  its  boiling 
point,  and  this  property  was  made  use 
of  in  the  World  War,  phosgene  being 
used  as  a  filling  for  shells,  usually  in 
combination  with  other  gases.  It  is  also 
used  for  bleaching  sand  employed  in 
glass  manufacture,  and  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  dye  stuffs. 

PHOSPHATE,  in  chemistry,  the  gen- 
eric term  for  the  salts  formed  by  the 
union  of  phosphoric  anhydride  with 
bases  or  water  or  both.  They  play  a 
leading  part  in  the  chemistry  of  animal 
and  plant  life,  the  most  important  in  this 
connection  being  the  phosphate  of  soda, 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  the  basic  phos- 
phate of  magnesia.  In  agriculture  the 
adequate  supply  of  phosphates  to  plants 
in  the  form  of  manures  becomes  a  matter 
of  necessity  in  all  deplenished  soils. 
These  phosphatic  manures  consist  for  the 
most  part  of  bones,  ground  bones,  min- 
eral phosphates,  bone  ash  and  phosphatic 
guano. 

PHOSPHORESCENCE,  the  property 
which  many  substances  and  organic  be- 
ings possess  of  emitting  light  under  cer- 
tain conditions;  also  a  phosphoric  light. 
Among  animals,  some  of  Cuvier's  sub- 
kingdom  Radiata  have  the  power  of  emit- 
ting light  in  the  dark,  and  the  phos- 
phorescence of  the  sea  in  tropical,  and 
even  at  times  in  temperate  climates,  is 
attributed  to  a  small  infusorial  animal- 
cule. On  land,  of  insects,  some  milli- 
pedes, the  female  glow-worm,  and  the 
fireflies,  emit  light.  In  the  glow-worm 
the  light  is  from  the  under  side  of  the 
final  segments  of  the  abdomen. 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID,  in  chemistry, 
H^POi,  ortho-phosphoric  acid,  a  tribasic 
acid  formed  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid 
upon  phosphorus,  or  by  the  hydration  of 
phosphoric  anhydride.  It  is  given  in  a 
very  dilute  state  in  diabetes  and  scrofula. 

PHOSPHORITE,  a  species  of  calca- 
reous earth;  a  sub-species  of  apatite.  It 
is  an  amorphous  phosphate  of  lime,  and 
is  valuable  as  a  fertilizer. 

PHOSPHOROUS  ACID,  in  chemistry, 
■  HijPOs.     Prepared  by  adding  water  to  the 


trichloride  of  phosphorus,  PCL+H;0= 
HsPOa+SHCl.  Heated  in  a  close  vessel, 
it  forms  phosphoreted  hydrogen  and 
phosphoric  acid. 

PHOSPHORUS,  in  Greek  mythology, 
the  morning-star;  Phosphor.  In  chem- 
istry, symbol  P;  at.  wt.=  31,  a  non- 
metallic  pentad  element;  found  in  a  state 
of  combination  in  the  unstratified  rocks, 
the  soil,  the  organism  of  plants,  and 
the  bodies  of  animals.  Discovered  by 
Brandt  in  1669.  It  is  prepared  from 
powdered  calcined  bones  by  treating  them 
with  two-thirds  of  their  weight  of  sul- 
phuric acid  diluted  with  water,  evaporat- 
ing the  liquid  portion,  and,  after  mixing 
with  charcoal,  desiccating  by  heating  in 
an  iron  vessel.  The  dry  mass  is  then 
introduced  into  a  stone  retort,  heated, 
and  the  phosphorus  evolved^  collected  un- 
der water.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  and 
is  kept  in  that  liquid,  but  dissolves  in 
native  naphtha  and  bisulphide  of  carbon; 
is  very  inflammable,  and  sometimes  takes 
fire  from  the  heat  of  the  hand.  A  re- 
markable modification  exists  under  the 
name  of  amorphous  phosphorus,  prepared 
by  exposing  common  phosphorus  to  250° 
for  50  hours.  It  is  not  luminous  in  the 
dark.  Used  on  a  very  large  scale  in  the 
preparation  of  safety  matches.  It  has 
been  given  in  small  doses  in  intercostal 
and  trigeminal  neuralgia,  psoriasis, 
eczema,  and  goiter;  but  even  in  minute 
doses  it  is  dangerous.  In  larger  ones  it 
produces  jaundice,  vomiting,  hemorrhage, 
and  death. 

PHOTOCHEMISTRY,  that  branch  of 
science  which  deals  with  the  chemical 
changes  brought  about  by  the  agency  of 
light.  The  fact  that  changes  in  the 
composition  or  structure  of  matter  can 
be  brought  about  by  light  has  been 
known,  probably,  since  the  early  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  Schultze  ob- 
serving in  1727,  that  silver  chloride, 
when  exposed  to  sunlight,  changed  from 
a  creamy  white  to  purplish  brown.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  rate  of  chemical  ac- 
tion is  proportional  to  the  intensity  of 
the  light,  but  the  exact  determination  of 
the  activity  of  light  was  first  suggested 
by  John  W.  Draper,  of  New  York  Uni- 
versity, who  measured  the  rate  of  com- 
bination brought  about  by  light  in  a 
mixture  of  hydrogen  and  chlorine. 
Later,  Bunsen  and  Roscoe  made  use  of  a 
photographic  film,  measuring  the  time 
required  to  darken  the  film  to  a  standard 
tint.  The  action  of  light  is  not  confined 
to  any  particular  wave  length,  but  the 
most  active  are  the  violet  and  ultra- 
violet, or  so-called  actinic,  rays.  Red 
light  is,  for  most  practical  purposes,  in- 
active, and  this  fact  is  made  use  of  in 


PHOTOELECTROTYPE 


232 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


photographic  dark  rooms  in  which  white 
light  is  excluded  and  red  lamps  or  win- 
dows employed.  The  action  of  light 
produces  on  photographic  plates  and  bro- 
mide papers  an  effect  which  is  not  imme- 
diately visible,  but  can  be  made  so  by 
further  action  of  a  chemical  known  as 
a  developer. 

PHOTOELECTROTYPE,  a  block  made 
mainly  with  the  aid  of  photography  and 
of  the  electrotyping  process,  and  which 
can  be  printed  with  type  like  a  woodcut. 
A  photographic  negative  of  the  subject 
required  is  printed  on  a  film  of  gelatine 
which  has  been  treated  with  bichromate 
of  potash,  to  render  it  sensitive  to  the 
action  of  light.  Those  parts  on  which 
the  light  has  not  acted  are  soluble  in 
water,  and  are  washed  away,  leaving  the 
printed  parts  that  are  insoluble  in  relief. 
From  this  relief  a  mold  is  taken,  and  an 
electrotype  made  in  the  usual  way.  Un- 
less special  means  are  taken  to  translate 
the  half-tones  of  the  photograph  into  line 
or  stipple,  this  process  is  only  available 
for  reproducing  drawings,  etc.,  in  black 
and  white. 

PHOTOENGRAVING,  a  term  applied 
to  producing  printing  blocks  or  plates  by 
photography.  The  most  commonly  em- 
ployed process  is  to  coat  a  metal  plate 
with  a  thin  film  of  asphaltum,  and  ex- 
pose it  to  light  under  a  reversed  positive. 
The  picture  is  next  developed  by  dissolv- 
ing away  the  parts  of  the  asphaltum  not 
acted  upon  by  the  light,  and  the  plate  is 
subsequently  etched  in  the  usual  way. 
This  process  is  sometimes  called  photo- 
aquatint.  The  second  method  is  more 
elaborate.  A  film  of  bichromatized  gela- 
tine, on  a  sheet  of  glass  or  a  copper 
plate,  is  exposed  under  a  photographic 
negative,  and  the  unprinted  portions 
which  are  soluble  in  water  washed  away, 
leaving  the  printed  parts  in  relief.  The 
plate  with  the  relief  is  next  coated  with 
a  film  of  silver  by  electro-deposition,  and 
placed  in  an  ordinary  electrotyping  bath, 
in  which  it  is  allowed  to  remain  till  a 
shell  of  copper  from  one-sixteenth  to  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick  (according  to  size 
of  plate)  is  formed.  This,  after  the 
rough  excrescences  have  been  removed 
by  filing,  becomes  the  printing  plate.  It 
can  be  worked  upon  by  an  engraver,  if 
necessary,  to  remove  photographic  de- 
fects, and  is  printed  on  a  copper-plate 
press.  When  a  relief  block  is  required, 
a  reversed  negative  is  used  to  print  from, 
and  the  etching  is  carried  to  a  much 
greater  extent.  These  processes  answer 
for^  subjects  in  black  and  white,  as  well 
as  in  colors.  This  is  also  the  system  by 
which  conversion  of  the  half-tones  of  a 
photograph    into    an    ordinary    printing 


block  or  plate  has  become  so  emi- 
nently successful.  See  Photoelectro- 
TYPE;  Photogravure, 

PHOTOGRAPHY,  the  art  of  produc- 
ing permanent  pictures  by  means  of  the 
chemical  action  of  light  on  sensitized  sur- 
faces. The  first  to  produce  permanent 
pictures  by  the  chemical  influence  of 
light  was  M.  Niepce  at  Chalais-sur-Mer, 
in  1814,  and  his  idea  of  the  development 
of  a  latent  image  by  treatment  after 
exposure  lies  at  the  basis  of  photography. 
Niepce  and  Daguerre  discovered  that 
they  were  conducting  experiments  of  a 
kindred  character,  and  in  1829  entered 
into  partnership.  Daguerre,  with  Niep- 
ce's  son  Isidore,  carried  on  this  work  in 
1839,  and  invented  the  process  known  as 
the  daguerreotype. 

The  introduction  of  collodion  in  1857 
was  a  great  step  in  photography.  The 
collodion  process  is  divided  into  five 
stages:  (1)  The  preparation  of  a  clean 
glass  plate  by  coating  with  collodion  to 
which  bromide  of  cadmium  and  either 
iodide  of  potassium  or  iodide  of  ammo- 
nium has  been  added.  (2)  The  sensitiz- 
ing of  the  collodion  by  immersion  in  a 
bath  of  nitrate  of  silver,  and  distilled 
water.  (3)  The  production  of  a  latent 
image  by  exposing  the  sensitized  plate 
in  the  camera.  (4)  The  development  of 
latent  into  visible  image  by  immersing 
the  plate  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron 
or  pyrogallic  acid,  to  either  of  which 
some  acetic  or  citric  acid  is  added.  (5) 
Fixing  of  the  permanent  image  by  im- 
mersion of  the  plate  in  some  solvent  of 
those  parts  of  the  sensitive  surface  upon 
which  the  light  has  acted.  This  solvent 
for  wet  plates  is  cyanide  of  potassium, 
but  for  more  modern  processes  hyposul- 
phite of  sodium  is  employed.  On  account 
of  the  trouble  of  preparing  the  wet  col- 
lodion plates,  the  dry  plates,  made  by  the 
gelatine-bromide  process,  have  almost 
universally  taken  their  place.  Dry  plates 
made^  by  some  form  of  this  gelatine- 
bromide  process  are  manufactured  on  a 
large  scale.  When  properly  made  they 
are^  much  more  sensitive  than  the  col- 
lodion plates  and  will  keep  good  for 
years,  and  can  be  developed  months  after 
exposure.  The  positive  prints  are  made 
by  the  action  of  light,  passing  through 
the  developed  plate,  on  a  sensitized  pa- 
per, over  which  the  plate  is  placed.  The 
silver,  platinum,  and  ferro-prussiate  pa- 
pers are  the  most  used. 

Silver  Process. — Suitable  paper  is  coat- 
ed on  one  side  by  a  thin  layer  of  albu- 
men, to  which  chloride  of  sodium  or  of 
ammonium  has  been  added.  The  old 
method  of  dispensing  with  albumen  and 
using  paper  which  is  salted  only,  is  re- 
viving.    The  paper  is  sensitized  by  float- 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


233 


PHOTOTHERAPY 


ing  it  on  a  solution  of  silver  nitrate,  and 
drying.  After  printing,  the  paper  is 
treated  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
gold,  which  tones  it,  producing  different 
shades  of  color,  depending  on  the  length 
of  immersion  and  strength  of  solution. 
After  toning,  the  print  is  fixed  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  plate,  by  a  solution 
of  hyposulphite  of  sodium,  which  removes 
the  undarkened  silver  salts.  Gelatine  or 
collodion  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of 
albumen  in  this  silver-printing  process. 
All  soluble  substances  have  to  be  washed 
from  the  prints  after  they  have  been 
toned  and  fixed  because  otherwise  the 
photographs  become  ultimately  discol- 
ored. The  papers  known  as  aristotype, 
argentotype,  and  celerotype  are  gelatine 
emulsions  of  chloride  of  silver  spread  on 
paper. 

Platinum  Process. — An  image  can  be 
obtained  in  platinum  black  if  the  paper 
is  sensitized  with  ferric-oxalate  with 
which  is  mixed  a  solution  of  chloro-pla- 
tinite  of  potassium.  The  action  of  light 
on  this  paper  reduces  the  ferric  salt  to 
the  ferrous  state,  and  when  the  ferrous 
salt  is  in  solution  the  platinous  salt  is 
reduced  by  it.  By  floating  the  exposed 
paper  on  a  solution  of  neutral  potassium 
oxalate,  which  is  a  solvent  of  the  ferrous 
oxalate,  the  platinum  salt  in  contact  with 
it  is  immediately  reduced  to  the  metallic 
state,  and  an  image  is  thus  built  up.  To 
fix  the  prints  they  are  immersed  in  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid,  which  dissolves  away 
the  ferric  oxalate,  and  the  oxalate  of 
lime. 

Ferrojmissiate  Process. — The  ordinary 
method  of  making  blue  prints. 

Composite  photography,  a  method  of 
superposing  several  or  many  photo- 
graphs, thus  getting  a  sort  of  average 
of  the  whole  and  showing  the  type.  If 
it  is  a  human  composite  photograph  type, 
then  the  eyes  of  each  sitter  are  brought 
to  the  same  place  on  the  lens,  and  the 
exposure  for  each  is  very  short. 

The  most  important  advance  in  pho- 
tography in  recent  years  has  been  made 
in  the  direction  of  taking  photographs  in 
natural  colors.  Many  scientists  have 
worked  on  the  problem  and  several  proc- 
esses have  been  developed.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  was  perfected  in 
1907  by  Antoine  Lumiere  and  his  sons 
August^  and  Louis,  of  Paris,  who  suc- 
ceeded in  taking  color  photographs  on  a 
single  plate  and  in  an  ordinary  camera, 
with  exposures  of  one  second  and  less. 
Their  process  consists  in  the  formation 
of  a  color  screen  on  a  glass  plate  by  plac- 
ing on  it  a  layer  of  microscopic  grains  of 
transparent  potato  starch,  in  three  por- 
tions colored  respectively  orange,  green, 
and  violet;  the  plate  is  then  sensitized  by 


coating  with  a  gelatin-bromid  emul- 
sion. After  the  exposure,  the  plate  is 
developed  by  a  double  process  that  turns 
it  to  a  positive  and  the  result  is  a  beau- 
tiful transparency  in  the  natural  colors. 

PHOTOGRAVURE,  a  term  applied  to 
methods  of  producing,  by  photography, 
plates  for  printing  in  a  copper  plate 
press.     The  processes  are  kept  secret. 

PHOTOPHOBIA,  a  dread  or  intoler- 
ance of  light;  a  symptom  more  or  less 
present  in  all  inflammations  of  the  eye. 
It  is  also  met  with  in  many  diseases  of 
the  nervous  system  and  in  many  febrile 
conditions. 

PHOTOSPHERE,  in  astronomy,  a 
luminous  envelope  believed  to  completely 
surround  the  sun  within  an  outer  environ- 
ment of  a  dense  atmosphere.  It  is  from 
the  photosphere  that  light  and  heat  are 
radiated.  Used  more  rarely  of  the  fixed 
stars. 

PHOTOSTAT,  a  trade  name  for  direct 
photographing  process.  By  this  means 
copies  of  drawings,  legal  papers,  records, 
etc.  may  be  rapidly  produced.  A  special 
camera,  with  special  developing  and  fix- 
ing attachments,  is  used  in  the  process. 
The  reproductions  are  made  directly 
upon  the  surface  of  the  print  paper, 
which  has  been  coated  with  a  special 
emulsion.  In  order  that  the  image  will 
not  be  reversed  the  camera  is  fitted  with 
a  reversing  prism  and  a  special  copying 
lens.  The  entire  apparatus  of  the 
camera  and  developing  plant  is  self-con- 
tained. After  exposure  the  paper  passes 
through  the  developing  and  fixing  proc- 
ess, and  is  then  cut  and  dried  and  is 
ready  for  use. 

The  ordinary  photostat  print  is  white 
upon  a  black  background,  but  by  a  slight 
addition  to  the  process,  black  prints  upon 
light  backgrounds  are  secured.  The  pro- 
cess is  much  used  for  legal  work,  dupli- 
cating policies,  in  insurance,  and  pair- 
ticularly  in  engineering  work,  where 
many  copies  of  the  same  plans  are  de- 
sired. The  scale  of  the  drawing  made 
may  be  easily  altered. 

^  PHOTOTHERAPY,  the  application  of 
light  rays  to  the  treatment  of  such  dis- 
eases as  tubercular  glands,  eczema,  can- 
cerous grovrths,  lupus  epithelioma,  and 
acme  vulgaris. 

In  the  decomposition  of  sunlight  or 
artificial  white  light,  it  has  been  found 
that  different  rays  have  different  quali- 
ties, some  being  calorific,  or  heat-produc- 
ing, others  producing  light  without  heat. 
Experimentation  has  proved  that  there 
are  rays  beyond  both  extremes  of  the 
visible  spectrum,  called  ultra  rays.  The 
ultra-red  rays  produce  greater  heat  than 


PHRAGMITES 


234 


PHYLACTERY 


the  red  ray,  which  is  the  extreme  visible 
heat  calorific  ray. 

The  violet  rays  and  ultra-violet 
rays  are  known  to  be  bactericidal,  since 
culture  of  bacteria  which  have  been  ex- 
posed to  their  action  are  killed.  These 
rays  produce  an  inflammation  (sunburn) 
and  have  the  power  of  penetrating  the 
skin. 

Dr.  Niles  R.  Fensen,  of  Copenhagen, 
Denmark,  who  introduced  this  work  to 
the  medical  profession  in  1892,  is 
acknowledged  to  be  the  pioneer  in  the 
use  of  light  rays  for  curative  purposes. 
Since  it  is  necessary  to  use  some  sort 
of  filtering  lens  in  order  that  the  heat 
rays  do  not  act  upon  the  part  to  be 
treated,  Dr.  Fensen  used  an  apparatus 
consisting  of  double  quartz  lenses,  be- 
tween which  was  placed  an  ammoniacal 
solution  of  sulphate  of  copper.  This 
solution  is  opaque  to  the  ultro-red,  red, 
orange,  and  yellow  heat  rays,  but  trans- 
parent to  the  blue,  violet  and  ultra-violet 
light  rays. 

White  light  must  first  be  broken  up 
into  its  component  colors,  and  the  heat 
rays  removed  by  filtering,  after  which 
they  are  focused  on  the  surface  to  be 
treated.  In  spite  of  the  filter,  artificial 
cooling  of  the  surface  undergoing  treat- 
ment is  sometimes  necessary. 

The  electric  bath  cabinet  was  invented 
by  Kellog  in  1894.  In  this  case  the 
patient  is  placed  in  a  cabinet  with  his 
head  projecting  through  an  opening  in 
the  top,  and  his  body  subjected  to  a 
baking  process,  the  heat  being  furnished 
by  various  lights  inside  the  cabinet 
which  are  controlled  by  an  attendant. 
This  treatment  is  used  for  rheumatism, 
obesity,  and  for  internal  congestion. 

In  responsible  hands  there  is  no 
doubt  that  much  benefit  is  derived  by  the 
practice  of  these  methods,  and  there  are 
many  reputable  sanitariums  and  prac- 
titioners of  phototherapy,  but  it  has  also 
given  rise  to  many  drugless  health  re- 
sorts and  other  questionable  institutions 
whose  object  is  to  prey  upon  the  helpless 
and  infirm. 

PHRAGMITES,  in  botany,  reed;  a 
genus  of  grasses,  tribe  Arundineaae. 
Spikelets  panicled,  four  or  six  flowered, 
those  above  perfect,  the  lower  one  with 
stamens  only;  all  enveloped  in  silky 
hairs;  palea  short,  two  nerved.  Known 
species  five.  The  hard  seeds  of  P.  arun- 
dinacea  and  P.  calamagrostis.  In  Cash- 
mere the  first  species  is  given  to  cattle, 
and  sandals  are  made  from  its  stems. 
In  palaeontology,  a  form  of  reed  occur- 
ring in  the  Miocene. 

PHRENOLOGY,  the  science  or  doc- 
trine which  teaches  that  a  relation  ex- 
ists between  the  several  faculties  of  the 


human  mind  and  particular  portions  of 
the  brain,  the  latter  being  the  organs 
through  which  the  former  act.  That  the 
brain,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  the  part  of 
the  human  body  through  which  the  mind 
operates,  had  been  from  ancient  times 
the  general  belief;  but  the  localization 
of  the  several  faculties  was  first  at- 
tempted by  Dr.  Franz  Joseph  Gall,  who 
gained,  in  1804,  a  valuable  coadjutor  in 
Dr.  Spurzheim.  When  Spurzheim  vis- 
ited Edinburgh,  he  met  Mr.  George 
Combe,  who  adopted  his  views,  and  in 
1819  published  "Essays  on  Phrenology," 
ultimately  developed  into  his  "System  of 
Phrenology,"  which  became  very  popu- 
lar. Gall  enumerated  nearly  30,  Spurz- 
heim 35,  mental  faculties  which  he  con- 
sidered as  primitive.  These  Spurzheim 
divides  into  moral,  or  affective,  and  in- 
tellectual. 

PHRYGIA,  in  ancient  geography,  an 
inland  province  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded 
N.  by  Bithynia  and  Galatia,  E.  by  Cap- 
padocia,  S.  by  Lycia,  Pisidia,  and  Isau- 
ria,  and  W.  by  Mysia,  Lydia,  and  Caria. 
It  was  called  Phrygia  Pacatiana,  and 
also  Phrygia  Major,  in  distinction  from 
Phrygia  Minor,  which  was  a  small  dis- 
trict of  Mysia  near  the  Hellespont,  oc- 
cupied by  some  Phrygians  after  the  Tro- 
jan War.  The  part  of  Phrygia  Major 
was  also  called  Lycaonia. 

PHRYNE  (fri-ne),  a  famous  courte- 
san of  Greece,  and  mistress  of  Praxiteles, 
who  employed  her  as  a  model  for  his 
statues  of  Venus.  She  acquired  im- 
mense wealth  and  offered  to  rebuild 
Thebes,  provided  this  inscription  should 
be  placed  on  the  walls:  "Alexander  de- 
stroyed this  city,  and  the  courtesan 
Phryne  restored  it";  but  her  offer  was 
rejected. 

PHTHALIC  ANHYDRIDE,  CeH* 
(CD) a  O.  A  white,  crystalline  sub- 
stance, specific  gravity  1.527,  melting 
point  128°  C.  Sublimes  below  boiling 
point.  Soluble  in  alcohol,  slightly  solu- 
ble in  ether  and  hot  water.  An  impor- 
tant intermediate  in  the  dye  industry,  be- 
ing used  in  the  manufacture  of  eosia 
and  other  dyestuffs. 

PHTHISIS.    See  Consumption. 

PHYLACTERY,  a  charm,  spell,  or 
amulet  worn  as  a  preservative  against 
disease  or  danger.  In  Judaism,  small 
square  boxes,  made  either  of  parchment 
or  black  calfskin,  in  which  are  inclosed 
slips  of  vellum  inscribed  with  passages 
from  the  Pentateuch  and  which  are  worn 
to  this  day  on  the  head  and  on  the  left 
arm  by  every  orthodox  Jew  on  week  days 
during  the  daily  morning  prayer.  The 
box  of  which  the  phylactery  worn  on  the 
arm  is  made  consists  of  one  cell  wherein 


PHYLLITE 


235 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION 


is  deposited  a  parchment  strip,  with  the 
fofiowing  four  sections  written  on  it  in 
four  columns,  each  column  having^  seven 
lines : 


These  are  the  passages  which  are  inter- 
preted as  enjoining  the  use  of  phylac- 
teries. The  box  of  which  the  phylactery 
for  the  head  is  made  consists  of  four 
cells  in  which  are  deposited  four  sep- 
arate slips  of  parchment,  on  which  are 
written  the  same  four  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture. On  the  outside  of  this  phylactery 
to  the  right  is  impressed  the  regular 
three-pronged  Hebrew  letter  shi7i,  and 
on  the  left  side  is  the  same  letter  con- 
sisting of  four  prongs,  which  are  an 
abbreviation  for  the  Hebrew  word  Sha- 
dai,  the  Almighty.  The  phylacteries  are 
generally  made  an  inch  and  a  half 
square,  and  have  long  leather  straps  at- 
tached to  them,  with  which  they  are 
fastened  to  the  head  and  arm.  They  are 
worn  during  prayer  and  sacred  medita- 
tion. Also  a  case  in  which  the  early 
Christians  inclosed  the  relics  of  their 
dead. 

PHYLLITE,  in  mineralogy,  a  mineral 
found  in  small  shining  scales  or  plates 
in  a  clay-slate.  Essentially  a  hydrated 
silicate  of  alumina,  sesquioxide  and  pro- 
toxide of  iron,  protoxide  of  manganese, 
and  potash.  Found  in  Massachusetts 
and  Rhode  Island.  Also  a  name  given 
to  some  slaty  rocks  of  cryptocrystalline 
to  microcrystalline  texture,  apparently 
intermediate  between  mica-schist  and  or- 
dinary clay  slate. 

PHYLLOCABIDA,  in  zoology  and 
palaeontology;  an  order  of  Crustacea, 
represented  by  Nebalia  and  a  number  of 
fossil  forms.  The  group  is  intermediate 
between  the  Phyllopoda  and  shrimps 
(Decapoda).  The  body  is  compressed, 
with  usually  a  large  shield,  a  pair  of 
stalked  eyes;  the  hind  body  ending  in 
two  or  three  spines.  There  are  eight 
pairs  of  broad,  short,  leaf-like  feet.  The 
fossil  forms  flourished  from  the  Silu- 
rian to  the  Carboniferous  period.  The 
living  type  is  Nebalia  bipes;  it  ranges 
from  Maine  to  Greenland  and  Norway, 
and  it  is  only  about  half  an  inch  long. 

PHYLLOPODA,  in  zoology,  an  order 
of  Crustacea,  division  Branchiopoda. 
The  feet  are  never  less  than  eight  pairs, 
and  are  leafy  in  appearance.  The  first 
pair  oar-like,  the  other  branchial,  and 
adapted  for  swimming.  Carapace  not 
always  present.  They  undergo  a  meta- 
morphosis   when    young,    being    called 


Nauplii.     They  are  of  small  size,  some- 
what akin  to  the  ancient  Trilobites. 

PHYLLOSTOMID^,  in  zoology,  the 
vampires,  a  family  of  insectivorous  bats. 
See  Vampire  Bat. 

PHYLLOXERA,  in  entomology,  a 
genus  of  insects  of  the  order  Hemiptera, 
sub-order  Homoptera,  the  type  of  a  fam- 
ily Phylloxendis,  allied  to  the  Aphis 
and  Coccus  families.  The  Phylloxeridae 
attach  themselves  to  various  plants,  on 
the  juice  of  which  they  feed,  and  which 
they  often  injure  or  destroy.  P.  vasta- 
trix  is  the  name  given  to  an  insect  of 
this  family,  which,  since  1865,  has  com- 
mitted great  devastation  in  the  vine- 
yards of  France.  They  produce  galls 
on  the  roots  of  the  vines  which,  robbed  of 
nutriment,  soon  die. 

PHYSALIA,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of 
marine  animals  of  the  class  Hydrozoa, 
of  the  sub-class  Siphonophora.  The  P. 
atlantica  is  known  as  Portuguese  man 
of  war.  They  possess  one  or  more  large 
air  sacs,  by  which  they  float  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ocean.  Numerous  tentacles 
depend  from  the  under  side,  one  class 
short  and  the  other  long.  The  shorter 
are  the  nutritive  individuals  of  the  col- 
ony, the  longer,  which  in  a  Physalia  five 
or  six  inches  long  are  capable  of  being 
extended  to  12  or  18  feet,  possess  a  re- 
markable stinging  power,  and  are  prob- 
ably used  to  stun  their  prey. 

PHYSALIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
herbs  belonging  to  the  Solanacese  or 
nightshade  family.  The  species  most 
commonly  cultivated  in  the  United 
States  is  known  as  strawberry  tomato, 
ground  cherry  or  winter  cherry.  The 
berries  have  a  sweetish  subacid  taste. 

PHYSICAL  EDUCATION,  by  physical 
education  or  physical  training  is  meant 
that  part  of  education  which  deals  with 
the  physical  activities  of  mankind.  It 
includes  in  its  scope  gymnastics,  drill, 
athletic  games  and  outdoor  sports  as 
these  are  used  to  develop  the  sound 
body.  Nowadays  we  are  returning  to 
the  Greek  conception  of  physical  train- 
ing; in  Greece  education  in  music  and 
in  gymnastics  was  compulsory  as  the 
best  knoviTi  training  for  the  body  and 
the  will.  Among  the  Romans  military 
training  and  life  in  the  camp  supplied 
whatever  physical  education  was  neces- 
sarj'^,  for  the  Romans  were  essentially  a 
practical  people.  In  the  Middle  Ages 
emphasis  on  the  ascetic  life  prevented 
any  great  interest  in  the  perfecting  of 
the  body,  always  excepting  the  impetus 
given  by  chivalry  to  the  need  of  train- 
ing for  the  knight  at  arms.  The  Ren- 
aissance renewed  interest  in  the  body: 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION 


236 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION 


and  in  the  humanistic  literature  of  the 
times  there  are  many  allusions  to  phy- 
sical education  for  the  gentleman.  But 
the  training  was  still  very  largely  con- 
fined to  exercise  in  arms  and  horseman- 
ship. In  the  eighteenth  century  a  new 
conception  is  added  by  Rousseau,  who  in 
Emile  (1762)  urges  the  policy  of  making 
the  child  a  healthy  animal  before  start- 
ing to  train  his  mind.  In  1774  modern 
physical  education  may  be  said  to  have 
begun  when  Basedow  founded  his  Phil- 
anthropinum  at  Dessau  and  introduced 
daily  physical  exercises  for  all  students 
under  the  direction  of  a  competent  in- 
structor. In  the  second  decade  of  the 
nineteenth  century  Friedrich  Ludwig 
Jahn  started  the  popular  Turnverein 
movement  in  Germany,  modeling  his 
system  on  that  of  the  Greeks  with  the 
athletic  spirit  left  out.  The  famous 
Swedish  gymnastics  owe  much  to  the 
Lings,  father  and  son,  whose  work  cov- 
ers the  period  from  1814  to  1815.  In 
England  in  the  nineteenth  century  nearly 
all  the  emphasis  was  laid  on  sports  and 
games. 

"In  physical  education,"  as  the  great 
authority  Dr.  Dudley  A.  Sargent,  of 
Harvard,  writes,  "America  has  become 
the  battle  ground  upon  which  Old 
World  theories  are  being  fought  over 
again."  In  the  early  pioneer  days  of 
this  country  there  was  little  need  of  at- 
tention to  physical  education;  but  as 
the  country  developed  systems  were  in- 
troduced. Thus  in  the  thirties  we  find 
the  military  academies  of  Captain  Al- 
den  Partridge  in  Norwich  (Vt.)  and 
Middletown  (Conn.)  A  little  later  Jahn 
gymnastics  were  introduced,  and  then 
the  Swedish  system  became  popular. 
Probably  in  the  United  States  physical 
education  has  been  more  developed  than 
in  any  other  country,  although  America 
has  originated  very  little  in  the  way  of 
physical  exercises,  the  Indian  game  of 
lacrosse  and  the  game  known  as  "bean 
bag"  of  Dr.  Dio  Lewis  being  her  chief 
contributions. 

In  our  schools  it  may  be  said  with 
truth  that  physical  education  is  still  in 
its  infancy.  The  American  public  was 
aroused  to  the  need  of  paying 
more  attention  to  bodily  exercise  by 
reason  of  the  large  number  of  men  ex- 
amined and  rejected  under  the  draft 
laws  during  the  war.  The  system 
usually  followed  in  our  schools  was  that 
of  German  or  Swedish  gymnastics  vnth- 
out,  however,  either  adequate  equipment 
or  expert  instruction.  Of  late  several 
States  have  passed  laws  providing  for 
compulsory  physical  education  in  our 
schools  and  a  bill  is  now  before  Con- 
gress "for  the  promotion  of  physical 
education  in  the  United  States  through 


co-operation  with  the  States  in  the  pay- 
ment of  supervisors  and  teachers  of 
physical  education."  Supporters  of  this 
bill  (known  as  the  Fess-Capper  Bill)  as- 
sert that  careful  surveys  in  all  parts  of 
the  country  prove  that  at  least  half  tha 
youngsters  of  America  have  some  kind 
of  physical  defect  and  that  all  will  profit 
by  training  in  effective,  body  building 
physical  activities.  In  our  colleges  and 
universities  much  attention  is  now  being 
given  to  physical  training,  usually 
though  not  always  to  be  distinguished 
from  athletics.  The  pioneer  in  this 
work,  Dr.  Dudley  A.  Sargent,  began  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1869  his  system  of 
measurements  of  students  which  he 
afterward  developed  at  Harvard  Univer- 
sity and  which  has  had  such  influence 
on  gymnastic  work  in  all  of  our  insti- 
tutions. Through  this  system  he  intro- 
duced corrective  gymnastics  which  have 
done  so  much  for  the  physical  improve- 
ment of  American  youth.  To-day  nearly 
every  American  college  requires  the  com- 
pletion of  a  certain  amount  of  work  in 
physical  training  for  the  degree;  and 
in  many  institutions  the  work  is  graded 
as  in  other  courses.  In  progressive  col- 
leges the  program  consists  not  by  any 
means  of  gymnastics  alone,  but  also  of 
games  and  athletic  sports. 

There  is  still  a  lack  of  properly 
equipped  teachers;  but  professional 
training  is  now  being  given  at  such  in- 
stitutions as  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  College  at 
Springfield,  (Mass.)  and  in  many  of  the 
universities.  Many  excellent  women 
teachers  are  also  being  trained  at  Dr. 
Sargent's  school  in   Cambridge. 

Physical  education  is  by  no  means 
confined  to  colleges  and  schools.  The 
public  gymnasium  for  people  of  all 
classes  is  becoming  more  and  more  com- 
mon; and  in  public  playgrounds  also,  par- 
ticularly in  the  larger  cities,  there  are 
classes  for  men  and  women  as  well  as 
for  boys  and  girls.  In  the  army  and 
navy  much  attention  is  given  to  setting 
up  exercises  and  other  calisthenic  work. 
Much  progress  has  been  made  lately  in 
the  study  of  theory  not  only,  but  also  of 
practice.  There  is  a  society  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Physical  Education  which 
holds  annual  meetings  and  which  since 
1885  has  published  annually  a  volume 
of  proceedings.  The  American  Physical 
Education  Review  (1896)  is  published 
at  Springfield  (Mass).  Among  the  col- 
leges the  interests  of  physical  education 
are  furthered  by  the  National  Intercol- 
legiate Athletic  Association  and  by  an  as- 
sociation of  college  teachers  of  physical 
training.  Physical  education  occupies  an 
important  place  in  all  public  health  pro- 
grams both  State  and  National.  With 
the  massing  of  population  in  the  cities 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION 


237 


PHYSIOLOGY 


and  the  substitution  of  machinery  for 
human  labor  it  is  inevitable  that  more 
attention  must  be  paid  to  physical  educa- 
tion in  the  future  than  in  the  past;  for 
it  is  a  most  direct  and  vital  contribution 
not  only  to  physical  but  to  intellectual 
and  moral  progress. 

The  study  of  physical  exercises  in 
connection  with  the  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology of  the  body  has  shovi^n  that  exer- 
cise has  an  important  place  in  medicine 
in  the  restoration  of  health  and  the  cor- 
rection of  deformities.  The  modern  use 
of  massage  as  a  means  by  passive  exer- 
cise of  assisting  the  circulation  and  the 
nutrition  of  the  body  is  closely  connected 
with  the  Swedish  system  of  physical  edu- 
cation and  has  been  most  developed  in 
that  country.  The  Zander  system  of 
passive  exercise  by  means  of  apparatus 
set  in  motion  by  power  is  also  an  out- 
growth of  the  Swedish  system,  and  has 
proved  to  be  of  much  service. 

Physical  education  has  a  special  place 
as  a  part  of  military  training.  The  ob- 
ject is  not  the  development  of  muscular 
strength,  but  rather  agility,  endurance 
and  co-ordination.  In  addition  to 
marching  and  setting  up  drills,  boxing, 
fencing,  wrestling,  skating,  swimming 
and  all  sorts  of  outdoor  games  are  use- 
ful. Marching  is  regarded  as  the  most 
important ;  it  is  also  the  most  exhausting 
owing  to  the  weight  of  the  pack,  and 
good  marching  is  attained  only  by  care- 
ful preparation.  In  the  United  States 
physical  education  has  been  slow  in  de- 
velopment and  we  have  adapted  the  ex- 
ercises and  games  developed  elsewhere. 
Lacrosse,  which  was  played  by  the 
North  American  Indians,  is  the  only 
game  originating  in  the  United  States. 
Follen  and  Lieber,  who  were  pupils  of 
Jahn  and  expelled  from  Germany  in 
1825  in  the  reaction  which  followed  the 
war  of  liberation,  came  to  Boston  and 
first  introduced  the  German  methods. 
This  primary  movement  was  short-lived, 
but  the  introduction  of  the  Swedish  sys- 
tem into  Boston  by  Baron  Nils  Posen 
had  more  permanent  results.  Through 
the  liberality  of  Mrs.  Hemenway  the 
Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics 
was  founded  in  1889  to  provide  for  the 
instruction  of  teachers  of  physical  edu- 
cation for  the  schools,  and  the  system 
was  introduced  into  the  public  schools 
of  the  city  in  1890.  Eight  States,  Illi- 
nois, New  York,  New  Jersey,  Nevada, 
Rhode  Island,  California,  Maryland  and 
Delaware,  have  now  passed  laws  making 
physical  education  obligatory  in  all  the 
schools.  It  has  been  most  developed  in 
the  Gary  school,  where  24  per  cent,  of 
the  time  in  the  elementary  grades  is  de- 
voted to  it,  with  a  proportionately  di- 
minished   time    in    the    higher    grade. 

Vol.  VII — C70 


There  is  great  difficulty,  owing  to  the 
great  number  of  students  in  the  public 
schools  and  the  inadequacy  of  the  teach- 
ing force  in  adapting  the  system  to  the 
needs  of  the  individual  child,  which 
should  be  done  if  the  best  results  are  to 
be  attained.  Gymnastic  drills  of  great 
advantage  to  the  bodily  development  of 
a  vigorous  child  would  be  found  too 
strenuous  for  a  weak,  imperfectly  de- 
veloped child  of  the  same  age.  As  far 
as  possible  all  school  exercises  should 
be  out  of  doors  and  games  should  play 
an  important  part.  Under  the  proper 
conditions  rational  systems  of  physical 
education,  both  for  children  and  adults, 
will  lead  to  a  higher  degree  of  physical 
perfection  and  an  increase  in  health  and 
happiness. 

PHYSICS,  a  study  of  the  phenomena 
presented  by  bodies.  It  treats  of  matter, 
force  and  motion ;  gravitation  and  molec- 
ular attraction,  liquids,  gases,  acoustics, 
heat,  light,  magnetism,  and  electricity. 
It  is  called  also  natural  or  mechanical 
philosophy.  In  its  broadest  acceptance 
the  term  physics  includes  chemistry;  spe- 
cifically it  is  limited  to  those  phenomena 
based  on  the  molecule  as  a  unit,  whereas 
the  unit  of  chemistry  is  the  atom. 

PHYSIOGNOMY,  the  art  or  science  of 
judging  a  person's  nature  or  character 
by  his  outward  look,  especially  by  his 
facial  features  and  characteristics.  See 
Lavater.  Modern  writers  consult  Sims' 
"Physiognomy  Illustrated"  (1891);  Fos- 
brook's  "Character  Reading  Through  As- 
pects of  the  Features"  (1914).  Also 
art  of  foretelling  the  future  fortunes  of 
individuals  by  the  lineaments  of  the 
face. 

PHYSIOLOGY,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  processes  which  go  on  in 
the  bodies  of  living  beings  under  nor- 
mal conditions,  and  of  the  use  of  their 
various  parts  or  organs.  It  is  divided 
into  plant  physiology,  animal  physiology, 
and  human  physiology.  One  of  the 
simplest  forms  of  animal  life  is  seen  in 
the  amceba  of  pond  water  or  in  the  white 
corpuscle  or  leucocyte  of  the  blood. 
These  simple  organisms  are  composed 
each  of  a  single  physiological  unit, 
which  is  termed  a  cell,  that  is  to  say, 
thei'e  are  no  organs  for  the  carrying  on 
of  the  various  functions  of  life,  but  all 
take  place  in  the  same  microscopic  semi- 
fluid mass  of  complex  organic  nature 
termed  the  cell  protoplasm.  All  animals, 
no  matter  how  complex  be  their  struc- 
ture, resemble  this  primitive  type,^  for 
they  consist  of  an  aggregation  of  micro- 
scopic cells.  In  the  leucocyte  or  amoeba 
all  kinds  of  labor  proceed  in  the  same 
cell  which  imbibes  its  own  food,  prepares 

16 


PHYSIOLOGY 


238 


PIACENZA 


its  own  nutriment  from  the  food  so  taken 
in,  is  capable  of  moving  from  place  to 
place,  and  in  the  end  is  capable  of  re- 
producing its  like  by  division.  In  the 
higher  animal  by  the  evolution  of  dif- 
ferent types  of  cell,  which  start  from 
the  same  parent  cell  initially  but  de- 
velop afterward  along  different  lines, 
there  come  to  be  formed  the  various  dif- 
ferent tissues,  glands  and  organs,  each 
with  its  own  specific  function  to  perform 
for  the  general  welfare  of  the  whole 
mass  or  colony  of  cells  constituting  the 
animal  or  individual.  Thus  the  skeletal 
system  develops  for  the  support  and 
maintenance  of  form  of  the  whole,  the 
muscular  system  to  bring  about  the 
movements  of  the  animal  as  a  whole  and 
of  its  various  parts  vdth  respect  to  one 
another;  the  digestive  system  for  pre- 
paring the  nutriment  for  the  whole  sys- 
tem; the  vascular  or  circulatory  system 
with  its  contained  blood  for  carrying 
the  nutriment  so  prepared  and  distribut- 
ing it  to  all  the  various  parts;  the  re- 
spiratory system  for  taking  in  oxygen 
from  the  air,  necessary  for  the  combus- 
tion of  the  foodstuffs  and  for  carrying 
off  the  carbon  dioxide  formed  by  such 
combustion  in  the  various  tissues;  the 
excretory  system  for  the  removal  of 
chemical  waste  products  formed  in  the 
tissues;  and  the  nervous  system  for  set- 
ting the  animal  tissues  in  communica- 
tion with  what  is  passing  both  in  the 
body  and  in  the  external  world. 

The  source  of  all  the  energy  of  an 
animal  lies  in  its  food,  and  this  is  either 
burned  as  it  were  within  the  tissues, 
used  as  fuel  for  the  protoplasmic  ma- 
chinery, or  used  to  keep  that  machinery 
in  repair;  in  either  case  the  foodstuffs 
have  to  be  prepared  before  they  can  be 
used.  Such  preparation  is  called  diges- 
tion, which  consists  in  making  the  solid 
foodstuffs  soluble.  The  digested  food  is 
absorbed  into  the  blood,  and  all  of  it, 
•  except  the  fat,  is  carried  direct  to  the 
liver.  The  liver,  among  other  functions, 
regulates  the  composition  of  the  blood, 
thus  it  stores  the  sugar  in  its  cells  and 
gives  it  out  as  the  other  tissues  require. 
Muscular  tissue  is  the  great  consumer  of 
sugar.  An  important  foodstuff  requir- 
ing no  digestion  is  oxygen,  needed  by  the 
protoplasm  for  its  life,  and  also  for  the 
burning  of  fuel  within  the  living  machin- 
ery to  get  heat  and  energy  of  motion. 
The  oxygen  is  held  in  the  Blood  (g.  v.) 
by  means  of  a  special  substance  which 
greedily  absorbs  it  from  the  air  in  the 
lungs,  and  yet  gives  it  up  readily  to  the 
protoplasm  of  the  tissues.  The  blood 
as  is  well  known  circulates  round  and 
round  the  body  pumped  by  the  heart.  It 
is  a  stream  of  food  material  by  which 
each  cell  of  the  tissue  is  fed.     For  each 


cell  is  close  to  a  capillary  (a  thin  blood 
vessel)  along  which  the  fluid  food  flows 
and  as  it  flows  the  fluid  part  or  plasma 
exudes  and  bathes  the  tissues.  The  plas- 
ma which  has  thus  passed  out  of  the 
blood  vessels  is  collected  into  another 
system  of  vessels,  the  lymphatics,  and 
eventually  emptied  into  one  of  the  great 
veins.  The  lymph  stream  is  also  the 
drain  into  which  is  thrown  by  each  cell 
the  waste  products  of  its  activity.  The 
carbonic  acid  that  is  formed  in  the  tis- 
sues is  carried  away  by  the  blood,  and 
escapes  out  of  the  system  from  the 
lungs.  Some  of  the  useless  water  is 
also  got  rid  of  in  the  same  way,  and 
some  more  of  it  is  sweated  out  by  the 
glands  in  the  skin;  the  rest  is  filtered 
out  of  the  blood  by  the  kidneys.  There 
are  many  other  waste  matters  besides 
carbonic  acid  and  water.  These  are  to 
a  large  extent  prepared  for  excretion 
in  the  liver,  and  to  some  extent  actually 
taken  out  of  the  blood  by  that  organ, 
being  poured  into  the  intestines,  mixed 
with  other  matters,  dissolved  in  a  fluid 
called  Bile  (q.  v.)  They  are  all  taken 
out  of  the  blood  by  the  kidneys,  and  cast 
out  of  the  body  along  with  the  water  fil- 
tered out  by  the  same  organs,  as  urine. 
For  comparative  physiology,  see  the  ar- 
ticles on  the  various  functions  and 
groups  of  animals.  Consult  works  by 
Loeb,  Piersol,  Lyle,  Cannon,  Lamarck, 
etc. 

PIACENZA,  a  city  of  northern  Italy, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Po,  a  little  be- 
low its  confluence  with  the  Trebbia,  43 
miles  S.  E.  of  Milan  and  35  N,  W.  of 
Parma.  Situated  at  the  end  of  the  Via 
.(Emilia  and  at  the  last  convenient  cross- 
ing place  E.  on  the  Po,  it  has  always 
been  an  important  city,  both  strategi- 
cally and  commercially,  since  its  foun- 
dation (as  Placentia)  by  the  Romans  in 
219  B.  c.  It  is  defended  with  bastioned 
walls  and  an  outer  ring  of  forts.  The 
cathedral,  in  the  Lombard-Romanesque 
style  (1122-1233),  has  an  immense  crypt, 
a  campanile  223  feet  high,  and  paint- 
ings by  L.  Carracci,  Guercino,  and 
others.  The  church  of  Sant'  Antonio, 
the  original  cathedral,  was  founded  in 
324.  The  church  of  Santa  Maria  della 
Campagna  is  adorned  with  fine  frescoes 
by  Pordenone;  and  it  was  for  San  Sisto 
that  Raphael  painted  the  celebrated  Sis- 
tine  Madonna,  sold  in  1754  by  the  monks 
to  Frederick  Augustus  of  Saxonj'. 
Among  the  other  buildings  are  the  Pa- 
lazzo Famese  (1558).  once  a  sumptuous 
edifice,  but  since  1800  in  use  as  bar- 
racks; the  communal  palace  (1281),  and 
the  court  house.  The  principal  square 
is  adorned  with  colossal  bronze  eques- 
trian statues  of  Alessandro  and  Ranuc- 


PIANO 


239 


PIAVE    RIVER   BATTLES 


cio  Farnese.  Manufactures  of  silks,  cot- 
tons, pottery,  hats,  etc.,  are  carried  on. 
The  more  notable  facts  in  the  history  of 
Piacenza  have  been  its  capture  by  the 
Gauls  in  200  and  by  Totila  in  546,  the 
meeting  here  of  two  Church  councils  in 
1095  and  1132,  its  active  zeal  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Lombard  League  in  the  12th 
century,  the  sacking  of  it  by  Francesco 
Sforza  in  1447,  and  its  union  with 
Parma.     Pop.   about  40,000. 

PIANO  (Italian),  in  music,  a  term 
meaning  soft,  or  low;  used  in  contra- 
distinction to  forte.  Pianissimo,  the  su- 
perlative of  piano. 

PIANOFORTE  (Italian  ptano=soft, 
an!  forte  =  strong,  loud;  so-called  from 
its  producing  both  soft  and  loud  ef- 
fects), a  musical  instrument,  the  sounds 
of  which  are  produced  by  blows  from 
hammers,  acted  on  by  levers  called  keys. 
Originally  the  strings  were  placed  in  a 
small  and  portable  box,  and  struck  by 
hammers  held  in  the  hands.  In  this 
early  shape,  known  as  the  "dulcimer," 
the  instrument  can  be  traced  in  nearly 
every  part  of  the  globe,  and  it  now  sur- 
vives, almost  in  its  original  form,  both 
in  Europe  and  Asia.  The  dulcimer  was 
also  called  psaltery,  sautrie,  or  sawtry. 
The  name  given  to  the  first  instrument 
with  keys  acting  on  hammers  was  clavi- 
cytherium,  or  keyed  cithara,  which  was 
introduced  in  the  15th,  or  early  in  the 
16th  century;  next  came  the  clavichord, 
or  clarichord,  sometimes  called  mono- 
chord,  in  which  quills  plucked  the 
strings;  the  Virginal  (g.  v.)  soon  fol- 
lowed; this  was  succeeded  by  the  spinet, 
of  similar  construction  but  generally  tri- 
angular in  shape;  then  came  the  harpsi- 
chord, a  vast  improvement  on  its  prede- 
cessors, having  a  more  extended  compass 
and  often  two  manuals.  The  earliest 
form  of  pianoforte,  early  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury, was  perhaps,  in  some  respects,  in- 
ferior to  a  fine  harpsichord,  but  it  pos- 
sessed the  elements  of  expansion,  as  now 
exhibited  in  a  modern  grand  trichord 
pianoforte  of  more  than  seven  octaves 
compass,  with  every  gradation  of  sound. 

PIASSABA,  or  PIASSAVA,  a  strong 
vegetable  fiber  imported  from  Brazil, 
and  largely  used  for  making  brooms.  It 
is  chiefly  obtained  from  palms  such  as 
Attalea  funifera  and  Leopoldinia  pias- 
saba.  The  fiber  proceeds  from  the  de- 
caying leaves,  the  petioles  of  which  sep- 
arate at  the  base  into  long,  coarse,  pen- 
dulous fringes.  It  was  first  utilized  in 
England,  and  the  consumption  is  now 
large.  Other  European  countries  also 
consume  considerable  quantities. 

PIASTER,  or  PIASTRE,  a  coin  of 
various    values.     The    gold    piaster    of 


Turkey  =  4.4c. ;  the  silver  piaster  = 
4.35c.;  the  Egyptian  piaster  =  4.9c. ;  the 
Spanish  piaster  is  synonymous  with  the 
United  States  dollar.  The  old  Italian 
piaster  was  equivalent  to  about  89  cents. 

PIATT,  JOHN  JAMES,  an  American 
poet;  born  in  James'  Mills,  Ind.,  March 
1,  1835.  He  entered  journalism;  became 
clerk  of  the  United  States  Treasury  De- 
partment and  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives; and  from  1882  to  1893  was 
consul  at  Cork,  Ireland.  His  works  in- 
clude: "Poems  of  Two  Friends"  (1860), 
with  W.  D.  Howells;  "The  Nests  at 
Washington"  (1864),  with  Mrs.  Piatt; 
"Poems     in     Sunshine     and     Firelight" 

(1866);  "Western  Windows"  (1869); 
"Idyls   and   Lyrics   of  the   Ohio  Valley" 

(1884) ;  "At  the  Holy  Well";  "The  Hes- 
perian  Tree"    (1900).     Died   1917. 

PIATJHI,  or  PIAITHY  (pe-ou-e),  a 
state  of  Brazil,  bounded  by  the  Atlantic 
and  the  states  of  Ceara,  Pernambuco, 
Bahia,  and  Maranhao,  from  which  lat- 
ter it  is  separated  by  the  Parnahyba; 
area,  116,490  square  miles.  Pop.  about 
5-0,000.  Its  coast  line  is  not  above  10 
miles  in  length.  The  soil,  generally  com- 
posed of  alluvium,  is  of  great  natural 
fertility;  but  there  is  very  little  agricul- 
ture. The  rearing  of  cattle,  esteemed 
the  best  in  Brazil,  constitutes  the  prin- 
cipal source  of  wealth.  Capital,  There- 
zina;  port,  Parnahyba. 

PIAVE  RIVER,  BATTLES  OF  THE. 
The  river,  one  of  the  largest  in  Italy, 
takes  its  rise  in  the  Venetian  Alps,  flows 
southeast,  then  southwest,  emptying  into 
the  Gulf  of  Venice,  a  few  miles  west  of 
the  city.  Its  flow  is  regulated  by  a  num- 
ber of  floodgates,  and  along  its  lower 
portion  is  too  wide  to  be  crossed  except  i 
by  ferry  or  bridge. 

The  Piave  Valley  was  the  scene  of 
some  of  the  most  desperate  fighting  on 
the  Italian  front  during  the  war  against 
Austria-Hungary  and  Germany;  par- 
ticularly during  the  year  1917.  In 
October  of  that  year  the  Italian  lines 
were  advanced  as  far  as  the  Tyrolean, 
Carnia  and  Izonzo  regions.  In  the  lat- 
ter part  of  that  month,  the  Austrians, 
heavily  re-enforced  by  armies  from  the 
Russian  front,  began  a  strong  offensive 
against  the  Italians,  beginning  along  the 
Izonzo  front,  von  Mackensen  being  in 
command  of  the  Teutonic  forces.  By 
October  26  the  Italians  were  in  rapid 
retreat,  losing  territory  which  had  cost 
them  months  of  effort  and  hard  fighting. 
Two  days  later  the  Italians  were  driven 
back  on  the  Tagliamento  river.  So 
alarming  was  the  situation  that  Anglo- 
French  re-enforcements  were  hurried 
from  France  to  stiffen  the  Italian  resist 


PIAVE    RIVER    BATTLES 


240 


PIAZZA 


ance.  For  a  week  the  Italians  made  a 
stand  on  the  Tagliamento,  but  it  then 
became  evident  that  further  retreat  was 
inevitable. 

Realizing  this,  the  Italians  hastily  be- 
gan building  a  line  of  defense  along  the 
Piave  river.  By  Nov.  7,  1917,  the  Aus- 
tro- Germans  had  crossed  the  Livenza, 
but  now  found  themselves  facing  a  solid 
line  of  Italians,  intrenched  along  the 
further  bank  of  the  Piave.  It  was  at 
about  this  time  that  General  Cadorna, 
who  had  been  in  command  of  the  Italian 
armies  since  the  beginning  of  the  war, 
was  relieved  of  his  command  and  re- 
placed with  General  Diaz. 

Reaching  the  Piave,  the  Austro-Ger- 
mans  contmued  their  terrific  onslaughts, 
but  were  held  in  check  by  the  Italians, 
along  the  lower  Piave.  In  the  upper 
Piave  Valley,  however,  Austro-Hunga- 
rian  troops  still  continued  to  press  the 
Italians  back,  where  Asiago  was  cap- 
tured, this  town  being  some  twenty  miles 
west  of  the  Piave.  Along  the  lower 
Piave,  from  Susegana  to  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  a  distance  of  about  forty 
miles,  the   Italian  troops  held  firm. 

On  the  upper  Piave  the  Austrians  con- 
tinued to  make  steady  gains,  where  they 
succeeded  in  taking  Belluno,  on  Sept. 
10,  1917,  together  with  Vidor  and  its 
bridgehead.  Here,  and  during  the  two 
days,  till  September  12,  the  Austrians 
claimed  to  have  taken  12,000  prisoners. 

On  November  12  the  Italians  recoiled 
on  the  Austrians,  on  the  Asiago  Plateau, 
and  successfully  checked  the  Austrian 
advance,  along  a  front  reaching  from 
Monte  Gallic  to  Meletta  di  Gallio.  On 
the  lower  Piave  the  Austro-German 
forces  also  made  a  strong  attack,  but 
succeeded  only  in  breaking  through  at 
one  point,  about  twelve  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  and  twenty-three 
miles  northeast  of  Venice.  Here  the 
Teutons  made  a  crossing  in  boats,  but 
were  driven  back  by  the  Italian  counter- 
attacks. 

On  Nov.  13,  1917,  the  Italians  suffered 
several  local  defeats,  losing  Primolano, 
on  the  upper  Brenta,  and  Feltre,  on  the 
middle  Piave.  At  the  mouth  of  the 
Piave  the  Teutons  again  succeeded  in 
crossing  and  gained  a  slight  foothold  on 
the  western  bank.  This  leak  the  Italians 
were  however  able  to  check  and  pre- 
vent its  widening.  Further  attempts  to 
strengthen  this  latter  gain  were  made 
by  the  Austro-Germans  next  day,  but 
the  Italians  seemed  now  to  have  recov- 
ered their  morale  to  a  considerable  de- 
gree, and  the  Teuton  attacks  were  se- 
verely repulsed.  Another  attack  along 
the  upper  Piave  was  frustrated  by  the 
Italians  by  opening  the  floodgates. 


From  now  on  the  Italians  held  their 
ground,  and  now  ensued  one  of  those 
extensive  battles,  lasting  four  weeks  or 
more,  which  were  so  peculiarly  a  feature 
of  the  great  war.  Day  by  day  the  line 
of  battle  blazed  continuously,  one  side 
gaining  here,  losing  there,  but  the  gen- 
eral result  being  a  deadlock.  Again  and 
again  the  Teutons  attacked,  were  re- 
pulsed, and  then  were  called  upon  to 
resist  stubborn  counter-attacks  by  the 
Italians.  Day  by  day  positions  changed 
hands  frequently,  but  there  was  no  lon- 
ger any  continuous  forward  movement 
on  the  part  of  the  Teutonic  offensive. 

Toward  the  end  of  December  the 
French  and  English  contingents  began 
to  participate  in  the  fighting.  On  De- 
cember 16  the  English  launched  a  fu- 
rious assault  against  the  Austrian  posi- 
tions on  Monte  Fontana  Secca,  but  were 
driven  back  by  the  enemy  machine  gun 
fire.  On  December  30  both  the  French 
and  English  delivered  a  series  of  as- 
saults which  gained  them  some  impor- 
tant positions  on  Monte  Tomba.  Here 
the  Teutons  suffered  some  further  losses 
during  the  middle  part  of  January. 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  month  the 
Italians  made  some  positive  gains,  suc- 
ceeding in  pushing  the  enemy  back  from 
the  Piave,  up  as  far  as  Asiago,  Down 
along  the  lower  Piave  the  fighting  dur- 
ing January,  1918,  became  again  furious, 
and  the  Teutons  made  some  temporary 
gains,  succeeding  in  crossing  the  river 
at  several  points.  But  nowhere  were 
these  successes  extended;  everywhere 
they  shrivelled  up  before  the  determined 
Italian  counter-attacks.  It  now  became 
obvious  that  Venice  and  the  Italian 
plains  would  be  safely  held  against  the 
Austro-German  offensive,  which  by  this 
time  showed  plainly  that  it  had  passed 
its  maximum  strength.  The  Italian 
command  had  no  doubt  been  taken  by 
surprise  at  the  beginning  of  the  offen- 
sive, and,  being  unprepared  for  so  ter- 
rific an  onslaught,  had  had  to  give  way 
over  considerable  territory.  But  what 
the  Teutons  had  gained  in  mere  terri- 
tory, they  had  more  than  lost  in  the  tre- 
mendous expense  of  man  power.  It  was 
one  of  those  mighty  efforts  which  dis- 
tinguished the  German  method  of  war- 
fare, but  in  its  final  purpose  it  was  _  a 
complete  failure.  Not  a  little  did  it, 
and  the  Italian  defense,  contribute  to  the 
eventual  defeat  of  the  German  forces 
which  culminated  in  the  armistice  in 
the  fall  of  1918. 

PIAZZA,  a  square  open  space  sur- 
rounded by  buildings  or  colonnades ;  pop- 
ularly, but  improperly,  applied  to  an 
arcaded  or  colonnaded  walk  under  cover, 
and  even  to  a  veranda. 


PIAZZA    ARMERINA 


241 


PICARDY,    BATTLES    OF 


PIAZZA  ARMERINA,  a  town  of 
Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Caltanissetta. 
It  contains  the  estates  of  many  nobles 
and  land-holders.  It  has  a  cathedral,  an 
old  castle,  and  several  schools.  It  has 
an  extensive  trade  in  corn,  oil,  fruits, 
and  wine.     Pop.  about  35,000. 

PIBROCH  (pe-brok),  a  series  of  varia- 
tions or  a  sort  of  fantasia,  played  on  a 
bagpipe,  descriptive  of  some  scene  or  of  a 
poetical  thought.  In  Scotland  a  martial 
air  on  the  bagpipes.  It  can  only  be 
learned  by  personal  instruction,  as  the 
scale  of  the  bagpipe  contains  sounds  un- 
represented by  any  notation.  Pibroch 
is  sometimes  used  figuratively  for  the 
bagpipe  itself. 

PICARDY,  an  ancient  province  in  the 
N.  of  France,  bounded  on  the  W.  by  the 
English  Channel,  and  on  the  E.  by 
Champagne.  The  territory  now  forms 
the  department  of  Somme,  and  portions 
of  the  departments  of  Aisne  and  Pas- 
de-Calais.  It  was  the  scene  of  intense 
fighting  during  the  World  War  (1914- 
1918)  notably  in  the  Battle  of  the  Somme. 
Here  the  Germans  on  March  21,  1918, 
began  the  first  of  the  great  drives  that 
ended  in  disaster. 

PICARDY,  BATTLES  OF,  a  series  of 
bloody  battles  constituting  the  great 
German  offensive  against  the  Allied  lines 
on  the  western  front,  beginning  early  in 
March,  1918,  centering  toward  Amiens, 
in  Picardy,  officially  known  as  the  De- 
partment of  the  Somme.  It  consti- 
tuted one  of  the  chief  efforts  of  the  Ger- 
mans to  break  through  the  Allied  front 
and  gain  a  decisive  victory  and  was  per- 
haps the  most  critical  moment  of  the 
war. 

Beginning  in  the  first  week  of  March, 
1918,  the  German  forces  began  a  num- 
ber of  local  attacks  and  raids  in  force, 
obviously  with  the  purpose  of  feeling 
out  the  weakest  point  in  the  Allied  lines. 
Here,  and  at  this  time,  the  American 
troops  first  took  part  in  the  fighting  to 
any  significant  extent. 

On  March  21  the  Germans  launched 
their  great  offensive,  over  a  front  fifty 
miles  in  width,  extending  from  the  river 
Oise,  in  the  neighborhood  of  La  Fere, 
to  the  Sensee  river,  near  Croisilles. 
The  British,  under  General  Sir  Hubert 
Gough,  held  the  front  from  the  Oise  to 
a  point  north  of  the  Omignon  river, 
where  another  British  army,  under  Gen- 
eral Sir  Julian  Byng,  continued  the  line 
on  to  the  Scarpe  river,  joining  here  a 
third  British  force  under  (General  Sir 
Henry  Thorne.  Facing  the  three  Brit- 
ish armies  was  an  equal  number  of 
German  armies. 

Here  was  the   main  point  of  attack, 


the  great  aim  being  to  drive  a  wide 
salient  through  the  Allied  lines  and  sep- 
arate the  French  from  the  British.  The 
German  objective  was  Amiens,  which 
was  then  the  most  important  strategical 
point  in  northern  France. 

About  fifty  German  divisions  entered 
into  the  first  attack.  Among  the  points 
against  which  the  Germans  first  directed 
their  efforts  were  Bullecourt,  and  No- 
reuil,  west  of  Cambrai,  the  St.  Quentin 
Ridge,  on  the  right  of  the  Cambrai 
salient,  and  Rossoy  and  Hargicourt, 
south   of  Cambrai. 

In  the  afternoon  of  March  22,  1918, 
and  later  in  the  evening,  the  British  be- 
gan to  give  way  before  the  tremendous 
German  pressure,  and  next  day  were 
forced  to  retire  along  the  whole  front 
across  the  Somme,  pursued  closely  by 
the  Germans. 

This  was  probably  the  most  critical 
moment  of  the  campaign.  The  British 
and  the  French  had  been  thrown  out 
of  touch  with  each  other,  and  unless  the 
gap  could  be  filled,  the  Germans  would 
have  accomplished  their  main  immediate 
object. 

It  was  then  that  General  Carney,  with 
General  Byng's  army  on  the  north, 
one  division  of  mixed  units,  got  in  touch 
over  the  eight  mile  gap,  and  the  French 
General  Fayolle  saved  the  situation  in 
the  south  over  a  thirty  mile  gap  between 
the  British  and  the  French.  Meanwhile, 
however,  the  Germans  were  announcing 
a  decisive  victory  at  home,  and  that  the 
Kaiser  was  in  personal  command  of  the 
operations. 

Nevertheless,  the  temporarily  dernor- 
alized  British  forces  held  their  positions 
along  the  Somme,  and  during  the  next 
few  days  the  Germans  were  unable  to 
make  any  further  advance,  though  their 
tremendous    attacks   in   mass   continued. 

On  March  26,  1918,  the  Germans  be- 
gan an  attack  on  the  Allied  lines  south 
of  the  Somme  and  succeeded  in  capturing 
Roye.  West  of  this  point  and  Noyon 
the  British,  American  and  French  troops 
held  the  Germans  back.  About  840,000 
of  the  latter  were  pressing  the  attack. 
The  German  losses  were  tremendous; 
much  heavier  than  were  those  of  the 
Allies,  who  were  in  defensive  positions. 

By  the  end  of  the  first  week,  however, 
the  Germans  had  won  back  most  of 
the  line  they  had  lost  when  retreating 
from  the  Somme  in  1916,  on  the  fifty 
mile  front  from  the  Oise  to  the  Scarpe. 
The  offensive  had  not  achieved  the  high 
degree  of  success  that  the  Germans  had 
expected,  but  the  Allies  had  nevertheless 
suffered  a  defeat  of  considerable  magni- 
tude. They  had  lost  considerable  terri- 
tory, but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  had 
lost  over  half  a  million  men,  whereas  the 


PICARDY,    BATTLES    OF 


242 


PICASSO 


British,  who  had  borne  the  brunt  of  the 
attack,  had  lost  not  much  over  100,000. 
Furthermore,  it  was  now  evident  that 
the  Germans  had  spent  themselves  con- 
siderably, and  were  forced  to  slacken 
their  efforts,  to  gain  breath.  It  was  at 
this  time,  March  28,  1918,  that  the  an- 
nouncement was  made  that  General 
Foch  had  been  made  commander-in- 
chief  of  all  the  forces  on  the  western 
front. 

In  the  last  two  days  of  the  month  the 
Germans  again  renewed  their  efforts, 
■with  the  added  weight  of  heavy  re-en- 
forcements of  troops  that  had  been 
brought  from  the  eastern  front.  Six  vil- 
lages around  Montdidier  were  taken 
from  the  French,  though  two  of  these 
'  were  retaken  the  following  day.  Be- 
tween Montdidier  and  Moreuil  the  Ger- 
mans delivered  especially  heavy  attacks. 
Moreuil  changed  hands  several  times 
during  the  two  days.  Between  Moreuil 
and  Lassigny  the  Germans  were  suc- 
cessfully checked.  On  the  British  front 
the  Germans  were  equally  active.  But 
here  they  gained  no  ground  and  only 
lost  heavily  in  casualties.  South  of  the 
Somme  the  British  regained  possession 
of  the  village  of  Demuin. 

At  the  end  of  this  two-days'  effort 
it  was  obvious  that  the  German  offensive 
was  more  than  ever  a  failure.  The  criti- 
cal moment  had  passed. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  April  4,  1918, 
the  Germans  launched  a  new  offensive, 
headed  directly  toward  Amiens,  from 
three  directions.  Fifteen  German  divi- 
sions were  directed  toward  the  French, 
and  fourteen  against  the  British;  alto- 
gether about  350,000  men,  on  a  sixteen 
mile  front.  Ten  desperate  assaults  were 
delivered  against  the  French,  during 
the  day  and  the  succeeding  night,  but 
although  the  Germans  gained  some 
ground,  the  French  could  not  be  dis- 
lodged from  their  main  positions  on  the 
higher  ground,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  village  of  Morisel.  Grivesnes  was 
subjected  to  exceptionally  heavy  pres- 
sure, but  the  French  were  able  to  sus- 
tain their  hold  at  this  point.  So  bat- 
tered were  the  Germans  by  these  efforts 
that  on  the  following  day  the  French, 
under  General  Petain,  succeeded  in  mak- 
ing some  considerable  gain  of  territory 
through  their  counter-attacks,  in  the 
region  south  of  Moreuil.  The  northern 
and  western  outskirts  of  Cantigny, 
which  had  been  captured  a  few  days 
previously  by  the  Germans,  were  also 
again  in  the  hands  of  the  French. 

Meanwhile  the  British  south  of  the 
Somme  were  also  subjected  to  a  severe 
pressure.  The  British  fought  stub- 
bornly, but  were  forced  back  to  within 
nine  miles  of  Amiens.     But  the  net  re- 


sult of  this  two-days'  spurt  of  activity 
by  the  Germans  was  a  slight  gain  pur- 
chased at  a  price  in  men  lost  decidedly 
too  heavy.  Now  there  came  another  of 
those  characteristic  lulls,  following  these 
great  efforts,  which  were  probably  pe- 
riods during  which  activity  was  merely 
transferred  to  behind  the  German  lines, 
in  the  bringing  up  of  new  men  and  war 
material. 

The  lull  was  short.  On  the  morning 
of  April  10,  1918,  the  Germans  broke 
loose  again,  directing  their  fierce  attacks 
against  the  British  positions  between  the 
Lys  river  and  Armentieres.  Here  the 
British  were  driven  back  to  the  line  run- 
ning through  Wytschaete,  along  the 
Messines  Ridge,  to  Ploegsteert.  Farther 
south  the  Germans  crossed  the  Lj^s. 
Still  farther  south  the  British  held  their 
positions.  Givenchy  was  recaptured 
from  the  Germans,  important  in  that  it 
was  on  high  ground  and  commanded  the 
road  to  Bethune.  It  was  now  obvious 
that  the  Germans  had  given  up  their 
original  plan  of  driving  a  wedge  in  be- 
tween the  British  and  the  French,  and 
that  now,  instead,  they  hoped  to  exhaust 
the  British  by  sheer  weight  of  superior 
numbers. 

During  the  next  week  the  British  were 
called  on  to  test  their  utmost  endurance. 
Again  and  again  the  Germans  brought 
up  new  contingents  and  hurled  them 
prodigally  at  the  British  lines.  On 
April  15,  1918,  the  British  were  driven 
out  of  Bailleul.  Other  notable  gains 
were  made  by  the  Germans  on  this  day. 
Wytschaete  was  taken  and  Haig's  men 
were  driven  from  most  of  their  positions 
along  the  Messines  Ridge. 

At  the  end  of  the  week,  however;  on 
April  20,  1918,  it  began  to  become  quite 
obvious  that  the  Germans  had  fought 
themselves  to  a  standstill;  that  it  could 
now  be  said  that  the  main  offensive  was 
a  failure,  and  that  the  Allies  could  now 
look  into  _  the  future  with  confidence. 
During  this  last  phase  of  the  offensive 
the  Germans  had  all  but  exhausted  them- 
selves in  the  Lys  region,  and  though  at 
times  the  British  had  been  strained  to 
the_  point  of  breaking,  they  had  succeed- 
ed in  holding  back  the  Teuton  onslaught. 
The  net  result  to  the  Germans  had  been 
a  considerable  gain  of  territory,  encour- 
aging to  the  layman  behind  the  lines, 
but  of  slight  value  from  a  military  point 
of  view,  in  that  the  price  for  this  terri- 
tory had  been  too  heavy  in  men. 

Fighting  in  this  region  continued  with 
considerable  fury  for  some  weeks,  but 
the  big  battles  of  Picardy  had  been 
fought,  and  lost  by  the  Germans. 

PICASSO,  PABLO,  a  Spanish  painter 
and  sculptor.     He  was  born  at  Malaga 


PICAYUNE 


243 


PICHINCHA 


in  1881,  and  early  developed  a  post-im- 
pressionist style  which  came  to  be  called 
Cubism,  of  which  he  is  held  to  be  the 
originator.  Light  and  shadow  became 
the  chief  elements  in  his  work  which 
aimed  at  psychical  suggestion  over  the 
distinct  physica*  representation.  His 
aim  is  the  depth  and  perspective  that  lie 
beneath  the  superficies  to  which  paint- 
ing is  apparently  confined.  His  work  in 
painting  and  sculpture  attracted  the 
chief  attention  at  the  International  Ex- 
hibition of  Modern  Art  in  New  York  in 
1913. 

PICAYUNE,  the  name  of  a  Spanish 
half  real  in  Florida,  Louisiana,  etc. 

PICCOLO,  a  small  flute,  having  the 
same  compass  as  the  ordinary  orchestral 
flute,  but  its  sounds  are  one  octave 
higher  than  the  notes  as  they  are  writ- 
ten; called  also  an  octave  flute.  Also, 
an  organ  stop  of  two  feet  length,  the 
pipes  are  of  wood,  the  tone  bright  and 
piercing.  Also,  a  small  upright  piano, 
about  three  feet  and  a  half  high;  used 
for  certain  brilliant  effects. 


knowledge  of  his  projects,  when  he  pur- 
posed to  attack  the  emperor.  In  spite 
of  this  he  made  himself  the  chief  in- 
strument of  Wallenstein's  overthrow, 
and  after  the  latter's  assassination 
(1634)  was  rewarded  with  a  portion  of 
his  estates. 

PICCO  PIPE,  a  small  pipe,  having 
two  ventages  above  and  one  below.  It 
is  blown  by  means  of  a  mouth-piece  like 
a  flute  a  bee  or  whistle;  and  in  playing, 
the  little  finger  is  used  for  varying  the 
pitch  by  being  inserted  in  the  end.  The 
player,  Picco,  after  whom  it  was  named, 
produced  a  compass  of  three  octaves 
from  this  primitive  instrument. 

PIC  DU  MIDI,  a  summit  of  the  Pyre- 
nees, 9,466  feet  high,  in  the  S.  E.  corner 
of  the  French  department  of  Basses- 
Pyrenees. 


OCTAVIO    PICCOLOMINI 

PICCOLOMINI,  a  distinguished  Sien- 
nese  family,  still  flourishing  in  Italy  in 
two  branches.  The  two  most  celebrated 
members  are:  (1)  ^neas  Sylvius 
Bartholom^eus,  afterward  Pope  Pius 
II.  (2)  OcTAVio,  a  grand-nephew  of 
the  first;  born  in  1599,  died  in  Vienna 
In  16*86.  He  served  in  the  armies  of  the 
German  emperor,  and  became  one  of  the 
distinguished  generals  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  He  was  a  favorite  of 
Wallenstein,  who  intrusted  him  with  a 


CHARLES  PICHEGRU 

PICHEGRU,  CHARLES  (peezh'groo), 
a  French  military  officer;  born  in  Ar- 
bois,  France,  Feb.  16,  1761,  of  humble 
parents,  but  receiving  a  good  education 
under  the  monks  of  his  native  town. 
Entering  the  army  he  soon  rose  to  the 
rank  of  general  and  in  1794  succeeded 
General  Hoche  in  the  command  of  the 
Army  of  the  North.  He  shortly  after 
relieved  Landau,  and  compelled  the  Eng- 
lish to  evacuate  the  Netherlands.  He 
next  marched  into  Holland,  of  which  he 
made  a  complete  conquest,  and,  in  1797, 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Legislative 
body;  but  his  opposition  to  the  Direc- 
tory, and  his  speeches  in  favor  of  the 
royalist  emigrants,  occasioned  an  ac- 
cusation against  him  as  designing  to  re- 
store royalty.  Without  trial  he  was 
transported  to  Cayenne,  whence  he  es- 
caped to  England.  In  1804  he  returned 
to  Paris,  was  again  apprehended  and 
sent  to  the  Temple,  where  he  was  found 
strangled  in  his  bed,  April  5,  1804. 

PICHINCHA,  "boiling  mountain,"  the 
most  populous  province  of  Ecuador,  en»- 


PICHON 


244 


PICKEBING 


braces  the  Quito  plateau  and  its  slopes; 
area  9,030  square  miles.  The  soil  is 
fertile  in  the  W.  The  province  takes  its 
name  from  the  active  volcano  of  Pich- 
incha,  8  miles  N.  W.  of  Quito,  the  chief 
town.  It  has  five  peaks,  two  of  which 
(15,418  feet)  Mr.  Whymper  ascended  in 
1880.  The  enormous  crater,  nearly  a 
mile  across  at  the  top  and  perhaps 
1,500  feet  in  diameter  at  the  bottom 
(which  is  2,500  feet  below),  is  said  to 
be  the  deepest  in  the  world.  Pop.  about 
205,000. 

PICHON,  STEPHEN,  a  French 
journalist  and  statesman,  born  in  Arnay 
)e  Due,  1857,  studied  medicine  at  the 
University  of  Paris,  but  instead  of  fol- 
lowing the  medical  profession,  he  took 
up  journalism  and,  in  1880,  joined  the 
editorial  staff  of  "La  Justice.'*  In  1882 
he  was  elected  to  the  municipal  council 
of  Paris,  of  which  he  later  became  sec- 
retary. In  1885  he  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  of  which  he  was 
secretary  from  1889  to  1890.  In  1894 
he  served  successively,  for  short  periods, 
as  French  Minister  to  Hayti,  Brazil, 
China  (where  he  was  present  during  the 
Boxer  uprising)  and  to  Tunis.  In  1905 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Senate, 
from  Jura.  In  the  year  following  he 
was  given  the  portfolio  for  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, by  Clemenceau.  This  same  post 
he  held  in  the  Briand  Cabinet,  in 
(  1910-1911  and  under  Barthou,  in  1913. 
After  the  reorganization  of  the  French 
Cabinet,  in  November,  1917,  when  Clem- 
enceau became  Premier,  Pichon  again 
became  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and 
also  a  member  of  the  War  Committee 
of  the  Cabinet.  At  the  Peace  Confer- 
ence at  Versailles  he  acted  as  one  of  the 
French  delegates. 

PICHURIM  BEANS,  a  name  given 
to  the  seed  lobes  of  Ocotea  pichurim,  a 
South  American  tree.  ^  They  resemble 
nutmeg  and  sassafras  in  taste  and  are 
used  for  flavoring  chocolate,  etc. 

PICID^ffi,  woodpeckers;  a  family  of 
zygodactyle  Picarian  birds,  with,  accord- 
ing to  "Wallace,  30  genera  and  320 
species,  almost  universally  distributed, 
being  only  absent  from  the  Australian 
region  beyond  Celebes  and  Flores.  Bill 
more  or  less  straight;  toes  in  pairs. 
They  are  insectivorous;  the  tongue  is 
extensile,  barbed  at  the  point,  and  cov- 
ered with  a  viscid  solution  to  assist  them 
in  catching  their  prey;  tail  feathers  hard 
and  stiff,  terminating  in  points,  enabling 
the  bird  to  run  up  the  trunks  of  trees 
with  facility. 


In  1752  he  removed  to  South  Carolina; 
was  engaged  in  the  expedition  against 
the  Cherokees  in  1761.  During  the  Rev- 
olution he  was  promoted  Brigadier-Gen- 
eral; took  part  in  the  defense  of  South 
Carolina  against  the  British.  He  de- 
feated the  Tories  at  Kettle  Creek,  and  in 
the  battle  of  the  Cowpens,  commanded 
the  militia,  rallying  them  when  retreat- 
ing; received  a  sword  from  Congress 
for  gallant  conduct.  He  served  in 
Congress  from  1793  to  1795;  and  made 
treaties  with  the  Indians.  He  died  in 
Tomassee,  S.  C,  Aug.  17,  1817. 

PICKENS,  PORT,  a  fort  on  Santa 
Rosa  Island,  Pensacola  harbor,  held  by 
a  small  Union  force  under  Lieut.  A.  J. 
Slemmer  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War.  It  refused  to  surrender  when  be- 
sieged by  the  Confederates  in  1861,  and 
was  held  till  re-enforced. 


PICKEREL 

PICKEREL,  a  small  pike,  a  young 
pike.  The  term  is  applied  to  several 
species  of  fishes  belonging  to  the  pike 
family. 

PICKEREL  WEED,  a  genus  of  fresh 
water  plants,  the  Pontederia. 

PICKERING,  TIMOTHY,  an  Amer- 
ican statesman;  born  in  Salem,  Mass., 
July  17,  1745;  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1763,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1768.  He  participated  in  the  battle  of 
Lexington;  in  1776  joined  the  Conti- 
nental army  in  command  of  700  men; 
was  soon  appointed  adjutant-general  by 
Washington;  in  1780  was  selected  for 
the  post  of  quartermaster  of  the  army. 
Shortly  after  his  resignation,  he  united 
with  Patrick  Henry  and  Alexander 
Hamilton  in  opposing  the  measure  that 
drove  the  Tories  from  the  country.  He 
negotiated  a  treaty  between  the  United 
States  and  the  Six  Nations  in  1791,  and 
a  month  later  was  appointed  Postmas- 
ter-General. He  was  Secretary  of 
State  under  Presidents  Washington  and 
Adams,  but  was  dismissed  during  the 
"X.  Y.  Z."  papers  dispute  in  1800.  He 
retired  from  politics  for  a  time,  but  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in 
1804,  and  from  that  time  continued  ac-  v 
tively  in  politics.  He  died  in  Salem, 
Jan.  29,  1829. 


PICKENS,  ANDREW,  an  American  PICKERING,  WILLIAM  HENRY, 
military  officer;  born  in  Paxton,  Pa.,  an  American  astronomer;  born  in  Bos- 
Sept.    13,    1739,   of   Huguenot   ancestry,    ton,  Mass.,  Feb.  15,  1858;  was  graduated 


PICKETT 


245 


PICTS 


at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology in  1879;  became  assistant  pro- 
fessor at  the  Harvard  Observatory;  and 
conducted  several  expeditions  to  observe 
the  total  solar  eclipses  in  different  parts 
of  the  Western  Hemisphere  in  1878- 
1893.  He  established  astronomical  sta- 
tions in  Southern  California  in  1889;  at 
Arequipa,  Peru,  in  1891;  and  at  Mande- 
ville,  Jamaica,  W.  I.,  in  1900.  He  had 
a,  record  as  a  mountain-climber,  having 
ascended  over  100  peaks.  Among  his 
astronomical  works  is  "Visual  Observa- 
tions of  the  Moon  and  Planets." 

PICKETT,    GEORGE    EDWABD,    an 

American  military  officer;  born  in  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  Jan.  25,  1825;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Militaiy  Academy 
in  1846;  served  in  the  Mexican  War  as 
lieutenant  and  was  made  captain  in 
1855.  In  1861  he  left  the  United  States 
service  and  entered  the  Confederate 
army.  He  was  commissioned  Brigadier- 
General  and  was  distinguished  through- 
out the  war  for  bravery  and  activity. 
In  1862  he  was  made  Major-General. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  battles 
of  Fredericksburg,  Gettysburg  (where 
his  division  made  the  famous  "Pickett's 
charge"),  Petersburg,  and  Five  Forks. 
He  died  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  July  30,  1875. 

PICKFOBD,  MARY  (MRS.  DOUG- 
LAS FAIRBANKS),  an  American  ac- 
tress, born  in  Toronto  in  1893.  Her 
family  name  was  Smith.  After  some 
success  on  the  stage  she  went  into  mov- 
ing pictures  where  she  has  been  a  great 
success.  She  married  Owen  Moore,  also 
a  moving  picture  actor,  from  whom  she 
obtained  a  divorce  in  1920.  She  then 
married  Douglas  Fairbanks. 

^  PICO,  one  of  the  Azore  Islands,  con- 
sisting of  a  single  volcanic  mountain, 
which  terminates  in  a  peak  (El  Pico) 
7,613  feet  high  that  emits  smoke  and 
lava.  It  is  fertile  and  well  wooded,  and 
produces  an  excellent  wine,  of  which 
25,000  pipes  are  exported  annually. 
A.rea,  175  square  miles;  pop  about  30,- 
000.  Chief  town,  Villa  di  Lajuna;  pop. 
about  1,500. 

PICRATE,  or  CARBAZOTATE,  a 
compound  of  picric  or  carbazotic  acid 
with  a  base. 

Explosive  powders,  almost  entirely 
composed  of  picrate  of  potash,  and  ni- 
trate of  potash,  were  used  in  the  Franco- 
1  Prussian  War  of  1870  with  the  most  ap- 
palling effect. 

Derivatives  of  picrate  were  used  for 
explosives  in  vast  quantities  during  the 
World  War  (1914-1918). 

PICRIC  ACID,  Trinitrophenol,  CH, 
(N02)3  OH.,  a  yellow  crystalline  solid, 
melting  point  122°   C,  soluble  in  water 


and  alcohol,  very  soluble  in  ether.  The 
aqueous  solution  stains  the  skin  yellow. 
Obtained  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on 
phenol,  or  by  the  nitration  of  mono- 
chlorbenzol  in  the  presence  of  sulphuric 
acid.  Very  poisonous  and  explosive. 
Used  in  the  manufacture  of  explosives, 
for  dyeing  silk  and  in  the  tanning  in- 
dustry. Also  in  the  laboratory  in  urine 
analysis,  and  as  a  reagent  for  detecting 
alkaloids.  In  medicine,  it  is  used  ex- 
ternally in  the  treatment  of  burns  and 
acute  eczema,  and  internally  for  treat- 
ing malaria  and  as  a  bitter  tonic.  (See 
Lyddite.) 

PICRITE,  a  rock,  consisting  princi- 
pally of  olivine  and  augite,  with  oc- 
casionally hornblende,  felspar,  and  mag- 
netite.    First  found  at  Teschen,  Silesia. 

PICROTOXIN,  in  chemistry,  CiHuOs, 
the  poisonous  principle  of  Cocculus  in- 
dicus  and  extracted  from  that  berry  by 
means  of  hot  alcohol. 

PICTON,  SIR  THOMAS,  a  British 
military  officer;  born  in  Poyston,  Pem- 
brokeshire, England,  in  August,  1758. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1772.  In  1794 
he  went  out  to  the  West  Indies;  took 
part  in  the  conquest  of  several  of  the 
islands,  including  Trinidad,  and  was  ap- 
pointed (1797)  governor  of  the  last 
named,  being  shortly  afterward  pro- 
moted general.  In  1803  he  was  super- 
seded, and  made  governor  of  Tobago. 
He  saw  active  service  again,  in  1809, 
and  was  made  governor  of  Flushing 
after  its  capture  by  the  English;  he  was 
summoned  to  Spain,  and  rendered  bril- 
liant service  at  Busaco,  during  the  sub- 
sequent expulsion  of  the  French  from 
Portugal,  at  Fuentes  de  Onoro,  at  the 
sieges  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajoz, 
at  Vittoria  and  in  the  battles  of  the 
Pyrenees,  at  Orthez  and  before  Toulouse. 
Napoleon's  escape  from  Elba  once  more 
called  Picton  into  the  field;  he  fought 
at  Quatre  Bras,  and  at  Waterloo  fell 
leading  his  men  to  the  charge,  June  18, 
1815. 

PICTOtr,  a  port  of  entry  on  the  N. 
coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  on  a  large  and 
sheltered  harbor,  85  miles  N.  N.  E.  of 
Halifax.  The  town  contains  mills  and 
factories,  and  coal,  mined  in  the  vicinity, 
is  exported. 

PICTS,  the  name  by  which,  for  five 
and  a  half  centuries  (a.  d.  296-844),  the 
people  that  inhabited  Eastern  Scotland 
from  the  Forth  to  the  Pentland  Firth, 
were  kno"\vn.  In  the  Irish  chronicles 
they  are  generally  styled  Picti,  Pictones, 
Pictores,  or  Piccardaig,  but  sometimes 
the  native  Gaelic  name  of  Cruthnig  is 
applied   to  them,   and   their   country   is 


PICTS 


246 


PIERCTE 


called  Cruithen-tuath,  the  equivalent  of 
Latin  Pictavia  and  Old  Norse  Pettland, 
which  still  survives  in  the  name  of  the 
Pentland  Firth.  There  were  Cruithni 
or  Cruthnig  also  in  Ireland — never,  how- 
ever, called  Picti. 

The  Picts  are  first  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  the  campaigns  of  Constan- 
tius  Chlorus  in  Britain,  in  296  and  306. 
Caledonia  is  the  name  given  by  Tacitus 
to  Scotland  N.  of  the  Firths  of  Forth 
and  Clyde,  and  he  describes  the  Caledon- 
ians as  a  noble  race  of  barbarians,  who 
fight  in  chariots  as  well  as  on  foot,  with 
long  swords  and  short  shields,  and  whose 
fair  red  hair  and  large  limbs  argued  a 
German  origin.  Ptolemy  (120)  places 
14  tribes  in  Tacitus'  Caledonia,  in- 
clusive of  the  Caledonians  themselves, 
and  the  more  E.  ten  of  these  may  be 
claimed  as  Picts.  So  troublesome  were 
these  Northern  tribes  to  the  Roman 
province  that  in  208  the  Emperor  Sev- 
erus  came  to  Britain  and  vainly  at- 
tempted their  subjugation.  The  con- 
temporary historians  mention  only  two 
tribes  N.  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde  wall — 
the  Maeatae  and  the  Caledonii — and 
Tacitus's  noble  barbarians  appear  in 
their  pages  but  squalid  savages.  Yet 
they  had  chariots  and  weapons  as  de- 
scribed by  Tacitus,  with  daggers  and 
peculiarly  knobbed  spears.  One  hun- 
dred years  later  the  Caledonians  and 
other  Picts,  as  already  said,  were  en- 
countered by  Constantius,  and  still  50 
years  later  they  harassed  the  Roman 
province  (360)  now  in  company  with  the 
Scots,  who  are  first  mentioned  at  this 
date,  and  who  appeared  as  great  sea- 
wanderers.  The  Picts  and  Scots  were 
helped  in  this  "continual  vexing"  of  the 
Britons  by  the  Saxons  and  Atecotti. 
Theodosius  the  elder  in  369  subdued 
these  Northern  foes  and  restored  the 
district  between  the  walls  to  Roman 
Britain,  and  the  usurper  Maximus  sig- 
nalized his  assumption  of  power  in  383 
by  an  energetic  campaign  against  the 
Picts  and  Scots.  During  the  next  quar- 
ter of  a  century  the  Romans  were  losing 
their  hold  on  Britain,  and  their  North- 
ern foes  pressed  on  the  province  with 
great  persistence. 

The  Southern  Picts  were  converted  to 
Christianity  by  St.  Ninian  (about  400), 
and  the  Northern  Picts  over  a  century 
and  a  half  later  by  St.  Columba. 

The  year  839  saw  a  great  defeat  and 
slaughter  of  the  Picts  by  the  Danes,  with 
confusion  once  again,  from  which 
emerged  in  844  Kenneth  MacAlpin,  the 
Scot,  as  king  over  both  nations,  hence- 
forward not  to  be  disunited.  Many 
things  contributed  to  the  overthrow  of 
the  Pictish  kingdom;  the  disunion,  phys- 


ical and  otherwise,  between  Northern 
and  Southern  Picts;  the  rule  of  female 
succession  which  allowed  Anglic,  Briton, 
and  Scottic  princes  to  rule  in  right  of 
their  mothers,  and  the  superior  culture 
of  the  Scots,  Christian  and  literary. 
We  really  do  not  know  much  about  the 
isles  and  W.  coast  N.  of  Argyll,  nor 
indeed  of  the  counties  N.  of  Inverness, 
from  the  time  of  Brude  MacMailchon 
till  the  Norsemen  came.  It  is  quite  cer- 
tain that  the  Scots  colonized  these  very 
early,  and  had,  indeed,  established  them- 
selves in  Perthshire.  Aidan,  the  son  of 
Gubhran,  made  expeditions  to  Orkney, 
and  fought  the  Picts  and  defeated  them 
on  the  Forth,  or  even  farther  E.,  in 
Mearns. 

The  Picts,  whatever  traces  they  show 
of  a  non-Aryan  racial  element,  with  its 
consequent  survival  of  lower  ideas  of 
marriage  laws,  spoke  a  Celtic  language 
belonging  to  a  branch  of  Celtic  allied  to 
the  Cymric,  but  dialectically  different 
from  the  Welsh  of  Bede's  time;  and  that 
this  dialect  of  the  Galo-Cymric  stock  was 
a  wave  of  Celtic  speech  from  the  Conti- 
nent previous  to  the  Gaulish  which  held 
England  when  Caesar  entered  Britain. 

PICUL,  a  Chinese  weight  of  133^ 
pounds.  It  is  divided  into  100  catties, 
or  1,600  taels;   also  called  tan. 

PIEDMONT,  or  PIEMONT,  a  former 
Italian  principality,  which  now  forms 
the  N.  W.  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy; 
is  by  the  Alps  separated  from  Switzer- 
land on  the  N.  and  from  France  on  the 
W.;  on  the  E.  lies  Lombardy,  and  on  the 
S.  Liguria  and  Genoa.  It  included  the 
duchy  of  Monferrat  and  part  of  the  old 
duchy  of  Milan,  and  now  embraces  the 
provinces  of  Alessandria,  Cuneo,  Nov- 
ara,  and  Turin,  and  covers  11,331  square 
miles,  with  a  pop.  about  3,200,000. 
From  the  end  of  the  12th  century  the 
name  Piedmont  was  used  as  a  collective 
title  for  the  territories  ruled  over  by 
the  House  of  Savoy  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
Graian  and   Cottian  Alps. 

PIER,  a  detached  pillar  or  wall  sup- 
porting the  ends  of  adjoining  trusses  or 
spans,  or  the  springers  of  adjacent 
arches.  Also  an  upright  projecting 
portion  of  wall,  similar  to  a  pilaster, 
throwing  the  intervening  sunken  por- 
tions into  panel.  Also  a  buttress.  Also 
a  mole  or  jetty  extending  out  from  the 
land  into  the  water,  adapted  to  form 
a  landing  place  for  passengers  or  mer- 
chandise from  ships  which  float  in  the 
deep  water  alongside  the  pier  or  wharf. 

PIERCE,  FRANKLIN,  an  American 
statesman,  14th  President  of  the  United 
States;  born  in  Hillsboro,  N.  H.,  Nov. 
23,     1804.     He     was     educated    in    the 


PIEBPONT                         247  PIETIST 

JBchools  of  his  native  State  and  at  Bow-  1840;  became  a  member  of  the  Ohio  bar. 

doin  College,  where  he  studied  in  com-  He  was  elected  a  judge  of  the  Superior 

pany  with   Longfellow,   Hawthorne,  and  Court   of   New   York   in    1857;   was  ap- 

Prentiss,   graduating  in   1824.     He   was  pointed  a  colleague  of  Gen.  John  A.  Dix 

admitted    to    the    bar    in    1827,    and    in  to  try  the  prisoners  of  war  confined  in 

1829  was  elected  to  the  New  Hampshire  various  prisons  and  forts  of  the  country 

Legislature.     In   1833    he   entered    Con-  in  1862.     He  was  one  of  the  counsel  for 

gress,  serving  four  years,  and   in   1837  John   H.   Surrat,  indicted  for  complicity 

was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  in  the  murder  of  President  Lincoln;   in 

being  the  youngest  member  of  that  body,  1875     became     attorney-general     of    the 

"which  contained  such   men   as   Webster,  United    States    in    Grant's    administra- 

Clay,    Calhoun,   Benton,    Buchanan,    and  tion;  and  in  the  following  year  was  ap- 

Silas  Wright.     In  1842  he  resigned  from  pointed  United  States  minister  to  Great 

the   Senate   and  retired  to  private   life.  Britain.     He   tried    many    famous   cases 

He  engaged  in  public  debate  with  John  during  his  professional  career,  and  was 

P.  Hale  on  the  slavery  question,  Pierce  noted    as    an   orator.     He    died    in    New 

advocating    the    constitutional    right    of  York  City,  March  6,  1892. 

that  institution.     In  1846  he  enlisted  for  .      ,                       ^, 

the  Mexican  War,  was  appointed  briga-  „  PIERROT,  a  comic  character  on  the 

dier  and  fought  in  the  battles  of  Con-  French  stage,  dressed  like  the  harlequin 

treras  and  Churubusco.     After  the  war  and  playing  the  part  of  a  cunning  but 

he   continued   the   practice   of   law,   fre-  cowardly  rogue.     Also  the  modern  pier- 

quently   advocating  the  political  princi-  rot  of  the  stage  who  whitens  his  face, 

pies  of  the  Democratic  party  in  public,  wears  a  while  loose  suit  with  large  black 

and  favoring  the  compromise  measures  P'^sh    buttons    down    the    front    of   the 

of    1850,    including   the    Fugitive    Slave  coat,  and  a  black  skull  cap.     He  is  often 

Law.     In  1852  he  was  nominated  for  the  J^e    hero    of    poetic    or    pastoral    love 

presidency   on   the    49th   ballot,   by   the  dramas.^ 

Democratic    National     Convention,    and  PIETA,  in  painting  and  sculpture,  a 

was  elected  by  an  electoral  majority  over  representation  of  the  Virgin,  embracing 

General  Scott  of  254  to  42.     During  his  the  dead  Christ.     In  St.  Peter's  at  Rome 

administration  the  Missouri  Compromise  is  a  Pieta  by  Michael  Angelo. 
was    repealed,   a   reciprocity   treaty   for 

trade  with  the  British  American  colonies  PIETERMARITZBURG,  or  MARITZ- 

was  made;  a  treaty  with  Japan  was  es-  BURG,  capital  of  the  province  of  Natal 

tablished;    and    the    Mexican    boundary  (q.  v.).     It  occupies  a  fine  situation  near 

disputes  settled.     After  his  term  expired,  the  Umgeni  river,  54  miles  N.  of  Durban. 

he  traveled  abroad  and,  returning,  lived  It  is  the  seat  of  government,  headquar- 

thereafter    in    retirement    at    Concord,  ters  of  the  military,  and  its  municipal 

where  he  died,  Oct.  8,  1869.  affairs    are   managed  by   a   mayor   and 

town   council.     It  takes   its   name   from 

PIERPONT,  JOHN,  an  American  its  founders,  the  Boer  leaders  Pietev 
poet;  born  m  Litchfield,  Conn.,  April  6,  Retief  and  Gert  Maritz.  There  is  rail- 
1785.  He  became  a  Unitarian  clergy-  ^ay  connection  with  Durban,  and  also 
man  and  served  as  chaplain  in  the  Civil  to  the  borders  of  the  Orange  River 
War.  Among  his  works  is  "Airs  of  Colony  and  the  Transvaal.  Pop.  about 
Palestine,  and  Other  Poems'"  (1840).  35,000. 
One  of  his  best  known  poems  is  "War- 
ren's Address  at  the  Battle  of  Bunker  PIETIST,  a  member  of  a  party  of  re- 
Hill."  He  died  in  Medford,  Mass.,  Aug.  formers  in  the  Lutheran  Church  in  the 
27,  1866.  17th  century.     The  leader  of  the  move- 

.__„.r.-r,-r,         -x      J'  a     J.1-  Tx  1    X     j-t.  ment,  an  Alsatian,  Philip  Jacob  Spener 

PIERRE   a  city  of  South  Dakota,  the  (1635-1705),  when  pastor  in  Frankfort, 

capital  of  the  State  and  the  county-seat  j„  ^g^Q   ^^s  in  the  habit  of  holding  pri- 

of    Hughes    CO.     It    is  _  on   the    Missouri  ^^^^  gatherings  in  which  the  Scriptures 

river  and   on   the    Chicago   and   North-  ^^^^   explained   practically   rather  than 

western  railroad.     The  city  has  a  State  dogmatically,       and,       thifi       movement 

library,    a    government    school    foi-    In-  spreading,     Spener    published    a    work, 

dians,  the  State  eapitol,  library,  a  hand-  ..^hree    Desirable    Things    of   Religion," 

some    Federal    Building,    hospitals  _  and  ^^    ^y^^^^    ^^     deplored    the    incessant 

schools.     It  is  an  extensive  stock  raising  preaching  of  dogma,  and  formulated  the 

and    farming    community.     The    city   is  Opinion  that  a  virtuous  life  was  of  more 

supplied  with  natural  gas.  importance  than  a  correct  creed.     After 

PIERREPONT,  EDWARDS,  an  Amer-  Spener's  death  the  executive  interfered, 

ican  diplomatist;  born  in  North  Haven,  and  proscribed   the   open   profession   of 

Conn.,  March  4,  1817;  was  graduated  at  Pietism,   so  that  its  professors   had  no 

Yale  in  1837,  and  at  its  Law  School  in  opportunity  of  forming  a  new  sect. 


PIETRA    DURA 


248 


PILCHARD 


PIETRA  DURA,  a  species  of  inlaid 
work  composed  of  hard  stones,  such  as 
agate,  jasper,  chalcedony,  carnelian,  and 
lapislazuli,  set  in  a  slab  of  marble,  gen- 
erally black. 

PIGEON.  See  Carrier  Pigeon. 

PIGEON  PEA,  the  fruit  of  the  legu- 
minous shrub  Cajanus  indicus,  a  native 
of  India,  but  now  cultivated  in  tropical 
Africa  and  America.  In  India  the 
pigeon  pea  forms  a  pulse  of  general  use; 
called  also  Angola  pea  and  Kongo  pea. 

PIG  IRON.     See  Iron  and  Steel. 

PIGMENT  CELL,  a  small  cell  con- 
taining coloring  matter,  as  in  the  choroid 
coat  of  the  eye. 

PIKE,  a  military  weapon,  consisting 
of  a  narrow,  elongated  lance-head  fixed 
to  a  pole  or  a  simple  spike  of  metal.  The 
end  of  the  staff  had  also  a  spike  for 
insertion  in  the  ground,  thus  allowing  a 
musketeer  to  keep  off  the  approach  of 
cavalry  while  attending  to  his  other 
arms.  It  is  now  superseded  by  the 
bayonet.  Also,  any  individual  of  the 
genus  Esox,  especially  Esox  lucius,  the 
commoft  pike.  It  is  one  of  the  larger 
fresh-water  fishes,  sometimes  attaining 
a  length  of  five  or  six  feet,  and 
much  esteemed  for  food.  Pikes  are  ex- 
tremely voracious,  and  small  fish  and 
frogs  form  their  staple  food.  They 
commence  to  spawn  at  three  years  old; 
the  ova  are  deposited  in  March,  and  the 
spawning  season  lasts  about  three 
months.  The  pike  are  migrants,  and 
have  been  known  to  travel  overland. 
The  head  and  back  are  olive-brown,  sides 
paler,  belly  silvery  white;  body  mottled 
with  roundish  spots,  which  sometimes 
form  cross  bars  on  tail.  The  English 
name  has  reference  to  the  elongated 
form  of  the  fish,  or  the  shape  of  its 
snout. 

PIKE,  ZEBULON  MONTGOMERY, 

an  American  military  officer;  born  in 
Lamberton,  N.  J.,  Jan.  5,  1779 ;  was  ap- 
pointed an  ensign  in  his  father's  regi- 
ment in  1799;  conducted  an  expedition 
sent  by  the  government  to  trace  the  Mis- 
sissippi to  its  source  in  1805;  also  made 
explorations  in  Louisiana  Territory,  dis- 
covering Pike's  Peak  and  reaching  the 
Rio  Grande  in  the  course  of  his  travels. 
In  1813  he  was  promoted  Brigadier- 
General,  and  on  April  13  of  that  year 
while  m  command  of  the  attack  on  York 
(now  Toronto),  in  Upper  Canada,  was 
killed. 

PIKE  PERCH,  Lucioperca,  a  genus 
of  fishes  closely  allied  to  the  perch,  but 
showing  a  resemblance  to  the  pike  in  its 
elongated  body  and  head.     Like  the  pike, 


it  is  a  dangerous  enemy  to  other  fresh- 
water fishes,  but  the  flavor  of  its  flesh 
is  excellent.  In  Europe  it  occurs  in  two 
species.     It    also    occurs    in    the    fresh 


PIKE  PERCH 

waters  of  North  America,  such  as  the 
Great  Lakes,  the  Upper  Mississippi,  and 
the  Ohio. 

PIKE'S  PEAK,  a  peak  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  Colorado,  65  miles  S.  of 
Denver,  discovered  by  Captain  Pike,  U. 
S.  A.,  in  1806.  It  is  situated  in  lat. 
38°  50'  N.,  and  Ion.  105°  2'  W.,  and  rises 
to  a  height  of  14,147  feet.  On  its  sum- 
mit is  one  of  the  highest  meteorological 
stations  in  the  world. 

PILASTER,  a  square  column,  gener- 
ally attached  to  a  wall,  as  an  ornamental 
support  to  an  arch,  etc.,  and  seldom  pro- 
jecting more  than  one-fourth  or  one- 
third  of  its  breadth  from  the  wall. 

PILATE,  PONTIUS,  a  Roman  ruler, 
who  became  governor  of  Judaea,  A.  D.  26. 
He  commanded  in  that  country  10  years. 
The  Jews  brought  Jesus  Christ  before 
Pilate,  who,  perceiving  that  envy  and 
malice  occasioned  their  charges,  wotild 
have  scourged  the  prisoner  and  dis- 
missed him,  but  being  threatened  with 
the  wrath  of  Caesar,  Pilate  delivered 
Jesus,  whom  he  pronounced  innocent,  to 
be  crucified.  He  is  said  to  have  sub- 
sequently treated  the  Samaritans  with 
great  cruelty,  for  which  he  was  recalled 
by  Tiberius,  and  banished  to  Gaul,  where 
he  slew  himself,  a.  D.  37  or  38. 

PILATUS,  MOUNT,  an  isolated  moun- 
tain at  the  W.  end  of  the  Lake  of  Lu- 
cerne, rising  opposite  the  Rigi.  The 
lower  half  is  clothed  with  wood  and 
meadow,  the  upper  portion  is  a  mass  of 
bare  and  jagged  peaks,  rising  in  the 
Tomlishorn  to  6,998  feet.  Below  the 
summit  lies  Lake  Pilatus.  Since  1889 
there  has  been  a  tooth-and-rack  railway 
from  Alpnach  to  the  top,  whence  there 
is  a  splendid  view  of  the  Bernese  Alps. 
In  1891  a  steel  tower  was  undertaken, 
to  be  300  feet  in  diameter  at  its  base 
and  840  feet  high,  and  so  pierce  any  en- 
veloping cloud. 

PILCHARD,  Clupea  pilchardus,  an 
important  food  fish,  found  on  the  coast 
of  Northwestern  Europe.  It  abounds 
also  on  the  coast  of  Portugal  and  in  the 


PILCOMAYO 


249 


PIMELODUS 


Mediterranean.  It  is  a  thicker  and 
smaller  fish  than  the  herring;  the  upper 
part  of  the  body  is  bluish-green,  belly 
and  sides  silvery-white. 

PILCOMAYO,  a  river  in  South  Amer- 
ica, which  rises  in  Bolivia,  on  the  E. 
declivities  of  the  Andes,  and  falls  into 
the  Paraguay,  near  Asuncion,  after 
forming  the  boundary  between  Paraguay 
and  the  Argentine  Republic.  Its  entire 
length  is  between  1,500  and  1,600  miles. 

PILE,  a  beam  or  timber  driven  into 
treacherous  ground  to  form  a  foundation 
for  a  structure,  or  to  form  part  of  a 
wall,  as  of  a  cofferdam  or  quay.  In 
heraldry,  one  of  the  lesser  ordinaries, 
triangular  in  form  and  issuing  from  the 
chief  with  the  point  downward.  When 
borne  plain  it  should  contain  one-third 
of  the  chief  in  breadth,  and  if  charged 
two-thirds. 

PILGRIMAGE,  a  journey  undertaken 
by  a  pilgrim;  specifically,  a  journey  to 
Bome  distant  place,  sacred  and  venerable 
for  some  reason,  undertaken  for  devo- 
tional purposes.  Pilgrimages  are  an  es- 
sential part  of  the  Hindu  and  Moham- 
medan systems,  and  the  visits  to  Jeru- 
salem three  times  a  year  of  the  Jewish 
race  were  of  the  nature  of  pilgrimages. 
The  Empress  Helena  led  the  way  in 
Christian  pilgrimages  by  visiting  Jeru- 
salem in  A.  D.  326. 

PILGRIM  FATHERS,  the  name  given 
to  102  Puritans,  who  sailed  in  the  "May- 
flower," from  Plymouth,  on  Sept.  6, 
1620,  to  seek  in  America  the  religious 
liberty  denied  them  in  England.  Land- 
ing on  Plymouth  Rock,  they,  on  Dec.  25, 
1620,  founded  a  colony,  which  became 
the  germ  of  the  New  England  States. 

PILLAR  OF  HERCULES,  THE,  Calpe 
(now  Gibraltar  rock),  and  Abyla,  op- 
posite to  it  in  Africa,  which  Greek  story 
says  were  torn  asunder  and  separated  by 
Hercules  about  1220  B.  c.  The  Mediter- 
ranean was  previously,  like  the  Caspian, 
without  connection  with  the  ocean,  hence 
the  name  Mediterraneum  Mare  (Inland 
Sea). 

PILLORY,  formerly  a  common  in- 
strument of  punishment  for  persons  con- 
victed of  forestalling,  use  of  unjust 
weights,  perjury,  forgery,  libel,  etc.  It 
consisted  of  a  frame  of  wood,  erected  on 
a  pillar  or  stand,  and  furnished  with 
movable  boards,  resembling  those  of  the 
stocks,  and  holes  through  which  the 
offender's  head  and  hands  were  put.  In 
this  position  he  was  exposed  for  a  cer- 
tain time  to  public  view  and  insult.  The 
use  of  the  pillory  was  abolished  in 
France  in  1832,  in  England  in  1837,  and 
in  the  United  States  in  1839. 


PILLSBURY,    JOHN    ELLIOTT,    an 

American  naval  officer.  He  was  born  at 
Lowell,  Mass.,  in  1846,  and  graduated 
from  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy  in  1867. 
He  served  a  year  in  the  Hydrographic 
office  and  ten  years  in  coast  survey  serv- 
ice. In  1884-91  he  commanded  the  ooast 
survey  steamer  "Blake"  investigating 
Gulf  Stream  currents  and  established 
the  axis  of  stream  in  Straits  of  Florida, 
and  off  Cape  Hatteras.  Commanded 
dynamite  cruiser  off  Santiago  in  Span 
iflh-American  war,  later  in  Boston  Navy 
Yard.  Chief  of  Staff,  North  Atlantic 
Fleet  in  1905.  Released  from  active 
duty  in  1909.  Acted  as  naval  adviser  in 
1918-1919.     Died  in  1919. 

PILOT  FISH,  Naucrates  ductor,  a 
small  pelagic  fish,  about  a  foot  long,  of 
bluish  color,  marked  with  from  five  to 
seven  broad,  dark,  vertical  bars.  It 
owes  its  scientific  and  popular  English 
name  to  its  habit  of  keeping  company 
with  ships  and  large  fish,  generally 
sharks.  It  obtains  a  great  part  of  its 
food  from  the  parasitic  crustaceans  with 
which  sharks  and  other  large  fish  are 
infested.  Pilot  fish  often  accompany 
ships  into  harbor. 

PILOT  KNOB,  a  remarkable  hill  in 
Missouri,  about  86  miles  S.  W.  of  St. 
Louis.  It  is  nearly  500  feet  high,  and 
is  composed  almost  entirely  of  magnetic 
iron  ore. 

PILSEN,  a  town  of  Bohemia;  in  a 
fertile  and  beautiful  valley,  52  miles  S. 
W.  of  Prague.  There  are  numerous  ac- 
tive industries,  producing  building  ma- 
terials, machinery,  metal  work,  porcelain, 
spirits,  liquors,  leather,  etc.  In  the 
neighborhood  are  mines  of  iron,  alum, 
vitriol,  coal,  and  sulphuric  acid.  But 
the  town  is  most  widely  known  from 
giving  its  name  to  a  popular^  beer.  The 
town  was  stormed  by  Zizka  in  the  Hus- 
site war  and  by  Count  Mansfeld  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  (1618);  it  was 
Wallenstein's  headquarters  in  1633- 
1634.     Pop.  about  87,500. 

PIMAN,  a  linguistic  stock  of  North 
American  Indians  who  occupy  a  vast 
area  extending  over  Southern  Arizona 
and  Northwestern  Mexico.  They  num- 
ber about  90,000. 

PIMELODUS,  a  genus  of  Siluridx 
having  the  adipose  fin  well  developed; 
dorsal  and  anal  short;  the  former  with 
pungent  spine  and  six  rays;  barbels  six; 
palate  edentulous;  ventrals  six-rayed,  in- 
serted behind  the  dorsal.  Forty  species 
are  known  from  South  America,  the 
majority  of  small  size  and  plain  colora- 
tion. Two  species  are  from  West 
Africa, 


PIMPERNEL 


250 


PINDAR 


PIMPERNEL,  (Anagallis),  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Primulacex.  The  A.  arvensis,  or  field 
pimpernel,  a  beautiful  annual,  is  com- 
monly known  as  the  "shepherd's  or  poor 
man's  weather  glass,"  from  the  fact  that 
its  flowers  do  not  open  in  rainy  weather. 
The  bog  pimpernel  (Anagallis  tenella) 
grows  in  the  drier  parts  of  marshes. 
The  blue  and  lilac  varieties  of  the  A. 
collina,  originally  a  native  of  South 
Africa,  have  been  introduced  into  gar- 
dens in  Great  Britain,  where  they  have 
a  fine  effect.  The  water  pimpernel  is 
the  Vero7iica  A.;  the  yellow  pimpernel, 
Lysimachia  nemorw^n. 

PIN,  a  piece  of  wood,  metal,  etc.,  gen- 
erally pointed  and  used  for  fastening 
separate  articles  together,  or  as  a  sup- 
port; a  peg,  a  bolt.  Also  a  small  piece 
of  whre,  generally  brass,  headed  and 
pointed,  used  as  a  fastening,  etc.,  for 
dress,  or  for  attaching  separate  pieces  of 
paper,  etc.,  or  as  an  ornament. 

PINACOTHEK,  or  PINAKOTHEK,  a 

name  sometimes  applied  in  Germany  to 
galleries  of  art,  especially  collections  of 
paintings.  The  Pinacothek  formed  at 
Munich  by  Louis  I.  of  Bavaria  is  par- 
ticularly   famous. 

PINAR  DEL  RIO,  one  of  the  prov- 
inces of  Cuba  comprising  the  W.  end 
of  the  island.  It  has  an  area  of  about 
5,000  square  miles.  A  range  of  moun- 
tains runs  lengthwise  through  the  prov- 
ince. In  the  southern  slope  are  the 
famous  tobacco  fields  of  Vuelta  Abajo 
where  the  finest  tobacco  in  the  world  is 
grown.  Other  products  are  sugar  cane, 
coffee  and  fruits.  Cotton  is  also  pro- 
duced in  the  lowlands.  Cattle  raising 
and  mining  are  also  of  some  importance. 
The  capital  is  the  city  of  the  same  name. 
Pop.,  province,  about  275,000;  city,  about 
12,000. 

PINCHOT,  GIFFORD,  forester  of  the 
State  of  P'jnnsvlvania.  Born  1865  at 
Simsbury,  Conn.,  and  graduated  from 
Yale  in  the  class  of  '89.  After  studying 
forestry  abroad  in  Germany  and  Switz- 
erland he  became  professor  of  forestry 
at  Yale  in  1903.  While  he  held  this 
position  he  also  held  office  under  the 
United  States  Government.  During 
Roosevelt's  administration  Pinchot  as 
chief  of  the  forestry  bureau  took  a  lead- 
ing part  in  the  movement  for  the  pre- 
servation of  our  national  resources. 
He  resigned  his  position  in  1911  because 
of  his  disagreement  with  the  policies  of 
the  Taft  administration.  Appointed  by 
Governor  Sproul  in  1920  forester  of 
Pennsylvania. 

PINCKNEY,  CHARLES  COTES- 
WORTH,  an  American  statesman;  born 


in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Feb.  25,  1746.  He 
was  sent  to  England  and  educated  at 
Westminster  and  at  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
ford, read  law  at  the  Middle  Temple,  and 
studied  for  a  while  at  the  military  acad- 
emy in  Caen,  France.  He  afterward 
settled  as  a  lawyer  at  Charleston,  S.  C. 
He  was  Washington's  aide-de-camp  at  the 
battles  of  Brandywine  and  Germantown. 
In  1780  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  the 
surrender  of  Charleston,  and  held  to  the 
close  of  the  war.  A  member  of  the  con- 
vention that  framed  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  (1787),  he  introduced 
the  clause  forbidding  religious  tests  as  a 
qualification  for  office.  He  declined  the 
secretaryship  of  war  in  1794,  and  of 
state  in  1795;  in  1796  he  was  sent  as 
minister  to  France,  but  the  Directory 
refused  to  receive  him.  While  on  this 
mission  it  was  intimated  that  peace 
might  be  granted  in  return  for  a  money 
payment;  he  made  the  reply,  "Millions 
for  defense,  but  not  a  cent  for  tribute." 
In  1800-1808  he  was  thrice  an  unsuc- 
cessful Federalist  candidate  for  the 
presidency.     He  died  Aug.  16,  1825. 

PINDAR,  the  great  Greek  lyric  poet; 
born  in  or  near  Thebes,  in  Bceotia,  about 
522   B.  c,     He  was  of  a  noble  family, 


PINDAR 

skilled  in  music,  and  learned  his  father's 
art  of  flute  playing.  At  Athens  he  was 
a  pupil  of  Lasus  of  Hermione.  Pindar 
composed  choral  songs  for  princes  and 
states  in  all  parts  of  Greece;  for  which, 
as  was  the  custom,  he  received  money 
and  gifts.  Yet  he  did  not  become  a 
mere  hireling,  and  spoke  truth  fearlessly 
to  all.     He   did  not  live  at  courts,  nor 


PINDTJS 


251 


PINE    MARTEN 


take  part  in  public  affairs.  Pindar  ex- 
celled in  all  varieties  of  choral  poetry, 
hymns  to  the  gods,  paeans,  odes  for  pro- 
cessions, drinking  songs,  etc.  But  the 
only  poems  of  his  now  extant  are  the 
"Epinikia,  or  Triumphal  Odes,"  com- 
posed in  celebration  of  victories  at  the 
great  public  games,  the  Olympian, 
Pythian,  Nemean,  and  Isthmian.  They 
are  marked  by  an  extraordinary  variety 
of  style  and  expression.  No  two  odes 
have  the  same  meter.  Pindar  attained 
the  highest  renown  in  his  own  age,  and 
as  a  lyrical  poet  has  no  rival.  When 
Thebes  was  destroyed  by  Alexander,  the 
conqueror  spared  the  house  of  Pindar. 
He  died  in  443  B.  c. 

PINDTJS,  the  ancient  name  of  the 
principal  mountain  range  of  Northern 
Greece,  forming  the  watershed  of  the 
country  and  the  boundary  between  Thes- 
saly  and  Epirus.  It  was,  like  Helicon 
and  Parnassus,  a  seat  of  Apollo  and  the 
Muses. 

PINE,  Pinus,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Coyiiferas.  The  Linnaean 
genus  includes  all  kinds  of  fir,  larch, 
and  cedar;  but  as  now  limited  the  genus 
Pimis  is  distinguished  by  monoecious 
flowers  and  woody  cones  vnth  numerous 
two-seeded  scales,  the  scales  having  an 
angular  truncated  apex.  The  leaves  are 
linear  and  very  narrow,  of  a  very  dark 
green  color,  growing  in  clusters  or  in 
pairs,  and  surrounded  by  scarious  scales 
at  the  base.  To  this  genus  belong  many 
noble  and  useful  trees.  They  mostly 
grow  in  mountainous  or  other  exposed  sit- 
uations, and  their  narrow  leaves  are  ad- 
mirably adapted  to  evade  the  force  of 
winds.  Many  species  of  pines,  some  of 
them  very  beautiful  and  very  valuable, 
are  found  in  North  America.  Besides 
those  long  known,  and  which  are  found 
in  the  States  and  colonies  near  the  At- 
lantic, a  number  of  the  noblest  species  of 
this  genus  haye,  during  the  19th  century, 
been  discovered  in  California  and  the 
N.  W.  parts  of  the  Continent.  The  red 
Canadian  pine  (P.  resinosa)  is  found 
from  Canada  to  the  Pacific,  but  does  not 
reach  far  S.  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
the  yellow  pine  of  Canada  and  Nova 
Scotia. 

PINEAPPLE,  the  Ananassa  sativa. 
The  leaves  are  hard  and  fibrous,  with 
spiny  edges.  The  flowers  rise  from  the 
center  of  the  plant,  and  are  in  a  large 
conical  spike,  surmounted  by  spiny 
leaves  called  the  crown.  The  conical 
spike  of  flowers  ultimately  becomes  en- 
larged and  juicy,  constituting  the  pine- 
apple, believed  to  be  the  finest  of  fruits. 
The  first  particular  account  was  given 
by  Oviedo,  in  1535,  and  it  was  first  cul- 


tivated in  Holland.     More  than  50  varie- 
ties have  been  produced. 

The  plant  grows  in  the  S.  portion  of 
the    United   States   and   in    Hawaii.     In 


PINEAPPLE 

the  islands  they  sometimes  reach  the 
weight  of  17  pounds,  though  the  average 
weight  is  six. 

PINE  BLUFF,  a  city  of  Arkansas,  the 
county-seat  of  Jefferson  co.  It  is  about 
40  miles  S.  of  Little  Rock,  on  the  St. 
Louis  Southwestern  and  the  St.  Louis, 
Iron  Mountain,  and  Southern  railroads. 
It  contains  the  State  Colored  Normal 
College,  the  Merrill  Institute,  a  library, 
opera  house,  court  house  and  other  pub- 
lic buildings.  It  is  the  center  of  a  fer- 
tile agricultural  community.  Cotton  is 
largely  grown.  It  has  also  an  important 
lumber  trade.  The  industries  include 
railroad  shops,  cottonseed-oil  mills,  boiler 
works  and  sheet  iron  works.  Pop. 
(1910)    15,102;    (1920)    19,280. 

PINE  BULLFINCH,  or  PINE  GROS- 
BEAK, Pyrrhula  or  Pinicola  enucleator, 
a  wellknown  bird  with  head,  neck,  fore 
part  of  breast,  and  rump  bright  red; 
back  grayish-brown  or  black,  edged  with 
red;  lower  parts  light  gray;  two  white 
bands  on  the  dusky  wings;  larger  than 
the  bullfinch.  Common  in  the  Arctic 
regions,  whence  it  migrates  S.  in  num- 
bers in  the  United  States,  more  spar- 
ingly in  Europe;  called  also  pinefinch 
and  pine  grosbeak. 

PINE   CHAFER,   or  PINE  BEETLE 

(Hylophagus  pinipey-da) ,  a  species  of 
beetle  which  infests  Scotch  pines.  It 
feeds  on  the  young  shoots  of  these  trees 
and  eats  its  way  into  the  heart,  thus 
converting  the  shoot  into  a  tube. 

PINE  MARTEN,  an  animal,  Mustela 
martes,  distributed  over  Europe  and 
Asia.  The  body  is  long  and  lithe,  about 
18  inches,  with  a  tail  two-thirds  that 
length;  legs  short,  paws  with  five  digits 


PINERO 


252 


PINKNEY 


armed  with  claws;  snout  sharp,  vibrissae 
long;  fur  dark  brown,  lighter  on  cheeks 
and  snout;  throat,  and  under  side  of 
neck  light-yellow.  It  is  arboreal,  and 
frequents  coniferous  woods,  whence  its 
popular  name.  The  female  makes  a  nest 
of  moss  and  leaves,  sometimes  occupy- 
ing those  of  squirrels  or  woodpeckers 
and  killing  the  rightful  owners. 

PINERO,  SIR  ARTHUR  WING,  an 

English  dramatist;  born  in  London,  May 
24,  1855.  A  lawyer's  son,  he  studied 
for  the  law,  then  became  an  actor,  and 
ultimately   left  the  stage  for   dramatic 


cotton,  and  silk  are  manufactured, 
about  13,000. 


Pop. 


ARTHUR  W.   PINERO 

authorship.  His  first  comedy,  "Two  Can 
Play  at  That  Game,"  was  produced  in 
1877,  and  was  followed  by  "Two  Hun- 
dred a  Year"  (1877);  "The  Money 
Spinner"  (1880);  "The  Magistrate" 
(1885);  "Dandy  Dick"  (1887);  "His 
House  in  Order"  (1906)  ;  "Thunderbolt" 
(1909);  "Mind  the  Paint  Girl"  (1912); 
etc. 

PINEROLO,  or  PIGNEROL  (province 
of  Turin)  a  town  of  North  Italy,  at  the 
E.  foot  of  the  Alps,  23  miles  S.  W.  of 
Turin.  From  1042  a  town  of  Savoy,  it 
was  till  1713  strongly  fortified,  having 
among  other  defenses  a  citadel,  in  which 
the  Man  with  the  Iron  Mask,  Lauzun, 
and  Fouquet  were  imprisoned.  This 
fortress  was  in  French  hands  from  1536 
to  1574,  again  from  1630  to  1696,  from 
1704  to  1706,  and  from  1801  to  1814. 
The  town  contains  a  cathedral  and  a 
technical   school.     Cloth,  paper,  leather, 


PINES,  ISLE  OF,  an  island  S.  of 
Cuba  belonging  to  that  country.  It  is 
about  40  miles  S.  E.  of  the  S.  coast 
of  the  province  of  Pinar  Del  Rio. 
Its  total  area  is  about  840  square  miles. 
The  production  of  fruits  is  the  principal 
industry,  although  there  is  extensive  cat- 
tle raising.  In  recent  years  large  num- 
bers of  people  from  the  United  States 
have  settled  on  the  island  and  tentative 
efforts  have  been  made  to  have  it  come 
into  possession  of  the  United  States. 
The  capital  is  Nueva  Gerona.  Pop. 
about  3,500. 

PING-PONG,  table  lawn  tennis,  a 
game  that  was  introduced  from  England 
and  became  very  popular  in  the  United 
States  in  1902.  The  game  is  played 
very  much  as  is  the  regular  game  of 
tennis.  Across  the  center  of  a  table  a 
net  about  six  inches  high  is  stretched; 
the  rackets  and  balls  are  proportionately 
small,  the  former  being  strung  with  fine 
gut,  or  formed  from  a  single  piece  of 
vellum  stretched  tightly  over  a  racket 
frame;  and  the  latter  being  made  of 
celluloid.  The  scoring  is  the  same  as 
in    tennis. 

PINGtriCULA,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Lentibulariacese,  with 
rosettes  of  fleshy  radical  leaves,  and  sol- 
itary purple,  violet,  or  yellow  flowers. 

PINK,  in  art,  a  class  of  pigments  of 
yellow  or  greenish-yellow  color,  prepared 
by  precipitating  vegetable  juices  on  a 
white  earth,  such  as  chalk,  alumina,  etc., 
and  used  only  in  water  colors.  The 
varieties  are  Italian  pink,  brown  pink, 
rose  pink,  and  Dutch  pink. 

In  botany,  the  genus  Dianthus,  of 
about  70  known  species.  The  majority 
are  cultivated  in  gardens;  specifically, 
Dianthus  plumarius,  the  garden  pink. 
Also  various  plants  superficially  resem- 
bling it  in  flowers;  thus,  the  cushion 
pink  is  Silene  acaulis,  the  moss  pink, 
Phlox  subulata. 

PINK-EYE,  a  highly  contagious  dis- 
ease in  horses. 

PINKIE,  a  battle  fought  on  Sept.  10, 
1547,  near  Musselburgh  in  Midlothian, 
Scotland,  between  14,000  English  under 
the  Protector  Somerset  and  twice  that 
number  of  Scotch.  The  latter  were  ut- 
terly defeated,  more  than  10,000,  it  is 
said,  being  killed  on  the  field  and  in  the 
pursuit,  while  the  English  loss  was 
barely  200. 

PINKNEY,  WILLIAM,  an  American 
diplomatist;  born  in  Annapolis,  Md., 
March    17,   1764;    was    admitted    to   the 


PINKROOT 

bar  in  1786;  was  a  member  of  the  Leg- 
islature of  his  State  that  ratified  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States.  In 
1796  Washington  appointed  him  a  com- 
missioner to  determine  the  claims  of 
American  merchants  to  compensation 
for  losses  and  damages  caused  by  the 
English  government.  In  1806  he  was 
sent  with  James  Monroe  to  treat  with 
the  English  government  regarding  viola- 
tions of  the  rights  of  neutrals  and  was 
resident  minister  in  London  in  1807- 
1811,  when  President  Madison  appointed 
him  attorney-general  of  the  United 
States.  In  1816  he  was  appointed  min- 
ister to  Russia  and  special  envoy  to 
Naples.  In  1820  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate.  He  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  Feb.  25,  1822. 

PINKROOT,  Spifjelia  marilandica,  a 
medicinal    herb    found    in    the     United 

States. 

PINNA,  a  genus  of  Aviculidse;  shell 
sometimes  two  feet  long,  equivalve;  um- 
bones  anterior,  posterior  side  truncated 
and  gaping;  hinge,  edentulous;  animal 
with  a  doubly  fringed  mantle  and  an 
elongated  grooved  foot;  shell  attached 
by  a  strong  byssus  spun  by  the  animal; 
sometimes  mixed  with  silk  and  woven 
into  gloves;  known  species,  recent,  30 
from  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
the    Mediterranean,   Australia,  etc. 

PINNACE,  a  man-of-war's  boat,  next 
in  size  to  the  launch;  it  is  carvel  built, 
usually  from  28  to  32  feet  long,  has  a 
beam  .29  to  .25  of  its  length,  and  is 
rowed  by  six  or  eight  oars.  Also,  a 
small  schooner-rigged  vessel  provided 
with  oars  or   sweeps. 

PINNACLE,  an  ornament  placed  on 
the  top  of  a  buttress  as  a  termination  to 
an  angle  or  gable  of  a  house,  church,  or 
tower;  any  lesser  structure  of  any  form 
rising  above  the  roof  of  a  building,  or 
capping  and  terminating  the  higher 
parts  of  other  buildings  or  of  buttresses. 
Pinnacles  are  frequently  decorated,  and 
have  the  shafts  formed  into  niches, 
paneled  or  plain. 

PINNATE,  a  botanical  term  meaning 
divided  into  several  or  many  smaller 
leaves  or  leaflets;  having  simple  leaflets 
arranged  on  both  sides  of  a  common 
petiole.  In  zoology,  a  term  meaning 
shaped  like  a  feather;  having  lateral 
processes.     Also,   provided   with   fins. 

PINNATED  GROUSE,  known  also  as 
the  prairie  hen,  or  prairie  chicken.  The 
male  is  remarkable  as  possessing  two 
erectile  tufts  in  the  nape,  and  an  air 
bladder  (connected  with  the  windpipe, 
and  capable  of  inflation)  on  each  side 
«f    the    neck,    in    color    and    shape    re- 

Vol.  VII — Cyc 


253  PINOCHLE 

sembling  small  oranges;  general  plum- 
age brown,  mottled  with  a  darker  shade; 
habitat,  prairies  of  the  Mississippi  val- 
ley, from   Louisiana   N. 

PINNIGRADA,  or  PINNIPEDIA,  a 
section  of  the  carnivorous  order  of  mam- 
mals, in  which  the  fore  and  hind  limbs 
are  short,  and  are  expanded  into  broad 
webbed  swimming  paddles.  The  section 
comprises  the  seals  and  walruses. 

PINOCLE,  PINOCHLE,  or  PE- 
NUCHLE,  a  game  of  cards  very  popular 
in  the  United  States,  particularly  among 
German-Americans.  The  object  of  the 
game,  which  may  be  joined  in  by  either 
two,  three,  or  four  persons,  is  to  secure 
1,000  points.  The  game  is  played  with 
two  full  packs  of  cards,  mixed,  from 
which  the  twos,  threes,  fours,  fives,  sixes, 
sevens,  and  eights  have  been  taken. 
This  is  the  schedule  of  "points"  or 
"melds": 

Eight  aces  count   1,000 

Eight  kings  count    800 

Eight  queens  count   600 

Eight  jacks  count    400 

Ace,    ten,    king,    queen,    and   jack   of   trumpg 

count     150 

Four  aces  of  different  suits  count 100 

Four  kings  of  different  suits  count _.  .  80 

Two  queens  of  spades  and  two  jacks  of  dia- 
monds  (double  pinochle)   count 80 

Four  queens  of  different  suits  count 60 

Four  jacks  of  different  suits  count 40 

Queen   of  spades  and  jack  of  diamonds   (pi- 
nochle)   count    40 

King  and  queen  of  trumps   (royal  marriage) 

count      40 

King   and  queen  of  a  suit  not  trumps    (mar- 
riage) count 20 

Nine  spot  of  trumps  counts    10 

The  relative  value  of  the  cards  is: 
Ace  counts  for  10  points,  10  spot  counts 
for  10  points,  king  for  five,  queen 
for  five.  The  last  trick  counts  10  points 
for  the  player  who  takes  it.  The  total 
points,  therefore,  of  the  cards  and  last 
trick  combined  amount  to  250.  Four- 
handed  pinochle  is  usually  played  two 
against  two  as  partners,  sitting  opposite 
one  another.  The  cards  are  all  dealt 
out,  four  at  a  time,  each  player  receiv- 
ing 12,  and  the  last  card  is  turned  up 
for  trump.  If  a  nine  is  turned  up  the 
dealer  is  credited  at  once  with  10  points; 
if  any  other  card  is  turned  up  either  of 
the  other  players  who  holds  a  nine  of 
trumps  may  exchange  it  for  the  trump 
card  and  claim  10  points,  the  player  sit- 
ting on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  dealer 
having  the  preference.  Each  player 
then  melds  whatever  he  has  in  his  hand 
and  the  partners  score  together.  The 
eldest  hand  then  leads  a  card  for  the 
first  trick.  In  every  trick  each  player 
must  follow  suit;  if  he  cannot  he  must 
trump;  if  neither  is  possible,  he  may 
play  any  card  he  pleases;  if  trump  is 
played,  he  must  beat  the  card  with  a 
higher  one,  if  possible;  the  player  who 

17 


PINSK 


254 


PIPE 


takes  the  trick  leads  for  the  next.  When 
either  side  reaches  1,000  points  the 
scorer  calls  "game,"  and  the  balance  of 
the  hands  are  void. 

PINSK,  a  town  of  west  Russia,  stand- 
ing in  the  midst  of  what  were  formerly 
vast  marshes  (in  large  part  drained 
since  1875),  on  a  branch  of  the  Pripet, 
98  miles  E.  of  Brest-Litovsk;  it  manu- 
factures leather,  and  has  a  large  transit 
trade.  Pop.  about  40,000.  It  was  cap- 
tured in  1915  by  the  Germans. 

PINT,  a  measure  of  capacity  used 
both  for  dry  and  liquid  measures.  It 
contains  34.65925  cubic  inches,  or  the 
eighth  part  of  a  gallon.  In  medicine  it 
is   equivalent  to   12   ounces. 

PINTAIL  DUCK,  a  species  of  Quer- 
quedula;  Q.  acuta,  or  Dafila  caudacuta, 
having  the  upper  parts  and  flanks  ash, 


PINTAIL   DUCK 

with  narrow  stripes  of  black;  under 
parts  white;  head  umber-brown;  tail 
pointed.  It  inhabits  the  N.  of  Europe 
and  America. 

PINTUBICCHIO  (pin-tu-rik'yo) 

("the  little  painter"),  an  Italian  painter 
of  the  Umbrian  school,  whose  real  name 
was  Bernardino  di  Betto;  born  in  Pe- 
rugia, Italy,  in  1454.  At  Rome  he  was 
engaged  on  the  frescoes  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  being  at  this  time  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Perugina.  His  chief  work 
was  a  series  of  mural  paintings  illus- 
trating the  life  of  Pope  Pius  II.  in  the 
cathedral  library  at  Siena.  There  are 
also  fine  frescoes  by  him  in  the  Buffalini 
Chapel  ^  of  the  Church  St.  Maria  in 
Aracceli,  Rome.  He  left  many  exquisite 
altar  pieces;  he  never  painted  in  oil.  He 
died  in  Siena,  Italy,  Sept.  11,  1513. 

PINZON,  ALONZO,  VINCENTE, 
YANEZ  and  MARTIN  (brothers),  Span- 
ish navigators,  who  had  commands  in 
Columbus'  first  voyage,  and  by  whose 
exertions  mainly  it  was  that  a  sufficient 
number   of   men   were   induced   to    risk 


their  lives  on  this  perilous  enterprise. 
Vincente  Yanez  was  the  more  distin- 
guished of  the  brothers;  he  made  several 
voyages,  on  the  most  important  of  which 
he  sailed  in  December,  1499,  and  discov- 
ered Brazil  and  the  river  Amazon,  three 
months  before  Cabral  took  possession  of 
South  America  for  the  crown  of  Por- 
tugal. 

PIOMBI,  the  notorious  roof  cells 
{sotto  piombi,  "under  the  leads")  of  the 
state  prisons  of  Venice,  in  which  Casa- 
nova and  many  other  notable  prisoners 
were  confined. 

PIONEER,  one  of  a  body  of  soldiers 
equipped  with  pickax,  spade,  etc.,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  clear  and  repair  roads, 
bridges,  etc.  Also,  one  who  goes  before 
to  prepare  or  clear  the  way,  or  remove 
obstructions  for  another,  especially  in 
the  settlement  of  a  new  region. 

PIOTRKOW,  a  town  of  Russian  Po- 
land, 87  miles  S.  W.  of  Warsaw.  Cotton 
and  wool  spinning  is  largely  prosecuted. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  Polish  towns;  here 
in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  diets  were 
held  and  the  kings  elected.  Pop.  about 
45,000.  The  place  was  captured  by  the 
Germans  in  1915. 

PIP,  a  disease  in  fowls,  consisting  in  a 
secretion  of  thick  mucus  from  the  tongue 
and  lining  membranes  of  the  mouth,  by 
which  the  nostrils  are  stuffed  and 
clogged. 

PIPA,  a  genus  of  Batrachian  reptiles, 
closely  allied  to  the  common  toad,  but 
distinguished  by  the  body  being  horizon- 
tally flattened,  the  head  large  and  tri- 
angular, tongue  wanting,  tympanum 
concealed  beneath  the  skin,  the  eyes 
small,  placed  near  the  margin  of  the 
upper  jaw.  The  best  known  species  is 
the^  Surinam  toad,  P.  Surinamensis, 
which  is  considerably  larger  than  the 
common  toad.  The  pipa  lays  its  eggs  in 
the  water,  after  which  they  are  collected 
by  the  male,  and  placed  on  the  back  of 
the  female,  the  skin  enlarging  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  inclose  the  eggs  in  cells; 
here  the  development  goes  on  till  the 
young  come  forth  as  perfectly  formed 
toads. 

PIPE,  a  long  hollow  body  or  tube, 
made  of  various  materials,  as  earthen- 
ware, iron,  lead,  copper,  glass,  etc.  The 
name  is  applied  especially  to  tubes  for 
the  conveyance  of  water,  gas,  steam,  and 
the  like.  Also  a  wind  instrument  of 
music,  consisting  of  a  tube  of  wood  or 
metal.  The  tubes  of  an  organ  are  called 
organ  pipes  or  pipes. 

Also,  a  running  vein  in  a  mine,  hav- 
ing a  rock  root  and  sole,  and  called  a 
pipe  vein. 


PIPE    CLAY 


255 


PIQUET 


PIPE  CLAY,  a  variety  of  clay 
adapted  by  its  plasticity  and  freedom 
from  impurities  for  the  manufacture  of 
pipes. 

PIPE  FISH,  a  popular  name  for  any 
individual  of  the  family  Syngnathidse. 
Siphonostoviata  typhle  is  the  broad- 
nosed  pipefish;  Nerophis  sequoreus,  the 
ocean  pipefish;  N.  lumhriciformis,  the 
worm,  or  little  pipefish;  and  N.  ophidion, 
the  straight-nosed  pipefish. 

PIPE  LINE,  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able of  modern  devices  for  lessening  the 
cost  of  transportation  of  petroleum. 
At  first  the  crude  oil  was  transported 
from  the  wells  to  the  refineries  on  barges 
and  flatboats.  Later,  railroads  obtained 
much  of  this  business.  About  1870 
wooden  tank  cars  were  displaced  by  cars 
with  tanks  constructed  of  boiler  iron. 
These  tank  cars  are  still  in  use  to  a 
large  extent.  The  practicability  of  a 
line  of  tubing  was  suggested  by  Gen.  S. 
D.  Kams  of  Parkersburg,  W.  Va.  In 
1872  a  Mr.  Hutchinson  laid  down  a 
short  line  of  pipe  on  the  siphon  principle 
from  the  Tarr  farm  to  the  first  refinery 
erected  in  the  oil  country  at  Plumer. 
In  1875  the  first  successful  pipe  line  was 
laid  by  Samuel  Van  Sycle  from  Pithole 
to  Miller's  farm.  Next  came  an  effort 
to  construct  a  pipe  line  from  the  wells  to 
the  seaboard,  and  in  1875  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Transportation  Company  was  au- 
thorized to  construct  a  pipe  line  from 
the  oil  regions  to  tide  water.  Generally,  to 
avoid  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  the 
pipes  are  buried  under  the  surface  of  the 
ground  about  two  feet.  They  are  laid 
on  a  bee  line,  and  follow  the  face  of  the 
country  to  tide  water.  The  pumping 
stations  are  located  at  central  points  in 
the  valleys  along  the  various  lines. 
Each  pipe  line  section  is  patrolled  by 
a  lineman,  and  the  smallest  leakages  are 
quickly  detected  and  righted.  To  re- 
move sediment  and  other  deposits  an 
automatic  scraper  is  introduced  into  the 
pipes,  the  oil  pressure  forcing  the  scrap- 
er along  from  one  station  to  the  next, 
the  sound  of  its  travel  being  thoroughly 
audible  to  the  lineman  who  follows  it 
in  its  passage. 

PIPING  CROW,  the  Gymnorhina  tibi- 
cen,  a  bird  from  New  South  Wales.  It 
has  great  powers  of  mimicry;  called  also 
the  flute  player.  Also  the  Gymnorhinnse, 
a  sub-family  of  Corvidx,  with  five  genera. 

PIPPIN,  a  name  given  to  several  va- 
rieties of  apples.  Normandy  pippins  are 
apples  dried  in  the  sun  and  stored  for 
winter  use. 

PIQUA,  a  city  of  Ohio  in  Miami  co., 
about  70  miles  N.  W.  of  Columbus. 
It  is  on  the  Miami  river,  the  Miami  and 


Erie  canal,  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton, 
and  Dayton,  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago,  and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Western 
Ohio  railroads.  Among  its  important 
edifices  are  a  library.  Federal  Building, 
and  Ball  Memorial  Hospital.  The  city 
has  important  industries  including  sheet 
steel  works,  iron  works,  stove  works, 
woolen  mills,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  13,388; 
(1920)    15,044. 

PIQUE,  a  French  material,  made  of 
two  cotton  threads,  one  thicker  than  the 
other,  which  are  woven,  and  united  at 
certain  points,  and  there  made  an  extra 
thickness. 

PIQUET,  a  game  of  cards  played  be- 
tween two  persons  with  32  cards — viz. 
the  four  honors  and  the  highest  four 
plain  cards  of  each  suit.  The  cards  are 
shuffled  and  cut  as  in  whist,  and  then 
dealt,  two  by  two,  till  each  player  has 
12,  and  the  remaining  eight,  called  the 
"talon,"  or  stock,  are  then  laid  on  the 
table.  The  first  player  must  then  dis- 
card from  one  to  five  of  his  cards,  replac- 
ing them  with  a  similar  number  from 
the  talon;  and  after  him  the  younger 
hand  may  discard  if  he  pleases,  similarly 
making  up  his  proper  number  from  the 
remaining  cards  of  the  talon.  The  play- 
er who  first  scores  100  wins  the  game, 
and  the  score  is  made  up  by  reckoning  in 
the  following  order:  carte-blanche,  the 
point,  the  sequence,  the  quatorze,  the 
cards,  and  the  capot.  "Carte-blanche" 
is  a  hand  of  12  plain  cards,  and  counts 
10  for  the  player  who  possesses  it.  The 
"point"  is  the  greatest  number  of  cards 
in  any  suit,  or,  if  the  players  are  equal 
in  this  respect,  that  which  is  highest  in 
value  (the  ace  counting  11,  each  court 
card  10,  and  the  plain  cards  according 
to  the  number  of  pips),  and  counts  a 
number  equal  to  the  number  of  cards  in 
the  suit.  The  "sequence"  is  a  regular 
succession  of  three  or  more  cards  in  one 
suit,  and  the  highest  sequence  (t.  e.,  the 
one  containing  the  greatest  number  of 
cards,  or,  if  the  players  have  sequences 
equal  in  this  respect,  the  one  of  the  two 
which  begins  with  the  highest  card),  if 
of  three  cards,  counts  three;  of  four 
cards,  four;  of  five  cards,  15;  of  six 
cards,  16;  etc.  The  "quatorze"  is  a  set  of  ^ 
four  equal  cards,  (not  lower  than  tens), 
as  four  aces,  four  queens,  etc.,  and  the 
highest  quatorze  counts  14  for  its  hold- 
er; but  should  neither  player  have  a 
quatorze,  then  the  highest  set  of  three 
is  counted  instead,  but  it  reckons  only 
three.  The  possessor  of  the  highest  se- 
quence or  _  the  _  highest  quatorze  also 
counts  all  inferior  sequences  and  qua-  ' 
torzes  (including  sets  of  three) ;  while 
his  opponent's  sequences  and  quatorzes 
go  for  nothing. 


PIRACY 


256 


PISA 


The  first  player  reckons  his  pointB  and 
plays  a  card;  the  dealer  then  reckons  his 
points,  and  follows  his  opponent's  lead, 
and  the  cards  are  laid  and  tricks  are 
taken  as  in  any  ordinary  card  game. 
Each  player  counts  one  for  every  card 
he  holds,  and  the  taker  of  the  trick  (if 
second  player)  counts  one  for  it;  the 
possessor  of  the  greater  number  of  tricks 
counting  10  in  addition  (the  "cards"), 
or  if  he  takes  all  the  tricks,  he  counts 
40  in  addition  (the  "capot").  If  one 
player  counts  30 — i.  e.,  29  by  his  va- 
rious points,  and  one  for  the  card  he 
leads,  before  his  adversary  has  counted 
anything,  he  at  once  doubles  his  score, 
reckoning  60  instead  of  30  (this  is  called 
the  "pique"),  and  should  his  score  reach 
30  before  he  plays  a  card,  or  his  adver- 
sary begins  to  count,  he  mounts  at  once 
to  90    (the  "repique"). 

PIRACY,  the  act,  practice,  or  crime 
of  robbing  on  the  high  seas.  Other  of- 
fenses have,  by  various  statutes,  been 
made  piracy,  and  liable  to  the  same  pen- 
alty. Thus  trading  with,  or  in  any  way 
aiding,  known  pirates,  is  piracy.  So, 
too,  any  commander  or  seaman  of  a  ship 
who  runs  away  with  any  ship,  boat, 
goods,  etc.,  or  who  voluntarily  delivers 
such  up  to  any  pirate,  is  guilty  of  piracy. 
Anyone  who  conveys  or  removes  any 
person  as  a  slave  is  also  by  statute  law 
of  most  civilized  nations  guilty  of  piracy. 
The  penalty  formerly  was  death,  whether 
the  guilty  party  were  a  principal,  or 
merely  implicated  as  an  accessory  be- 
fore or  after  the  fact,  but  now  is  re- 
duced to  imprisonment.  Also,  literary 
theft;  an  infringement  of  the  law  of 
copyright. 

PIR.aEUS,  called  also  Port  Draco,  the 
harbor  of  both  ancient  and  modern 
Athens.  Planned  by  Themistocles  and 
laid  out  by  Hippodamus  of  Miletus,  the 
Piraeus  was  built  in  the  glorious  days 
of  Pericles;  this  ruler  and  Cimon  before 
him  built  the  three  "long  walls"  that 
connected  Athens  with  its  port  (5  miles 
to  the  S.  W.)  and  so  insured  a  free  and 
safe  passage  from  one  to  the  other  at 
all  times.  Its  _  arsenal  (built  347-823 
B.  c.)  and  fortifications  were  destroyed 
by  Sulla  in  86  B.  c,  and  from  that  time 
the  town  sank  into  decay.  The  modern 
Piraeus,  which  has  grown  up  since  1834, 
is  regularly  laid  out  with  a  naval 
and  a  military  school,  arsenal  depots, 
and  manufactures  cottons,  flour,  paper, 
iron,  nails,  carts,  furniture,  etc.,  and 
is  growing  rapidly.  A  railway  connects 
it  with  Athens.  More  than  half  the 
trade  of  Greece  is  through  this  port, 
which  is  also  an  important  manufactur- 
ing center.    Pop.  about  75,000. 


PIRAI,  or  PIRAYA,  the  Serrasalmo 
Piraya,  a  voracious  fresh-water  fish  of 
tropical  America.  It  is  three  or  four 
feet  in  length,  and  its  jaws  are  armed 
with  sharp  lancet-shaped  teeth,  from 
which  cattle  when  fording  rivers  some- 
times sulfer  terribly. 

PIRANO,  a  city  of  Austria,  situated 
on  the  Bay  of  Largone.  It  is  in  the 
former  Crownland  of  Istria.  There  is 
a  castle,  dockyards,  and  the  city  before 
the  World  War  had  some  commercial 
importance.  Wine,  oil,  soa^  and  chemi- 
cal products  were  manufactured.  The 
salt  works  are  among  the  most  important 
in  Austria. 

PIRMASENS,  a  town  of  the  Bavarian 
Palatinate,  and  formerly  the  chief  town 
of  the  county  of  Hanau-Lichtenberg,  34 
miles  W.  of  Landau;  chief  manufactures, 
shoes  and  musical  instruments.  Close 
by,  the  Prussians  under  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick  defeated  the  French  com- 
manded by  Moreau  on  Sept.  14,  1793. 
Pop.  about  40,000. 

PIRN  A,  a  town  of  Saxony;  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Elbe,  11  miles  S.  E.  of  Dres- 
den. It  contains  a  fine  16th  century 
church;  a  castle  (1573),  used  as  a  luna- 
tic asylum  since  1811,  and  manufactures 
of  glass,  chemicals,  tobacco,  stoves,  etc. 
Eight  thousand  men  are  employed  in 
the  sandstone  quarries.  Pop.  about  20,- 
000. 

PIROT,  a  town  of  Servia,  situated  on 
the  railroad  from  Belgrade  to  Sofia,  near 
the  Bulgarian  frontier.  Near  the  be- 
ginning of  the  World  War  the  town 
was  captured  by  an  Austro-Germanic 
force.     Pop.  about  10,000. 

PIRRIE,  WILLIAM  JAMES, 
BARON,  an  Irish  shipbuilder.  He  was 
born  in  Quebec  in  1847,  and  studied 
there  and  at  Glasgow,  becoming  drafts- 
man with  Harland  and  Wolff  at  Bel- 
fast, pf  which  he  became  head.  Some  of 
the  biggest  ships  in  the  world  have  been 
turned  out  there,  among  them  the 
White  Star  liners  "Oceanic,"  "Olympic," 
"Titanic."  He  was  Lord  Mayor  of  Bel- 
fast in  1896.  He  is  a  strong  supporter 
of  Irish  self-government  in  a  stronghold 
of  its  opponents.  In  1906  he  was  made 
baron  and  in  1910  a  member  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Patrick.  During  the  World 
War  he  turned  his  yard  over  for  the 
construction  of  warships. 

PISA,  a  city  of  central  Italy,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Pisa,  on  the  Arno,  8 
miles  from  its  mouth,  13  miles  N.  E.  of 
Leghorn,  and  50  miles  W.  of  Florence. 
The  walls  are  5  miles  in  circuit.  The 
Arno  flows  through  the  city,  and  is 
crossed  by  several  bridges,  the  principal 


PISA 


257 


PISA    UNIVERSITY 


one  being  of  fine  marble.  The  cathedral, 
with  its  attendant  buildings,  the  bap- 
tistery, the  cemetery,  and  the  belfry  is 
perhaps,  the  finest  specimen  that  exists 
of  the  style  of  building  called  by  the 
Italians  the  Gotico-Moresco.  The  most 
remarkable  buildings  in  Pisa  are  the 
Campo  Santo,  and  the  stately  belfry,  or 
campanile,  a  cylindrical  tower,  178  feet 
in  height,  constructed  of  successive  rows 
of  pillars,  chiefly  of  marble;  it  is  ex- 
tremely graceful  in  its  proportions;  but 
its  chief  peculiarity  consists  in  its  incli- 
nation about  14  feet  out  of  the  perpendic- 
ular, whence  it  is  commonly  called  the 
Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa.  The  University 
of  Pisa  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  Italy;  it 
has  56  professors  and  about  1,000  stu- 


PISA,  COUNCIL  OF,  a  church  council 
generally  included  in  those  called  ecu- 
menical, met  and  opened  in  Pisa  March 
25,  1409,  and  the  23d  and  last  session  of 
which  was  held  Aug.  7  following.  Its 
aim  was  to  end  the  schism  which  had 
divided  the  Western  Church  for  30  years; 
and  with  this  view  the  leading  cardinals, 
finding  that  neither  of  the  rival  Popes, 
Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict  XIII.,  would 
keep  their  promises  to  abdicate,  had  set 
aside  the  claims  of  both,  and  themselves 
convoked  a  general  council.  It  was  at- 
tended from  first  to  last  by  24  cardinals, 
4  patriarchs,  80  bishops,  102  proctors  of 
bishops,  87  abbots,  200  delegates  of  ab- 
bots, besides  many  generals  of  orders, 
doctors,  deputies  of  universities,  and  am- 


THE  BAPTISTERY,  PISA 


dents.  Galileo,  who  was  a  native  of 
Pisa,  was  formerly  one  of  the  professors. 
A  library,  botanical  garden,  a  cabinet  of 
natural  history,  and  an  observatory  are 
connected  with  the  university.  Pisa  is 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  shortly 
after  the  Trojan  War.  It  became  a 
Roman  colony  about  179  B.  c,  but  did 
not  attain  to  distinction  before  the  10th 
century,  when  it  became  the  leading  com- 
mercial republic  of  Italy.  During  the 
11th  century  it  maintained  its  superior- 
ity in  the  Mediterranean,  materially  as- 
sisting the  French  in  the  Crusades.  A 
war  with  Genoa  ended  in  the  ruin  of 
Pisa  in  1284.  The  city  afterward  be- 
came the  prey  of  various  factions,  till 
finally  united  to  Florence  in  1406.  Pop. 
about  70,000. 


bassadors.  After  the  rival  Popes  failed 
to  appear  in  obedience  to  its  summons, 
the  council  formally  tried  the  claims  of 
both  in  turn,  and  deposed  them  as  schis- 
matics and  heretics.  The  cardinals  then 
formed  themselves  into  conclave  and 
elected  Cardinal  Philargi,  who  assumed 
the  name  of  Alexander  V.  But  the  coun- 
cil, instead  of  getting  rid  of  the  con- 
tending Popes,  had  only  added  a  third, 
and  the  faithful  continued  to  be  dis- 
tracted in  their  allegiance  for  eight  years 
longer,  down  to  the  time  of  the  Council 
of  Constance. 

PISA,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  an  ancient 
university  located  at  Pisa,  Italy.  Found- 
ed in  1338  by  students  and  professors 
from  the  University  of  Bologna.     When 


PISAGUA                           258  PISISTBATUS 

Pisa  lost   its  independence   in   1406  the  PISCATAQTJA,  a  river  which  consti- 

university   closed  its  doors,  but  was  re-  tutes    part    of    the    boundary    between 

established  by  the  famous   Lorenzo  de'  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  and  forms 

Medici  a  few  years  later.     In  1544  the  at    its    mouth   the    excellent    harbor    of 

first  botanical   institute  in   Europe  was  Portsmouth. 

founded   here      The   University  suffex-ed  pigCES,  in  astronomy,  the  12th  and 

m   prestige   durmg  the  two   succeeding  ^^^^    ^^   ^^^    zodiacal    constellations.     It 

centuries  and  not  until  Grand  Duke  Leo-  j     ^  j^^       constellation,  bounded  on  the 

pold    of    Tuscany    m    1808    endowed    it  ^    ^     ^^.^^  ^^^  Triangulum,  on  the  W. 

handsomely  did  it  recover.     During  the  ^y  Aquarius  and  Pegafus,  on  the  N.  by 

reaction    in    1849-1850   in    Italy   it   was  /^dromeda,    and   on   the    S.    by    Cetus. 

forced  to  close  down  some  of  its  depart-  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  represented  on  celes- 

ments,  but  since  that  time  it  has  been  ^.^^  ^^^        ^^             ^     separated  some 

reckoned  among  the  greatest  of  Italian  distance  from  each  other,  and  as  having 

f.Tn,^f  Wn      9no  J7«  JJl.r.! .    ^7^09  tl^eir  tails  connected  by   a  string.     One 

nSlks  ^IBlf  ma^uscS^  ^^  "^der  the  right  arm  of   And?omeda, 

pamphlets  and   l,bl4  manuscripts.  ^^^   ^^j^^^   ^^^^^  ^^^   ^j^^   ^^    Pegasus. 

PISAGUA,   a   small  port  of  the   now  About  40  stars  are  visible  to  the  naked 

Chilean  province  of  Tarapaca,  40  miles  eye.     Bode  marks  the  position   of  257; 

N.   of  Iquique.     It  was  bombarded  and  the  largest.  Alpha  Piscium,  is  of  magni- 

was  the  scene  of  much  fighting  during  tude  31/2,  and  is  a  double  star,  one  con- 

the   Chilean  civil  war  in  1891.  stituent  being  pale  green  and  the  other 

blue.     Also   the    portion   of   the    ecliptic 

PISANO,  the  surname  of  several  dis-  from  which  precession  has  made  the  con- 

tinguished   artists  of   Pisa,  very  impor-  stellation   move   away.     The    sun   enters 

tant  in  the  early  history  of  art  in  Italy,  it,    crossing  the   equator,   at  the   vernal 

GiUNTA  PiSANO,  or  GiUNTA  Di  GiusTiNO  equinox. 

of   Pisa,   is   the   earliest  known   Tuscan  ^                                  „         „           p 

painter,     lived     in     the     13th     century.  f^^^^^"^^^"^^'     ^^®     *^^^     *""^" 

Giunta  was  anterior  to  Cimabue,  and  to  t^^^* 

him  belongs  the  merit  of  reviving  paint-  PISGAH,  a  name  that  seems  to  have 
ing  in  Italy.  NiccoLA  Pisano,  born  applied  generally  to  the  mountain  range 
about  1206.  He  was  equally  distin-  or  district  to  the  E.  of  the  Lower  Jor- 
guished  as  sculptor  and  architect,  and  dan,  identical  with,  or  itself  a  part  of, 
must  hold  the  same  rank  in  the  former  the  mountains  of  Abarrim  (Deut.  xxxii: 
art  that  Giunta  does  in  painting.  He  49;  xxxiv:  1),  one  of  the  summits  of 
distinguished  himself  as  early  as  1225  which  is  Mount  Nebo  (the  modern 
at  Bologna,  where  he  executed  the  tomb  Neba),  2,644  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
of  San  Domenico.  Niccola  was  also  a  Mediterranean.  From  this  point  Moses 
great  architect;  he  executed  the  church  enjoyed  his  glimpse  of  the  Promised 
of  the  Frari  at  Venice;  he  was  the  pi-  Land,  in  early  spring, 
oneer  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  in  —^c,„^-^  j-  4.  •  4.  j?  4.1,  a  4? 
sculpture  and  in  architecture.  He  died  x,^^?,?^^'/^..?'?'^*/^;,.'^*^^  f^ 
in  1278.  Giovanni  Pisano,  the  son  and  fe''*^^,  (British  Beluchistan  after  the 
assistant  of  Niccola,  and  likewise  one  Afghan  War),  just  N.  of  Quetta  which 
of  the  greatest  of  the  early  sculptors  and  has  been  governed  by  a  political  agent 
architectsof  Italy;  born  ii  Pisa  in  1240,  ^^  *^«  rfr^^T?°.^f"^r''''^^  of  1".?^  since 
died  in  Pisa  in  1320,  and  was  placed  in  ^^^\  J^"^  ^"V^  occupied  it  on  ac- 
the  same  tomb  with  his  father  in  the  count  of  its  great  strategical  importance ; 
cemetery  of  Campo  Santo,  which  he  de-  '*  's  the  meeting-place  of  several  roads, 
signed.  Andrea  Pisano  was  another  PT^acticable  .for  troops  but  ^ot  for 
early  artist  of  Pisa,  but  nearly  a  century  wheeled  carnages,  leading  from  Smd  and 
later  than  Giunta:  he  was  a  sculptor  and  ^''''^^^  J^  Kandahar.  The  district- 
architect,  and  the  friend  of  Giotto  An-  ^''^^'-  ?'^°?  "Ij^^'-'  ,^^^^f  ^«^'  5,000  feet- 
drea  was  born  about  1270.  Of  several  consists  of  alluvial  valleys  separated  by 
works  still  extant  by  Andrea,  the  ^^!JS^  ^^  ^'^J^  1^^  ^^^'°^!  sloping  S.  W 
bronze  gates  of  the  Baptistery  of  St.  ^""^  ^'"^''"''^/^Q^yi  iTrllT^f '""/^t^"  ^  !l 
John  at  Florence  are  the  most  impor-  ^^^^^  N  and  S  11,000  feet.  The  peo- 
tant.  These  two  gates  are  still  perfect;  P^^'  P^^?^  ,^^"^^<^'  Partly  nomad,  grow 
the  exact  date  of  their  execution  is  dis-  ^^f^^'  J^^^^^'  ^'^^^'l;  "f'"^*'  ^^T^'P 
puted,   whether    they    were    finished    in  watermelons,  and  muskmelons,  and  trade 

1330,  or  only  commenced   in  that  year  ^"  ^^^'^^  *^  ^"<^'^'     ^^P'  ^^^"^  ^^^'^^^• 

The  city  gates  and  towers  were  also  of  PISISTBATUS,   a   citizen  of   Athens 

his  designing,  as  well  as  several  impor-  who  raised  himself  to  the  sovereign  au- 

tant  buildings.     He  died  in  Florence,  in  thority  in  the  time  of  Solon    (to  whom 

1349.  he  was  related)  560  B.  c.     Compelled  to 


PISO 


259 


PITCAIRN    ISLAND 


retire  from  the  city  by  the  conspiracy 
of  Magacles  and  Lycurgus,  he  returned 
soon  after  by  effecting  a  compromise,  but 
was  obliged  to  retire  again,  and  suffer 
an  exile  of  11  years.  In  the  11th  year 
he  reappeared  at  the  head  of  an  army 
and  regained  his  power,  which  he  re- 
tained till  his  death,  527  B.  c.  He  was 
a  beneficent  ruler,  and  did  much  to  pro- 
mote the  rise  of  Greek  literature.  We 
owe  to  him  the  poems  of  Homer  in  their 
present  form,  Pisistratus  having  col- 
lected them. 

PISO,  an  eminent  Roman  family, 
which  produced  some  great  men,  as: 
Piso,  Lucius  Calpurnis,  surnamed  Fru- 
galis,  on  account  of  his  frugality,  con- 
sul 149_  B.  c,  who  terminated  the  war 
with  Sicily.  He  composed  annals  and 
orations,  which  are  lost.  Piso,  Caius, 
consul  67  B.  c,  author  of  a  law  to  restrain 
the  factions  which  usually  attend  the  elec- 
tion of  the  chief  magistrates.  PiSO, 
Cneius,  consul  under  Augustus,  and  gov- 
ernor of  Syria  under  Tiberius,  in  which 
situation  he  behaved  with  great  cruelty. 
He  was  charged  with  poisoning  Germani- 
cus;  on  which  account  he  destroyed  him- 
self, A.  D.  20.  Piso,  Lucius,  a  senator, 
who  attended  the  Emperor  Valerian  into 
Persia  in  258.  On  the  death  of  that  em- 
peror he  assumed  the  imperial  title;  but 
was  defeated  by  Valens,  who  put  him  to 
death  in  261. 

PISTACIO  NUT,  the  fruit  of  the  pis- 
tacia  vera.  The  kernel  is  very  oily,  of 
a  peculiar  flavor  and  bright  green  in 
color,  and  is  much  used  in  confections, 
etc. 

PISTIL,  the  female  organ  in  plants, 
standing  in  the  middle  of  the  stamens, 
around  which  again  $tand  the  floral  en- 
velopes. 

PISTILLIDIUM,  a  name  given  to  cer- 
tain small,  sessile,  ovate  bodies  in  the 
fructification  of  mosses,  enveloped  in  a 
membrane  tapering  upward  into  a  point. 
When  abortive  they  are  called  para- 
physes. 

PISTOIA,  or  PISTOJA  (ancient  Pis- 
toria),  a  town  of  Italy;  20  miles  N.  W. 
of  Florence,  on  a  spur  of  the  Apennines. 
Its^  streets  are  thoroughly  Tuscan,  and 
it  is  surrounded  with  walls,  pierced  by 
five  gates,  and  has  a  citadel.  The  chief 
buildings  are  the  cathedral  of  San 
Jacopo  (12th  and  13th  centuries),  con- 
taining a  magnificent  altar  of  silver 
(1286-1407)  and  several  good  pictures; 
the  church  of  St.  Bartholomew,  with  a 
fine  white  marble  pulpit  by  Guido  of 
Como  (1250)  ;  St.  Andrea,  with  Giovanni 
Pisano's  pulpit  (1301);  St.  John,  with 
a  font  by  Giovanni  Pisano  and  terra 
cottas  by  Andrea  della  Robbia;  the  14th 


century  communal  palace;  and  other 
palaces.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  iron  and  steel  wares,  and  firearms — 
the  word  "pistol"  in  all  probability  takes 
its  name  through  pistolese,  "a  dagger," 
from  Pistoia  (Pistola).  Here  Cataline 
was  defeated  in  62  B.  c.  The  town  was 
conquered  by  Florence  and  Lucca  in  1306. 
Pop.,  commune  about  70,000;  town, 
about  14,000. 

PISTOL.     See  Firearms. 

PISTOLE,  a  gold  coin  once  current  in 
Spain,  France,  and  the  neighboring 
countries;    average  value   about  $3.85. 

PISTON,  in  machinery,  a  device  so 
fitted  as  to  occupy  the  sectional  area 
of  a  tube  and  be  capable  of  reciproca- 
tion by  pressure  on  either  of  its  sides. 
It  may  be  of  any  shape  corresponding 
accurately  to  the  bore  of  the  tube;  but 
the  cylindrical  form  is  almost  exclu- 
sively employed  for  both,  as  in  the  com- 
mon pump  and  the  steam  engine.  One 
of  its  sides  is  fitted  to  a  rod,  to  which 
it  either  imparts  reciprocatory  motion,  as 
in  the  steam  engine,  or  by  which  it  is 
itself  reciprocated,  as  in  the  pump.  In 
the  former  case,  it  has  no  opening  lead- 
ing from  one  side  to  the  other,  and  is 
termed  solid,  though  generally  not  really 
so;  but  in  the  latter,  an  aperture  con- 
trolled by  a  valve  permits  the  passage 
of  the  fluid  from  one  side  to  the  other 
during  its  downward  movement;  except 
in  force  pumps.  A  distinction  is  made 
in  pumps;  the  solid  piston  being  known 
as  a  plunger;  the  hollow  piston  as  a 
bucket.  The  piston  usually  requires 
packing  to  cause  it  to  fit  closely  within 
its  cylinder  and  at  the  same  time  allow 
its  free  backward  and  forward  move- 
ment. 

PITA  FLAX,  flax  made  from  the  fiber 
of  the  Agave  Americana  (called  also 
maguey),  and  used  for  twine,  rope, 
hammock  meshes,  etc.  In  Mexico  it  is 
also  used  for  oakum.  Labillardiere 
found  that  its  strength  is  to  that  of 
common  flax  as  7  to  11%. 

PITCAIRN,  a  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Allegheny  co.  It  is  about  15 
miles  E.  of  Pittsburgh  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania railroad.  There  are  railroad 
shops  and  yards,  machine  shops  and 
foundries,  and  electrical  supply  works. 
There  are  important  coal  mines  in  the 
neighborhood.  Pop.  (1910)  4,975; 
(1920)   5,738. 

PITCAIRN  ISLAND,  a  solitary  is- 
land in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  between  Aus- 
tralia and  South  America,  in  lat.  25" 
3'  S.  and  Ion.  130°  8'  W.,  measures  21/2 
miles  by  1  mile.  It  was  discovered  by 
Carteret  in  1767,  and  was  at  that  time 
uninhabited.     In  1790  it  was  taken  pos- 


PITCH 


260 


PITCH 


session  of  by  nine  of  the  mutineers  of 
H.  M.  S.  "Bounty,"  with  six  Tahitian 
men  and  12  women,  the  ringleader  being 
called  Christian.  Four  years  later  the 
native  men  one  night  murdered  all  the 
Englishmen,  except  Alexander  Smith, 
who  afterward  assumed  the  name  of 
John  Adams.  Thereupon  the  women,  in 
revenge,  murdered  all  the  Tahitian  men. 
At  the  end  of  10  years  John  Adams  was 
left  alone,  vdth  eight  or  nine  women 
and  several  children;  and  from  them 
the  present  inhabitants  (126  in  1890) 
are  descended.  Adams,  changed  by 
these  tragic  adventures,  set  about  the 
education  of  his  companions  in  Chris- 
tian principles.  The  little  colony  was 
unknown  to  the  world  till  1808,  when  it 
was  "discovered"  by  Captain  Folger  of 
the  American  sealing  ship  "Topaz";  the 
first  British  vessel  to  visit  it  did  not 
arrive  till  1814.  The  islanders  were  vis- 
ited again  in  1825  and  1830,  and  in  1831, 
as  their  numbers  had  rapidly  increased 
(to  87),  they  were  at  their  own  request 
removed  to  Tahiti  by  the  British  Gov- 
ernment. But,  disgusted  by  the  unde- 
sirable customs  of  their  Tahitian  rela- 
tives, the  most  of  them  went  back  to 
Pitcairn  Island.  The  island  was  an- 
nexed to  Great  Britain  in  1839.  Nearly 
200  of  the  islanders  were  transferred  to 
Norfolk  Island  in  1856,  but  a  number  of 
them  afterward  returned.  Pitcairn  Is- 
land enjoys  a  lovely  climate;  its  moun- 
tainous surface  reaches  1,008  feet  in 
Outlook  Ridge;  the  soil  is  fertile,  and 
produces  yams,  cocoanuts,  bread  fruit, 
sweet  potatoes,  bananas,  etc.  Pop. 
(1914)  adults,  140  males,  39  females; 
children,  66. 

PITCH,  a  term  applied  to  a  variety  of 
resinous  substances  of  a  dark  color  and 
brilliant  luster,  obtained  from  the  va- 
rious kinds  of  tar  produced  in  the  de- 
structive distillation  of  wood,  coal,  etc. 
In  architecture,  the  rise  or  versed  sine 
of  an  arch.  In  carpentry,  the  inclina- 
tion of  a  roof.  The  common  pitch  has 
a  rafter  three-quarters  the  length  of 
the  span;  the  Gothic  has  a  full  pitch; 
the  rafters  being  the  length  of  the  span; 
the  Greek  has  a  pitch  %  to  ^  of  the  span ; 
the  Roman  has  a  pitch  from  %  to  %  of 
the  span;  and  the  Elizabethan  has  raf- 
ters longer  than  the  span. 

In  hydraulic  engineering,  in  overshot 
water  wheels  the  bucket-pitch  is  a  circu- 
lar line  passing  through  the  elbows  of 
the  buckets.  The  elbow  is  the  junction 
of  the  floor  and  the  arm,  which  together 
form  the  bucket.  In  machinery:  (1) 
the  distance  between  the  threads  of  a 
screw  measured  on  a  line  parallel  to  the 
axis.  (2)  The  distance  between  the 
centers  of  two  adjacent  teeth  in  a  cog- 


wheel, measured  on  the  pitch  circle. 
(3)  The  pitch  of  a  rivet  is  the  distance 
apart  from  center  to  center.  (4)  The 
distance  between  the  stays  of  marine 
and  other  steam  boilers.  In  marine 
boilers  it  is  usually  from  12  to  18 
inches.     In  mining,  a  lode  or  portion  of 


SIR  ISAAC  PITMAN 

a  lode  let  out  to  men  to  work  by  the 
piece  or  by  a  percentage  of  the  output. 
In  music,  musical  sounds  give  to  the 
mind  a  feeling  of  acuteness  or  gravity 
according  to  the  rapidity  or  slowness  of 
the  vibrations  producing  them;  hence, 
the  former  are  called  acute  or  high,  the 
latter  grave  or  low.  The  absolute  pitch 
of  sounds  is  measured  by  giving  the 
number  of  vibrations  per  second  which 
produces  a  given  sound,  e.  g.,  C  =  528; 
the  relative  pitch  of  sounds  is  described 
by  giving  the  ratio  of  vibrations  of  the 
interval,  e.  g.,  a  fifth  is  2:3 — that  is,  the 
higher  sound  of  any  interval  of  a  fifth 
gives  three  vibrations,  while  the  lower 
sound  in  the  same  time  gives  two.  The 
determination  of  fixed  pitch  is  purely 
arbitrary,  and  it  has  from  time  to  time 
undergone  great  variations.  In  England 
we  have  high  concert  pitch  C  =  about 
540,  more  or  less,  and  the  medium  pitch 
C  =  528 ;  on  the  Continent  the  French 
"diapason  normal,"  C  =  518,  is  being 
largely  adopted.  The  official  standard 
adopted  in  the  United  States  during  the 
world's  fair  was  what  is  known  as  inter- 
national or  "French"  pitch,  which  gives 
as  a  standard  middle  A  with  435  vibra- 
tions, though  the  majority  of  American 


PITCH    BLENDE 


261 


PITT 


upright  pianos  are  tuned  to  high  concert 
pitch. 

In  planes,  the  slant  of  a  plane  bit  in 
its  stock.  In  printing,  one  of  the  guide 
pins,  which,  in  floor-cloth  printing,  an- 
swers the  purpose  of  the  register  points. 
In  shipbuilding:  (1)  The  pitch  of  the 
paddles  is  the  distance  between  them, 
measured  on  the  circle  which  passes 
through  their  centers.  It  is  commonly 
from  1.6  to  double  their  depth.  (2)  The 
pitch  of  a  propeller-screw  is  the  length, 
measured  along  the  axis,  of  a  complete 
turn.  A  gaining-pitch  is  one  in  which 
the  pitch  gradually  increases  from  the 
leading  to  the  following  edge. 

PITCH  BLENDE,  a  mineral  chiefly 
found  in  Saxony  and  Cornwall,  composed 
of  86.5  oxide  of  uranium,  2.5  black  oxide 
or  iron,  galena,  and  silex.  In  color  it 
varies  from  brown  to  black,  and  occurs 
globular,  reniform,  massive,  disseminat- 
ed, and  pulverulent.  Sp.  gr.  7.5.  It  gen- 
erally accompanies  uranite.  Radium  is 
extracted  from  it. 

PITH,  the  cylindrical  or  angular  col- 
umn of  cellular  tissues  at  or  near  the 
center  of  the  stem  of  a  plant,  also  called 
the  medulla.  When  examined  micro- 
scopically it  presents  in  section  a  union 
of  cells  resembling  those  of  a  honey- 
comb, of  which  a  good  example  is  af- 
forded by  Chinese  rice  paper,  the  pith 
of  the  Aralia  papyHfera. 

PITHECANTHROPUS        ERECTUS, 

the  name  given  to  the  fossil  remains  of 
a  prehistoric  animal  found  in  Java,  and 
which  represent  a  form  intermediate  be- 
tween man  and  the  higher  apes. 

PITMAN,  BENN,  an  American  pho- 
nographer,  born  in  Trowbridge,  England, 
July  24,  1822;  brother  of  Sir  Isaac  Pit- 
man, the  inventor  of  phonography;  was 
educated  in  his  brother's  academy;  lec- 
tured and  taught  phonography  through- 
out Great  Britain  for  10  years.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1853,  and 
founded  the  Phonographic  Institute  in 
Cincinnati;  invented  the  electro-process 
f  relief  engraving  in  1856;  was  mili- 
tary recorder  of  State  trials  during  the 
Civil  War.  His  works  include  "Manual 
of  Phonography";  "History  of  Short- 
hand"; and  "Phonographic  Dictionary." 
He  died  in  1910. 

PITMAN,  SIR  ISAAC,  an  English 
stenographer;  born  in  Trowbridge,  Eng- 
land, Jan.  4,  1813.  He  was  master  of 
the  British  School  of  Barton-on-Humber 
in  1831,  established  the  school  at  Wotton- 
under-Edge  in  1836  and  removed  to  Bath 
in  1839.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the 
phonetic  system  of  short-hand  writing 
and  published  his  first  treatise  on  the 


subject  entitled  "Stenographic  Sound- 
hand,"  in  1837;  "Phonography"  (8th 
edition,  1840) ;  and  "Phonographic  Re- 
porter's Companion"  (1853).  He  was 
the  head  of  the  Phonetic  institute  at 
Bath,  and  was  identified  with  the  spell- 
ing reform.  He  was  knighted  in  1894, 
and  died  Jan.  22,  1897. 

PITNEY,  MAHLON,  a  Justice  of  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court.  Born  at 
Morristown,  N.  J.,  1858,  and  graduated 
from  Princeton  in  the  class  of  '79.  Af- 
ter that  date  he  practiced  law  at  Mor- 
ristown, and  from  1896-1899  served  in 
Congi'ess  as  a  Republican  representative. 
From  1901  to  1908  he  was  associate  jus- 
tice of  the  Supreme  Court  of  New  Jer- 
sey, and  in  1909  became  Chancellor  of 
the  State.  President  Taft  appointed 
Pitney  to  the  Supreme  Court,  Mar.  13, 
1912. 

PITT,  WILLIAM.      See  CHATHAM. 

PITT,  WILLIAM,  an  English  states- 
man; born  in  Hayes,  England,  May  28, 
1759;  second  son  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham; 
was  educated  at  Cambridge  University; 
studied  law  and  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1780.  He  was  as  strongly  op- 
posed to  the  American  War  as  was  his 


WILLIAM  PITT 

father.  In  1783  he  became  prime  min- 
ister; was  active  in  the  negotiations  of 
peace  with  the  United  States,  and  was 
instrumental  in  the  passage  of  many 
important  measures.  Retiring  in  1801, 
he  was  recalled  to  office  when  the  Peace 
of  Amiens  was  broken  and  war  with  Na- 
poleon again  brought  on.    Through  his 


PITTACUS 


262 


PITTSBURGH 


public  career  he  was  noted  as  a  parlia- 
mentary leader  and  orator.  He  died  in 
Putney,  England,  Jan.  23,  1806. 

PITTACUS,  one  of  the  seven  sages  of 
Greece ;  born  in  Mitylene,  in  the  island  of 
Lesbos,  about  650  B.  C.  He  was  a  war- 
rior as  well  as  a  philosopher,  expelled 
the  tyrant  Melantheus  from  Lesbos;  and 
on  becoming  its  sovereign,  590  B.  C,  dis- 
charged the  duties  of  his  station  in  the 
most  exemplary  manner;  retired  after 
a  reign  of  10  years,  and  died  570  B.  C. 

PITTMAN,  KEY,  United  States  Sen- 
ator from  Nevada.  Born  at  Vicksburg, 
Miss.,  1872  and  began  the  practice  of 
law  in  Seattle,  Wash.,  at  twenty  years  of 
age.  When  the  search  for  gold  occurred 
in  the  Klondike  region  he  joined  in  the 
movement  and  worked  for  two  years 
as  a  miner.  During  this  period  he 
fought  the  corrupt  governments  estab- 
lished in  many  Alaskan  towns  and 
fought  for  the  miners  in  the  courts 
against  attempts  to  defraud  them  of 
their  rights.  In  1901  he  removed  to 
Tonopah,  Nev.  In  January,  1913,  he 
was  elected  as  a  Democrat  to  the  United 
States  Senate  and  re-elected  1917. 

PITTSBURG,  a  city  of  Kansas  in 
Crawford  co.,  about  130  miles  S.  of 
Kansas  City.  It  is  on  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  the  Missouri  Pa- 
cific, the  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco, 
the  Joplin  and  Pittsburg,  and  the  Kansas 
City  Southern  railroads.  The  city  is  in 
an  extensive  coal  mining  region.  Among 
its  industries  are  foundry  and  machine 
shops,  lumber  mills,  packing  houses,  etc. 
There  is  a  public  library,  a  State  normal 
manual  training  school.  Pop.  (1910) 
14,755;    (1920)    18,052. 

PITTSBURGH,  a  city,  port  of  entry, 
and  county-seat  of  Allegheny  co.,  Pa.,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Monongahela  and 
the  Allegheny  rivers,  at  the  head  of 
the  Ohio  river,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania 
System,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the 
New  York  Central,  the  Wabash,  and 
other  railroads;  353  miles  W.  of  Phila- 
delphia; area,  41.61  square  miles;  pop. 
(1890)  238,617;  (1900)  321,616;  (1910) 
533,905;   (1920)  588,343. 

Municipal  Improvements. — The  city 
owns  a  waterworks  system,  costing  over 
$7,000,000.  The  filtration  plants  have 
a  storage  capacity  of  230,000,000  gal- 
lons, and  the  water  is  distributed 
through  nearly  750  miles  of  mains. 
There  are  in  all  about  1,000  miles  of 
streets  paved.  The  sewer  system  cov- 
ers 650  miles.  There  are  over  500  miles 
of   street  railways. 

Notable  Buildings. — The  principal  pub- 
lic  buildings    are   the    Allegheny    court 


house;  the  Carnegie  Foundation,  includ- 
ing the  Carnegie  Institute,  Museum  of 
Art  and  Science,  the  Allegheny  county 
court  house,  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  and 
many  other  churches;  Masonic  Temple; 
Eighteenth  Regiment  Armory;  and  the 
Pittsburgh  Athletic  Club.  There  are 
also  many  fi.ne  business  edifices,  hotels 
and  theaters;  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Mines. 

Manufacttires.— The  two  chief  indus- 
tries are  the  production  of  iron  and  steel; 
but  there  are  many  other  flourishing 
manufactures.  The  city  is  well  known 
as  the  Iron  City,  for  there  is  nothing  in 
the  iron  industry  which  is  not  here 
manufactured,  including  locomotives, 
bridges,  shafting,  brakes,  all  sizes  of 
nails,  and  the  most  delicate  watch 
springs.  There  are  in  Pittsburgh  beside 
blast  furnaces  and  iron  and  steel  works 
over  2,500  manufacturing  establishments, 
employing  more  than  75,000  persons. 
The  most  important  manufacture  next  to 
iron  products  is  glass  in  many  varieties. 
There  are  also  large  tanneries,  and  man- 
ufactories of  steel  cars,  paper  bags,  car- 
bon points,  boots  and  shoes,  white  lead, 
etc.  The  lumber  and  pork-packing  in- 
dustries are  very  large. 

Banks. — On  Sept.  1,  1919,  there  were 
22  National  banks  in  operation,  as  well 
as  many  private  banks  and  trust 
companies. 

Education. — At  the  close  of  the  school 
year  1919  there  were  over  80,000  chil- 
dren enrolled  in  the  public  day  schools. 
There  is  also  an  excellent  system  of  night 
schools,  kindergartens,  and  manual 
training  schools,  and  many_  private 
schools.  The  institutions  for  higher  ed- 
ucation include  University  of  Pitts- 
burgh, Western  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Duquesne  University,  Pittsburgh 
Academy,  Pittsburgh  Female  College; 
School  of  Design  for  Women,  Pennsyl- 
vania College  for  Women,  Carnegie  In- 
stitute of  Technology,  several  theological 
seminaries,  several  commercial  colleges, 
Bishop  Bowman  Institute,  Ursuline 
Academy,  Convent  of  the  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  and  county  and  city  medical 
schools. 

Churches  and  Charitable  Institu- 
tions.— There  are  over  250  churches  in 
Pittsburgh.  The  most  important  of 
these  are  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Trinity 
(P.  E.),  St.  Peter's  (P.  E.),  First  Pres- 
byterian, United  Evangelical  ((German), 
First  Baptist,  English  Evangelical,  etc. 
Among  the  charitable  institutions  are 
the  Western  Pennsylvania,  City  General, 
the  Homeopathic,  the  Mercy,  St.  Francis, 
Passavant's,  St.  Margaret  Memorial,  and 
East  End  Charity  Hospitals;  Roman 
Catholic  Orphan  Asylum,  Convent  of  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  Western  State  Institu- 


PITTSBURGH    UNIVERSITY       263 


PIUS 


tion  for  the  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind, 
Home  for  Incurables,  etc. 

Finances. — In  1919  the  total  bonded 
debt  of  the  city  was  $35,199,093,  less 
sinking  fund.  The  assessed  valuation 
in  1919  was  real  estate  $806,020,730,  and 
tax  rate  $1.33  per  hundred. 

History. — In  1754,  at  the  suggestion 
of  George  Washington  the  English  began 
to  erect  a  blockhouse  on  the  present 
site  of  the  city.  They  were,  however, 
driven  away  by  the  French,  who  built 
a  fort  at  the  junction  of  the  two  rivers 
and  named  it  Du  Quesne.  In  1758,  af- 
ter two  unsuccessful  attempts  to  retake 
the  place,  the  English  under  General 
Forbes  made  a  third  attempt,  and  the 
French  burned  and  evacuated  the  fort. 
In  the  following  year  another  fort  was 
erected  here,  named  in  honor  of  William 
Pitt.  Shortly  after  a  village  was  es- 
tablished by  some  English  and  Scotch 
settlers.  The  British  withdrew  from  the 
post  in  1772,  and  it  was  held  by  Virginia 
in  1775-1779.  The  place  was  incorpor- 
ated as  a  city  March  18,  1816. 

PITTSBURGH,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a 
non-sectarian  educational  institution, 
founded  in  1819  as  the  Western  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  under  which  name 
it  was  known  until  1908.  The  enroll- 
ment of  students  in  1919  was  4,191,  and 
the  faculty  numbered  461.  The  produc- 
tive funds  in  1919  were  $570,000  and  the 
income  amounted  to  $700,000.  The  li- 
brary contained  about  35,000  volumes. 
The  chancellor  was  Samuel  Black  Mc- 
Cormick,   D.D.,   LL.D. 

PITTSFIELD,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Berkshire  co.,  Mass.;  on  the  Housa- 
tonic  river,  and  on  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  and  the  Boston  and 
Albany  railroads;  52  miles  W.  of  Spring- 
field. The  city  comprises  about  a  dozen 
villages.  Here  are  a  high  school,  pri- 
vate schools,  the  Berkshire  Athenaeum 
with  art  gallery  and  public  library. 
House  of  Mercy  Hospital,  Berkshire 
County  Home  for  Aged  Women,  Bishop 
Memorial  Training  School  for  Nurses, 
Berkshire  Agricultural  Society,  church- 
es, public  schools,  street  railroads, 
electric  lights.  National  and  savings 
banks,  and  several  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers.  The  city  has  manufac- 
tories of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  silk, 
knit  goods,  shirts,  shoes,  pianos,  paper 
making  machinery,  overalls,  paper, 
machinery,  brick,  electric  machinery, 
shuttles  and  bobbins,  and  brass  castings. 
Pop.   (1910)   32,121;   (1920)  41,534. 

PITTSTON,  a  city  in  Luzerne  co..  Pa., 
on  the  Susquehanna  river,  and  on  the 
Lehigh  Valley,  the  Lackawanna  and 
Wyoming  Valley,  the  Lackawanna  and 
other  railroads;'  9  miles  S.  W.  of  Scran- 


ton.  Here  are  waterworks,  Ras  and 
electric  lights,  several  banks,  and  a  num- 
ber of  daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  It 
is  chiefly  a  mining  town,  though  there 
are  several  manufacturing  industries,  in- 
cluding a  knitting  mill,  a  silk  mill,  foun- 
dries and  stove,  car- wheel,  engine,  and 
iron  roofing  works.  The  city  was  set- 
tled about  1770,  was  incorporated  as  a 
borough  in  1853,  and  became  a  city  of 
the  third  class  in  1894.  Pittston  has  an 
assessed  property  valuation  of  nearly 
$1,500,000.  Pop.  (1910)  16,267;  (1920) 
18,497. 

PITUITARY  BODY,  a  small  reddish- 
gray  mass  divided  into  an  anterior  and 
a  posterior  lobe,  and  occupying  the  sella 
turcica  of  the  sphenoid  bone.  Formerly 
called  the  pituitary  gland,  from  the  er- 
roneous belief  that  it  discharged  mucus 
into  the  nostrils. 

PIT  VILLAGES,  collections  of  earth 
caves  dug  in  the  ground  and  covered 
with  stones,  wooden  or  wattle  lids,  or 
clay  or  sods  of  turf.  They  were  used 
by  prehistoric  races  or  by  races  at  the 
lowest  stages  of  barbarism.  The  pits 
are  oval  or  pear-shaped,  varying  be- 
tween 22  and  42  feet  in  length  and  from 
five  feet  high. 

PIURA,  a  department  of  Peru  with 
an  area  of  14,834  square  miles.  While 
the  eastern  part  is  mountainous  with 
valleys  of  considerable  fertility,  the 
western  portion  is  chiefly  desert  land. 
Cotton  is  grown  to  some  extent  and  min- 
erals are  found.  The  capital  is  the  city 
of  the  same  name.  Pop.,  department, 
about   200,000;    city,  about   15,000. 

PIUS,  the  name  of  a  number  of  Popes, 

as  follows: 

Pius  I.,  succeeded  Hyginus  in  142,  and 
died  in  157. 

Pius  II.  (^neas  Sylvani  Piccolo- 
mini);  born  in  Tuscany  in  1405,  of  an 
ancient  and  illustrious  family.  In  1431 
he  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Basel  as 
secretary;  was  afterward  secretary  to 
the  anti-Pope  Felix  V.,  and  then  to  the 
Emperor  Frederick  III.  Eugenius  IV. 
chose  him  for  apostolic  secretary,  Nich- 
olas V.  made  him  a  bishop,  and  sent  him 
as  nuncio  to  Bohemia,  Moravia  and  Si- 
lesia and  Calixtus  III.  created  him  car- 
dinal. Pius  had  by  this  time  become  a 
zealous  supporter  of  the  power  of  the 
Pope.  He  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
men  of  his  time  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  moderation  and  a  conciliatory 
spirit.  He  was  chosen  to  succeed  Calix- 
tus III.  in  1458,  and  in  the  following  year 
assembled  a  congress  at  Mantua  for  the 
purpose  of  arranging  a  crusade  against 
the  Turks.  He  soon  after  published  a 
bull  against  appeals  to  a  council,  which 


PIUS 


264 


PIUS 


occasioned  some  dispute  with  Louis  XI. 
In  1463,  by  another  bull,  he  retracted  his 
former  sentiments  respecting  the  Coun- 
cil of  Basel,  condemning  his  defense  of 
it.  Among  the  writings  of  Pius  II.  are 
a  "History  of  the  Council  of  Basel"; 
"History  of  Frederick  III.";  "History  of 
Bohemia";  "Cosmographia,"  etc.  He 
died  in  Ancona,  August,  1464. 

Pius  III.  (Francesco  Piccolomini), 
nephew  of  the  preceding  pontiff.  He  was 
elected  Pope  in  1503,  but  died  in  less 
than  a  month  afterward. 

Pius  IV.  (Cardinal  de  Medici) ;  born 
in  Milan,  in  1499.  He  rose  by  merit  to 
several  high  employments,  and,  in  1549, 
obtained  the  cardinalship,  and,  on  the 
death  of  Paul  IV.,  in  1559,  was  elected 
Pope.  He  confirmed  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  after  the  closing  of 
that  assembly  in  1564.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
against  his  life  by  Benedict  Accolti  and 
others,  who  were  executed.  This  Pope 
was  not  of  the  celebrated  Medici  family 
of  Florence.     He  died  in  1565. 

Pius  V.  (Michele  Ghislieri) ;  bom  in 
Redmont  in  1504,  and  early  entered  the 
Dominican  order.  He  so  distingriished 
himself  by  his  austere  life,  and  his  zeal 
against  heretics,  that  he  was  appointed 
inquisitor  in  Lombardy,  and  afterward 
inquisitor-general.  He  was  created  car- 
dinal in  1557,  and  was  chosen  to  suc- 
ceed Pius  IV.  in  1566.  He  set  himself 
to  effect  reforms,  both  in  morals  and 
discipline,  excited  terror  in  Italy  by  the 
seizure,  imprisonment,  and  burning  of 
those  convicted  or  suspected  of  heresy, 
expelled  the  Jews  from  the  States  of  the 
Church,  excepting  only  the  cities  of 
Rome  and  Ancona.  The  great  victory 
over  the  Turks  at  Lepanto  was  the  result 
in  good  part  of  the  efforts  of  Pius  V. 
Died  1572. 

Pius  VI.  (Giovanni  Angelo  Braschi) ; 
born  in  Cesena,  in  1717,  and  succeeded 
Clement  XIV.  in  1775.  His  first  act  was 
to  make  a  reform  in  the  public  treasury; 
he  then  completed  the  museum  in  the 
Vatican;  but  the  greatest  work  of  his 
pontificate  was  the  draining  of  the  Pon- 
tine marshes.  When  the  Emperor  Jos- 
eph II.  decreed  that  all  the  religious  or- 
ders in  his  dominions  were  free  from 
papal  jurisdiction,  Pius  went  in  person 
to  Vienna  in  1782,  but  his  remonstrances 
were  ineffectual.  The  French  Revolu- 
tion, however,  was  of  more  serious  con- 
sequence to  the  Papal  See.  The  Pope 
having  favored  the  allies,  Bonaparte  en- 
tered the  ecclesiastical  territory,  and 
compelled  him  to  purchase  a  peace  by  a 
contribution  of  several  millions,  and  de- 
livering up  the  finest  works  of  painting 
and  sculpture.  Basserville  was  then  sent 
as  envoy    from   the   republic   to    Rome, 


where  he  behaved  with  so  much  inso- 
lence, that  the  people  assassinated  him  in 
1793.  General  Duphot  entered  the  city 
with  his  troops  to  restore  order,  but  the 
papal  soldiers  routed  them,  and  Duphot 
was  slain.  On  this  Bonaparte  again  en- 
tered Italy,  and  made  the  Pope  prisoner 
in  the  capitol,  which  was  plundered. 
The  venerable  pontiff  was  carried  away 
by  the  victors,  and  hurried  over  the  Alps 
to  Valence,  where  he  died  Aug.  29,  1799. 

Pius  VII.  (Gregorio  Barnaba  Chiara- 
monti) ;  born  in  Cesena,  in  1742;  became 
a  Benedictine  monk;  was  created  cardi- 
nal in  1785,  and  after  the  death  of  Pius 
VI.  was  chosen  to  succeed  him,  March, 
1800.  In  1804  the  Pope  went  to  Paris 
and  crowned  Napoleon  emperor,  return- 
ing to  Rome  in  May,  1805.  Soon  after 
Ancona  was  seized  by  the  French,  and 
the  great  quarrel  between  Napoleon  and 
the  Pope  began.  The  occupation  of  the 
castle  of  San  Angelo  in  1808  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  annexation  of  the  States 
of  the  Church  to  the  French  empire. 
Pius  was  arrested  by  the  French  officer 
Miollis  and  sent  to  Savona,  and  after- 
ward to  Fontainebleau,  whence  he  was 
not  permitted  to  return  to  Italy  till  Jan- 
uary, 1814.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  re- 
stored the  States  of  the  Church  to  the 
Pope,  who  applied  himself  thenceforth 
to  internal  reforms.  He,  however,  re- 
established the  Jesuits  and  the  inquisi- 
tion. The  character  of  Pius  VII.  was 
such  as  to  vdn  him  the  esteem  and  sym- 
pathy of  men  of  all  Churches  and  sects. 
He  died  Aug.  20,  1823. 

Pius  VIII.  (Cardinal  Castiglione),  be- 
came Pope  in  succession  to  Leo  XII.,  in 
1829.  After  a  short  pontificate  of  one 
year,  he  died  in  1830. 

Pius  IX.  (Giovanni  Mario  Mastai  Fer- 
retti) ;  born  in  Sinigaglia,  May  13,  1792; 
was  intended  for  the  army,  but  resolved 
to  devote  himself  to  the  Church.  For 
several  years  attended  to  pastoral  duties 
and  was  nominated  by  Pius  VII.  on  a 
mission  to  the  government  of  Chile.  On 
his  return  to  Rome  he  was  appointed  by 
Leo  XII.  to  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  ecclesiastico-civil  departments  of 
administration.  In  1836  he  was  sent 
as  apostolic  nuncio  to  Naples,  while  the 
cholera  was  raging  there,  and  his  name 
is  still  revered  by  the  poorer  inhabitants 
of  that  city,  in  gratitude  for  his  disin- 
terested efforts  to  alleviate  their  suffer- 
ings. In  1840  he  was  created  Cardinal- 
Archbishop  of  Imola,  in  the  Romagna, 
where  much  political  disaffection  existed; 
He  ruled  this  diocese  with  so  much  zeal 
and  self-denial,  and  displayed  such  liber- 
ality of  sentiment,  that  he  soon  gained 
the  affections  of  the  people,  and  restored 
peace  and  tranquility  to  the  district. 
Pope  Gregory  XVI.   died  June   1,   1846. 


PIUS 


265 


PIZARRO 


and  Cardinal  Ferretti  was  elected  to  the 
papacy  under  the  name  of  Pius  IX., 
June  16.  The  new  Pope  at  first  acquired 
much  popularity  by  favoring  the  hopes 
and  wishes  of  the  people  for  the  reform 
of  the  abuses  of  the  government.  But 
the  French  Revolution  of  1848  gave 
a  much  more  powerful  impulse  to  the 
enthusiasm,  not  only  of  the  Italian  pa- 
triots, but  of  the  friends  of  liberal  in- 
stitutions all  over  Europe.  These  sweep- 
ing changes  the  Pope  was  not  prepared 
to  support,  and  from  that  moment  his 
popularity  began  to  decline.  The  popu- 
lar disaffection  was  greatly  increased 
on  his  taking  for  his  minister  Count 
Rossi,  one  of  the  most  aristocratic  and 
unpopular  men  in  Rome.  Count  Rossi 
was  assassinated  Nov.  15,  and  Pius  him- 
self, a  few  days  later,  escaped  from 
Rome  in  disguise,  and  arrived  safely  in 
Gaeta  in  the  Neapolitan  territory.  He 
sent  to  Rome  an  ordonnance,  I  ov.  27,  de- 
claring void  all  the  acts  of  the  govern- 
ment, which  he  superseded  by  a  state 
commission.  This  document  the  Roman 
chambers  treated  with  contempt,  ap- 
pointed a  provisional  government,  and 
set  about  improving  the  victory  they 
had  achieved.  The  Pope  remained 
nearly  a  year  and  a  half  at  Gaeta  and 
Portici,  an  object  of  sympathy  as  the 
head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
During  his  absence,  Rome,  which  was  in 
the  possession  of  the  native  troops  under 
Garibaldi,  was  besieged,  and  at  last  tak- 
en by  storm  by  the  French  army  under 
General  Oudinot.  The  Pope  left  Portici, 
April  4,  1850,  escorted  by  Neapolitan 
and  French  dragoons,  accompanied  by 
the  king  of  Naples,  and  re-entered 
Rome  April  12,  amid  the  thunder  of 
French  cannon.  His  chief  ecclesiastical 
acts  are  the  formal  definition  of  the 
dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
in  December,  1854;  the  famous  encycli- 
cal of  December,  1844,  which  was  pro- 
voked by  the  Franco-Italian  convention, 
providing  for  the  withdrawal  of  the 
French  troops  from  Rome — an  act  which 
was,  however,  practically  annulled  by 
the  return  of  the  French  forces  in  1867, 
in  consequence  of  an  attempt  at  invasion 
by  Garibaldi;  and  the  bull  summoning 
the  Ecumenical  Council  of  1869-1870, 
which  promulgated  the  doctrine  of  papal 
infallibility.  In  September,  1870,  the 
French  troops  were  withdrawn  from 
Rome,  and  in  October  the  States  of  the 
Church  were  annexed  to  the  kingdom 
of  Italy,  thus  ending  the  temporal  power 
of  the  Popes.     He  died  Feb.  7,  1878. 

Pius  X.  Cardinal  Giussepe  Sarto,  Pa- 
triarch of  Venice,  was  chosen  by  the  Pa- 
pal Conclave  to  succeed  Leo  XIII.,  Aug. 
4,   1903.     The    election   was   universally 


approved,  and  on  Aug.  9,  the  Patriarch 
was  crowned  at  St.  Peter's  assuming 
the  title  Pius  X.  He  was  born  in  Italy 
in  1835,  of  peasant  family.  Priest, 
1858;  bishop,  1866;  cardinal,  1893.  In 
1907  in  his  encyclical  he  inveighed 
against  "modernism."  He  raised  a  great 
sum  of   money   for  the  victims   of  the 


POPE   PIUS  X. 

earthquake  in  that  year.  In  1910  he 
issued  a  decree  debarring  the  clergy 
from  engaging  in  the  administration  of 
social    organizations.     He   died   in   1914. 

PIZARRO,  FRANCISCO,  a  Spanish 
explorer,  the  conqueror  of  Peru;  the 
illegitimate  son  of  a  gentleman  of  Trux- 
illa,  being  left  entirely  dependent  on  his 
mother,  a  peasant  girl,  he  received  no 
education.  He  embarked  in  1510,  with 
some  other  adventurers,  for  America; 
and,  in  1524,  after  having  distinguished 
himself  under  Nuriez  de  Balboa  on  many 
occasions,  he  associated  at  Panama  with 
Diego  de  Almagro  and  Hernandez 
Luque,  a  priest,  in  an  enterprise  to  make 
fresh  discoveries.  In  this  voyage  they 
reached  the  coast  of  Peru,  but  being  too 
few  to  make  any  attempt  at  a  settlement, 
Pizarro  returned  to  Spain,  where  all 
that  he  gained  was  power  from  the 
court  to  prosecute  his  object.  However, 
having  raised  some  money,  he  was  en- 
abled again,  in  1531,  to  visit  Peru,  where 
a  civil  war  was  then  raging  between 
Huascar,   the    legitimate   monarch,   and 


PIZABRO 


266 


PLAICE 


his  half-brother,  Atahualpa,  or  Atabal- 
ipa,  as  he  is  variously  called,  the  reign- 
ing inca.  Pizarro,  by  pretending  to  take 
the  part  of  the  latter,  was  permitted  to 
march  into  the  interior,  where  he  made 
the  unsuspecting  king  his  prisoner, 
while  partaking  of  a  friendly  banquet 
to  which  he  had  invited  him  and  his 
whole  court;  then  extorting  from  him, 
as  it  is  said,  a  house  full  of  the  precious 
metals  by  way  of  ransom,  he  had  him 
tried  for  a  pretended  conspiracy,  and 
condemned  him  to  be  burned,  allowing 
Aim  first  to  be  strangled,  as  a  reward 
for  becoming  a  Christian.  In  1533  the 
conqueror  laid  the  foundation  of  Lima; 


FRANCISCO  PIZARRO 

but,  in  1537,  a  contest  arose  between  him 
and  Almagro,  who  was  defeated  and 
executed.  Pizarro  was  murdered  by 
Almagro's   followers,  June   26,  1541. 

PIZARRO,  GONZALO,  half  brother  of 
the  preceding;  bom  in  1502.  His 
brother  appointed  him  governor  of  Quito 
in  1540,  and  after  the  assassination  of 
Francisco,  he  raised  an  army  against 
the  new  viceroy,  Blasco  Nunez,  and  the 
latter  was  defeated  and  slain  near  Quito 
in  1546.  But  Pizarro  did  not  long  en- 
joy his  success,  being  beaten,  taken  pris- 
oner, and  beheaded  in  1548. 

PLACENTA,  in  anatomy,  the  organ 
by  which  the  foetus  is  connected  with 
the  mother,  and  vascular  connection  be- 
tween the  two  maintained.  It  ultimately 
comes  away  as  the  afterbirth.  Called 
also  uterine  cake.     In  botany,  the  part 


of  the  ovary  from  which  the  ovules 
arise.  It  generally  occupies  the  whole 
or  a  portion  of  an  angle  of  each  cell. 
When  elongated  so  as  to  constitute  a  lit- 
tle cord  it  is  called  the  umbilical  cord. 

PLACOID,  a  term  used  to  designate  a 

variety  of  scales  covering  the  bodies  of 
the  elasmobranchiate  fishes  (sharks, 
skates,  rays,  etc.) ,  the  Placoidei  of  Agas- 
siz.  These  structures  consist  of  de- 
tached bony  grains,  tubercles,  or  plates, 
of  which  the  latter  are  not  uncommonly 
armed  with  spines. 

PLAGUE,  a  peculiarly  malignant 
fever  of  the  continued  and  contagious 
type,  now  believed  to  be  almost  identi- 
cal with  the  worst  kinds  of  typhus  fever. 
It  is  produced  by  the  absorption  of  a 
poison  generated  by  decaying  animal 
matter  combined  with  heat,  moisture,  and 
bad  ventilation.  At  first  there  is  great 
restlessness,  followed  ultimately  by  cor- 
responding exhaustion,  and  death  super- 
venes in  two  or  three  days.  Grand 
Cairo  is  the  chief  known  focus  of  the 
plague,  the  spread  of  which,  in  different 
directions,  is  at  least  attempted  to  be 
checked  by  quarantine.  The  plague 
seems  to  have  been  the  black  death  of 
the  14th  century.  It  was  known  by  the 
name  of  plague  when,  in  1665,  it  slew 
in_  London  68,596  people,  about  one- 
third  of  the  population. 

In  the  summer  of  1896  a  very  malig- 
nant form  of  disease,  known  as  the  "bu- 
bonic" plague,  made  its  appearance  in 
Bombay,  India,  and  spread  with  great 
rapidity.  The  number  of  cases  and 
deaths  finally  became  so  large  that  more 
than  450,000  people — one-half  of  the 
population,  fled  from  the  city.  The  bu- 
bonic plague  receives  its  name  from  the 
fact  that  it  attacks  the  Ijrmphatic 
glands  in  the  neck,  armpits,  groin,  and 
other  parts  of  the  body.  In  general,  the 
disease  is  spread  in  the  same  manner  as 
cholera,  except  that  the  cholera  germ 
must  enter  the  intestinal  tract,  while  the 
germ  of  the  plague  may  attack  any  part 
of  the  mucous  membrane,  or  be  attended 
by  even  the  minutest  abrasion  of  the 
skin.  But  while  this  germ  is  so  virile 
and  so  easily  taken  into  the  system,  it  is 
one  of  the  most  easily  killed  by  disinfec- 
tion. One  per  cent,  of  quicklime  will 
destroy  it. 

The  Ten  Plagues  of  Egypt  were  10 
inflictions  divinely  sent  upon  the  Egyp- 
tians to  compel  them  to  emancipate  the 
Israelites  from  bondage  and  allow  them 
to  quit  the  land.  (Exod.  vii:  14,  xii: 
30.  For  the  use  of  the  word  plague  see 
ix:  14,  xi:  1.) 

PLAICE,  Pleuronectes  platessa,  a  fish 
well    known    in    northern    Europe.      It 


PLAID 


267  PLANE 


ranges  from  the  coast  of  France  to  Ice- 
land, frequenting  sandy  banks,  some- 
times met  with  on  mud  banks.  It  is  not 
in  great  repute  as  a  food  fish,  as  its 
flesh  is  soft  and  watery. 

PLAID,  goods  of  any  quality  or  ma- 
terial of  a  tartan  or  checked  pattern. 
Also,  a  garment  of  tartan  or  checked 
woolen  cloth  of  various  colors,  worn  by 
both  sexes  of  the  natives  of  Scotland,  of 
which  country  it  is  an  important  part  of 
the  national  costume. 

PLAIN,  an  expanse  of  low-lying  terri- 
tory as  distinguished  from  a  table-land 
or  plateau.  Speaking  broadly,  the 
Western  Hemisphere  is  the  region  of 
plains,  and  the  Eastern  of  table-lands. 
Also,  a  nickname  for  the  level  floor  of 
the  hall  in  which  the  first  French  Na- 
tional Convention  was  held  in  1792.  By 
metonomy  it  was  applied  also  to  the 
Girondist  party  whose  seats  were  there. 

PLAINFIELD,  a  town  of  Connecticut 
in  Windham  co.  It  includes  several  vil- 
lages. It  is  on  the  Quinebaug  and 
Moosup  rivers  and  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroad.  In 
the  town  are  public  libraries,  and  in  the 
village  is  the  Plainfield  Academy,  one  of 
the  oldest  institutions  of  the  kind  in 
New  England.  There  are  cotton  and 
woolen  mills  and  yarn  factories,  found- 
ries and  other  industries.  Pop.  (1910) 
6,719;    (1920)    7,926. 

PLAINFIELD,  a  city  in  Union  co.,  N. 
J.,  on  the  Central  of  New  Jersey  rail- 
road; 24  miles  W.  of  New  York.  It  is 
a  suburban  place  of  residence  for  New 
York  business  men.  It  contains  private 
schools,  public  library,  Muhlenberg  Hos- 
pital, street  railroad  and  electric  light 
plants,  banks,  and  weekly  newspapers. 
It  has  manufactories  of  hats,  clothing, 
silk  and  cotton  goods,  machinery,  print- 
ing presses,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  20,550; 
(1920)   27,700. 

PLAIN  SONG,  ^  Cantus  planus,  the 
most  ancient  and  simple  form  of  church 
music,  consisting  of  easy  progressions  in 
one  of  the  church  modes,  suitable  for 
use  by  priests  or  a  congregation;  it  is 
opposed  to  cantus  figuratus,  or  figurate 
song,  containing  more  ornate  progres- 
sions of  a  later  period.  When  counter- 
point was  introduced,  it  was  customary 
to  compose  parts  above  or  below  a  por- 
tion of  ancient  plain  song,  hence,  the 
term  plain  song  is  often  synonymous 
with  Canto  fermo,  or  the  fixed  melody  to 
which  counterpoint  is  added.  The  term 
as  used  in  these  days  includes  roughly, 
ancient  chants,  inflections,  and  melodies 
of  the  church.  Called  also  plain  chant 
and  sometimes  plain  singing.     Also  the 


simple,   plain   notes   of   an   air   without 
ornament  or  variation. 

PLAINTIFF,  one  who  enters  or 
lodges  a  complaint  in  a  court  of  law; 
one  who  commences  a  suit  in  law  against 
another;   opposed  to  defendant. 

PLAN,  properly  a  map,  representa- 
tion, or  delineation  of  a  building,  ma- 
chine, etc.,  on  a  plane  surface.  More 
exactly,  the  plan  of  a  building  is  a  hor- 
izontal section  supposed  to  be  taken  on 
the  level  of  the  floor  through  the  solid 
walls,  columns,  etc.,  so  as  to  show  their 
various  thicknesses  and  situations,  the 
dimensions  of  the  several  spaces  or 
rooms,  the  position  of  the  doors,  etc. 
The  term  is  also  commonly  extended  to 
a  map  or  representation  of  a  projected 
or  finished  work  on  a  plane  surface;  as, 
the  plan  of  a  town,  of  a  harbor,  etc. 

PLANARIDA,  a  sub-order  of  TurbeU 
laria,  flat,  soft-bodied,  hermaphrodite 
animals,  of  ovoid  or  elliptic  form;  their 
integument  with  vibratile  cilia  and  cells; 
the  former  used  in  locomotion.  They 
have  a  proboscis,  and  two  pigment  spots 
serving  for  eyes. 

PLANCHETTE,  a  piece  of  board 
generally  heart-shaped,  mounted  on  thin 
supports,  two  of  which  are  casters,  and 
one  a  pencil  which  makes  marks  as  the 
board  is  pushed  under  the  hands  of  the 
person  or  persons  whose  fingers  rest 
upon  it.  The  exact  cause  of  its  motions 
is  not  clearly  understood. 

PLANgON,  POL,  a  French  basso, 
born  in  1854  in  the  Ardennes  and  at  the 
wish  of  his  parents  entered  business  in 
Paris.  By  means  of  a  friend  he  was 
able  to  study  music  at  the  Ecole  Duprey 
and  made  his  debut  in  Grand  Opera  at 
Lyons.  ^  In  1883  he  appeared  as  Me- 
phisto  in  "Faust"  and  his  success  in  this 
role  and  in  that  of  Ramfis  in  "Aida" 
made  him  world  renowned.  From  1893 
to  1904  he  was  a  member  of  the  Metro- 
politan Opera  House  in  New  York.  He 
died  in  Paris  in  191'4. 

PLANE,  in  joinery,  a  cari)€nter's  cut- 
ting and  surface  smoothing  tool,  of 
which  there  are  many  varieties,  named 
from  some  peculiarity  of  construction  or 
purpose. 

In  geometry,  a  surface  such  that,  if 
any  two  points  be  taken  at  pleasure  and 
joined  by  a  straight  line,  that  line  will 
lie  wholly  in  the  surface.  A  plane  is 
supposed  to  extend  indefinitely  in  all 
directions,  the  term  is  also  frequently 
used,  especially  in  astronomy,  to  denote 
an  ideal  surface  supposed  to  cut  or  pass 
through  a  solid  body,  or  in  various  direc- 
tions; as,  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  the 
plane  of  a  planet's  orbit. 


PLANE    TREE 


268 


PLANT    BREEDING 


PLANE  TREE,  any  species  of  the 
genus  Platanus  of  which  five  or  six  exist. 
They  are  tall  trees  with  ponderous 
trunks,  the  bark  of  which  peels  off  an- 
nually, leaving  the  surface  smooth  and 
bare.  The  Oriental  plane  tree,  P- 
orientalis,  an  umbrageous  tree,  70  to  90 
feet  high,  has  palmate  leaves  like  those 
of  the  sycamore.  It  is  a  native  of  -west- 
ern Asia  and  Cashmere.  Its  smooth- 
grained  wood  is  used  in  the  East  for 
cabinet  making.  In  India  its  bruised 
leaves  are  applied  to  the  eyes  in  ophthal- 
mia, and  its  bark,  boiled  in  vinegar, 
given  in  diarrhoea.  The  Occidental  or 
American  plane  tree,  P.  occidentalis,  has 
less  deeply  divided  and  indented  leaves, 
and  no  membranous  bracts  along  the 
female  flowers.  On  the  banks  of  the 
Ohio  and  the  Mississippi  there  are  trees 
10  to  16  feet  in  diameter.  Called,  also, 
in  the  United  States,  buttonwood  and 
water  beech,  and  sycamore,  and  _  in 
Canada,  cotton  tree.  A  third  species, 
often  confounded  with  this  one,  ^  is  the 
maple-leaved  plane,  P.  acerifolm,  the 
species  sometimes  with  giant  trunk,  cul- 
tivated in  some  London  squares.  The 
Scotch  or  mock  plane  tree  is  Acer 
pseudo-platanus. 

PLANET,  a  heavenly  body  which,  to 
old-world  observers,  seemed  to  wander 
about  aimlessly  in  the  sky,  thus  marked- 
ly contrasting  with  the  orderly  move- 
ments of  the  fixed  stars.  Subsequently 
it  was  discovered  that  the  seemingly  er- 
ratic bodies  were  as  regular  in  their 
movements  as  the  others,  revolving,  like 
the  earth,  around  the  sun.  Planets  are 
primary  or  secondary,  the  former  re- 
volving around  the  sun,  the  latter  around 
the  primaries.  The  primary  planets 
knovpn  to  the  ancients  were  five:  Mer- 
cury, Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn. 
Omitting  asteroids,  comets,  and  meteoric 
rings,  eight  are  now  known.  Mercury, 
Venus,  the  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Satuni, 
Uranus,  and  Neptune.  Twenty-one  sec- 
ondary planets  are  known,  the  Moon, 
two  satellites  of  Mars,  five  of  Jupiter, 
eight  of  Saturn,  four  of  Uranus,  and 
one  of  Neptune.  The  planets  Mercury 
and  Venus,  being  nearer  than  the  Earth 
to  the  Sun,  are  called  inferior  planets; 
the  others,  being  more  distant,  are 
termed  superior.  Another  classification 
is  sometimes  adopted,  that  into  intra- 
and  extra-asteroidal  planets;  that  is, 
those  nearer  and  those  more  remote 
from  the  sun  than  the  asteroids.  Under 
the  first  are  included,  Mercury,  Venus, 
the  Earth,  and  Mars,  all  of  which  are 
comparatively  small,  while  the  others, 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune, 
are  the  giants  of  the  system.  For  in- 
stance, the  Earth  is  7,918  miles  in  diame- 


ter, and  Mars  4,200,  but  Jupiter  is  8.5,- 
000.  The  intra-asteroidal  planets  com- 
plete the  annual  revolution  in  short 
periods,  the  Earth,  for  example,  in 
365.26  days,  while  Neptune  takes  to  do 
so  60,127  days,  or  about  165  years.  The 
minor  planets,  planetoids,  or  asteroids 
are   between   Mars    and   Jupiter. 

PLANETOIDS,  the  name  given  to  a 
great  group  of  minute  planets  placed  to- 
gether between  Mars  and  Jupiter. 
Professor  Titius,  of  Wittenberg,  having 
drawn  attention  in  1772  to  the  fact  that, 
with  the  exception  of  Jupiter,  each  planet 
has  an  orbit  just  about  double  that  near- 
est to  it  on  the  side  of  the  sun,  Professor 
Bode,  of  Berlin,  drew  the  natural  infer- 
ence that  the  one  exception  to  the  rule 
would  probably  be  removed  by  the  dis- 
covery of  a  planet  less  remote  from  the 
sun  than  Jupiter,  and  more  distant  than 
Mars.  On  Jan.  1,  1801,  a  planetary 
body,  afterward  called  Ceres,  was  found 
by  Piazzi  in  the  part  of  the  solar  system 
theoretically  indicated;  it  was,  however, 
far  more  diminutive  in  size  than  had 
been  expected.  Within  the  next  six 
years  three  more  asteroids  (Pallas,  Juno, 
and  Vesta)  were  found  in  proximity  to 
Ceres.  Up  to  October,  1903,  542  small 
planets  had  been  discovered,  70  by 
Americans.  All  are  of  minute  size,  and 
some  angular  in  place  of  spherical. 

The  term  asteroid,  applied  to  these 
small  bodies,  is  now  becoming  obsolete, 
the  appellation  minor  planets  taking  its 
place.  They  are  sometimes  also  called 
extra-zodiacal  planets,  from  their  orbits 
stretching  outside  the  zodiac,  which  is 
not  the  case  with  those  of  the  normal 
type.  Authorities  differ  respecting  some 
minute  points  in  the  list  of  asteroids. 
Melete,  when  discovered  on  Sept.  9,  1857, 
was  mistaken  for  Daphne,  an  error  not 
detected  till  January,  1859.  Herschel, 
Proctor,  etc.,  number  it  56,  and  place  the 
date  1857,  where  it  offends  the  eye,  in 
1859;  others,  with  Mr.  G.  F.  Chambers, 
transfer  it  to  1857,  which  alters  the 
numbering  of  all  the  minor  planets  from 
47  to  56.  There  are  other  minute  differ- 
ences between  lists  of  asteroids  by  lead- 
ing authorities. 

PLANT  BREEDING,  the  science  of 
producing  new  or  improved  species  of 
plants  by  a  process  of  crossing  or  selec- 
tion. The  tendency  of  all  plants  is  to 
reproduce  plants  possessing  all  their  own 
characteristics,  but  changes  and  improve- 
ments are  brought  about  by  various 
methods. 

The  simplest  method  of  the  selection 
process  is  to  save  the  seeds  of  only 
those  plants  which  possess  in  a  marked 
degree  the  desired  characteristics.  This 
process   is   usually   slow  and   uncertain, 


PLANT 


269 


PLANTATION 


and  fertilization  through  a  natural  or 
artificial  transfer  of  pollen  is  often  re- 
sorted to.  Improvement  to  various 
grrains,  sugar  beets,  potatoes,  etc.,  has 
been  accomplished  by  emasculating  se- 
lected specimens.  When  the  stigma  of 
these  are  ripe,  pollen  from  other  selected 
plants  is  applied,  and  the  plants  are  kept 
under  a  gauze  hood  to  prevent  accidental 
contact  with  other  pollen.  The  seeds  of 
these  specially  treated  specimens  are  col- 
lected, and  used  for  future  breeding. 
Artificial  asexual  methods,  of  which 
grafting  is  the  most  common,  are  the 
simplest  form  of  plant  breeding,  and 
though  perhaps  the  surest  of  the  meth- 
ods, are  not  likely  to  produce  the  strong- 
est plants.  A  large  number  of  experi- 
ments must  be  made,  and  a  great  amount 
of  tedious  work  done  before  a  new  type 
is  produced  that  can  be  introduced  com- 
mercially. Not  all  the  specimens  are 
improvements,  for  plants  are  just  as 
likely  to  degenerate  under  the  process 
as  they  are  to  improve. 

These  simple  rules  are  used  by  many 
of  the  leading  plant  breeders : 

Well  developed  seedlings  produce  the 
best  plants;  small  leaves  usually  mean 
undersized  fruit;  pale  leaves  mean  pale 
fruit;  great  productiveness  does  not  go 
with  earliness. 

PLANT,  MORTON  F.,  an  American 
financier.  He  was  born  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  in  1852,  and  when  16  went  as 
clerk  with  an  express  company  at 
Memphis,  Tenn.,  later  finding  a  position 
in  railroad  work.  From  1884  he  was 
connected  with  the  Plant  System  of  rail- 
roads, becoming  vice-president.  He  co- 
operated in  its  merging  with  the  Atlan- 
tic Coast  Line  of  which  he  became  a 
director,  as  likewise  of  the  Chicago, 
Indianapolis,  and  Louisiana  Railway. 
Apart  from  his  railroad  interests,  he  was 
prominent  in  banking  affairs,  and  owned 
several  yachts,  in  which  sport  he  found 
relaxation.     He  died  in  1918. 

PLANTAGENETS,  the  surname  of  a 
line  of  English  kings,  who  were  of 
French  origin  on  the  paternal  side — 
Henry  II.  of  England,  the  first  of  the 
line,  having  been  the  son  of  Geoffrey  V., 
Duke  of  Anjou,  and  of  Matilda,  daugh- 
ter of  Henry  I.  The  Duke  of  Anjou 
was  so  named  because  he  usually  wore 
a  sprig  of  broom — in  Latin  planta  gen- 
ista, in  French  plante  genet — in  his  cap. 
Henry  II.  ascended  the  English  throne 
in  1154,  and  his  descendants  reigned 
during  331  years,  the  last  monarch  of 
the  line  being  Richard  III.,  who  fell  at 
the  battle  of  Bosworth,  in  1485.  In  the 
14th  century  the  line  became  divided  into 
two  great  rival  factions,  that  of  York 

Vol.  VII— Cyc 


and  of  Lancaster,  known  as  the  parties 
of  the   Red  and   White  Rose. 

PLANTAGINACE^,  or  PLATAG- 
INE^,  ribworts ;  an  order  of  perigynous 
exogens,  alliance  Cortusales.  Herbace- 
ous plants  with  or  without  a  stem. 
Leaves  flat  and  ribbed  or  taper  and 
fleshy.  Flowers  in  spikes,  solitary. 
Distribution  world-wide :  known  genera 
three,   species   over  200. 

PLANTAGO,  plantain  or  ribgrass ;  the 
typical  genus  of  the  order  Plantagin- 
aceae;  herbs,  with  bisexual  flowers. 
Mucilaginous  and  astringent.  Known 
species  about  48.  In  India  the  leaves  of 
P.  major  are  applied  to  bruises.  P.  cor- 
onopus  is  diuretic.  Demulcent  drinks 
can  be  made  from  P.  psyllium,  P.  aren- 
aria,  and  P.  cynops.  The  seeds  of  P. 
psyllium  and  P.  ispaghula,  treated  with 
hot  water,  yield  a  mucilage  given  in 
India  in  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  catarrh, 
gonorrhoea,  and  nephritic  diseases.  P. 
amplexicaulis  is  used  in  India  in  phthi- 
sis, snake  poison,  intermittent  fever,  and 
as  an  external  application  in  ophthalmia. 
Soda  is  obtained  in  Egypt  from  P. 
squarrosa. 

PLANTAIN,  the  Musa  paradisiaca,  a 
small  tree  closely  akin  to  the  banana 
from  which  it  differs  in  not  having  pur- 
ple spots  on  its  stem.  The  fruit  also  is 
larger  and  more  angular.  It  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  throughout  India, 
where  its  leaf  is  used  for  dressing 
blistered  wounds  and  as  a  rest  for  the 
eye  in  ophthalmia.  Powdered  and  dried, 
it  is  used  to  stop  bleeding  at  the  nose. 
The  fruit  is  delicious  and  thoroughly 
wholesome.  When  unripe  it  is  cooling 
and  astringent,  and  very  useful  in  dia- 
betes. The  root  is  anthelmintic,  and  the 
sap  is  given  to  allay  thirst  in  cholera. 

PLANTAIN  EATERS,  Musophagidx, 
a  family  of  birds,  of  African  distribu- 
tion, arboreal  habits,  and  vegetarian 
diet.  The  species  of  Musophaga  are 
bluish  black,  the  Turacous  (Turacus) 
are  light  green  with  carmine  wing- 
feathers.  This  occurrence  of  a  green 
pigment,  as  distinguished  from  a  green 
color,  is  unique  among  birds,  and  the 
carmine  pigment  is  also  interesting  be- 
cause it  seems  to  be  partially  washed  out 
during  the  rainy  season. 

PLANTATION,  a  term  formerly  used 
to  designate  a  colony.  The  term  was 
latterly  applied  to  an  estate  or  tract  of 
land  in  the  Southern  States,  the  West 
Indies,  etc.,  cultivated  chiefly  by  negroes 
or  other  non-European  laborers.  In  the 
Southern  States  the  term  planter  is 
specially  applied  to  a  person  who  grows 
cotton,  sugar,  rice,  or  tobacco. 

13 


PLANTIGRADA 


270 


PLATO 


PLANTIGRADA,  in  zoology,  a  section 
of  the  Carnivora,  embracing  those  which 
apply  the  whole  or  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  sole  ^  of  the  foot  to  the  ground  in 
progressive  motion.  Example,  the  bears, 
the  badgers. 

PLASENCIA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Es- 
tremadura,  130  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Madrid 
and  43  N.  E.  of  Caceres,  surrounded 
with  double  walls  (1197),  has  a  fine 
Gothic  cathedral  (1498).  The  monas- 
tery of  San  Yuste,  to  which  Charles  V. 
retired  after  his  abdication,  lies  24  miles 
to  the  E.  of  Plasencia. 

PLASMA,  the  viscous  material  of  a 
cell  from  which  the  new  developments 
take  place;  formless,  elementary  matter. 

^  PLASMA,  a  bright  to  leek-green  va- 
riety of  chalcedony,  sometimes  almost 
emerald-green;  feebly  translucent;  lus- 
ter, somewhat  oily;  fracture,  sub-vitre- 
ous, probably  due  to  a  small  amount  of 
opal-silica  present.  It  is  rather  rare, 
and  was  much  esteemed  by  the  ancients 
for  engraving  on. 

PLASSEY,  a  battlefield  on  the  Bhagi- 
rathi  river,  96  miles  N.  of  Calcutta.  The 
river  has  now  eaten  away  the  scene  of 
the  struggle.  Plassey  is  celebrated  in 
the  history  of  India  for  the  great  victory 
gained  by  Clive  over  Suraj  ud  Dowlah, 
subahdar  of  Bengal,  June  23,  1757,  a 
victory  which  really  laid  the  foundation 
of  British  supremacy  in  India. 

PLASTER,  calcined  gypsum  or  sul- 
phate of  lime,  used,  when  mixed  with 
water,  for  finishing  walls,  for  molds, 
ornaments,  casts,  luting,  cement,  etc. 
Also  a  composition  of  lime,  sand,  and 
water,  with  or  without  hair  as  a  bond, 
and  used  to  cover  walls  and  ceilings. 
In  pharmacy,  an  unctuous  compound, 
united  either  to  a  powder  or  some  met- 
allic oxide,  and  spread  on  linen,  silk,  or 
leather,  for  convenience  of  external  ap- 
plication. 

PLASTERING,  the  art  of  covering  the 
surface  of  masonry  or  wood  work  with 
a  plastic  material  in  order  to  give  it  a 
smooth  and  uniform  surface,  and  gen- 
erally in  interiors  to  fit  them  for  paint- 
ing or  decoration. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS,  the  name  given 
to  gypsum  when  ground  and  used  for 
taking  casts,  etc. 

PLATA,  RIO  DE  LA,  River  of  Silver; 
a  body  of  water  which  extends  for  more 
than  200  miles  between  the  Argentine 
Republic  and  Uruguay,  and  is  not, 
strictly  speaking,  a  river,  but  rather  an 
estuary,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the 
great  rivers  Parana  and  Uruguay.  It 
flows  into  the  Atlantic  between  Cape  St. 


Antonio  and  Cape  St.  Mary,  and  has 
here  a  width  of  170  miles.  On  its  banks 
are  the  cities  and  ports  of  Montevideo 
and  Buenos  Ayres.  It  was  discovered 
in  1515  by  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis,  and 
called  Rio  de  Solis;  it  owes  its  present 
name  to  the  famous  navigator  Cabot. 

PLAT^A,  a  city  in  the  W.  part  of 
Boeotia,  on  the  borders  of  Attica,  and  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Cithseron,  6  miles 
from  Thebes.  In  480  B.  C.  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Persians,  because  the  in- 
habitants had  taken  part  with  Athens  in 
the  battle  of  Marathon;  but  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  it  was  the  scene  of  the 
glorious  victory  won  by  the  Lacedse- 
monian  Greeks,  under  Pausanias  and 
Aristides,  over  the  Persian  hordes  com- 
manded by  Mardonius.  In  the  third 
year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  (429)  it 
was  attacked  by  a  Theban-Lacedaemon- 
ian  force,  and  heroically  defended  itself 
for  more  than  two  years,  when  the  little 
garrison  of  about  200  men  were  put  to 
the  sword,  and  the  city  demolished.  Some 
Plataeans  escaped  to  Athens  and  by  the 
treaty  of  Antalcidas  (387)  their  de- 
scendants were  allowed  to  return  and 
rebuild  their  city.  They  were  driven 
forth  again  by  the  Thebans,  and  half  a 
century  passed  before  Philip  of  Mac- 
edon's  victory  at  Chaeronea  enabled  the 
Plataeans  to  return  home  where  they  re- 
mained until  the  6th  century  A.  D. 

PLATINUM,  in  chemistry,  symbol, 
Pt.;  at.  wt.,  194.3;  sp.  gr.=  21.6, .a  tetrad 
metallic  element  discovered  first  in  the 
United  States;  and  still  produced  there; 
also  found  in  the  Ural  chain,  and  in 
copper  ore  from  the  Alps.  Pure  forged 
platinum  takes  a  high  luster,  is  nearly 
as  white  as  silver,  and  very  ductile  and 
malleable.  It  resists  the  strongest  heat 
of  the  forge  fire,  but  can  be  fused  by 
the  electric  current;  is  the  heaviest 
known  substance  excepting  osmium  and 
iridium,  is  unalterable  in  the  air,  dis- 
solves slowly  in  nitromuriatic  acid,  but 
is  not  attacked  by  any  single  acid.  It 
is  used  extensively  in  the  manufacture 
of  expensive  jewelry,  and  delicate  in- 
struments. During  and  after  the  World 
War  (1914-1918)  it  ranged  in  value 
from  $120  to  $150  per  ounce. 

PLATO,  a  Greek  philosopher;  born  in 
Athens,  or  in  ^gina,  in  May,  429  B,  C. 
He  was  son  of  Ariston  and  Perictione, 
and  was  named  Aristocles.  The  name 
Plato  was  afterward  applied  to  him  in 
allusion  to  his  broad  brow,  broad  chest, 
or  fluent  speech.  Endowed  with  an  im- 
aginative and  emotional  nature,  he  early 
began  to  write  poems,  and  studied  phil- 
osophy, and  at  20  became  the  disciple  of 
Socrates.     He  burnt  his  poems,  remained 


PLATO  271 

devotedly  attached  to  Socrates  for  10 
years.  After  the  death  of  Socrates,  he 
went  to  Megara,  to  hear  Euclid;  thence 
to  Cyrene,  and  perhaps  to  Egypt  and  S. 
Italy.  On  his  return  he  began  to  teach 
gratuitously  at  Athens,  in  the  plane  tree 
grove  of  the  Academia;  and  had  a  great 
number  of  disciples.  Among  them  was 
Aristotle,  distinguished  as  the  "Mind  of 
the  School,"  and  perhaps  Demosthenes. 
Women  are  said  to  have  attended.  In 
his  40th  year,  Plato  visited  Sicily,  but 
he  offended  the  tyrant  Dionysius  by  the 
political  opinions  he  uttered,  and  only 
escaped  death  through  the  influence  of 
his  friend,  Dion. 


PLATTE 


PLATO 

Plato  never  married,  took  no  active 
part  in  public  affairs,  lived  absorbed  in 
the  pursuit  of  truth.  His  works  have 
come  down  to  us  complete,  and  are 
chiefly  in  the  form  of  dialogues.  They 
are  singular  in  their  union  of  the  philo- 
sophic and  poetic  spirit — the  depth  of 
the  philosopher  and  the  rigorous  exacti- 
tude of  the  logician  with  the  highest 
splendor  of  imagination  of  the  poet.  We 
owe  to  him  the  threefold  division  of 
philosophy  into  dialectics,  physics,  and 
ethics;  the  first  sketch  of  the  laws  of 
thought;  the  doctrine  of  "ideas,"  as  the 
eternal  archetypes  of  all  visible  things; 


and  the  first  attempt  toward   a  demon- 
stration of  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  what  idea  Plato 
had  of  the  Deity.  It  seems,  however, 
that  his  idea  of  the  good  and  Him  were 
identical.  Plato  distinguishes  two  com- 
ponents of  the  soul — the  divine  or  ra- 
tional, that  which  partakes  of  a  divim 
principle,  and  participates  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  eternal;  and  the  mortal  or 
irrational,  that  which  participates  in  the 
motions  and  changes  of  the  body,  and  is 
perishable.  The  two  are  united  by  an 
intermediate  link,  which  he  calls  thumos, 
or  spirit.  He  believes  in  future  retribu- 
tion; exonerates  God  from  responsibility 
for  sin  and  suffering,  and  sets  forth  in 
elaborate  myths  the  blessedness  of  the 
virtuous  and  the  punishments  of  the 
vicious.  His  birthday  was  long  observed 
as  a  festival.  He  died  in  the  act  of 
writing,  it  is  said,  in  May,  347  B.  c. 

For  biography  see  Adams'  "Religious 
Teachers  of  Greece"  (1909)  and  for  doc- 
trine Fowler's  "Loeb's  Classical  Li- 
brary"  (1913). 

PLATT,  THOMAS  COLLIER,  an 
American  legislator;  born  in  Owego,  N. 
Y.,  July  15,  1833;  prepared  for  college 
at  Owego  Academy;  entered  Yale  Col- 
lege 1853,  but  ill-health  forced  him  to 
leave.  Engaged  in  mercantile  life;  was 
president  of  the  Tioga  National  bank  at 
its  organization;  interested  in  the  lum- 
bering business  in  Michigan;  was  county 
clerk  of  the  county  of  Tioga  in  1859,  1860 
and  1861;  was  elected  to  the  43d  and 
44th  Congresses;  was  elected  United 
States  Senator  Jan.  18,  1881,  and  re- 
signed that  office  May  16  of  the  same 
year,  with  Roscoe  Conkling,  both  Sena- 
tors being  offended  because  President 
Garfield  made  New  York  appointments 
without  consulting  them;  was  chosen 
secretary  and  director  of  the  United 
States  Express  Co.  in  1879,  and  in  1880 
was  elected  president  of  the  company; 
was  member  and  president  of  the  board 
of  quarantine  commissioners  of  New 
York  from  1880  till  1888;  was  delegate 
to  the  National  Republican  conventions 
from  1876  to  1904  uninterruptedly;  was 
president  of  the  Southern  Central  rail- 
road; a  member  of  the  National  Repub- 
lican committee;  and  United  States  Sen- 
ator from  1896.     He  died  March  6,  1910. 

PLATTE  (plat),  a  river  in  the  United 
States,  which  rises  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains by  two  branches,  called  respec- 
tively the  North  and  South  Forks  of  the 
Platte.  The  united  stream  falls  into  the 
Missouri  after  a  course  of  about  1,900 
miles.  It  is  from  1  mile  to  3  miles  broad, 
shallow,  encumbered  with  islands,  has 
a  rapid  current,  and  therefore  not  navi- 
gable. 


PLATTSBURG 


272 


PLAYFAIR 


PLATTSBURG,  a  town  and  county- 
seat  of  Clinton  co.,  N.  Y.;  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Saranac  river,  which  here  enters 
Cumberland  Bay,  a  part  of  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  and  on  the  Delaware  and  Hudson, 
and  the  Chateaugay  railroads;  about  155 
miles  N.  of  Albany.  Here  are  electric 
lights,  public  library,  court  house  and 
jail,  barracks  for  United  States  soldiers, 
custom  house.  Home  for  Aged  Ladies, 
Home  for  the  Friendless,  Plattsburg 
Academy,  a  State  Normal  school,  Na- 
tional banks,  and  a  number  of  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers.  The  town  has  a 
large  harbor,  and  ships  lumber,  grain, 
and  other  commodities.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  shirts,  wood  pulp,  sewing 
machines,  etc.  On  Oct.  11,  1776,  one  of 
the  earliest  naval  actions  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary War  took  place  here,  Benedict 
Arnold  commanding  the  American  forces. 
On  Sept.  11,  1814,  Commodore  Mc- 
Donough  gained  a  remarkable  victory 
over  the  British  fleet  in  Cumberland 
Bay.  About  the  same  time  an  American 
army  under  General  Macomb  repulsed  a 
superior  force  which,  under  General 
Prevost,  had  attacked  the  town.  Pop. 
(1910)    11,138;    (1920)    10,909. 

PLATTSBURG  TRAINING  CAMPS, 

United^  States  military  barracks,  estab- 
lished in  1838  and  having  a  reservation 
of  over  700  acres  on  the  W.  side  of  Lake 
Champlain,  S.  of  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  on 
the  Delaware  and  Hudson  railroad.  The 
barracks  are  among  the  largest  in  the 
United  States,  and  is  usually  garrisoned 
by  a  regiment  of  infantry.  The  reserva- 
tion has  often  been  used  as  a  training 
camp  in  military  exercises  by  business 
men  from  New  York  and  the  surround- 
ing towns,  and  in  1916  a  training  camp 
was  established  there  by  the  Government. 
During  the  campaign  for  preparedness 
that  preceded  the  entry  of  the  United 
States  into  the  European  War,  exercises 
in  drill  were  carried  on  at  Plattsburg 
continually,  and  college  and  business 
men  went  in  large  numbers  to  submit 
themselves  to  training.  After  the  entry 
of  the  United  States  into  the  war,  the 
training  camps  were  greatly  extended, 
and  recruits  were  there  put  through 
their  drill  in  great  numbers. 

In  1915  the  organizers  of  the  camp  at 
Plattsburg  sought  the  co-operation  of 
professional  and  business  men  from  the 
south.  The  military  encampments  usu- 
ally lasted  a  month,  during  which  the 
men  were  instructed  in  military  calis- 
thenics, rifle  practice,  offensive  and  de- 
fensive field  work,  camp  sanitation, 
trench  digging,  signalling,  marching, 
and  m  the  general  duties  of  a  soldier. 
Before  the  United  States  entered  the 
war  the  number  of  men  voluntarily  at- 


tending ran  up  to  about  a  thousand,  and 
the  cost  of  the  instruction  was  about 
$60.  The  civic  authorities  co-operated 
and  the  policemen  of  New  York  who 
desired  to  attend  camp  were  permitted 
to  do  so  on  full  pay.  General  Wood 
inspected  the  camps  of  college  students 
and  addresses  were  delivered  by  Colonel 
Roosevelt  and  other  public  men.  Among 
those  who  took  the  training  were  Mayor 
Mitchel  and  other  New  York  City  of- 
ficials. The  men  so  trained  were  en- 
couraged to  join  the  National  Guard, 
and  as  a  result  of  the  work  accomplished 
business  men  in  Chicago  and  other  cities 
had  similar  training  camps  established. 
On  several  occasions  the  trenches  at 
Plattsburg  were  used  in  mimic  battles. 

PLAUEN,  one  of  the  most  important 
manufacturing  towns  of  Saxony;  on  the 
Elster,  72  miles  S.  of  Leipsic.  Its  chief 
industries  are  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods,  muslin,  cambric,  jaconet,  and  em- 
broidered fabrics,  with  in  a  secondary 
degree  cigars,  paper,  machinery.  Pop. 
about  130,000. 

PLAUTUS,  T.  MACCIUS,  a  Roman 
comic  poet;  born  in  Umbria,  probably 
about  255  B.  c.  He  spent  the  greater 
part  of  his  life  at  Rome,  where  at  one 
time  he  is  said  to  have  been  reduced  to 
the  necessity  of  grinding  corn  with  a 
handmill  for  a  baker.  He  began  to 
write  plays  about  220,  and  gained  im- 
mense popularity  with  his  countrymen 
by  his  numerous  comedies.  Twenty  of 
his  comedies  are  still  extant  out  of  the 
21  pronounced  genuine  by  Varro.  One 
hundred  and  thirty  were  current  under 
his  name.  His  plays  were  still  acted  in 
the  reign  of  Domitian,  and  some  of  them 
have  been  imitated  by  modern  drama-: 
tists.     He  died  184  b.  c. 

PLAYFAIR,  SIR  LYON,  an  English 
scientist;  son  of  Dr.  G.  Playfair,  in- 
spector-general of  hospitals  in  Bengal; 
born  in  Meerut,  Bengal,  May  21,  1819; 
educated  at  St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh 
Universities.  He  studied  chemistry  un- 
der Graham  in  Glasgow  and  London,  and 
under  Liebig  at  Giessen.  Inspector-gen- 
eral of  government  museums  and  schools 
of  science  in  1856,  and  was  Professor  of 
Chemistry  at  Edinburgh  University 
1858-1869.  From  1868-1885  he  repre- 
sented Edinburgh  and  St.  Andrews  Uni- 
versities in  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
afterward  the  S.  division  of  Leeds.  He 
held  several  appointments  under  Liberal 
governments,  including  that  of  postmas- 
ter-general 1873-1874,  and  was  created 
a  K.  C.  B.  in  1883.  Besides  his  scien- 
tific memoirs  he  published  numerous  im- 
portant papers  on  political,  social,  and 
educational     subjects.     Most     of     these 


PLAYGROUNDS 


273 


PLEDGE 


economical  essays  were  collected  and 
published  under  the  title  "Subjects  of 
Social  Welfare."  He  was  also  an  LL.D. 
of  Edinburgh  (1869),  F.  R.  S.,  member 
of  many  learned  societies,  and  possessed 
several  foreign  orders.  He  died  May  29, 
1898. 

PLAYGROUNDS  AND  RECREA- 
TION ^CENTERS.  The  first  two  dec- 
ades of  the  twentieth  century  witnessed 
an  increased  interest  in  the  welfare 
pf  children  on  the  part  of  the  Amer- 
ican public.  Legislation  prohibiting 
child  labor  and  restricting  the  hours  of 
labor  for  young  persons  between  the 
ages  of  15  and  20  has  been  passed  by 
the  Federal  Government  and  by  nearly 
all  the  States.  Educators  have  pointed 
out  that  in  play  all  the  child's  energies 
and  talents  are  given  scope,  because  only 
in  play  can  his  deepest  interest  be 
aroused.  Some  intensity  of  interest  and 
attention  can  be  secured  in  work,  but 
nothing  in  comparison  with  what  can  be 
obtained  by  play  when  that  play  is  prop- 
erly directed. 

The  city  of  Boston  established  the 
first  playground  in  1882,  and  New  York, 
five  years  later  appropriated  $1,000,000 
to  be  used  in  purchasing  small  parks  to 
be  used  as  playgrounds.  In  1894  the 
Tenement  House  Commission  secured 
two  small  plots  from  the  city  of  New 
York  to  be  used  as  playgrounds  for  the 
children  of  the  tenements.  One  of  these 
parks,  left  without  any  apparatus  and 
with  no  directors,  was  of  little  use.  The 
other,  however,  was  directed  by  the  Rec- 
reation League  of  New  York,  who  raised 
funds  to  supply  apparatus  and  to  pay  for 
the  proper  direction  of  the  play.  This 
was  opened  to  the  children  in  July  1899, 
under  the  name  of  Seward  Park  and  at 
once  proved  an  immense  success.  In  the 
same  year  the  school  boards  of  the  dif- 
ferent boroughs  comprising  the  city  of 
New  York  appropriated  money  to  equip 
the  school-yards  of  the  city  with  appa- 
ratus and  to  pay  the  directors  of  the 
play.  From  1900  on,  the  number  of 
playgrounds  in  New  York  have  steadily 
increased,  but  not  sufficiently  to  answer 
the  requirements  of  the  children.  The 
success  attending  the  experiment  in 
New  York  led  other  large  cities,  both 
American  and  European  to  establish 
playgrounds.  In  1920  nearly  all  cities 
in  the  United  States  having  a  population 
of  over  50,000  had  made  some  provision 
for  playgrounds  and  for  the  most  part 
they  have  had  paid  supervision.  In  1907 
the  Playground  and  Recreation  Society 
of  America  was  founded  and  began  to 
publish  a  monthy  magazine,  "The  Play- 
greund." 

The  ownership  and  management  of  the 


playgrounds  was  at  first  entirely  private 
but  lately  it  has  tended  to  take  its  place 
among  those  functions  expected  of  a 
modern  municipality.  The  chief  agency 
in  such  cases  of  public  ownership  has 
been  the  school  board.  Very  few  play- 
grounds have  been  a  success  unless  they 
have  been  under  the  supervision  of  some 
older  person  skilled  in  the  direction  of 
children.  To  meet  this  demand  for 
trained  leadership  classes  have  been 
opened    in    many   cities. 

Many  large  cities  finding  the  space 
provided  for  playgrounds  insufficient 
have  set  aside  certain  streets  for  chil- 
dren's play.  Traffic  on  these  streets  is 
prohibited  during  the  hours  from  three 
in  the  afternoon  until  six  at  night. 
Chicago  has  made  perhaps  the  most  elab- 
orate provision  for  playgrounds  and  rec- 
reation centers  of  any  American  city. 

PLEA,  in  English  law,  that  which  is 
pleaded  or  alleged  by  a  party  to  an  ac- 
tion in  support  of  his  demand;  in  a  more 
restricted  sense  the  answer  of  the  de- 
fendant in  a  cause  to  the  plaintiff's 
declaration  and  demand.  Pleas  are  two 
sorts:  dilatory  pleas,  and  pleas  to  the 
action.  Pleas  to  the  action  are  such  as 
dispute   the   very  cause   of   suit. 

PLEADING,  the  act  of  advocating  a 
cause  in  a  court  of  law.  In  the  plural, 
the  written  statements  of  parties  in  a 
suit  at  law,  containing  the  declaration 
and  claim  of  the  plaintiff,  or  the  answer 
or  defense  of  the  defendant.  Pleadings 
consist  of  the  declaration,  the  plea,  the 
replication,  the  rejoinder,  the  sur-re- 
joinder,  the  rebutter,  the  sur-rebutter, 
etc.,  which  are  successively  filed.  Plead- 
ings were  formerly  made  by  word  of 
mouth  in  court. 

PLEBEIANS,  or  PLEBS,  in  ancient 
Rome,  one  of  the  great  orders  of  the 
Roman  people,  at  first  excluded  from 
nearly  all  the  rights  of  citizenship.  The 
whole  government  of  the  state,  with  the 
enjoyment  of  all  its  offices,  belonged  ex- 
clusively to  the  patricians,  with  whom 
the  plebeians  could  not  even  intermarry. 
The  Lex  Hortensia  (286  B.  c)  gave  the 
plebisclta,  or  enactments  passed  at  the 
plebeian  assemblies,  the  force  of  law. 
From  this  time  the  privileges  of  the 
two  classes  may  be  said  to  have  been 
equal. 

PLEDGE,  the  transfer  of  a  chattel 
from  a  debtor  to  a  creditor  as  a  security 
of  a  debt,  or  that  which  is  pledged  or 
pawned  as  security  for  the  repayment 
of  money  borrowed,  or  for  the  perform- 
ance of  some  obligation  or  engagement; 
a  pawn.  Pledges  are  generally  goods 
and  chattels,  but  anything  valuable  of  a 
personal    nature,    as    money,    negotiable 


PLEIADES 


274 


PLEVNA 


instruments,  etc.,  may  be  given  in 
pledge.  A  living  pledge  {vadnim  vi- 
vum)  is  one  which  produces  an  income, 
interest,  or  profit  by  being  used,  and 
which  is  retained  by  the  pledgee  till  he 
shall  have  satisfied  his  claim  out  of 
such  income,  profit,  or  interest;  a  dead 
pledge  {vadium  mortuum)  is  a  mort- 
gage. 

PLEIADES,  or  PLEIADS,  a  group  of 
stars  in  the  constellation  Taurus,  the 
Bull.  The  stars  are  so  close  together 
that  it  is  a  difficult  to  say  how  many  are 
seen  by  the  naked  eye.  According  to 
mythology,  the  Pleiades  were  the  seven 
daughters  of  Atlas,  who,  being  pursued 
by  Orion,  were  changed  by  Jupiter  into 
doves.  They  were  afterward  translated 
to  the  heavens,  where  they  formed  the 
assemblage  of  the  Seven  Stars  in  the 
neck   of   Taurus. 


PLEONASM,  redundancy  of  language 
in  speaking  or  writing;  the  use  in  speak- 
ing or  writing  of  more  words  than  are 
necessary  to  express  an  idea. 

PLESIOSAXTBUS,  the  typical  group  of 
the  order  Plesiosauria.  The  skin  was 
naked,  the  head  comparatively  small, 
neck  disproportionately  long,  and  the  tail 
short.  Teeth  conical  and  pointed,  with 
longitudinal  striations,  each  sunk  in  an 
independent  socket.  The  paddles  con- 
sist only  of  the  five  digits,  without  mar> 
ginal  ossicles.  It  was  certainly  aquatic; 
most  probably  marine,  though  it  may 
have  occasionally  visited  the  shore.  Its 
organization  would  fit  it  for  swimming 
on  or  near  the  surface,  and  the  length 
and  flexibility  of  its  neck  would  be  emi- 
nently serviceable  in  capturing  its  prey. 

PLETIIIA,  in  anatomy,  plural,  serous 
membranes  forming  two  shut  sacs,  each 


PLESIOSAURUS 


PLEISTOCENE,  a  term  proposed  in 
1839  by  Lyell  as  an  abbreviation  for 
Newer  Pliocene;  but  Edward  Forbes,  in 
adopting  it,  applied  it  to  the  next  more 
modern  series  of  beds,  called  by  Lyell 
Post-Tertiary.  Confusion  thus  arising, 
its  author  withdrew  the  word,  but  in  the 
"Student's  Elements  of  Geology,"  he  re- 
adopted  it  in  the  sense  of  Post-Pliocene. 
He  considers  it  the  older  of  two  divisions 
of  the  Post-Tertiary  or  Quaternary  pe- 
riod. Under  it  are  placed  the  Reindeer 
period  and  the  Palaeolithic  age  generally, 
the  Brick-earth,  the  Fluviatile  Loam  or 
Loess,  the  High  Plateaux  Gravel  or 
Loess,  the  Cavern  and  the  Glacial  Drift 
deposits.  The  climate  was  colder  than 
now,  the  summers  hot  and  short,  the 
winters  long  and  severe. 

PLENIPOTENTIARY,  one  who  is  in- 
rested  with  full  and  absolute  powers  to 
transact  any  business;  specifically,  an 
ambassador  or  envoy  accredited  to  a 
foreign  court,  with  full  powers  to 
negotiate  a  treaty  or  to  transact  other 
business. 


possessed  of  a  visceral  and  a  parietal 
portion.  The  former  {p.  pulmonalis) 
covers  the  lungs,  and  the  latter  {p. 
costalis)  the  ribs,  the  intercostal  spaces, 
etc.  The  term  is  used  of  the  air-breath- 
ing vertebrates  in  the  same  sense  as 
above.  In  the  singular  form  it  is  ap- 
plied to  the  odontophore  of  the  mollusca. 

PLEtrmSY,  inflammation  of  the 
pleura,  going  on  to  exudation,  fluid  ef- 
fusion, absorption,  and  adhesion.  A 
stitch  in  the  side  is  complained  of,  the 
breathing  becomes  hurried  and  shallow, 
and,  as  the  sero-fibrinous  deposit  becomes 
greater,  intense  dyspnoea  sets  in,  with  a 
short,  dry,   hacking  cough. 

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA,  pneumonia 
with  bronchitis,  the  former  constituting 
the  chief  disease. 

PLEVNA,  a  town  of  Bulgaria,  19 
miles  S.  of  the  Danube  and  85  N.  E.  of 
Sophia.  Here  in  1877  Osman  Pasha,  the 
Turkish  general,  after  defeating  the  Rus- 
sians in  several  engagements,  intrenched 
himself.     After  making  an  unsuccessful 


PLEYEL 


275 


PLINY,    THE  ELDER 


attempt  to  cut  his  way  through  the  in- 
vesting Russian  army,  he  was  compelled, 
provisions  and  ammunition  running 
short,  to  capitulate  with  42,000  men  and 
77  guns.  The  siege  cost  the  Russians 
55,000  men,  the  Rumanians  10,000  and 
the  Turks  30,000.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

PLEYEL,  IGNAZ  JOSEPH,  a  German 
composer;  born  in  Ruppertsthal,  near 
Vienna,  June  1,  1757;  studied  under 
Haydn  and  in  Italy,  and  in  1783  was 
made  Kepellmeister  of  Strassburg  Cathe- 
dral. In  1791  he  visited  London,  and 
he  harmonized  many  of  the  melodies  for 
Thomson's  "Collection  of  Scottish 
Songs."  In  1795  he  opened  a  large 
music  shop  in  Paris,  and  in  1807  joined 
thereto  a  pianoforte  manufactory.  His 
compositions  consisted  of  quartets,  con- 
certos, and  sonatas.  He  died  in  Paris, 
Nov.  14,  1831. 

PLICA.  POLONICA,  Polish  ringworm; 
a  disease  characterized  at  first  by  ten- 
derness and  inflammation  of  the  scalp, 
after  which  the  hairs  become  swollen, 
their  follicles  secreting  a  large  quantity 
of  viscid  reddish-colored  fluid,  which 
glues  them  into  tufts  or  masses.  The 
disease  is  probably  caused  chiefly  by 
filth.  It  is  endemic  in  Poland,  Russia, 
and  Tartary. 

PLIMSOLL,  SAMUEL,  "the  sailor's 
friend,"  and  English  legislator;  born  in 
Bristol,  England,  Feb.  10,  1824.  In  1854 
he  started  business  on  his  own  account, 
in  the  coal  trade  in  London.  Shortly 
afterward  he  began  to  interest  himself 
in  the  sailors  of  the  mercantile  marine, 
aad  the  dangers  to  which  they  were  ex- 
posed in  unseaworthy  ships,  bad  stow- 
age, overloading,  etc.  Failing  to  induce 
Parliament  to  take  legislative  steps  to 
put  an  end  to  these  evils,  Mr.  Plimsoll 
himself  entered  Parliament,  for  Derby, 
in  1868;  but  it  was  not  till  he  had  pub- 
lished "Our  Seamen"  (1873)  that  he 
succeeded  in  getting  passed  the  Merchant 
Shipping  Act  in  1876.  By  this  act  the 
Board  of  Trade  was  empowered  to  de- 
tain, either  for  survey  or  permanently, 
any  vessel  deemed  unsafe,  either  on  ac- 
count of  defective  hull,  machinery,  or 
equipments,  etc.;  a  penalty  not  exceed- 
ing $1,500  was  incurred  by  any  owner 
who  should  ship  a  cargo  of  grain  in  bulk 
exceeding  two-thirds  of  the  entire  cargo, 
grain  in  bulk  being  especially  liable  to 
shift  on  the  voyage;  the  amount  of  tim- 
ber that  might  be  carried  as  deck  cargo 
was  defined,  and  enforced  by  penalties; 
finally  every  owner  was  ordered  to  mark 
(often  called  the  "Plimsoll  Mark")  on 
the  sides  of  his  ships,  amidships,  a  cir- 
cular disk,  12  inches  in  diameter,  with  a 
horizontal    line    18    inches    long    drawn 


through  its  center,  this  line  and  the 
center  of  the  disk  to  mark  the  maximum 
load  line — i.  e.  the  line  down  to  which  the 
vessel  might  be  loaded,  in  salt  water. 
In  1890  this  act  was  amended,  the  fixing 
of  the  load  line  being  taken  out  of  the 
owner's  discretion  and  made  a  duty  of 
the  Board  of  Trade.  Mr.  Plimsoll  re- 
tired from  parliamentary  life  in  1880. 
In  1890  he  published  a  work  on  "Cattle- 
ships,"  exposing  the  cruelties  and  great 
dangers  connected  with  the  shipping  of 
live  cattle  across  the  ocean  to  British 
ports.     He  died  June  3,  1898. 

PLINY,  THE  ELDER  (Caius  Plinius 
Secundus),  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
writers  of  ancient  Rome;  born  in  Verona 
or  Como  A.  D.  23,  served  in  the  army  of 
Germany,  afterward  became  an  advocate, 
and  was  ultimately  procurater  in  Spain. 
As  an  inquirer  into  the  works  of  nature 


PLINY  THE  ELDER 

he  was  indefatigable.  Being  at  Mise- 
num  with  a  fleet,  which  he  commanded, 
on  the  24th  of  August,  A.  D.,  79,  his  sis- 
ter desired  him  to  observe  a  remarkable 
cloud  that  had  just  appeared.  Pliny 
discovering  that  it  proceeded  from  Mount 
Vesuvius,  ordered  his  galleys  to  sea,  to 
assist  the  inhabitants  on  the  coast,  while 
he  himself  steered  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  foot  of  the  mountain,  which  now  sent 
forth  vast  quantities  of  burning  rock 
and  lava.  Pliny  and  his  companions 
landed  at  Stabiae,  but  were  soon  obliged 
to  leave  the  town  for  the  fields.  Pliny, 
who  was  very  corpulent,  fell  down  dead, 
suffocated  probably  by  the  noxious  va- 
pors. The  eruption  which  caused  his 
death  was  that   in  which  the  cities  of 


PLINY,    THE    YOUNGER 


276 


PLOVER 


Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  were  de- 
stroyed, in  the  first  year  of  the  Emi)€ror 
Titus.  He  wrote  several  works,  which 
have  perished,  but  his  name  and  fame 
are  preserved  by  his  great  work  entitled 
"Natural  History,"  in  37  books.  It  is  a 
laborious  compilation,  on  almost  all 
branches  of  natural  science,  fine  arts, 
inventions,  and  other  subjects.  It  has 
been  translated  into  most  European  lan- 
guages, and  even  into  Arabic,  and  has 
been  republished  a  very  great  number  of 
times. 

PLINY,  THE  YOUNGER  (Caius 
Plinius  Caecilius  Secundis),  nephew  of 
the  preceding;  born  in  Como  A.  D.  62. 
He  studied  under  Quintilian,  and  in  his 
18th  year  began  to  plead  in  the  forum. 
Soon  after  this  he  went  as  military  trib- 
une to  Syria.  He  settled  at  Rome;  was 
promoted  to  the  consular  dignity  by 
Trajan,  in  praise  of  whom  he  pronounced 
a  famous  oration,  which  is  extant.     He 


PLINY  THE  YOUNGER 

was  afterward  made  proconsvd  of  Bi- 
th3mia,  from  whence  he  wrote  to  Trajan 
his  curious  and  well-known  account  of- 
the  Christians,  and  their  manner  of 
worship.  The  "Epistles  of  Pliny"  are 
agreeably  written,  and  very  instructive; 
they  were  translated  into  English  by 
Lord  Orrey  and  Mr.  Melmoth.  He  died 
after  112. 

PLIOCENE  or  PLEIOCENE,  the  epi- 
thet applied  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell  to  the 
most  modern  of  the  three  periods  into 
which  he  divided  the  Tertiary,  Its  dis- 
tinguished character  is  that  the  larger 
part  of  the  fossil  shells  are  of  recent 
species.  Lyell  divides  it  into  the  Older 
and  the  Newer  Pliocene.  In  the  Older, 
the  extinct  species  of  shells  form  a  large 


majority  of  the  whole;  in  the  Newer,  the 
shells  are  almost  all  of  living  species. 

There  is  a  rich  Pliocene  flora  in  Italy, 
Mr.  Gaudin  and  the  Marquis  Strozzi  enu- 
merate pine,  oak,  evergreen  oak,  plum, 
plane,  elder,  fig,  laurel,  maple,  walnut, 
birch,  buckthorn,  etc.  In  the  British 
Pliocene  or  Crag,  Etheridge  enumerates 
328  genera,  and  1,103  species  of  animals; 
30  genera,  and  57  species  are  mammalia. 
Both  Vesuvius  and  Etna  were  in  opera- 
tion. The  climate,  at  first  temperate, 
was  becoming  severe,  and  the  Newer 
Pliocene  was  contemporaneous  with  part 
of  the  Glacial  Period  (q.  v.). 

PLOCK,  a  town  of  Russian  Poland,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Vistula,  60  miles 
N.  W.  of  Warsaw.  Its  principal  build- 
ing is  the  cathedral,  built  in  the  11th  cen- 
tury. One  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Po- 
land, Plock  was  the  capital  of  ancient 
Masovia,  and  was  severely  ravaged  by 
the  heathen  Prussians,  the  Lithuanians, 
and  the  Swedes.  During  the  World 
War  the  town  suffered  severely  by  being 
bombarded  and  fought  over  in  the  strug- 
gle between  German  and  Russian  forces. 
Pop.  about  40,000. 

PLOMBIERES,  a  town  in  the  French 
department  of  Vosges,  14  miles  S.  of 
Epinal;  sprang  into  fashion  through  the 
favor  of  Napoleon  III.,  though  the  vir- 
tues of  its  waters  were  known  ever  since 
the  times  of  the  Romans.  ^  There  are 
nearly  30  springs,  ranging  in  tempera- 
ture from  66°  to  150°  F.;  their  waters 
are  helpful  against  skin  diseases,  gout, 
rheumatism,  dyspepsia,  female  com- 
plaints, etc.  The  permanent  population 
is  about  2,000. 

PLOTINUS,  a  Greek  philosopher, 
founder  of  the  Neo-Platonic  school;  was 
born  in  Lycopolis,  Egypt,  A.  D.  203.  He 
was  trained  in  the  school  of  Alexandria, 
under  Ammonius  Saccas,  then  visited  the 
East,  and  about  244  settled  at  Rome, 
where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  as  a 
teacher  and  writer.  Porphyry,  his  most 
eminent  disciple,  wrote  his  life,  and  ar- 
ranged and  published  his  works,  divided 
into  six  sets  of  nine  books  each  ("En- 
neads").  Plotinus  was  a  profound 
thinker  and  a  deeply  religious  man,  and 
his  system,  a  sort  of  mystical  idealism,  a 
combination  of  Platonic  with  Oriental 
notions.     He  died  in  Campania,  in  270. 

PLOVER,  the  common  English  name 
of  several  wading  birds;  specifically,  the 
golden  yellow,  or  green  plover,  Chara- 
arius  pluvialis.  In  winter  the  old  male 
has  all  the  upper  parts  sooty-black,  with 
large  golden-yellow  spots  on  the  margin 
of  the  backs  of  the  feathers,  the  sides  of 
the  head,  neck,  and  breast  with  ashy- 
brown   and   yellowish   spots,   the   throat 


PLOW 


277 


PLUMBING 


and  lower  parts  white,  the  quills  black. 
The  summer  plumage  of  the  upper  parts 
deep  black,  the  front  and  sides  of  the 
neck  pure  white,  with  great  black  and 
yellow  spots.  Lower  parts  mostly  deep 
black.  _  Length  about  10  inches.  Its 
nest,  in  a  depression  of  the  ground,  is 
made  of  a  few  dry  fibers  and  stems  of 
grass;  the  eggs,  which  are  highly  es- 
teemed as  delicacies,  are  four  in  number, 
cream   yellow   or    oil-green,   with   large 


GOLDEN  PLOVER 

blotches  of  umber-brown.  Plovers  are 
gregarious  in  habit,  and  have  a  wide 
geographical  range.  The  gray  plover  is 
Squatarola  cinerea. 

PLOW,  an  implement  for  making  a 
furrow  in  land,  the  object  being  to  stir 
the  soil,  make  a  bed  for  seed,  cover  seed, 
hill  up  earth  to  crops,  lay  out  lines  for 
planting  trees  or  shrubs,  and  for  other 
purposes,  according  to  construction.  It 
may  be  drawn  either  by  animal,  steam, 
or  gasoline  power.  Plows  drawn  by 
animal  power,  i.  e.,  by  horses  or  oxen, 
are  divided  into  swing  plows  and  wheel 
plows,  the  former  being  without  wheels. 
The  wheel  plow  has  a  forward  carriage 
to  regulate  the  depth  of  furrow,  one 
wheel  running  on  the  land  and  the  other 
in  the  furrow.  Besides  these  there  are 
also  plows  for  special  purposes;  as,  sub- 
soil plows,  draining  plows,  etc.  A  bal- 
ance plow  is  one  in  which  two  sets  of 
plow  bodies  and  coulters  are  attached 
to  an  iron  frame,  moving  on  a  fulcrum, 
one  set  at  either  extremity,  and  pointing 
different  ways.  By  this  arrangement 
the  balance  plow  can  be  used  without 
turning. 
_  In  bookbinding,  an  implement  for  cut- 
ting and  smoothing  the  edges  of  books. 

PLUM,  the  fruit  of  Primus  domestica, 
the  common  plum,  a  sub-species  of  P. 
communis  or  that  tree  itself.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  Caucasus  and  Asia  Minor, 


whence  it  was  introduced  into  Europe 
at  a  very  early  period.  It  has  run  into 
more  than  300  varieties. 

PLUMBING,  the  name  applied  to  the 
system  of  pipes,  valves,  fittings  and  fix- 
tures installed  in  buildings  which  supply 
water  and  remove  human  excrement  and 
liquid  wastes.  Heating  systems  and  fuel 
piping  are  not  in  the  strictest  sense  con- 
sidered   plumbing. 

The  earliest  pipes  were  made  of  lead, 
but  in  modern  practice  this  material  has 
been  to  a  large  extent  replaced  by 
vitrified  clay  tile,  cast  or  wrought  iron, 
brass  and  copper.  The  exposed  pipes 
in  modern  high  grade  buildings  are 
nickel  plated  brass  or  white  enameled 
metal. 

The  water  is  usually  brought  to  the 
property  line  by  the  water  company,  and 
connected  with  the  house  by  a  service 
pipe;  the  flow  through  is  usually  con- 
trolled by  two  valves,  one  for  the  water 
company,  which  may  be  located  at  the 
curb,  and  one  for  the  building.  Modern 
practice  places  a  meter  in  the  service 
pipe  just  inside  the  building.  Usually 
there  are  two  sets  of  pipes,  one  for  hot 
water,  the  other  for  cold.  The  water  is 
heated  by  a  water  front  in  a  range,  by 
a  coil  in  the  heating  system  of  the  house, 
or  by  a  special  copper  coil  which  is  heated 
by  gas,  the  water  usually  goes  from  the 
heater  to  a  riveted  storage  tank  and  is 
then  circulated  through  the  pipes  to  the 
various  outlets. 

The  end  of  each  pipe  from  which 
water  is  to  be  drawn  is  fitted  with  a 
special  type  of  valve  called  a  faucet,  and 
a  good  design  demands  that  several 
valves  be  placed  in  the  pipes  in  order 
that  the  water  may  be  shut  off  from 
parts  of  the  system  without  depriving  the 
entire  building  from  water. 

Fixtures.  The  materials  used  for  fix- 
tures range  from  solid  porcelain  tx)  iron. 
Solid  porcelain  fixtures  are  very  expen- 
sive, liable  to  break  in  the  handling  nec- 
essary to  installation  and  are  very 
heavy.  Metal  fixtures  upon  which  a 
heavy  coating  of  porcelain  has  been 
fused  are  sanitary,  resemble  solid  por- 
celain in  appearance  and  are  much  more 
common  and  inexpensive.  Marble  has 
its  vogue,  but  is  seldom  used  now.  Iron 
is  used  for  heavy  low  grade  sinks  and 
soapstone  for  laundry  tubs.  The  com- 
mon fixtures  are  sinks,  used  in  kitchens 
and  pantries,  laundry  tubs,  wash  bowls, 
bath  tubs,  water  closets,  shower  baths 
and  urinals.  The  modern  water  closet 
is  of  the  siphon  type  in  which  the  flow 
of  water  is  controlled  by  a  valve.  The 
incoming  water  takes  the  place  of  water 
already  in  the  bowl  of  the  closet,  which 
carries  with  it  the  wastes. 


PLUMER 


278 


PLUTARCH 


Drainage.  All  waste  water  is  carried 
from  the  house  by  a  system  of  pipes 
which  connect  with  the  sewerage  sys- 
tem. A  drain  pipe  leads  from  each  fix- 
^  ture  and  the  water  flows  by  gravity 
through  a  trap  or  water  sealed  curved 
pipe  or  chamber  which  prevents  gas 
from  the  sewer  from  backing  up  into 
the  dwelling. 

PLUMER,  BARON  HERBERT 
CHARLES  ONSLOW,  a  British  soldier. 
He  was  born  in  1857,  and  entered  York 
and  Lancaster  Regiment  in  1876.  He 
served  in  the  Soudan  in  1884  and  in 
South  Africa  in  1896,  when  he  raised  and 
commanded  a  corps  of  mounted  rifles. 
He  was  in  the  South  African  War  in 
1899-1902,  and  commanded  the  4th  Bri- 
gade 1st  Army  Corps  in  1902-1903.  In 
1904-1905  he  was  quartermaster-general 
to  the  Forces,  and  3d  military  member  of 
the  Army  Council  1904-1905.  He  com- 
manded the  5th  Division  of  the  Irish 
Command  in  1906-1909,  and  was  General 
Officer  commanding  Northern  Command 
in  1911-1914.  In  the  World  War  he 
commanded  the  5th  Army  Corps  till 
May  1915.  In  1915  he  was  named 
Grand  Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor, 
and  of  the  Star  of  Leopold.  In  1916  he 
was  promoted  General.  From  1915  to 
the  close  of  the  war  he  commanded  the 
2d  Army  of  the  British  Expeditionary 
Force. 

PLUNKETT,  SIR  HORACE  CUR- 
ZON,  an  Irish  leader,  born  in  1854  of  a 
noble  family,  he  attended  both  Eton  and 
Oxford  University.  Soon  after  grad- 
uating from  Oxford  he  went  to  a  ranch 
in  Montana  and  lived  there  ten  years, 
gaining  that  sympathetic  understanding 
of  the  f  armer  s  needs  that  has  distin- 
guished^ his  work  for  Ireland.  In  1894, 
after  his  return  to  Ireland  he  founded 
the  Irish  Agricultural  Organization  So- 
ciety which  has  accomplished  a  great 
work  for  Irish  Agriculture.  From  1892 
to  1900  he  was  a  Unionist  member  of 
Parliament,  serving  most  of  the  time  on 
Commissions  having  to  do  with  Irish 
affairs.  Lukewarm  at  first  toward  the 
cause  of  Irish  Home  Rule,  Sir  Horace 
finally  became  an  exponent  of  it  in  1914. 
He  presided  over  the  convention  called 
by  the  Prime  Minister  in  1917  and  wrote 
the  majority  report.  He  has  recently  es- 
poused the  cause  of  a  Dominion  govern- 
ment for   Ireland. 

PLUSH,  a  shaggy  pile  cloth  of  vari- 
ous materials.  An  unshorn  velvet  of 
cotton,  silk,  or  mixed  fiber,  sometimes  of 
a  silk  nap  and  cotton  back.  It  has  two 
warps,  one  of  which  is  brought  to  the 
surface  to^  make  the  nap.  The  warp  is 
gathered  in  loops  by  wire,  and  cut  in 


the  manner  of  velvet.  It  is  composed 
regularly  of  a  woof  of  a  single  woolen 
thread  and  a  double  warp;  the  one  wool 
of  two  threads  twisted,  the  other  goat's 
or  camel's  hair.  Some  imitation  plushee 
are  made  of  other  materials. 


SIR  HORACE  C.  PLUNKETT 

PLUTARCH,  a  Greek  biographer  and 
moralist,  a  native  of  Chaeronea,  in  Boeo- 
tia.  In  A.  D.  66  he  was  a  pupil  of  the 
philosopher  Ammonius  at  Delphi.  He 
visited  Italy,  and  spent  some  time  at 
Rome,  lecturing  there  on  philosophy  as 
early  as  the  reign  of  Domitian.  He  re- 
turned to  his  native  town,  where  he 
held  various  magistracies,  and  was  ap- 
pointed priest  of  Apollo.  He  was  still 
living  in  120,  but  the  time  of  his  death 
is  not  known.  His  great  work  is  en- 
titled "Parallel  Lives,"  and  consists  of 
biographies  of  46  eminent  Greeks^  and 
Romans,  arranged  in  pairs,  each  pair  ac- 
companied by  a  comparison  of  charac- 
ters. They  are  written  with  a  moral 
purpose,  and  present  not  orderly  narra- 
tives of  events,  but  portraitures  of  men, 
drawn  with  much  graphic  power,  with 
great  good  sense,  honesty,  and  kind- 
heartedness.  Few  books  of  ancient  or 
modern  times  have  been  so  widely  read, 
so  generally  admired,  as  these  "Lives." 
The  most  important  of  modern  English 
translations  of  his  work  is  A.  H.  Clough's 
(New  York,  1910). 


PLUTO 


279 


PLYMOUTH  BBETHREN 


PLUTO,  in  mythology,  the  son  of 
Saturn  and  Ops,  inherited  his  father's 
kingdom  with  his  brothers,  Jupiter  and 
Neptune.  He  received  as  his  share  the 
infernal  regions.  All  the  goddesses  re- 
fused to  marry  him;  but,  on  seeing  Pros- 
erpine, the  daughter  of  Ceres,  gathering 
flowers  in  the  plains  of  Enna,  in  Sicily, 
be  became  enamored  of  her,  and  imme- 
diately carried  her  away.  Black  vic- 
tims, and  particularly  a  bull,  were  the 
only  sacrifices  offered  to  him.  The  dog 
Cerberus  watched  at  his  feet,  the  har- 
pies hovered  around  him,  Proserpine  sat 
on  his  left,  and  the  Parcae  occupied  his 
right  hand.  Pluto  is  called  by  some  the 
father  of  the  Eumenides. 

PLUTONIC  ROCKS,  rocks  of  igneous 
or  aqueo-igneous  origin,  believed  to  have 
been  formed  at  a  great  depth  and  under 
great  pressure  of  the  superincumbent 
rocks,  or  in  some  cases,  perhaps,  of  the 
ocean.  They  have  been  melted,  and 
cooled  very  slowly  so  as  to  permit  them 
to  crystallize.  Under  the  plutonic  rocks 
are  comprehended  granites,  syenites,  and 
some  porphyries,  diorite,  tonalite,  and 
gabbro.  They  belong  to  all  the  leading 
geological  periods,  even  the  Tertiary. 

PLUVIOSE,  the  name  adopted,  in  Oc- 
tober, 1793,  by  the  French  Convention 
for  the  fifth  month  of  the  republican 
year.  It  commenced  on  Jan.  20,  and  was 
the  second  winter  month. 

PLYMOUTH,  a  seaport,  municipal 
and  parliamentary  borough  of  England, 
in  Devonshire,  at  the  head  of  Plymouth 
Sound,  between  the  estuaries  of  the  Pljrra 
and  Tamar.  Taken  in  its  largest  sense, 
it  comprehends  what  are  called  the 
"Three  Towns,"  or  Devonport  on  the  W., 
Stonehouse  in  the  center,  and  Plymouth 
proper  on  the  E.  The  older  parts  of  the 
town  consist  of  narrow  and  irregular 
streets  devoid  of  architectural  beauty, 
but  the  newer  parts  and  suburbs  display 
an  abundance  of  elegant  buildings.  The 
guild  hall,  a  Gothic  building,  is  the  finest 
modern  edifice  (1870-1874),  and  has  a 
';ower  nearly  200  feet  high.  The  citadel, 
an  obsolete  fortification  built  by  Charles 
II,,  is  another  object  of  interest.  Ply- 
mouth is  well  defended  both  by  land  and 
sea,  by  a  series  of  forts  of  exceptional 
strength  provided  with  heavy  ordnance. 
The  manufactures  are  not  very  exten- 
sive, and  chiefly  connected  with  ships' 
stores;  but  the  fisheries  are  valuble,  and 
Plymouth  has  a  large  export  and  coast- 
ing trade.  Its  chief  importance  lies  in 
its  position  as  a  naval  station.  Thanks 
to  extensive  and  sheltered  harbors,^  Ply- 
mouth rose  from  a  mere  fishing  village 
to  the  rank  of  foremost  port  of  England 
under  Elizabeth,  and  is  now  as  a  naval 


port  second  only  to  Portsmouth  To 
secure  safe  anchorage  in  the  sound  a 
stupendous  breakwater  has  been  con- 
structed at  a  cost  of  about  $10,000,000. 
The  Western  Harbor,  or  the  Hamoaze 
(mouth  of  the  Tamar),  is  specially  de- 
voted to  the  royal  navy,  and  here  (in 
Devonport,  which  see)  are  the  dock- 
yard, and  Keyham  steam  yard;  the  vic- 
tualling yard,  marine  barracks,  and 
naval  hospital  being  in  Stonehouse.  The 
mercantile  marine  is  accommodated  in 
the  Eastern  Harbor,  the  Catwater  (200 
acres),  or  estuary  of  the  Plym,  and  in 
Sutton  Pool,  and  the  Great  Western 
Docks  in  Mill  Bay.  In  the  World  War 
(1914-1918)  Plymouth  was  a  naval  base 
for  operations  against  the  enemy,  and 
port  of  entry  for  the  Canadian  and 
other  expeditionary  forces.  Pop.  (1917) 
179,395. 

PLYMOUTH,  a  town  and  county-seat 
of  Plymouth  co.,  Mass.;  on  Plymouth 
Bay,  and  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven, 
and  Hartford  railroad;  37  miles  S.  E.  of 
Boston.  The  town  has  electric  lights, 
water  works,  electric  street  railroads, 
court  house,  public  library.  National  and 
savings  banks,  and  several  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers.  It  has  a  large  in- 
dustry in  cod  fish,  and  manufactures  of 
cordage,  cotton,  ducks,  woolen  and  cotton 
goods,  zinc,  steel  and  iron  products,  coop- 
erage, etc.  Plymouth  is  of  importance 
as  the  spot  where  the  Pilgrim  Fathers 
landed  on  Dec.  21,  1620.  A  portion  of 
the  rock  on  which  they  first  stepped  has 
been  placed  in  front  of  Pilgrim  Hall,  in 
which  are  preserved  old  books,  paintings, 
pictures,  and  other  valuable  relics.  The 
rock  itself  is  in  Water  Street,  and  is 
covered  by  a  handsome  granite  canopy. 
Plymouth  also  has  the  National  monu- 
ment, 81  feet  high,  erected  to  the  Pil- 
grims at  a  cost  of  $200,000,  and  dedi- 
cated in  1889.  There  are  also  statues  of 
Faith,  Morality,  Law,  Fi^edom,  and  Ed- 
ucation. Pop.  (1910)  12,141;  (1920) 
13,045. 

PLYMOUTH,  a  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Luzerne  co.  It  is  on  the  Sus- 
quehanna river  and  on  the  Delaware, 
Lackawanna,  and  Western  railroad.  ^  It 
is  the  center  of  an  important  coal  mining 
and  coal  trading  region.  Its  industries 
include  the  manufacture  of  mining  drill 
machines,  hosiery,  silk,  lumber  products, 
etc.     Pop.   (1910)   16,996;   (1020)   16.500. 

PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN,  a  body 
which  arose  almost  simultaneously  in 
Dublin  and  Plymouth,  about  1830,  and, 
as  they  called  themselves  "The  Breth- 
ren," outsiders  came  to  know  them  as 
"Plymouth  Brethren"  from  the  town 
where  they  had  fixed  their  headciuarters 


PLYMOUTH    BOCK 


280 


PNEUMATIC    TOOLS 


Their  chief  founder  was  a  lawyer,  named 
Darby,  who  had  taken  _  orders.  Their 
communities  are  of  what  is  known  as  the 
Evangelical  Calvinistic  type,  and  many 
of  them  maintain  that  only  among  them- 
selves is  true  Christianity  to  be  found. 
They  have  no  regular  ministry,  every 
brother  being  at  liberty  to  prophesy  or 

E reach  whenever  moved  to  do  so.  They 
aptize  all  adults,  whether  previously 
baptized  or  not,  and  observe  the  Sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  Supper  weekly. 
They  are  rigid  Predestinarians  and  ex- 
pect the  millennium. 


by  Latimer  Clark  in  1853,  improveff  my 
Varley  in  1858,  and  again  by  Siemens  in 
1863.  The  invention  of  Latimer  Clark 
and  Varley  required  a  separate  tube  be- 
tween each  pair  of  stations,  and  admit- 
ted of  only  a  single  dispatch  at  a  time; 
but  a  system  of  laying  tubes  in  circuit 
for  the  continuous  transmission  of  dis- 
patches, by  means  of  an  uninterrupted 
air  current  in  one  direction,  was  adopted 
in  Berlin  by  Siemens  and  Halske  in 
1863,  and  introduced  in  London  in  1870. 
Both  systems  are  in  use  in  London  with 
modifications  to  suit  special  traffic. 


PLYMOUTH  ROCK 


PLYMOUTH  ROCK.  See  Plymouth 
(Mass). 

PLYMOUTH  SOUND,  an  arm  of  the 
sea,  on  the  S.  W.  coast  of  England,  be- 
tween the  counties  of  Devon  and  Corn- 
wall. It  is  about  3  miles  wide  at  its  en- 
trance, bounded  by  elevated  land,  which 
descends  abruptly  to  the  sea.  It  con- 
tains Drake  Island,  which  is  fortified, 
and  the  celebrated  Pljrmouth  breakwater. 
See  Plymouth. 

PNEUMATIC  DISPATCH,  propulsion 
by  means  of  compressed  air  or  by  form- 
ing a  vacuum.  Pneumatic  railways  have 
thus  far  proved  abortive,  but  propulsion 
by  compressed  air  has  of  recent  years 
been  successfully  applied  to  a  variety  of 
practical  uses.  Parcels  are  thus  con- 
veyed, and  internal  communication  in 
warehouses,  hotels,  etc.,  is  carried  on  by 
its  ^  means.  The  most  developed  appli- 
cation of  compressed  air  as  a  motive 
force  is  in  connection  with  the  telegraph 
service  of  large  cities.  Pneumatic  dis- 
patch, which  has  proved  a  most  useful 
auxiliary  in  securing  prompt  and  cheap 
collection  and  distribution  of  telegraphic 
messages,  was  first  introduced  in  London 


Pneumatic  tubes  are  in  use  in  Liver- 
pool, Manchester,  Glasgow,  Dublin,  etc. 
The  circuit  system,  but  not  with  a  con- 
tinuous current,  is  extensively  used  in 
Paris.  The  tubes  are  of  iron  two  feet 
in  diameter.  Trains  leave  the  central 
station  at  fixed  intervals  and  make  the 
circuit.  Other  European  cities  have 
similar  systems.  New  York,  ^  Philadel- 
phia, and  other  American  cities  use  a 
pneumatic  mail  dispatching  system. 
This  is  being  superseded  to  some  extent 
(1920)  by  swift  motor  vehicles. 

PNEUMATIC  GUN,  a  gun  operated 
by  compressed  air. 

PNEUMATIC  TIRE,  a  rubber  tire 
made  hollow  and  then  inflated  with  air. 
In  common  use  for  the  wheels  of  motor- 
cars, bicycles,  etc. 

PNEUMATIC  TOOLS,  a  class  of  tools 
which  operate  by  compressed  air.  They 
are  usually  portable,  and  used  for  metal, 
wood  or  stone  work.  The  tools  are  of 
great  variety  and  are  put  to  many  uses, 
but  all  of  them  are  one  of  two  types- 
percussion  or  rotary.  In  both  types  the 
motor  is  contained  in  the  tool,  and  air 


PNEUMATIC    TOOLS 


281 


POACHING 


under  pressure  is  conducted  to  the  tool 
by  a  hose. 

Percussion  Tools. — Tools  of  this  tyi)e 
are  the  air  hammer,  clippers,  chippers, 
caulkers,  balast  tappers,  riveters,  etc. 
The  action  in  all  is  essentially  the  same. 
Air,  under  pressure  of  85  to  100  pounds 
per  square  inch  (except  in  the  case  of 
riveters  where  it  is  under  higher  pres- 
sure) is  sent  into  a  cylinder  containing 
a  piston,  which  is  made  to  reciprocate  in 
the  cylinder  by  proper  valve  action,  the 
tool  is  supported  in  the  front  end  of  the 
cylinder,  and  transmits  the  blow  received 
from  the  piston  to  the  work.  George 
Law,  an  Englishman,  invented  the  first 
pneumatic  tool,  a  percussion  rock  drill, 
in  1865.  In  this  tool,  as  in  most  which 
have  followed,  the  opposite  end  of  the 
drill  from  the  tool  end  was  fitted  with 
a  handle  and  a  controlling  throttle. 
Boyer  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  invented  the 
chipping  hammer  in  1896,  and  in  1899 
Keller  brought  out  the  first  valveless 
hammer,  in  which  there  is  no  valve  be- 
yond the  position  of  impact,  while  the 
valve  hammers  are  fitted  with  a  recipro- 
cating valve  which  regulates  the  inlet 
and  exhaust  of  the  driving  air.  Modern 
engineering  has  introduced  many  im- 
provements and  refinements  and  many 
patents  have  been  issued  on  various  meth- 
ods of  actuating  and  controlling  the  de- 
vice. In  general  the  valve  type  has  a 
longer  stroke,  and  a  more  powerful  blow 
than  the  valveless  type,  while  the  latter 
operates  at  a  much  higher  rate  of  speed, 
sometimes  over  20,000  strokes  a  minute, 
and  it  is  claimed  (which  claim 
is  not  uncontested)  by  some  engi- 
neers that  valveless  types  have  a  much 
longer  life  and  are  less  liable  to  get 
out  of  order.  The  percussion  tools  vary 
in  size  from  a  small  hand  hammer  to 
the  large  stationary  plate  riveter  weigh- 
ing tons. 

Rotary  Tools. — The  principal  rotary 
pneumatic  tools  are  the  drills,  reamers, 
etc.  They  are  made  in  a  great  range 
of  sizes,  and  are  used  for  many  things, 
such  as  drilling  wood  and  metal,  reaming 
boiler  tubes,  grinding  valve  seats  and 
cylinders,  polishing  and  grinding.  The 
rotary  tools  usually  operate  under  a  pres- 
.sure  of  about  75  pounds  per  square  inch. 
The  motor  may  be  of  the  rotary  type  or 
of  the  reciprocating  type  with  either  fixed 
or  oscillating  cylinders,  operating  on  a 
crank  shaft  to  which  the  tool  is  fastened 
by  a  suitable  mechanism.  The  great 
demands  on  the  part  of  the  shipyards 
for  pneumatic  tools  of  all  t3T>es  at  the 
time  of  the  World  War  gave  even 
greater  impetus  to  the  already  great  and 
fast  growing  industry  of  manufacturing 
pneumatic  tools. 


PNEUMOCONIOSIS,  affection  of  the 
lungs  arising  from  occupation  in  a  dust- 
laden  atmosphere.  It  takes  a  form  of 
chronic  bronchitis,  with  the  develop- 
ment of  a  catarrhal  condition  and  par- 
tial pneumonia,  shrinking  and  coloring 
the  tissues.  Among  stone  cutters  the 
disease  is  known  as  phthisis,  and  amonp 
coal  miners  as  anthracosis.  Its  mani- 
festations vary  with  the  occupation,  but 
the  mortality  is  heavy  in  all. 

PNEUMOGASTRIC  NERVE,  a  nerve, 
called  also  par  vagum,  which,  proceeding 
from  the  neck  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
abdomen,  supplies  branches  to  the  phar- 
ynx, oesophagus,  stomach,  liver,  spleen, 
and  respiratory  passages. 

PNEUMONIA,  inflammation  of  the 
lung,  usually  caused  by  exposure  to  cold 
or  wet,  a  cold  draught  or  chill  after  be- 
ing over-heated,  injury  to  the  chest,  ir- 
ritation, or  as  a  secondary  affection  in 
smallpox,  typhoid  or  puerperal  fever,  and 
other  low  wasting  diseases;  it  may  also 
be  caused  by  long  continued  congestion 
of  the  lung  substance,  particularly  in 
heart  disease,  or  in  old  and  weak  people 
who  are  bedridden  from  any  cause. 
Pneumonia  terminates  generally  in  reso- 
lution and  recovery,  but  sometimes  in 
death  from  collapse   and  exhaustion. 

PO,  the  largest  river  of  Italy,  rises  on 
Monte  Viso,  one  of  the  Cottian  Alps,  at 
an  altitude  of  6,405  feet,  ciose  to  the 
French  frontier.  It  flows  E.  for  upward 
of  20  miles,  when,  arriving  before  Saluz- 
zo,  it  emerges  from  its  rocky  d^ftles  and 
enters  upon  the  plain.  From  Saluzzo  it 
flows  N.  N.  E.  past  Turin  to  Chivasso; 
there  it  changes  its  course  toward  the 
E.,  in  which  direction  it  flows  to  its  em- 
bouchure in  the  Adriatic.  Upward  of 
55  miles  from  its  mouth,  above  Ferrara, 
it  begins  to  form  its  delta,  60  miles  wide 
from  N.  to  S.  The  delta  is  rapidly  grow- 
ing in  area.  Ravenna,  a  city  once  on 
the  seashore,  now  stands  4  miles  inland. 
The  Po  receives  from  the  left  the  Ticino, 
Adda,  Mincio,  and  other  streams  and 
from  the  right  the  Trebbia  and  others. 
It  has  an  entire  length  of  360  miles,  and 
drains  an  area  of  nearly  28,900  square 
miles. 

POACHING,  the  trespassing  on  an- 
other's property  for  the  purpose  of  kill- 
ing or  stealing  game  o!  fish.  Accord' 
ing  to  the  law  of  England,  when  a  per. 
son's  land  adjoins  a  stream  where  there 
is  no  ebb  and  flow  that  person  is  as- 
sumed to  have  an  exclusive  right  to  fish 
in  the  stream  as  far  as  his  land  extends, 
and  up  to  the  middle  of  the  stream;  and 
so  also  when  a  person's  land  incloses  a 
pond,  the  fish  in  that  pond  belong  to 
him.    Where  several  properties  are  con" 


POBEDONOSTSEV 


282 


POE 


tiguous  to  the  same  lake  the  right  of 
fishing  in  that  lake  belongs  to  the  pro- 
prietors, in  proportion  to  the  value  of 
their  respective  titles.  Exclusive^  right 
of  fishing  in  a  public  river,  that  is,  one 
in  which  there  is  an  ebb  and  flow  up  to 
the  tidal  limit,  or  a  portion  of  the  sea, 
iji  held  by  some  proprietors  by  virtue 
of  royal  franchises  granted  prior  to  the 
Magna  Charta.  Any  person,  not  an 
angler,  found  fish  poaching  on  private 
property  is  liable  to  a  maximum  fine  of 
$25  in  addition  to  the  value  of  the  fish; 
an  angler's  fine  does  not  exceed  $10.  In 
Scotland,  as  a  general  rule,  the  right  of 
catching  fish  other  than  salmon  belongs 
to  the  owners  of  the  land  on  the  banks 
of  the  waters.  As  to  property  in  salmon 
fishings  that  is  held  to  be  originally 
vested  in  the  crown,  not  only  for  the 
rivers  of  Scotland  but  also  for  the  coasts, 
and  no  person  accordingly  is  allowed  to 
fish  for  salmon  unless  he  possesses  a 
grant  or  charter  from  the  crown  en- 
abling him  to  do  so.  The  fact  is,  how- 
ever, that  nearly  all  the  chief  landed 
proprietors  do  possess  such  rights. 

POBEDONOSTSEV,  KONSTANTIN 
PETROVITCH,  a  Russian  statesman 
and  author.  He  was  born  in  1827  at 
Moscow,  and  became  professor  of  civil 
law  in  the  university  of  his  native  city, 
and  tutor  to  the  czar's  family.  In  1880 
he  became  procurator  of  the  Holy  Synod, 
and  established  elementary  schools.  In 
politics  he  favored  absolutism,  and  wrote 
numerous  works,  mostly  legal,  to  that 
end.     He  died  in  1907. 

POCAHONTAS,  daughter  of  Pow- 
hatan, a  powerful  Indian  chief  of  Vir- 
ginia; born  about  1595.  She  displayed 
a^  friendliness  toward  the  British  colo- 
nists, first  at  12  years  of  age,  in  saving 
the  life  of  Capt.  John  Smith,  who  had 
been  captured  and  condemned  to  death 
by  her  f  ather,  _  In  1612,  while  on  a  visit 
to  a  neighboring  tribe,  she  was  seized 
and^  held  as  a  hostage  by  the  English. 
While  on  shipboard  she  became  acquaint- 
ed with,  and  married  John  Rolfe,  an 
Englishman,  who  took  her  to  England, 
where,  in  1616,  she  was  presented  at 
court.  She  had  one  son,  from  whom 
numerous  wealthy  families  of  Virginia 
claim  descent.  She  died  in  England, 
while  preparing  to  return  to  America, 
in  1617. 

POCATELLO,  a  city  of  Idaho,  the 
county-seat  of  Bannock  co.  It  is  on  the 
Port  Neuf  river,  and  on  the  Oregon  Short 
Line  railroad.  It  is  the  center  of  an  im- 
pprtant  mining,  stock  raising,  and  agri- 
cultural region,  and  has  the  division 
headquarters  and  machine  shops  of  the 
Oregon    Short   Line  railroad.     It   is  the 


seat  of  the  Idaho  Technical  Institute 
and  of  the  Holy  Cross  School,  public  li- 
brary, and  Y.  M.  C.  A.  buildings.  Pop. 
(1910)    9,110;    (1920)    15,001. 

PODESTA,  the  title  of  certain  officials 
sent  by  Frederick  I.  in  the  12th  century 
to  govern  the  principal  cities  of  Lom- 
bardy.  Also  a  chief  magistrate  of  the 
Italian  republics  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
generally  elected  annually,  and  intrusted 
with  all  but  absolute  power,  and  an  in- 
ferior municipal  judge  in  some  cities  of 
Italy. 

PODIEBRAD,      GEORGE      BOCZKO, 

King  of  Bohemia ;  born  of  a  noble  family 
in  Podiebrad,  April  6,  1420,  and  became 
an  adherent  of  the  moderate  party  of 
the  Hussites.  When  the  Catholic  barons 
(1438)  carried  the  election  of  Albert  V. 
of  Austria  (II.  of  Germany),  Podiebrad 
allied  himself  with  the  Utraquists  in 
Tabor,  who  offered  the  sovereignty  of 
Bohemia  to  Casimir,  King  of  Poland. 
After  forcing  Albert  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Tabor  and  retire  to  Prague,  Podiebrad 
was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the  Utra- 
quists; then  he  seized  on  Prague  (1448), 
and  got  himself  made  governor  or  re- 
gent of  Bohemia,  from  1453  to  1457,  for 
the  young  king  Ladislaus.  On  the  death 
of  Ladislaus,  Podiebrad  was  chosen  his 
successor,  and  was  crowned  early  in 
1458.  In  1462  he  decided  to  uphold  the 
terms  of  the  compactata  of  Prague 
(1433) ;  this  angered  the  Pope,  Pius  II., 
and  he  was  only  prevented  from  excom- 
municating Podiebrad  by  the  emperor. 
The  next  Pope,  Paul  II.,  did  in  1466 
promulgate  against  him  the  ban  of  ex- 
communication. Matthias  Corvinus  of 
Hungary  was  the  only  prince  who  took 
the  field  to  enforce  it;  but  him  Podiebrad 
surrounded  at  Wilamow  (1469)  and 
forced  into  a  truce.  Nevertheless  Mat- 
thias was  crowned  king  by  the  Catholic 
barons  at  Olmiitz  immediately  afterward. 
Podiebrad  died  March  22,  1471. 

PODOLIA,  or  KAMENETZ,  a  govern- 
ment of  West  or  "White"  Russia,  N.  of 
Bessarabia,  and  bordering  on  the  Aus- 
trian frontier;  area,  16,224  square  miles; 
pop.  about  4,250,000,  the  majority  of 
whom  are  Russniaks.  The  surface  is  a 
table-land,  strewn  with  hills;  nearly 
three-fourths  is  either  arable  or  avail- 
able for  pasturage.  Since  the  World 
War  (1914-1918)  a  part  of  the  inde- 
pendent state  of  Ukrania. 

POE,  EDGAR  ALLAN,  an  American 
poet  and  story- writer ;  born  in  Boston, 
Jan.  19,  1809.  Left  an  orphan  early, 
he  was  adopted  by  John  Allan,  of  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  and  at  the  age  of  19  left 
this  home  and  published  his  first  volume 
of  verse  at  Boston.     He  was  a  cadet  at 


POE 


283 


POETBY 


the  United  States  Military  Academy, 
1830-1831;  and  subsequently  was  edi- 
tor of  the  "Southern  Literary  Messen- 
ger," 1835-1837;  of  the  "Gentleman's 
Magazine,"  1839-1840;  of  "Graham's 
Magazine,"  1841-1842;  and  of  the 
"Broadway  Journal,"  1845.  He  also 
contributed  to  other  periodicals.  He 
projected  a  magazine  to  be  called  "Lit- 


EDGAK  ALLAN   POE 

erary  America,"  and  to  aid  it,  lectured 
in  New  York  City  and  through  the  South, 
1848-1849.  A  complete  list  of  his  works 
in  book  form  includes:  "Tamerlane  and 
Other  Poems"  (Boston,  1827) ;  "Al  Aar- 
af,  Tamerlane,  and  Minor  Poems"  (Balti- 
more, 1829) ;  "Poems"  (2d  ed.,  including 
many  poems  now  first  published,  New 
York,  1831).  "The  Narrative  of  Arthur 
Gordon  Pym,  of  Nantucket"  (New  York, 
1838);  "The  Conchologist's  First  Book" 
(Philadelphia,  1839);  "Tales  of  the  Gro- 
tesque and  Arabesque"  (Philadelphia, 
1840);  "The  Prose  Romances  of  Edgar 
A.  Poe"  (Philadelphia,  1843);  "The 
Raven  and  Other  Poems"  (New  York, 
1845) ;  "Mesmerism:  in  Articulo  Mortis" 
(London,  1846) ;  "Eureka,  a  Prose  Poem" 
(New  York,  1848).  After  his  death 
there  were  republished  "The  Liberati: 
Some  Honest  Opinions  about  Autorial 
Merits  and  Demerits,  with  Occasional 
Words  of  Personality,"  etc.,  edited  by 
R.  W.  Griswold  (New  York,  1850); 
"Tales  of  Mystery,  Imagination,  and  Hu- 
mor; and  Poems,"  edited  by  Henry  Vize- 
telly  (London,  1852).     The  definitive  edi- 


tion is  the  one  edited  by  E.  C.  Stedman 
and  G.  E.  Woodberry  (10  vols.,  Chicago, 
1894-1895).  Poe  died  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  Oct.  7,  1849. 

POELCAPELLE,  a  village  N.  E.  of 
Langemarck,  about  10  miles  N.  of 
Ypres,  in  Belgium,  which  was  the 
scene  of  many  battles  during  the  World 
War.  It  is  little  more  than  a  cluster 
of  houses  at  the  crossing  of  several 
roads  of  strategic  importance  and  dur- 
ing the  third  battle  of  Ypres  in  Octo- 
ber and  November,  1917,  was  bitterly 
fought  for.  British  troops  succeeded  in 
taking  it  and  advancing  half  a  mile  N. 
E.  of  it  during  that  battle,  the  53d  Bri- 
gade of  the  Eighteenth  Division  carry- 
ing the  point  known  as  Meunier  Hill 
after  hard  fighting. 

POET  LAUREATE,  an  office  in  the 
household  of  the  sovereigns  of  Great 
Britain,  the  appellation  having  its  ori- 
gin in  a  custom  of  the  English  universi- 
ties, which  continued  to  1512,  of  pre- 
senting a  laurel  leaf  to  graduates  in 
rhetoric  and  versification,  the  king's 
"laureate"  being  a  graduated  rhetorician 
in  the  service  of  the  king.  The  first  ap- 
pointment of  a  poet  laureate  dates  from 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  the  first  patent 
being  granted  in  1670.  It  was  formerly 
the  duty  of  the  poet  laureate  to  write 
an  ode  on  the  birthday  of  the  monarch, 
but  this  custom  has  been  discontinued 
since  the  reign  of  George  III.  Among 
those  who  have  held  this  office  may  be 
mentioned  Dryden,  Southey^  Wordsworth, 
and  Tennyson.  Robert  Bridges  was  ap- 
pointed in  1913. 

POETRY,  that  one  of  the  fine  arts 
which  has  for  its  object  the  creation  of 
intellectual  pleasure  by  the  use  of  imag- 
inative and  passionate  language,  which 
is  generally,  though  not  necessarily, 
formed^  in  regular  measure;  the  art  of 
producing  illusions  of  the  imagination 
by  rneans  of  language.  Also  poetical, 
imaginative^  or  passionate  language  or 
compositions,  whether  expressed  rhyth- 
mically or  in  prose.  Thus,  many  parts 
of  the  prose  translations  of  the  Bible 
are  genuine  poetry.  In  its  widest  sense, 
poetry  may  be  defined  as  that  which  is 
the  product  of  the  imaginative  powers 
and  fancy,  and  which  appeals  to  these 
powers  in  others. 

The  ancient  Hindu  Vedas  consists  in 
large  measure  of  rhythmical  hymns. 
Hindu  poetry  reached  its  highest  devel- 
opment in  the  epics  of  the  Ramayan  and 
the  Mahabharat.  Specimens  of  that  of 
the  Hebrews,  made  conspicuous  to  the 
English  reader  by  being  printed  in  sep- 
arate lines  in  the  revised  version,  are 
found  in  Gen.  iv:  23-24,  ix;  25-27,  xxvii: 


POET'S    COBNER 


284 


POINCARE 


39,  40,  xlix:  2-27,  and  Exodus  xv:  1-18, 
21.  It  reached  its  highest  development 
in  the  books  of  Job  and  of  Psalms.  The 
poetry  of  the  Greeks  began  with  Homer 
and  Hesiod,  and  continued  till  about  500 
B.  C.  The  chief  poets  of  Rome 
came  late  on  the  scene,  Vergil  be- 
ing born  70  B.  C,  and  Homer  65 
B.  c.  Geoffrey  Chaucer,  the  father  of 
English  poetry,  died  A.  D.  Oct.  25,  1400; 
John  Barbour,  author  of  the  "Bruce" 
(1373),  was  the  first  Scotch  ^oet.  Of 
the  English  poets  of  high  genius  were 
Chaucer  in  the  14th,  Shakespeare  and 
Spenser  in  the  16th  century,  Milton  and 
Dry  den  in  the  17th,  Pope  and  Cowper  in 
the  18th,  Byron,  Keats,  Shelley,  Tennyson, 
etc.,  in  the  19th.  Of  Scotch  poets,  Burns 
in  the  18th  century.  Of  American  poets, 
Longfellow,  Poe,  Bryant,  Whittier  and 
many  others,  all  living  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury. For  poetry  of  the  20th  century, 
in  the  United  States  see  the  works  of 
Amy  Lowell,  Untermeyer,  Forest, 
Pound,    Sandburg,    etc. 

POETS'  CORNER,  THE,  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey,  the  S.  corner.  This  is  mere- 
ly a  popular  name.  The  poets  repre- 
sented are:  Addison,  Beaumont,  S.  But- 
ler, Campbell,  Cowley,  Davenant,  Dray- 
ton, Dryden,  Gay,  Goldsmith,  Gray,  Dr. 
Johnson,  Ben  Jonson,  Longfellow,  of 
America,  Macauley,  Mason,  Milton, 
Philips,  Prior,  Rowe,  Shakespeare,  Shad- 
well,    Sheridan,   Spenser,   and    Thomson. 

But  there  is  no  memorial  to  such  poets 
as  the  following:  Akenside,  Mrs.  Brown- 
ing, Byron,  Burns,  Carew,  Cartwright, 
Chaucer,  Churchill,  Coleridge,  Collins, 
Cotton,  Cowper,  Crabbe,  Denham,  Donne, 
Fletcher,  Mrs.  Hemans,  Herbert  Her- 
rick,  Hogg,  Hood,  Keats,  Miss  Landon, 
Lee,  Lovelace,  Marlowe,  Marston,  Mas- 
singer,  Moore,  Parnell,  Pollock,  Pope, 
Raleigh,  Ramsay,  Rossetti,  Scott,  Shelley, 
Shenstone,  Southern,  Southey,  Waller, 
Wither,  Wolfe,  Wordsworth,  Young,  and 
several  others. 

POGGIO,  BRACCIOLINI,  GIAN 
FRANCESCO,  an  Italian  humanist; 
born  in  Castel  Terranuova,  near  Flor- 
ence, Feb.  11,  1380.  By  his  untiring  re- 
search of  the  monastery  libraries  of 
Switzerland  and  Germany  he  brought 
to  light  MSS.  supposed  to  have  been  lost, 
of  works  of  the  ancient  classics,  as 
Quintilian,  Valerius  Flaccus,  Ascanius, 
Statius,  Ammianus,  and  many  others. 
He  translated  into  Latin  several  of  the 
Greek  classics.  His  own  writings  are: 
"Facetiae,"  a  work  of  the  same  question- 
able character  as  others  of  the  same 
title — the  book  had  26  editions  at  the 
end  of  the  15th  century;  "Of  the  Vari- 
ances of  Fortune";  a  "History  of  Flor- 
ence"; "The  Miseries  of  Human  Life"; 


"The  Infelicity  of  Princes";  "On  Mar- 
riage in  Old  Age";  "Dialogue  Against 
Hypocrites."  He  died  in  Florence,  Oct. 
30,  1459. 

POGROM,  a  Russian  word  which  first 
gained  current  usage  in  the  English 
language  in  1903,  when  Russian  ruffians, 
instigated  by  the  higher  authorities, 
made  an  attack  on  the  Jewish  quarter  of 
Kishinev,  in  Russian  Bessarabia,  killing 
fifty  persons  and  injuring  some  hun- 
dreds of  others.  The  word  is  almost 
equivalent  to  "massacre."  Russian  po- 
groms, however,  first  took  place  in  1881, 
after  the  assassination  of  Czar  Alexan- 
der II.,  when  the  reactionary  officials  of 
the  government,  to  divert  the  dicontent 
of  the  people  away  from  the  evils  of  the 
government,  stimulated  race  hatred 
against  the  Jews.  A  secret  propaganda 
was  promulgated  among  the  ignorant 
peasants,  putting  rhe  blame  for  their 
economic  sufferings  on  the  Jews,  who 
had  monopolized  most  of  the  small  trade 
of  the  towns.  Out  of  this  agitation 
sprang  a  secret  organization,  officially 
known  as  the  Union  of  the  Truly-Rus- 
sia*.  People,  but  more  popularly  called 
the  Black  Hundreds.  This  organization, 
backed  by  the  secret  support  of  the  more 
reactionary  officials,  not  only  carried  on 
a  persistent  anti-Semitic  propaganda, 
but  actually  instigated  thousands  of 
pogroms,  of  which  that  in  Kishinew 
was  only  the  first  to  attract  world-wide 
attention.  The  result  of  these  violent 
attacks  was  to  drive  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  the  Russian  Jews  out  of  the 
country,  most  of  whom  eventually  found 
refuge  in  the  United  States.  Pogroms 
have  also  been  extensively  practiced  in 
Poland,  since  the  establishment  of  inde- 
pendence by  that  country  after  the 
World  War,  to  split  the  radical  opposi- 
tion against  the  conservative  govern- 
ment of  the  Paderewski  regime. 

POILU,  a  popular  name  for  the  French 
soldier,  meaning  literally  "hairy,"  from 
the  French  "poil,"  hair,  and  alludes  to 
his  unshaven  and  unkempt  appearance 
during  campaigns.  The  sobriquet  paral- 
lels the  use  of  Tommy  Atkins  in  Eng- 
land, and  Doughboy  in  the  United  States. 

POINCARE,  RAYMOND,  French 
statesman,  born  at  Bar-le-Duc,  August 
20,  1860.  He  was  educated  in  the  Ly- 
ceum of  Louis  le  Grand.  He  early  en- 
tered politics  and  in  1893  was  appointed 
Minister  of  Public  Construction.  He 
filled  this  office  again  in  1895.  In  1894 
and  again  in  1906  he  was  Minister  of 
Finance.  From  1911  to  1913  he  was 
Premier.  In  the  latter  year  he  became 
President  of  the  Republic.  He  was 
President  during  the  entire  period  of  the 


POINDEXTER 


285 


POISON    GAS 


World  War,  and  his  aggressive  policies, 
following  the  outbreak  of  the  war  did 
much  to  enable  France  to  meet  the  many 
crises  of  the  great  struggle.  President 
Poincare  was  a  frequent  visitor  in  the 
war  area  and  his  presence  did  much  to 
encourage  and  harden  the  French 
soldiers.  He  was  succeeded  as  President 
in  January,  1920,  by  Paul  Deschanel 
{q.  V.)  who  was,  however,  obliged  to  resign 
on  account  of  illness,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Alexandre  Millerand,  on  September 
16,  1920.  M.  Poincare  published  several 
studies  in  literature  and  politics,  includ- 


RAYMOND   POINCAItt} 

ing  "How  France  is  Governed"  (1913). 
Following  his  resignation  he  became 
leader  of  the  opposition,  altho'i^h  he 
heartily  supported  the  government  in 
negotations  in  1920  and  1921  following 
the  attempted  settlement  of  economic 
and  political  conditions  in  Europe. 

POINDEXTER,  MILES,  United 
States  Senator  from  Washington.  Born 
at  Memphis,  Tenn.,  in  1868,  and  educated 
at  Washington  and  Lee  tJniversity,  he 
moved  to  the  State  of  Washington  in 
1891,  where  he  took  up  the  practice  of 
law.  After  serving  as  district  attorney, 
and  later  judge  of  Spokane  co.,  he  was 
elected  to  the  National  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives as  a  Republican  in  1909,  and 
at  the  expiration  of  his  term  was  chosen 
United  States  Senator.  He  received  the 
support  of  the  Republicans  in  the  State 
of  Washington  as  a  candidate  for  the 
presidential  nomination  in  1920. 

Vol.  VII— Cyo 


POINSETTIA,  a  genus  of  Euphorbi- 
acex,  now  merged  in  Euphorbia  itself. 
P.  pulcherriiiia  is  a  highly  ornamental 
stove  plant,  with  rose-like  whorls  of 
bracts. 

POINT,  in  geometry,  a  quantity  which 
has  no  parts,  or  which  is  indivisible,  or 
which  has  position  without  magnitude. 
Points  may  be  regarded  as  the  ends  or 
extremities  of  lines.  If  a  point  is  sup- 
posed to  be  moved  in  any  way,  it  will  bf 
its  motion   describe  a  line. 

POISON.  Professor  Christison  di- 
vides poisons  into  three  great  classes: 
Irritants,  narcotics,  and  narcotico-acrids, 
or  narcotico-irritants.  A  fourth  class  is 
sometimes  added,  septics,  consisting  of 
animal  poisons,  such  as  the  bites  of  rabid 
animals  and  venomous  snakes,  the  stings 
of  insects,  and  the  poison  generated  by 
pestilential  carbuncle,  etc.  An  irritant 
poison  produces  violent  pain  and  cramp 
in  the  stomach,  nausea,  vomiting,  con- 
vulsions, etc.  A  narcotic  poison  pro- 
duces stupor,  numbness,  drowsiness,  cold- 
ness, and  stiffness  of  the  extremities, 
etc.;  a  narcotico-acrid  poison  produces  a 
certain  combination  of  the  symptoms 
attendant  on  both  the  former  classea. 
Savages  poison  their  arrows  with  the 
milky  juice  ol  various  Euphorbias  or  of 
the  manchineel,  or  by  the  juice  of  two 
species  of  Strychnos.  Both  in  man  and 
in  the  inferior  animals  there  is  often  a 
curious  correlation  between  the  color  of 
the  skin  and  hair  ard  immunity  from 
the  action  of  certain  vegetable  poisons. 
Metallic  poisons  act  on  vegetables  nearly 
as  they  do  on  animals,  that  is,  they  are 
absorbed  into  the  different  parts  of  a 
|)lant,  destroying  the  structure.  _  Vege- 
table poisons,  especially  those  which  de- 
stroy animals  by  action  on  their  nervous 
system,  also  cause  the  death  of  plants. 

POISON   GAS,   USE  IN  WARFARE. 

The  employment  of  poisonous  or  suffo- 
cating gases  in  warfare  dates  back  to 
early  times,  the  use  of  "stink  pots"  con- 
taining burning  sulphur  and  similar 
materials  producing  noxious  fumes  being 
common  among  the  ancients.  It  re- 
mained, however,  for  the  World  War 
of  1914-1918  to  bring  the  practice  to  a 
high  state  of  development.  The  use  of 
such  gases  in  warfare  was  forbidden  by 
the  Hague  Convention  of  1899,  but  poi- 
son gases  were  introduced  by  the  Ger- 
mans early  in  1915,  and  their  use  was 
afterward  adopted  by  the  armies  of  the 
Allies.  Many  different  compounds  were 
employed,  and  substances,  which  had 
previously  been  considered  as  of  aca- 
demic interest  only,  were  manufactured 
in  vast  quantities.  The  gases  were  pro- 
jected by  two  different  methods;  by  the 

19 


POISON    GAS 


286 


POISON    GAS 


first,  the  gas,  either  liquified  or  highly 
compressed,  was  brought  in  cylinders,  as 
near  to  the  enemy's  trenches  as  possible, 
and  sent  over  in  a  cloud,  favoring  winds 
being  necessary  to  carry  the  cloud  in  the 
right  direction;  by  the  second,  the  gas 
was  introduced  into  a  shell  of  special 
type,  which  was  fired  at  the  enemy,  and, 
on  exploding,  spread  the  gas  among  his 
troops.  Both  methods  were  first  used 
by  the  Germans  on  April  22d,  1915, 
against  the  French,  on  a  frontage  of  four 
miles,  N.  of  Ypres  salient.  The  cloud 
method  of  attack,  however,  was  too  un- 
certain in'its  results,  and  was  practically 
abandoned  in  the  later  years  of  the  war 
in  favor  of  the  gas  shell,  the  last  exten- 
sive German  cloud  attack  occurring  in 
the  summer  of  1916.  Chlorine  was  the 
gas  first  used  in  cloud  attacks,  a  mixture 
of  chlorine  and  phosgene  (q.  v.)  being 
used  later.  The  early  gas  shells  con- 
tained chlorinated  ketones  or  chlorinated 
xylene  (both  lachrymatory  or  "tear" 
gases),  but  they  were  largely  ineffective 
owing  to  the  fact  that  they  were  charged 
with  too  much  high  explosive,  leading  to 
too  great  a  dispersion  of  the  gas.  The 
development  of  the  gas  shell  into  a  more 
deadly  weapon  was  brought  about  by 
the  French,  who  saw  the  necessity  for  a 
thin-walled  shell,  containing  a  compara- 
tively small  charge  of  high  explosive. 
As  finally  developed,  the  gas  shell  con- 
sisted of  a  thin-walled  chamber,  fitted 
with  a  fuse  connected  with  an  inner 
tube  containing  high  explosive.  The 
gas,  frequently  in  liquid  form,  was  often 
placed  in  a  glass  or  lead  container,  the 
rest  of  the  space  being  filled  with  cement. 
The  shells  were  sent  over  either  by  artil- 
lery proper,  or  by  smaller  guns  or  types 
of  trench  mortars.  The  area  covered  by 
shells  averaged  five  hundred  yards  in 
depth,  although  with  a  favoring  wind  the 
effects  of  gas  have  been  felt  at  a  dis- 
tance of  3,000  yards  from  the  explosion. 
Poison  gases,  as  used  in  the  World 
War  may  be  classified  into  (1)  Arsenic 
poisons;  (2)  Asphyxiating  gases;  (3) 
Lethal  lachrymatory,  and  (4)  Lachry- 
matory. Mustard  Gas  (q.  v.)  may  be 
considered  as  in  a  class  by  itself.  Of 
the  first  class,  two  types  are  used — 
liquid  filled  and  solid  filled.  The  liquid 
filled  shell  contained  ethvldichlorarsine, 
C^HsAs  CI2,  while  the  solid  filled  con- 
tained fused  arsenic  compounds,  diphe- 
nylchlorarsine  being  first  used,  diphenyl- 
cyanarsine  being  later  substituted  for  it. 
When  the  latter  tjrpe  exploded,  the  solid 
poison  was  blown  into  the  air  as  a  very 
fine  dust.  These  shells  seldom,  if  ever, 
produced  fatal  results,  the  chief  effects 
being  a  burning  of  the  nose  and  throat, 
with  pains  in  the  neck,  chest  and  stom- 


ach, sometime  followed  by  dizziness, 
nausea  and  vomiting.  They  had  some 
value  owing  to  the  property  these  com- 
pounds possess  of  producing  a  tickling 
of  the  nose  followed  by  an  overpowering 
desire  to  sneeze.  A  group  of  men  af- 
fected in  this  way  would  be  tempted  to 
remove  their  gas  masks,  thus  exposing 
themselves  to  the  deadly  action  of  a  gas 
of  a  more  toxic  character.  The  most 
commonly  u:ed  asphyxiating  gases  were 
phosgene  and  diphosgene  (trichlor- 
methylchloroformate). Chlorpicrin  was 
also  used.  The  persistence  of  these 
gases  was  slight,  but  the  percentage  of 
deaths  to  casualties  was  probably  higher 
in  this  group  than  in  any  of  the  others. 
Trench  mortar  bombs  usually  contained 
phosgene.  The  commonest  lethal  lachmi- 
matory  gases  were  mixtures  of  bromi- 
nated  ketones,  or  brominated  xylene. 
Like  all  lachrymatories,  these  gases 
affected  the  eyes,  producing  excessive 
watering,  and  sometimes  temporary 
blindness.  Opinions  differ  somewhat  re- 
garding the  toxic  effect  of  these  gases, 
but  the  number  of  actual  deaths  caused 
by  them  was  probably  small.  The  gases 
were  very  persistent,  effects  lasting  for 
as  long  as  six  hours,  even  with  a  breeze. 
Lachrymators,  or  tear  gases,  affect  the 
eyes  only.  The  most  commonly  used 
were  benzyl  bromide  and  phenyl  carbyla- 
mine  chloride,  the  latter  first  appearing 
as  late  as  September,  1917.  These  gases 
produce  temporary  blindness  when  suffi- 
ciently concentrated.  They  are  very  per- 
sistent and  effects  will  be  felt  for  as  long 
as  twenty-four  hours. 

Mustard  gas  or  dichlorethylsulphide 
(CH2CI  CHs):  S,  is  a  water-white  liquid, 
boiling  at  219  °C.  It  was  first  used  by 
the  Germans  at  Ypres  on  July  20th,  1917, 
and  came  to  be  the  most  widely  used 
of  all  the  poison  gases.  The  liquid  had 
a  corrosive  action  on  the  skin,  while  the 
vapor  attacked  the  eyes  and  lungs  and 
any  other  moist  surface.  It  was  very 
persistent,  from  two  to  seven  days  being 
required  to  clear  a  position  shelled  with 
mustard  gas.     (See  Mustard  Gas). 

A  device  connected  with  the  use  of 
poison  gas  was  invented  late  in  1916 
by  Major  W.  H.  Livens,  of  the  British 
army,  and  was  known  as  the  Livens  pro- 
jector. It  enabled  a  large  number  of 
bombs  to  be  fired  simultaneously  at  any 
desired  spot,  thus  producing  high  concen- 
tration, with  practically  no  warning. 
Statements  have  appeared  in  the  press 
that  the  United  States  Chemical  Warfare 
Service  had,  at  the  time  of  the  Armistice, 
developed  a  gas  far  more  deadly  than 
mustard  gas,  but  detailed  information 
on  this  subject  has  never  been  given  by 
the  authorities. 


POISON    IVY 


287 


POLA 


POISON  IVY,  a  climbing  plant  which 
closely  resembles  the  woodbine  and  which 
is  very  irritating  to  sensitive  skins.  It 
may  be  distinguished  from  the  woodbine 
by  its  having  only  three  leaves  on  a  twig, 
while  all  other  harmless  vines  have  five 
leaves,  one  for  each  finger  of  the  hand. 
A  simple  remedy  for  the  poison  is  a  weak 
solution  of  common  baking  soda  and 
water,  applied  immediately  after  ex- 
posure. 

POISSON,  SIMEON-DENIS,  a  French 
geometer;  born  in  Pithiviers,  department 
of  Loiret,  June  21,  1781;  and  displaying 
an  aptitude  for  mathematics,  he  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  in 
1798.  In  1802  he  became  a  professor 
in  the  Polytechnique;  in  1808  a  member 
of  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes;  in  1809 
professor  in  the  Faculty  of  Sciences; 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1812,  etc.; 
and  this  list  of  distinctions  was  crowned 
in  1837  by  his  elevation  to  the  dignity 
of  a  peer  of  France.  Poisson's  whole 
life  was  devoted  to  the  prosecution  of  sci- 
entific reseai'ch,  and  the  fruits  of  his 
pen  number  about  300  memoirs.  Of  the 
separate  treatises  published  by  Poisson, 
the  best  known  is  the  "Treatise  on  Me- 
chanics" (1833)  ;  others  were  on  capil- 
lary action,  the  mathematical  theory  of 
heat,  the  motion  of  projectiles,  and,  lastly, 
the  celebrated  work  "On  the  Invaria- 
bility of  the  Mean  Movement  of  the 
Planetary  Axes."  Poisson  is  fairly  con- 
sidered one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the 
science  of  mathematical  physics.  He 
died  April  25,  1840. 

POITIERS,  or  POICTIERS,  a  town  of 
France,  on  the  Clain,  formerly  capital  of 
the  province  of  Poitou,  at  present  of  the 
department  of  the  Vienne.  The  town 
occupies  a  large  space,  the  houses  being 
often  surrounded  by  gardens  and  or- 
chards. The  principal  edifice  is  the 
cathedral,  founded  by  Henry  II.  of  Eng- 
land about  1162.  Poitiers  is  one  of  the 
most  ancient  towns  of  France,  and  the 
vestiges  of  a  Eoman  palace,  of  Roman 
baths,  of  an  aqueduct,  and  an  amphi- 
theater still  remain.  Two  famous  bat- 
tles were  fought  in  its  vicinity,  that  in 
which  Charles  Martel  defeated  the  Sara- 
cen army  in  732,  and  that  between  the 
French  under  their  king  John  II.,  and 
the  English  under  Edward  the  Black 
Prince  in  1356.  The  manufactures  are 
unimportant,  but  there  is  a  large  trade. 
Pop.   about  42,000. 

POITOir,  a  former  province  of  S.  W. 
France,  coincident  with  the  present  de- 
partments of  Deux  Sevres,  Vendee,  and 
Vienne.  It  was  divided  into  Upper  and 
Lower  Poitou,  and  had  for  its  capital 
Poitiers.     Its  early  history  is  the  same 


as  that  of  Aquitania  (q.  v.).  Poitou 
became  a  possession  of  the  English 
crown  when  Eleanor,  Countess  of  Poitou 
and  Duchess  of  Aquitaine,  after  her 
divorce  from  Louis  VII.  of  France,  mar- 
ried (1152)  Henry  of  Anjou,  afterward 
Henry  I.  of  England.  Philip  Augustus 
reconquered  the  province  in  1205.  By 
the  peace  of  Bretigny,  in  1360,  it  again 
reverted  to  England,  but  nine  years  later 
was  retaken  by  Charles  V. 

POKER,  a  game  played  with  a  full 
pack  of  cards,  five  being  dealt,  one  at 
a  time,  to  each  player  in  rotation,  be- 
ginning at  the  left  of  the  dealer.  The 
player  winning  the  "pool,"  or  "pot," 
always  deals.  An  exposed  card  may  be 
accepted  or  rejected;  in  the  latter  case  it 
must  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  pack. 
The  cards  rank  in  value  as  at  Whist 
(q.  v.).  The  game  admits  of  a  number 
of  players,  from  2  to  10. 

POKEWEED,  the  Phytolacca  decan- 
dirt,  a  North  American  branching  her- 
baceous plant,  order  Phytolaccacex, 
which  is  naturalized  in  some  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  Its  root  acts  as  a 
powerful  emetic  and  cathartic,  but  its 
use  is  attended  with  narcotic  effects.  Its 
berries  are  said  to  possess  the  same  qual- 
ity; they  are  employed  as  a  remedy  for 
chronic  and  syphilitic  rheumatism,  and 
for  allaying  syphiloid  pains.  The  leaves 
are  extremely  acrid,  but  the  young 
shoots,  which  lose  this  quality  by  boiling 
in  water,  are  sometimes  eaten  in  the 
United  States  as  asparagus. 

POLA,  until  the  World  War  of  1914- 
1918,  the  most  important  naval  station 
of  Austria-Hungary;  situated  near  the 
S.  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Istria; 
105  miles  S.  of  Trieste.  The  harbor  is 
thoroughly  sheltered,  deep,  and  spacious 
enough  to  accommodate  the  largest  fleet. 
The  town  is  protected  by  forts  and  bat- 
teries, and  is  overlooked  by  the  citadel, 
by  which  it  and  the  bay  are  commanded. 
There  are  also  artillery  and  powder 
stores,  docks,  slips,  etc.  The  cathedral 
dates  from  the  15th  century.  Pola  is 
also  a  shipping  port,  exporting  wood, 
fish,  sand  and  building  stones,  and  im- 
porting provisions,  coal,  and  bricks. 
Founded  traditionally  by  the  Colchians 
who  were  sent  in  pursuit  of  Jason,  Pola 
was  destroyed  by  Augustus,  but  rebuilt 
at  the  request  of  his  daughter,  Julia,  on 
which  account  it  was  named  Pietas  Julia. 
It  was  destroyed  in  1267  by  its  yenetian 
masters,  who  had  conquered  it  in  1148; 
and  in  1379  the  Genoese,  after  routing 
the  Venetians  in  a  sea  fight  off  the  town, 
once  more  ravaged  it.  But  it  only 
passed  from  Venice  in  1797  to  Austria, 
who  chose  it  as  her  chief  naval  harbor 


POLAND 


288 


POLAND 


in  1848.  It  contains  numerous  interest- 
ing Roman  remains,  among  them  a  well 
preserved  amphitheater,  450  feet  long 
and  360  broad.  A  temple  and  several 
ancient  gates  are  also  extant.  Pop. 
about  75,000.  Pola  was  the  scene  of 
several  mutinies  during  the  World  War 
that  led  to  many  executions.  In  the 
night  of  Oct.  31-Nov.  1,  1918,  two  Italian 
officers,  Col.  Rossetti  and  Dr.  Paolucci, 
swam  into  the  harbor  and  destroyed  the 
new  Austrian  superdreadnought,  "Viribis 
Unitis." 

POLAND,  a  former  kingdom  situated 
in  the  N.  E.  of  Europe.  It  was  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  Baltic,  S.  by  Wallachia, 
Moldavia  and  Hungary,  W.  by  Germany, 
and  E.  by  Russia,  and  was  the  most  level 
country  in  Europe,  the  Carpathian  Moun- 
tains on  the  S.  and  W.,  as  a  boundary 
from  Hungary,  being  the  only  mountain 
range  of  ^  any  height  in  the  kingdom. 
The  principal  mineral  products  are  iron, 
lead,  gold,  silver,  and  salt.  Cattle  and 
wheat  are  still  the  chief  agricultural 
products,  Poland  was  anciently  divided 
into  12  provinces,  each  of  which  was 
governed  by  a  chief,  called  a  "Palatine." 
The  Poles  were  originally  a  tribe  of 
Vandals,  whose  history  is  quite  un- 
known before  the  6th  century.  About 
the  year  750,  the  people,  oppressed  by 
their  petty  chiefs,  were  resolved  to  shake 
off  the  tyranny  of  their  rulers,  and 
elected  a  chief  magistrate  to  govern 
them,  under  the  title  of  duke.  This  state 
of  things  endured  till  the  year  999,  when 
reigning  duke,  Boleslass,  having  made 
himself  illustrious  by  his  conquests  and 
military  genius,  was  dignilied  with  the 
title  of  king  by  Otho  III.,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  from  which  time  the  title  be- 
came established  in  Poland,  and,  though 
the  crown  was  elective,  it  often  continued 
in  the  same  family  for  many  years,  pass- 
ing from  father  to  son.  From  the  13th 
century,  the  Poles  became  the. most  war- 
like nation  in  Europe,  and  from  the 
time  when  the  Turks  first  crossed  the 
Hellespont  and  settled  in  Greece,  Poland 
was  denominated  the  shield  of  eastern 
Europe.  In  1674,  John  Sobieski  was  ad- 
vanced to  the  kingly  dignity,  and  under 
him  the  Polish  arms  acquired  a  glory 
that  eclipsed  all  other  nations  of  that 
age.  Sobieski  formed  a  league  with  the 
Emperor  Leopold,  and  when  that  mon- 
arch had  been  defeated,  and  his  capital 
on  the  point  of  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  Turks,  Sobieski  advanced  to 
Vienna,  raised  the  siege,  and,  defeating 
the  invaders,  drove  them  back  in  rout 
to  Constantinople.  The  War  of  Succes- 
sion that  succeeded,  between  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden  and  Frederick  Augustus 
of  Saxony,  almost   ruined  the  kingdom, 


and  hastened  its  fatal  end.  Count  Poni- 
atowski  who,  in  1764,  was  elected  to  the 
throne  with  the  name  of  Stanislaus 
Augustus,  was  the  last  king  of  Poland. 
Under  this  unfortunate  sovereign,  the 
country  became  the  theater  of  a  long  and 
devastating  war;  the  cities  were  pillaged, 
the  country  deluged  by  hosts  of  Cossacks 
and  brutal  Muscovite  soldiery,  and  Poland 
in  the  end  divided  between  Catharine  of 
Russia,  Joseph  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
and  Frederick  of  Prussia.  This  shameful 
partition  of  an  ancient  nation,  which 
drove  Stanislaus  in  exile  to  France,  was 
perpetrated  in  1772.  In  1795,  a  further 
dismemberment  was  effected  between  the 
three  great  powers,  and  the  whole  of 
Poland  absorbed,  except  the  ancient  city 
of  Cracow,  with  a  few  miles  of  adjacent 
country,  which,  elected  into  a  free  and 
independent  State,  was  left  to  point  to 
future  ages  where  the  once  warlike  na- 
tion of  Poland  stood  on  the  physical  map 
of  Europe.  Frequent  insurrections  have 
occurred.  In  1&30,  a  revolution  took 
place,  but  ended  in  the  surrender  of  War- 
saw and  the  dispersion  of  the  Poles.  In 
1832,  what  remained  of  Poland  was  de- 
clared a  part  of  the  Russian  empire. 
In  1846,  an  attempt  was  made  at  Cracow 
to  recover  independence,  but  it  ended  in 
the  subjugation  of  the  last  remnant  of  the 
country,  which  was  annexed  to  Austria. 
In  1863,  the  Polish  people,  under  the 
leadership  of  Langiewicz,  made  another 
abortive  attempt  to  free  their  country 
from  the  Russian  yoke.  In  1864,  Poland 
was  deprived  of  its  administrative  inde- 
pendence, and  in  1868  was  incorporated 
absolutely  with  Russia;  trial  by  jury  v/as 
abolished  and  the  use  of  the  Polish  lan- 
guage officially  (for  signboards,  rail- 
ways, wills,  etc.)  was  prohibited.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  World  War  (1914- 
1918)  Austrian  Poland  enjoyed  auton- 
omy. Russian  Poland  was  invaded  and 
occupied  by  German  and  Austrian  armies 
in  1915.  In  November,  1916,  the  Ger- 
man and  Austrian  Emperors  proclaimed 
the  independence  of  Poland.  Regency 
councils  were  appointed  in  1917  and  at- 
tempts were  made  to  frame  a  constitu- 
tion, but  nothing  effective  was  accom- 
plished. In  October,  1918,  the  council 
and  convocation  proclaimed  a  Constitu- 
tional Assembly  to  take  direction  of  the 
country.  In  December,  1918,  a  republic 
was  established  and  Joseph  Pilsudski  was 
made  president.  In  1919  Poland  suffered 
from  enemies  without  and  within.  She 
was  attacked  by  Russian  Soviet  Govern- 
ment forces,  and  in  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer of  1920  waged  a  successful  offensive 
war  against  the  Russians,  which  con- 
cluded with  a  treaty  of  peace  between 
the  countries  in  December,  1920. 


POLAB    BEAR 


289 


POLARIZATION 


POLAB  BEAR,  ursus  maritimus,  the 
largest  individual  of  the  family  Ureidas, 
and  one  of  the  best  known.  It  is  found 
over  the  whole  of  Greenland  but  its  num- 
bers are  decreasing,  as  it  is  regularly 
hunted  for  the  sake  of  its  skin.  The 
polar  bear  is  from  seven  to  eight  feet 
long,  with  a  narrow  head,  and  the  fore- 
head in  a  line  with  the  elongated  muzzle, 
short  ears,  and  long  neck.  It  is  quite 
white  when  young,  changing  to  a  creamy 


POLAR  BEAR 

tint  in  maturity.  Unlike  most  of  its 
congeners,  it  is  carnivorous,  attacks  by 
biting,  and  only  pregnant  finales  hiber- 
nate. 

POLAB  CIRCLES,  two  imaginary  cir- 
cles of  the  earth  parallel  to  the  equator, 
the  one  N.  and  the  other  S.  distant  23° 
28'  from  either  pole. 

POLAR  DISTANCE,  the  angular  dis- 
tance of  any  point  on  a  sphere  from  one 
of  its  poles;  more  especially,  the  angular 
distance  of  a  heavenly  body  from  the 
elevated  pole  of  the  heavens.  It  is  meas- 
ured by  the  intercepted  arc  of  the  circle 
passing  through  it  and  through  the  pole, 
or  by  the  corresponding  angle  at  the 
center  of  the  sphere.  According  as  the 
N.  or  S.  pole  is  elevated  we  have  the 
"north  polar  distance"  or  the  "south 
polar  distance." 

POLAR  FORCES,  in  physics,  forces 
that  are  developed  and  act  in  pairs  with 
opposite  tendencies,  as  in  magnetism, 
electricity,  etc. 

POLARITY,  in  physics,  the  disposition 
in  a  body,  or  an  elementary  molecule,  to 
place  its  mathematical  axis  in  a  particu- 
lar direction.  Also,  the  disposition  in  a 
body  to  exhibit  opposite  or  contrasted 
properties  or  powers  in  opposite  or  con- 
trasted directions,  specifically  the  exist- 
ence of  two  points,  called  poles,  possess- 
ing contrary  tendencies.  Examples,  at- 
traction and  repulsion  at  the  opposite 
ends  of  a  magnet,  opposite  tendencies  in 
polarized  light,  etc.  In  biology  Prof. 
Edward  Forbes,  considering  that  the  re- 
lation between  the  palaeozoic  and  neozoic 
life  assemblages  is  one  of  development  in 
opposite  directions,  called  it  polarity. 


POLARIZATION,  the  act  of  polariz- 
ing or  of  giving  polarity  to,  the  state  of 
being  polarized.  In  galvanism,  the  pro- 
duction of  a  secondary  current  in  a  gal- 
vanic battery  contrary  to  the  principal 
one,  owing  to  the  gradual  chemical 
change  in  the  elements  of  the  battery. 
This  change  weakens  or  may  even  de- 
stroy, the  original  current.  Many  forma 
of  battery  recover  by  rest;  in  others  in- 
genious means  are  devised  to  avoid  polar- 
ization, and  such  are  called  constant 
batteries. 

Polarization  of  Light. — In  optics,  a 
state  into  which  the  ethereal  undulations 
which  cause  the  sensation  of  light  are 
brought  under  certain  conditions.  The 
most  familiar  and  simple  form  is  that  of 
plane  polarization.  This  may  be  pro- 
duced in  various  ways,  the  piece  of  ap- 
paratus producing  such  modifications, 
being  called  a  polarizer.  When  pro- 
duced, however,  the  effects  can  only  be 
perceived  by  examining  them  througk 
another  piece  of  apparatus  which  used 
alone,  would  polarize  the  light,  but  when 
used  to  examine  light  already  polarized^ 
is  called  the  analyzer.  The  two  in  com- 
bination, with  the  necessary  adjustments, 
form  a  polariscope,  of  which  there  are 
many  forms. 

Plane  Polarization. — When  a  ray  o£ 
common  light  passes  through  a  crystal 
(not  of  the  cubic  system) ,  the  atoms  be- 
ing so  arranged  that  the  elasticity  (or 
other  properties  affecting  motions  of  the 
ether  within  the  crystal)  are  different 
in  different  directions,  the  ether  motioni 
are  at  once  resolved  into  that  of  the 
greatest  and  the  least  elasticity  at  right 
angles  to  the  path  of  the  ray,  so  dividing 
the  ray  of  common  light  into  two  "plane 
polarized"  rays,  polarized  in  planes  at 
right  angles  to  each  other.  One  of  these 
rays  being  easily  eliminated  by  total  re- 
flection in  the  Nicol  prism,  two  such 
prisms  form  a  convenient  polariscope. 
The  ray,  after  passing  through  the  first 
prism,  appears  just  like  common  light, 
only  of  half  the  original  brilliancy;  but 
on  looking  at  it  through  the  second  Nicol, 
on  turning  the  latter  round,  we  find  two 
positions  in  which  the  light  from  the  first 
Nicol  gets  through  the  second  unaltered; 
and  two  positions  at  right  angles  to  the 
former  in  which  it  is  absolutely  stopped, 
and  the  second  prism,  though  clear  as 
glass,  is  absolutely  opaque  to  it.  The 
beam  of  light  appears  thus  to  have 
acquired  sides,  and  to  behave  differently 
according  to  the  relation  these  sides^  bear 
to  the  position  of  the  prism.  Such  is  the 
fundamental  nature  and  phenomenon  of 
polarized  light.  Light  is  also  polarized 
by  reflection  from  polished  transparent 
surfaces,  when  incident  at  such  an  angle 


POLABIZATION 


290 


POLE 


that  the  reflected  and  refracted  rays 
make  a  right  angle.  In  glass,  this  angle 
is  about  56°. 

Chromatic  Polarization. — Let  the  per- 
pendicular vibrations  from  a  Nicol  prism 
encounter  in  their  path  a  crystalline  film 
of  selenite  or  mica,  whose  planes  of 
greatest  and  least  elasticity  are  arranged 
diagonally.  The  perpendicular  vibra- 
tions are  again  "resolved"  into  two  sets, 
one  of  which  is  retarded  behind  the  other 
owing  to  the  difference  in  the  two  elas- 
ticities. The  analyzer  "resolves"  each  of 
these  again,  bringing  half  of  each  set 
back  into  one  plane.  The  two  sets  of 
waves  are  then  in  a  position  to  exercise 
interference,  and  the  consequence  is  that, 
if  the  plate  or  film  is  of  suitable  thick- 
ness, the  most  gorgeous  colors  are  pre- 
sented. It  is  the  same  with  every  sub- 
stance having  different  elasticities  in 
different  dii*ections,  and  as  all  "struc- 
ture" presents  such  differences,  polarized 
light  becomes  the  most  powerful  weapon 
of  the  biologist,  revealing  structure 
where  ordinary  light  will  not  do  so. 

Circular  Polarization. — If  two  rec- 
tangular, equal  impulses  are  given  to  a 
pendulum,  or  to  a  stretched  Cord,  one 
of  them  a  quarter-vibration  later  than 
the  other,  the  two  are  compounded  into  a 
single  circular  orbit.  Therefore,  if  a 
beam  of  plane-polarized  light  passes,  as 
in  the  last  paragraph,  through  a  film 
of  mica  of  such  a  thickness  that  one  of 
the  two  diagonally  vibrating  sets  of 
waves  shall  be  retarded,  while  in  the  film 
one  quarter-vibration  behind  the  other, 
the  two  are  compounded  on  emergence 
into  one  beam  of  circularly  polarized 
light.  At  approximate  thicknesses,  the 
light  is  elliptically  polarized.  Circularly 
Jjolarized  light  is  never  stopped  by  the 
analyzer,  but  differs  from  common  light 
in  producing  polarized  effects.  The  most 
important  of  these  are: 

Rotatory  Polarization. — ^Vary  the  for- 
mer experiment  by  passing  the  light 
from  the  polarizing  Nicol,  with  its  vibra- 
tions in  a  vertical  plane,  through  a  plate 
of  selenite  or  mica  which  gives  fine  color; 
the  vibrations  are  then  in  the  two  diag- 
onals. Let  this  light  now  traverse  a 
''quarter-wave"  mica  film,  with  its  polar- 
izing planes  perpendicular  and  horizon- 
tal. Each  set  of  rays  from  the  first 
plate  becomes  circularly  polarized,  but  the 
two  are  in  opposite  directions,  the  circu- 
lar movements  thus  opposing  each  other. 
Whenever  two  circular  notions  thus 
meet,  as  in  two  circular  pendulums  clash- 
ing, the  tangential  motion  is  destroyed, 
and  the  pendulums  would  both  fall  back 
together  through  the  center  of  the  former 
orbit.  It  is  so  in  this  case;  but  as  one 
set  of  rays   has   been    retarded   in    the 


plates  more  than  the  other,  the  swing 
of  the  ether  atoms  is  no  longer  in  the 
original  plane  of  vibration.  If  white 
light  be  employed,  the  many  various 
wave  lengths  will  obviously  meet  at  dif- 
ferent points,  and  hence  rotation  of  the 
analyzer  will  give  in  succession  more  or 
less  of  the  colors  of  the  spectrum.  If 
the  quarter-wave  film  is  cut  in  half,  and 
its  position  reversed  in  one-half,  the 
transition  of  colors  will  occur  in  opposite 
orders  in  the  two  halves.  Rotary  polar- 
ization is  of  the  greatest  practical  im- 
portance. 

Polarization  of  Heat. — The  polarizing 
of  rays  of  heat  by  reflection  and  by  re- 
fraction. 

Polarization  of  the  Medium. — The 
name  given  by  Faraday  to  the  produc- 
tion of  alternate  layers  of  positive  and 
negative  electricity  in  the  medium  sepa- 
rating an  electrified  and  an  unelectrified 
body. 

POLDER,  in  Holland  and  Belgium  a 
tract  of  land  below  the  level  of  the  sea, 
or  nearest  river,  which,  being  originally 
a  morass  or  lake,  has  been  drained  and 
brought  under  cultivation. 

POLDERHOEK,  a  village  near  Ypres, 
Belgium,  which  figured  prominently  in 
the  fighting  during  the  third  battle  of 
Ypres  in  the  autumn  of  1917.  The  British 
Fifth  Division  reached  its  borders  during 
the  first  British  attack  and  the  13th  Bri- 
gade actually  occupied  it,  but  was  driven 
out  again  by  the  Germans.  This  opera- 
tion was  repeated  more  than  once  during 
the  battle.  On  Oct.  26  the  British  Fifth 
Division  captured  the  Wood  and  Chateau 
of  Polderhoek,  taking  200  men  who 
formed  the  garrison.  The  chateau  was 
lost  and  was  vainly  stormed  again  by 
the  Fifth  Division  on  Nov.  6.  New  Zea- 
landers  again  made  an  attempt  on  it  in 
December,  but  it  finally  remained  in  Ger- 
man hands  till  the  general  advance  that 
closed  the  war. 

POLE,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the  two 
points  in  which  the  axis  of  the  earth  is 
supposed  to  meet  the  sphere  of  the 
heavens;  one  of  the  fixed  points  about 
which  the   stars  appear  to  revolve. 

POLE,  MAGNETIC.      See  MAGNETISM. 

POLE,  PERCH,  or  ROD,  a  measure  of 
length  containing  16  y2  feet  or  51/2  yards. 
Sometimes  the  term  is  used  as  a  super- 
ficial measure,  a  square  pole  denoting  bVz 
X  51/2  yards,  or  30%  square  yards. 

POLE,    REGINALD,    CARDINAL,    a 

British  statesman,  and  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary, 
descended  from  the  blood  royal  of  Eng- 
land; born  in  Stourton  Castle,  in  Staf- 
fordshire, in  1500.     He  was  educated  at 


POLECAT 


291 


POLICE    MATRONS 


Sheen  Monastery  and  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford;  and  after  obtaining  preferment 
in  the  Church,  went  to  Italy,  where  he 
long  resided.  On  his  return  to  England 
he  so  strongly  opposed  the  divorce  of 
Henry  VIII.  from  Catherine  of  Aragon, 
that  the  king  drove  him  from  his  pres- 
ence, and  never  saw  him  more.  He 
again  left  England,  was  made  a  cardinal 
in  December,  1536,  and  had  the  offer  of 
the  popedom  on  the  death  of  Paul  III. 
Henry  put  to  death  his  mother,  and  other 
members  of  his  family,  for  corresponding 
with  him.  He  found  protection  at  Rome, 
was  employed  as  nuncio,  and  was  named 
president  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  When 
Mary  ascended  the  throne,  Pole  returned 
to  England  as  legate,  in  which  capacity 
he  absolved  the  Parliament  from  their 
sin  of  heresy,  and  reconciled  the  nation 
to  the  Holy  See.  The  day  after  the  bum- 
of  Cranmer,  the  cardinal  was  conse- 
crated Archbishop  of  Canterbury;  later 
he  was  elected  chancellor  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  and  died  Nov.  18,  1558. 


Major.  There  is  no  corresponding  star 
in  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  The  pole 
star  is  a  convenient  one  for  observing  to 
determine  the  latitude  and  also  the 
azimuthal  error  of  any  transit  instru- 
ment. 

POLIANTHES,  a  genus  of  HemerO' 
callese;  the  peduncle  is  two  or  three  feet 
long,  and  has  on  its  summit  many  cream 
colored  flowers.  P.  tuberosa  (tuberose), 
a  native  of  Mexico  and  South  America, 
much  cultivated  in  gardens  in  India, 
China,  and  Java,  is  deliciously  fragrant, 
especially  after  dark,  and  during  some 
thunderstorms  its  fading  flowers  emit 
electric  sparks. 

POLICE,  a  system  of  judicial  and  ex- 
ecutive administration  of  a  country,  espe- 
cially concerned  with  the  maintenance  of 
the  quiet  and  good  order  of  society;  the 
means  or  system  adopted  by  the  authori- 
ties of  a  government,  state,  or  community 
to  maintain  public  order  and  liberty,  and 


POLECAT 


POLECAT,  the  putoriiis  t~:  diis,  one 
of  the  Mustelinse,  akin  to  the  marten,  but 
with  a  broader  head,  a  blunter  snout,  and 
a  much  shorter  tail.  The  shorter  hairs 
are  yellow  and  woolly,  the  longer  ones 
black  or  brownish  black  and  shining. 
Two  glands  near  the  root  of  the  tail  emit 
a  highly  offensive  smell.  It  makes  im- 
mense havoc  in  poultry  yards.  It  also 
devours    many    eggs. 

POLEMICS,  the  art  or  practice  of  con- 
troversy or  disputation;  controversy; 
controversial  writings,  especially  on  mat- 
ters of  divinity  or  theology. 

POLE  STAH,  Polaris,  a  bright  star  at 
4ie  tip  of  the  tail  of  Ursa  Minor,  and 
in  a  line  with  the  pointers  Merak  and 
Dubhe,  the  two  stars  constituting  the 
front   of   the    plowlike    figure    in    Ursa 


to  protect  property.  In  a  more  limited 
sense,  the  administration  of  the  laws,  by- 
laws, and  regulations  of  a  city. 

Also  properly  an  abbreviation  of  the 
term  police  force. 

POLICE  MATRONS,  women  stationed 
in  police  stations  whose  function  it  is  to 
take  charge  of  the  women  and  child  pris- 
oners. The  brutality  of  compelling 
women  to  be  searched  and  held  by  men 
police  officials  first  brought  protest  over 
a  hundred  years  ago.  As  far  back  as 
1822  Elizabeth  Fry,  and  the  Society  for 
the  Improvement  of  Prisons,  demanded 
that  women  should  have  charge  of  female 
prisoners  arrested  by  the  police,  and 
gradually  police  matrons  became  an  in- 
stitution all  over  the  country.  Portland, 
Me.,  has  the  honor  of  having  been  the 
first  municipality  to  install  matrons  in 


POLICY 


292 


POLIOMYELITIS 


the  city  jails,  in  1876.  The  National 
Prison  Congress,  held  in  1886,  made  the 
necessity  of  police  matrons  the  subject 
of  a  strong  recommendation,  which  was 
immediately  followed  by  a  great  number 
of  American  municipalities.  At  the 
present  time  practically  all  cities  and 
towns  in  this  country  have  adopted  the 
practice. 

POLICY,  a  document  containing  a 
promise  to  pay  a  certain  sum  of  money 
on  the  occurrence  of  some  event.  In 
return  for  this  promise  a  sum  of  money 
is  paid  down,  called  the  premium.  By 
far  the  largest  part  of  insurance  busi- 
ness is  applied  to  disasters  at  sea;  to 
destruction  of  property  by  fire;  to  mak- 
ing provision  for  heirs  and  successors  in 
case  of  death,  and  to  loss  of  time  and  ex- 
pense through  accident.  Marine  policies 
are  of  two  kinds:  (1)  Valued  policy,  one 
in  which  the  goods  or  property  insured 
are  at  a  specified  value.  (2)  Open 
policy,  one  in  which  the  value  of  the 
goods  or  property  is  not  mentioned.  In 
England  a  ticket  or  warrant  for  money 
in  the  public  funds.  Wager  policies, 
wagering  policies ;  policies  containing  the 
phrase,  "interest  or  no  interest,"  in- 
tended to  signify  insurance  of  property 
when  no  property  is  on  board  the  ship. 
They  are  not  recognized  in  law. 

POLIGNAC,  an  ancient  French  family, 
which  claims  to  derive  its  name  from  a 
castle — the  ancient  ApoUiniacum — in  the 
department  of  Haute-Loire,  and  which 
since  the  9th  century  possessed  the  dis- 
trict of  Velay.  Among  its  most  famous 
members  was  Cardint^  Melchior  de 
POLIGNAC  (1661-1742),  who  received  a 
cardinal's  hat  after  acting  as  plenipo- 
tentiary of  Louis  XIV.  at  the  peace  of 
Utrecht  (1712).  From  1725  till  1732 
he  was  French  minister  at  the  court  of 
Rome,  and  he  was  appointed  Archbishop 
of  Auch.  Polignac  succeeded  Bossuet 
at  the  French  Academy  in  1704,  andjeft 
unfinished  the  "Anti-Lucretius"  (1745), 
a  poem  intended  for  a  refutation  of 
Lucretius. 

In  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.  lolanthe- 
Martine  Gabrielle  de  Polastron,  Duchesse 
de  Polignac  (born  1749;  died  in  Vienna, 
Dec.  9,  1793),  and  her  husband,  Jules 
Due  de  Polignac  (died  in  St.  Petersburg, 
1817),  grand  nephew  of  the  cardinal, 
were  among  the  worst  advisers  of  Marie 
Antoinette.  They  obtained  vast  sums  of 
the  public  money  from  their  royal  master 
and  mistress.  The  Polignacs  knew  how 
they  were  hated,  and  were  the  first  of 
the  noblesse  to  emigrate.  From  the  Em- 
press Catharine  of  Russia  the  duke  re- 
ceived an  estate  in  the  Ukraine,  and  did 
not  return  to  France  at  the  Restoration. 


His  son,  AuGUSTE  Jules  Armand  Marie, 
Prince  de  Polignac,  was  born  in  Ver- 
sailles, May  14,  1780.  On  the  Restora- 
tion he  returned  to  France;  became  inti- 
mate with  the  Comte  d'Artois,  afterward 
Charles  X.;  from  his  devotion  to  the 
^policy  of  Rome  received  from  the  Pope 
in  1820  the  title  prince;  was  appointed 
ambassador  at  the  English  court  in  1823 ; 
and  finally,  in  1829,  became  head  of  the 
last  Bourbon  ministry,  in  which  capacity 
he  promulgated  the  fatal  ordonnances 
that  cost  Charles  X.  his  throne.  He  then 
attempted  to  flee,  but  was  captured  at 
Granville  on  Aug.  15,  was  tried,  and  con- 
demned to  imprisonment  for  life  in  the 
castle  of  Ham,  but  was  set  at  liberty 
by  the  amnesty  of  1836.  He  took  up 
his  residence  in  England,  but  died  in  St. 
Germain,  March  2,  1847.  His  son. 
Prince  Armand  (1817-1890),  was  a  lead- 
ing monarchist. 

POLIOMYELITIS,  INFANTILE 
PABALYSIS,  an  acute  disease  manifest- 
ing itself  in  inflammation  of  the  gray 
matter  of  the  spinal  cord.  It  is  not  a 
disease  to  which  adults  are  liable,  except 
in  rare  cases,  and  in  one  of  its  forms  it 
attacks  the  anterior  horns  of  the  spinal 
cord  with  resultant  paralysis,  and  de- 
bilitation of  certain  muscles.  It  is  now 
conceded  that  many  of  the  great  plagues 
mentioned  in  history  have  taken  the 
form  of  acute  poliomyelitis,  but  the  dis- 
ease was  first  diagnosed  and  revealed 
in  its  epidemic  character  during  its  prev- 
alence in  Scandinavia  midway  in  the  last 
century.  Since  that  time  modern  re- 
search has  made  headway  in  discovering 
its  causes  and  elaborating  safeguards 
and  correct  treatment,  the  Rockefeller 
Institute  taking  a  leading  part  in  these 
investigations. 

It  is  only  within  the  last  dozen  years 
or  so  that  it  was  revealed  that  acute 
anterior  poliomyelitis  was  capable  of  be- 
ing communicated.  The  filterable  but 
invisible  virus  has  been  located  in  vari- 
ous membranes  and  secretions  of  the 
human  body,  but  its  presence  there  has 
not  as  yet  been  clearly  accounted  for.  Its 
admission  into  the  body  is  considered,  in 
the  present  state  of  knowledge,  to  be  in 
the  main  through  the  upper  respiratory 
canals  leading  to  the  cerebrospinal  fluid. 
The  preliminary  symptoms  include  bron- 
chitis and  intestinal  maladies,  with  aches 
fever,  and  perspiration,  followed  by 
paralysis  in  the  parts  attached.  The 
paralysis  is  usually  permanent  and  no 
remedy  has  yet  been  found  for  the  con- 
dition of  atrophy  which  follows.  Where 
the  paralysis  affects  a  vital  organ  the 
malady  is  fatal. 

Rest  is  a  prime  requisite  in  the  treat'* 
ment  of  the  disease,  but  this  must  be 


POLITICAL    ECONOMY 


293 


POLITICAL    SCIENCE 


varied  at  proper  intervals  with  massage 
and  auxiliary  movement  of  the  affected 
limb.  The  further  methods  in  vogue  in- 
clude the  removal  of  the  cerebrospinal 
fluid,  followed  by  injection  of  the  virus 
serum.  This  treatment  is  supplemented 
by  calisthenics  directed  to  bringing  life 
and  movement  into  the  dormant  parts. 
Where  the  malady  affects  an  adult  the 
course  is  similar  but  more  severe,  and 
calls  for  similar  treatment,  but  is  more 
likely  to  end  in  death. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  the  science 
which  investigates  the  nature  of  wealth 
and  the  laws  of  its  production  and  dis- 
tribution, including,  directly  or  remotely, 
the  operation  of  all  the  causes  by  which 
the  condition  of  mankind,  or  of  any 
society  of  human  beings,  in  respect  to 
this  universal  object  of  human  desire, 
is  made  prosperous  or  the  reverse.  In- 
quiries on  these  points  must  have  existed 
from  the  earliest  times  in  every  nation, 
but  political  economy  as  a  science  is  very 
modern.  Crude  views  on  the  subject 
arose  in  the  Middle  Ages  in  the  free 
Italian  cities  and  the  Hanseatic  towns. 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (1595),  Sir  William 
Petty  (1667),  and  Sir  Dudley  North 
(1691)  wrote  on  the  subject  with  en- 
lightenment for  their  age.  Francois 
Quesnay,  in  France  (1786),  founded  the 
school  ol"  the  economists  which  held  that 
the  soil  is  the  source  of  all  wealth. 
Adam  Smith  (1723-1790)  had  made 
political  economy  a  portion  of  his  lectures 
while  professor  in  Glasgow  University 
from  1751  to  1764.  Visiting  Paris  in 
that  year,  he  became  acquainted  with 
Quesnay  and  the  leading  economists,  but 
the  principles  of  his  great  work,  the 
"Wealth  of  Nations,"  published  after  10 
years'  retirement,  in  1776,  were  in  the 
main,  thought  out  independently.  Since 
Adam  Smith's  time,  no  work  on  the  sub- 
ject has  appeared  more  original  or  influ- 
ential than  the  "Principles  of  Political 
Economy,"  by  John  Stuart  Mill.  Prob- 
ably the  most  notable  political  economist 
of  the  latter  part  of  the  century  was 
Henry  George,  of  New  York  City,  whose 
views,  to  some  extent,  coincide  with  those 
of  J.  S.  Mill,  especially  as  regards  the 
unearned  increment  of  the  land.  Mr. 
George's  theory  has  been  popularly  de- 
nominated the  single  tax  idea,  and  is  best 
set  forth  in  his  work,  "Progress  and 
Poverty."  The  most  important  corollary 
of  the  single  tax  is  unlimited  free  trade 
— these  two  principles  forming,  in  fact, 
all  of  Mr.  George's  theory.  See  Single 
Tax. 

POLITICAL  PARTIES,  division  of 
people  in  a  State  marked  off  by  the  par- 
ticular views  they  hold  as  to  the  public 


policy  to  be  pursued  in  the  best  interests 
of  the  people  at  large. 

POLITICAL  SCIENCE,  the  study 
which  treats  of  the  life,  organization, 
and  principles  of  the  state.  Its  primary 
purpose  is  to  investigate  and  trace  the 
history  of  the  various  political  institu- 
tions of  the  state,  showing  what  useful 
purposes  they  serve,  the  interests  which 
called  them  into  being,  and  attempting 
to  show  how  they  may  be  modified  to 
suit  changing  social  conditions.  In  serv- 
ing these  purposes  the  need  is  now  felt 
of  having  a  wide  range  of  historical 
data  in  order  that  vague  generalizations 
may  be  avoided,  and  also  artificial  con- 
structions. The  latter  has  been  the  partic- 
ular purpose  of  the  science  in  the  period 
preceding  the  rise  of  historical  criticism 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  The  method 
of  study  now  used  is  the  comparative 
one,  an  extensive  examination  and  criti- 
cism of  the  existing  institutions  in  many 
different  modern  states  and  a  deduction 
of  principles  from  the  facts  gathered. 
Still  another  purpose  of  the  science,  and 
one  which  is  not  nor  ever  can  be  fully 
achieved,  is  the  derivation  of  sound  prin- 
ciples for  the  conduct  of  political  life. 
As  the  nature  of  the  subject  is  certainly 
not  wholly  mathematical,  but  dependent 
in  great  measure  on  the  complex  psy- 
chology of  human  beings,  until  more  ac- 
curacy is  possible  in  this  latter  field, 
sound  principles  in  political  science  will 
not  be  laid  down  very  dogmatically. 

Like  many  of  the  sciences  the  complex 
nature  of  society  and  the  increasing 
amount  of  data  at  the  disposal  of  modern 
scholars  has  brought  about  many  sub- 
divisions of  political  science.  Among  the 
divisions  earliest  to  be  made  was  the  set- 
ting apart  of  the  study  of  political  theory 
and  ethics  from  that  of  the  field  of  con- 
stitutional and  administrative  law.  A 
later  division  has  created  international 
law  and  diplomacy  as  subjects  apart 
from  comparative  study  of  party  politics 
and  legislation. 

Aristotle's  "Politics"  is  among  the  first 
works  on  political  science,  and  in  the 
field  of  political  theory  holds  its  own 
against  many  later  treatises.  A  long 
space  of  time  elapses  before  we  come  to 
another  work  which  at  all  ranks  with  it, 
not  in  fact  until  Jean  Bodin,  a  French- 
man of  the  16th  century.  In  the  17th 
century  Hobbes  and  Locke  contributed  to 
the  literature  of  the  subject,  their  elab- 
orate theories  revolving  around  the  "social 
contract."  Montesquieu  and  Rousseau 
are  the  leading  political  theorists  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  the  philosophy 
of  Kant  and  especially  of  Hegel  is 
found  a  considerable  amount  of  political 
theory    interwoven    with    their    general 


POLK 


294 


POLK 


philosophies.  The  other  branches  of  the 
science  enumerated  above,  such  as  the 
study  of  administrative  law  and  com- 
parative legislation,  did  not  receive  a  full 
measure  of  attention  until  the  19th  cen- 
tury, but  since  then  have  tended  to  at- 
tract a  considerable  number  of  scholars. 
Among  contemporary  American  virriters 
on  political  science  may  be  mentioned  in 
the  first  ranks  Burgess  and  Dunning, 
abroad  Bosanquet  and  Bluntschli. 

POLK,  FRANK  LYON,  an  American 

public  official.  Born  in  New  York  City, 
1871,  and  graduated  from  Yale  Uni- 
versity in  1894.  Began  the  practice  of 
law  in  New  York  City  in  1897  and  later 
served  on  the  Civil  Service  Commission. 
In  1915  he  was  appointed  counsellor  for 
the  Department  of  State,  and  after 
President  Wilson's  and  Secretary  Lan- 
sing's departure  from  Paris  in  1919,  he 
represented  the  United  States  at  the 
gathering  of  the  Powers.  He  resigned 
his  post  in  June,  1920. 

POLK,  JAMES  KNOX,  an  American 
statesman,  11th  President  of  the  United 
States;  born  in  Mecklenburg  cc,  N.  C, 


JAMES  K.  POLK 

Nov.  2,  1795.  His  ancestors,  who  bore 
the  name  of  Pollock,  emigrated  from  the 
W.  of  Ireland  early  in  the  18th  century. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1820.     In  1823  he  was  sent 


to  the  Tennessee  Legislature,  and  in  1824 
to  Congress,  to  which  body  he  was  re- 
elected for  seven  successive  terms,  serv- 
ing till  1839.  He  was  made  chairman  of 
the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  in 
1833,  and  twice  elected  Speaker  of  the 
House — 1835-1837.  In  Congress  he  was 
consistently  a  Democrat,  supporting  un- 
waveringly the  administrations  of  Jack- 
son and  Van  Buren,  and  opposing  that 
of  Adams.  In  1839  he  was  elected  Gov- 
ernor of  Tennessee,  and  in  1844  unex- 
pectedly nominated  as  a  compromise 
candidate  of  the  National  Democratic 
Convention  for  the  presidency,  and 
elected  over  Henry  Clay,  the  Whig  can- 
didate. His  administration  was  event- 
ful, and  in  some  respects  brilliant. 
Texas  was  annexed,  and  the  Mexican 
War  fought  which,  with  territorial  pur- 
chases, added  the  great  territory  now 
comprising  Texas,  California,  New  Mex- 
ico, Utah,  Nevada,  and  the  W.  part  of 
Colorado  to  the  domain  of  the  United 
States.  The  Oregon  boundary  forming 
one  of  the  issues  on  which  he  was  elected, 
was  settled  by  a  compromise  offered  by 
England.  He  was  a  man  of  eminent 
administrative  abilities,  of  consistent 
principles  and  pure  and  upright  private 
character.  At  the  close  of  his  single 
term  Polk  declined  to  stand  for  renom- 
ination,  and  retired  to  private  life  in 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  where  he  died  June 
15,  1849. 

POLK,  LEONIDAS,  an  American  mili- 
tary olticer;  born  in  Raleigh,  N.  C,  April 
10,  1806;  was  a  cousin  of  President  Polk. 
Graduating  at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1827,  he  received  a  commis- 
sion in  the  artillery,  but  was  induced  to 
study  for  the  ministry,  and  in  1838  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Arkansas  and  Indi- 
an Territory,  with  charge  of  the  dioceses 
of  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Louisi- 
ana. In  1841  he  resigned  all  these  ex- 
cept the  bishopric  of  Louisiana,  which 
he  retained  till  his  death.  Soon  after 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was 
offered  a  major-generalship  by  Jefferson 
Davis,  and,  accepting  it,  proceeded  to 
strongly  fortify  strategical  points  on  the 
Mississippi.     At  Belmont,  in  November, 

1861,  he  was  driven  from  his  camp  by 
Grant,  but  returned  and  compelled  him 
to  retire.  At  Shiloh  and  at  Corinth  he 
commanded  the   1st  Corps;   in   October, 

1862,  he  was  promoted  to  Lieutenant- 
General  and  in  November  he  conducted 
the  retreat  from  Kentucky.  After 
Chickamauga,  where  he  commanded  the 
right  wing,  he  was  relieved  of  his  com- 
mand; but  in  December,  1863,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  Department  of  Ala- 
bama, Mississippi,  and  Eastern  Louisiana, 
and  he  afterward  joined  Johnston  in  op- 


POLKA 


295 


POLLOCK 


posing  Sherman's  march  to  Atlanta.  He 
was  killed  while  reconnoitering  on  Pine 
Mountain,  June   14,   1864. 

POLKA,  a  well  known  dance,  the  music 
to  which  is  in  %  time,  with  tne  third 
quaver  accented.  There  are  three  steps 
in  each  bar,  the  fourth  beat  is  always  a 
rest,  the  three  steps  performed  on  the 
three  first  beats  of  every  bar. 

POLLACK,  Gadus  pollachius,  a  com- 
mon fish  on  British  coasts,  belonging  to 
the  cod,  haddock,  and  whiting  genus. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  the  coal-fish,  is 
active  in  habit,  and  is  frequently  caught. 
The  lower  jaw  projects  beyond  the  upper, 
and  there  is  no  barbel.  In  Scotland  and 
in  some  parts  of  Ireland  it  is  called 
lythe. 

POLLAN,  or  POWAN,  Coregonus 
pollan,  from  the  Irish  Lakes,  somewhat 
resembling  a  herring  {Clupea  harengus) , 
but  with  a  remarkably  short  head  and 
deep  body. 

POLLARD,  the  name  given  to  a  tree 
the  head  of  which  has  been  lopped  off 
about  8  or  10  feet  from  the  ground,  in 
order  to  induce  it  to  send  out  bushy 
shoots,  which  are  cut  periodically  for 
basket  making,  fuel,  fencing,  or  other 
purposes. 

POLLARD,  ALBERT  FREDERIC,  an 

English  historian  and  writer;  born  in 
1869,  and  educated  at  Oxford  University. 
From  January,  1893,  until  1901  he  was 
the  assistant  editor  of  the  "Dictionary  of 
National  Biography,"  serving  at  the 
same  time  on  the  faculties  of  Victoria 
University,  Manchester,  and  in  Cam- 
bridge University.  In  1916  he  became 
Creighton  Lecturer  in  the  University  of 
London,  a  position  which  he  now  holds. 
His  best  known  historical  work  is  his 
"Reign  of  Henry  VII.,"  from  contem- 
porary sources,  3  volumes,  published  in 
1913. 

POLLEN,  in  botany,  the  pulverulent 
or  other  substance  which  fills  the  cells  ot 
the  Anther  iq.v).  It  consists  of  minute 
granules  varying  in  size  and  inclosing  a 
fluid  containing  molecular  matter.  It  is 
the  male  element  in  a  plant,  correspond- 
ing to  the  seminal  fluid  in  animals,  and 
is  designed  to  fertilize  the  seed.  In  en- 
tomology, pollen  collected  from  plants 
and  carried  on  the  outer  surface  of  the 
tibiae  of  bees.  Mixed  with  honey,  it  be- 
comes the  food  of  the  larvse. 

POLLIO,  CAITJS  ASINIUS,  a  Roman 
soldier;  born  in  Rome,  76  B.  C.  He  sided 
with  Caesar  in  the  civil  war  fought  at 
Pharsalia,  and  commanded  in  Spain 
against  Sextus  Pompeius,  but  was  de- 
feated.    He    sided    with    the    triumvirs 


against  the  oligarchic  senate,  and  was 
appointed  by  Antony  to  settle  the  vet- 
erans on  the  lands  assigned  them  in 
Transpadane  Gaul.  It  was  now  that  he 
saved  the  property  of  the  poet  Vergil  at 
Mantua  from  confiscation.  After  An- 
tony and  Octavian  had  quarreled,  it  was 
Pollio  who  effected  their  temporary 
reconciliation  at  Brundusium  (40). 
This  year  he  was  consul,  when  Vergil's 
fourth  eclogue  was  addressed  to  him. 
The  year  after  he  went  to  Greece  as 
legate  of  Antony,  and  defeated  the  Par- 
thini,  a  people  of  Illyria.  This  was  the 
period  of  Vergil's  eighth  eclogue,  also 
addressed  to  Pollio.  Thereafter  he  with- 
drew altogether  from  political  life,  and 
survived  till  A.  D.  4.  Pollio  was  the  first 
to  establish  a  public  library  at  Rome,  and 
was  the  patron  of  Vergil,  Horace,  and 
other  poets.  His  own  orations,  trage- 
dies and  history  have  perished. 

POLLOCK,  an  illustrious  family  de- 
scended from  David  Pollock,  saddler  to 
George  III.  in  tne  later  part  of  the  18th 
century,  who  kept  a  shop  near  Charing 
Cross.  Three  of  his  sons  rose  to  emi- 
nence— Sir  David  Pollock,  chief  justice 
of  Bombay  (died  1847) ;  Sir  Frederick 
Pollock;  and  field-marshal  Sir  George 
PoLLCCK.  The  second,  Frederick,  was 
born  Sept.  23,  1783,  and  in  1802  passed 
from  St.  Paul's  School  to  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  in  1806  he  graduated 
B.  A.  as  senior  wrangler  and  was  elected 
a  fellow  of  his  college,  and  called  to  the 
bar  at  the  Middle  Temple.  Was  attor- 
ney-general in  1834-1835  and  1841-1844; 
and  in  the  last  year  succeeded  Lord 
Abinger  as  Chief  Baron  of  the  Ex- 
chequer, He  had  been  knighted  in  1834, 
and  on  his  retirement  in  1866  he  received 
a  baronetcy.  He  died  Aug.  23,  1870. 
His  eldest  son,  SiR  Frederick  Pollock, 
born  April  3,  1815,  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (1832-1836), 
and  in  1838  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the 
Inner  Temple.  He  was  appointed  a 
master  of  the  Court  of  Exchequer 
(1846),  and  Queen's  Remembrancer 
(1874) ;  in  1876  became  senior  master 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature;  in 
1886  resigned  his  offices.  Besides  a  goo^ 
many  magazine  articles,  he  published  a 
blank  verse  translation  of  Dante  (1854), 
and  two  pleasant  volumes  of  "Personal 
Remembrances"  (1887).  He  died  Dec.  24, 
1888.  His  oldest  son,  also  Sir  Freder- 
ick Pollock,  third  baronet;  born  Dec. 
10,  1845,  and  from  Eton  passed  to  Trin- 
ity, where  in  1868  he  obtained  a  fel- 
lowship. He  was  called  to  the  bar  at 
Lincoln's  Inn  in  1871,  and  becanie  pro- 
fessor of  Jurisprudence  at  University 
College,  London (1882),  Corpus  Professor 
of  Jurisprudence  at  Oxford  (1883),  and 


POLL    TAX 


296 


POLO 


Professor  of  Common  Law  (1884).  Be- 
side "Spinoza;  his  Life  and  Philosophy" 
(1880),  he  published,  among  other  valu- 
able legal  works:  "Principles  of  Con- 
tract" (1875);  "Digest  of  the  Law  of 
Partnership"  (1877);  "Law  of  Torts" 
(1887);  and  "Oxford  Lectures"  (1891). 
His  younger  brother,  Walter  Herries 
Pollock,  born  Feb.  21,  1850,  and  like- 
wise educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity,  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  in 
1874,  and  10  years  later  became  editor  of 
the  "Saturday  Review."  He  wrote 
'Lectures  on  French  Poets,"  "The  Pic- 
ture's Secret,"  "Verses  of  Two  Tongues," 
'A  Nine  Men's  Morrice,"  "Old  and  New," 
etc.  George  Frederick  Pollock,  born 
in  1821,  third  son  of  the  first  baronet, 
became  a  master  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Judicature;  and  the  fourth  son.  Sir 
Charles  Edward,  born  in  1823,  became 
a  baron  of  Exchequer  and  judge  of  the 
High  Court. 

Sir  George  Pollock,  field-marshal; 
born  in  Westminster  June  4,  1786,  and 
entered  the  army  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany as  lieutenant  of  artillery  in  1803. 
He  engaged  in  active  warfare,  in  the 
battle  and  siege  of  Deig  in  Bhartpur 
(1804),  at  the  siege  of  Bhartpur  (1805), 
and  in  other  operations  against  Holkar. 
Was  in  the  Nepal  (Goorkha)  campaigns 
of  1814-1816,  and  in  the  first  Burmese 
War  (1824-1826),  winning  his  colonelcy. 
In  1838  he  reached  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  After  the  massacre  of  General 
Elphinstone  and  his  forces  in  the  passes 
of  Afghanistan  the  Indian  government 
decided  to  send  a  force  to  the  relief  of 
Sir  Robert  Sale,  who  was  shut  up  in 
Jelalabad.  The  command  of  the  reliev- 
ing force  was  given  to  General  Pollock. 
In  April,  1842  (5th  to  16th),  he  forced 
the  Khyber  Pass,  and  reached  Sir  Rob- 
ert Sale;  then,  after  a  few  months'  de- 
lay he  pushed  on  to  Kabul  to  rescue  the 
British  prisoners  in  the  hands  of  Akbar 
Khan.  He  defeated  the  Afghan^  chief  at 
Tezeen  and  recovered  135  British  pris- 
oners. Then  after  being  joined  by  the 
forces  of  General  _Nott,  he  successfully 
conducted  the  united  armies  back  to 
India.  He  was  rewarded  with  a  G.  C.  B. 
and  a  political  appointment  at  Lucknow, 
He  returned  to  England  in  1846,  was 
director  of  the  East  India  Company  for 
a  couple  of  years  (1854-1856),  and  was 
created  a  field-marshal  in  1870,  and  a 
iaronet  in  1872;  in  1871  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  honorable  office  of  con- 
stable of  the  Tower.  He  died  Oct.  6, 
1872,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 

POLL  TAX,  a  tax  levied  per  head  in 
proportion  to  the  rank  or  fortune  of  the 
individual;   a  capitation  tax.     This  tax 


was  first  levied  in  England  in  1377  and 
1380,  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the 
French  War;  its  collection  in  1381  led 
to  the  insurrection  of  Wat  Tyler.  In 
the  United  States  a  poll  tax  (varying 
from  25  cents  to  $3  annually)  is  levied 
in  some  of  the  States,  in  addition  to 
the  taxes  on  property.  In  some  States 
its  payment  is  a  necessary  prerequisite 
for  voting. 

POLLUX,  a  celebrated  hero  of  the 
Grecian  mythology,  and  twin  brother  of 
Castor,  after  whose  death  he  implored 
Jupiter  to  render  him  immortal.  His 
prayer  could  not  be  entirely  granted,  but 
Jupiter  divided  immortality  between  the 
brothers,  each  living  and  dying  alter- 
nately. In  astronomy,  one  of  the  twins 
forming  the  constellation  Gemini.  Also 
the  name  of  a  star  of  the  second  magni- 
tude in  the  same  constellation.  In  min- 
eralogy, a  hydrated  silicate  of  alumina, 
potash,  and  soda,  remarkable  for  con- 
taining 34  per  cent,  of  cassium.  It  is  a 
rare  mineral. 

POLO,  an  equestrian  game,  which  may 
be  shortly  described  as  hockey  on  horse- 
back. It  is  of  Oriental  origin  and  of 
high  antiquity;  indeed,  it  has  been 
claimed  that  it  can  be  traced  back  to 
600  B.  C.  Polo  was  first  played  by  Euro- 
peans in  1863  in  Calcutta.  Almost  the 
same  game  exists  in  Tibet;  while  native 
equestrian  games  more  or  less  closely 
resembling  polo  are  played  in  Japan  and 
other  parts  of  the  East,  Since  1871 
many  polo  clubs  have  been  started  in 
Great  Britain  and,  since  1876,  in  the 
United  States,  as  well  as  wherever 
Britons  are  found  in  the  East.  The 
principal  British  club  which  makes  the 
rules  of  the  game,  is  at  Hurlingham, 
near  London. 

POLO,  MARCO,  a  Venetian  traveler 
of  the  13th  century,  the  son  of  a  mer- 
chant, who,  with  his  brother,  had  pene- 
trated to  the  court  of  Kublai,  the  great 
khan  of  the  Tartars.  This  prince,  be- 
ing highly  entertained  with  their  ac- 
count of  Europe,  made  them  his  ambas- 
sadors to  the  Pope;  on  which  they 
traveled  back  to  Rome,  and  with  two 
missionaries,  once  more  visited  Tartary, 
accompanied  by  the  young^  Marco,  who 
became  a  great  favorite  with  the  khan. 
Having  acquired  the  different  dialects  of 
Tartary,  he  was  employed  on  various 
embassies;  and  after  a  residence  of  17 
years,  all  the  three  Venetians  returned 
to  their  own  country  in  1295,  with  im- 
mense wealth.  Marco  afterward  served 
his  country  at  sea  against  the  Genoese, 
and,  being  taken  prisoner,  remained 
many  years  in  confinement,  where  he 
wrote  his  "Travels."     An  English  trans- 


POLONAISE 


297 


POLYCRATES 


lation  of  the  "Travels  of  Marco  Polo" 
was  published  by  William  Marsden,  the 
Orientalist,  in  1817  and  it  has  often  been 
reprinted. 

POLONAISE,  a  Polish  national  dance, 
which  has  been  imitated,  but  with  much 
rariation,  by  other  nations.  The  polo- 
naise, in  music,  is  a  movement  of  three 
crotchets  in  a  bar,  characterized  by  a 
seeming  irregularity  of  rhythm,  produced 
by  the  syncopation  of  the  last  note  in  a 
bar  with  the  first  note  of  the  bar  follow- 
ing, in  the  upper  part  or  melody,  while 
the  normal  time  is  preserved  in  the  bass. 

POLTAVA,  or  PTJLTAWA,  a  province 
of  Russia,  bounded  by  Czernigov,  Khar- 
kov, Ekaterinoslav,  Kherson,  and  Kiev; 
area  19,265  square  miles;  pop.  about 
4,000,000.  It  is  one  of  the  most  fertile 
and  best  cultivated  portions  of  the  Rus- 
sian empire,  and  grows  large  quantities 
of  grain.  Live  stock  and  bee  rearing  are 
important  branches  of  the  rural  economy. 
Both  manufactures  and  trade  are  of  very 
limited  extent.  Poltava,  the  capital,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Poltava  with  the 
Worskla,  has  straight  and  broad  streets, 
a  cathedral,  etc.  As  a  place  of  trade 
Poltava  derives  importance  from  the 
great  fair  held  each  year.  Wool  is  the 
great  staple  of  trade.  Horses,  cattle, 
and  sheep  are  likewise  bought  and  sold 
in  great  numbers.  It  contains  a  monu- 
ment to  Peter  the  Great,  who  here  de- 
feated Charles  XII.  in  1709.  Pop.  about 
85,000. 

POLYANDRY,  the  marriage  of  one 
woman  to  several  men  at  once.  The  cus- 
tom is  still  widely  spread  in  the  East. 
Caesar  found  it  in  Britain  on  his  arrival. 
Tacitus  has  been  cited  as  an  authority 
that  the  ancient  Germans  practiced 
polyandry. 

POLYANTHUS,  a  beautiful  and  favor- 
ite variety  of  the  common  primrose 
(Primula  vulgaris),  a  native  of  most 
parts  of  Europe,  growing  in  woods  and 
eopses  in  a  moist  clayey  soil. 

POLYBASIC  ACIDS,  acids  which  pos- 
sess more  than  one  hydrogen  atom 
capable  of  being  replaced  by  a  metal 
equivalent. 

POLYBIUS,  a  Greek  historian;  born 
in  Megalopolis,  Greece,  probably  about 
204  B.  C.  He  was  the  son  of  Lycortas, 
who  succeeded  Philopcemen  as  general  of 
the  Achaean  League,  and  he  profited  both 
by  the  example  and  instructions  of  Phi- 
lopcemen. In  the  funeral  procession  of 
the  latter  from  Messene  to  Megalopolis, 
Polybius  bore  the  urn  containing  the 
ashes  of  his  friend.  He  was  one  of  the 
1,000  Achaeans  carried  to  Italy  in  168, 
on  the  charge  of  not  having  assisted  the 


Romans  against  Perseus.  He  lived  in 
the  house  of  ^Emilius  Paulus,  and  be- 
came the  intimate  friend  of  his  son 
Scipio;  returned  with  his  fellow  exiles 
to  Greece,  in  151;  accompanied  Scipio 
to  the  siege  of  Carthage.  His  great 
work  is  a  general  history  of  the  affairs 
of  Greece  and  Rome  from  220  B.  c.  to 
146  B.  c,  the  epoch  of  the  fall  of  Corinth, 
prefaced  by  a  summary  view  of  early 
Roman  history.  Five  only  of  its  40 
books  are  now  extant,  with  some  frag- 
ments of  the  rest,  but  these  are  among 
the  most  important  literary  remains  of 
antiquity.     He  died  at  the  age  of  82. 

POLYCARP,  ST.,  one  of  the  apostoli- 
cal fathers  of  the  Church,  and  a  Chris- 
tian martyr  who,  according  to  tradition, 
was  a  disciple  of  the  Apostle  John,  and 
by  him  appointed  Bishop  of  Smyrna. 
He  made  many  converts,  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  Ignatius,  and  opposed  the 
heresies  of  Marcion  and  Valentinus;  but 
during  the  persecution  of  the  Christians 
under  Marcus  Aurelius  he  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom wtih  the  most  heroic  fortitude, 
A.  D.  166.  His  short  "Epistle  to  the  Phil- 
ippians"  is  the  only  one  of  his  writings 
that  has  been  preserved. 

POLYCHROMY,  the  art  of  coloring 
statuary  to  imitate  nature,  or  particular 
buildings  in  harmonious,  prismatic,  or 
compound  tints. 

POLYCOTYLEDONOUS  PLANTS, 
those  plants  of  which  the  embryos  have 
more  than  two  cotyledons  or  seed  lobes. 

POLYCRATES,  a  ruler  of  the  island 
of  Samos  from  about  536  to  522  B.  c. 
He  conquered  several  islands  on  the  Asi- 
atic mainland,  waged  war  successfully 
against  the  inhabitants  of  Miletus,  and 
defeated  their  allies,  the  Lesbians,  in  a 
great  sea  fight.  His  intimate  alliance 
with  Amasis,  King  of  Egypt,  proves  the 
importance  in  which  this  daring  island- 
prince  was  held  even  by  great  monarchs. 
According  to  Herodotus,  Amasis  dreaded 
the  misfortunes  that  the  envious  gods 
must  be  preparing  for  so  lucky  a  mor- 
tal, and  wrote  a  letter  to  Polycrates, 
earnestly  advising  him  to  throw  away 
the  possession  that  he  deemed  most  valu- 
able, and  thereby  avert  the  stroke  of  the 
spleenful  gods.  Polycrates,  in  compli- 
ance with  this  friendly  advice,  cast  a 
signet-ring  of  marvelous  workmanship 
into  the  sea,  but  next  day  a  fisherman 
presented  the  tyrant  with  an  unusually 
big  fish  and  in  its  belly  was  found  the 
identical  ring.  It  was  quite  clear  to 
Amasis  now  that  Polycrates  was  a 
doomed  man,  and  he  immediately  broke 
off  the  alliance.  When  Cambyses  in- 
vaded Egypt  (525)  Polycrates  sent  him 
a   contingent  of  40  ships,  In  which  he 


POLYCYSTINA 


298 


POLYNESIA 


placed  all  the  Samians  disaffected  to- 
ward his  tyranny,  but  mutinying  they 
returned  to  Samos,  and  made  war 
against  the  tyrant,  but  without  success. 
Thereupon  they  went  to  Sparta,  and  se- 
cured the  help  of  both  Spartans  and 
Corinthians  and  embarked  for  Samos, 
and  besieged  Samos  in  vain,  and  Poly- 
crates  became  more  powerful  than  ever. 
Oroetes,  the  Persian  satrap  of  Sardis, 
had  conceived  a  deadly  hatred  against 
Polycrates,  and  having  enticed  the  latter 
to  visit  him  at  Magnesia,  he  seized  and 
crucified  him. 

POLYCYSTINA,  or  POLYCISTINA, 
in  zoology,  a  sub-order  of  Radiolaria, 
placed  by   Wallich  in  his   Herpnemata. 

POLYGALA,  milkwort,  the  typical 
genus  of  Polygalacese.  Flowers  irregu- 
lar. Two  inner  sepals  wing-shaped  and 
petaloid;  stamens  combined  by  their 
claws  with  the  filaments,  the  lower  one 
keeled.  Ovary  two-celled,  two-seeded, 
seeds  downy,  crested  at  the  hilum. 
Known  species  200,  from  temperate  and 
tropical  countries.  Three  are  British. 
An  infusion  of  P.  rubella,  a  native  of 
North  America,  very  bitter,  is  i:sed  in 
small  doses  as  a  tonic  and  stimulant, 
and  in  larger  ones  as  a  diaphoretic. 
The  American  P.  senega  is  snake  root. 
P.  chamxhuxus  from  Europe,  P.  san- 
guinea  and  P.  purpurea  from  North 
America,  P.  paniculata  from  the  West 
Indies,  P.  serpentaria  from  the  Cape,  and 
P.  crotalarioides  from  the  Himalayas, 
are  emetic,  purgative,  and  diuretic.  P. 
poaya  from  Brazil,  P.  glandulosa,  and 
P.  scopario  from  Mexico,  are  emetic. 
P.  thesioides,  from  Chile,  is  diuretic. 
P.  tinctoria,  from  Arabia,  is  there  used 
in  dyeing,  and  the  Javanese  P.  venenosa 
is  poisonous. 

POLYGAMY,  the  practice  or  condition 
of  having  a  plurality  of  wives  or  hus- 
bands at  the  same  time.  It  is  commonly 
applied  to  polygyny,  but,  strictly  speak- 
ing, it  should  include  polyandry  as  well. 
It  is  forbidden  by  law  in  all  Christian 
countries,  but  existed  among  the  Mor- 
mons.    See  Mormons. 

POLYGLOT,  a  collection  of  versions  in 
different  languages  of  the  same  work, 
but  is  almost  exclusively  applied  to  mani- 
fold versions  of  the  Bible.  The  Hexapla 
of  Origen  contained,  besides  the  Hebrew 
text,  several  other  Greek  versions,  but  is 
not  commonly  reckoned  among  the  poly- 
glots. Of  modern  works  of  this  kind  the 
most  convenient  is  Bagster's  Polyglot, 
first  published  by  Bagster  at  London  in 
1831,  which  gives  the  Old  Testament  in 
eight  languages  (Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin, 
English,   German,   Italian,   French,    and 


Spanish),   and   the   New   Testament   in 
nine    (the   Syriac  version  being  added). 

POLYGON,  in  geometry,  a  portion  of 
a  plane  bounded  on  all  sides  by  more 
than  four  limited  straight  lines.  These 
lines  are  called  sides  of  the  polygon,  and 
the  points  in  which  they  meet  are  called 
vertices  of  the  polygon.  Polygons  are 
classified  according  to  the  number  of 
their  sides  or  angles.  Polygons  having 
all  their  sides  equal  are  called  equilat- 
eral; those  having  all  their  angles  equal 
are  called  equiangular.  Polygons  whick 
are  both  equilateral  and  equiangular  are 
called  regular  polygons.  Similar  poly- 
gons are  to  one  another  as  the  squares 
of  their  homologous  sides.  In  fortifica- 
tion, the  exterior  polygon  is  the  figure 
formed  by  lines  connecting  the  angles  of 
the  bastion  round  the  work.  The  inter- 
ior polygon  is  the  figure  formed  by  lines 
connecting  the  centers  of  the  bastions  all 
round. 

POLYGONACE.ffl,  buckwheats;  an 
order  of  hypogynous  exogens,  alliance 
Silenales.  Herbs,  rarely  shrubs.  Dis- 
tribution, world  wide.  Known  genera 
29,  species  490.     (Lindley.) 

POLYGYNIA,  an  order  in  Linnsus' 
artifical  classification,  containing  plants 
with  many  pistils. 

POLYHYMNIA,  one  of  the  Muses, 
daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne, 
who  presided  over  singing  and  rhetoric, 
and  was  deemed  the  inventress  of  har- 
mony. 

POLYMOBPHISM,  the  property  pos- 
sessed by  certain  bodies  of  crystallizing 
in  two  or  more  forms  not  derivable  one 
from  the  other. 

POLYNESIA,  a  general  name  for  a 
number  of  distinct  archipelagoes  of  small 
islands  scattered  over  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
extending  from  about  lat.  35°  N.  to  35° 
S.,  and  from  Ion.  135°  E.  to  100°  W., 
the  Philippines,  New  Guinea,  Australia, 
and  New  Zealand  being  excluded.  The 
islands  are  distributed  into  numerous 
groups,  having  a  general  dii^ection  from 
N.  W.  to  S.  E.  The  groups  of  the  equa- 
tor are  the  Pelew,  Ladrone  or  Marianne, 
Caroline,  Marshall,  Gilbert  or  Kingsmill, 
Fanning,  and  Hawaii  or  the  Sandwich 
Islands.  S.  of  the  equator  are  New  Ire- 
land, New  Britain,  Solomon  Islands,  New 
Hebrides,  Fiji,  New  Caledonia,  Naviga- 
tor, Friendly,  Cook's  or  Harvey,  and  the 
Society  Islands,  the  Low  Archipelago, 
the  Marquesas  Islands,  and  the  isolated 
Easter  Island.  The  term  Polynesia  is 
sometimes  restricted  to  the  groups  most 
centrally  situated  in  the  Pacific;  the 
New  Hebrides,  Solomon  Islands,  New 
Britain,  New  Ireland   (Bismarck  Archi- 


POLYP 


299 


POLYTHEISM 


pelago),  etc.,  being  classed  together  as 
Melanesia,  whereas  the  Carolines,  La- 
drones,  Marshall  Islands,  etc.,  form 
Micronesia.  The  islands  may  be  divided 
into  two  chief  classes,  volcanic  and  coral 
islands.  Some  of  the  former  rise  to  a 
great  height,  the  highest  peak  in  the 
Pacific,  Mauna  Loa,  in  Hawaii,  reaching 
13, COO  feet.  The  principal  groups  of 
these  are  the  Friendly,  the  Sandwich,  the 
Marquesas,  and  the  Navigator  Islands. 
The  coral  islands  comprise  the  Carolines, 
Gilbert,  and  Marshall  Islands  on  the 
N.  W.,  and  the  Society  Islands  and  Low 
Archipelago  in  the  S.  E. 

Polynesia  has  a  comparatively  mod- 
erate temperature,  and  the  climate  is  de- 
lightful and  salubrious.  The  predomi- 
nating race,  occupying  the  central  and 
E.  portion  of  Polynesia,  is  of  Malay 
origin,  with  oval  faces,  wide  nostrils,  and 
large  ears.  Their  language  is  split  up 
into  numerous  dialects.  The  other  lead- 
ing race  is  of  negroid  or  Papuan  origin, 
with  negro-like  features  and  crisp  mop- 
like hair.  They  are  confined  to  Western 
Polynesia,  and  speak  numerous  distinct 
dialects.  Christianity  has  been  intro- 
duced into  a  great  many  of  the  islands, 
and  a  large  number  of  them  are  under 
the  control  of  one  or  other  of  the  Euro- 
pean powers.  The  commercial  products 
consist  chiefly  of  cocoanuts,  cotton, 
coffee,  sugar,  fruits,  pearls,  and  tre- 
pang.  The  Ladrones  were  discovered  by 
Magellan  in  1521,  the  Marquesas  by 
Mandaiia  in  1595,  but  it  was  not  till 
1767  that  Wallis,  and  subsequently  Cook, 
explored  and  described  the  chief  islands. 
Since  the  natives  came  in  contact  with 
the  whites  their  numbers  have  greatly 
decreased. 

POLYP,  a  name  usually  applied  to  an 
animal  like  the  fresh-water  hydra  or  like 
the  sea  anemone,  having  a  tubular  body 
and  a  wreath  of  many  tentacles  around 
the  mouth.  The  name  is  equally  appli- 
cable to  an  isolated  individual  or  to  a 
member  (zooid  or  "person")  of  a  colony. 
Thus,  the  individuals  which  make  up  a 
zoophyte  or  a  coral  colony  are  called 
polyps,  and  the  term  is  seldom  used  ex- 
cept in  reference  to  ccelentrate  animals. 

POLYPHEMUS,  in  mythology,  the 
king  of  all  the  Cyclops  in  Sicily,  and 
son  of  Neptune  and  Thoosa.  He  is  rep- 
resented as  a  monster  of  immense 
strength,  and  with  one  eye  in  the  middle 
of  the  forehead.  He  fed  on  human  flesh, 
and  kept  his  flocks  on  the  coasts  of  Sicily, 
when  Ulysses,  at  his  return  from  the 
Trojan  War,  was  driven  there. 

POLYPHONE,  a  musical  instrument 
of  the  music-box  type,  used  principally  in 
connection  with  the  graphophone.     Also 


a  character  or  vocal  sign  which  repre- 
sents more  than  one  sound. 

POLYPHONIC,  having,  or  consisting 
of  many  sounds  or  voices.  In  music, 
consisting  of  several  tone  series  or  parts, 
progi-essing  simultaneously  according  to 
the  rules  of  counterpoint;  contrapuntal. 

POLYPLECTRON,  or  POLYPLEC- 
TRXJM,  in  music,  a  musical  instrument 
in  which  the  tones  were  produced  by  the 
friction  of  numerous  slips  of  leather  act- 
ing on  strings,  and  moved  by  pressing  or 
striking  keys,  as  in  the  pianoforte. 

In  ornithology,  a  genus  of  Phasi- 
aninx,  from  the  Oriental  region.  Bill 
rather  slender,  sides  compressed,  tip 
curved,  nostrils  lateral;  longitudinal 
opening  partly  hidden  by  a  membrane. 
Wings  rounded,  tail  long,  rounded. 
Tarsi  long,  those  of  the  male  with  two 
or  more  spurs.  Toes  long  and  slender. 
There  are  five  species. 

POLYPODIACE^,  in  botany,  ferns 
proper;  an  order  of  acrogens,  alliance 
Filicales.  Known  genera  183,  species 
2,000. 

POLYPUS,  a  morbid  growth  attached 
to  the  interior  of  any  of  the  mucous  ca- 
nals. It  is  generally  a  fleshy  tumor  with 
many  branches.  Polypi  sometimes  grow 
in  the  nose,  larynx,  heart,  rectum,  uterus 
and  vagina.  In  zoology,  in  the  plural,  a 
class  of  radiated  animals  defined  as  hav- 
ing many  prehensile  organs  radiating 
from  around  the  mouth  only. 

POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE,  an  edu- 
cational non-sectarian  institute  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.;  founded  in  1854;  reported  at 
the  close  of  1919 :  Professors  and  in- 
structors, 45;  students,  981;  presiden**- 
F.  W.  Atkinson,  Ph.  D. 

POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL,  an  educa- 
tional establishment  in  which  instruction 
is  given  in  many  arts  and  sciences,  more 
especially  with  reference  to  their  prac- 
tical application.  The  first  polytechnic 
school  was  established  by  a  decree  of  the 
French  Convention,  on  Feb.  13,  1794,  and 
was  of  great  service  to  the  country.  ^  Nu- 
merous schools  of  this  class  now  exist  in 
all  parts  of  the  United  States,  among: 
them  the  Brooklyn  Polytechnic,  Drexel 
Institute  in  Philadelphia,  etc. 

POLYTHALAMIA,  a  group  of  Proto- 
zoa occupying  compound  chambered  cells 
of  microscopic  size. 

POLYTHEISM,  the  worship  of  many 
gods.  It  is  not  necessarily  the  same  as 
idolatry,  for  gods  may  be  adored  with- 
out any  image  of  them  being  made.  In 
Sir  John  Lubbock's  classification  of  I'e- 
ligious  beliefs,  fetishism  and  totemisra 
are  polytheistic;  the  next  stage  in  the 


POMACES 


300 


POMONA 


ascending  order,  anthropomorphism,  may 
or  may  not  be  so.  Though  some  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  philosophers  may  have 
risen  above  polytheism  to  conceive  the 
unity  of  God,  the  masses  of  the  people 
were  polytheistic,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
ethnic  nations  today,  though  in  some 
cases,  as  in  that  of  India,  pantheism  un- 
derlies polytheism,  and  some  apparent 
polytheists  really  believe  all  nature  to 
be  one  God. 

POMACES,  Linnaeus,  37th  natural 
order,  including  Punica  Pyeus,  ^  Ribes ; 
also  appleworts,  an  order  of  perigynous 
exogens,  alliance  Resales.  Trees  or 
shrubs,  with  alternate,  stipulate  leaves; 
flowers  solitary,  or  in  terminal  cymes, 
white  or  pink.  Found  in  the  temperate 
parts  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 
Known  genera  16,  species  200.  (Lind- 
ley.) 

POMADE,  perfumed  or  fragrant  oint- 
ment or  composition  for  dressing  the 
hair;   pomatum. 

POMBAL,  SEBASTIAN  JOSEPH  DE 
CABVALHO  E  MELLO,  MARQUIS  OF, 
a  Portuguese  statesman;  born  May  13, 
1699,  at  the  castle  of  Soure,  near  Coim- 
bra.  In  1739  he  was  appointed  ambas- 
sador in  London,  and  six  years  later  was 
sent  to  Vienna  in  a  similar  capacity. 
Just  before  Joseph  I.  ascended  the 
throne  of  Portugal  (1750),  Pombal  was 
appointed  secretary  for  foreign  affairs 
and  Prime  Minister  in  1756.  He 
crushed  a  revolt  instigated  by  the  great 
nobles  and  the  Jesuits,  and  in  1759  ban- 
ished the  latter  from  the  kingdom. 
Then  he  abolished  slavery  in  Portugal, 
set  himself  to  establish  good  elementary 
schools,  and  published  a  new  code  of 
laws.  He  effected  the  reorganization  of 
the  army,  the  establishment  of  an  East 
India  Company,  and  another  for  Brazil. 
The  tyranny  of  the  Inquisition  was 
broken.  Agriculture,  commerce,  and  the 
finances  were  all  improved.  In  1770  he 
was  created  Marquis  of  Pambal.  On  the 
accession  of  Joseph's  daughter,  Maria  I. 
(in  1771),  who  was  under  the  clerical 
influence,  Pombal  was  deprived  of  his 
offices  and  banished  from  court,  while 
many  of  his  institutions  were  abolished. 
He  died  in  his  castle  of  Pombal,  May  8, 
1782. 

POMEGRANATE,  the  fruit  of  Punica 
granatum.  The  seeds  have  a  pellucid 
pulpy  covering,  and  are  eaten. 

POMEGRANATE  TREE,  Punica 
granatum,  once  believed  to  be  the  type  of 
a  distinct  order.  A  tree  15  to  25  feet 
high,  a  native  of  W.  Asia  and  N.  Africa. 
It  forms  woods  in  Persia.  A  decoction 
of  the  bark  is  a  powerful  anthelmintic, 
but  not  so  good  as  fern  root;  the  flow- 


ers are  tonic  and  astringent;  the  bark 
of  the  fruit  is  used  in  leucorrhcea, 
chronic  dysentery,  etc.,  and  the  acrid 
juice  in  bilious  fevers.  The  plant  is 
sometimes  used  for  hedges.  Its  bark  is 
of  use  in  tanning. 

POMERANIA,  a  province  of  Prussia, 
bounded  by  the  Baltic,  Mecklenburg, 
Brandenburg,  and  West  Prussia;  area, 
11,630  square  miles;  pop.  about  1,800,- 
000.  The  chief  islands  along  the  coast 
are  Riigen,  Usedom,  and  Wollin.  The 
interior  is  flat  and,  in  parts,  marshy. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Oder,  Per- 
sante,  and  Stolpe.  The  soil  is  generally 
sandy  and  indifferent,  but  there  are  rich 
alluvial  tracts,  producing  a  quantity  of 
grain.  Flax,  hemp,  and  tobacco  are  also 
cultivated.  The  forests  are  of  large 
extent.  There  are  few  minerals.  Manu- 
factures include  woolen  and  other  fab- 
rics. A  considerable  general  and  tran- 
sit trade  is  carried  on.  The  center  <rf 
trade  is  Stettin,  which  ranks  as  one  of 
the  chief  commercial  cities  of  Prussia. 
Pomerania  appears  to  have  been  origi- 
nally inhabited  by  Goths,  Vandals,  and 
Slavs.  The  present  inhabitants  are  of 
Saxon  stock.  The  first  mention  of  it  in 
history  is  in  1140.  It  long  remained  an 
independent  duchy,  and  in  1637,  on  the 
extinction  of  the  ducal  family,  it  was 
annexed  to  Sweden.  On  the  death  of 
Charles  XII.  it  was  ceded  to  the  elec- 
toral house  of  Brandenburg,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  part  which  subsequently  was 
also  obtained  by  Prussia. 

POMERENE,  ATLEE,  United  States 
Senator  from  Ohio,  born  in  1863  in  Ohio, 
he  graduated  from  Princeton  in  the  class 
of  '84.  After  completing  a  law  course 
at  the  Cincinnati  Law  School  he  was 
ar^mitted  to  the  bar  in  1886  and  began 
the  practice  of  law  at  Canton,  Ohio.  In 
1897  he  was  elected  prosecuting  attor- 
ney of  Stark  co.  on  the  Democratic 
ticket  and  in  1910  was  chosen  lieutenant- 
governor  of  Ohio.  The  following  spring 
he  was  chosen  United  States  Senator  and 
re-elected  in  1917. 

POMONA,  tlie  Roman  divinity  of  the 
fruit  (pomum)  of  trees.  She  was  be- 
loved by  several  of  the  rustic  divinities, 
as  Sylvanus,  Picus,  and  Vertumnus. 
Varro  tells  us  that  at  Rome  the  worship 
of  Pomona  was  under  the  care  of  a 
special  priest,  the  flamen  Pomonalis. 
In  works  of  art  she  was  generally  repre- 
sented with  fruits  in  her  lap,  or  in  a 
basket,  with  a  garland  of  fruits  in  her 
hair,  and  a  pruning  knife  in  her  right 
hand. 

POMONA,  the  largest  and  most  popu- 
lous of  the  Orkney  Islands;  length  from 
N.    W.    to    S.    E.,    23    miles;    extreme 


POMONA 


301 


POMPEII 


breadth,  about  15  miles,  but  at  the  town 
of  Kirkwall  only  about  2V2  miles;  area, 
150  square  miles.  Pop.  17,165.  The 
surface  is  covered  in  great  part  by  moor 
and  heath,  but  good  pasture  is  also  to  be 
found  and  in  the  valleys  a  good  loamy 
soil  occurs.  The  principal  towns  are 
Kirkwall  and  Stromness. 

POMONA,  a  city  of  California,  the 
county  seat  of  Los  Angeles  co.  It  is  on 
the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  San  Pedro, 
Los  Angeles  and  Salt  Lake  railroads. 
Its  attractive  situation  and  healthful  cli- 
mate make  it  a  popular  health  resort. 
It  is  _  the  center  of  an  important  fruit- 
growing region.  Pomona  College  is  in 
the  neighboi-hood.  It  has  a  handsome 
park  and  a  public  library.  Pop.  (1910) 
10,207;   (1920)    13,505. 

POMPADOUB,  JEANNE  ANTOIN- 
ETTE     POISSON,      MARQiriSE      DE, 

the  mistress  of  Louis  XV.,  in  whose  af- 
fections she  succeeded  Madame  de  Cha- 
teauroux;   the  daughter  of  a  financier; 


MARQUISE   DE   POMPADOUR 

born  in  1720.  At  the  age  of  21  she  was 
married  to  M.  d'Etioles;  first  attracted 
the  king's  notice  while  he  was  hunting 
in  the  forest  of  Senart;  appeared  at 
court  in  1745,  under  the  title  of  Mar- 
quise de  Pompadour.  She  certainly  used 
her  influence  with  the  king  in  pro- 
moting the  progress  of  the  fine  arts,  but 
her  cupidity  and  extravagance  were  un- 
bounded; and  many  of  the  evils  which 
oppressed  France  in  the  succeeding  reign 
have  been  attributed  to  her.  She  died  in 
1764. 

POMPEII,  a  seaport  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Sarnus,  on  the  Neapolitan  Riviera, 
Vol.  VII— Cyc 


founded  about  600  B.  c.  by  the  Oscans, 
and   after   them,   occupied   by   the    Tyr- 
rheno-Pelasgians,  and  by  the   Samnitea, 
till   these,    about   80   B.  c,   were    dispos- 
sessed by  the  Romans.     From  that  time 
down  to  its   destruction,  A.  D.  79,  it  be- 
came   (with    Herculaneum)    a   watering 
place  for  the  wealthy,  frequented  by  the 
aristocracy,  if  not  by  Caligula  and  Nero, 
in    whose    honor    it    erected    triumphal 
arches.     On  Feb.  5,  A.  D.  63,  by  an  earth- 
quake  in   the    vicinity,   all    the    palatial 
buildings     were     wrecked,     and     years 
elapsed  ere   the  fugitive  citizens   recov- 
ered confidence  enough  to  reoccupy  and 
rebuild  what  was  once   Pompeii.     Taw- 
driness  replaced  simplicity  of  decoratioa 
— the  columns,  capitals,  and  cornices  be- 
ing ornamented   with   reliefs   in    stucco 
picked    out    with    parti-colored    designs, 
while    private    houses,    fantastically    re- 
stored and  adorned,  infringed  every  ar- 
tistic  or   aesthetic    canon   to   favor    the 
grotesque  style  of  the  Decadence.   Revolu- 
tionized as  it  was  for  the  worse,  the  city, 
however,  retained  a  good  deal  of  Greek 
character  and  coloring,  and  had  relapsed 
into   more   than   its  former   gayety   and 
licentiousness,    when    on    Aug.    23     (or, 
more  probably,  on  Nov.  23)   79,  with  a 
return  of  the  shocks  of  earthquake,  Ve- 
suvius was  seen  to  throw  up  a  column 
of  black  smoke,  ashes,  pumice,  and  red- 
hot  stones,  settling  down  on  the  doomed 
cities  with  a  force  increased  by  the  rain- 
torrents    that    intermittently    fell.     The 
panic  of  the  citizens  was  agg^ravated  by 
repeated   shocks   of  earthquake   and   for 
three  days  the  flight  continued  till  Pom- 
peii was  abandoned  by  all  who  could  ef- 
fect their  escape.     By  the  fourth  day  the 
sun  had  partially  reappeared,  as  if  shin- 
ing through  a  fog,  and  the  more   cour- 
ageous  of   the   citizens   began  to  return 
for  such  of  their  property  as  they  could 
disinter.     The     desolation    and    distress 
were    such    that    the    reigning    emperor 
Titus    organized    relief    on    an    imperial 
scale.     This    attempt    was    soon     aban- 
doned, and  Pompeii  remained  a  heap  of 
hardened  mud  and  ashes,  gradually  over- 
grown   with    grass   till    1592,   when   the 
architect   Fontana,  in   cutting  an  aque- 
duct,  came    on    some    ancient    buildings. 
But   only   in    1748,   under   the    Bourbon 
Charles      III.,     were     they     recognized 
as     part     of     Pompeii.       Unsystematic, 
unscientific    excavations    proceeded     fit- 
fully    till      1860,     when      the      Italian 
kingdom  took  in  hand  the  unearthing  of 
the  city.     This  was  carried  out  with  ad- 
mirable   ingenuity,   care,    and    success — 
all   treasure  trove  being  vigilantly  pre- 
served till  now  Pompeii  possesses  a  dis- 
tinction unknown  to  it  in  the  zenith  of 
its  imperial  favor,  and  attracts  the  pil- 

20 


POMPEII 


302 


POMPEY 


grim  from  every  clime.  Pompeii  as  now 
exposed  formed  an  irregular  ellipse,  ex- 
tending from  E.  to  W.,  in  circumference 
about  2,843  yards;  it  had  eight  gates. 
Its  most  important  part — not  quite  one- 
half,  including  the  Forum,  adjacent  tem- 
ples, and  public  buildings,  two  theaters 
with  colonnades,  amphitheater,  and  many 
private  houses — has  already  been  ex- 
humed, and  five  main  streets  made  out. 
The  streets,  which  are  straight  and  nar- 
row— the  broader  24  feet  wide,  the  nar- 
rower 14  feet  only — -are  admirably  paved 
with  polygonal  blocks  of  lava.  The  street 
corners  are  provided  with  fountains,  or- 
namented usually  with  the  head  of  a  god 
or  a  mask.  Notices  painted  in  red  let- 
ters, and  referring  to  municipal  elections 
for  which  some  particular  candidate  is 
recommended,  occur  frequently  on  the 
street  walls,  while  trade-signs  are  few 
and  far  between.  An  occasional  "phal- 
lus," to  avert  the  evil  eye,  projects  from 
over  a  doorway,  and,  much  more  com- 
mon, one  or  two  large  snakes,  emblems  of 
the  Lares,  are  to  be  seen.  The  stuccoed 
walls,  to  judge  from  the  Graffiti  or 
roughly  scratched  drawings  on  them, 
were  as  tempting  to  the  Pompeian 
gamin,  as  to  our  own.  House  construc- 
tion consists  mainly  of  concrete  (rubble 
held  together  by  cement)  or  brick,  and 
sometimes  of  stone  blocks,  especially  at 
the  corners.  Two-storied,  sometmies 
three-storied  houses  are  numerous, 
though  the  upper  floors,  built  of  wood, 
have  been  consumed  by  the  eruption. 
Shops  usually  occupied  the  ground  floors 
of  dwelling-houses,  on  their  street  as- 
pect, let  out  to  merchants  or  dealers  as 
at  the  present  day,  but  not  connected 
with  the  back  part  of  the  house.  They 
could  be  separated  from  the  street  by 
large  wooden  doors,  while  inside  they 
had  tables  covered  with  marble,  in  which 
earthen  vessels  for  vdne  or  oil  were  in- 
serted. The  shopkeeper  had  sometimes 
a  second  room  at  the  back,  when  he  did 
not  live  on  an  upper  floor  or  in  another 
part  of  the  town.  Only  a  personal  visit 
can  convey  an  idea  of  the  indoor  life  of 
the  Pompeians,  among  whom  the  absence 
of  glass,  the  fewness  of  the  openings  in 
the  street  aspect  of  the  house  wall,  and 
the  protection  of  these  with  iron  grat- 
ings are  among  the  points  noted  by  the 
most  casual  visitor.  The  feature  that 
most  strikes  the  Northerner  being  the 
smallness  of  the  rooms,  particularly  the 
bedrooms — quite  intelligible,  however, 
when  he  realizes  that  the  Pompeians  led 
an  open-air  life,  and  performed  their 
toilets  at  the  bath,  public  or  private.  As 
rebuilt  after  68,  Pompeii  shows  little 
marble,  the  columns  being  of  tufa  or 
brick  cemented  by  mortar.     A  coating  of 


stucco  was  laid  over  wall  or  column,  and 
presented  an  ample  field  for  ornamental 
painting.  This  must  have  g:iven  to 
Pompeii  its  bright,  gay  coloring.  On  the 
center  of  the  interior  walls  is  generally 
seen  a  painting  unconnected  with  the 
others — often  of  a  nymph,  or  a  genius, 
when  not  distinctly  erotic  in  tiieme — typ- 
ifying faithfully  the  voluptuous  sensual 
life  of  this  pleasure-haunt  of  paganism. 

POMPEY,  C  N  E  I  U  S  POMPEIUS 
MAGNUS,  son  of  Pompeius  Strabo,  a 
Roman  general;  born  in  106  B.C.  He 
distinguished  himself  against  the  ene- 
mies of  the  Roman  senate,  both  within 
the  state  and  without,  and  at  last  fell  in 
the  struggle  against  Caesar  for  absolute 
power.  Like  his  father,  serving  against 
Marius,  Pompey  ranged  himself  with  the 
aristocratic  party  of  the  republic.  He 
was  in  his  23d  year  only  when  he  raised 
three  complete  legions,  60,000  men,  at 
his  own  expense,  and  took  the  field  in 
behalf  of  Sylla.  By  his  26th  year  Pom- 
pey had  defeated  the  remains  of  the 
Marian  party  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  Sicily, 


POMPEY  THE  GREAT 

and  Africa,  and  on  his  return  to  Rome, 
83  B.  c,  was  hailed  Magnus — the  great 
—-by  Sylla.  On  the  death  of  Sylla,  in 
78  B.  c,  Pompey  went  as  proconsul  to 
Spain,  where  the  plebeian  war  was  con- 
tinued by  Sertorius,  and  after  a  four 
years'  arduous  struggle,  he  remained 
master  of  the  field,  his  opponent  having 
been  betrayed  and  assassinated.  He  re- 
turned to  Italy  in  time  to  give  the  fin- 


PONCE 


303 


PONIATOWSKI 


ishing  blow  to  the  similar  victories  of 
Crassus,  and  in  70  B.  C.  Pompey  and 
Crassus  were  elected  consuls.  In  the 
year  67  B.  c,  he  destroyed  the  lawless 
bands  infesting  the  coasts  of  the  Medi- 
terranean; was  made  absolute  dictator 
in  the  East,  and  superseded  LucuUus  in 
the  command  against  Mithridates.  The 
latter  he  completely  routed  in  66  B.  c, 
and  becoming  master  of  Asia  Minor,  pur- 
sued his  conquests  through  Syria  and 
Palestine  as  far  as  the  Red  Sea.  In  60 
B.  C.  he  joined  Caesar  and  Crassus  in  the 
triumvirate,  the  former  of  whom  gave 
him  his  daughter  Julia  in  marriage. 
Succeeding  events  caused  Pompey  to 
draw  closer  to  the  senatorial  party,  and 
with  him,  as  the  representative  of  the 
patrician  republic,  went  Cato,  the  hon- 
est enemy  of  the  ambition  of  Caesar.  In 
54  B.  C.  Julia  died ;  in  the  year  following, 
Crassus  was  slain  in  Asia;  and  now  the 
hostility  between  C^sar  and  Pompey  rap- 
idly developed  itself.  The  former  hav- 
ing applied  for  the  consulship,  refused 
to  present  himself  in  Rome  as  a  private 
citizen,  and  a  decree  of  the  senate  de- 
clared him  a  public  enemy  unless  he  re- 
signed his  command.  Instead  of  doing 
so,  Caesar  crossed  the  Rubicon  with  his 
troops,  49  B.  c,  and  Pompey,  accom- 
panied by  Cato,  Cicero,  and  other  nobles 
of  Rome,  fell  back  on  Greece,  where  the 
great  battle  of  Pharsalia  decided  his 
fate.  Pompey  was  advised  to  seek  an 
asylum  in  Egypt,  then  ruled  by  a  sov- 
ereign he  had  protected,  Ptolemy  XIV. 
He  was  received  with  pretended  friend- 
ship, but  treacherously  murdered  as  soon 
as  he  had  stepped  ashore,  48  B.  C,  and 
his  head  being  cut  off,  it  was  sent  to 
Csesar,  who  turned  away  from  it  and 
could  not  restrain  his  tears.  Pompey 
fell,  and  with  him  the  republic  of  Rome. 
Cneius,  son  of  Pompey,  who  endeavored 
to  carry  on  the  war  against  Caesar,  was 
defeated  and  killed  at  Munda,  45  B.  c. 
Sextus,  the  younger  brother  of  Cneius, 
continued  the  war  for  10  years,  and  ren- 
dered himself  formidable  as  a  naval  com- 
mander; but  he  was  at  last  defeated  and 
killed  by  order  of  Antony,  35  B.  c. 

PONCE,  second  largest  city  in  the 
thickly  populated  island  of  Porto  Rico. 
It  is  in  the  middle  of  the  south  coast, 
has  no  harbor,  but  only  an  open  road- 
stead, and  is  connected  with  San  Juan, 
directly  opposite  on  the  north  coast,  by 
a  military  highway,  a  splendid  result 
of  old-fashioned  Spanish  engineering. 
Pop.  (1920)  41,561.  It  was  the  principal 
commercial  city  of  the  island  before  the 
conquest  by  America,  being  the  ordinary 
port  of  call  for  Spanish  ships.  In  1918 
the  island  suffered  from  two  earth- 
quakes that  made  600  families  homeless. 


PONCE  DE  LEON,  JUAN,  the  dis- 
coverer of  Florida;  born  in  San  Servas, 
Spain,  in  1460,  served  against  the  Moors, 
and  in  1502  sailed  with  Ovando  to  His- 
paniola,  and  became  governor  of  the  E. 
part  of  the  island.  In  1510  he  obtained 
the  government  of  Porto  Rico,  and  had 
conquered  the  whole  island  by  1512, 
when  he  was  deprived  of  his  post.  He 
then,  broken  in  health,  set  out  on  a  quest 
for  the  fountain  of  perpetual  youth,  and 
on  March  27,  1513,  found  Florida,  land- 
ing a  little  to  the  N.  of  where  St.  Au- 
gustine now  stands.  After  staying  on 
his  way  back  to  drive  the  Caribs  out  of 
Porto  Rico,  he  returned  in  1521  to  con- 
quer his  new  subjects;  in  this,  however, 
he  failed.  He  retired  to  Cuba,  and  died 
there  in  July  from  the  wound  of  a  poi- 
soned arrow. 

PONDICHERRY,  the  chief  of  the 
French  settlements  in  Iidia;  on  the  Cor- 
omandel  coast;  53  mile5  S.  W.  of  Madras 
city;  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a 
canal,  White  (European)  town  being 
next  the  sea.  It  has  handsome  streets, 
a  government  house,  a  college,  a  light- 
house, and  cotton  mills,  besides  native 
dyeing  establishments.  Pop.  (1917) 
47,321.  Exports  chiefly  oil  seeds.  The 
French  colony  of  Pondicherry  has  an 
area  of  115  square  miles.  Pop.  (1917) 
166,793.  The  governor  of  Pondicherry 
is  governor-general  of  the  French  pos- 
sessions in  India.  The  French  first  set- 
tled here  in  1674.  The  Dutch  took  the 
town  in  1693,  but  restored  it  to  the 
French  in  1697.  In  1748  Admiral  Bos- 
cawen  besieged  Pondicherry  for  two 
months,  but  was  compelled  to  raise  the 
siege.  Eyre  Coote,  however,  took  it  in 
1763.  It  was  once  more  taken  by  the 
English  under  Sir  Hector  Monro  in  1778, 
and  once  more  given  back  in  1783.  In 
1793  the  English  again  repossessed  them- 
selves of  it,  but  it  was  a  third  time  re- 
stored to  the  French  in  1816. 

PONIATOWSKI,  JOSEPH,  PRINCE, 
a  Polish  general;  born  in  Warsaw,  Po- 
land, in  1763,  and  when  young  entered 
the  Austrian  service,  but  when  the  Poles 
rose  against  Russia  he  quitted  it,  and 
joining  his  countrymen,  fought  with 
them  under  Kosciusko.  On  the  defeat 
of  this  general,  Poniatowski  sought  ref- 
uge in  Vienna,  till  the  French  entered 
Warsaw  in  1806,  when  he  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  Polish  army 
which  was  to  co-operate  with  the  French 
against  Russia.  In  1812  Napoleon  gave 
him  the  command  of  the  5th  Corps  of 
the  Grand  Army,  which  consisted  al- 
most entirely  of  Poles.  In  the  subse- 
quent battles  he  distinguished  himself. 
Napoleon  estimated  his  services  so  highly, 
that  he  created  him  a  Marshal  of  France. 


POTfT-A-MOUSSON 


304 


PONTOON 


After  the  French  defeat  at  Leipsic 
Poniatowski  escaping  with  others,  was 
drowned  while  attempting  to  cross  the 
River  Elster,  Oct.  13,  1813. 

PONT-A-MOUSSON,  a  town  of  France, 
department  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle ;  on 
the  Moselle,  18  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Nancy 
and  18  S.  S.  E.  of  Metz.  There  is  a  fine 
Gothic  church  of  the  13th  century  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Martin.  The  former  abbey 
of  St.  Mary  is  now  a  seminary.  The 
town  was  the  birthplace  of  Marshal  Du- 
roc,  the  friend  of  Napoleon.  Pop.  about 
15,000.  Was  the  scene  of  heavy  fighting 
in  the  World  War  (1914-1918). 

PONTCHARTBAIN,  I^AKE,  in  Louisi- 
ana, about  5  miles  N.  of  New  Orleans, 
is  40  miles  long  and  25  wide.  It  is 
navigated  by  small  steamers,  and  com- 
municates with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  drainage  of  New  Orleans  is  carried 
into  the  lake  through  canals. 

PONTEFRACT,  or  POMFBET,  a  mar- 
ket-town in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, England;  on  an  eminence  near  the 
influx  of  the  Calder  to  the  Aire,  13  miles 
S.  E.  of  Leeds.  It  stands  on  the  line  of 
a  Roman  road,  but  seems  to  have  arisen 
round  its  Norman  castle,  which,  founded 
about  1076  by  Ilbert  de  Lacy,  was  the 
scene  of  the  executioii  or  murder  of  the 
Earl  of  Lancaster  (1322),  Richard  II. 
(1400),  and  Earl  Rivers  (1483),  was 
taken  in  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace  (1536), 
and  during  the  Great  Rebellion  sustained 
four  sieges,  being  finally  dismantled  in 
1649,  after  its  capture  by  Lambert. 
There  are  two  old  churches,  a  town  hall 
(rebuilt  1796),  a  market  hall  (1860), 
a  grammar  school  of  Edward  VI. 
(1549),  and  large  market  gardens  and 
nurseries,  the  growing  of  liquorice  for 
the  lozenges  called  "Pomfret  cakes"  be- 
ing a   specialty   as   old  as   about  1562. 

PONTIAC,  a  city  of  Michigan,  the 
county-seat  of  Oakland  co.  It  is  on  the 
Clinton  river,  and  on  the  Grand  Trunk 
and  the  Pontiac,  Oxford,  and  Northern 
railroads.  It  is  situated  in  the  midst 
of  a  picturesque  lake  region  and  is  noted 
for  its  hunting  and  fishing.  It  has  a 
large  trade  in  wool,  fruit,  and  farm 
produce,  and  its  industries  include  the 
manufacture  of  automobiles,  wagons, 
farm  machinery,  paints  and  varnishes, 
foundry  products,  flour,  etc.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  State  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane. It  has  a  public  library  and  other 
public  buildings.  Pop.  (1910)  14,532; 
(1920)  34,273. 

PONTIAC,  a  celebrated  Indian  chief 
of  the  Ottawa  tribe;  born  about  1712. 
He  was  the  leader  in  Pontiac's  War,  and 
was  killed  in  Illinois  in  1769.  . 


PONTIAC'S  WAR,  an  Indian  war  of 

1763  between  the  English  settlers  and 
garrisons  on  the  frontiers,  and  a  com- 
bination of  the  Dela wares,  Wyandots, 
Shawnees,  Mingoes,  Chippewas,  and 
other  Indian  tribes,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Pontiac.  The  war  lasted  two 
years  and  was  marked  by  ferocious  and 
bloody  battles  in  which  some  garrisons 
were  completely  annihilated.  An  unsuc- 
cessful attack  was  made  on  Detroit  in 
1763. 

PONTIFEX,  a  bridge  builder;  a  title 
given  to  ihe  more  illustrious  members 
of  the  Roman  colleges  of  priests.  Their 
number  was  originally  five,  the  presi- 
dent being  styled  Pontifex  Maximus. 
The  number  was  afterward  increased  to 
nine,  and  later  still  to  15.  It  is  now  the 
title  of  the  Pope. 

PONTIGNY,  a  village  of  the  French 
department  of  Yonne,  10  miles  N.  E.  of 
Auxerre,  with  a  famous  Cistercian  mon- 
astery, dating  from  the  12th  century. 
It  was  the  burial  place  of  St.  Edmund 
of  Canterbury.  Here  Thomas  Becket 
found  refuge  in  1164-1166;  as  did  Ste- 
phen Langton  in  the  next  century.  The 
monastery  was  devastated  by  the  Hugue- 
nots in  1567,  and  finally  destroyed  at  the 
Revolution;  but  the  church  (mainly 
1150-1170)  is  the  most  perfect  Cister- 
cian church  in  existence. 

PONTINE  MARSHES,  an  extensive 
marshy  tract  of  land  in  Italy,  in  the  S. 
part  of  the  Roman  Campagna,  extend- 
ing along  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean for  about  24  miles,  with  a  mean 
breadth  of  7  miles.  The  Romans,  by 
the  construction  of  the  Appian  way  and 
by  means  of  canals,  made  a  considerable 
part  of  them  dry,  and  many  of  the 
Popes,  especially  Pope  Pius  VI.,  engaged 
in  the  drainage  and  reclaiming  of  the 
marshes. 

PONTOON,  a  floating  vessel  support- 
ing the  roadway  timbers  of  a  floating 
military  bridge.  They  may  be  boats, 
water-tight  cylinders  of  tin,  or  wooden 
frames  covered  with  canvas,  india-rub- 
ber, etc.  Also,  a  barge  or  lighter  of 
large  capacity,  used  in  careening  ships, 
raising  weights,  drawing  piles,  etc.,  or 
capable,  in  pairs,  of  acting  as  camels. 
And  a  barge  or  flat-bottomed  vessel  fur- 
nished with  cranes,  capstans,  and  hoist- 
ing tackle,  used  in  wrecking,  in  connec- 
tion with  a  diving  bell,  or  in  raising 
submerged  vessels.  In  hydraulic  engi- 
neering, a  water-tight  structure  which  is 
sunk  by  filling  with  water,  and  raised 
by  pumping  it  out,  used  to  close  a  sluice- 
way or  entrance  to  a  dock.  It  works  in 
grooves  in  the  dock  walls,  and  acts  as  a 
lock  gate. 


PONTRESINA 


3(r5 


POONA 


PONTRESINA,  a  tourist  center  in  the 

Swiss  canton  of  Grisons,  stands  in  the 
Upper  Engadine,  on  the  road  connecting 
with  the  Bernina  Pass,  and  is  much  fre- 
quented by  Alpine  climbers. 

PONTUS,  in  ancient  geography,  the 
N.  E.  province  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded 
N.  by  the  Euxine  Sea,  W.  by  Galatia  and 
Paphlagonia,  S.  by  Cappadocia  and  part 
of  Armenia,  and  E.  by  Cholchis.  It  was 
originally  governed  by  kings,  and  was  in 
its  most  flourishing  state  under  Mithri- 
dates  the  Great.  The  geographer  Strabo 
was  born  in  Amasia,  its  capital;  and  one 
Oif  its  principal  towns,  Trapezus,  still 
flourishes  under  the  name  of  Trebizond. 

PONTTTS      EUXINUS.     See      Black 

Sea. 

PONY,  a  term  applied  to  several  sub- 
varieties  or  races  of  horses,  generally  of 
smaller  size  than  the  ordinary  horses, 
and  which  are  bred  in  large  flocks  and 
herds  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
chiefly  for  purposes  of  riding  and  of 
lighter  draught  work.  Among  well- 
known  breeds  are  the  Welsh,  Shetland, 
Iceland,  Exmoor,  New  Forest,  and 
Scotch  Highland. 

POODLE,  a  breed  of  dog  whose  origin 
dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century  or  earlier.  The  poodle  varies 
considerably  in  his  appearance,  and  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  divide  the 
breed  into  several  sections,  such  as  the 
large  and  small  variety,  or  the  corded 
coated  and  fleecy  coated  variety,  as  also 
into  black  Russian  and  white  German 
poodles;  but  none  of  these  divisions  are 
very  clearly  defined.  The  large  black 
Russian  poodle  is  much  the  most  hand- 
some and  agile  specimen  of  the  race,  and 
may  be  easily  trained  to  retrieve.  The 
small  white  poodle  is  only  fit  for  a  house 
dog,  but  is  extremely  clever.  For  some 
unknown  reason  the  poodle  has  always 
been  clipped  in  a  peculiar  manner;  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  tufts,  his  body 
and  hindquarters  are  entirely  bare,  while 
the  coat  on  his  shoulders  is  left  long. 

POOL,  a  game  played  on  a  pool  table. 
The  pool  table  is  constructed  exactly  the 
same  as  a  billiard  table,  excepting  the 
fact  that  it  has  four  or  six  apertures  in 
the  rails,  through  one  of  which  it  is 
necessary  to  drive  a  ball  to  make  a 
count,  the  ball  so  driven  being  propelled 
froin  the  force  imparted  by  being  struck 
by  the  cue  ball.  A  pyramid  of  15  balls 
is  placed  at  a  given  spot  on  the  table  and 
the  game  is  ended,  if  there  are  but  two 
players,  when  eight  balls  are  pocketed, 
as  that  is  a  majority  of  the  15  object 
balls.  ^  Variations  in  this  game  have 
been  introduced. 


Also,  an  arrangement  between  several 
competing  lines  of  railway,  by  which  the 
total  receipts  of  each  company  are 
pooled,  and  distributed  pro  rata  accord- 
ing to  agreement.  A  combination  of 
persons  contributing  money  to  be  used, 
for  the  purpose  of  increasing  or  depress- 
ing the  market  price  of  stocks,  with  a 
view  to  the  settlement  of  differencea 
Also  the  stock  or  money  contributed  by 
a  clique  to  carry  through  a  corner. 
Also,  a  gambling  enterprise  participated 
in  by  several  persons;  the  joint  stake  or 
fund  contributed  by  such  persons.  In 
rifle  shooting,  firing  for  prizes  on  the 
arrangement  that  each  competitor  pays 
a  certain  sum  for  each  shot,  and  all  the 
proceeds  of  the  day,  after  deduction  of 
the  necessary  expenses,  are  divided 
among  the  winners. 

POOLE,  a  seaport  of  Dorsetshire,  Eng- 
land; 5  miles  W.  of  Bournemouth  and  30 
E.  of  Dorchester.  It  stands  on  the  N. 
side  of  Poole  Harbor  (7  by  4^  miles), 
an  irregular  inlet,  formed  by  the  projec- 
tion of  the  "isle"  of  Purbeck,  almost  dry 
at  low  water,  and  having  four  tides  a 
day.  On  Brownsea  or  Branksea  Island, 
just  within  the  narrow  entrance  to  the 
harbor,  is  a  castle,  dating  from  the  time 
of  Henry  VIII.  Poole  itself  has  an  old 
town  hall  (1572),  a  guildhall  (1761),  a 
town  house  (1822),  considerable  ship- 
ping, some  yacht  building,  and  a  large 
trade  in  potter's  and  pipe  clay.  The 
men  of  Poole  were  great  fighters,  as 
buccaneers,  smugglers,  and  Cromwellian 
soldiery. 

POOLE,  JOHN,  an  English  play- 
wright; born  in  1792;  wrote  the  immor- 
tal "Paul  Pry,"  first  produced  at  the 
Haymarket  in  1825,  and  several  other 
farces  and  comedies,  such  as  "Turning 
the  Tables,"  "Deaf  as  a  Post,"  "Twould 
Puzzle  a  Conjuror,"  "The  Wife's  Strata- 
gem," etc.  Besides  these  theatrical 
pieces  he  wrote  also  the  satirical  "Little 
Pedlington"  (1839),  "The  Comic  Sketch 
Book"  (1859),  "Comic  Miscellany" 
(1845),  "Christmas  Festivities"  (1845). 
He  died  in  London,  Feb.  5,  1879. 

POONA,  or  PUNA,  a  town  of  British 
India,  119  miles  S.  E.  of  Bombay;  the 
military  capital  of  the  Deccan.  The  city 
is  surrounded  by  gardens,  but  its  streets 
are  mostly  narrow  or  crooked,  and  the 
houses  poor.  The  ruins  of  the  peshwa's 
palace,  burned  in  1827,  still  remain. 
Under  the  peshwas  the  city  was  the 
capital  of  the  Mahratta  princes  and 
power;  it  was  occupied  and  annexed  by 
the  British  in  1818.  Here  have  been 
built  the  Deccan  College  and  the  College 
of  Science,  the  latter  for  training  civil 
engineers.     The    Europeans   live    chiefly 


POON    WOOD 


306 


POPE 


at  the  cantonments,  N.  W.  of  the  city. 
The  natives  manufacture  cottons  and 
silks,  gold  and  silver  jewelry,  ivory  and 
glass  ornaments,  and  clay  figures.  Pop. 
about  160,000.  The  district  has  an  area 
of  5,348  square  miles.  Pop.  about 
1,000,000. 

POON  WOOD,  the  wood  of  the  poon 
tree  {Calophyllum  inophyllum  and  Calo- 
phylluni  angustifolium) ,  a  native  of  In- 
dia. It  is  of  a  light,  porous  texture  and 
is  much  used  in  the  East  Indies  in  ship- 
building for  planks  and  spars.  The  Cal- 
cutta poon  is  preferred  to  that  of  other 
districts.  Poon  seed  yields  an  oil  called 
dilo,  poon-seed  oil,  etc. 

POORE,  BENJAMIN  PERLEY,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Newbury, 
Mass.,  Nov.  2,  1820;  spent  several  years 
abroad,  and  devoted  much  time  to  re- 
search in  French  history.  On  his  return 
he  became  active  in  journalism,  and  for 
30  years  was  Washington  correspondent 
of  the  "Boston  Journal."  His  works  in- 
clude "The  Rise  and  Fall  of  Louis 
Philippe"  (1848);  "Early  Life  of  Na- 
poleon" (1851) ;  "Reminiscences  of  Sixty 
Years"  (1886).  He  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  May  30,  1887. 

POORE,  HENRY  RANKIN,  an  Amer- 
ican artist;  born  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  1859, 
and  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1883.  His  first  pictures 
were  combinations  of  figures  and  animal 
subjects,  but  his  later  work  has  been 
devoted  to  landscape  pictures,  mostly  of 
New  England  scenes.  Amon^  his  most 
celebrated  works  are  "Hounds  m  Winter" 
(1898);  "Pilgrim  Sons"  (1915).  He  is 
the  author  of  a  valuable  book  for  stu- 
dents of  art  entitled  "Pictorial  Composi- 
tion and  the  Critical  Judgment  of  Pic- 
tures"   (1913). 

POP  AY  AN,  capital  of  Cauca,  Colom- 
bia, near  river  Cauca,  226  miles  S.  W.  of 
Bogota.  Buildings  include  university, 
city  hall,  cathedral  and  ecclesiastical 
seminaries.  Seat  of  archbishopric. 
Formerly  a  gold  mining  center,  but  now 
has  few  industries,  including  sheep  rais- 
ing, wool  and  blanket  man\jfactures. 
Pop.  about  20,000. 

POPE,  a  bishop  of  the  Christian 
Church ;  specifically,  the  Bishop  of  Rome. 
The  term  Papa,  or  Papas  (father),  has 
always  been  given  by  the  (jreek  Church 
to  presbyters,  like  the  term  Father  now 
applied  to  a  Roman  priest.  In  the  early 
centuries  the  bishops  received  the  same 
title  till,  in  a  council  held  at  Rome  in 
1076,  at  the  instance  of  Gregory  VII. 
(Hildebrand),  it  was  limited  to  the 
Bishop  of  Rome.  Holding  that  office, 
being   also   Metropolitan   of    Rome    and 


primate,  and  claiming  to  be  the  earthly 
head  of  the  Church  universal,  it  is  in 
the  last  named  capacity  that  the  term 
Pope  is  held  to  be  specially  applicable.  It 
has  been  a  matter  of  controversy  among 
Roman  Catholics  whether  the  authority 
of  the  Pope  was  above  or  below  that  of 
the  General  Council.  That  of  Pisa 
(1409),  claiming  to  be  a  General  Council, 
deposed  two  rival  Popes,  and  appointed 
a  third;  but  the  two  former  repudiated 
the  authority  of  the  council,  and  exer- 
cised their  functions  as  before.  The 
Council  of  Constance  (1414-1418)  also 
deposed  two  rival  Popes  and  elected  one. 
In  751  Pope  Zachary  being  consulted  as 
to  the  right  of  the  warlike  French  to 
depose  their  incompetent  king,  Childeric, 
and  raise  Pepin,  the  able  mayor  of  the 
palace,  to  the  sovereignty,  sanctioned  the 
proceeding.  Pepin,  in  return,  became 
his  friend,  and  handed  over  to  the 
Church  the  Exarchate  and  the  Pentap- 
olis.  Charlemagne,  in  774,  confirmed 
and  enlarged  the  gift.  In  1076  or  1077 
the  Princess  Matilda,  daughter  of  Boni- 
face, Duke  of  Tuscany,  made  the  Holy 
See  heir  to  her  extensive  possessions. 
Thus  arose  "the  States  of  the  Church" 
which  figured  on  the  map  of  Europe  as 
an  independent  sovereignty  till  Sept.  20, 
1870,  when  the  troops  of  Victor  Em- 
manuel, King  of  Italy,  entered  Rome, 
nominally  in  the  interests  of  order,  and 
took  possession  of  the  palace  for  the 
Italian  kingdom.  On  July  2  and  3,  1871, 
the  seat  of  government  was  removed 
thither.  It  still  continues  the  metropo- 
lis. No  interference  took  place  with  the 
Pope's  purely  spiritual  authority,  but 
much  with  his  temporal  possessions  and 
revenues. 

A  Papal  Election. — When  the  death  of 
the  reigning  Pope  is  imminent  the  Dean 
of  the  College  of  Cardinals  summons  his 
colleagues  to  the  residence  of  the  dying 
pontiff.  Prayers  are  ordered  in  all  the 
Roman  churches.  Immediately  after  the 
death  of  the  Pope  the  cardinal  camer- 
lingo  knocks  thrice  on  the  door  of  the 
bed  chamber  where  the  body  lies.  Get- 
ting no  answer,  he  enters  and  with  a  sil- 
ver mallet  taps  thrice  on  the  forehead  of 
the  dead  man,  calling  him  three  times  by 
name.  The  announcement  of  the  Pope's 
death  is  then  publicly  made  and  the 
cardinal  camerlingo  takes  an  inventory 
of  the  property  in  the  palace  and  seals 
up  the  dead  pontiff's  papers.  Nine  days 
is  the  official  period  of  mourning.  ()n 
the  ninth  day  the  remains,  which  have 
been  lying  in  state  in  St.  Peter's,  are 
accorded  a  magnificent  public  funeral 
and  are  placed  in  the  temporary  receiv- 
ing tomb,  there  to  remain  till  the  next 
Pop©  dies,  when  they  are  interred  in  the 


POPE 


307 


POPE 


crypt  of  St.  Peter's.  Then  all  is  ready 
for  the  conclave  which  meets  to  elect  a 
new  Pope. 

The  cardinals  from  all  over  the  world 
gather  in  the  palace,  and  to  preserve 
secrecy,  the  quarters  occupied  by  them 
are  isolated,  every  door,  window,  and 
other  aperture,  being  walled  up.  After 
attending  the  mass  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
the  cardinals  march  in  solemn  and  splen- 
did procession  to  the  chapel,  from  which 
at  the  ringing  of  a  bell  all  but  the 
cardinals  are  ejected.  Then  the  great 
doors  are  locked  on  the  outside  and  from 
that  time  on  the  conclave  has  no  osten- 
sible connection  with  the  outside  world. 
Two  dumb  waiters  in  which  the  food  for 
the  cardinals  is  delivered  are  the  only 
means  of  communication.  About  10 
o'clock  of  the  second  morning  the  car- 
dinals proceed  to  the  Sistine  Chapel,  if 
the  conclave  is  to  be  held  in  the  Vatican, 
and  the  balloting  begins.  Three  car- 
dinals are  chosen  to  count  the  ballots  and 
three  to  collect  the  ballots  of  those  whom 
sickness  detains  in  their  cells.  On  the 
upper  part  of  the  ballot  each  cardinal 
writes  his  own  name,  below  it  the  name 
of  his  candidate,  and  at  the  bottom  some 
verse  of  Scripture.  The  ballots  are  then 
folded  and  sealed,  so  that  only  the  name 
of  the  candidate  voted  for  is  in  sight. 

There  are  three  methods  of  election 
recognized — by  inspiration,  by  compro- 
mise, and  by  election.  The  first  is  when 
all  the  cardinals,  as  if  moved  by  one 
spirit,  proclaim  one  candidate  as  Pope 
unanimously  and  viva  voce.  The  second 
is  when  a  committee  is  appointed  to 
decide  on  a  compromise  between  rival 
candidates.  The  third  and  usual  method 
is  when  balloting  is  continued  till  some 
candidate  is  successful.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  a  cardinal  or  even  a  mem- 
ber of  the  priesthood  be  chosen  as  Pope. 
In  fact,  at  least  two  laymen,  John  XIX. 
(1024)  and  Adrian  V.  (1276)  have  been 
elected  Pope.  Two  ballots  a  day  are 
taken  till  one  candidate  receives  two- 
thirds  of  all  the  votes.  Then  the  suc- 
cessful candidate  is  adorned  with  the 
pontifical  robes,  and  the  Sacred  College 
performs  the  first  act  of  homage  to  the 
new  sovereign.  Then  the  masons  tear 
down  the  wall  which  has  stopped  up  one 
of  the  balcony  windows  and  the  cardinal 
dean  announces  the  election  to  the  wait- 
ing multitude.  Then  follows  various 
public  ceremonies,  and  finally — most  im- 
pressive and  splendid  of  all — the  corona- 
tion of  the  new  Pope.  The  papal  in- 
signia are  the  tiara  or  triple  crown,  the 
straight  crosier,  and  the  pallium.  The 
Pope  should  be  addressed  as  "Your  holi- 
ness." 

The  following  is  a  table  of  the  Popes, 


according  to  the  Roman  "Notizie,"  with 
the  dates  of  the  commencement  of  their 
pontificates.  The  names  printed  in  ital- 
ics are  those  of  anti-Popes : 

St.  Peter 
St.  LinuB 
St.  Anacletus 


.A.  D.    42 
...       66 

...       78 
91 
100 
108 


St.  Clement  I.. 
St.  Evaristus  .  . 
St.    Alexander  I. 

St.    Sixtus    1 119 

St.   Telesphorus    .  .  127 

St.  Hyginus    139 

St.  Pius  1 142 

St.  Anicetus 157 

St.  Soterus 168 

St.    Eleutherius    . .  177 

St.   Victor   1 193 

St.   Zephirinus   .  .  .  202 

St.    Callixtus   I 217 

St.    Urban   1 223 

St.    Pontianus    . .  .  230 

St.    Anterus    235 

St.   Fabian    236 

St.   Cornelius 250 

St.   Lucius  I. — No- 

vatianus    252 

St.   Stephen  1 253 

St.    Sixtus    II 257 

St.  Dionvsius   ....  259 

St.    Felix    1 269 

St.  Eutychianus  .  .  275 

St.    Caius    283 

St.    Marcellinus    .  .  296 
(See  vacant  3  years 
and  6  months.) 

St.    Marcellus    I...  308 

St.    Eusebius    ....  310 
St.     Melchiades    or 

Miltiades     311 

St.   Svlve«ter  I 314 

St.  Marcus 336 

St.    Julius    1 337 

Liberiua    352 

St.  Felix  II.  (some- 
times reckoned  an 

Anti-pope)     ....  355 

St.    Damasus   I.  . .  366 

St.    Siricius     384 

St.  Anastasius  I...  398 

St.   Innocent  I 402 

St.   Zosimus    417 

St.     Boniface    I. — 

Eulaliug     418 

St.    Celestine  I.  .  .  422 

St.    Sixtus    III 432 

St.  Leo  I.  the  Great  440 

St.    HUary    461 

St.    Simplicius    .  .  .  468 

St.    Felix    III 483 

St.    Gelasius    I 492 

St.  Anastasius  II..  496 

St.    Symmachus    .  .  498 
St.        Hormisdas — 

Lawrence    514 

St.    John    1 523 

St.   Felix  IV 526 

Boniface  II. — Dios- 

corus    530 

John  II 533 

St.  Apapetus  I 535 

St.    Sylverius    536 

Virilius      537 

Pelagius     1 555 

John  III 560 

Benedict    (I.)    Bo- 

nosus     574 

Pelagius  II 578 

St.    Gregory   I.   the 

Great     590 

Sabinianus    604 

Boniface    III.^  . .  607 

St.   Boniface  IV..  .  608 

St.    Deusdedit    .  .  .  615 

Boniface  V 619 

Honorius  1 625 

(See  vacant  1  year 
and  7  months.) 


Severinus    640 

John   rV 640 

Theodorus    1 642 

St.  Martin  1 649 

St.  Eugenius  I 654 

St.    Vitalianus    .  . .  657 

Adeotatus    672 

Donus  or   Domnoa 

1 676 

St.  Agathon    678 

St.  Leo  II 682 

St    Benedict   11..  .  684 

John   V 685 

Conon  —  Theodo- 
rus;   Paschal.  . .  686 

St.    Sergius   1 687 

John   VI 701 

John   VII 705 

Sisinnius     708 

Constantine     708 

St.  Gregory  IT 715 

St.    Gregory    III..  731 

St.   Zachary    741 

Stephen  II  (died 
before  consecra- 
tion)        752 

Stephen    III 753 

St.  Paul  I. — Con- 
stantine:     Theo- 

phylactus:  PhUip  767 

Stephen     FV 768 

Adrian    1 772 

St.  Leo  III 795 

Stephen     V 816 

St.    Paschal  1 817 

Eugenius    II 824 

Valentinus    827 

Gregory     IV 827 

Sergius     II 844 

Leo    IV 847 

Benedict  IIL — An- 

astashis   855 

St.    Nicholas    I.  .  .  858 

Adrian     II 867 

John    VIII 872 

Marinus       I.,       or 

Martin     II 882 

Adrian    III 884 

Stephen    VI 885 

Pormosus     891 

Boniface     VI 896 

Stephen     VII 898 

Romanus     897 

Theodorus    II. 

Sergius     III..  898 

John    IX 898 

Benedict    IV 900 

Leo   V 90t 

Christopher     903 

Sergius     III 904 

Anastasius    III...  911 

Lando      913 

John    X 914 

Leo    VI 928 

Stephen   VIII 929 

John    XI 931 

Leo    VII 936 

Stephen     IX 939 

Marinus      II.,      or 

Martin    lU 943 

Agap^tus    II 946 

John     XII. — Leo 

Till    956 

Benedict  V 964 

John     Xni 965 

Benedict    VI 972 

Donus   or   Domnus 

11 973 

Benedict    VII 974 

John  xrV. — Boni- 
face   VII 983 

.Tohn     XV 985 

Gregory     V. — John 

Xri 998 


POPE 


308 


POPE 


Sylvester    II 999 

John     XVI.     or 

XVII 1003 

John      XVII.      or 

XVIII 1003 

Bergius   IV 1009 

Benedict      VIII. — 

Gregory     VI 1012 

John     XVIII.     or 

XIX. 1024 

Benedict  IX.  (de- 
posed)   —  John 

XX 1033 

Gregoi-y  VI. — Syl- 
vester III 1045 

Clement    II 1046 

Damasus  II.  — 
Beyiedict  IX.  at- 
tempts to  resume 

the    throne 104S 

St.  Leo  IX 1049 

Victor     II 1055 

Stephen     X 1057 

Benedict  X 1058 

Nicholas     II 1058 

Alexander  II. — Ho- 

nori'us    II 1061 

Gregory  VII.  (Hil- 
debrand)    — 

Clement    III 1073 

(See  vacant  1  year.) 

Victor     III 1086 

Urban    II 1088 

Paschal    II 1099 

Qelasius  II. — Greg- 
ory    VIII 1118 

Oallixtue    II 1119 

Honorius    II. — Ge- 

lestine    II 1124 

Innocent  II. — An- 
acletus  II.:  Vic- 
tor   IV 1130 

Oelestinus    II 1143 

Lucius    II 1144 

Eugenius    III 1145 

Anastasius  IV..  .  .1153 
Adrian  IV.  (Nich- 
olas Breakspear, 
an  Englishman)  1154 
Alexander  1 1  I. — 
Victor  V. :  Pas- 
chal III.:  Oallix- 
tus  III. :  Inno- 
cent   III 1159 

Lucius    III 1181 

Urban    III 1185 

Gregory  VIII 1187 

Clement    III 1187 

Celestinus    III...  1191 
Innocent     III.... 1198 

Honorius    III 1216 

Gregory    IX 1227 

Celestinus    IV 1241 

(See  vacantly.  7m.) 

Innocent  TV 1243 

Alexander   IV 1254 

Urban   IV 1261 

Clement     IV 1265 

( See  vacant  2  years 
and  9  months.) 

Gregory    X 1271 

Innocent  V 1276 

Adrian    V 1276 

John  XIX.  or  XX. 

or    XXI 1276 

Nicholas   III 1277 

Martin     IV 1281 

Honorius    IV 1285 

Nicholas    IV 1288 

( See  vacant  2  years 
and  3  months.) 
St.  Celestinus  V. .  .  1294 
Pius  XI. 


Boniface   Till. . . .  1294 

Benedict   XI 13(« 

Cnement    V 1305 

(Seat  of  the  Pa- 
pacy removed  to 

Avignon)     1305 

( See  vacant  2  years 
and  3  months. ) 

John    XXII 1316 

Benedict  X  1 1. — 
Nicholas     V.    at 

Borne     1334 

Clement    VI 1342 

Innocent  VI 1352 

Urban  V.  —  Olem- 

ervt     VII 1362 

Gregory  XI. 
(throne  restored 

to   Rome) 1370 

Urban   VI 1378 

Boniface  IX.  — 
Benedict  XIII. 
at    Avignon. .,  .1S89 

Innocent   VII 1404 

Gregory     XII 1406 

Alexander  V 1409 

John   XXIII 1410 

Martin  V. — Clem- 
ent  VIII 1417 

Eugenius  IV. — Fe- 
lix   V 1431 

Nicholas    V 1447 

Callixtus    III 1455 

Pius   II 1458 

Paul  II 1464 

Sixtus    IV 1471 

Innocent    VIII 1484 

Alexander  VI 1492 

Pius    III 1503 

Julius    II 1503 

Leo    X 1513 

Adrian    VI 1522 

Clement  VII 1523 

Paul   III 1534 

Julius   III 1550 

Marcellus  II 1555 

Paul    IV 1555 

Pius    IV 1559 

St.   Pius  V 1566 

Gregory  XIII 1572 

Sixtus   V 1585 

Urban   VII 1590 

Gregory    XIV 1590 

Innocent  IX 1591 

Clement   VIII 1592 

Leo   XI 1605 

Paul    V 1605 

Gregory    XV 1621 

Urban    VIII 1623 

Innocent  X 1644 

Alexander   VII 1655 

Clement     IX 1667 

Clement    X 1670 

Innocent  XI 1676 

Alexander   VIII..  .1689 

Innocent    XII 1691 

Clement     XI 1700 

Innocent    XIII 1721 

Benedict    XIII 1724 

Clement     XII 1730 

Benedict    XIV 1740 

Clement  XIII 1758 

Clement    XIV 1769 

Pius    VI 1775 

Pius    VII 1800 

Leo    XII 1823 

Pius     VIII 1829 

Gregory    XVI 1831 

Pius    IX 1846 

Leo    XIII 1878 

Pius    X 1903 

Benedict    XV 1914 

.  . .1922 


education  was  a  desultory  one.  He 
picked  up  the  rudiments  of  Greek  and 
Latin  from  the  family  priest,  and  was 
successively  sent  to  two  schools,  one  at 
Twyford,  the  other  in  London.  He  was 
taken  home  at  the  age  of  12.  Before  he 
was  15  he  attempted  an  epic  poem,  and 
at  the  age  of  16  his  "Pastorals"  pro- 
cured him  notice.  In  1711  he  published 
his  poem  the  "Essay  on  Criticism,"  which 
was  followed  by  "The  Rape  of  the  Lock," 
a  polished  and  witty  narrative  poem 
founded  on  an  incident  of  fashionable 
life.  His  next  publications  were  "The 
Temple  of  Fame,"  a  modernization  and 
adaptation  of  Chaucer's  "House  of 
Fame";  "Windsor  Forest,"  a  pastoral 
poem  (1713)  ;  and  "The  Epistle  of  Eloisa 
to  Abelard"  (1717).  From  1713  to  1726 
he  was  engaged  on  a  poetical  translation 
of  Homer's  works,  the  "Hiad"  (completed 
in  1720)  being  wholly  from  his  pen,  the 
"Odyssey"  only  half.     The  pecuniary  re- 


POPE,  ALEXANDER,  an  English 
poet;  bom  in  London,  May  21,  JfiSS.  His 
father  was  a  devout  Catholic.  Pope  was 
small,  delicate,  and  much  deformed.    His 


ALEXANDER  POPE 

suits  of  these  translations  showed  a  total 
profit  of  nearly  $45,000.  In  1728  he 
published  his  "Dunciad,"  a  mock  heroic 
poem  intended  to  overwhelm  his  antago- 
nists with  ridicule.  This  was  followed 
by  "Imitations  of  Horace"  and  by  "Moral 
Epistles"  or  "Essays."  His  "Essay  on 
Man"  was  published  anonymously  in 
1733,  and  completed  and  avowed  by  the 
author   in   the  next  year.     In   1742  he 


POPE 


309 


POPOCATEPETL 


added  a  fourth  book  to  his  "Dunciad." 
Pope  was  vain  and  irascible,  and  seems 
to  have  been  equally  open  to  flattery  and 
prone  to  resentment;  yet  he  was  kind- 
hearted  and  stanch  to  his  friends,  among 
whom  he  reckoned  Swift,  Arbuthnot,  and 
Gay.  His  great  weakness  was  a  dis- 
position to  artifice  to  acquire  reputation 
and  applause.  As  a  poet,  no  English 
writer  has  carried  further  correctness 
of  versification.  A  large  number  of  his 
letters  were  published  in  his  own  life- 
time. He  died  in  Twickenham,  May  30, 
1744. 

POPE,  JOHN,  an  American  military 
officer;  born  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  March 
16,  1822;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1842,  and 
entered  the  engineers.  He  served  in 
Florida  (1842-1844),  and  in  the  Mexi- 
can War,  and  was  brevetted  captain  for 
gallantry.  He  was  afterward  employed 
in  exploring  and  surveying  in  the  West, 
till  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  when 
he  was  appointed  Brigadier-General  of 
volunteers.  In  1861  he  drove  the 
guerrillas  out  of  Missouri;  in  1862  he 
captured  New  Madrid  in  March,  and 
was  made  Major-General,  commanded 
the  Army  of  the  Mississippi  in  the  opera- 
tions against  Corinth,  and  was  assigned 
to  the  command  of  the  Army  of  Virginia, 
with  the  rank  of  Brigadier-General, 
U.  S.  A.  For  15  days  in  August  he 
faced  Lee,  but  was  defeated  at  the  sec- 
ond battle  of  Bull  Run,  on  the  29th  and 
30th.  He  then  requested  to  be  relieved, 
and  was  transferred  to  Minnesota,  where 
he  kept  the  Indians  in  check.  He  held 
Tarious  commands  till  1886,  when  he 
retired.  In  1882  he  became  Major- 
General,  U.  S.  A.  Pope  died  in  San- 
dusky, 0.,  Sept.  23,  1892. 

POPERINGHE,  a  town  in  West 
Flanders,  Belgium,  near  the  French  fron- 
tier, 6  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Ypres.  It  has 
an  ancient  wall  and  mediaeval  church, 
and  its  industries  include  the  gathering  of 
hops  and  the  making  of  cloths.  The 
town  as  a  result  of  the  World  War 
was  largely  reduced  to  ruins,  being  the 
scene,  along  with  Ypres,  of  some  of  the 
bloodiest  fighting  in  the  war.  Pop.  about 
12,000. 

POPINJAY,  a  parrot;  a  figure  of  a 
bird  put  up  as  a  mark  for  archers  to 
shoot  at  ("papingo"  being  another  Scotch 
form  for  this  sense).  The  green  wood- 
pecker is  also  sometimes  called  popin- 
jay.    Also  derisive  term  for  a  fop. 

POPISH  PLOT,  in  English  history,  an 
alleged  plot  made  known  by  Titus  Gates 
in  1678.  He  asserted  that  two  men  had 
been  told  off  to  assassinate  Charles  II., 
that  certain  Roman  Catholics  whom  he 


named  had  been  appointed  to  all  the  high 
offices  of  the  State,  and  that  the  extirpa- 
tion of  Protestantism  was  intended.  On 
the  strength  of  his  allegation,  various 
persons,  including  Viscount  Stafford, 
were  executed.  Gradually  evidence  arose 
that  the  whole  story  was  a  fabrication. 
On  May  8,  1685,  Gates,  who  had  received 
a  pension  of  $10,000  for  his  revelations, 
was  convicted  of  perjury,  heavily  fined, 
pilloried,  and  publicly  flogged.  He  sur- 
vived, making  several  attempts  to  ex- 
ploit new  plots,  but  deservedly  despised. 
Died  in  1705. 

POPLAB,  a  genus  of  Salicacese.  Cat- 
kins drooping,  their  scales  usually 
jagged;  disk  cup-shaped,  oblique,  entire. 
Males,  stamens  4  to  30;  females,  stigmas, 
two  to  four-cleft;  capsule  two-celled, 
loculicidal.  Known  species  18,  from  the 
N.  temperate  zone.  Two,  Popiilas  alba, 
the  great  white  poplar  or  abele,  and  P. 
tremula,  the  trembling  poplar  or  aspen, 
are  indigenous.  P.  nigra,  the  black  pop- 
lar, is  only  naturalized.  The  first  is  a 
large  tree  with  downy,  but  not  viscous 
buds.  It  grows  in  moist  places  and 
mountain  woods.  The  timber  is  white, 
soft,  and  used  only  for  coarse  work. 
The  bark  is  said  to  be  useful  in 
strangury.  For  the  second  species,  see 
Aspen.  P.  nigra  has  viscid  buds,  leaves 
rhombic  deltoid,  or  suborbicular.  It 
grows  in  moist  places,  on  river  banks, 
etc.  The  wood  is  light,  and  not  very 
valuable.  It  is  used  for  carving,  or 
burnt  for  charcoal,  and  the  bark  em- 
ployed for  tannin.  P.  monilifera  is  the 
black  Italian  poplar,  P.  fastigiata,  the 
Lombardy  poplar,  and  P.  cayiadensis,  the 
Canadian  poplar.  The  buds  of  P.  nigra, 
the  Himalayan  P.  halsamifera,  P.  candi- 
eans,  etc.,  are  besmeared  in  winter  with 
a  resinous  balsamic,  bitter,  aromatic  exu- 
dation, called  tacamahac,  considered  to 
be  diuretic,  and  antiscorbutic.  The  bark 
of  P.  euphratica  is  given  in  India  as  a 
vermifuge.  The  poplar  occurs  in  the 
Cretaceous  rocks  of  North  America,  the 
Eocene  of  Bournemouth,  and  the  Miocene 
of  Continental  Europe. 

POPLIN,  a  silk  and  worsted  stuff, 
watered,  figured,  brocaded,  or  tissued. 
Originally  an  all-silk  French  goods. 
Irish  poplins  have  a  silk  warp  and 
worsted  weft,  and  in  the  common  grades 
cotton  or  flax  is  mixed  with  the  silk. 

POPOCATEPETL  ("smoking  moun- 
tain"), a  volcano  about  40  miles  S.  E.  of 
the  City  of  Mexico.  It  rises  in  the  form 
of  a  cone  to  the  height  of  17,784  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  No  eruption  has  been 
recorded  since  1540;  it  still  smokes,  how- 
ever. It  is  often  scaled  and  in  and 
around  its  crater  (5,165  feet  in  diameter, 


POPPY 


310 


POPULAR    SOVEREIGNTY 


and  nearly  1,000  deep)    a  good  deal  of 
sulphur  is  obtained. 

POPPY,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  PapaveraccBe,  having  a 
calyx  of  two  (or  rarely  three)  sepals, 
which  very  soon  fall  off;  a  corolla  of 
four  (rarely  six)  petals;  numerous 
stamens    seated    on    a    receptacle;    the 


POPPY 
1.  Eipe  Capsule  3.  Seed 


2.  Section 


4.  Section 


stigma  crowning  the  ovary,  without  a 
style,  and  in  the  form  of  4  to  20  rays. 
There  are  numerous  species  of  poppy, 
mostly  natives  of  Europe  and  Asia,  some 
of  them  found  even  in  very  N.  regions, 
but  most  of  them  in  the  warmer,  tem- 
perate parts.  They  are  herbaceous 
plants,  annual,  biennial,  or  perennial, 
mostly  sprinkled  with  bristly  hairs. 
They  have  a  white  milky  juice;  a  dis- 
agreeable narcotic  smell,  particularly 
when  bruised;  and  large  showy  flowers, 
which  readily  become  double  by  cultiva- 
tion. The  capsules  are  curious  from  the 
manner  in  which  they  fling  out  their 
seeds  when  the  plant  is  shaken  by  the 
wind;  each  capsule  being  somewhat  like 
a  round  or  oval  pepper  box,  with  holes, 
however,    not   in   the    top,    where    rain 


might  get  in  by  them,  but  under  the 
projecting  rim.  By  far  the  most  im- 
portant species  is  that  known  as  the 
opium  poppy.  (P.  somniferum) ,  also 
called  the  white  poppy  and  the  oil  poppy. 
But  the  same  species  is  important  on 
account  of  the  bland  fixed  oil  of  the 
seeds,  and  is  much  cultivated  as  an  oil 
plant.  Poppy  oil  is  as  sweet  as  olive  oil, 
and  is  used  for  similar  purposes.  It  is 
imported  into  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  in  considerable  quantities 
from  India.  The  poppy  is  also  exten- 
sively cultivated  for  it  in  France,  Bel- 
gium, and  Germany.  The  oil  expressed 
from  it  is  perfectly  wholesome,  and  is 
much  used  in  France  and  elsewhere  as 
an  article  of  food.  The  seeds  yield 
about  40  per  cent,  of  oil,  and  the  oil  cake 
is  useful  for  manure  or  for  feeding  cat- 
tle. The  oil  is  sometimes  used  by 
painters  and  by  soap  boilers;  but  it  is 
not  good  for  burning. 

The  variety  of  poppy  chiefly  cultivated 
as  an  oil  plant  has  flowers  of  a  dull 
reddish  color,  large  oblong  capsules,  and 
brownish  seeds;  but  the  white-flowered 
variety,  with  globular  capsules  and  white 
seeds,  is  also  used.  The  Oriental  poppy 
(P.  orientale) ,  a  native  of  Armenia  and 
the  Caucasus,  a  perennial  species,  is 
often  planted  in  gardens  on  account  of 
its  very  large,  fiery-red  flowers.  Its  un- 
ripe capsules  have  an  acrid,  almost  burn- 
ing taste,  but  are  eaten  by  the  Turks, 
and  opium  is  extracted  from  them.  A 
variety  with  double  flowers  is  cultivated 
in  flower  gardens,  under  the  name  of 
carnation  poppy.  Among  the  ancients 
the  poppy  was  sacred  to  Ceres. 

POPPY  HEAD,  a  generic  term  ap- 
plied to  the  groups  of  foliage  or  other 
ornaments  placed  on  the  summits  of 
bench  ends,  desks,  and  other  ecclesias- 
tical woodwork  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

POPULAR   SOVEREIGNTY,   in 

United  States  history,  a  name  given  to 
the  doctrine  that  the  principle  of  slavery 
"should  be  kept  out  of  the  national  legis- 
lature and  left  to  the  people  of  the  con- 
federacy in  their  respective  local  govern- 
ments." While  many  of  the  Northern 
Democrats  upheld  this  doctrine,  the 
Southern  element  bitterly  opposed  it.  Cal- 
houn maintained  that  a  man's  right  to 
his  property,  even  though  it  be  in  slaves, 
must  everywhere  be  upheld,  so  that  he 
could  take  his  slave  into  any  territory 
regardless  of  the  wishes  of  the  inhabi- 
tants thereof.  He  nicknamed  the  doc- 
trine "squatter"  sovereignty.  Douglas, 
its  chief  supporter,  maintained  that  it 
was  the  basis  of  the  Compromise  of  1850, 
and  in  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  another 
attempt  to  apply  it  was  made.  But 
when  it  became  evident  that  this  doctrine 


POPULATION  CENTER 


311 


PORCELAIN 


meant  the  admission  of  all  future  terri- 
tories as  free,  the  interpretation  was 
strained  so  as  to  bring  it  within  Cal- 
houn's declaration,  on  the  ground  that  a 
territory  could  not  manifest  its  inten- 
tions on  the  subject  till  it  was  ready  to 
be  admitted  as  a  State,  or  in  other  words, 
not  through  its  territorial  government. 
A  disagreement  on  this  subject  led  to 
the  withdrawal  of  a  part  of  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Convention  which  nomi- 
nated Douglas  in  1860.  After  the  Civil 
War,  and  with  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
the  question  of  popular  sovereignty  died 
out. 

POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES.    See  Census. 

POPULIST  PARTY,  OR  PEOPLE'S 
PARTY,  an  American  political  party 
founded  at  Cincinnati  in  1891.  It  was 
the  outgrowth  of  the  "Grangers"  and 
"Farmers'  Alliance"  parties,  and  was 
composed  of  great  numbers  from  the 
farming  and  industrial  classes  of  the 
Middle  and  Far  West.  Its  political  prin- 
ciples were  the  free  coinage  of  silver, 
national  ownership  of  the  railroads, 
popular  election  of  United  States  Sena- 
tors and  a  graduated  income  tax.  In 
1892  the  party  nominated  James  B. 
Weaver  of  Iowa  for  President,  and  in 
that  national  election  polled  a  popular 
vote  of  1.055,424.  In  the  succeeding 
presidential  election  the  Populists  in- 
dorsed the  Democratic  nominee,  William 
J.  Bryan,  but  named  Thos.  E.  Watson 
of  Georgia,  for  Vice-President.  In  1900 
the  Populists  again  endorsed  Bryan  for 
President,  but  as  in  1896,  named  a  dif- 
ferent man  than  the  Democrats  for  Vice- 
President,  this  time,  Charles  A.  Towne  of 
Minnesota.  Towne  later  withdrew  and 
the  National  Executive  Committee  of  the 
party  nominated  the  Democratic  nom- 
inee, A.  E.  Stevenson  of  Illinois.  In 
addition  to  their  principles  hitherto  men- 
tioned the  Populists  added  to  their  plat- 
form a  plank  condemning  the  imperial- 
ism in  world  politics  of  the  Republicans 
and  expressed  their  sympathy  for  the 
Boers  in  South  Africa  in  their  struggle 
against  Great  Britain.  After  1900  the 
party  lost  strength  either  by  the  adop- 
tion of  many  of  their  principles  by  the 
Democratic  party  or  by  the  indisposition 
of  the  voters  to  their  radical  ideas. 
They  were  never  serious  contenders  in 
the  political  field  after  that  date. 

PORCELAIN,  a  fictile  material  inter- 
mediate between  glass  and  pottery,  be- 
ing formed  of  two  substances,  fusible  and 
infusible,  the  latter  enabling  it  to  with- 
stand the  heat  necessary  to  vitrify  the 
former,  thus  producing  its  peculiar  semi- 
translucency.  The  infusible  material  is 
alumina,  called  kaolin;  the  fusible  sub- 


stance is  feldspar,  and  is  called  pe-tun- 
tse,  both  Chinese  terms.  There  are  two 
kinds,  hard  and  soft  {pdte  dure  and 
pate  tendre)  ;  the  hard  body  has  more 
alumina  and  less  silex  and  lime.  Orien- 
tal porcelain  is  of  two  kinds,  ancient 
and  modern;  the  latter  class  includes 
imitations  and  reproductions.  The  man- 
ufacture began  in  China  between  185 
B.  c.  and  A.  D.  87,  and  reached  its  per- 
fection during  the  Ming  dynasty  (1368- 
1644).  The  rarest  Chinese  wares  are  of 
the  Tsin  dynasty  (a.  d.  265-419),  the 
Soui  (581-618),  and  the  Thang  (618- 
907) — forms  virtually  extinct  except  as 
copies.  The  Tcheou  porcelain  (954-959) 
is  so  valued  that  fragments  are  worn  as 
personal  ornaments.  Ware  of  the  Song 
dynasty  (960-1279)  is  also  highly  prized. 
Porcelain  came  by  trade  into  Persia  and 
Egypt,  and  was  known  in  Syria  in  the 
12th  century.  First  imported  into  Eu- 
rope by  the  Portuguese  in  1520.  In 
Japan  the  porcelain  manufacture  began 
before  27  B.  c,  with  a  whiter  body  and 
more  brilliant  glaze  than  that  of  the 
Chinese.  It  is  doubtful  if  it  was  ever 
made  in  Persia.  In  Europe,  Boettcher, 
a  Saxon  chemist,  found  kaolin  while 
seeking  the  philosopher's  stone;  and 
Augustus  II.,  Elector  of  Saxony  and 
King  of  Poland,  established  and  placed 
under  his  control  the  famous  Meissen 
factory  at  the  castle  of  Albrechtsburg  in 
1710;  40  years  later  700  men  were  em- 
ployed. In  Vienna,  Stolzel,  who  escaped 
from  Meissen  in  1720,  began  the  Aus- 
trian factory,  which  in  1785  employed 
500  men;  another  was  established  in 
Berlin  by  Frederick  the  Great.  During 
the  18th  century,  works  were  begun  in 
Russia,  Holland,  Denmark,  Spain,  Portu- 
gal, Switzerland  and  Italy.  In  France, 
soft  porcelain  was  made  at  St.  Cloud 
in  1695.  Comte  de  Brancas-Lauraguan, 
in  1758,  found  kaolin  near  Alengon,  and 
porcelain  was  made  at  St.  Yrieix,  near 
Limoges.  The  Sevres  manufactory'  was 
first  established  at  Vincennes  in  1740, 
and  moved  to  Sevres  in  1756.  In  France, 
the  manufacture  of  soft  porcelain  ex- 
tends from  1695  to  1770,  after  which 
date  the  hard  body  of  Sevres  takes  its 
place.  In  England,  William  Cook- 
worthy,  a  chemist  of  Plymouth,  found 
kaolin  at  Tregonning,  near  Helstone,  in 
Cornwall,  and  his  patent  of  1768  was 
worked  at  Plymouth  for  two  or  three 
years,  when  the  works  were  removed  to 
Bristol.  At  Chelsea  and  Bow  soft  porce- 
lain had  been  made.  These  two  were 
transferred  to  Derby  in  1770  and  1776. 
Bristol  had  a  soft  body  works  in  1753; 
its  best  period  was  from  1774  to  1778. 
Worcester  porcelain  dates  from  1751 ;  its 
best   period   ended   witth    1783.     Large 


POBCELAIN    CRAB 


312 


POBOSITY 


quantities  of  porcelain  are  produced  in 
the  United  States.  Trenton,  N.  J.,  is 
a  center  for  the  manufacture.  See  Pot- 
tery. 

PORCELAIN  CRAB  {Porcellana) ,  a 
name  for  certain  Crustacea,  typical  of 
the  family  Porcellanidx,  small  smooth 
crabs.  So  called  from  their  smooth  pol- 
ished shell. 

PORCELLANITE,  a  very  hard,  im- 
pure, jaspideous  rock,  frequently  met 
with  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  in- 
trusive eruptive  masses.  In  most  cases 
porcellanite  is  simply  a  highly  baked  and 
altered  argillaceous  rock — shales  being 
frequently  converted  into  porcellanite 
along  their  line  of  junction  with  an 
igneous  rock. 

PORCH,  a  covered  entrance  to  a 
building;  a  covered  approach  or  vesti- 
bule to  a  doorway.  When  a  row  of 
columns  is  added  it  becomes  a  portico. 
In  some  old  churches  the  porches  are 
of  two  stories,  the  upper  being  termed  a 
parvis. 

POBCH,  THE,  the  School  of  the  Stoics, 
so  called  because  Zeno,  the  philosopher 
and  founder  of  the  sect,  gave  his  lectures 
in  the  Athenian  picture-gallery,  called 
the  stoa  poikile,  or  painted  porch. 

POBCTJPINE,  the  popular  name  for 
any  individual  of  the  genus  Hystrix  or 
the  family  Hystricidse  (divided  into  two 
groups,  Hystricina  and  Synetherina,  or 
two  sub-families,  HystriciTise  and  Sphin- 
ffurinse).     The    common    porcupine    {H, 


PORCUPINE 

cristata)  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  the 
true  porcupine.  It  is  found  in  the  S. 
of  Europe,  and  the  N.  and  W.  of  Africa, 
is  about  28  inches  long,  exclusive  of  the 
tail,  about  four  inches.  It  is  somewhat 
heavily  built,  with  obtuse  head  and  short 
limbs.  The  head,  fore  quarters,  and 
under  surface  are  clothed  with  short 
spines,  intermixed  with  hairs,  crest  on 
head  and  neck,  hind  quarters  covered 
with  long  sharp  spines,  ringed  with  black 
and  white,  and  erectile  at  will.  They  are 
but   loosely    attached    to   the    skin    and 


readily  fall  out.  It  is  a  purely  vege- 
table feeder,  and  lives  in  holes  in  the 
rock,  and  burrows  in  the  ground.  The 
hairy-nosed  porcupine  is  H.  leucura  (or 
hirsutirostris)  from  Syria,  Asia  Minor, 
and  India;  and  the  brush-tailed  porcu- 
pines belong  to  the  genus  Atherura. 
Tney  have  long  tails,  tipped  with  pecu- 
liar flattened  spines. 

POBCTJPINE  CBAB,  Lithodes  hystrix, 
a  native  of  Japan.  The  carapace  is  tri- 
angular, and,  like  the  limbs,  thickly 
covered  with  spines.  It  is  dull  and  slug- 
gish in  its  movements. 

POBCUPINE  FISH  (Diodon  hystrix), 
a  fish  of  the  order  Plectognathi,  found  in 
the  tropical  seas.  It  is  about  14  inches 
long,  and  is  covered  with  spines  or 
prickles. 

POBCUPINE  GBASS  (Triodia  or 
Festuca  irritans) ,  a  brittle  Australian 
grass  which  it  is  proposed  to  utilize  in 
the  manufacture  of  paper.     See  Spini- 

FEX. 

POBCUPINE  WOOD,  the  outer  por- 
tion of  the  trunk  of  the  cocoanut  palm, 
a  hard,  durable  wood,  which,  when  cut 
horizontally,  shows  beautiful  markings, 
resembling  those  of  porcupine  quills, 

POEGY,  POGGY,  or  PAUGIE,  Pagrus 
argyrops,  an  important  food  fish  found 
on  the  coast  of  the  United  States.  It 
attains  a  length  of  18  inches  and  a 
weight  of  about  four  pounds. 

POBIFEBA  ("pore-bearing"),  a  term 
occasionally  employed  to  designate  the 
sponges. 

POBK,  the  flesh  of  swine;  one  of  the 
most  important  and  widely  used  species 
of  animal  food.  The  swine  was  forbid- 
den to  be  eaten  by  the  Mosaic  law,  and 
is  regarded  by  the  Jews  as  especially 
typical  of  the  unclean  animals.  Other 
Eastern  nations  had  similar  opinions  as 
to  the  use  of  pork.  Pork  contains  less 
fibrine,  albuminous  and  gelatinous  mat- 
ter than  beef  or  mutton,  and  is  indigest- 
ible to  anyone  who  is  weak  and  debili- 
tated. In  the  form  of  bacon,  however, 
when  well  smoked  and  carefully  pre- 
pared for  the  table,  it  acts  as  a  stimulant 
to  the  stomach  and  is  e5^pecially  relished 
for  breakfast.  In  the  United  States, 
prominently  in  the  West,  the  pork-pack- 
ing industry  is  one  of  the  greatest 
factors  of  wealth. 

POROSITY,  the  quality  or  state  of 
being  porous  or  of  having  pores;  porous- 
ness; specifically,  that  property  of  mat- 
ter in  consequence  of  which  its  particles 
are  not  in  absolute  contact,  but  are  sepa- 
rated by  pores  or  intervals;  the  opposite 
to  density. 


PORPHYRIO 


313 


PORT 


PORPHYRIO,  a  genus  of  Rallidae, 
sub-family  Gallinx,  with  18  species, 
ehiefly  Oriental  and  Australian,  but  oc- 
curring in  South  America,  in  Africa,  and 
in  the  S.  of  Europe.  In  habits  they  re- 
semble the  water  hen,  but  are  larger  and 
more  stately  birds ;  bill  and  legs  red,  gen- 
eral plumage  metallic  blue. 

PORPHYRITE,  or  PORPHYRYTE,  a 

name  used  by  some  petrologists  for  the 
porphyritic  orthoclase  rocks  which  are 
free  from  quartz. 

PORPHYRIUS,  a  Neo-Platonic  phil- 
osopher; born  in  Batanea,  Syria,  a.  d. 
233;  was  a  disciple  first  of  Longinus, 
then  of  Plotinus,  whose  works  he  edited, 
and  whom  he  succeeded  as  master  of  a 
fchool  of  philosophy  at  Rome.  He  wrote 
a  "History  of  Philosophy,"  to  which 
probably  belongs  the  extant  "Life  of 
Pythagoras."  Some  fragments  of  his 
work  against  the  Christian  religion — 
condemned  to  the  flames  by  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  II.  in  453 — are  preserved 
in  the  writings  of  his  adversaries.  We 
have  his  tractate  "On  Abstinence  from 
Animal  Food";  also  his  "Homeric  Ques- 
tions," in  32  chapters.  "Introduction  to 
Philosophy,"  in  which  the  question  of 
realism  and  nominalism  is  first  mooted; 
"On  Deriving  a  Philosophy  from  Ora- 
eles";  and  "On  the  Cave  of  the  Nymphs." 
He  died  in  Rome  304  a.  d. 

PORPHYROGENITISM,  the  princi- 
ple of  succession  in  royal  families,  and 
especially  among  the  Eastern  Roman  em- 
perors, by  virtue  of  which  a  younger 
son,  if  born  "in  the  purple"  that  is,  after 
the  succession  of  his  parents  to  the 
throne,  was  preferred  to  an  older  son 
born  previous  to  such  succession. 

PORPHYRY,  a  term  originally  ap- 
plied to  a  rock  having  a  purple  colored 
base,  with  inclosed  individual  crystals 
of  a  feldspar.  Any  rock  in  which  crystals 
of  feldspar  are  individually  developed, 
irrespective  of  the  mineralogical  com- 
position of  the  whole,  is  said  to  be 
poryhyritic. 

PORPOISE,  the  Phocsena  communis, 
and  any  species  of  the  genus ;  loosely  ap- 
plied by  sailors  to  any  of  the  smaller 
cetaceans.  The  common  porpoise,  when 
full  grown,  attains  a  length  of  about  five 
feet.  The  head  is  rounded  in  front,  and 
the  snout  is  not  produced  into  a  beak. 
The  external  surface  is  shining  and  hair- 
less, dark  gray  or  black  on  the  upper 
parts,  under  pure  white.  It  is  gregari- 
ous in  habit,  and  is  often  seen  in  small 
herds,  frequenting  the  coasts  ratherthan 
the  open  seas.  It  often  ascends  rivers. 
It  is  found  on  the  coasts  of  Scandinavia, 
and  ranges  as  far  N.  as  Baffin  Bay  and 
as  far  W.  as  the  coast  of  the   United 


States.  It  feeds  on  fish,  and  was  for- 
merly esteemed  as  an  article  of  food. 
Its  only  commercial  value  now  is  derived 
from  the  oil  obtained  from  its  blubber, 
and  its  skin,  which  is  used  for  leather 
and  shoe  laces. 

PORRIDGE,  a  kind  of  dish  made  by 
boiling  vegetables  in  water  with  or  with- 
out meat;  broth,  pottage,  soup;  or  a  food 
made  by  slowly  stirring  oatmeal  or  simi- 
lar substance  in  water  or  milk  while 
boiling,  till  it  forms  a  thickened  mass. 

PORSENNA,  or  PORSENA,  a  cele- 
brated leader  and  king  of  Etruria,  who 
declared  war  against  the  Romans  because 
they  refused  to  restore  Tarquin  to  his 
throne.  At  first  successful,  he  would 
have  entered  the  gates  of  Rome  had  not 
Horatius  Codes  stood  at  the  head  of  a 
bridge  and  resisted  the  fury  of  the  whole 
Etrurian  army,  while  his  companions 
behind  were  cutting  off  the  communica- 
tion with  the  opposite  shore.  This  act 
of  bravery  astonished  Porsenna.  He 
made  a  peace  with  the  Romans,  and 
never  after  supported  the  claims  of 
Tarquin. 

PORSON,  RICHARD,  an  English 
critic;  born  in  East  Ruston,  England, 
Dec.  25,  1759.  In  1777  he  entered  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge,  where  he  highly 
distinguished  himself  in  classics,  and  in 
1782  took  the  degree  of  B.  A.  and  was 
chosen  to  a  fellowship.  This  he  resigned 
in  1792,  since  it  could  no  longer  be  held 
by  a  layman,  and  Porson  declined  to  take 
holy  orders.  Soon  after  he  was  unani- 
mously elected  Greek  professor.  He 
edited  and  annotated  several  Greek 
works,  especially  four  of  the  dramas  of 
Euripides,  and  enjoyed  the  reputation  of 
being  one  of  the  best  Greek  scholars  and 
critics  of  the  age.  In  1806  he  was  ap- 
pointed librarian  to  the  London  Institu- 
tion. He  was  familiar  with  English 
literature,  and  wrote  for  some  of  the 
chief  periodicals  of  the  day.  He  died  in 
London,  Sept.  25,  1808. 

PORT,  a  harbor,  natural  or  artificial; 
a  haven;  a  sheltered  inlet,  cove,  bay,  or 
recess,  into  which  vessels  can  enter,  and 
in  which  they  can  lie  in  safety  from 
storms.  In  law,  a  place  appointed  for 
the  passage  of  travelers  and  merchandise 
into  or  out  of  the  kingdom;  a  place  fre- 
quented by  vessels  for  the  purpose  of 
loading  or  discharging  cargo. 

PORT,  a  species  of  red  wine,  produced 
chiefly  in  the  mountainous  districts  of 
Portugal,  and  shipped  from  Oporto. 
After  the  juice  has  been  pressed  from 
the  grape,  and  fermentation  fairly 
started,  a  certain  quantity  of  spirit  is 
added  to  impede  the  process,  so  as  to  re- 


PORT 


314 


yOKTER 


tain  in  the  liquid  some  of  the  saccharine 
matter,  as  well  as  the  flavor  of  the 
grape. 

PORT,  a  framed  opening  in  a  ship's 
side  through  which  a  gun  is  fired,  a  haw- 
ser passed  out,  or  cargo  passed  in  or 
out.  They  are  known  by  various  names, 
as  cargo  port,  gun  port,  etc. 

PORTAL  CIRCULATION,  a  subordin- 
nate  circulation  of  blood  from  the  stom- 
ach and  intestines  through  the  liver. 

PORTALIS,  JEAN  ETIENNE 
MARIE,  a  French  jurist;  born  in  Pro- 
vence, April  1,  1745;  practiced  law  in 
Paris,  was  imprisoned  and  prosecuted 
during  the  Revolution,  but  under  Na- 
poleon was  the  chief  author  of  the 
famous  "Civil  Code."  He  died  in  Paris, 
Aug.  25,  1807. 

PORTAL  VEIN,  a  vein  about  three 
inches  long,  commencing  at  the  junction 
of  the  splenic  and  superior  mesenteric 
veins  and  passing  upward  a  little  to  the 
right  to  reach  the  transverse  fissure  of 
the  liver. 

PORT  ARTHUR,  the  terminus  of  the 
E.  division  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  rail- 
way, on  Thunder  Bay,  an  arm  of  Lake 
Superior,  993  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Mon- 
treal. 

PORT  ARTHUR,  LUSHWANKAU, 
or  LUSHUNKU,  a  former  naval  station 
of  China,  with  a  fine  narrow-mouthed 
harbor  at  the  end  and  on  the  E.  side  of 
the  peninsula  jutting  S.  W.  from  Man- 
churia, opposite  Shifu,  strongly  fortified; 
formerly  the  headquarters  of  the  N.  fleet 
of  China.  It  was  taken  by  the  Japanese 
in  1894,  and  was  restored  to  China  by 
coercion  of  European  powers.  On  Dec. 
19,  1897,  a  Russian  fleet  occupied  Port 
Arthur  with  China's  consent.  On  Jan. 
28,  1898,  the  city  was  ceded  to  Russia. 
It  was  captured  by  the  Jananese, 
January,  1905,  after  nearly  a "  year's 
siege. 

PORT  ARTHUR,  a  city  of  Texas,  in 
Jefferson  co.  It  is  on  the  Kansas  City 
Southern  and  the  Texas  and  New  Or- 
leans railroads.  It  is  situated  on  several 
steamship  lines  and  on  several  canals. 
It  is  the  port  of  entry  of  the  Sabine 
district.  It  is  the  center  of  the  oil-pro- 
ducing and  refining  industry,  and  its 
other  industries  include  rice  milling  and 
horticulture.  There  are  several  parks, 
pleasure  piers,  Port  Arthur  College,  hos- 
pitals, and  a  Federal  building.  Pop. 
(1910)  7,663;  (1920)  22,251. 

PORT-AU-PRINCE,  the  capital  of 
Haiti,  situated  on  the  W.  coast,  at  the 
head  of  a  bay  of  the  same  name.  Pop, 
about  120,000. 


PORT  BRETON,  a  name  given  to  the 
S.  E.  part  of  New  Ireland,  the  scene  in 
1879  of  a  disastrous  experiment  in  colon- 
izing by  a  company  of  French  Legiti- 
mists. The  Marquis  Du  Rays,  who 
floated  the  company,  and  his  associates 
were  condemned  to  various  terms  of  im- 
prisonment (1883)  for  fraud  and  raising 
money  on  false  pretenses. 

PORT  CHESTER,  a  village  in  New 
York,  in  Westchester  co.  It  is  on  Long 
Island  Sound,  and  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroad.  It  is 
a  popular  suburb  of  New  York.  It  has  a 
park,  a  memorial  library,  a  hospital,  and 
excellent  school  buildings.  Its  industries 
include  foundries,  boat  works,  gas  stoves, 
boiler  works,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  12,809; 
(1920)   16,573. 

PORTCULLIS,  a  strong  ^  defensive 
framework  of  timber,  hung  in  grooves 
within  the  chief  gateway  of  a  fortress, 
or  a  castle,  or  an  edifice  of  safety;  it 
resembled  the  harrow,  but  was  placed 
vertically,  having  a  row  of  iron  spikes 
at  the  bottom,  and  was  let  down  to  stop 
the  passage  in  case  of  assault.  There 
were  frequently  two  or  more  portcullises 
in  the  same  gateway. 

PORT  DARWIN,  one  of  the  finest 
harbors  in  Australia;  situated  on  the  N. 
coast  of  South  Australia.  Its  entrance 
is  2  miles  wide,  and  vessels  of  any  ton- 
nage can  float  in  it  with  safety.  Pal- 
merston,  the  chief  town  on  its  shores,  is 
the  land  terminus  of  the  overland  tele- 
graph, 1,973  miles  from  Adelaide,  and 
of  the  cable  to  Java,  and  the  starting 
point  of  a  railway  (1891)  to  the  gold 
fields  of  the  interior,  150  miles  distant. 

PORTE,  OTTOMAN,  or  SUBLIME 
PORTE,  the  common  term  for  the  Turk- 
ish Government.  The  chief  office  of  the 
Ottoman  empire  is  styled  Babi  Ali,  liter- 
ally, the  High  Gate,  from  the  gate  {bab) 
of  the  palace  at  which  justice  was  ad- 
ministered; and  the  French  translation 
of  this  term  being  Sublime  Porte,  hence 
the  use  of  this  word. 

PORT  ELIZABETH,  a  seaport  of  the 
British  colony  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope; 
on  the  W.  shore  of  Algoa  Bay,  85  miles 
S.  W.  of  Graham's  Town  and  350 
S.  of  Kimberley.  It  is  the  principal  sea- 
port of  the  E.  part  of  Cape  Colony,  and 
also  of  the  Orange  River  Colony.  The 
town  was  founded  in  1820.  Two  piers 
were  constructed  to  protect  the  harbor 
in  1881;  and  an  aqueduct,  28  miles  long, 
has  brought  good  water  to  the  town  since 
1878.     Pop.  (1918)  23,341. 

PORTER,  a  carrier;  one  who  carries 
burdens,  parcels,  luggage,  etc.,  for  hire. 
A   dark   colored   malt   liquor,   so   called 


PORTER 


316 


PORTER 


from  having  been  originally  the  favorite 
drink  of  London  porters.  In  forging  ( 1 ) 
A  long  bar  of  iron  attached  in  continua- 
tion of  the  axis  of  a  heavy  forging, 
whereby  it  is  guided  beneath  the  ham- 
mer or  into  the  furnace,  being  suspended 
by  chains  from  a  crane  above.  A  cross 
lever  fixed  to  the  porter  is  the  means  of 
rotating  the  forging  beneath  the  ham- 
mer. (2)  A  smaller  bar  from  whose  end 
an  article  is  forged,  as  a  knife  blade, 
for  instance. 

PORTER,  DAVID,  an  American  naval 
officer;  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  1, 
1780,  son  of  a  naval  officer.  He  was  ap- 
pointed midshipman  in  1798,  lieutenant 
the  year  after;  saw  service  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  against  Tripoli  in  1801-1803; 
became  captain  in  1812,  and  captured 
the  first  British  warship  taken  in  the 
war.  In  1813,  with  the  ''Essex"  (32 
guns),  he  nearly  destroyed  the  English 
whale  fishery  in  the  Pacific,  and  took 
possession  of  the  Marquesas  Islands. 
March,  1814,  his  frigate  was  destroyed 
by  the  British  in  Valparaiso  harbor.  He 
afterward  commanded  an  expedition 
against  pirates  in  the  West  Indian 
waters,  and  was  court-martialed  for  com- 
pelling the  authorities  at  Porto  Rico  to 
apologize  for  imprisoning  one  of  his 
officers.  Porter  resigned  in  1826,  and  be- 
came head  of  the  Mexican  navy.  In 
1829  the  United  States  appointed  him 
consul-general  to  the  Barbary  States, 
and  then  minister  at  Constantinople, 
where  he  died,  March  3,  1843. 

PORTER,  DAVID  DIXON,  an  Amer- 
ican naval  officer;  born  in  Chester,  Pa., 
June  8,  1813;  son  of  Commodore  David 
Porter.  He  entered  the  navy  as  mid- 
shipman in  1829,  was  employed  in  1836 
to  1841  in  the  survey  of  the  coast  of  the 
United  States;  in  1841  appointed  as  lieu- 
tenant to  the  frigate  "Congress."  In 
1845  was  transferred  to  the  National 
Observatory  at  Washington,  and  during 
the  Mexican  War  to  the  naval  rendez- 
vous at  New  Orleans;  again  to  the  coast 
survey,  and  from  1849  to  1853  engaged 
in  command  of  the  California  mail 
steamers.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
Civil  War  he  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  steam  sloop-of-war,  "Powhatan"; 
distinguishing  himself  in  the  capture  of 
New  Orleans,  and  commanded  the  gun- 
boat and  mortar  flotilla  which  co-oper- 
ated with  the  squadron  of  Admiral  Far- 
ragut  in  the  first  attack  on  Vicksburg. 
In  the  fall  of  1862  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  all  the  naval  forces  on  the 
W.  rivers  above  New  Orleans,  with  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral.  After  the  war  he 
was  appointed  superintendent  of  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy,  Annapo- 
lis.    He  was  made  vice-admiral  in  1866, 


and  in  1870  became  admiral.     He   died 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb.  13,  1891. 

PORTER,  FITZ-JOHN,  an  American 
military  officer;  born  in  Portsmouth,  N. 
H.,  June  13,  1822;  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1845; 
served  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  made 
brevet  captain  and  major  for  gallantry 
at  Molino  del  Rey  and  Chapultepec.  In 
1861  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  15th 
U.  S.  Infantry,  displaying  great  gal- 
lantry at  Cold  Harbor,  Malvern  Hill, 
Antietam,  and  Mechanicsville.  For  an 
alleged  disobedience  at  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run,  Aug.  29,  1862,  Porter  was 
court-martialed,  and  on  Jan.  21,  1863, 
was  cashiered.  In  1878  a  trial  was 
granted,  and  the  court  recommended  that 
the  former  sentence  be  reversed,  and  that 
he  be  restored  to  his  former  rank  in  the 
army,  but  no  decisive  action  was  taken. 
In  1882  President  Arthur  remitted  so 
much  of  the  penalty  as  prohibited  him 
from  holding  office.  New  evidence  came 
to  light,  General  Grant  affirming  that 
Porter  had  been  unjustly  treated,  and  a 
bill  was  introduced  in  Congress  provid- 
ing for  his  reinstatement.  In  1886  the 
bill  passed  both  Houses,  and  became  a 
law  by  the  signature  of  the  President.  He 
died  in  Morristown,  N.  J.,  May  21,  1901. 

PORTER,  HORACE,  an  American  dip- 
lomatist; born  in  Huntingdon.  Pa.,  April 
15,  1837,  son  of  David  R.  Porter,  who 
became  governor  of  the  State.  After  a 
year  in  the  scientific  department  of  Har- 
vard University  he  entered  the  United 
States  Military  Academy.  His  gradua- 
tion took  place  in  1860.  After  a  brief 
space  as  instructor  in  artillery  at  West 
Point,  he  was  assigned  to  duty  in  the 
Department  of  the  East.  He  was  pro- 
moted to  be  1st  lieutenant  while  under 
Sherman  and  Dupont  in  the  expedition 
against  Port  Royal.  In  1863  he  was 
brevetted  captain  for  gallant  services  at 
the  capture  of  Fort  Pulaski,  where  he 
had  command  of  the  siege  batteries.  In 
May,  1864,  he  was  brevetted  major  for 
his  conduct  in  the  battle  of  the  Wilder- 
ness. The  next  year  found  him  brevet 
lieutenant-colonel,  and  1865  bi'evet 
Brigadier-General  of  the  United  States 
army.  He  had  been  chief  of  ordnance 
of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  under  Gen- 
eral McClellan,  but  after  the  battle  of 
Antietam  was  transferred  first  to  the 
army  of  the  Ohio  and  then  to  the  army 
of  the  Cumberland.  While  on  the  staff 
of  General  Thomas  at  Chattanooga  he 
became  acquainted  with  (Jeneral  Grant. 
Their  intimacy  lasted  till  Grant's  death. 
General  Porter  became  an  aide-de-camp 
on  Grant's  staff,  and  was  with  him  dur- 
ing most  of  the  rest  of  the  war. 

When  General  Grant  became  Secretary 


PORTER 


316 


PORTLAND 


of  War  General  Porter  became  the  assist- 
ant secretary,  and  during  his  chief's 
service  as  President  acted  as  private 
secretary.  General  Porter  then  went 
into  business  and  was  exceedingly  suc- 
cessful. He  was  president  of  the  Gen- 
eral National  Society  of  the  Sons  of  the 
American  Revolution  and  the  Grant 
Monument  Association.  The  completion 
of  the  Grant  monument  is  largely  the 
result  of  his  efforts.  In  1897  he  was 
appointed  by  President  McKinley  ambas- 
sador to  France. 

PORTER,  ROBERT  P.,  an  American 
statistician;  born  in  Norfolk,  England, 
Jan.  30,  1852;  settled  in  the  United 
States  in  1867,  and  soon  afterward,  en- 
gaged in  journalism.  He  was  appointed 
United  States  commissioner  to  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico  in  1898-1899.    Died  1917. 

PORTER,  SIDNEY  WILLIAM  (pseu- 
donym 0.  Henry),  an  American  author; 
born  in  Greensborough,  N.  €.,  in  1862.  At 
18  he  moved  to  Texas,  and  worked  suc- 
cessively as  a  bank  clerk,  editor  of  "The 
Rolling  Stone,"  on  staff  of  "The  Houston 
Daily,"  etc.  Among  his  v;ork3  are  "The 
Four  Million,"  "Rolling  Stone,"  "Cab- 
bages and  Kings,"  etc.    He  died  in  1910. 

PORT  HURON,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  St.  Clair  co.,  Mich.;  on  the  St.  Clair 
and  Black  rivers,  at  the  foot  of  Lake 
Huron  and  on  the  Pere  Marquette,  and 
the  Grand  Trunk  railroads;  60  miles  N. 
E.  of  Detroit.  Here  are  a  United  States 
Government  Building,  electric  light  and 
street  railroad  plants,  waterworks,  pub- 
lic library.  Government  buildings,  parks, 
public  hospital.  National  and  State 
banks,  and  daily  and  weekly  periodicals. 
The  city  has  a  large  trade  with  Canada. 
Its  industrial  plants  include  the  shops  of 
the  Grank  Trunk  railroad,  fiber,  corset, 
and  smelting  works,  saw  mills,  flour 
mills,  automobile  engines,  dry  docks  and 
boiler  works.  Pop.  (1910)  18,863; 
(1920)    25,944. 

PORTICI,  a  town  of  Italy;  on  the 
slope  of  Vesuvius,  5  miles  S.  E.  of  Na- 
ples. Its  environs  are  delightful,  and 
are  dotted  over  with  country  houses. 
The  royal  palace  built  (1738)  by  Charles 
III.  is  now  an  agricultural  college. 
There  are  a  small  fort,  fishing,  and  sea 
bathing.  Silkworms  are  reared  and  rib- 
bons made. 

PORTICO,  a  covered  walk,  supported 
by  columns,  and  usually  vaulted;  a  pi- 
azza or  arched  walk;  a  porch  before  the 
entrance  of  a  building  fronted  with  col- 
limns.  Porticoes  are  known  as  tetra- 
style,  hexastyle,  octostyle,  or  decastyle, 
according  as  they  have  four,  six,  eight, 
or  10  columns  in  front.     A  prostyle  por- 


tico is  one  projecting  in  front  of  the 
building;  a  pm-tico  in  antis  is  one  re- 
ceding within  the  building. 

PORT  JERVIS,  a  town  in  Orange,  co., 

N.  Y.;  at  the  confluence  of  the  Never- 
sink  and  Delaware  rivers,  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  boundary  lines  of  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania, 
and  on  the  Erie,  and  the  New  York,  On- 
tario and  Western  railroads,  88  miles 
N.  W.  of  New  York.  Here  are  St. 
Mary's  Orphan  Asylum,  Elks'  Home, 
Federal  building,  street  railroad  and 
electric  light  plants,  waterworks,  a  Sol- 
diers' Monument  at  the  intersection  o"^ 
the  State  boundary  lines.  National  banks, 
and  several  daily  and  weekly  newspa- 
pers. The  town  has  iron  foundries,  rail- 
road repair  shops,  silk  mills,  boot  and 
shoe  factories,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  9,564; 
(1920)   10,171. 

PORTLAND,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
county-seat  of  Cumberland  co..  Me.;  on 
Casco  Bay,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine, 
the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Portland  and 
Rochester,  the  Maine  Central,  and  other 
railroads;  105  miles  N.  E.  of  Boston. 
It  has  direct  steamboat  connections  with 
Boston  and  New  York,  and  two  weekly 
steamship  lines  to  Europe.  The  city  is 
delightfully  laid  out  along  a  peninsula, 
in  the  harbor,  protected  by  a  massive 
breakwater.  Here  are  a  custom  house, 
City  Hall,  which  contains  a  Municipal 
Organ,  postoffice.  United  States  Marine 
Hospital,  the  Maine  General  Hospital, 
headquarters  of  the  Maine  Historical  So- 
ciety, Portland  Society  of  Natural  His- 
tory, the  Wadsworth  mansion,  the  Long- 
fellow homestead,  etc.  The  city  has 
waterworks,  several  libraries,  electric 
light  and  street  railroad  plants.  Nation- 
al, State,  and  savings  banks,  Portland 
School  for  the  Deaf,  Old  Men's  Home, 
Old  Ladies'  Home,  St.  Elizabeth's  Acad- 
emy, etc.  Portland  has  over  700  manu- 
facturing establishments,  with  an  annual 
output  valued  at  over  $15,000,000.  The 
industries  include  boot  and  shoe  facto- 
ries, sugar  refineries,  rolling-mills,  foun- 
dries, machine  shops,  locomotive  works, 
engine  and  boiler  works,  petroleum  refin- 
eries, match  factories,  chemical  works, 
tanneries,  paint  and  oil  works,  carriage 
and  sleigh  factories,  manufactures  of 
stoneware,  jewelry,  edge  tools,  varnishes, 
soap  and  lamps,  meat  packing  establish- 
ments, coopering  establishments,  lumber 
mills,  etc.  Shipbuilding  is  still  carried 
on,  though  of  less  importance,  relatively, 
than  in  former  years.  Fishing  and  the 
shell-fish  industry  are  extensively  pur- 
sued. Portland  was  settled  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1632;  was  burned  by  the  Indians 
in  1676;  and  by  the  French  and  Indians 
in  1690;  was  rebuilt  in  1715;  burned  by 


PORTLAND 


317 


PORTO  ALEGRE 


the  English  in  1775;  and  rebuilt  in  1783. 
It  received  its  city  charter  in  1832.  Pop. 
(1910)  58,571;  (1920)  69,272. 

PORTLAND,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
county-seat  of  Multnomah  co.,  Ore.;  on 
the  Willamette  river,  and  on  the  North- 
ern Pacific,  Southern  Pacific,  Great 
Northern,  Chicago,  Burlington  and 
Quincy,  Canadian  Pacific,  and  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  railroads; 
12  miles  above  the  Columbia  river,  120 
miles  from  the  ocean,  and  772  miles  N. 
of  San  Francisco,  Cal.  The  city  is  built 
on  sloping  ground;  is  surrounded  by 
beautiful  scenery;  and  has  a  most  en- 
joyable climate,  being  much  w^armer  in 
winter  than  many   Southern  cities. 

Business  Interests. — The  Willamette 
river  is  navigable  for  large  vessels,  and 
a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  with 
Great  Britain,  Japan,  China,  Hawaii, 
and  the  South  American  republics.  The 
value  of  exports  in  1920,  which  include 
wheat,  flour,  wool,  fish,  timber,  etc.,  was 
$48,812,821,  and  the  imports  $7,042,702. 
There  are  more  than  800  manufacturing 
establishments,  with  an  output  valued  at 
more  than  $50,000,000  per  annum.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  pig  iron, 
woolen  goods,  flour,  furniture,  cordage, 
carriages,  clothing,  boots  and  shoes, 
engine  boilers,  etc.  There  are  about  20 
National,  State,  and  private  banks,  and 
many  daily,  weekly,  and  monthly  peri- 
odicals. The  assessed  property  valua- 
tions exceed  $226,000,000  and  the  total 
bonded  debt  is  over  $12,000,000. 

Public  Interests. — The  city  has  an  area 
of  66.3  square  miles;  1,350  miles  of 
streets;  a  system  of  waterworks,  owned 
by  the  city  that  cost  nearly  $12,700,000, 
with  755  miles  of  mains.  The  streets 
are  lighted  by  electricity  at  a  cost  of 
about  $200,000  per  annum.  The  police 
department  costs  annually  about  $382,- 
000,  and  the  fire  department  about 
$562,000.  There  is  a  public  school  en- 
rollment of  over  40,000  pupils,  and  an 
annual  expenditure  for  public  education 
of  over  $2,000,000.  The  annual  cost  of 
maintaining  the  city  government  is  over 
$2,800,000.  Portland  contains  the  Med- 
ical and  Law  Schools  of  the  State  Uni- 
versity, Portland  University,  Portland 
Academy,  Library  Association,  Good  Sa- 
maritan, St.  Vincent,  and  Portland  Hos- 
pitals, etc. 

Histcrry. — Portland  was  settled  in 
1845  and  received  its  city  charter  in 
1851.  It  annexed  the  cities  of  East 
Portland  and  Albina  in  1891.  The  city 
has  had  a  marvelous  growth  and  in  pro- 
portion to  its  population  has  been  said 
to  be  the  wealthiest  city  in  the  United 
States.  Pop.  (1910)  207,214;  (1920) 
258,288. 

Vol.  VII— Cyc 


PORTLAND  BEDS,  in  geology,  a 
series  of  marine  beds,  180  feet  thick,  of 
Upper  Oolitic  age,  found  chiefly  in 
Portland  {q.v.),  but  also  in  Oxford- 
shire, Buckinghamshire,  and  Yorkshire. 
They  constitute  the  foundation  on  which 
the  fresh-water  limestone  of  the  Lower 
Purbeck  reposes. 

PORTLAND  CEMENT,  a  cement  hav- 
ing the  color  of  Portland  stone. 

PORTLAND,  ISLE  OF,  a  peninsula, 
supposed  to  have  been  formerly  an  is- 
land, in  the  county  of  Dorset,  50  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Southampton,  in  the  British 
Channel.  It  is  attached  to  the  main- 
land by  a  long  ridge  of  shingle,  called 
the  Chesil  Bank,  and  it  consists  chiefly 
of  the  well-known  Portland  stone,  which 
is  chiefly  worked  by  convicts,  and  is  ex- 
ported in  large  quantities.  One  of  the 
most  prominent  objects  in  the  island  is 
the  convict  prison,  situated  on  the  top 
of  a  hill.  The  S.  extremity  of  the  is- 
land is  called  the  Bill  of  Portland,  and 
between  it  and  a  bank  called  the  Sham- 
bles is  a  dangerous  current  called  the 
Race   of   Portland. 

PORT  LOUIS,  the  capital  and  princi- 
pal port  of  the  British  colony  of  Mau- 
ritius; on  an  excellent  harbor  on  the 
N.  W.  coast,  and  inclosed  by  a  ring  of 
loftv  hills.  It  is  defended  by  forts 
(1887-1891),  is  a  coaling  station  of  the 
British  navy,  and  has  barracks  and  mili- 
tary storehouses.  The  city  contains  the 
government  house,  a  Protestant  and  a 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a  royal  col- 
lege, etc.     Pop.  about  50,000. 

PORT  MAHON,  the  capital  of  the 
island  of  Minorca;  beautifully  situated 
on  a  deep,  narrow  inlet  in  the  S.  E.  of 
the  island.  Its  harbor  is  one  of  the  fin- 
est in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  pro- 
tected by  powerful  forts  and  fortificaf 
tions.  Building  stone,  shoes,  cottons, 
cattle,  and  honey  are  exported.  The 
town  was  held  by  the  English  from  1708 
to  1756,  and  again  from  1762  to  1782. 
It  was  they  who  made  it  a  first-clasa 
fortress. 

PORTO  ALEGRE,  capital  of  the  Bra- 
zilian state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  Pop. 
(1918)  1,852,207.  N.  W.  extremity  of 
the  Lagoa  dos  Patos,  by  means  of  which 
it  communicates  with  the  sea.  It  was 
founded  in  1742.  It  contains  a  cathe- 
dral, an  arsenal,  military  and  normal 
schools,  an  episcopal  seminary,  and  a 
German  club.  Most  of  the  wholesale 
trade  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Germans. 
There  are  manufactories  of  pianos,  fur- 
niture, brandy,  and  beer.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  beef,  salt  pork,  lard,  hides,  and 
flour.     Pop.  about  150,000. 

21 


PORTOBELO 


318 


PORTO    RICO 


PORTOBELO,  a  small  seaport  town  of 
Colombia,  on  the  N.  shore  of  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  almost  due  N.  of  the  town 
of  Panama.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor, 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  1502,  but  is 
very  unhealthy,  and  has  fallen  into  de- 
cay since  1739,  when  it  was  stormed  by 
Admiral  Vernon,  during  the  war  be- 
tween England  and  Spain. 

PORTO  MAGGIORE,  a  town  of  Italy, 
on  an  island  in  the  Valli  di  Commac- 
chio,  midway  between  Ferrara  and  Ra- 
venna, the  chief  occupations  are  cattle- 
breeding,  fishing,  and  agriculture,  the 
products  comprising  beet  root,  and  grain. 
Pop.  about  22,500. 

PORTO  NOVO,  capital  of  Dahomey, 
French  West  Africa,  near  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  with  which  it  is  joined  by  a 
stretch  of  shallow  water  leading  to  the 
seaport  of  Kotonu.  It  is  connected  by 
rail  with  Pobe,  and  has  trade  in  oil  and 
nuts.  French  administration  headquar- 
ters situated  here  since  last  conquest  of 
Dahomey  in  1893.     Pop.  about  30,000. 

PORTO  NOVO,  a  small  port  on  the 
Coromandel  coast  of  India,  145  miles  S. 
of  Madras.  Both  the  Danes  and  the 
Dutch  had  formerly  a  factory  here.  The 
place  is  celebrated  for  the  battle  fought 
here  on  July  1,  1781,  when  Sir  Eyre 
Coote,  with  8,000  men,  defeated  Hyder 
Ali  and  an  army  of  60,000. 

PORTO  RICO,  the  most  easterly  of 
the  Greater  Antilles  Islands  of  the  West 
Indies,  a  territorial  possession  of  the 
United  States.  It  has  an  area  of  3,606 
square  miles.  The  island  is  roughly 
rectangular  in  shape.  It  is  about  100 
miles  in  length.  The  coast  line  is  about 
360  miles  long,  with  comparatively  few 
important  indentations.  A  broken  irre- 
gular range  of  hills  passes  across  the 
island  from  east  to  west,  ranging  in 
height  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet. 

The  annual  range  of  temperature  is 
from  90°  to  50°,  with  an  average  of  76°. 
Rail  falls  almost  daily,  the  annual  pre- 
cipitation being  nearly  77  inches. 

The  island  is  famous  for  the  number 
and  size  of  its  trees,  which  include  sev- 
eral species  of  palms.  There  are  also 
several  varieties  of  hard  wood  useful  in 
building.  Although  several  metals  occur 
on  the  island  there  is  little  or  no  mining. 
Gold,  carbonate,  and  sulphide  of  copper 
have  been  found.  No  systematic  survey 
of  the  mineral  resources  of  the  island 
has  been  made. 

The  chief  industry  of  the  people  is 
agriculture.  The  principal  crops  are 
sugar  cane,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  fruit. 
Of  sugar,  there  were  in  1918  256,431 
acres   under   cultivation,   and   the   total 


production  was  453,796  tons.  The  pro- 
duction in  1919  was  406,002  tons.  The 
exports  of  sugar  in  1919  amounted  to 
351,910  tons,  valued  at  $48,132,419.  The 
exports  of  leaf  and  scrap  tobacco  in 
1919  were  valued  at  $8,420,538.  The 
coffee  production  decreased  from  37,618,- 
613  pounds  in  1918  to  27,897,971  pounds 
in  1919. 

In  1918-1919  1,307  American  and 
foreign  vessels  entered  Porto  Rico  from 
the  United  States  and  foreign  countries. 
The  harbor  of  San  Juan,  chief  port  and 
naval  station,  has  been  improved  and 
has  an  entrance  of  600  yards  square  and 
30  feet  deep.  There  are  about  1,100 
miles  of  road  on  the  island  and  about 
339  miles  of  railway.  The  railway  sys- 
tem nearly  encircles  the  island  and  also 
penetrates  the  interior. 

The  total  enrollment  in  the  public 
schools  in  1919  was  160,794.  The  total 
number  of  children  of  school  age  was 
about  440,000.  There  were  enrolled  in 
the  rural  schools  about  98,000  pupils, 
and  in  the  elementary  schools  about  54,- 
000.  Great  advances  have  been  made  in 
education  since  the  American  occupation 
of  the  island. 

Health  conditions  have  greatly  im- 
proved under  the  American  administra- 
tion, owing  to  the  installation  of  sani- 
tary systems  in  the  larger  cities  and  to 
more  careful  attention  to  sanitation  in 
all  parts  of  the  island. 

The  total  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year 
1918-1919  amounted  to  $13,578,608,  and 
the  disbursements  to  $13,017,734.  There 
was  a  balance  on  hand  on  July  1,  1919, 
of  $5,022,316. 

Government. — Porto  Rico  is  governed 
in  accordance  vnth  the  terms  of  the  Act 
of  Congress  of  1917.  American  citizen- 
ship was  granted  to  the  people.  There 
is  a  representative  government,  the 
franchise  being  restricted  to  citizens  of 
the  United  States,  21  years  of  age  or 
over.  The  executive  power  resides  in  a 
governor,  appointed  by  the  President  of 
the  United  States.  There  is  a  legisla- 
ture of  two  elective  houses.  The  Senate 
is  composed  of  19  members  and  the 
House  of  Representatives  of  39  mem- 
bers. There  is  a  resident  commissioner 
to  the  United  States  who  has  a  seat  in 
Congress.  There  are  six  heads  of  de- 
partments which  form  a  council  to  the 
governor  known  as  the  executive  coun- 
cil. There  is  a  Supreme  Court  of  five 
members,  appointed  by  the  President, 
and  seven  district  judges  appointed  by 
the  governor.  There  are  also  municipal 
courts,  the  judges  and  officials  of  which 
are  appointed  by  the  governor. 

History. — Porto  Rico  was  discovered 
by  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage,  in 
1493,    and    was    afterward    visited    by 


POBT    SAID 


319 


PORTSMOUTH 


other  Spanish  explorers.  Ponce  de  Leon 
occupied  the  island  with  a  large  military 
force  and  maintained  headquarters  there 
for  ten  years.  The  Spaniards  remained 
in  control  of  the  island  until  1898.  It 
was  visited  often  by  pirates.  San  Juan 
was  sacked  in  1595  by  Sir  Francis 
Drake.  Other  attacks  by  English  forces 
were  defeated.  Porto  Rico  was  created 
a  province  of  Spain  in  1869,  and  slavery 
was  abolished  in  1873,  The  fortifica- 
tions of  San  Juan  were  bombarded  by  a 
fleet  under  Admiral  Sampson,  in  July, 
1898,  and  a  military  expedition  under 
General  Miles  took  possession  without 
opposition.  By  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  in 
1898,  Porto  Rico  was  ceded  to  the  United 
States.  With  the  exception  of  political 
struggles,  the  American  administration 
was  without  important  event.  In  1912 
laws  were  passed  providing  for  sanitary 
reform,  a  bureau  of  labor,  and  the  minor- 
ity representation.  The  inhabitants  of 
Porto  Rico  were  granted  citizenship  on 
March  2,  1917.  Prohibition  was  voted 
by  the  people  on  July  16  of  the  same 
year.  During  1918  officers'  training 
camps  were  opened  on  the  island  and  a 
large  number  of  young  men  were  trained 
for  military  service.  In  1918-1919  a 
new  election  law  was  passed.  Amend- 
ments were  also  made  to  the  labor  laws. 
The  population  of  Porto  Rico  in  1910 
was  1,118,012;  in  1920,  1,297,772.  The 
chief  towns  are  San  Juan,  Ponce,  and 
Mayaguez. 

PORT  SAID,  a  town  of  Egypt,  on  the 
W.  side  of  the  Suez  Canal,  on  a  desolate 
strip  of  land  between  Lake  Menzaleh  and 
the  Mediterranean.  The  place  owes  its 
origin  to  the  Suez  Canal,  being  named 
after  Said  Pasha,  its  promoter,  and  de- 
pends wholly  on  the  canal  trade,  being 
mainly  a  coaling  station  for  steamers. 
Pop.  with  Ismailia,  about  95,000.  In  the 
World  War  it  was  a  military  base  for 
operations  against  the  Turks. 

PORTSMOUTH,  the  principal  station 
of  the  British  navy,  a  seaport,  municipal 
and  parliamentary  borough  of  England, 
in  Hampshire,  on  the  S.  W.  extremity  of 
the  island  of  Portsea.  It  consists  of  the 
four  districts,  Portsmouth  proper,  Port- 
sea,  Landport,  and  Southsea,  Portsmouth 
proper  is  a  garrison  town.  Portsea  is 
the  seat  of  the  naval  dockyard;  Land- 
port  is  an  artisan  quarter;  and  Southsea 
on  the  E.  side  of  the  town  of  Portsmouth 
is  a  favorite  seaside  resort.  The  island 
of  Portsea,  which  is  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  a  narrow  creek  called 
Portsbridge  Canal,  is  bounded  on  the  E. 
by  Langston  Harbor,  on  the  W.  by  Ports- 
mouth Harbor,  and  on  the  S.  by  Spit- 
head  and  the  Harbor  Channel.  The 
royal  dockyard  covers  an  area  of  about 


500  acres,  and  is  considered  the  largest 
and  most  magnificent  establishment  of 
the  kind  in  the  world.  It  includes  vast 
store  houses,  containing  all  the  materials 
requisite  for  naval  architecture;  ma- 
chine shops,  with  all  modern  appliances; 
extensive  slips  and  docks,  in  which  the 
largest  ships  of  the  navy  are  built  or 
repaired;  ranges  of  handsome  resi- 
dences for  the  officials,  and  a  Royal  Navy 
College,  with  accommodation  for  70  stu- 
dents. Outside  the  dockyard  an  area  of 
14  acres  contains  the  gun  wharf,  where 
vast  numbers  of  guns  and  other  ord- 
nance stores  are  kept.  Portsmouth  has 
no  manufactures  of  any  consequence,  ex- 
cept those  immediately  connected  with  its 
naval  establishments,  and  a  few  large 
breweries.  Its  trade,  both  coasting  and 
foreign,  is  of  considerable  extent.  Of 
late  years  an  extensive  and  systematic 
series  of  fortifications  has  been  under 
construction  for  the  complete  defense  of 
Portsmouth.  They  extend  along  a  curve 
of  about  1%  miles  at  the  N.  side  of  Port- 
sea Island.  A  series  of  hills,  4  miles  to 
the  N.  of  Portsmouth,  and  commanding 
its  front  to  the  sea,  are  well  fortified 
with  strong  forts.  On  the  Gosport  side 
a  line  of  forts  extends  for  4  miles.  The 
municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  in- 
cludes nearly  the  whole  of  the  island  of 
Portsea.  It  sends  two  members  to  the 
House  of  Commons.  Pop.  (1917)  178,- 
327. 

PORTSMOUTH,  a  city,  port  of  entry, 
and  county-seat  of  Rockingham  co., 
N.  H.,  on  the  Piscataqua  river,  and  the 
Boston  and  Maine  railroad;  40  miles  E. 
of  Concord.  The  harbor  is  deep  and 
commodious,  and  much  used  as  a  haven 
of  refuge.  Here  are  a  United  States 
life-saving  station,  a  signal-service  sta- 
tion, custom  house.  Children's  Home, 
Woman's  Asylum,  etc.  It  has  manufac- 
tories of  cotton  fabrics,  hosiery,  ale  and 
beer,  boots  and  shoes,  carriages,  copper 
and  brass  foundry  products,  leather, 
soap,  gloves,  etc.  Here  the  "Peace  of 
Portsmouth"  was  made  when  Russian 
and  Japanese  representatives,  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  President  Roosevelt,  met  in 
conference  and  signed  a  treaty  of  peace 
in  1905,  concluding  the  Russo-Japanese 
War  (1904-1905).  Pop.  (1910)  11,- 
269;    (1920)    13,569. 

PORTSMOUTH,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Scioto  CO.,  O. ;  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Scioto  and  Ohio  rivers,  on  the 
Ohio  canal,  and  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Southwestern,  the  Norfolk  and 
Westei'n,  and  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
railroads;  114  miles  S.  E.  of  Cincinnati. 
It  is  the  center  and  shipping  port  of  a 
large  mining  and  agricultural  region. 
Here  are  a  public  library,  United  States 


PORTSMOUTH 


320 


POBTUGAL 


government  building,  Old  Ladies'  Home, 
etc.  The  industrial  plants  include  roll- 
,  ing  mills,  iron  and  steel  works,  shoe 
factories,  lumber  mills,  planing  mills, 
flour  mills,  foundries,  fire-brick  kilns,  pa- 
per box  factories,  wheel  works,  and  ve- 
neer works.  Pop.  (1910)  23,481;  (1920) 
33,011. 

PORTSMOUTH,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Norfolk  CO.,  Va.;  on  the  Eliza- 
beth river,  and  on  the  Seaboard  Air 
Line,  the  Chesapeake. and  Ohio,  Atlantic 
Coast  Line,  and  the  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia and  Norfolk  railroads;  opposite 
Norfolk.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  naval  hos- 
pital and  marine  barracks,  and  in  Gos- 
port,  on  the  S.  E.  edge  of  the  city,  is 
the  Norfolk  Navy  Yard.  The  harbor  is 
one  of  the  best  on  the  coast,  and  is  ac- 
cessible by  the  largest  vessels.  It  has 
a  steamboat  line  to  Baltimore,  and  regu- 
lar water  connections  with  the  chief 
coast  cities  of  the  United  States.  Here 
are  street  railroads,  electric  lights,  an 
academy  and  seminary,  the  shops  of  the 
Seaboard  Air  Line  railroad,  etc.  With 
Norfolk  (q.v.)  Portsmouth  was  a  naval 
station  of  great  importance  during  the 
World  War.  Portsmouth  exports  large 
quantities  of  cotton,  lumber,  fruits, 
naval  stores,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  33,190; 
(1920)  54,387. 

PORTUGAL,    THE    REPUBLIC    OF, 

forming  the  W.  portion  of  the  Iberian 
peninsula;  bounded  by  Spain  and  the 
Atlantic;  area  36,038  square  miles;  pop. 
about  6,000,000. 

Topography. — The  country  generally 
inclines  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  Several  of 
the  great  mountain  chains  of  Spain  in- 
tersect it  from  E.  to  W.  and  terminate 
in  large  promontories  in  the  Atlantic. 
The  most  remarkable  of  these  chains  is 
the  Serra  de  Estrella,  nearly  in  the  cen- 
ter of  Portugal.  This  chain  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Serra  de  Gata,  and  cul- 
minates in  an  elevation  of  7,524  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Another 
chain  is  the  Serra  de  Monchique,  the  ex- 
tremity of  which,  Cape  St.  Vincent,  is 
the  S.  W.  point,  not  only  of  Portugal, 
but  of  Europe.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Tagus,  the  Douro,  the  Minho,  and  the 
Guadiana. 

Productions. — Wheat,  barley,  oats, 
flax,  hemp,  vines,  and  maize  in  the  ele- 
vated tracts;  rice  in  the  low  grounds, 
wth  olives,  oranges,  lemons,  citrons,  figs, 
and  almonds.  Silk  is  made  of  a  very 
good  quality.  There  are  extensive  for- 
ests of  oak  in  the  N.,  chestnut  in  the 
center,  and  the  sea  pine  and  cork  in  the 
S.  Oxen  are  employed  as  beasts  of 
draught,  and  mules  and  asses  as  those 
of  ^  burden.  Cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and 
Bwine  are  numerous,  and  fish  abound  in 


the  rivers  and  on  the  coasts.  Iron  mines 
are  worked,  and  the  mountains  abound 
in  fine  marble,  and  contain  traces  of  gold 
and  silver.  Of  salt,  large  quantities  are 
formed  in  bays  along  the  coast,  by  nat- 
ural evaporation.  There  are  numerous 
salt  marshes,  and  upward  of  200  min- 
eral springs.  The  manufactures  are 
limited,  principally  consisting  of  woolens, 
silk,  and  earthenware.  Cotton  spinning 
is  followed,  and  paper,  glass,  and  gun- 
powder are  made  in  a  few  places.  The 
state  religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic;  but 
all  others  are  tolerated.  The  peace 
strength  of  the  army  is  30,000  men,  and 
the  personnel  of  the  navy  is  6,000. 

History. — Portugal  forms  the  greater 
part  of  ancient  Lusitania.  It  was  sub- 
jugated by  the  Romans,  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  and  was  constituted  into  a 
province.  In  the  5th  century,  on  the 
overthrow  of  the  Roman  supremacy, 
Portugal  was  invaded  by  the  Alans  and 
Visigoths,  and  suffered  with  Spain,  of 
which  it  was  then  a  part,  all  the  troubles 
and  vicissitudes  endured  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  peninsula  till  the  8th  cen- 
tury, at  which  time  the  Arabs,  called  in- 
differently Saracens  or  Moors,  possessed 
themselves  of  the  whole  of  Portugal,  and 
kept  absolute  dominion  for  nearly  400 
years.  In  the  12th  century,  Don  Alonzo 
Henriquez,  a  Spanish  prince  of  Leon 
and  Castile,  gained  a  great  victory  over 
the  Moors  oi  Portugal  and  was  made 
King.  Don  Alonzo  had  no  sooner  re- 
ceived the  crown,  than  he  renounced  all 
dependence  on  Spain  and  established  a 
free  and  sovereign  state. 

Under  the  descendants  of  Don  Alonzo 
I.,  especially  Dennis  I.  and  Alonzo  IV., 
Portugal,  during  the  next  two  centuries, 
rose  in  political  importance  and  commer- 
cial prosperity.  In  1385,  the  King  of 
Castile  having  laid  claim  to  the  crown  of 
Portugal  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  was 
opposed  and  defeated  by  Don  John,  Fer- 
dinand's brother,  and  ascending  the  va- 
cant throne,  ruled  his  subjects  with  jus- 
tice and  prudence.  Under  John  I.  the 
Portuguese  first  projected  those  Atlan- 
tic discoveries  on  the  African  coast, 
fraught  with  such  territorial  and  com- 
mercial advantages  to  the  nation;  and, 
under  John  II.  and  Emanuel,  between 
1481  and  1521,  Vasco  de  Gama  ex- 
plored the  Indian  Ocean;  the  riches  of 
the  East  began  to  pour  into  Europe; 
Goa  became  a  prosperous  possession,  and 
Brazil  was  added  to  the  possessions  of 
the  crown  of  Portugal.  Sebastian  III., 
fired  with  a  holy  zeal  to  exterminate  the 
infidels  from  his  country,  commenced  a 
sanguinary  crusade  against  the  Moors, 
which  he  carried  on  through  such  re- 
peated defeats,  that  he  eventually  lost 


POBTUGUESE    EAST    AFBICA      321 


POSIEDON 


both  his  crown  and  life  in  the  struggle. 
Henry  the  Cardinal,  his  uncle,  an  old 
man  of  70,  ascended  the  throne,  but  died 
without  heirs,  after  a  reign  of  only  two 
years,  in  1580. 

With  Henry  terminated  the  male  line, 
after  enduring  for  460  years.  Spain 
once  more  laid  claim  to  the  vacant 
throne,  and  Portugal  again  became  a  de- 
pendency of  the  Spanish  crown,  the  na- 
tion suffering  all  the  injustice,  exactions, 
and  tyranny  usually  inflicted  on  a  con- 
quered country  by  its  haughty  masters. 
After  enduring  60  years  of  intolerable 
hardships  and  exactions,  a  Portuguese 
nobleman  named  John,  Duke  of  Bra- 
ganza,  pitying  his  unfortunate  country- 
men, excited  a  revolution,  which  again 
broke  the  Spanish  fetters,  while  the 
people  hailed  their  deliverer  as  their 
king,  who,  being  crowned  as  John  IV., 
commenced  the  dynasty  of  the  House  of 
Braganza,  a  family  whose  descendants 
held  sway  until  the  Republic.  When 
Napoleon,  in  1807,  entered  the  country, 
and  declared  the  family  of  Braganza  had 
ceased  to  reign,  the  royal  family  of  Por- 
tugal, and  all  the  court,  set  sail  from 
the  Tagus  to  Brazil.  After  the  downfall 
of  Napoleon,  the  history  of  Portugal  is 
composed  of  a  long  succession  of  political 
disturbances.  At  the  death  of  Queen 
Maria  da  Gloria  her  eldest  son  ascended 
the  throne,  in  1853,  as  Pedro  V.,  and 
died  prematurely  in  1861,  leaving  the 
throne  to  Louis  I.,  second  son  of  Dona 
Maria.  In  October,  1889,  Carlos  I.,  his 
son,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  His  reign 
created  great  discontent  and  on  Feb.  1, 
1908,  the  King  and  Crown  Prince  were 
assassinated.  The  second  son  was 
raised  to  the  throne  as  Manuel  II.,  but 
was  deposed  in  the  revolution  of  Oct. 
1910,  when  a  republic  was  proclaimed 
under  Theo.  Braga.  The  republic  was 
formed  in  September,  1911,  with  Dr. 
Arriaga  as  President.  Shortly  after  the 
outbreak  of  the  World  War  in  1914,  Por- 
tugal took  sides  with  England  and  aided 
in  the  South  African  campaign. 

PORTUGUESE  EAST  AFRICA  OR 
MOZAMBIQUE,  a  possession  of  Portu- 
gal on  the  E.  coast  of  Africa,  having  an 
area  of  293,400  square  miles  and  popu- 
lation of  about  4,000,000.  Almost  all  of 
the  inhabitants  belong  to  the  Bantu  race, 
although  in  the  southern  portion  there 
are  a  number  of  Zulus.  The  colony  is 
rich  in  mineral  resources,  but  because  of 
the  tropical  and  unfavorable  climate,  as 
well  as  the  bad  transportation  facilities 
these  have  been  little  developed.  The 
chief  mineral  deposits  are  coal,  iron  and 
gold  and  thus  far  have  been  exploited 
rnostly  by  British  subjects.  The  prin- 
cipal products   are   cocoanuts,   bananas. 


indigo,  coflFee,  and  rubber.  Three  porta 
do  almost  all  the  export  and  import 
trade,  the  coast  affording  but  few  har- 
bors. The  capital  is  Louren^o  Marques 
with  a  population  app.   10,000. 

PORTUGUESE  GUINEA,  a  possession 
of  Portugal  on  the  E.  coast  of  Africa, 
with  an  area  of  about  14,000  miles  and  a 
population  of  about  800,000.  Portuguese 
authority  is  respected  only  in  the  coast 
towns,  the  interior  of  the  colony  being 
largely  unexplored.  The  coast  affords 
several  harbors,  but  because  of  strong 
currents  navigation  is  dangerous.  The 
climate  is  very  hot  and  unhealthy.  The 
commerce,  which  is  controlled  by  the 
French,  consists  in  the  exporting  of 
ivory,  wax,  and  rubber,  and  the  import- 
ing of  manufactured  goods.  The  forests 
contain  a  number  of  valuable  woods,  and 
the  chief  crops  of  the  province  are  rice 
and  millet.  The  capital  is  Bulama,  situ- 
ated on  the  island  of  the  same  name. 
This  town  divides  the  commerce  with 
Bissao  and  Cacheo. 

PORTULACA,  purslane;  the  typical 
genus  of  the  Portulacacege;  low,  succu- 
lent herbs  with  flat  or  cylindrical  leaves, 
and  yellow,  purplish,  or  rose-colored 
ephemeral  flowers.  Known  species  be- 
tween 30  and  40;  most  of  them  from  the 
warmer  parts  of  America.  P.  oleracea 
is  the  common  purslane.  It  is  a  low, 
succulent  annual,  often  eaten  by  the  Hin- 
dus as  a  potherb.  P.  quadrifida,  also  In- 
dian, is  eaten  and  considered  cooling  by 
the  natives.  The  fresh  leaves  of  both 
species  are  used  as  an  external  applica- 
tion in  erysipelas,  etc.,  and  an  infusion 
of  them  as  a  diuretic. 

PORTULACACE^  or  PORTULA- 
CEJE,  purslanes;  an  order  of  hypo- 
gynous  exogens,  alliance  Silenales.  Suc- 
culent herbs  or  shrubs,  generally  with 
alternate,  entire  leaves;  axillary  or 
terminal  flowers,  which  expand  only  in 
bright  sunshine.  Sepals  two;  petals  five, 
distinct,  or  joined  into  a  tube;  stamens 
varying  in  number;  carpels  three  or 
more;  ovary  and  capsule  one-celled,  the 
latter  dehiscing  transversely,  or  by 
valves  (Lindley).  Known  genera  15, 
species   125    (Sir  Joseph   Hooker). 

PORTUMNUS,  or  PORTUNUS.  the 
Roman  god  of  harbors.  The  Portum- 
nalia  were  yearly  celebrated  in  his  honor. 

POSE,  in  heraldry,  a  term  applied  to 
a  lion,  horse,  etc.,  represented  standing 
still,  with  all  his  feet  on  the  ground; 
statant. 

POSEIDON,  the  Greek  god  of  the  sea, 

identified  by  the  Romans  with  the  Ital- 
ian deity  Neptunus.  A  son  of  Kronos 
and  Rhea,  and  hence  a  brother  of  Zeus, 


POSEN 


322 


POSITIVE    PHILOSOPHY 


/era,  and  Demeter,  he  was  regarded  as 
only  inferior  in  power  to  Zeus.  His 
usual  residence  was  in  the  depths  of  the 
sea  near  JEgse,  in  Euboea,  and  the  attri- 
butes ascribed  and  most  of  the  myths  re- 
garding him  have  reference  to  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  sea.  The  horse,  and  more 
particularly  the  war  horse,  was  sacred 
to  Poseidon,  and  one  of  the  symbols  of 
his  power.  During  the  Trojan  War  Po- 
seidon was  the  constant  enemy  of  Troy, 
and  after  its  close  he  is  described  as 
thwarting  the  return  of  Ulysses  to  his 
home  for  his  having  killed  Polyphemus, 
a  son  of  the  god.  Poseidon  was  married 
to  Amphitrite.  His  worship  was  com- 
mon throughout  Greece  and  the  Greek 
colonies,  but  especially  prevailed  in  the 
maritime  towns.  The  Isthmian  games 
were  held  in  his  honor.  In  works  of  art 
Poseidon  is  represented  with  features  re- 
sembling those  of  Zeus,  and  often  bears 
the  trident  in  his  right  hand.  A  com- 
mon representation  of  him  is  as  drawn 
in  his  chariot  over  the  surface  of  the 
sea  by  hippocamps  (monsters  like  horses 
in  front  and  fishes  behind)  or  other 
fabulous  animals. 

POSEN,  a  province  in  eastern  Europe 
which  prior  to  the  World  War  belonged 
to  the  German  Empire,  but  which  by  the 
treaty  of  Versailles  in  1919  Germany 
ceded  to  the  new  Polish  state.  Its  area 
is  11,184  square  miles  and  its  estimated 
population  is  over  two  millions.  Even 
before  its  cession  to  Poland  the  major- 
ity of  its  inhabitants  were  Poles  and 
spoke  the  Polish  language,  in  spite  of  the 
vigorous  repressive  measures  adopted  by 
the  German  Government.  Almost  sev- 
enty-five per  cent,  of  the  population  be- 
long to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Posen  until  1793  formed  a  part  of  Po- 
land; the  treaty  of  Versailles  merely 
restored  it  to  its  rightful  owner.  The 
population  is  engaged  chiefly  in  agri- 
culture, less  than  twenty-five  per  cent, 
being  employed  in  the  factories.  The 
chief  products  are  the  grains,  rye,  wheat, 
oats,  and  barley.  The  principal  indus- 
try is  the  manufacture  of  spirituous 
liquors. 

POSEN,  a  fortified  town  formerly  be- 
longing to  Prussia,  now  to  Poland,  capi- 
tal of  the  province  of  the  same  name  and 
an  archbishop's  see,  stands  on  the 
Warthe,  149  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Berlin. 
It  is  surrounded  by  two  lines  of  forts,  is 
built  with  considerable  regularity,  has 
generally  fine  wide  streets,  and  numerous 
squares  or  open  spaces.  The  most  note- 
worthy public  buildings  are  the  cathe- 
dral, in  the  Gothic  style  (1775),  the 
town  parish  church,  a  fine  building  in  the 
Italian  style,  both  Roman  Catholic;  the 
town  house   (1508),  with  a  lofty  tower; 


the  Raczynski  Library;  the  municipal 
archive  building,  etc.  The  manufaC' 
tures  consist  chiefly  of  agricultural  ma- 
chines, manures,  woolen  and  linen  tis- 
sues, carriages,  leather,  lacquerware,  etc. 
There  are  also  breweries  and  distilleries. 
Pop.  about  175,000. 

POSES  PLASTIQUES,  or  TABLEAUX 
VIVANTS,  imitations  of  pictures  by  liv= 
ing  persons  taking  the  place  of  those 
depicted. 

POSIDONIUS,  a  Greek  Stoic  philoso- 
pher; born  in  Apamea,  Syria,  but  styled 
"The  Rhodian"  by  reason  of  his  long  resi- 
dence in  the  island  of  Rhodes ;  lived  from 
135  to  50  B.  c.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  antiquity,  his  knowledge 
and  his  writings  extending  over  every 
branch  of  science.  His  greatest  work 
was  a  universal  history  in  52  books,  held 
in  high  esteem  by  the  ancients;  it  was  a 
continuation  of  Polybius,  and  covered  the 
period  145-82  B.  c.  His  lectures  on 
"Tactics"  would  seem  to  be  the  basis  of 
the  tractate  of  his  disciple  Asclepiodotus 
on  the  same  subject. 

POSILIPO,  a  mountain  of  Italy,  on 
the  N.  W.  of  Naples,  close  by  the  city, 
from  of  old  a  noble  site  for  the  villas  of 
wealthy  citizens.  It  is  remarkable  for 
the  tunnel  known  as  the  Grotto  of  Posi- 
lipo,  through  which  the  road  from  Naples 
to  Pozzuoli  passes.  The  grotto  varies  in 
height  from  20  feet  to  80  or  more,  is  20 
to  30  feet  vnde,  and  755  yards  long.  It 
is  traditionally  said  to  have  been  made 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  but  is  prob- 
ably earlier.  Above  the  eastern  arch- 
way of  the  grotto  is  the  so-called  "Tomb 
of  Vergil."  At  the  base  of  the  hill  an- 
ciently stood  the  poet's  villa.  During  tl :e 
Middle  Ages  the  common  people  believed 
the  grotto  to  be  the  work  of  the  poet, 
whom  they  regarded  as  a  great  ma- 
gician. Two  other  tunnels  penetrate 
through  the  hill,  one  to  the  N.  of  the 
grotto,  800  yards  long,  39  feet  high,  and 
33  feet  broad,  made  for  the  tramway, 
and  another  constructed  at  the  command 
of  Agrippa  in  37  B.  c,  but  only  discov- 
ered in  1812. 

POSITIVE,  in  photography,  a  picture 
obtained  by  printing  from  a  negative,  in 
which  the  lights  and  shades  are  rendered 
as  they  are  in  nature.  See  Photog- 
raphy. 

POSITIVE  PHILOSOPHY,  the  system 
of  philosophy  outlined  by  Auguste  Comte 
(1798-1857)  in  his  "Philosophie  Posi- 
tive," the  sixth  and  last  volume  of  which 
was  published  in  1842.  It  is  the  out- 
come of  the  Law  of  the  Three  Stages 
and  is  based  on  the  positive  sciences, 
taken   in   the    following   series:    mathe- 


POSITIVE    SOCIETY 


323 


POSTAGE    STAMPS 


matics  (number,  geometry,  mechanics), 
astronomy,  physics,  chemistry,  biology, 
and  sociology.  It  relinquishes  attempts 
to  transcend  the  sphere  of  experience, 
and  seeks  to  establish  by  observation  and 
induction  laws  or  constant  relations,  and 
resigns  iself  to  ignorance  of  the  agents. 
In  the  opinion  of  its  founder  it  is  cap- 
able of  being  developed  into  a  religion 
and  a  polity. 

POSITIVE  SOCIETY,  a  society  found- 
ed in  Paris  in  1848,  by  Comte,  in  the 
hope  that  it  might  exert  as  powerful  an 
influence  over  the  revolution  as  the  Ja- 
cobin Club  had  exerted  in  1789.  In  this 
he  was  disappointed,  but  the  disciples 
who  gathered  around  him  were  the  germ 
of  the  Positivist  Church. 

POSITIVISM,  the  religion  of  Human- 
ity, developed  from  the  positive  philos- 
ophy, and  claiming  to  be  a  synthesis  of 
all  human  conceptions  of  the  external 
order  of  the  universe.  Its  professed  aim, 
both  in  public  and  private  life,  is  to  se- 
cure the  victory  of  social  feeling  over 
self-love,  of  altruism  over  egotism. 

POSSE  COMITATUS,  a  force  or  body 
which  the  sheriff  of  a  county  is  empow- 
ered to  raise  in  case  of  riot,  possession 
kept  on  forcible  entry,  rescue,  or  other 
attempt  to  oppose  or  obstruct  the  execu- 
tion of  justice. 

POSSESSION,  a  word  having  several 
applications :  1.  The  act  or  state  of  pos- 
sessing or  holding  as  owner  or  occu- 
pant; the  state  of  owning  or  being  mas- 
ter of  anything;  the  state  of  being  seized 
of  anything;  occupancy  ;  ownership, 
rightful  or  wrongful.  2.  That  which  is 
possessed;  property,  land,  estate,  or 
goods  owned.  3.  A  district,  or  extent 
over  which  a  person  or  thing  has  pow- 
er or  authority.  4.  The  state  of  being 
possessed  or  under  the  power  of  evil 
spirits,  passions,  or  influences;  madness, 
lunacy.  5.  An  idea,  a  prepossession,  a 
presentiment. 

In  civil  law,  the  holding  or  having  as 
owner  or  occupier,  whether  rightfully  or 
wrongfully;  actual  seizing  or  occupancy. 
In  international  law,  a  country  or  terri- 
tory held  by  mere  right  of  conquest.  In 
Scriptures,  the  taking  possession  of  the 
body  or  spirit  by  demons  or  devils. 
They  produced  bodily  disease  or  defect 
as  dumbness  (Matt,  ix:  32-34),  blindness 
and  dumbness  (xii:  22-30)  epilepsy  with 
dumbness  (Mark  ix:  17-27);  and  a  wo- 
man who  had  had  a  spirit  of  infirmity 
18  years  is  described  as  bound  that 
length  of  time  by  Satan  (Luke  xiii:  16). 
Mentally,  the  possession  by  an  unclean 
spirit^  produced  symptoms  almost  indis- 
tinguishable    from    those    of    madness 


(Mark  v:  2-20).     Jesus,  when  on  earth, 
cast  out  demons  (Matt,  iv:  24). 

POSSIET,  CONSTANTIN  NICO- 
LA VICH,  a  Russian  naval  officer;  born 
in  1819;  early  entered  the  navy;  was 
Minister  of  Ways  of  Communication  in 
1874-1888.  While  holding  this  office  he 
made  extensive  improvements  in  the  har- 
bors and  waterways  of  Russia;  was 
president  of  the  Russian  Association  for 
Saving  Life,  and  established  most  of  the 
life  stations  in  Russia.  From  1889  to 
1899  he  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of 
State.  He  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  May 
8,  1899. 

POST,  GEORGE  BROWNE,  an  Amer- 
ican architect;  born  in  New  York  City 
in  1837;  studied  with  Richard  M.  Hunt; 
designed  numerous  private  residences 
and  public  buildings;  and  became  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Institute  of  Archi- 
tects, the  National  Arts  Club,  and  the 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 
He  died  in  1913. 

POSTAGE  STAMPS,  a  term  employed 
to  indicate  not  really  a  stamp  or  impres- 
sion, but  a  printed  label  pasted  on  pack- 
ages and  letters  to  show  that  the  cost 
of  carriage  has  been  already  paid.  Such 
stamps  may  be  issued  by  the  govern- 
ment or  by  carrying  companies.  The 
term  in  the  main  is  restricted  to  stamps 
issued  by  stable  governments,  and  in 
such  case  the  stamps  have  a  recognized 
value  in  accordance  with  the  amount 
indicated  on  their  face.  The  two  main 
divisions  are  adhesive  stamps  and  stamps 
actually  engraved  in  the  envelope.  The 
adhesives  are  placed  on  the  matter  to 
be  delivered,  and  this  has  been  the 
method  in  vogue  since  1840,  when  Row- 
land Hill  conceived  his  uniform  Penny 
Postage  plan  and  succeeded  in  having  it 
established  in  Great  Britain.  Up  to  that 
time  it  had  been  the  custom  to  charge  for 
the  transportation  of  letters  and  pack- 
ages in  proportion  to  the  distance  cov- 
ered, and  these  charges  often  mounted  to 
a  considerable  sum,  such  as  "twelve 
pence"  or  24  cents  for  a  distance  of 
250  miles.  The  charges  were  also  usu- 
ally not  prepaid,  and  there  was  frequent 
loss  to  the  carrying  company  in  cases 
of  refusal  of  payment  on  the  part  of 
the  addressee.  The  great  growth  in  cor- 
respondence which  followed  the  innova- 
tion and  the  trifling  cost  involved  in  the 
production  of  stamps  guaranteed  its  suc- 
cess from  a  financial  point  of  view  from 
the   start. 

The  use  of  the  prepaid  stamp  speedily 
spread  to  other  countries,  and  was  gradu- 
ally taken  up  by  the  governments  of  the 
different  nations  with  the  assumption 
by   these    governments    of   the    national 


POSTAL    SAVINGS-BANKS 


324 


POSTAL    SERVICE 


forwarding  of  letters.  The  recognition 
of  the  Universal  Postal  Union,  which 
issued  rules  governing  the  issue  of  inter- 
national postage  stamps,  the  character 
of  their  designs,  and  the  value  repre- 
sented by  them,  was  the  final  develop- 
ment in  the  issue  and  use  of  postage 
stamps. 

While  the  varieties  of  postage  stamps 
are  many,  their  characteristics  are  re- 
stricted within  certain  defined  limits. 
Its  shape  is  usually  square,  but  it  may 
take  other  forms,  and  its  size  has  re- 
mained very  much  as  it  was  in  the 
original  issue.  In  recent  years  it  has 
become  a  practice  in  several  countries  to 
celebrate  national  events  by  the  issue  of 
commemorative  stamps.  The  vogue  has 
been  greater  in  American  countries  than 
in  more  conservative  Europe,  where,  in 
the  case  of  monarchies,  it  has  been  the 
custom  to  print  the  monarch's  head  on 
the  stamp.  Though  stamps  have  not 
greatly  differed  in  their  designs  since  the 
first  issue,  there  has  been  a  great  de- 
velopment in  the  modes  of  their  produc- 
tion, in  proportion  to  the  growth  in 
general  correspondence.  In  general  the 
earlier  designs,  being  engraved  by  hand, 
are  superior  to  the  later  ones,  and  are 
more  valued  by  the  collector  apart  from 
the  rarity.  The  collecting  of  stamps, 
styled  philately,  has  long  had  an  inter- 
national vogue  particularly  among  young 
people. 

POSTAL  SAVINGS-BANKS  have  been 
in  successful  operation  for  several  years 
in  many  Old  World  countries,  and  public 
opinion  favoring  their  establishment  in 
the  United  States,  has  grown  steadily 
stronger.  In  the  Presidential  campaign 
of  1908  the  scheme  was  indorsed  by  all 
the  political  parties.  It  had  the  support 
of  both  Presidents  Roosevelt  and  Taft. 
Postmaster-General  Meyer  pointed  out 
that  98.4  per  cent,  of  all  the  savings- 
bank  deposits  in  the  United  States  are  in 
14  States,  and  only  1.6  per  cent,  in  the 
other  34  States;  and  that  while  there 
was  one  savings-bank  depositor  out  of 
every  two  inhabitants  in  New  England, 
there  was  only  one  out  of  every  157  in- 
habitants in  the  rest  of  the  country.  New 
York  State  alone  excepted.  A  postal 
savings-bank  system  was  started  in  the 
Philippines  on  June  30,  1909,  which  in 
1910  had  13,102  accounts  and  $839,623 
on  deposit.  President  Taft's  exertions 
to  secure  the  enactment  of  a  postal  bank 
law  were  unsuccessful  in  1909,  in  part 
owing  to  the  opposition  to  the  project 
raised  by  the  American  Bankers'  Asso- 
ciation; but  in  June,  1910,  the  desired 
bill  was  passed  by  Congress.  This  cre- 
ates a  board  of  trustees  composed  of 
the    Postmapter-General,    the    Secretary 


of  the  Treasury,  and  the  Attorney-Gen- 
eral. They  are  to  select  the  post-offices 
at  which  deposits  may  be  received.  De- 
posits from  one  person  must  not  exceed 
$100  a  month  or  $500  in  all.  An  ac- 
count may  be  opened  with  $1.  Interest 
will  be  paid  at  the  rate  of  2  per  cent. 
Depositors  may  exchange  their  deposited 
money  for  government  bonds  paying  2^/^ 
per  cent.,  to  be  issued  in  denominations 
of  $20,  $40,  $60,  $80,  $100,  and  $500. 
The  post-offices  are  to  deposit  65  per  cent. 
of  the  money  in  National  and  State 
banks  of  the  vicinity,  which  are  to  pay 
2^/4  per  cent,  for  the  use  of  it,  and  give 
acceptable  security.  Five  per  cent,  of 
the  deposits  must  be  held  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  as  a  cash  reserve; 
and  not  more  than  30  per  cent,  may  be 
withdrawn  by  the  Government,  at  the 
direction  of  the  President,  for  investment 
in  Government  bonds. 

The  system  was  inaugurated  at  one 
post-office  in  each  of  the  48  States,  in- 
cluding New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and 
in  1911  was  extended  to  the  larger  cities. 
See  Article  United  States  :  Section  Post 
Office. 

POSTAL  SERVICE,  the  regulation  of 
communication  between  different  parts 
of  a  country,  or  different  countries,  in- 
cluding especially  the  forwarding  and  de- 
livering of  letters,  newspapers  and  small 
packages,  and  the  establishment  of  a 
registry  system  for  the  transfer  of 
money  and  the  transaction  of  other  finan- 
cial business.  In  some  countries  the  use 
of  the  telephone  and  the  telegraph  forms 
a  part  of  the  postal  service.  Though  let- 
ter conveyance  is  the  primary  work  of 
the  postoffice,  many  other  branches  of 
business  have  been  assumed  by  it.  The 
word  "post"  has  its  particular  applica- 
tion from  the  posts,  or  stages,  at  which 
on  the  roads  of  the  Rjoman  empire 
couriers  were  maintained  for  the  purpose 
of  conveying  news  and  despatches. 

Postal  Union. — Under  the  terms  of  a 
treaty  concluded  at  Berne,  Oct.  9,  1874, 
the  object  of  which  was  to  secure  uni- 
formity in  the  treatment  of  correspond- 
ence, and  the  simplification  of  accounts, 
as  well  as  the  reduction  of  rates  within 
certain  limits,  and  whose  provisions  were 
carried  into  operation  generally  July  1, 
1875,  the  whole  of  Europe,  the  United 
States,  Egypt,  British  India,  and  all  the 
colonies  of  France  were  at  the  outset,  or 
shortly  thereafter,  included  in  the  union 
and  many  other  countries  and  colonies 
have  since  joined  it.  The  international 
accounts  in  respect  of  postages  are  based 
on  a  month's  return  of  correspondence 
taken  every  third  year. 

United  States. — The  beginnings  of  a 
postal  service  in  the  United  States  date 


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POSTERS 


325 


POST-IMPRESSIONISM 


from  1639,  when  the  house  of  Richard 
Fairbanks  in  Boston  was  employed  for 
the  receipt  and  delivery  of  letters  for  or 
from  beyond  the  seas.  He  was  allowed 
for  every  letter  a  penny  and  was  obliged 
to  answer  all  miscarriages  through  his 
own  neglect.  In  1672  the  government  of 
New  York  colony  established  "a  post  to 
go  monthly  from  New  York  to  Boston"; 
in  1702  it  was  changed  to  a  fortnightly 
one.  A  general  postoffice  was  estab- 
lished and  erected  in  Virginia  in  1692, 
and  in  Philadelphia  in  1693.  A  deputy 
postmaster-general  for  America  was  ap- 
pointed in  1692;  and  by  act  of  Parlia- 
ment in  1710  he  was  directed  to  keep  his 
principal  office  in  New  York,  "and  other 
chief  offices  in  some  convenient  place  or 
places  in  other  of  Her  Majesty's  prov- 
inces or  colonies  in  America";  a  monop- 
oly was  established  which  included  also 
the  transport  of  travelers,  and  a  tariff 
was  fixed.  The  system,  however,  proved 
a  failure,  till  1753,  when  Benjamin 
Franklin  became  postmaster-general ; 
when  he  was  removed  from  office  in  1774 
the  net  revenue  exceeded  $15,000. 

In  1789,  when  the  postoffice  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  new  Federal  Government, 
the  number  of  offices  in  the  13  States 
was  only  about  75.  Events  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  American  postal  service  have 
been  the  negotiation  of  a  postal  treaty 
with  England  (1846)  ;  the  introduction  of 
postage  stamps  (1847),  of  stamped  en- 
velopes (1852),  of  the  system  of  regis- 
tering letters  (1855) ;  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  free-delivery  system,  and  of 
the  traveling  postoffice  system  (1863) ; 
the  introduction  of  the  money  order  sys- 
tem (1864),  of  postal  cards  (1873),  and, 
between  the  last  two  dates  of  stamped 
newspaper  wrappers,  and  of  envelopes 
bearing  requests  for  the  return  of  the 
inclosed  letter  to  the  writer  in  case  of 
Bon-delivery ;  the  formation  of  the  Uni- 
versal Postal  Union  (1873) ;  the  issue  of 
"postal  notes"  payable  to  bearer  (1883) ; 
and  the  establishment  of  a  special- 
delivery  system  (1885),  under  which  let- 
ters bearing  an  extra  10-cent  stamp  are 
delivered  by  special  messengers  immedi- 
ately on  arrival.  See  United  States: 
Section  Post  Office. 

POSTERS,  a  bill  or  placard,  printed 
or  illustrated,  conspicuously  exhibited  to 
convey  a  message  to  the  public.  The 
practice  of  using  placards  for  public 
information  had  its  vogue  among  both 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  but  the  inven- 
tion of  printing  gave  the  custom  a  de- 
velopment which  has  kept  pace  with 
modern  civilization.  In  several  cities  of 
Europe  it  was  the  practice  in  the  17th 
century  to  affix  theatrical  announcements 
to  the   rails  and  posts   in   the   streets, 


and  in  Paris  the  color  of  the  poster  indi- 
cated the  theater.  The  posters  some- 
times consisted  of  letterpress  large  and 
bold  enough  to  eaten  the  public  eye; 
sometimes  the  posters  had  rej)resenta- 
tions  of  characters  and  scenes  from  the 
play.  The  colored  poster,  as  we  now 
know  it,  was  developed  by  Cheret,  the 
lithographer,  in  Paris,  who  issued  the 
first  example  of  his  skill  in  1866.  The 
circus  and  the  theater  have  had  the  chief 
hand  in  the  development  of  the  pictorial 
poster,  which,  by  the  representation  of 
stage  characters,  ballet  girls,  children, 
and  animals,  has  attained  a  high  level 
of  art.  The  French  poster  designers, 
among  them  Grasset,  Toulouse-Lautrec, 
Willette,  Forain,  Guillaume,  Schwaebe, 
and  Gossard,  have  given  France  first 
place  in  the  art,  but  the  art  has  attained 
a  great  development  in  the  United  States, 
and  men  like  Penfield  and  Bradley  gave 
it  the  impetus  which  has  carried  it  into 
every  field  of  advertising  that  allows 
pictorial  representation. 

POST  GLACIAL,  in  geology,  a  term 
applied  to  the  oldest  division  but  one  of 
the  post-Tertiary  period. 

POST-IMPRESSIONISM,  a  term  used 
to  designate  the  development  in  art  that 
succeeded  impressionism,  a  movement  in 
the  domain  particularly  of  painting  and 
sculpture,  that  sought  the  representation 
of  the  subjective  conception  of  nature 
rather  than  nature  itself.  In  these 
new  theories  the  depicting  of  light  plays 
an  important  part,  and  an  effort  is  made 
to  find  expression  for  the  things  that 
lie  behind  the  surface,  the  human  feeling 
and  conception,  the  qualities  of  depth, 
and  weight,  ana  permanence,  and  the  ab- 
stractions as  opposed  to  the  superficial 
appearance  of  things.  The  attempts  to 
embody  these  ideas  in  color  and  stone 
have  resulted  in  representations  having 
little  resemblance  to  objects  as  they  ap- 
pear to  the  eye.  Both  Cubism  and 
Futurism  are  developments  of  Impres- 
sionism and  Post-Impressionism.  In 
Cubism  geometrical  forms  play  a  large 
part.  Picasso,  the  Spanish  sculptor  and 
painter,  was  the  first  to  give  the  move- 
ment an  international  vogue,  and  in  the 
establishment  he  had  the  co-operation  of 
both  French  and  Spanish  artists,  who 
organized  the  first  collective  exhibition 
in  Paris  in  1911.  Futurism  had  its  birth 
almost  simultaneously  with  Cubism,  the 
originator  being  the  Italian  Marinetti. 
Its  central  idea  is  the  representation  of 
the  interior  energy  and  possibility  of 
objects  in  nature  and  the  results  are 
usually  bizarre.  The  movements  have 
spread  to  all  the  countries  of  Europe  and 
America,  but  though  they  have  found 
conspicuous  adherents,  and  embody  cer- 


POSTING 


326 


POTATO    DISEASE 


tain  truths,  the  more  successful  Post- 
Impressionists  have  remained  faithful  to 
the  traditions  of  the  old  masters,  blend- 
ing as  far  as  they  can  what  is  new  and 
true  to  the  older  principles  of  the  arts. 

POSTING,  traveling  by  means  of 
horses  hired  at  different  stations  on  the 
line  of  journey,  a  system  established  in 
England  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward II. 

POSTMASTER-GENERAL,    the   chief 

of  the  postoffice  department. 

POST  MILL,  a  form  of  wind  mill  so 
constructed  that  the  whole  fabric  rests 
on  a  vertical  axis,  and  can  be  turned  by 
means  of  a  lever. 

POST  MORTEM,  after  death,  as  a 
post-mortem  examination,  i.  e.,  one  made 
after  the  death  of  a  person,  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  cause  of  death  either  in  the 
interests  of  science,  or  for  the  ends  of 
justice. 

POST  OBIT,  a  bond  given  as  security 
for  the  repayment  of  a  sum  of  money 
to  a  lender  on  the  death  of  some  speci- 
fied person,  from  whom  the  borrower  has 
expectations.  Such  loans  in  almost 
every  case  carry  high,  if  not  usurious, 
rates  of  interest,  and  generally  the  bor- 
rower binds  himself  to  pay  a  much  larger 
sum  than  he  receives,  in  consideration  of 
the  risk  which  the  lender  runs  in  case 
of  the  borrower  dying  before  the  person 
from  whom  he  has  expectations. 

POST-PLIOCENE,  in  geology,  in  the 
etymological  sense,  more  modern  than 
the  Pliocene,  i.  e.,  embracing  all  the  de- 
posits from  the  end  of  the  Pliocene  till 
now;  but  Lyell,  who  introduced  the  term, 
restricts  it  to  the  older  of  these,  applying 
the  term  Recent  to  the  others. 

POSTULANT,  one  who  asks,  demands, 
or  requests;  a  candidate;  specifically,  in 
the  Roman  Church,  one  seeking  admission 
to  a  religious  order  or  congregation.  The 
postulant  is  bound  by  the  rules  of  the 
order  to  which  he  or  she  is  seeking 
admission,  but  does  not  wear  its  dis- 
tinctive dress  till  the  habit  is  conferred. 

POSTULATE,  a  position,  supposition, 
or  proposition  assumed  without  proof, 
as  being  self-evident  or  too  plain  to  re- 
luire  proof  or  illustration;  a  thing  as- 
sumed for  the  purpose  of  future  reason- 
ing; an  _  assumption.  In  geometry,  the 
enunciation  of  a  self-evident  problem. 

POTASH,  a  term  applied  to  the  hy- 
drate of  potassium,  KHO,  either  in  the 
liquid  or  solid  state,  but  sometimes  used 
to  denote  potassium  oxide  and  also  crude 
carbonate  of  potassium.  Potash  salts 
are  essential  constituents  in  the  human 


body,  but  if,  when  wasted,  they  are  sup- 
plied directly  to  the  blood  they  are  very 
poisonous.  A  much  diluted  solution  of 
potash  is  antacid  and  sedative  in  dys- 
pepsia and  cutaneous  diseases,  also  in 
pleuritis,  pericarditis,  scrofula,  etc. 
Caustic  potash  is  used  externally  as  a 
caustic  in  ulcers,  etc.;  carbonate  of 
potash  has  been  given  in  whooping 
cough;  acetate  of  potash,  nitrate  of 
potash,  and,  in  small  doses,  tartrate  of 
potash  are  diuretics;  acid  tartrate  of 
potash  is  purgative  and  used  in  dropsy; 
citrate  of  potash  is  diuretic  and  febrif- 
ugal; sulphate  of  potash  is  a  mild  pur- 
gative generally  given  with  rhubarb, 
etc.;  nitrate  of  potash  and  chlorate  of 
potash  are  refrigerants  and  diuretics. 

POTASH  LIME,  a  mixture  of  dry  hy- 
drate of  potassium  and  quicklime  em- 
ployed in  estimating  the  nitrogen  con- 
tained in  organic  substances.  At  a  high 
temperature,  it  liberates  the  nitrogen  in 
the  form  of  ammonia. 

POTASH  WATER,  an  artificial 
aerated  water  containing  a  minute  quan- 
tity of  potassic  bicarbonate. 

POTASSIUM,  symbol,  K;  at.  wt.,  39,  a 
monad  metallic  element,  discovered  by 
Da\'y  in  1807,  and  very  widely  diffused 
through  the  vegetable,  mineral  and  ani- 
mal kingdoms.  It  may  be  obtained  by 
electrolysis,  but  is  now  produced  in  large 
quantity  by  distilling  in  an  iron  retort 
an  intimate  mixture  of  charcoal  and  car- 
bonate of  potassium,  a  condition  readily 
obtained  by  igniting  crude  tartar  in  a 
covered  crucible.  It  can  only  be  pre- 
served in  the  metallic  state  by  immersing 
it  in  rock  oil. 

POTATO,  or  POTATOE,  Solamim 
tuberosum,  a  well-known  plant,  the 
tubers  (dilated  branches)  of  which  are 
eaten.  It  is  a  native  of  Chile  and  Peru. 
Some  think  that  it  was  first  brought  to 
Spain  from  the  mountains  near  Quito 
early  in  the  16th  century.  Thence  it 
spread  to  Italy  and  Austria.  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  is  supposed  to  have  taken  it  to 
England  in  July,  1586.  For  the  next 
century  and  a  half  they  were  regarded 
as  garden  plants  only.  They  gradually 
made  way  to  the  important  position 
which  they  now  occupy  in  agriculture. 

POTATO  DISEASE,  a  disease  or  mur- 
rain produced  by  a  fungus,  Peronospora 
infestans.  It  generally  first  attacks  the 
leaves  and  stems  of  the  plant,  forming 
brown  spots  on  them  in  July  and  August. 
By  this  time  the  fungus,  which  first 
penetrated  the  tissue  of  the  leaf,  has 
thrust  forth  through  the  stomates  its 
conidia-bearing  filaments.  The  leaves 
soon   afterward    die.     Next   the  tubers 


POTATO    FLY 


327 


POTOMAC,    ABMY    OF 


are  attacked  and  decay,  either  in  a  moist 
manner,  attended  by  a  disagreeable  odor, 
or  by  a  drying  up  of  the  tissue.  The 
potato  disease  first  appeared  in  the 
United  States.  In  1845-1847  it  caused 
the  failure  of  the  potato  crop  in  Ireland, 
producing  famine.  It  has  never  since 
completely  disappeared.  When  it  is 
prevalent,  the  potatoes  should  be  pow- 
dered with  flowers  of  sulphur  before  be- 
ing planted. 

POTATO  FLY  {Anthomyia  tuberosa), 
a  dipterous  insect  of  the  same  genus  with 
the  radish  fly,  cabbage  fly,  turnip  fly. 
In  its  perfect  state  it  is  very  like  the 
house  fly.  The  potato-frog  fly  {Euteryx 
solani,  Curtis)  and  the  caterpillar  of  the 
death's-head  moth  {Achercmtia  atropos, 
Linn.)  feed  on  the  leaves  and  stems  of 
potatoes,  but  rarely  do  serious  damage. 

POTEMKIN,  GREGORY  ALEXAN- 
DROVITCH,  a  Russian  general,  a  favor- 
ite of  the  Empress  Catharine  II.;  bom 
in  September,  1736;  descended  from  an 
ancient  Polish  family,  and  early  trained 
to  the  military  profession.  From  1776 
till  his  death,  he  exercised  a  boundless 
sway  over  the  destinies  of  the  empire. 
In  1783  he  suppressed  the  khanate  of 
the  Crimea,  and  annexed  it  to  Russia.  In 
1787,  being  desirous  of  expelling  the 
Turks  from  Europe,  he  stirred  up  a  new 
war,  in  the  course  of  which  he  took 
Oczakoff  (1788).  In  the  following  year 
he  took  Bender,  but  as  the  finances  of 
Russia  were  now  exhausted  Catharine 
was  desirous  of  peace.  Potemkin,  how- 
ever, resolved  on  conquering  Constanti- 
nople, and  went  to  St,  Petersburg  to  win 
over  the  empress  to  his  side  (March, 
1791) ;  but  during  his  absence  Catharine 
sent  plenary  powers  to  Prince  Repnin, 
who  signed  a  treaty  of  peace.  Potemkin 
died  in  Nicolaieff,  Oct.  16,  1791. 

POTENTIAL,  in  electricity,  a  term 
holding  the  same  relation  to  electricity 
that  level  does  to  gravity.  The  potential 
of  the  earth  is  taken  at  zero.  Potential 
in  physics  is  the  sum  of  each  mass-ele- 
ment of  the  attracting  body  divided  by 
the  distance  of  that  element  from  the 
attracted  point.  Also,  capable  of  being 
exerted,  though  not  acting  at  the  particu- 
lar moment. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD,  that  form  of  a 
verb  which  is  used  to  express  power,  pos- 
sibility, liberty,  or  necessity  of  an  action 
or  of  being;  as,  he  may  go,  you  should 
write. 

POTENTILLA,  cinquefoil,  the  typical 
genus  of  Potentillidse.  Flowers  white  or 
yellow,  rarely  red;  calyx,  five,  rarely 
four  lobed,  with  as  many  small  bracts; 
petals,   five,   rarely   four:    stylo,   short. 


lateral,  or  nearly  terminal;  achenes, 
many,  minute,  on  a  small,  dry  receptacle. 
Chiefly  from  the  N.  temperate  and  Arctic 
zones.     Known  species,  120. 

POTENZA,  a  tov^Ti  of  southern  Italy; 
in  a  valley  of  the  Apennines;  103  miles 
E.  by  S.  of  Naples.  It  is  surrounded  by 
a  wall,  has  a  fine  cathedral,  and  disused 
fortifications.  Potenza  was  shaken  by 
earthquakes  in  1273,  1694,  1812,  and 
1857.     Pop.  (1917)  17,938. 

POTI,  a  seaport  of  Russian  Caucasus; 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Rion  river,  on  the 
E.  shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  200  miles  W. 
of  Tiflis.  Here  maize  and  manganese 
are  shipped.  Poti  was  seized  by  Russia 
in  1828. 

POT  METAL,  a  cheap  alloy  for 
faucets;  etc.;  composed  of  copper,  10; 
lead,  6-8.  (2)  A  kind  of  cast-iron  suit- 
able for  casting  hollow  ware.  (3)  A 
species  of  stained  glass,  the  colors  of 
which  are  incorporated  with  the  glass 
while  the  latter  is  in  a  state  of  fusion 
in  the  pot. 

POTOCKI,  an  ancient  Polish  family, 
taking  its  name  from  the  castle  of  Potok, 
and  still  holding  possessions  in  Galicia 
and  the  Ukraine.  Among  its  most  dis- 
tinguished members  was  Count  Ignatius, 
Grand  Marshal  of  Lithuania  before  the 
downfall  of  Poland,  and  a  fellow-patriot 
of  Kosciusko,  born  in  1751.  In  1791  he 
took  refuge  in  Saxony,  returning,  how- 
ever, to  share  in  the  last  struggle  for  in- 
dependence. He  was  some  time  in  the 
prisons  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Warsaw, 
and  died  in  Vienna  in  1809. 

POTOMAC,  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  formed  by  two  branches  which 
rise  in  the  Allegheny  Mountains  in  West 
Virginia,  and  unite  15  miles  S.  E.  of 
Cumberland,  Md.,  from  which  point  the 
river  flows  in  a  generally  S.  E.  course 
400  miles,  and  falls  into  Chesapeake  Bay, 
after  forming  an  estuary  nearly  100 
miles  long,  and  from  2%  to  7  miles  wide. 
The  largest  ships  can  ascend  to  Washing- 
ton. A  few  miles  above  Washington  the 
river  forms  a  cataract  35  feet  high;  and 
between  there  and  Westport  it  falls 
more  than  1,000  feet.  The  scenery  in 
this  portion  of  its  course  is  wild  and 
beautiful,  especially  where  it  breaks 
through  the  Blue  Ridge  at  Harper's 
Ferry.  Its  principal  affluents  are  the 
Shenandoah,  Cacapon,  and  Monocacy. 
The  Potomac  forms  the  greater  part  of 
the  boundary  between  Virginia  and 
Maryland. 

POTOMAC,  ARMY  OF  THE,  a  di- 
vision of  the  United  States  army  during 
the  Civil  War,  which  operated  in  the  E. 
section  of  the  country.     It  was  organized 


POTOMAC,    SOCIETY    OF 


328 


POTTER 


by  Gen.  George  B.  McClellan  in  1861, 
and  served  under  him  in  the  Peninsular 
campaign  and  later  in  that  of  Antietam. 
General  Burnside  took  command  in  1862, 
and  General  Hooker  in  1863.  General 
Meade  was  in  command  when  the  victory 
at  Gettysburg  was  won,  in  July,  1863, 
and  continued  in  charge  during  General 
Grant's  operations  in  1864-1865. 

POTOMAC,  SOCIETY  OF  THE 
ARMY  OF  THE,  a  military  organization 
founded  in  New  York,  July  5,  1869,  and 
has  held  annual  reunions  since  that  date. 
All  officers  and  soldiers  who  served  in  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  and  in  the  10th 
and  18th  Army  Corps,  Army_  of  the 
James,  are  eligible  to  membership.  The 
officers  are  a  president,  one  vice-presi- 
dent from  each  army  corps,  and  from 
the  general  staff;  a  treasurer,  recording 
secretary,   and  corresponding  secretary. 

POTOSI,  a  city  and  capital  of  a  de- 
J)artment  of  same  name;  pop.  abt.  30,000 
(dept.  45,031  sq.  m.;  pop.  abt.  550,000); 
one  of  the  most  famous  mining  towns  of 
Bolivia.  It  is  built  on  the  side  of  the 
Cerro  de  Potosi  (15,381  feet),  at  an 
elevation  of  13,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  is  thus  one  of  the  loftiest  inhabited 
places  on  the  globe.  The  public  build- 
ings include  a  handsome  cathedral  and 
a  mint.  The  streets  are  steep  and  nar- 
row, and  there  are  no  wagons  or  car- 
riages, but  only  llamas  and  mules.  The 
climate  is  very  trying;  all  the  four  sea- 
sons may  be  experienced  in  one  day,  but 
usually  it  is  bitterly  cold,  owing  to  the 
elevation.  England  and  French  manu- 
factures are  imported;  and,  as  the  coun- 
try in  the  vicinity  produces  little  or 
nothing,  all  supplies  have  to  be  brought 
from  a  distance.  The  industry  of  the 
place  is  limited  to  silver  mining.  The  Na- 
tional Bank  of  Bolivia  is  situated  here. 

POT  POURRI,  a  dish  of  various  kinds 
of  meat  and  vegetables  cooked  together. 
Also:  1.  A  mixture  of  rose  leaves  and 
various  spices,  kept  in  jars  or  other  ves- 
sels as  a  scent.  2.  A  vase  or  bouquet  of 
flowers  used  to  perfume  a  room.  3.  In 
music,  a  medley;  a  collection  of  various 
tunes  linked  together;  a  capriccio  or 
fantasia  on  popular  melodies.  4.  A  liter- 
rary  composition  made  up  of  several 
parts  put  together  without  any  unity  of 
plot   or   plan. 

POTSDAM,  the  chief  town  of  the  Prus- 
sian province  of  Brandenburg,  and  until 
the  establishment  of  the  republic  the 
second  residence  town  of  the  royal  family 
of  Prussia;  on  an  island  in  the  lake- 
like river  Havel,  18  miles  S.  W.  of  Berlin. 
It  is  a  handsome  city,  -v^ith  broad  streets, 
public  gardens,  adorned  with  statues  of 
Prussian   soldiers,   and  fine  squares;    a 


royal  palace  (1667-1701),  in  the  park  of 
which  are  statues  of  Frederick- William 
I.,  Alexander  I.  of  Russia,  etc.  The  garri- 
son church,  with  a  steeple  290  feet  high, 
contains  the  tombs  of  Frederick-William 
I.  and  Frederick  II.;  and  the  Friedens- 
kirche  the  tombs  of  Frederick-William 
IV.  and  the  Emperor  Frederick  III.  The 
Brandenburg  Gate  is  a  copy  of  Trajan's 
Arch  at  Rome.  In  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood of  the  town  are  more  than  half  a 
dozen  royal  palaces,  as  Sans-Souci 
(1745-1747),  the  favorite  residence  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  surrounded  by  a 
splendid  park  and  gardens;  the  palace  of 
Friedrichskron,  formerly  the  New  Pal- 
ace (1763-1770) ;  Charlottenhof,  built  by 
Frederick-William  IV.  in  1826;  the 
Marble  Palace,  the  summer  residence  of 
the  former  Emperor  William  II.;  and 
Babelsberg,  the  private  property  of  the 
same  prince.  Potsdam  has  an  observa- 
tory, and  a  cadet  and  other  military 
schools.  Its  manufactories  produce 
sugar,  chemicals,  harness,  silk,  waxcloth, 
beei',  etc.  Alexander  von  Humboldt  was 
a  native.  Potsdam  owes  its  creation  as 
a  town  to  the  Great  Elector,  Frederick 
William,  and  to  Frederick  II.  Prior  to 
that  period  it  was  a  fishing  village,  on 
the  site  of  an  ancient  Slav  settlement.. 
Pop.  about  65,000. 

POTSDAM  SANDSTONE,  an  Amer- 
ican sandstone  of  Cambrian  age,  contain* 
ing  trilobites,  Lingula  antiqua,  etc. 

POT  STONE,  the  name  given  in  Nor- 
folk, England,  to  certain  large  flints  with 
a  nucleus  of  chalk,  found  in  the  Upper 
Chalk.  Also,  an  impure  variety  of  soap- 
stone  or  compact  talc,  formerly  used  for 
making  utensils  of  various  kinds. 

POTTAWATTAMIES,  a  tribe  of 
American  Indians,  belonging  to  the 
Algonquian  stock.  The  early  French 
settlers  established  a  mission  among 
them  at  Green  Bay,  and  to  this  day  many 
of  them  are  Roman  Catholics.  They 
sided  with  the  English  during  the  Revolu- 
tionary War  and  in  the  War  of  1812, 
and  afterward  settled  in  Kansas.  They 
now  number  about  1,200. 

POTTER,     HENRY     CODMAN,     an 

American  clergyman;  born  in  Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y.,  May  25,  1835.  Educated  in 
theology  in  Virginia,  he  became  rector  of 
Grace  Church,  New  York  City,  in  1868; 
and  was  consecrated  Protestant  Episco- 
pal bishop  of  New  York  in  1887.  His 
works  include:  "Gates  of  the  East:  A 
Winter  in  Egypt  and  Syria"  (1876); 
"Sermons  of  the  City"  (1881) ;  etc.  He 
died  July  21,  1908. 

POTTER,  PAUL,  a  Dutch  painter; 
bom   in    Enkhuisen,    Netherlands,    Nov. 


POTTER  829 

20,  1625;  settled  at  The  Hague,  and 
painted  cattle  and  landscapes,  but  was 
particularly  successful  in  the  former. 
One  of  his  most  celebrated  pictures  is 
"The  Bull,"  at  The  Hague.  He  died  in 
Amsterdam,  Jan.  27,  1654. 

POTTER,  PAUL  M.,  an  American 
dramatist;  born  in  Brighton,  England, 
June  3,  1852;  entered  journalism  and 
•was  foreign  editor  of  the  New  York 
"Herald"  in  1876-1883.  Subsequently 
he  turned  his  attention  to  the  drama. 
His  best-known  works  are  "Our  Country 
Cousins"  (1893),  a  dramatization  of 
"Trilby"  (1895);  and  "Under  Two 
Flags"  (1901).  He  was  the  American 
representative  at  the  Congress  of  Dra- 
matic Art  at  the  Paris  Exposition  in 
1900. 

POTTERY,  the  art  of  forming  vessels 
or  utensils  of  any  sort  in  clay.  This  art 
is  of  high  antiquity,  being  practiced 
among  various  races  in  prehistoric  times. 
We  find  mention  of  earthenware  in  the 
Mosaic  writings.  The  Greeks  had  im- 
portant potteries  at  Samos,  Athens,  and 
Corinth,  and  attained  great  perfection  as 
regards  form  and  ornamentation.  Dem- 
aratus,  a  Greek,  the  father  of  Tarquinius 
Priscus,  King  of  Rome,  is  said  to  have 
instructed  the  Etruscans  and  Romans  in 
this  art.  Glazed  earthenware  was  long 
■upposed  to  be  of  no  older  date  than 
the  9th  century  of  our  era,  and  to  have 
originated  with  the  Arabs  in  Spain; 
but  the  discovery  of  glazed  ware  in 
Egypt,  of  glazed  bricks  in  the  ruins  of 
Babylon,  of  enameled  tiles  and  glazed 
tcrfRns  of  earthenware  in  other  ancient 
eities,  proves  that  this  is  not  the  case. 
^  The  Arabs,  however,  seem  to  be  en- 
titled to  the  credit  of  having  introduced 
the  manufacture  of  glazed  ware  into 
modern  Europe.  The  Italians  set  up 
their  first  manufactory  at  Faenza  in  the 
15th  century.  In  Italy  the  art  was  im- 
proved, and  a  new  kind  of  glaze  was 
invented,  probably  by  Luca  della  Robbia. 
The  French  derived  their  first  knowledge 
of  glazed  ware  from  the  Italian  manu- 
factory at  Faenza,  and  on  that  account 
gave  it  the  name  of  faience. 

About  the  middle  of  the  16th  century 
the  manufactory  of  Bernard  Palissy  at 
Baintes  in  France  became  famous  on 
account  of  the  beautiful  glaze  and  rich 
ornaments  by  which  its  products  were 
distinguished. 

A  little  later  the  Dutch  began  to  manu- 
facture at  Delft  the  more  solid  but  less 
beautiful  ware  which  thence  takes  its 
name. 

The  principal  improver  of  the  potter's 
art  in  Great  Britain  was  Josiah  Wedg- 
wood in  the  18th  century. 


POTTERY 


Porcelain  or  chinaware  first  became 
known  in  Europe  about  the  end  of  the 
16th  century  through  the  Dutch,  who 
brought  it  from  the  East. 

Porcelain  or  chinaware  is  formed  only 
from  argillaceous  minerals  of  extreme 
delicacy,  united  with  siliceous  earths  cap- 
able of  communicating  to  them  a  certain 
degree  of  translucency  by  means  of  their 
vitrification.  Porcelain  is  of  two  kinds, 
hard  and  tender.  Both  consist,  like 
other  earthenwares,  of  two  parts — a 
paste  which  forms  the  biscuit,  and  a 
glaze.  The  biscuit  of  hard  porcelain  is 
composed  of  kaolin  or  china  clay,  and  of 
decomposed  felspar.  The  glaze  consists 
of  a  felspar  rock  reduced  to  a  fine  pow- 
der, and  mixed  with  water,  so  as  to  form 
a  milky  liquid  into  which  the  articles 
are  dipped  after  a  preliminary  baking. 
Tender  porcelain  biscuit  is  made  of  a 
vitreous  grit,  composed  of  siliceous  sand 
or  ground  flints,  with  other  ingredients 
added,  all  baked  together  in  a  furnace 
till  half-fused,  and  then  reduced  to  a 
condition  of  powder.  The  glaze  of 
tender  porcelain  is  a  specially  prepared 
glass  ground  fine,  and  made  into  a  liquid 
by  mixing  _  with  water.  The  processes 
employed  in  manufacturing  porcelain 
wares  are  very  much  the  same  as  those 
used  for  other  kinds  of  earthenware,  but 
requiring  more  delicacy  and  care.  The 
biscuit  paste  even  of  hard  porcelain  has 
so  little  tenacity  compared  with  that  of 
earthenware  that  it  cannot  easily  be 
shaped  on  the  wheel,  and  is  consequently 
more  frequently  molded.  The  paste  of 
tender  porcelain  is  still  less  tenacious, 
so  that  the  wheel  cannot  be  used  for  it 
at  all,  and  a  little  mucilage  of  gum  or 
black  soap  must  be  added  before  it  can 
be  worked  even  in  molds.  During  the 
baking,  too,  it  becomes  so  soft  that  every 
part  of  an  article  must  be  supported. 
Tender  porcelain  receives  two  coats  of 
glaze. 

Metallic  oxides  incorporated  with  some 
fusible  flux,  such  as  borax,  flint,  etc.,  are 
used  for  painting  on  porcelain.  The 
colors  are  mixed  wnth  essential  oils  and 
turpentine,  and  applied  by  means  of  a 
camel's  hair  brush.  When  the  painting 
is  finished  the  vessels  are  baked  in  a 
peculiar  kind  of  ovens  called  "muffles," 
which  are  also  used  for  fixing  the  printed 
fig:ures  on  the  glaze  of  stoneware.  By 
the  operation  of  the  furnace  most  of  the 
colors  employed  in  painting  porcelain  be- 
come quite  different,  and  the  change 
which  takes  place  in  them  is  usually 
through  a  series  of  tints,  so  that  the 
proper  tint  will  not  be  obtained  unless 
the  baking  is  stopped  precisely  at  the 
proper  time.  Sometimes  porcelain  has 
designs  etched  on  it  by  means  of  fluoric 


POTTSTOWN 


330 


POULPE 


acid.  Sculptures  also  are  executed  by 
casting  in  molds  in  various  kinds  of 
porcelain,  called  statuary  porcelain, 
Parian,  Carrara,  etc. 

The  most  celelirated  ware  of  different 
times  and  countries  are  distinguished  by 
distinctive  names;  as,  Majolica-ware, 
Sevres,  Chelsea,  Palissy,  etc.;  and  of 
these,  the  latter — the  work  of  Bernard 
de  Palissy,  who  lived  in  the  16th  century 
— deserves  some  special  attention.  Pa- 
lissy, having  resolved  to  discover  a 
method  of  enameling  stoneware,  suc- 
ceeded, after  16  years'  efforts,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  manufacture  pottery  charac- 
terized by  a  peculiar  style  and  many 
singular  qualities.  It  is  not  decorated 
with  flat  painting,  but  with  figures  and 
ornaments,  which  are  generally  pure  in 
form,  and  are  all  executed  in  relief  and 
colored.  The  most  remarkable  of  the 
works  of  Palissy  are  his  "Pieces  rus- 
tiques,"  a  designation  given  by  him  to 
dishes  ornamented  with  fishes,  snakes, 
frogs,  crayfish,  lizards,  shells,  and  plants, 
quite  true  to  nature  in  form  and  color. 

In  the  United  States  great  progress 
has  been  made  in  producing  fine  pottery. 
Bennington,  Vt,  and  Baltimore,  Md.,  are 
famous  for  flint  enameled  ware, 

POTTSTOWN,  a  borough  in  Mont- 
gomery CO.,  Pa.;  on  the  Schuylkill  river, 
the  Schuylkill  canal,  and  the  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading 
railroads;  40  miles  N.  W.  of  Philadel- 
phia. It  is  the  trade  center  of  a  large 
agricultural  region.  Here  are  a  high 
school,  public  hospital.  Hill  School,  street 
railroad  and  electric  light  plants.  Na- 
tional bank,  and  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers. The  borough  has^  rolling  mills, 
furnaces,  foundries,  railroad  repair 
shops,  and  manufactories  of  iron  cast- 
ings, steel  wheels,  metallic  axles,  car- 
riages, nails,  boilers,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, cigars,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  15,599; 
(1920)    17,431. 

POTTSVILLE,  a  borough  and  county- 
seat  of  Schuylkill  co.,  Pa. ;  on  the  Schuyl- 
kill river,  and  on  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading,  the  People's,  the  Pennsylvania, 
and  the  Lehigh  Valley  railroads;  93 
miles  N.  W.  of  Philadelphia.  Here  are 
the  court  house  and  county  jail,  high 
school,  public  hospital,  parks,  street  rail- 
roads, electric  lights,  waterworks.  Na- 
tional and  State  hanks,  and  several  daily 
and  weekly  newspapers.  The  industries 
include  important  anthracite  coal  mines, 
large  steel  works,  planing  mills,  a  silk 
mill,  and  the  shops  of  the  Philadelphia 
and  Reading  Coal  and  Iron  Company. 
Pop.   (1910)   20,236;   (1920)  21,876. 

POUCHED  MOUSE,  Dipodomys,  a 
genus   of   small,   lean,  long-tailed,   agile 


rodents,  with  cheek-pouches.  The  best 
known  species  is  D.  philippii,  from  the 
waste  regions  of  California,  where  it 
seems  to  find  a  sparse  diet  of  seeds  and 
roots,  and  in  the  dry  season  no  drink  but 
dew. 

POUCHED  RAT,  Pseudostoma  ov 
Geomys,  a  genus  of  plump,  short-tailed, 
hamster-like  rodents,  with  cheek  pouches 
which  open  externally  and  are  used  as 
receptacles  for  food.  One  of  the  best 
known  species  is  P.  or  G.  bursarius, 
sometimes  called  "gopher."  Like  the 
other  species  it  is  a  native  of  North 
America,  and  inhabits  the  territory  E. 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  W.  of  the 
Mississippi.  It  is  a  burrower  like  the 
mole,  active  in  warm  weather,  hibernat- 
ing in  the  cold,  sluggish  above  ground. 
Being  voracious  gnawers,  the  pouched 
rats  do  much  damage  to  the  roots  of  trees 
and  crops. 

POUGHKEEPSIE,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Dutchess  co.,  N.  Y. ;  on  the  Hud- 
son river,  and  the  Central  New  England, 
and  the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson 
River  railroads;  75  miles  N.  of  New 
York.  It  has  daily  steamboat  connec- 
tion with  New  York  and  Albany.  The 
Hudson  is  here  crossed  by  a  celebrated 
cantilever  bridge  which  was  completed 
in  1889  at  a  cost  of  nearly  $5,000,000. 
It  is  7,100  feet  long,  has  three  canti- 
levers, and  rests  on  six  massive  piers. 
Poughkeepsie  is  the  seat  of  Vassar 
College  (q.  v.).  Here  are  Riverview 
Military  Academy,  and  other  private 
educational  institutions,  parks,  public 
library,  orphan  asylum,  Home  for  Old 
Men,  Home  for  Old  Women,  General  Hos* 
pital,  Hudson  River  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane, court  house,  Home  for  the  Friend- 
less, National  and  private  banks,  electric 
lights  and  street  railroads,  and  daily  and 
weekly  periodicals.  Poughkeepsie  has 
manufactories  of  iron,  machinery,  boots 
and  shoes,  leather,  carpets,  glass,  shirts, 
silk  goods,  clothing,  flour,  earthenware, 
drugs,  etc.  The  city  was  settled  by  the 
Dutch  in  1698;  during  the  Revolution  it 
was  the  capital  of  New  York.  The  State 
convention  to  ratify  the  National  Consti- 
tution met  here  in  1788.  Pop.  (1910) 
27,936;  (1920)  35,000. 

POULPE,  a  genus  of  Cephalopoda,  of 
the  order  Dibranchiata,  having  eight  feet 
or  arms,  nearly  equal,  united  at  the  base 
by  a  membrane,  and  very  long  in  propor- 
tion to  the  body.  The  arms_  are  used  for 
swimming  in  water,  creeping  on  land, 
and  seizing  prey.  Poulpes  swim  by  con- 
tractions of  the  muscular  web  of  the 
body,  which  extends  upon  the  arms. 
Like  other  cephalopods,  when  alarmed  or 
annoyed,  they  discharge  an  inky  fluid. 


POULSON 


331 


POULTRY 


POULSON,  NIELS,  an  American 
manufacturer;  born  in  1843,  in  Den- 
mark, and  at  the  age  of  21  came  to  the 
United  States  as  an  architect  and  builder 
in  charge  of  a  department  in  the  New 
York  Architectural  Iron  Works.  In 
1897  he  entered  business  for  himself,  his 
firm  being  incorporated  as  the  Hecla 
Architectural  Iron  Works.  He  inter- 
ested himself  in  providing  free  technical 
instruction  for  his  employees  and  also 
gave  in   1910   the  sum   of   $100,000   to 


parts  of  the  body,  or  the  like;  a  cata- 
plasm. 

POULTRY,  a  general  name  for  all 
birds  bred  for  the  table,  or  kept  for  their 
eggs.  The  birds  most  commonly  included 
under  this  designation  are  the  common 
fowl,  the  peafowl,  the  guinea  fowl,  the 
turkey,  goose,  and  duck.  There  is  this 
great  difference  between  the  varieties  of 
the  domestic  fowl,  that  some  are  disposed 
by  constitution  to  continue  laying 
throughout  the  whole  season  without  sit- 


r^s^ 


POULTRY 


1.  Light  Brahma 

2.  Buff  Orpington 


3.  Brown  Leghorn 

4.  Indian  Game 


Maintain  an  exchange  of  professorships 
between  the  United  States  and  Scandi- 
navian countries.  His  fortune  of 
$600,000  was  left  at  his  death  to  the 
cause  of  education. 

POULTICE,  a  soft  composition,  as  of 
bread,  meal,  bran,  or  a  mucilaginous  sub- 
stance, to  be  applied  to  sores,  inflamed 


ting :  while  others  after  having  laid  from 
12  to  15  eggs  sit  obstinately,  and  cease  to 
lay.  Among  the  breeds  most  in  favor 
are  those  known  as  Dorking,  Game, 
Rhode  Island  Reds,  Hamburg,  Cochin, 
Brahma,  Scots  Gray,  Polish,  Spanish, 
Leghorn,  Plymouth  Rock,  Houdan,  Mi- 
norca, etc.  Hatching  by  artificial  means 
has  long  been  practiced  in  Egypt,  and 


POUNCE 


332 


POWER 


artificial  incubators   are  in   general  use 
in  the  United  States  and  other  countries. 

POUNCE,  a  fine  powder,  such  as 
pounded  gnms  and  arach  and  cuttlefish 
bonus,  used  to  dry  up  the  ink  on  a  fresh 
written  manuscript;  now  superseded  in 
the  United  States  by  blotting  paper,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  parchment.  The 
word  is  also  applied  to  charcoal  dust  in- 
closed in  some  open  stuff,  as  muslin,  etc., 
to  be  passed  over  holes  pricked  in  the 
work,  to  mark  the  lines  or  designs  of  a 
paper  underneath.  It  is  used  to  some 
extent  by  embroiderers  to  transfer  pat- 
terns upon  their  stuff;  also  by  fresco 
painters,  sometimes  by  engravers,  and  in 
varnishing. 

POUND,  a  unit  of  weight.  Pounds 
are  of  different  kinds,  as  pounds  Troy 
(containing  12  ounces),  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois (containing  16  ounces),  etc.  A  cubic 
inch  of  distilled  water,  at  62°  F.,  the 
barometer  being  30  inches,  weighs 
252.458  Troy  grains,  and  the  Troy  pound 
is  equal  to  5,760  of  these  grains.  The 
avoirdupois  pound  is  equal  to  7,000  Troy 
grains,  so  that  the  Troy  pound  is  to  the 
avoirdupois  as  144  to  175.  Pound  is  also 
the  principal  English  coin  of  account, 
and  corresponding  to  the  "coin  of  cir- 
culation" called  a  sovereign,  of  the 
value  of  about  $4.80.  It  is  divided 
into  20  shillings  or  240  pence,  and 
weighs  123.27447  Troy  grains  (7.98805 
grammes),  as  determined  by  the  British 
Mint  regulation,  in  virtue  of  which  a 
mass  of  gold  weighing  40  pounds  Troy 
is  coined  into  1,869  sovereigns.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  in  the 
time  of  the  Conqueror,  one  Tower  pound 
of  silver  was  coined  into  240  silver  pence ; 
whence  the  Tower  pennyweight  was 
really  and  truly  the  weight  of  %  penny. 
The  word  is  also  applied  to  an  inclosure, 
erected  by  authority,  in  which  cattle  or 
other  beasts  found  straying  are  im- 
pounded or  confined. 

POUNDAL,  a  name  sometimes  used 
for  the  absolute  foot  pound  second  unit 
of  force,  which  will  produce  in  one  pound 
a  velocity  of  one  foot  per  second,  after 
acting  for  one  second. 

POUSHKIN,  or  PUSHKIN  (posh'- 
kin),  ALEXANDER,  a  Russian  poet; 
born  in  Moscow,  Russia,  June  6,  1799. 
In  1817  he  received  a  government  ap- 
pointment, but  was  banished  for  writing 
an  "Ode  to  Liberty";  was  recalled  and 
restored  to  office  in  1825.  A  portion  of 
his  works  have  been  translated  into  Ger- 
man, French  and  English.  He  wrote 
"Ruslan  and  Lindmilla";  "Fountain  of 
Bakhtchisarai";  "Robber  Brothers"; 
"Count  Nuhm";  "Poltava";  "The  House 
in   Kolomna";    "Boris    Godunoff";    "Eu- 


gene Onyegin."  Among  his  novels  are: 
"The  Captain's  Daughter";  and  "The 
Queen  of  Spades."  He  died  in  St. 
Petersburg,  Feb.   10,  1837. 

POUTER,  a  variety  of  fancy  pigeon, 
the  chief  character  of  which  is  its  very 
projecting  breast. 

POWAN  (Coregonus  clupeoides),  a 
fish  inhabiting  Loch  Lomond,  in  Scotland, 
and  also  known  as  the  fresh-water  her>- 
ring. 

POWDER.    See  Gunpowder. 

POWELL,  JOHN  WESLEY,  an  Amer- 
ican geologist;  born  in  Mount  Morris, 
N.  Y.,  March  24,  1834.  He  was  educated 
at  Oberlin  College;  was  a  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  artillery  at  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War;  professor  of  geology  in  the 
Illinois  Wesleyan  University,  1865;  ex- 
plored the  canon  of  the  Colorado  river 
in  1867  and  in  1870-1874.  He  was 
director  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  in  1879-1896,  and  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Ethnology  after  1879. 
The  special  volumes  of  reports  written 
by  Major  Powell  are:  "Exploration  of 
the  Colorado  River  in  1869-1872" 
(1875);  "Geology  of  the  Uinta  Moun- 
tains" (1876)  ;  "The  Arid  Regions  of  the 
United  States"  (1879);  "Introduction  to 
Study  of  Indian  Languages"  (1880); 
"Canons  of  the  Colorado,"  etc.  He  died 
in  1902. 

POWELL,  MAUD,  an  American  violin- 
ist; born  in  1868  in  Peru,  111.,  she  studied 
music  first  in  Chicago.  In  1880  she  en- 
tered the  Leipzig  Conservatory,  and  later 
studied  at  Paris  and  Berlin.  At  a  con- 
cert of  the  Berlin  Philharmonic  Society 
in  1885,  she  made  her  debut  as  a  violin- 
ist, and  from  that  time  she  was  one  of 
the  acknowledged  masters  of  the  violin. 
She  returned  to  the  United  States  after 
having  gained  recognition  abroad  and 
was  given  triumphant  receptions  every- 
where. She  excelled  all  violinists  in  the 
number  of  new  compositions  written  for 
the  violin,  and  in  her  ability  to  success- 
fully introduce  novelties  into  her  pro- 
grams.    She  died  in  1920. 

POWER,  the  product  arising  from  the 
multiplication  of  a  quantity  or  number 
into  itself.  The  first  power  of  any  quan- 
tity or  number  is  the  quantity  or  number 
itself;  the  second  power  is  the  square  or 
product  of  the  quantity  or  number  multi- 
plied by  itself;  the  third  power  is  the 
cube  or  product  of  the  square  of  the 
quantity  or  number  multiplied  by  the 
original  quantity  or  number;  this  again 
multiplied  by  the  original  quantity  or 
number  is  the  fourth  power.  Thus  the 
powers  of  a  are  a  (or  a^,) ,  a^,  a^,  a*, 
that  is  a  X  a  (a-),a^X  a  (a^) ,  etc.     The 


POWERS 


333 


POZZUOLI 


figures  2,  3j  4^  etc.,  denoting  the  powers  of 
the  quantities,  are  called  exponents  or 
indices.  Powers  which  have  fractional 
and  negative  indices  are  termed  frac- 
tional and  negative  powers  respectively. 

In  mechanics :  That  which  produces 
motion  or  force;  that  which  communi- 
cates motion  to  bodies,  changes  the  mo- 
tion of  bodies,  or  prevents  the  motion  of 
bodies;  a  mechanical  agent  or  power. 
Force  or  effect  considered  as  resulting 
from  the  action  of  a  machine. 

In  law:  (1)  A  term  employed  to  denote 
a  reservation  to  either  party  in  a  cove- 
nant enabling  him  to  do  certain  acts 
regarding  the  property  conveyed.  (2) 
An  authority  given  by  one  party  to 
another  to  act  for  him  or  to  do  certain 
acts,  as  to  make  leases,  etc. 

In  optics,  the  magnifying  or  diminish- 
ing capacity  of  any  lens  or  set  of  lenses. 
By  ellipsis  the  word  is  used  for  the  lens 
itself. 

POWERS,  HIRAM,  an  American 
sculptor;  born  in  Woodstock,  Vt.,  July 
29,  1805.  While  still  a  boy  he  went  to 
Cincinnati,  O.,  where  he  became  an 
apprentice  to  a  clockmaker.  Subse- 
quently he  was  employed  for  seven  years 
making  wax  figures  and  fitting  them 
with  machinery  for  the  Cincinnati 
museum.  In  1835  he  went  to  Washing- 
ton, where  he  executed  the  busts  of 
several  distinguished  persons.  Two 
years  later  he  was  enabled  to  go  to  Italy 
to  study  his  art,  and  he  resided  in  Flor- 
ence till  his  death.  There  he  produced 
his  statue  of  "Eve,"  and  in  1843  the 
"Greek  Slave";  "Fisher  Boy"  (1846). 
Among  the  other  works  the  chief  were 
"Proserpine,"  "II  Penseroso,"  "Califor- 
nia," "America,"  and  busts  of  Washing- 
ton for  the  State  of  Louisiana,  of  Cal- 
houn for  South  Carolina,  and  Daniel 
Webster  for  Boston,  as  well  as  those  of 
other  distinguished  Americans.  He  died 
in  Florence,  Italy,  June  27,  1873. 

POWHATAN,  an  Indian  chief;  born 
about  1550;  was  the  father  of  Pocahon- 
tas, who  is  celebrated  in  the  colonial 
history  of  Virginia  as  the  rescuer  of 
John  Smith.     He  died  in  April,  1618. 

POWHATAN,  the  name  of  an  Indian 
confederacy,  which  at  an  early  day  lived 
on  the  E.  shore  of  Virginia  and  a  portion 
of  Maryland.  They  at  first  numbered 
only  seven  tribes,  but  under  the  leader- 
ship of  their  chief,  Powhatan,  increased 
to  30.  The  English  found  them  when 
forming  the  colony  at  Jamestown.  Con- 
stant troubles  between  the  confederacy, 
the  English,  and  the  Iroquois,  soon  de- 
stroyed nearly  all  the  Powhatan  tribes, 
and  after  1684  they  were  not  recognized 
as  a  separate  nation. 

Vol.  vn— Cyc 


POYNINGS'  LAW,  or  the  Statute  of 
Drogheda,  an  act  of  the  Irish  Parlia- 
ment, passed  in  1495,  whereby  all  general 
statutes  before  that  time  made  in  Eng- 
land were  declared  of  force  in  Ireland.  It 
was  so  named  from  Sir  Edward  Poyn- 
ings,  deputy  of  Ireland  under  Henry  VII. 
in  1494,  when  he  suppressed  the  revolt 
of  Perkin  Warbeck. 

POYNTER,  SIR  EDWARD  JOHN,  an 

English  painter;  born  in  Paris,  March 
20,  1836;  educated  at  Westminster 
School  and  Ipswich  Grammar  School;  re- 
ceived his  art  training  at  the  Royal 
Academy  and  under  Gleyre  in  Paris; 
gained  a  reputation  by  his  "Israel  in 
Egypt,"  exhibited  in  1867,  and  "The  Cat- 
apult" (1868);  painted  the  cartoons  for 
the  mosaic  of  St.  George  in  the  West- 
minster Palace  (1869).  Among  his 
chief  pictures  are  "Perseus  and  Andro- 
meda" (1872);  "The  Golden  Age" 
(1875) ;  "Atalanta's  Race"  (1876) ;  "Dia- 
dumene"  (1885)  ;  and  "A  Roman  Boat 
Race"  (1889).  He  was  elected  an 
Associate  in  1869  and  a  Royal  Acad- 
emician in  1876,  was  the  first  Slado 
Professor  of  Art  at  University  College, 
London,  and  was  director  for  art  at 
South  Kensington  for  some  years.  He 
became  president  of  the  Royal  Academy 
and  was  knighted  in  1896.  He  died  in 
1919. 

POZAREVATZ,  a  city  in  Serbia,  34 
miles  S.  of  Belgrade,  and  8  miles  S.  of 
the  Danube.  Has  few  industries  except 
agriculture,  but  is  the  trade  center  of  the 
Morava  Valley.  Has  a  penitentiary  witk 
a  house  for  political  offenders,  and  a 
women's  prison.  Scene  of  treaty  in  1718 
between  Turkey  and  Austria.  Figured 
in  World  War,  being  captured  by  Ger- 
man-Austrian forces  in  1915.  Pop.  about 
15,000. 

POZIERES,  a  village  in  France,  near 
the  river  Ancre  and  the  Belgian  border, 
on  the  high  road  between  Amiens  and 
Cambrai,  which  figured  as  scene  of  muck 
fighting  in  the  early  period  of  the  World 
War.  The  village  had  at  first  been  taken 
by  the  Germans,  but  during  the  battle 
of  the  Somme,  in  the  summer  of  1915, 
Australian  regiments  took  it  from  the 
Germans.  It  changed  hands  repeatedly 
during  the  war. 

POZSONY,  Hungarian  name  for 
Pressburg    {q.    v.). 

POZZUOLI,  the  ancient  Puteoh,  a  city 
and  seaport  of  southern  Italy,  6  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Naples,  on  the  shore  of  the 
bay  of  Baiae,  the  N.  W.  portion  of  the 
Bay  of  Naples,  The  coast  forms  a  nat- 
ural harbor,  and  a  considerable  trade 
and    an    active    fishing    is    carried    on. 

22 


PRECIPE 


334 


PRAGMATSIM 


Pozzuoli  was  founded  by  the  Greeks 
about  520  B.  c,  and  became  under  Rome 
a  great  center  of  commerce.  St.  Paul 
landed  here  in  the  course  of  his  journey 
to  Rome.  Pozzuoli  was  destroyed  by  the 
Goths  more  than  once,  rebuilt  by  the 
Byzantine  Greeks,  and  finally  devastated 
by  earthquakes  and  volcanic  eruptions. 
It  abounds  in  ancient  ruins.  The  cathe- 
dral stands  on  the  site  of  a  temple  of 
Augustus.  A  ruined  temple  of  Serapis 
also  remains,  inclosed  by  48  marble  and 
granite  columns.  On  an  eminence  be- 
hind the  town  stands  the  ruined  amphi- 
theater, resting  on  three  series  of  arches. 
In  the  neighborhood  are  Lake  Avernus, 
the  Grotto  of  the  Sibyl,  the  baths  of 
Nero,  the  ruins  of  Baiae  and  Cumae,  etc. 

PR.fflCIPE,  a  writ  commanding  some- 
thing to  be  done,  or  demanding  a  reason 
for  its  non-performance.  The  term  is 
now  only  used  to  denote  the  note  of  in- 
structions delivered  by  a  plaintiff  or  his 
attorney  to  the  officer  of  the  court,  who 
stamps  the  writ  of  summons. 

PRAED,  MBS.  CAMPBELL  MACK- 
WORTH  (ROSE  CAROLINE  MURRAY- 
PRIOR),  an  Australian  novelist,  born  in 
Bromelton,  Queensland,  March  27,  1851. 
In  1876  she  went  to  London.  Her  most 
popular  works  are:  "An  Australian 
Heroine"  (1880);  "Moloch"  (1883); 
"The  Head  Station"  (1885) ;  "Outlaw  and 
Lawmaker"  (1893);  "Nulma"  (1897). 
In  collaboration  with  Justin  McCarthy, 
"The  Right  Honorable"  (1886),  and  "The 
Ladies'  Gallery"  (1889),  novels  of  polit- 
ical and  social  life. 

PRAED,  WINTHROP  MACK- 
WORTH,  an  English  poet;  born  in  Lon- 
don, July  26,  1802.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  obtained  for  two  years  in  suc- 
cession the  chancellor's  prize  for  an  Eng- 
lish poem.  He  contributed  both  in  prose 
and  verse  to  "Knight's  Quarterly  Maga- 
zine." In  1829  he  was  called  to  the  bar, 
and  in  1830  and  1831  was  returned  for 
St.  Germans  to  Parliament,  where  he  op- 
posed the  Reform  Bill.  He  sat  subse- 
quently as  member  for  Yarmouth,  and 
Aylesbury,  and  became  ultimately  re- 
corder of  Barnstaple  and  deputy  high- 
steward  for  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
His  poems  are  mostly  of  a  light  and  ele- 
gant character,  belonging  to  the  class 
known  as  vers  de  societe.  He  died  in 
London,  July   15,   1839. 

PR.ffiFECT,  a  common  name  applica- 
ble to  various  Roman  functionaries.  The 
most  important  was  the  Prwfectus  urhi, 
or  warden  of  the  city,  whose  office  existed 
at  an  early  period  of  Roman  history,  but 
was  revived  under  Augustus,  with  new 
and  greatly  altered  and  extended  author- 


ity, including  the  whole  powers  necessary 
for  the  maintenance  of  peace  and  order 
in  the  city,  and  an  extensive  jurisdiction 
civil  and  criminal.  The  Prsefectus  prse- 
toHo  was  the  commander  of  the  troops 
that  guarded  the  emperor's  person. 

PRiBTOR,  originally  the  official  title 
of  the  Consuls  at  Rome.  When  the 
patricians  were  compelled  to  acquiesce 
in  the  consulship  being  thrown  open  to 
the  plebeians,  they  stipulated  that  a  new 
curule  magistrate  should  be  appointed 
from  the  patricians  exclusively,  to  act 
as  supreme  judge  in  the  civil  courts. 
On  this  magistrate  the  title  of  praetor 
was  bestowed. 

PR-ffiTORIAN  GUARD,  a  body  of 
permanent  troops,  established  by  Augus- 
tus as  Imperial  Life  Guards.  The  prag- 
torian  guards  were  kept  up  by  successive 
emperors,  and,  being  under  special  or- 
ganization and  enjoying  several  privi- 
leges, they  became  in  time  so  powerful 
that  they  were  able  to  raise  and  depose 
emperors  at  their  will.  They  were  re- 
organized by  Septimius  Severus,  and 
were  finally  suppressed  by  Constantine 
the  Great. 

PRAGMATIC  SANCTION,  a  rescript 
or  answer  of  the  sovereign  delivered  by 
advice  of  his  council  to  some  college, 
order,  or  body  of  people,  on  any  case  of 
their  community.  By  the  French  the 
term  was  appropriated  to  certain  stat- 
utes limiting  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Pope, 
as  in  A.  D.  1268  and  1438.  Pope  Leo 
X.,  in  1545,  persuaded  Francis  I.  to  ex- 
change them  for  a  concordat.  Generally 
it  is  applied  to  an  ordinance  fixing  the 
succession  to  a  throne  in  a  certain  line. 
Thus,  by  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of 
Germany  in  1439,  the  succession  of  the 
empire  was  made  hereditary  in  the  house 
of  Austria,  and  in  1724  the  Emperor 
Charles  VI.,  being  without  male  issue, 
published  another,  settling  the  succession 
upon  his  daughter,  Maria  Teresa  and  her 
issue. 

PRAGMATISM,  a  term  used  to  desig- 
nate those  who  follow  the  system  of 
thought  marked  out  by  Professor  Wil- 
liam James  of  Harvard  University.  The 
central  thesis  of  the  philosophy  is  that 
objective  truth  can  not  be  discovered  by 
the  intellect,  but  instead  of  worrying 
about  discovering  and  disputing  about 
matters  that  are  no  longer  vital,  the 
more  useful  task  is  to  see  what  attitude 
will  be  most  serviceable  in  solving  the 
problems  of  today.  A  man  reveals  his 
philosophy  by  the  way  in  which  he  works 
out  the  practical  questions  which  every 
day  confront  him.  The  criterion  then 
of  the  Tightness  of  wrongness  of  a  given 
theory  of  philosophy  is  the  question  how 


PRAGUB 


335 


PRAGUE    UNIVERSITY 


does  it  work.  Is  it  a  useful  solution  of 
the  difficulties  we  face?  Does  it  bring 
pleasure  or  pain?  It  is  the  answers  to 
these  questions  that  will  determine  the 
truth  or  falsity  of  the  idea,  not  whether 
it  can,  in  strict  logic,  be  proved  the  truth. 
Hence  James  and  his  school  are  credited 
with  having  served  philosophy  by  saving 
it  from  dry-as-dust  platitudes  and  once 
more  bringing  it  to  bear  upon  our  active 
life  and  thought.  Since  James'  death 
the  logic  of  pragmatism  has  been  de- 
veloped by  Professor  John  Dewey,  for- 
merly of  the  University  of  Chicago,  now 
of  Columbia  University.  It  has  its 
champions  abroad  as  well  as  in  America, 
and  has  created  a  popular  interest  in 
philosophy. 

PRAGUE,  the  capital  of  Bohemia,  and 
situated  at  the  base  and  on  the  slope 
of  the  hills  which  skirt  both  sides  of  the 
isleted  Moldau.  It  offers  a  highly  pic- 
turesque appearance  from  the  beauty  of 
its  site,  and  the  numerous  lofty  towers 
(more  than  70  in  number)  which  rise 
above  the  many  noble  palaces,  public 
buildings,  and  bridges  of  the  city.  The 
royal  Burg,  on  the  Hradschin,  the  an- 
cient residence  of  the  Dukes  of  Bohemia, 
dates  mainly  now  from  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries,  and  has  440  rooms.  In 
the  neighboring  cathedral  of  St.  Vitus 
(1344)  are  the  splendid  royal  mausoleum 
(1589)  and  the  shrine  (1736)  of  St. 
John  of  Nepomuk  containing  IVz  tons  of 
silver.  Of  47  other  Catholic  churches 
the  chief  are  the  domed  Jesuit  church  of 
St.  Nicholas,  with  its  lavish  decorations, 
and  the  Teyn  Church  (1407),  the  old 
Hussite  Church,  with  the  grave  of  Tycho 
Brahe,^  and  its  marble  statues  of  the 
Slavonic  martyrs,  Cyril  and  Methodius. 
Of  five  bridges  and  two  railway  viaducts 
the  most  striking  is  the  Karlsbriicke 
(1357-1503),  543  yards  long,  with  gate- 
towers  at  either  end,  and  statues  of  John 
of  Nepomuk  and  other  saints.  Other 
noteworthy  objects  are  the  town  hall 
(1381-1884),  the  Pulverturm  (1475), 
and  the  Premonstratensian  monastery  of 
Strahow.  Prague  has,  besides,  numerous 
public  gardens  and  walks  in  the  suburbs, 
with  several  royal  and  noble  parks  open 
to  the  public  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city. 
The  university,  founded  in  1348,  had 
10,000  students  at  the  beginning  of  the 
15th  century.  It  possesses  a  library  of 
195,000  volumes,  a  fine  observatory, 
museums  of  zoology  and  anatomy,  a  bo- 
tanical garden,  etc.  The  manufactures 
include  machinery,  chemicals,  leather, 
cotton,  linen,  gloves,  beer,  spirits,  etc. 
Prague  is  the  great  center  of  the  com- 
nierce  of  Bohemia,  and  the  seat  of  an 
important  transit  trade. 

History. — Prague  was  founded  by  Ger- 


man settlers  about  1100.  In  the  14th 
century  its  munificently  endowed  uni- 
versity brought  foreigners  to  it  from 
every  part;  but  in  1424  Prague  was  con- 
quered and  almost  destroyed  by  the 
Hussites.  In  the  Thirty  Years'  War  it 
suffered  severely,  and  in  1620  the  battle 
was  fought  at  the  Weissenberg,  near  the 
city,  in  which  the  Elector-Palatine,  Fred- 
erick v.,  was  completely  defeated,  and 
compelled  to  renounce  his  assumed 
crown.  Swedes  and  Imperialists  succes- 
sively gained  possession  of  the  town  dur- 
ing the  war;  and  a  century  later  it 
again  fell  into  the  hands  of  different 
victors,  having  been  compelled  in  1744 
to  capitulate  to  Frederick  the  Great,  who 
here  on  May  6,  1757,  defeated  60,000 
Austrians  under  Prince  Charles  of 
Lorraine.  From  Napoleon's  downfall, 
Prague  has  made  rapid  strides,  and  en- 
joyed prosperity  and  quiet,  except  in 
1848,  when  the  meeting  of  the  Slavonic 
Congress  within  its  walls  called  forth 
such  strongly  marked  democratic  demon- 
strations on  the  part  of  the  supporters 
of  Pan-Slavism  that  the  Austrian  Gov- 
ernment dissolved  the  conclave  and  bom- 
barded the  town  to  restore  quiet.  In 
1866  Prague  was  occupied  bloodlessly  by 
the  Prussians,  who  here  on  Aug.  23,  con- 
cluded a  treaty  vdth  Austria.  The  Re- 
public of  Czecho-Slovakia  was  proclaimed 
Oct.  28,  1918,  and  Prague  became  its 
capital.     Pop.  about  650,000. 

PRAGUE,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  There 
are  two  universities  in  Prague,  a  Ger- 
man and  a  Czech  university.  The  for- 
mer is  the  older  of  the  two,  it  being  the 
oldest  of  the  German  universities. 
Founded  in  1348,  with  the  four  faculties 
of  theology,  law,  medicine,  and  arts,  it 
gained  the  attention  of  all  Europe  when, 
in  1403,  John  Huss  became  the  rector. 
During  the  period  of  the  Hussite  wars 
the  university  took  on  a  distinctly  Czech 
character,  the  German  students  with- 
drawing and  founding  the  University  of 
Leipzig.  When,  however,  the  Catholics 
and  Germans  secured  the  upper  hand  in 
Bohemia,  as  they  did  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  the  university  came  under  the 
control  of  the  Jesuits  and  a  decided  re- 
action against  the  Czechs  took  place. 
With  the  grovd;h  of  the  spirit  of  nation- 
ality in  the  nineteenth  century  the  Czech 
influence  again  made  itself  felt,  and  fin- 
ally led  to  the  founding  of  a  separate 
University  of  Prague  in  1882  with  facul- 
ties of  law,  medicine  and  arts.  As  might 
be  expected  the  new  university  rapidly 
outgrew  the  old  one,  as  the  population  is 
predominately  Czech.  In  1919  at  the 
opening  of  the  World  War  the  students 
in  the  Czech  university  numbered  7.051 
while  the  German  institution  had  3,043. 


PBAIRIE 


336 


PRAYEB 


PRAimE,  the  name  given  by  the 
early  French  settlers  in  America  to  ex- 
tensive tracts  of  land,  either  level  or  roll- 
ing, destitute  of  trees,  and  covered  with 
coarse  tall  grass,  interspersed  with  num- 
erous varieties  of  flowering  plants. 

PRAIRIE  CHICKEN,  the  popular 
name  of  the  pinnated  grouse  of  the 
United  States  (Tetrao  tupido). 

PRAIRIE  DOG,  a  name  given  to 
either  of  ^  the  two  species  of  Cynomys, 
but  especially  to  C.  ludovicianus,  from 
the  fancied  resemblance  of  its  ciry  to  the 
bark  of  a  small  dog,  whence  it  has  been 
also  called  the  barking  squirrel.  It  is 
about  a  foot  long,  reddish-brown  above, 
lighter  beneath.    Its  habits  are  eminently 


PRAIRIE  DOG 

social ;  it  forms  large  communities  on  the 
prairies,^  each  burrow  having  a  little  hil- 
lock at  its  entrance,  and  excavated  pas- 
sages connect  the  burrows,  which  are 
sometimes  shared  by  the  burrowing  owl. 

PRAIRIE  WOLF,  or  COYOTE  (Canis 
latrans),  the  small  wolf  which  is  found 
on  the  prairies  in  North  America,  be- 
lieved by  many  to  be  a  mere  variety  of 
the  European  wolf.  It  is  a  cowardly 
animal,  and  only  dangerous  to  man  when 
in  packs  and  pressed  by  hunger. 

PRASE,  in  mineralogy:  (1)  A  dull 
leek-green  chalcedony,  owing  its  color  to 
the  presence  of  exceedingly  fine  granular 
chlorite.  (2)  A  green  crystallized 
quartz  found  at  Breitenbrunn,  Saxony; 
the  color  is  due  to  inclosed  fine  filaments 
of  green  asbestiform  actinolite. 

PRATO,  often  called  Prato  in  Tos- 
CANA,  a  walled  town  of  Italy,  10  ^^  miles 
S.  E.  of  Pistoia  and  11  N.  W.  of  Flor- 
ence; has  a  citadel  and  a  cathedral  with 
frescoes  by  Filippo  Lippi,  though  the  see 
has  been  united  with  that  of  Pistoia  since 
1653.  There  are  manufactures  of  straw 
plait,  cloth,  and  paper  works.  Pop. 
about  20,000. 

PRATT,  BELA  LYON,  an  American 
artist  and  sculptor.  Born  at  Norwich 
Conn.,  in  1867  and  died  in  1917.  He 
studied  at  the  Yale  School  of  Art  and 
later   under   St.    Gaudens.     Among  his 


most  successful  monuments  are  "Soldiers 
and  Sailors  Monument" (Maiden,  Mass.), 
"Spanish  War  Soldier"  (St.  Paul's 
School,  Concord,  N.  H.)  and  the  "Army 
Nurses  Memorial"  (State  House,  Bos- 
ton). He  also  modelled  the  figures 
"Science"  and  "Art"  in  the  Boston  Pub- 
lic Library  and  the  figure  "Philosophy" 
in  the  Congressional  Library. 

PRATT,  CHARLES,  an  American 
philanthropist;  born  in  Watertown, 
Mass.,  Oct.  2,  1830;  removed  to  New 
York  in  1850,  and  engaged  in  the  oil 
business,  his  firm  being  eventually 
merged  in  the  Standard  Oil  Company. 
He  amassed  a  great  fortune,  took  an  in- 
tense interest  in  educational  matters, 
and  founded  in  Brooklyn  the  Pratt  In- 
dustrial Institute.  He  died  in  New  York 
City,  May  4,  1891. 

PRATT,  ORSON,  a  Mormon  educator; 
born  in  Hartford,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  19,  1811; 
became  one  of  the  12  apostles  of  the 
Mormon  Church  (1835),  and  was  in 
charge  of  European  missions  from  1840, 
many  successive  years.  He  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics  in  Deseret  Uni- 
versity; also  church  historian  and  re- 
corder. His  writings  include:  "Divine 
Authenticity  of  the  Book  of  Mormon" 
(1851) ;  "Patriarchal  Order,  or  Plurality 
of  Wives"  (1853) ;  "Cubic  and  Biquad- 
ratic Equations"  (1866).  He  died  in 
Salt  Lake  City,  Oct.  3,  1881. 

PRATT  INSTITUTE,  a  coeducational 
non-sectarian  institution  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.;  founded  in  1887.  Reported  at  the 
close  of  1919:  Professors  and  instruc- 
tors, 148;  students,  4,743;  president, 
F.  B.  Pratt. 

PRAWN,  in  zoology,  Palsemon  ser- 
ratus,  and,  less  properly,  any  other  spe- 
cies of  the  genus.  Its  ordinary  length 
is  about  four  inches;  color  bright  gray, 
spotted  and  lined  with  darker  purplish 
gray._  It  is  a  favorite  article  of  food, 
and  is  found  in  vast  numbers  in  the 
North  Atlantic. 

PRAXITELES,  a  celebrated  Greek 
sculptor;  born  about  360  B.  c,  who  exe- 
cuted several  fine  statues,  in  bronze  and 
marble,  of  Bacchus,  a  satyr,  Venus,  and 
Apollo.  An  ancient  copy  of  one  of  his 
works,  the  "Apollo  Sauroctonos,"  is  the 
only  example  extant.  Phryne,  the  cele- 
brated Thespian  courtesan,  was  his  mis- 
tress, and  served  as  the  model  for  his 
statues  of  Venus.  Two  of  his  sons  ac- 
quired fame  as  sculptors.  He  died  about 
280  B.C. 

PRAYER,  a  universally  acknowledged 
part  of  the  worship  due  to  God;  not 
merely  petition,  but,  according  to  the 
New    Testament   models    and    Christian 


PREACHING 


337 


PREBLE 


usage,  praise,  adoration,  confession  of 
sin,  and  thankful  acknowledgment  of 
mercies  received,  which  seems  almost 
necessarily  to  follow  from  a  belief  in  the 
existence  of  a  god.  We  find  it  both 
where  the  object  of  worship  is  one  Su- 
preme Being  and  in  polytheism. 

Forms  of  prayer  for  public  use  grew 
up  in  the  earliest  times,  naturally  and 
inevitably:  the  Lord's  Prayer  being 
doubtless  regarded  as  a  warrant  and  a 
model. 

Prayer  for  the  dead,  in  the  Roman 
Catholic,  Greek,  and  other  Oriental 
churches,  is  offered  with  the  intention 
and  expectation  of  obtaining  for  the  souls 
of  the  deceased  an  alleviation  of  their 
supposed  sufferings  after  death  on  ac- 
count of  venial  sins,  or  of  the  penalty  of 
mortal  sins,  remitted  but  not  fully  atoned 
for  during  life.  The  practice  of  pray- 
ing for  the  dead  is  usually  associated 
with  the  doctrine  of  purgatory,  or  with 
the  belief  in  a  progressive  intermediate 
state.  It  seems  certain  that  some  such 
doctrine  existed  in  most  of  the  ancient 
religions.  Its  existence  among  the  Jews 
is  attested  by  the  well-known  assurance 
in  II  Maccabees,  chap,  xii.,  that  "it  is  a 
holy  and  wholesome  thought  to  pray  for 
the_  dead,  that  they  may  be  loosed  from 
their  sins."  Catholics  contend  that  the 
doctrine  as  well  as  the  practice  is  equally 
recognizable  in  the  early  Christian 
Church.  They  rely  on  the  parable  of 
Lazarus  and  the  rich  man  (Luke,  xvi: 
19-31),  as  establishing  the  intercommun- 
ion of  this  earth  with  the  world  beyond 
the  grave.  The  liturgies,  too,  of  all  the 
rites  without  exception  contain  prayers 
for  the  dead;  and  the  sepulchral  inscrip- 
tions from  the  catacombs,  which  reach 
in  their  range  from  the  1st  to  the  5th 
century,  contain  frequent  prayers  in  even 
greater  variety.  In  the  services  of  the 
mediaeval  and  later  Church  prayers  for 
the  dead  form  a  prominent  and  striking 
element.  The  Protestant  churches  with- 
out exception  repudiated  the  practice. 
In  the  burial  service  of  Edward  VI.'s 
"First  Common  Prayer  Book"  some 
prayers  for  the  deceased  were  retained; 
but  they  were  expunged  from  the  "Sec- 
ond Book";  and  no  trace  is  to  be  found 
in  that  sanctioned  under  Elizabeth.  Still 
it  is  not  expressly  prohibited. 

In  the  United  States  the  sect  called 
"Christian  Scientists,"  founded  by  Mrs. 
Mary  Baker  G.  Eddy,  believes  in  the  ef- 
ficacy of  prayer  to  heal  disease.  See 
Christian  Science. 

PREACHING,  the  act  of  preaching;  a 
public  religious  discourse.  The  modern 
system  of  preaching  was  unknown  in  the 
early  Church.  The  general  mode  then 
was  for  the  priest  to  read  portions   of 


the  Old  or  New  Testament,  and  explain 
or  enforce  the  precepts  which  they  con- 
tained. Generally,  sermons  were  deliv- 
ered whenever  the  Scriptures  were  read, 
and  sometimes  several,  by  different  per- 
sons at  the  same  meeting. 

About  the  13th  century,  the  scholastic 
divines  directed  their  chief  attention  to 
the  study  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and 
were  hence  called  Bible  divines.  They 
introduced  a  new  and  artificial  mode  of 
preaching,  called  declaring.  Before  this 
time,  the  clergy  generally  adopted  postu- 
lating, or  expounding  a  large  portion  of 
Scripture,  sentence  by  sentence.  By  the 
new  method,  the  preacher  read  a  text 
out  of  some  book  and  chapter  of  the  Old 
or  New  Testament,  dividing  it  into  sev- 
eral parts  and  expounding  them.  The 
opposition  to  this  textual  mode  of  preach- 
ing continued  for  upward  of  a  century, 
but  at  length  it  came  generally  to  pre- 
vail. The  divisions  or  parts  of  a  mod- 
ern sermon  are  usually  the  introduction, 
the  proposition,  the  illustration,  and  the 
application. 

PREADAMITISM,  the  teaching  of 
Isaac  de  la  Peyrere  (1592-1676),  a 
French  Calvinist,  who  asserted  that  Paul 
had  revealed  to  him  that  Adam  was  not 
the  first  man  created.  Peyrere  pub- 
lished a  treatise  in  1655,  based  on  Ro- 
mans V :  12-14,  but  it  was  publicly  burnt, 
and  he  was  imprisoned  at  Brussels.  His 
views,  however,  were  espoused  by  many 
people. 

PREBEND,  the  stipend  or  mainte- 
nance granted  to  a  canon  of  a  cathedral 
or  collegiate  church  out  of  its  estate;  a 
canonry  in  England.  A  simple  prebend 
is  one  restricted  to  the  revenue  only;  a 
dignitary  prebend  has  jurisdiction  an- 
nexed to  it. 

PREBLE,  EDWARD,  an  American 
naval  officer;  born  in  Portland,  Me.,  Aug. 
15,  1761;  crossed  the  ocean  to  Europe 
in  an  American  privateer  in  1777;  served 
as  midshipman  in  the  "Protector"  in 
1779;  was  captured  and  imprisoned  for 
some  time  in  the  prison-ship  "Jersey"; 
was  promoted  captain  in  1799,  in  which 
year  he  commanded  the  "Essex"  in  the 
East  Indies  for  the  protection  of  Ameri- 
can interests.  Early  in  1803  he  was 
made  commander  of  the  "Constitution"; 
and  in  June  of  that  year  was  placed  in 
command  of  a  fleet  sent  against  Tripoli. 
He  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  caus- 
ing that  country  to  sue  for  peace,  a  feat 
accomplished  by  a  number  of  skillful 
bombardments.  He  returned  to  the 
United  States  and  received  through  Con- 
gress the  thanks  of  the  nation  and  a 
gold  medal.  He  died  in  Portland,  Me., 
Aug.  25,  1807. 


PRECEDENCE 


338 


PBEFECT 


PRECEDENCE,  the  order  in  which 
men  and  women  follow  each  other  accord- 
ing to  rank  or  dignity  in  a  State  proces- 
sion or  on  other  public  occasions.  In 
England  the  order  of  precedence  depends 
partly  on  statutes,  and  partly  on  ancient 
usage  and  established  custom.  The  sov- 
ereign is  always  first  in  order  of  pre- 
cedence, after  whom  follow  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  sons  of  the  sovereign,  grandsons 
of  the  sovereign,  brothers  of  the  sov- 
ereign, uncles  of  the  sovereign,  the  sov- 
ereign's brothers'  or  sisters'  sons,  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  Lord 
High  Chancellor,  and  so  on  through  the 
high  state  dignitaries,  the  various  ranks 
of  the  peerage,  etc.  The  order  of  pre- 
cedence among  women  follows  the  same 
•rules  as  that  among  men.  By  the  acts 
of  Union  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  the 
precedence  in  any  given  degree  of  the 
peerage  has  been  established  as  follows: 
(1)  Peers  of  England;  (2)  Peers  of 
Scotland;  (3)  Peers  of  Great  Britain; 
(4)  Peers  of  Ireland;  (5)  Peers  of  the 
United  Kingdom  and  Peers  of  Ireland 
created  subsequent  to  the  Union. 

PRECEDENT,  a  judicial  decision,  in- 
terlocutory or  final,  which  serves  as  a 
rule  for  future  determinations  in  similar 
cases;  also  a  form  of  proceeding  to  be 
followed  m  similar  cases. 

PRECENTOR,  an  officer  in  a  cathedral, 
formerly  sometimes  called  chaunter,  and 
ranking  in  dignity  next  to  the  dean.  His 
stall  is  on  the  opposite  (N.)  side  of  the 
choir,  and  that  side  is  called  cantoris 
side,  the  side  of  the  cantor,  as  the  other 
is  called  decani,  the  side  of  the  dean. 
He  has  the  direction  of  the  musical  por- 
tion of  the  service.  The  precentor  is, 
in  cathedrals  of  the  new  foundations,  a 
minor  canon,  and  is  removable  by  the 
dean  and  chapter. 

PRECEPTORY,  a  religious  house  of 
the  Knights  Templars,  subordinate  to 
the  Temple,  or  principal  house  of  the  or- 
der in  London,  under  the  government  of 
an  eminent  knight.  The  preceptories  of 
each  province  were  subject  to  a  pro- 
vincial superior,  three  of  whom  ranked 
above  all  the  rest,  viz.,  those  of  Jerusa- 
lem, Tripolis,  and  Antioch. 

PRECESSION  OF  THE  EQUINOXES, 

in  astronomy,  the  going  forward  of  the 
equinoxes.  The  arrival  of  the  sun  at 
the  point  Aries  a  little  earlier  than  he 
might  be  expected  to  reach  it  was  first 
observed  by  Hipparchus  about  150  B.  c. 
Depending,  as  the  phenomenon  does,  for 
its  explanation,  on  the  law  of  gravity, 
Hipparchus  could  not  account  for  it. 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  was  the  first  who  did 
so,  and  that  his  newly  discovered  law  of 
gravitation  explained  the  precession  of 


the  equinoxes  was  a  confirmation  of  the 
accuracy  with  which  he  had  read  the 
law  itself.  Excepting  only  at  the  two 
equinoxes,  the  plane  in  which  the  sun 
moves  in  his  orbit  and  that  in  which  the 
earth  rotates  do  not  coincide.  By  the 
law  of  gravitation  one  body  does  not  at- 
tract another  in  mass,  but  acts  on  its 
separate  particles.  The  sun  then  does 
not  attract  the  earth  as  a  whole,  but 
tends  to  pull  the  parts  nearest  it  away 
from  those  in  proximity  to  the  center, 
and  the  center  again  away  from  those 
on  the  other  side.  The  bulged-out  equa- 
torial zone  is  specially  liable  to  be  thus 
acted  upon,  and,  but  for  the  rotation  of 
the  earth,  would  be  so  drawn  down  to- 
ward the  ecliptic  that  it  and  the  equator 
would  ultimately  be  in  one  plane.  The 
earth's  rotation,  however,  modifies  this 
action,  and  simply  causes  the  points  at 
which  the  earth's  equator  intersects  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic  to  move  slowly  in  a 
direction  opposite  to  that  in  which  the 
earth  rotates.  This  is  what  is  denomi- 
nated the  precession  of  the  equinoxes. 
It  is  generally  associated  with  the  sun, 
but  the  moon  is  twice  as  potent  in  pro- 
ducing it;  owing  to  her  comparative 
nearness  to  the  earth  she  is  able  to  pro- 
duce a  greater  differential  effect  on  the 
nearer  and  more  remote  portions  of  our 
planet. 

PRECIOUS  METALS,  gold  and  silver, 
so  called  on  account  of  their  value. 

PREDESTINATION,  the  act  of  or- 
daining, decreeing,  or  determining  events 
beforehand.  In  theology,  foreordina- 
tion.  The  word  "predestination"^  does 
not  occur  in  the  authorized  version  oi 
the  Bible. 

PREDICATE,  in  grammar,  the  word 
or  words  in  a  proposition  which  ex- 
presses what  is  affirmed  or  denied  of  the 
subject.  In  logic,  the  term  in  a  propo- 
sition, expressing  that  quality  which,  by 
the  copula,  is  affirmed  or  denied  of  the 
subject. 

PRE-EMPTION,  the  act  or  right  of 
buying  before  others.  Also,  the  right  of 
a  settler  on  lands  to  purchase  in  prefer- 
ence to  others,  when  the  land  is  sold. 

PRE-EXISTENCE,  existence  previous 
to  or  before  something  else.  Also,  ex- 
istence in  a  previous  state;  existence  of 
the  soul  previous  to  its  union  with  the 
body.  Pre-existence  was  a  doctrine  of 
the  Pythagoreans,  and  several  others  of 
the  old  philosophers,  and  is  still  found 
in  many  of  the  Eastern  religions. 

PREFECT,  a  governor,  a  commander, 
a  chief  magistrate;  specifically,  a  title 
given  to  several  officers,  military,  naval, 
and  civil,  in  ancient  Rome.     Thus,  in  the 


PREGNANCY 


339 


PBESBYTERIAN    CHURCH 


times  of  the  kings  the  officer  appointed 
by  the  king  to  act  as  his  deputy  when  he 
was  compelled  to  leave  the  city  was 
called  the  Prsefectus  urbi,  or  prefect  of 
the  city.  Later,  during  the  earlier  ages 
of  the  republic,  when  both  consuls  were 
required  for  military  service,  a  Prxfec' 
tus  urbi  was  named  by  the  Senate  to 
act  during  their  absence.  In  times  of 
dearth  or  famine  a  commissioner  was 
appointed  to  procure  supplies,  his  official 
title  being  Pnefectus  annorue,  or  prefect 
of  com.  In  war  the  whole  body  of  the 
cavalry  was  under  the  command  of  an 
officer,  also  styled  a  prefect.  The  cap- 
tain of  a  ship  of  war  was  called  Prss- 
fectus  navis,  and  the  admiral  of  a  fleet 
pnefectus  classis.  Under  Constantine 
the  prefectus  became  governors  of  prov- 
inces. In  France  a  prefect  is  the  civil 
governor  of  a  department,  having  control 
of  the  police  and  extensive  powers  in  re- 
gard to  municipal  administration. 

PREGNANCY,  the  quality  or  state  of 
being  pregnant  or  with  child ;  the  state  of 
a  female  who  has  conceived  or  is  with 
child. 

PRELATE,  an  ecclesiastical  dignitary 
of  the  highest  order,  having  authority 
over  the  lower  clergy,  as  an  archbishop, 
or  patriarch;  a  dignitary  of  the  church. 

PRELUDE,  something  introductory  or 
preparatory  to  that  which  follows;  an 
introductory  or  preparatory  perform- 
ance; an  introduction.  In  music,  a 
movement  played  before,  or  an  introduc- 
tion to  a  musical  work  or  performance; 
a  short  introductory  strain  preceding  the 
principal  movement,  performed  on  the 
same  key  as,  and  intended  to  prepare  the 
ear  for,  the  piece  that  is  to  follow. 

PREMONSTRATENSIAN,  in  Church 
history,  Norbertines:  an  order  of  regular 
canons,  founded  by  St.  Norbert,  in  1119. 
The  rule  was  that  of  St.  Austin,  and 
their  founder  imposed  upon  his  subjects 
perpetual  fasting  and  entire  abstinence 
from  meat.  The  order  flourished 
greatly,  and  at  one  time,  according  to 
Helot,  there  were  more  than  1,000 
abbeys. 

PRENDERGAST,  EDMOND  FRAN- 
CIS, archbishop  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  diocese  of  Philadelphia.  Born  in 
1843  in  Ireland  and  died  in  Philadelphia 
in  1918.  When  sixteen  years  of  age  he 
came  to  the  United  States  and  entered 
St.  Charles  Seminary,  Overbrook,  being 
admitted  to  the  priesthood  in  1865.  After 
having  several  important  pai'ishes  he 
became  vicar-general  of  the  archdio- 
cese in  1895  and  auxiliary  bishop  two 
years  later.  He  became  archbishop  in 
1911. 


PREPOSITION,  a  part  of  speech,  so 
named  because  originally  prefixed  to  the 
verb,  in  order  to  modify  its  meaning. 
Prepositions  are  either  simple  or  com- 
pound. Simple  prepositions  are  at,  by, 
for,  from,  in,  on,  out,  to,  up,  with;  com- 
pound prepositions  are  across,  after  (a 
comparative  from  of) ,  against,  above, 
about,  along,  amid,  amidst,  among, 
athwart,  but,  into,  over,  through,  to- 
ward, until,  unto,  within,  without.  The 
prepositions  concerning,  during,  except, 
notwithstanding,  outtake,  etc.,  arise  out 
of  a  participial  construction. 

PRE-RAPHAELISM,  an  English 
school  of  painting.  It  was  their  object 
to  oppose  that  system  of  art  which  had 
grown  up  since  the  time  of  Raphael;  one 
of  the  main  characteristics  of  which  was 
the  pursuit  of  beauty  at  the  expense  of 
truth. 

PRE-RAPHAELITE  BROTHER- 
HOOD,  an  association  founded  in  1848 
by  Willian  Holman  Hunt,  John  Everett 
Millais,   and    Dante    Gabriel    Rossetti. 

PRESBYTER,  an  elder,  or  a  person 
advanced  in  years  who  had  authority  in 
the  early  Christian  Church  (I  Peter  v: 
1).  Also,  in  the  Presbyterian  Church,  a 
member  of  a  presbytery;  specifically,  a 
minister. 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  a  name 
applied  to  those  Christian  denominations, 
who  hold  that  there  is  no  order  in  the 
Church  as  established  by  Christ  and  his 
apostles  superior  to  that  of  presbyters 
(see  Presbyter),  and  who  vest  church 
government  in  presbyteries,  constituted 
of  ministers  and  elders,  possessed  of 
equal  powers  thus  without  superiority 
among  themselves.  Presbyterianism 
does  not  recognize  the  term  bishop  as  the 
superior  of  the  presbjrtery,  because  these 
two  names  or  titles  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, are  used  interchangeably  of  the 
same  persons.  Presbyterians  hold  that 
the  authority  of  their  ministers,  is  de- 
rived from  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  is  sym- 
bolized by  the  imposition  of  the  hands 
of  presbytery  collectively.  They  affirm 
that  all  Christian  ministers  being  am- 
bassadors of  Christ,  are  equal  by  their 
commission.  The  congregation  elects  its 
own  minister  and  elders,  and  also  its 
deacons  and  trustees — the  former^  of  the 
last  two  takes  charge  of  the  charities  of 
the  church,  and  the  latter  of  its  temporal 
or  financial  affairs.  The  session,  con- 
sisting of  the  minister  and  elders,  has 
the  spiritual  oversight  of  the  church 
members.  The  Presbytery  is  constituted 
by  ministers  and  elders  in  equal  numbers. 
A  congregation  for  the  time  without  a 
pastor,  can  be  represented  in  the  presby- 
tery  by   an   elder.     An   appeal   may   be 


PRESBYTERIAN    CHURCH         340  PRESBYTERIAN    CHURCH 


made  by  the  presbytery  from  congrega- 
tions or  sessions.  A  synod  consists  of  a 
number  of  presbyteries  within  defined 
boundaries.  The  General  Assembly  is 
the  highest  court  of  the  church,  and  con- 
sists of  representatives  from  all  the  pres- 
byteries; each  minister  is  accompanied 
by  an  elder  from  the  same  presbytery. 

The  church  government  by  elders  or 
presbyters  was  in  existence  among  the 
children  of  Israel  when  in  bondage  in 
Egypt  (Ex.  iii:  10).  They  were  rulers 
and  also  representatives  of  the  people, 
and  as  such  under  varied  conditions  were 
recognized  during  the  entire  history  of 
the  Jewish  Church,  including  the  time 
between  the  close  of  the  prophetic  period 
and  the  coming  of  Christ.  Then,  as  was 
natural,  a  similar  order  of  rulers  thus 
derived,  passed,  informally,  over  into  the 
Jewish  Christian  Church  at  Jerusalem, 
and  as  such  was  adopted  (Acts  xi:  30). 
The  same  order  of  church  government 
was  introduced  by  Paul  and  the  other 
apostles  into  the  churches  composed  of 
converted  Gentiles.  That  order  of 
church  government  in  Old  Testament 
times  was  recognized  as  of  Divine  au- 
thority, which  character  Presbyterians 
believe  it  did  not  lose  when  transferred 
and  adopted  by  the  primitive  Church. 
The  Presbyterian  polity  is  democratic — 
republican,  as  the  church  members  elect 
their  own  officials  and  are  thus  able  to 
utilize  their  best  men. 

The  first  Presbyterian  Church  in  mod- 
ern times  was  founded  in  Geneva  by 
John  Calvin,  about  1541;  and  the  consti- 
tution and  doctrines  were  thence  intro- 
duced, with  some  modifications,  into  Scot- 
land by  John  Knox,  about  1560,  though 
the  Presbyterian  was  not  legally  recog- 
nized as  the  national  form  of  church 
government  till  1592.  For  nearly  a 
century  after  this  date,  there  was  a  con- 
tinual struggle  in  Scotland  between  Epis- 
copacy and  Presbyterianism ;  till  ulti- 
mately by  the  Treaty  of  Union  in  1707, 
it  was  agreed  on  the  part  of  England 
and  Scotland  that  that  form  of  church 
government  should  be  the  national  form 
of  ecclesiastical  government  in  Scotland, 
and  that  the  Scotch  Church  should  be 
supported  as  the  only  one  established  by 
law.  Besides  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland,  there  are  other  important  re- 
ligious bodies  whose  constitution  is 
strictly  Presbyterian,  but  who,  from  con- 
scientious scruples,  decline  being  con- 
nected with,  or  receiving  any  emoluments 
from  the  state.  The  chief  of  these  are 
the  Free  Church  and  the  United  Presby- 
terian Church. 

Shortly  after  the  Reformation  Presby- 
terianism was  in  considerable  strength 
in  England,  a  large  number  of  the  Puri- 


tans preferring  that  system  of  govern- 
ment to  episcopacy;  but  owing  to  the 
arbitrary  measures  of  Cromwell,  it  sub- 
sequently declined  in  strength.  There 
were  in  the  British  Isles,  in  1640,  three 
Confessions  of  Faith,  the  Scottish,  the 
Irish,  and  the  Thirty-nine  articles  of  the 
Church  of  England — ^the  English  Pres- 
byterians had  not  formed  a  confession. 
The  sentiment  began  to  prevail  in  Protes- 
tant circles,  that  there  should  be  formu- 
lated for  the  whole  kingdom  a  Confes- 
sion of  Faith  in  which  all  could  unite, 
the  Presbyterians  taking  the  lead  de- 
sired to  have  summoned  "an  assembly  of 
divines  and  learned  laymen  under  the 
protection  of  Parliament,  who  should  be 
free  in  its  action  from  the  domination 
of  the  prelates."  "A  Grand  Remon- 
strance" numerously  signed  by  prominent 
men  was  presented  to  Charles  I.  (1641), 
asking  him  to  summon  such  an  assembly. 
He  refused  the  request.  Soon  after 
Parliament,  on  its  own  responsibility,  is- 
sued directions  for  selecting  the  members 
of  the  proposed  assembly.  They  were 
enjoined  to  meet  in  Westminster,  on 
July  1,  1643.  On  the  same  day  JKing 
Charles  issued  a  proclamation  forbidding 
the  assembly  to  meet,  which,  hcTvever, 
it  did.  There  in  that  place  a  session 
was  held  by  the  -ssembly  which  con- 
tinued for  three  years,  during  which 
time  long  conferences  and  discussions 
were  held  at  intervals.  Thus  was  for- 
mulated the  Westminster  Confession  of 
Faith  around  which  Presbyterians  have 
rallied  for  more  than  250  years.  The 
assembly  consisted  of  121  divines:  10 
noblemen;  20  from  the  House  of  Com- 
mons— there  were  only  10  or  12  inde- 
pendents or  Congregationalists  in  the 
assembly.  The  Scotch  Presbyterian 
Church  also  sent  commissioners. 

Soon  after  the  Restoration  episcopacy, 
which  had  been  displaced  as  the  state 
church,  was  restored,  and  about  2,000 
Presbyterian  clergy  were  ejected  from 
their  cures  in  consequence  of  the  Act  of 
Uniformity,  which  came  into  force  Aug. 
24,  1662.  Presbyterianism  has  ever  since 
been  simply  one  of  the  forms  of  dissent 
in  England,  and  has  held  no  prominent 
position,  though  many  Presbyterian 
churches  are  scattered  throughout  Eng- 
land. Of  these  by  far  the  greater  num- 
ber are  united  to  form  a  single  body,  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  England.  There 
sprang  up  in  England  a  few  congrega- 
tions connected  with  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land and  with  what  was  formerly  known 
as  the  "Secession  Church,"  now  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church.  The  num- 
ber of  such  afterward  very  much  in- 
creased. At  the  time  of  the  formation 
of   the    Free    Church    of    Scotland    the 


PRESBYTERIAN    CHTJRCH 


341 


PRESCOTT 


greater  number  of  the  English  Presby- 
terian churches  connected  with  the 
Church  of  Scotland  sympathized  with 
the  cause  of  the  Free  Church,  and  took 
the  name  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
England.  In  1876  a  union,  which  had 
been  long  desired,  was  consummated  be- 
tween the  synod  more  intimately  related 
to  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland  and  the 
congregations  belonging  to  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church,  The  name  as- 
sumed by  the  united  church  is  the  Pres- 
b3rterian  Church  c.  England.  At  the 
time  of  the  union  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  England  had  about  150 
churches,  and  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church  more  than  100.  At  the  same 
date  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  England 
had  about  20  congregations. 

The  first  Presbyterians  in  America 
were  emigrants  from  the  British  Isles, 
and  the  first  Presbyterian  church  in 
America  was  founded  in  the  colony  of 
Massachusetts  in  1629.  It  was  the  out- 
growth of  a  Presbyterian  congregation 
that  landed  there  in  1625.  This  move- 
ment was  projected  by  Presbyterian 
leaders  in  the  S.  of  England  and  also  in 
London.  It  was  designed  to  be  a  col- 
onization on  a  higher  principle  than  the 
desire  for  gain.  Rev.  Samuel  Skelton 
was  its  pastor.  Rev.  Francis  Makemie, 
the  father  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  Middle  Colonies,  in  1699,  founded  a 
Presbyterian  church  at  Snow  Hill,  Md. 
The  first  Presbytery  of  which  there  re- 
mains a  record  was  constituted  in  1706 
at  Freehold,  N.  J.  Tradition  says  Ma- 
kemie was  its  moderator.  In  1716  a 
synod  was  formed  of  the  four  presby- 
teries that  had  grown  out  of  the  first 
one.  Its  title  was:  "The  Synod  of 
Philadelphia."  Dissensions  ensued,  and 
a  division  for  17  years;  but  in  1768  the 
American  Presbyterian  churches  were 
reunited  in  one  ecclesiastical  body;  and 
in  1788  a  general  assembly  was  insti- 
tuted, the  whole  number  of  congregations 
being  then  419,  and  of  ministers  188. 

The  increase  of  the  church  was  rapid, 
and  in  1834  it  contained  22  synods,  111 
presbyteries,  and  about  1,900  ministers. 
In  1801  a  plan  of  union  was  adopted 
between  Presbyterians  and  Congrega- 
tionalists,  under  which  hundreds  of  con- 
gregations were  formed  in  the  State  of 
New  York  and  elsewhere.  The  Cumber- 
land Presbyterians  separated  from  the 
main  body  in  1814;  and  in  1838  the 
American  Presbyterian  Church  was  di- 
vided into  two  great  sections,  commonly 
known  as  Old  School  and  New  School 
Presbjrterians.  The  portion  of  the  Old 
School  branch  residing  in  the  slave 
labor  States  withdrew  in  1861  from  their 
brethren  in  the  other  States  and  formed 


"The  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  Con- 
federate States  of  America."  Now  it  is 
known  as  "The  Southern  Presbyterian 
Church." 

The  Old  and  New  School  branches  re- 
united in  the  assembly  of  1870,  and  on 
the  basis  of  the  Westminster  Confession 
of  Faith  and  the  catechisms  to  which 
standards  of  doctrine  both  schools  had 
adhered  during  the  32  years  of  separa- 
tion. Strictly  speaking,  questions  of 
doctrine  had  little  to  do  with  the  division. 
At  the  time  of  this  reunion  the  Old 
School  Presbyterians  counted  2,381  min- 
isters, 2,749  churches,  and  258,903  com- 
municants; while  the  New  School  num- 
bered 1,614  ministers,  1,479  churches, 
and  143,645  communicants.  The  United 
church  had  five  theological  seminaries. 
A  revision  of  the  Confession  was  com- 
menced in  1891  and  is  now  in  progress. 
It  is  also  proposed  to  formulate  a  creed 
which  shall  express  the  doctrine  of  all 
the  branches  of  the  church.  There  are 
several  branches  which  virtually  hold 
the  polity  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States,  each  having  its  own 
theological  seminaries  and  colleges,  such 
as  the  Presbyterian  Churches  Northern 
and  Southern,  the  Cumberland,  the  Re- 
formed, the  United  Presbyterian,  the  Re- 
formed Dutch  and  German,  etc.  The 
total  of  all  12  bodies  of  Presbyterians  in 
the  United  States  for  1919  was:  Minis- 
tres,  11,029:  churches,  13,016;  members, 
1,970,622.  By  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  Prebyterian  ministers  were  la- 
boring in  Nova  Scotia  and  Qubec,  the 
various  divisions  of  the  home  churches 
being  represented  at  an  early  stage;  but 
most  of  the  early  ministers  came  from 
the  Secession  Church.  A  union  between 
the  sections  representing  the  Free  and 
United  Presbyterian  Churches  took  place 
in  1861. 

PRESBYTERY,    in  the   Presbyterian 

Church,  a  court  of  judicature  above  the 
session  and  beneath  the  synod.  The 
presbytery  supervises  all  the  congrega- 
tions within  its  bounds,  hears  appeals 
from  the  decisions  of  sessions,  examines 
candidates  for  the  ministry,  licenses  pro- 
bationers, and  ordains  ministers  by  lay- 
ing on  of  hands.  Appeal  lies  from  it 
to  the  synod. 

PRESCOTT,  WILLIAM  HICKLING, 
an  American  historian;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  May  4,  1796.  He  entered  Har- 
vard Callege  in  1811,  and  graduated  in 
1814.  While  at  college  he  had  the  mis- 
fortune to  lose,  by  an  accident,  the  sight 
of  one  of  his  eyes,  while  the  other  be- 
came weakened.  Enabled  by  the  f^os- 
session  of  an  independent  fortune  tr  fol- 
low his  inclinations,  he  spent  two  years 
in  wandering  in   England,  France,  and 


PEESCRIPTION 


342 


PRESIDENT    OF    THE    XT.    S. 


Italy,  returned  to  his  native  country, 
married,  and  settled  down  to  a  life  of 
literary  labor.  Having  made  himself 
master  of  the  literature  of  France,  Italy, 
and  Spain,  he  contributed  critical  pa- 
pers to  the  "North  American  Review." 
In  1827,  he  selected  the  reign  of  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  as  the  subject  of  a 
more  extensive  work.  He  devoted  ten 
years  to  collecting  material,  and  in  1838 
published  his  great  history  which  was  re- 
ceived with  enthusiasm  in  America,  Eng- 
land, and  Europe.  In  1843  he  published 
"The  Conquest  of  Mexico"  and  four  years 
later  "The  Conquest  of  Peru"  which 
found  equal  praise  here  and  abroad. 
Prescott  was  chosen  corresponding  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Institute;  and  in  1850 
he  paid  a  short  visit  to  Europe,  where 


WILLIAM   H.    PRESCOTT 

he  was  received  with  the  highest  dis- 
tinction. On  his  return  to  America  he 
began  the  composition  of  what  he  in- 
tended to  be  the  greatest  achievement  of 
his  latter  years,  "The  History  of  Philip 
II."  Of  this  work  two  volumes  appeared 
in  1855,  and  a  third  in  1859,  when  he 
was  suddenly  attacked  by  paralysis. 
Prescott  was  an  elegant  scholar  and 
writer,  a  man  of  cheerful  humor  and  af- 
fectionate character,  methodical  in  his 
habits,  and  persevering  in  his  pursuits. 
He  walked  five  miles  regularly  every 
day,  composing  as  he  walked.  He  gave 
one-tenth  of  his  ample  income  in  char- 
ity.    He  died  in  Boston,  Jan.  28,  1859. 

PRESCRIPTION,  in  English  law,  a 
plaim  or  title  to  a  thing  by  virtue  of  im- 
inemorial  use,  enjoyment,  the  right  or 
title  acquired  by  such  use  or  by  posses- 


sion had  during  the  time,  and  in  the  man- 
ner fixed  by  law,  as  a  right  of  way,  of 
common,  or  the  like.  The  term  is  also 
used  for  limitation  in  the  recovery  of 
money  due  by  bond,  etc.  In  medicine,  a 
direction  of  remedies  for  a  disease,  and 
the  manner  of  using  them;  a  recipe;  a 
written  statement  of  the  remedies  or 
medicines  to  be  taken  by  a  patient, 

PRESENTMENT,  in  law,  a  formal  re- 
port presented  to  a  court  by  a  grand 
jury.  In  commerce,  the  presenting  a  bill 
of  exchange  to  the  drawee  for  acceptance 
or  to  the  acceptor  for  payment. 

PRESIDENT      OF      THE      UNITED 

STATES,  the  chief  executive  of  the  gov- 
ernment. He  is  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  army  and  navy  of  the  country,  and 
has  the  nomination  of  most  of  the  execu- 
tive officers  of  the  government,  besides 
a  large  number  of  judicial  and  admin- 
istrative functionaries.  He  is  elected 
for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  is  eligible 
for  any  number  of  re-elections,  though, 
in  conformity  with  the  precedent  set  by 
George  Washington,  no  President  has 
yet  been  elected  more  than  twice.  The 
President's  salary  was  originally  $25,000 
a  year.  In  1873  it  was  doubled.  In 
1907  an  additional  $25,000  was  allowed 
for  traveling  expenses  and  in  1909  the 
salary  was  fixed  at  $75,000.  The  Presi- 
dent has  a  veto  power  and  unlimited 
pardoning  prerogative  as  to  offenders 
against  National  laws.  He  is  elected  by 
an  electoral  college,  which  in  some  con- 
tingencies makes  the  choice  by  States. 
In  case  of  his  death  or  total  disability  the 
functions  of  the  office  devolve  on  the 
Vice-President,  who  is  the  presiding  of- 
ficer of  the  Senate.  The  following  is  the 
list  of  Presidents  up  to  the  present: 
George  Washington,  1789  and  1793;  John 
Adams,  1797;  Thomas  Jefferson,  1801 
and  1805;  James  Madison,  1809  and  1813; 
James  Monroe,  1817  and  1821;  John 
Quincy  Adams,  1825;  Andrew  Jackson, 
1829  and  1833;  Martin  Van  Buren,  1837; 
William  Henry  Harrison  (died  April  4, 
1841),  1841;  John  Tyler  (elected  as  Vice- 
President),  1841;  James  Knox  Polk, 
1845;  Zachary  Taylor  (died  July  9, 
1850),  1849;  Millard  Fillmore  (elected  as 
Vice-President),  1850;  Franklin  Pierce, 
1853;  James  Buchanan,  1857;  Abraham 
Lincoln  (assassinated  April  14,  1865), 
1861  and  1865;  Andrew  Johnson  (elected 
as  Vice-President),  1865;  Ulysses  S. 
Grant,  1869  and  1873;  Rutherford  B. 
Hayes,  1877;  James  A.  Garfield  (died  by 
assassination  Sept.  19,  1881),  1881; 
Chester  A.  Arthur  (elected  as  Vice- 
President),  1881;  Grover  Cleveland, 
1885;  Benjamin  Harrison,  1889;  Gro- 
ver Cleveland,  1893;  William  Mc- 
Kinley,     1897    and    1901     (assassinated 


PRESIDIO 


343 


PREVOST 


Sept.  6,  1901) ;  Theodore  Roosevelt 
(1901).  Elected  1905.  William  H. 
Taft,  1909;  Woodrow  Wilson,  1913  and 
1917;   Warren  G.  Harding,  1921. 

PRESIDIO  (SPANISH,  GARRISON, 
GUARD).  In  the  United  States  there 
are  two  military  posts  or  reservations 
called  by  this  name — that  of  San  Fran- 
cisco and  that  of  Monterey.  The  Presi- 
dio of  San  Francisco  is  near  the  suburbs 
of  that  city  situated  on  the  harbor.  It 
was  a  military  post  under  both  the  Mexi- 
can and  Spanish  Governments  and  by 
executive  order  was  reserved  as  a  mili- 
tary base  by  the  United  States.  Its  area 
is  nearly  1,500  acres.  The  Presidio  of 
Monterey,  Cal.,  is  much  smaller  and 
likewise  was  taken  over  as  a  military 
station  by  the  United  States,  after  it 
had  been  similarly  used  by  Spain  and 
Mexico. 

PRESSBURG  (POZSONY),  a  town  in 
Hungary;  35  miles  E.  of  Vienna,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Danube,  and  on  spurs 
of  the  Little  Carpathians.  The  most 
striking  edifice  is  the  ruined  royal  pal- 
ace, on  the  top  of  an  eminence,  burned 
in  1811.  The  cathedral  is  a  large  Gothic 
structure,  dating  from  the  11th  century. 
The  trade  chiefly  in  corn  and  timber,  is 
extensive.  Pressburg  is  a  place  of  very 
great  antiquity.  In  1541,  when  the 
Turks  captured  Buda,  it  became  the 
capital  of  Hungary,  and  retained  the 
honor  till  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  re- 
stored it  to  Buda.  The  treaty  by  which 
Austria  ceded  Venice  to  France  and  the 
Tyrol  to  Bavaria  was  signed  here  in 
1805.     Pop.  about  80,000. 

PRESTER  JOHN,  PRESBYTER,  or 
PRIEST  JOHN,  a  name  given  in  the 
Middle  Ages  to  a  supposed  Christian 
sovereign,  said  to  hold  his  empire  in  some 
central  part  of  Asia  (Tibet),  though,  ac- 
cording to  the  Portuguese,  he  was  King 
of  Abyssinia. 

^  PRESTO  (Italian),  quick,  used  in  mu- 
sic to  designate  a  faster  rate  of  move- 
ment than  is  indicated  by  allegro. 
Presto  assai  denotes  very  quick,  and 
prestissimo  the  highest  degree  of  quick^ 
ness. 

PRESTON,  a  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  England,  in  Lan- 
cashire, 27  miles  N.  E.  of  Liverpool.  The 
environs  of  the  town  exhibit  much  pleas- 
ing scenery,  and  there  are  some  fine  pub- 
lic parks.  Among  the  churches,  Christ 
Church  is  admired  for  the  purity  of  its 
Norman  architecture.  The  Catholic 
church,  St.  Walburge's,  is  considered  the 
finest  in  the  town.  The  original  staple 
manufacture  of  the  town,  linen,  has  been 
completely  eclipsed  by  the  cotton  manu- 


facture, of  which  Preston  is  now  one  ox 
the  chief  centers.  Preston  also  has 
machine  shops,  iron  and  brass  foundries, 
railway  carriage  works,  breweries,  malt 
houses,  roperies,  tanneries,  etc.  In  1323 
Preston,  originally  Priest's  Town,  was 
taken  and  burned  by  Robert  Bruce;  in 
the  great  civil  war  it  espoused  the 
Royalist  cause,  and  was  twice  captured 
by  the  Parliamentarians;  in  the  re- 
bellion of  1715  it  was  occupied  by  the 
Jacobite  forces;  in  that  of  1745  the 
Highlanders,  headed  by  the  Pretender, 
passed  through  Preston  both  on  their 
march  to  London  and  on  their  retreat. 
Preston  was  the  birthplace  of  Ark- 
wright.  It  returns  two  members  to 
Parliament.     Pop.    (1917)    106,747. 

PRESUMPTION,  in  law,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  direct  evidence  that  which  comes 
nearest  to  the  proof  of  a  fact.  Pre- 
sumptions are  of  three  degrees:  Vio- 
lent, in  which  those  circumstances  ap- 
pear which  necessarily  attend  the  fact; 
probable,  arising  from  such  circum- 
stances as  usually  attend  the  fact;  and 
light    (without    validity). 

PRETENDER,  one  who  made  claim  to 
a  throne  under  a  pretense  of  right  (as 
Perkin  Warbeck,  Lambert  Simnel,  in 
English  history) ;  specially  applied  to 
the  son  and  grandson  of  James  II.,  the 
heirs  of  the  House  of  Stuart,  who  laid 
claim  to  the  throne  of  England. 

PRETORIA,  the  capital  of  the  former 
South  African  Republic  (Transvaal), 
since  1910  the  seat  of  government  of  the 
Union  of  South  Africa.  Pretoria  was 
founded  in  1855  by  the  Boer  leader  Pre- 
torius.  It  owes  its  prosperity  chiefly  to 
the  gold  mines  of  Johannesburg,  30  miles 
distant.     Pop.  about  65,000. 

PREVEZA,  or  PREVISA,  a  fortified 
town  formerly  in  the  extreme  S.  W.  of 
European  Turkey,  now  belonging  to 
Greece ;  on  the  N.  side  of  the  entrance  to 
the  Gulf  of  Arta.  It  exports  valonia 
acorns,  wool,  cotton,  and  oil.  The  Ve- 
netians held  the  town  from  1683  to  1797. 
One  year  later  Ali  Pasha  drove  out  the 
French  garrison  and  plundered  the  place. 
Pop.  about  7,500. 

PREVOST,  EUGENE  MARCEL,  a 
French  novelist;  born  in  Paris,  May  1, 
1862.  His  first  story,  "The  Scorpion" 
(1887),  the  tragic  history  of  a  clerical 
tutor  in  a  Jesuit  school,  made  a  deep  im- 
pression because  of  the  fine  psychological 
insight  and  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
priestly  life  it  displayed.  Among  his 
works  are  "Our  Helpmate:  Provin- 
cials and  Parisiennes"  (1885)  ;  "Chon- 
chette"  (1888)  ;  "Mile.  Jaufre"  (1889)  ; 
"Women's  Letters"  (1892);  "A  Woman's 


PBIAM  344 


PRIESTLEY 


Autumn"  (1893);  "The  Mill  at  Naza- 
reth" (1894);  "The  Demi-Virgins" 
(1894) ;  "Les  Verges  Fortes"  (1901) ; 
"Monsieur  et  Madame  Moloch"  (1906) ; 
"Lettres  a  Frangoise  Mariee"  (1910) ; 
etc. 

PBIAM,  a  King  of  Phrygia,  and  the 
last  sovereign  of  Troy.  Soon  after  his 
accession,  the  discovery  of  a  gold  mine 
in  his  kingdom  enabled  him  to  enlarge 
and  beautify  his  capital,  and  raise  a 
powerful  army.  By  his  first  wife  he 
had  only  one  child;  but  by  Hecuba,  his 
second  queen,  he  had  a  numerous  family. 
The  perfidy  of  his  son  Paris  in  eloping 
v/ith  Helen  led  to  the  long  and  fatal  war, 
which,  after  enduring  for  10  years,  ter- 
minated in  the  entire  overthrow  of  the 
state,  death  of  most  of  his  sons,  and  his 
own  murder  by  Pyrrhus,  about  1184 
B.  c. 

PRIBILOF  ISLANDS,  a  group  of 
islands  on  the  coast  of  Alaska,  m  Bering 
Sea.  The  largest  are  St,  Paul,  St. 
George,  Walrus,  and  Beaver  Islands. 
They  are  frequented  by  numbers  of  fur 
seals.     The  natives  are  Aleutians. 

PRIBRAM,  a  mining  town  of  Bo- 
hemia, 48  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Prague,  with 
important  lead  and  silver  mines,  and 
various  manufactures.  There  is  a  min- 
ing academy,  and  a  church  much  fre- 
quented by  pilgrims.     Pop.  about  14,000. 

PRICE,  RICHARD,  an  English  philos- 
opher; born  in  Tynton,  Glamorganshire, 
Feb,  22,  1723.  He  was  a  Dissenting 
minister,  friend  of  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin, and  sympathized  warmly  with  the 
American  colonists.  His  tables  of  vital 
statistics  and  calculations  of  expectancy 
of  life  were  the  basis  of  modern  ^  an- 
nuities and  life  insurance.  His  princi- 
pal writings  are:  "An  Appeal  to  the 
Public  on  the  Subject  of  the  National 
Debt"  (1771) ;  "Civil  Liberty  and  the 
Justice  and  Policy  of  the  War  with 
America"  (1776) ;  "The  American 
Revolution  and  the  Means  of  Rendering 
It  a  Benefit  to  the  World"  (1784).  He 
died  April  19,  1791. 

PRICE,  STERLING,  an  American 
military  officer;  born  in  Prince  Edward 
CO.,  Va.,  Sept.  11,  1809.  Settled  in  Mis- 
souri in  1831;  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1844;  served  in  the  Mexican  War  as 
colonel  and  Brigadier-General  of  volun- 
teers; was  military  governor  of  Chihua- 
hua in  1847;  governor  of  Missouri  in 
1853-1857,  and  president  of  the  State 
Convention  in  February,  1861.  When 
the  Civil  War  broke  out  he  joined  the 
Confederate  army,  and  became  Major- 
General  in  May,  1861.  Was  commander 
of  the  Department  of  the  W.  in  1862,  and 


afterward  of  the  districts  of  Tennessee 
and  Trans-Mississippi.  He  died  in  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  Sept.  29,  1867. 

PRICKLY  ASH,  a  name  given  to  sev- 
eral prickly  shrubs  of  the  United  States. 

PRICKLY  HEAT,  a  skin  disease, 
characterized  by  minute  papulae  formed 
by  the  hyperaemia  of  the  sweat  follicles. 

PRICKLY  PEAR,  Opuntia  vulgaris, 
natural  order  Castaceas,  othervidse  called 
Indian  fig.  The  fruit  is  purplish  in 
color,  covered  with  fine  prickles,  and  edi- 
ble. It  is  a  native  of  the  tropical  parts 
of  America,  whence  it  has  been  intro- 
duced into  Europe,  Mauritius,  Arabia, 
Syria,  and  China. 

PRIDE,  THOMAS,  an  English  mili- 
tary officer;  one  of  the  most  resolute  of 
Cromwell's  soldiers;  born  in  London  of 
humble  origin.  He  commanded  a  bri- 
gade under  Cromwell  in  Scotland,  and, 
when  the  House  of  Commons  betrayed  a 
disposition  to  effect  a  settlement  with  the 
king,  was  appointed  by  the  army  to 
purge  it  of  its  Presbyterian  royalist 
members.  The  House,  reduced  to  about 
80  members,  brought  the  king  to  justice. 
Colonel  Pride  sat  among  his  judges,  and 
signed  the  death-warrant.  He  died  Oct. 
23,  1658. 

PRIE-DIEXJ,  a  kneeling  desk  for 
prayers. 

PRIENE,  anciently  one  of  the  12  cities 
of  Ionia;  stood  a  little  N.  W.  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Maeander  in  Caria. 

PRIEST,  one  who  in  any  religion  per- 
forms the  sacred  rites  and,  more  or  less, 
intervenes  between  the  worshiper  and 
his  God,  especially  by  offering  sacrifice. 

In  the  Anglican  Church,  a  clergyman 
in  priest's  orders,  as  distinguished  from 
a  deacon.  Only  a  priest  can  administer 
the  Holy  Communion  and  read  the  Ab- 
solution. In  the  Roman  Church,  a  cleric 
who  has  received  the  third  grade  in  holy 
orders,  and  who  is  thereby  empowered 
to  "offer,  bless,  rule,  preach,  and  baptize." 

PRIESTLEY,  JOSEPH,  an  English 
natural  philosopher;  born  in  Fieldhead, 
England,  March  13,  1733.  He  was  pas- 
tor of  an  Independent  church  and  while 
tutor  in  a  seminary  he  published  the 
"History  and  Present  State  of  Electric- 
ity," which  procured  his  election  into 
the  Royal  Society.  It  was  here  also  that 
his  political  opinions  were  first  mani- 
fested, in  an  "Essay  on  Government." 
He  went  to  Leeds,  where  he  made  those 
important  discoveries  with  regard  to  the 
properties  of  fixed  air,  for  which  he  re- 
ceived the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1772.  In  1776  he  communi- 
cated to  the  same  learned  body  his  ob- 


PRIM 


345 


PRIMOGENITURE 


servations  on  respiration,  in  which  he 
first  experimentally  ascertained  that  the 
air  parts  with  its  oxygen  to  the  blood  as 
it  passes  through  the  lungs.  He  next  re- 
moved to  Birmingham,  where  he  be- 
came once  more  minister  of  an  Independ- 
ent congregation,  and  occupied  himself 
in  his  "History  of  the  Corruptions  of 
Christianity."  His  sympathy  for  the 
French  Revolution  led  to  the  destruction 
of  his  house  and  library  in  1791.  Af- 
ter this  he  removed  to  Hackney,  where 
he  succeeded  Dr.  Price;  but,  in  1794, 
compelled  by  incessant  persecutions  to 
fly  his  intolerant  country,  came  to  the 
United  States  and  took  up  his  abode  at 
Northumberland,  Pa.  His  works  extend 
to  between  70  and  80  volumes.  Besides 
those  before  mentioned  are:  "Experi- 
ments and  Observations  on  Air";  "Lec- 
tures on  General  History,"  on  the 
"Theory  and  History  of  Language,"  and 
on  the  "Principles  of  Oratory  and  Criti- 
cism"; "Hartleian  Theory  of  the  Human 
Mind";  "Letters  to  a  Philosophical  Un- 
believer"; "History  of  Early  Opinions 
Concerning  Jesus  Christ,"  etc.  He  died 
in  Northumberland,  Pa.,  Feb.  6,  1804. 

PRIM,  JUAN,  a  Spanish  general; 
born  in  Reus,  Dec.  6,  1814;  rose  rapidly 
to  be  a  colonel,  general,  marshal,  and 
marquis.  Failing  in  an  insurrectionary 
attempt  in  1866,  he  fled  to  England  and 
Brussels,  but  here  he  guided  the  move- 
ment that  in  1868  overthrew  Isabella. 
He  was  war  minister  under  Serrano. 
He  secured  the  election  of  an  Italian 
prince,  Amadeo,  as  king,  and  shot  by  an 
assassin,  died  Dec.  30,  1870. 

PRIMA  DONNA,  the  first  female 
singer  in  an  opera. 

PRIMARY  ROCKS,  a  term  formerly 
including  all  the  crystalline  and  non-fos- 
siliferous  rocks  which  were  deposited,  it 
was  believed,  anterior  to  the  appearance 
of  life  upon  the  earth. 

PRIMATE,  the  chief  ecclesiastic  in 
certain  churches.  The  Archbishop  of 
York  is  called  the  Primate  of  England, 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  the  Pri- 
mate of  All  England,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  the 
Primate  of  the  United  States. 

PRIMATES,  the  first  and  chief  of 
Linnseus'  orders  of  the  class  Mammalia. 
He  included  under  it  four  genera : 
Homo  (one  species,  five  varieties),  Shnia 
(21  species).  Lemur  (three  species),  and 
Vespertilio  (seven  species).  Cuvier  ig- 
nored the  order,  classing  Man  as  Bimana 
(Owen's  Archeyicephala) ,  and  Apes  and 
Lemurs  as  Quadrumana;  the  bats  now 
constitute  an  order  by  themselves,  and 
the  lemurs  rank  as  a  sub-order.     With 


the  advance  of  zoological  and  anatomical 
knowledge  the  use  of  the  name  has  re- 
vived "for  the  apes,  not  only  by  natur- 
alists, who,  like  Huxley,  retain  man 
within  its  limits;  but  also  by  others 
(Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire  and  Gervais),  who 
consider  he  should  be  excluded  from  it." 

PRIME,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  one  of  the  canonical  hours,  and 
also  the  service  in  the  breviary  which 
falls  to  be  performed  at  that  time. 

PRIME  MERIDIAN,  that  meridian 
from  which  longitude  is  measured.  In 
Great  Britain  and  its  dependencies  it  is 
the  meridian  of  Greenwich;  in  the 
United  States,  the  meridian  of  Wash- 
ington. 

PRIME  MINISTER,  an  officer  of 
state,  who  at  the  summons  of  the  sov- 
ereign has  succeeded  in  forming  an  ad- 
ministration, of  which  he  is  the  head, 
and  which  may  be  named  after  him.  In 
England  it  is  on  his  advice  that  as  va- 
cancies occur  the  archbishops,  bishops 
and  deans  and  the  highest  judges  are 
appointed,  and  over  one  hundred  crown 
livings  are  filled;  and  on  his  recommen- 
dation that  the  most  envied  temporal 
titles  and  honorable  distinctions — peer- 
ages, baronetcies,  and  the  Garter,  for 
example — are  conferred,  and  such  high 
appointments  as  the  lord-lieutenancy  of 
Ireland,  the  viceroyalty  of  India,  the 
principal  ambassadorships  and  colonial 
governorships,  and  lord-lieutenancies  of 
countries,  are  made  by  the  crown.  He 
is  the  leader  of  the  House  of  Parliament 
of  which  he  is  a  member.  In  European 
governments  the  prime  minister,  or  pre- 
mier, is  usually  charged  with  the  man- 
agement of  diplomatic  affairs,  and  in  this 
respect  resembles  the  Secretary  of  State 
of  the  United  States. 

PRIME  NUMBER.  A  number  or 
quality  is  prime  when  it  cannot  be  ex- 
actly divided  by  any  other  number  or 
quantity  except  1.  Two  numbers  or 
quantities  are  prime  with  respect  to  each 
other,  when  they  do  not  admit  of  any 
common  di\'isor  except  1. 

PRIMITIVE  METHODISTS,  a  section 
of  the  Wesleyan  community  which  arose 
in  Staffordshire,  England,  under  the 
leadership  of  Hugh  Bourne  (1792-1852). 
Having  held  camp  meetings  like  those  in 
the  United  States,  he  was  censured  for 
it  by  the  English  Wesleyan  Conference 
in  1807,  and,  seceding,  formed  a  new  con* 
nection,  the  first  class  meeting  of  which 
was  held  at  Standley,  in  Staffordshire, 
in  1810.  In  doctrine  the  Primitive  Meth- 
odists agree  with  the  Wesleyans. 

PRIMOGENITURE,  the  state  of  being 
the  eldest  of  children  of  the  same  par- 


PRIMROSE 


346 


PRINCETON 


ents;  seniority  by  birth  among  children. 
Also,  the  right,  system,  or  rule  under 
which,  in  England,  in  cases  of  intestacy, 
the  eldest  son  of  a  family  succeeds  to  the 
real  estate  of  his  father  to  the  absolute 
exclusion  of  the  younger  sons  and  daugh- 
ters. 

PRIMROSE,  the  Primula  vulgaris. 
Common  in  copses,  pastures,  hedgebanks, 
and  woods  or  by  the  side  of  streams.  Its 
root-stock  is  emetic.  The  peerless  prim- 
rose is  Narcissus  hiflorus. 

PRIMROSE  LEAGUE,  a  league  hav- 
ing for  its  objects  "the  maintenance  of 
religion,  of  the  estates  of  the  realm,  and 
of  the  imperial  ascendancy  of  the  British 

empire." 

PRIMULACE.ffi,  primworts;  herbs, 
generally  with  radical  exstipulate  leaves. 
Flowers  on  radical  scapes  or  umbels,  or 
in  the  axil  of  the  leaves.  Genera  18, 
species   about  200. 

PRINCE.  (1)  One  who  holds  the  first, 
or  chief  place,  or  rank;  a  sovereign;  the 
ruler  of  a  country  or  state.  (2)  The  ruler 
or  sovereign  of  a  state  or  territory  which 
he  holds  of  a  superior.  (3)  The  son  of 
a  sovereign,  or  the  issue  of  the  royal 
family.  In  heraldic  language,  the  title 
of  prince  belongs  to  dukes,  marquises, 
and  earls  of  Great  Britain,  but  in  ordi- 
nary use  it  is  confined  to  members  of 
the  royal  family.^  The  only  case  in  which 
it  is  a  territorial  title  is  that  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  On  the  Continent  of 
Europe  the  title  of  prince  is  borne  by 
members  of  families  of  very  high  rank, 
though  not  immediately  connected  with 
any  royal  house. 

PRINCE,  JOHN  DYNELEY,  an 
American  university  professor  and  phi- 
lologist. Born  in  New  York  in  1868  he 
graduated  at  Columbia  at  the  early  age 
of  twenty,  studied  in  Berlin  and  received 
his  Ph.D.  from  Johns  Hopkins  in  1892. 
From  1892  to  1902  he  was  professor  of 
Semitic  languages  and  dean  of  the 
Graduate  School  of  New  York  Univer- 
sity. From  1902  to  1915  he  occupied  a 
similar  professorship  at  Columbia  until 
in  1915  the  chair  of  Slavonic  languages 
was  created  when  he  was  appointed  to 
that.  Professor  Prince  in  1909  was  the 
Republican  speaker  of  the  New  Jersey 
Assembly  and  President  of  the  New  Jer- 
sey Senate  in  1912,  and  for  a  short  time 
was  acting  Governor  of  the  State. 

PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND,  an  is- 
land forming  a  Province  of  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada,  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence; area,  about  2,134  square  miles. 
Pop.  about  100,000.  The  island  is  nat- 
urally divided  into  three  peninsulas,  and 
the  whole  is  eminently  agricultural  and 


pastoral,  the  forests  now  being  of  oomr- 
paratively  limited  extent.  The  climate 
is  mild;  winter,  though  longer  and  colder 
than  in  England,  is  free  from  damp,  and 
summer  is  fitted  to  promote  the  growth 
of  all  the  ordinary  cereals.  Sheep,  cat- 
tle, and  horses  are  reared  in  numbers; 
cod,  mackerel,  herring,  oysters,  and  lob- 
sters form  the  most  productive  part  of 
the  fisheries.  The  manufactures  are 
chiefly  confined  to  linen  and  flannels  for 
domestic  use;  there  are  also  several  tan- 
neries, and  shipbuilding  is  carried  on  to 
a  considerable  extent.  The  exports  con- 
sist of  timber,  agricultural  produce,  and 
live  stock.  The  capital  is  Charlotte- 
town.  Pop.  about  12,000.  The  island  is 
supposed  to  have  been  discovered  by 
Cabot.  It  was  first  colonized  by  France, 
captured  by  Great  Britain  in  1745,  re- 
stored and  recaptured,  and  finally  in 
1873  was  admitted  to  the  Dominion  of 
Canada. 

PRINCEITE,  the  sect  into  which  the 
movement  of  the  Lampeter  Brethren  de- 
veloped. It  was  founded  about  1840  by 
the  Rev.  Henry  James  Prince,  a  clergy- 
man of  the  extreme  Evangelical  school, 
who  asserted  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was 
incarnate^  in  him,  and  that  the  Gospel 
dispensation  was  thereby  superseded. 
Prince  established  his  community  near 
Bridgeport,  England.  This  sect  is  also 
called  Agapemone. 

PRINCE  OF  WALES.  See  Wales, 
Prince  of. 

PRINCE  OF  WALES  ISLAND.  See 
Penang. 

PRINCES  ISLANDS,  a  beautiful 
group  of  nine  islets  near  the  E.  end  o£ 
the  Sea  of  Marmora,  about  10  miles  S.  E. 
of  Constantinople,  the  largest  being 
called  Prinkipo.     Pop.    (1917)    10,500. 

PRINCETON,  a  town  in  Mercer  co., 
N.  J.,  on  the  Delaware  and  Raritan  ca- 
nal, near  the  Millstone  river,  and  on  a 
branch  of  the  Pennsylvania  railroad;  10 
miles  N.  E.  of  Trenton.  It  contains 
waterworks,  gas  and  electric  lights. 
National,  State,  and  savings  banks,  and 
weekly  newspapers.  Princeton  is  chiefly 
known  as  the  seat  of  the  College  of  New 
Jersey,  officially  called  Princeton  Uni- 
versity {q.v.).  The  battle  of  Prince- 
ton  took  place  at  the  bridge  on  Stony 
Brook,  about  3  miles  W.  of  the  town. 
During  the  engagement,  which  was  very 
severe.  General  Mercer  fell  mortally 
wounded.  The  action  resulted  in  a  de- 
cisive victory  for  the  Continental  army. 
The  British  lost  nearly  200  in  killed  and 
wounded,  and  230  captured.  The  Ameri- 
can loss  was  about  37.  After  his  re- 
tirement ex-President  Cleveland  made  his 


PRINCETON    SEMINARY 


347 


PRINCETON    UNIVERSITY 


home  in  Princeton.     Pop.   (1910)   5,136; 
(1920)   5,917. 

PRINCETON  THEOLOGICAL  SEM- 
INARY, an  educational  institution  in 
Princeton,  N.  J.;  founded  in  1812,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Presbyterian  Church ; 
reported  at  the  close  of  1919:  Professors 
and  instructors,  13;  students,  95;  presi- 
dent, J.  R.  Stevenson,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 

PRINCETON  UNIVERSITY,  an  edu- 
cational institution  in  Princeton,  N.  J. 
It  was  founded  Oct.  22,  1746,  by  a 
charter  given  under  the  seal  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  New  Jersey,  "for  the  instruction 
of  youth  in  the  learned  languages  and 
in  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences."  On 
Sept.  14,  1748,  a  more  ample  charter 
was  granted  by  King  George  II.,  estab- 
lishing the  corporation  under  the  name 
of  the  College  of  New  Jersey;  and  pro- 
viding that  the  management  of  its  affairs 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  23  trustees 
(later  changed  to  27).  Among  these 
were  the  governor  of  New  Jersey,  Aaron 
Burr,  Samuel  Blair,  and  David  Green, 
names  that  have  ever  since  been  identi- 
fied with  the  history  of  the  college. 
After  the  War  of  the  Revolution  the 
royal  charter  was  confirmed  and  renewed 
by  the  Legislature  of  New  Jersey.  In 
May,  1747,  the  College  ol  New  Jersey 
was  officially  opened  at  Elizabethtown 
(now  Elizabeth),  and  the  same  year  was 
moved  to  Newark.  Soon  after  it  was 
again  moved  to  Princeton,  where  in  1754 
the  first  college  building,  Nassau  Hall 
(so  named  in  memory  of  King  William 
III.  of  the  house  of  Nassau) ,  was  erected. 

The  college  suffere'l  severely  during 
the  Revolutionary  War,  the  main  build- 
ing being  used  as  a  barrack  by  both 
American  and  British  troops  (see 
Princeton).  Its  president.  Dr.  Wither- 
spoon,  and  two  of  its  alumni,  Richard 
Stockton  and  Bem'amin  Rush,  were  sign- 
ers of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
In  1783  the  Continental  Congress  and 
General  Washington  were  present  at  the 
commencement  exercises,  Washington 
presenting  50  guineas  to  the  college. 
This  sum  was  appropriated  by  the  trus- 
tees to  the  painting  of  a  picture  of 
Washington  by  the  elder  Peale.  It  now 
hangs  in  Nassau  Hall,  and  is  considered 
one  of  the  best  extant  pictures  of  him. 
In  1802,  and  again  in  1855,  the  hall  was 
partly  destroyed  by  fire.  After  the  Civil 
War  the  college  began  to  make  rapid 
progress.  The  number  of  students  in- 
creased, the  faculty  was  enlarged,  and 
in  1872  the  Chancellor  Green  Library 
(named  in  honor  of  its  donor)  was 
erected.  Up  to  this  time  the  course  of 
instruction  had  led  exclusively  to  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts;  but  in  1873 


the  John  C.  Green  School  of  Science  was 
added,  and  in  1875  the  Department  of 
Civil  Engineering  was  also  created.  In 
1889  the  Department  of  Electrical  En- 
gineering was  founded,  and  in  1901  the 
Graduate  School  was  formally  estab- 
lished, Prof.  Andrew  West  being  ap- 
pointed its  dean. 

On  Oct.  22,  1896,  the  150th  anniver- 
sary of  the  signing  of  the  first  charter, 
the  title  of  Princeton  University  was 
assumed.  In  1897  the  Chancellor  Green 
Library  was  connected  with  a  new 
library  building,  having  a  capacity  to 
shelve  1,200,000  volumes.  The  total 
number  of  buildings  now  belonging  to 
the  university  is  over  40,  among  them 
being  the  Halsted  Observatory,  with  an 
instrument  of  23  inches  aperture  and  30 
feet  focal  length;  Alexander  Hall,  with 
a  seating  capacity  of  1,500;  Marquand 
Chapel;  Dickinson  Hall,  a  building  con- 
taining some  25  lecture  and  recitation 
rooms;  the  School  of  Science  building, 
containing  lecture  rooms,  physical  labora- 
tories, and  the  Museum  of  Biology;  the 
Biological  Laboratory;  the  Graduate 
College  and  Cleveland  Memorial  Tower, 
Hamilton  Hall,  Holder  Hall,  Cuyler  Hall; 
the  Chemical  Laboratory;  the  Art 
Museum;  and  a  number  of  dormitories, 
among  the  more  recent  being  Blair  Hall, 
and  Stafford  Little  Hall,  donated  re- 
spectively by  John  I.  Blair  and  H.  S. 
Little. 

Secret  societies  are  prohibited  at 
Princeton,  but  there  are  two  strong 
literary  societies,  the  Cliosophic  and 
American  Whig,  founded  before  the 
Revolution,  and  having  valuable  inde- 
pendent libraries.  There  are  also  two 
undergraduate  religious  societies,  the 
Philadelphian  (founded  in  1825)  and  St. 
Paul's  (founded  in  1875). 

In  1919  there  were  180  instructors, 
1,500  students,  and  430,000  bound  vol- 
umes in  the  library.  There  are  over  100 
endowed  scholarships,  and  in  addition 
pecuniary  aid  is  given  in  certain  cases. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  presidents 
from  the  beginning: 

Rev.  Jonathan  Dickinson,  1747. 

Rev.  Aaron  Burr,  1748-1757. 

Rev.  Jonathan  Edwards,  1757-1758. 

Rev.  Samuel  Davies,  1759-1761. 

Samuel  Finley,  D.  D.,  1761-1766. 

John  Witherspoon,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  1768- 
1794. 

Samuel  Stanhope  Smith,  D,  D.,  LL.  D., 
179.5-1812. 

Ashbel  Green,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  1812- 
1822 

James  Carnahan,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  1823- 
1854. 

John  Maclean,  D,  D.,  LL.  D.,  1854- 
1868. 


PRINCIP 


848 


PRINTING 


James  McCosh,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Litt.  D., 
1868-1883. 

Francis  Landley  Patton,  D.  D.,  LL,  D., 
1883-1902. 

Woodrow  Wilson,  LL.  D.,  Litt.  D., 
1902-1910. 

John  Grier  Hibben,  LL.  D.,  1912-. 

PRINCIP,  GAVRILO,  the  assassin  of 
Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand  and  his 
wife.  He  was  a  native  of  Bosnia  and 
one  of  the  extreme  Serbian  patriots. 
When  the  Archduke  visited  Sarajevo  on 
June  28,  1914,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
assassinate  him  with  bombs.  Narrowly 
escaping  death,  the  Archduke  and  his 
wife  were  being  driven  in  a  carriage  to 
the  royal  palace  when  Princip  fired  into 
the  equipage  just  as  it  turned  the  corner 
of  a  narrow  street.  The  Archduke  and 
Duchess  were  killed  almost  instantly. 
Princip  was  arrested  and  died  two  years 
later  while  awaiting  trial. 

PRINCIPAL,  the  term  used  in  the 
United  States  to  designate  the  proprietor, 
chief,  or  head  of  an  academy  or  semi- 
nary. 

PRINCIPAL  AND  AGENT,  a  designa- 
tion in  law,  applied  to  that  branch  of 
questions  which  relate  to  the  acting  oi 
one  person  for  another  in  any  commercial 
transaction. 

PRINGLE,  THOMAS,  an  English 
poet;  born  in  Blaiklaw,  Roxburghshire, 
Jan.  5,  1789.  Lame  from  childhood,  dys- 
peptic, devout,  he  went  at  17  to  Edin- 
burgh University.  He  took  to  writing 
at  an  early  age,  and  besides  other 
literary  schemes,  started  the  "Edinburgh 
Monthly  Magazine."  In  1820  he  set  sail 
with  a  party  of  emigrants  of  his  father's 
family  for  Cape  Colony.  He  traveled 
into  the  interior  with  the  party,  and 
had  his  heart  stirred  within  him  to  see 
the  inhumanity  practiced  toward  the 
natives  by  English  and  Dutch  residents 
alike.  He  started  the  "South  African 
Journal,"  and  fought  a  brave  fight  for 
the  freedom  of  the  press.  But  he  was 
bullied  by  the  tyrannical  governor,  Lord 
Charles  Somerset,  his  schemes  crushed, 
and  himself  reduced  to  poverty.  He 
returned  to  London  in  1826,  and  became 
secretary  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Society. 
His  "Ephemerides"  (1828)  was  a  collec- 
tion of  graceful  verse.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, Dec.  5,  1834. 

PRINTING,  the  art  of  producing  im- 
,)ressions  from  characters  or  figures  on 
paper  or  any  other  substance.  Printing 
from  movable  types  was,  according  to 
Professor  Douglas,  probably  practiced  in 
China  as  early  as  the  12th  or  13th  cen- 
tury, as  there  are  Korean  books  printed 
from  movable  clay  or  wooden  types  in 


1317.  The  great  discovery  was  that  of 
forming  every  letter  or  character  of  the 
alphabet  separately.  The  credit  of  in- 
venting this  simple  yet  marvelous  art  is 
contested  by  the  Dutch  and  Germans. 
Printing  was  brought  to  England  in  1476 
or  1477  by  William  Caxton.  The  first 
printing  press  set  up  in  America  was 
introduced  by  the  Viceroy  of  Mexico, 
Antonio  de  Mendoza,  and  the  first  book 
printed  by  it  in  the  New  World  was 
"The  Ladder  de  S.  Juan  Climaco"(1536). 
The  earliest  press  in  the  British- Ameri- 
can colonies  was  brought  over  for  Har- 
>^ard  College  in  1638.  "Bay  Psalm  Book" 
(1640)  was  its  first  important  work;  but 
in  1639  it  printed  the  "Freeman's  Oath" 
and  an  almanac.  In  Philadelphia  a 
press  was  set  up  in  1685,  in  New  York 
in  1693. 

The  earliest  improvement  on  the  print- 
ing press  was  made  by  the  celebrated 
Earl  Stanhope,  who  constructed  a  press 
of  iron  of  sufficient  size  to  print  a  whole 
surface  of  a  sheet.  A  multitude  of  im- 
provements speedily  succeeded  this  press. 
Among  those  which  gained  a  large  share 
of  approbation  was  the  Columbian  press, 
which  was  of  American  invention.  This 
press  was  taken  to  Great  Britain  in 
1818  by  George  Clymer  of  Philadelphia, 
and  patented.  The  pressing-power  in 
this  instance  was  procured  by  a  long 
bar  or  handle  acting  upon  a  combination 
of  exceedingly  powerful  levers.  Print- 
ing is  now  executed  by  one  or  other  of 
the  varieties  of  cylinder  presses,  moved 
generally  by  electricity,  or  steam. 
Printing  machines  may  be  divided  into 
two  distinct  classes — those  for  printing 
books,  in  which  accurate  register  is  re- 
quired, and  those  for  printing  news- 
papers, in  which  register  is  not  sought 
for,  and  speed  is  of  first  consequence. 

The  printing  business  is  divided  into 
three  departments — those  concerned  re- 
spectively with  jobbing  or  commercial 
work,  with  book  work,  and  vnth  news 
work.  Jobbing  work  is  chiefly  done  on 
small  platen  machines  invented  by  G. 
P.  Gordon,  about  1868.  Larger  work  is 
done  on  machines  having  one  or  more 
cylinders.  It  has  been  found,  since  ma- 
chines have  been  brought  to  their  pres- 
ent degree  of  perfection,  that  they  give 
far  superior  results  to  those  from  presses 
— their  impression  is  stronger,  more 
solid,  and  more  uniform,  and  the  sheets 
can  be  laid  on  them  with  a  precision  un- 
attainable with  handpresses.  Paper  is 
not  now  made  spongy  and  stretchable 
by  being  wetted,  and  the  result  of  work- 
ing it  dry  is  that  the  type  is  brought  up 
with  greater  brightness,  and  the  delicate 
lines  of  engravings  are  printed  finer, 
clearer,  and  cleaner.     The  colored  sup- 


PRIOR 


349 


PRIPET    MARSHES 


plements  of  the  pictorial  journals  are 
often  admirable  reproductions  of  works 
of  high  art.  A  single  color  press  built 
in  1898  contained  between  50,000  and 
60,000  individual  parts. 

Books  are  generally  printed  in  sheets 
of  16  pages,  or  multiples  of  16  (32,  64, 
128)  ;  in  the  latter  case  they  are  cut 
into  sheets  of  16  after  being  printed. 
Several  very  ingenious  machines  have 
been  invented  for  setting  type  which 
have  been  successful.  They  are  worked 
something  after  the  manner  of  typewrit- 
ing machines.  Several  of  the  latest  of 
these  cast  and  set  the  type  by  one 
movement.  Thia  saves  the  labor  of  re- 
distributing the  types,  as  when  done 
with  they  ai'e  melted  again. 

The  latest  achievement  in  printing 
machines  is  the  combination  color  octi\ple 
rotary  perfecting  press.  Four-roller  dis- 
tribution on  the  color  portion  insures 
fine  work,  and  special  oil-fountain  ar- 
rangements take  care  of  the  offset.  The 
printing  is  done  from  both  stereotype 
and  electrotype  plates.  The  combination 
half-tone  and  color  pictorial  electrotype 
pei'fecting  press  is  designed  especially 
for  printing,  from  electrotype  plates, 
high-grade  periodical  work,  with  half- 
tone and  color  illustrations. 

PRIOR,  a  title  loosely  applied  before 
the  13th  century  to  any  monk  rank- 
ing above  his  fellows.  Priors  are  now 
of  two  kinds:  conventual  and  claustral. 
A  conventional  prior  is  the  head  of  a 
religious  house,  either  independently,  as 
among  the  Regular  Canons,  the  Car- 
thusians, and  the  Dominicans,  or  as 
superior  of  a  cell  or  offshoot  from  some 
larger  monastery.  A  claustral  prior  is 
appointed  in  houses  in  which  the  head 
is  an  abbot,  to  act  as  superior  in  the  ab- 
bot's absence. 

PRIOR,  MATTHEW,  an  English  poet; 
born  in  Wimborne-Minster,  England, 
July  21,  1644;  educated  at  Westminster 
School  and  Cambridge.  At  college  he 
contracted  an  intimacy  with  Charles 
Montagu,  afterward  Earl  of  Halifax, 
with  whom,  in  1687,  he  composed  the 
"Country  Mouse  and  City  Mouse" — a 
parody  on  Dryden's  "Hind  and  Panther.'* 
This  work  brought  him  fame,  and  in 
1690  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
English  embassy  at  The  Hague.  In 
1697  he  was  nominated  secretary  to  the 
plenipotentiaries  who  concluded  the 
Peace  of  Ryswick,  and  on  his  return  was 
made  secretary  to  the  lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland.  In  1701  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  a  Whig,  but  soon  after  changed 
his  politics  and  joined  the  Tory  party. 
In  1711  he  was  employed  in  secretly  ne- 
gotiating at  Paris  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  and  he  remained  in  France 

Vol.  VII — Cyc 


till  1714,  at  first  as  secret  agent,  after- 
ward as  ambassador.  On  the  accession 
of  George  I.,  he  was  kept  in  custody  on  a 
charge  of  high  treason  for  two  years. 
During  his  imprisonment  he  wrote 
"Alma,  or  the   Progress  of  the   Mind," 


MATTHEW  PRIOR 

which  with  his  most  ambitious  work, 
"Solomon,"  was  published  in  1718.  He 
died  in  Wimpole,  Sept.  18,  1721. 

PRIPET  MARSHES,  an  extensive 
swamp  surrounding  the  city  of  Pinsk,  in 
western  Russia,  and  extending  up  and 
down  both  banks  of  the  Pripet  river. 
Officially  this  region  is  known  as  the  Ro- 
kitno  Marsh.  In  area  these  bogs  are 
about  half  the  size  of  the  entire  terri- 
tory of  Rumania.  Only  a  comparatively 
small  portion  of  the  marsh  had  been  ex- 
plored before  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War,  when  it  became  the  theater  of 
important  military  operations  between 
the  Russian  and  German  forces,  espe- 
cially after  the  capture  of  Brest-Litovsk 
by  the  Germans,  on  Aug.  27,  1915. 
After  their  disastrous  defeat  at  thia 
time  the  Russian  line  retired  and  took 
its  stand  along  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Pripet  marshes.  Along  this  front  there 
was,  of  necessity,  a  large  territory  inter- 
vening between  the  Russian  and  German 
lines,  invaded  only  by  raiding  parties 
and  occasional  patrols,  moving  in  punts 
in  summer,  and  on  the  ice  in  winter.  It 
was  only  during  the  winter  months  that 
fighting  of  any  magnitude  could  take 
place  here,  and  then  the  contending  forces 
would  advance  over  the  ice  and  engage 

23 


PRISM 


350 


PRISREND 


in  pitched  battles.  The  region  was, 
however,  impassable  to  heavy  artillery, 
so  that  neither  side  was  able  to  break 
the  deadlock  created  by  the  nature  of  the 
country.  Across  this  swamp  region  the 
two  belligerents  continued  facing  each 
other  until  the  end  of  the  war  on  the 
Eastern  Front. 

PRISM,  in  geometry,  a  solid  having 
similar  and  parallel  bases,  its  sides  form- 
ing similar  parallelograms.  The  bases 
may  be  of  any  form,  and  this  form 
(triangular,  pentagonal,  etc.)  gives  its 
name  to  the  prism.  In  optics,  any  trans- 
parent medium  comprised  between  plane 
faces,  usually  inclined  to  each  other.  It 
is  used  to  refract  and  disperse  light,  re- 
solving it  into  the  prismatic  colors. 

PRISON  ASSOCIATION,  AMER- 
ICAN, an  organization  of  officials  of 
American  prisons,  founded  by  Dr.  E.  C. 
Wines,  of  New  York,  in  1870,  at  a  con- 
ference in  Cincinnati,  0.,  and  incor- 
porated under  the  laws  of  New  York  in 
the  following  year.  The  object  of  the 
association  was  the  general  improvement 
of  conditions,  not  only  for  the  officials 
and  employees  of  such  institutions,  but 
for  prisoners  as  well.  Until  1877  the 
organization  developed  a  vigorous 
growth,  issuing  reports  in  1872,  1874, 
and  1877  of  considerable  value  to  stu- 
dents of  penology.  The  death  of  Dr. 
Wines,  however,  at  this  time,  caused  a 
notable  decrease  in  the  activities  of  the 
association,  which  lasted  until  1883, 
when  it  again  showed  signs  of  revival. 
The  organization  is  now  an  influential 
factor  in  all  movements  toward  prison 
reform,  and  has  standing  committees  on 
criminal  law,  reform,  prevention,  proba- 
tion, parole,  prison  discipline,  dis- 
charged prisoners  and  prison  statistics. 
With  it  are  affiliated  five  other  national 
organizations,  comprising  wardens, 
prison  physicians,  prison  chaplains, 
women  officials  and  employees,  and  crim- 
inologists. 

PRISON  REFORM,  the  growing  ten- 
dency to  regard  the  imprisonment  of 
crimmals  as  a  preventative  measure, 
rather  than  as  punishment  inflicted  by 
society  as  revenge.  In  England  prisons 
were  largely  based  on  this  latter  theory, 
until  the  social  consciousness  was  first 
awakened  by  the  writings  of  the  popular 
novelist,  Charles  Reade,  and  most  nota- 
bly by  his  novel,  "It  is  Never  Too  Late 
to  Mend."  In  the  early  days  of  last  cen- 
tury prison  conditions  were  exception- 
ally bad  in  the  United  States.  As  an  in- 
stance, for  years  after  the  Revolution 
convicts  in  the  State  of  Connecticut 
were  confined  underground  in  an  old, 
abandoned    copper    mine,    at    Simsbury, 


Conn.  One  of  the  first  moves  toward 
better  conditions  was  represented  in  the 
building  of  the  Eastern  Penitentiary,  in 
Philadelphia,  in  1817,  and  the  Auburn 
State  Prison,  in  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  in  1816, 
both  of  which  institutions  were  con- 
ducted on  a  comparatively  humane  basis. 
The  movement  was  still  further  stimu- 
lated by  the  discussions  at  the  Interna- 
tional Prison  Congress,  held  in  Frank- 
furt, Germany,  where  the  United  States 
was  strongly  represented,  among  the 
delegates  being  Dr.  E.  C.  Wines,  the 
founder  of  _  the  American  Prison  Asso- 
ciation, •which  had  a  very  strong  inllu 
ence  in  this  country,  after  its  formation. 
One  of  the  strongest  exponents  of  prison 
reform  at  the  present  time  is  Thomas 
Mott  Osborne,  in  charge  of  the  naval 
prison  at  Portsmouth,  who  first  excited 
a  more  general  interest  in  prison  reform 
by  himself  entering  Sing  Sing  Prison,  in 
the  guise  of  a  convicted  criminal,  and 
obtaining  a  first  hand  knowledge  of  prison 
conditions,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
inmates.  It  was  he  who,  as  governor  of 
the  prison,  first  instituted  the  parole 
system,  whereby  prisoners  of  good  con- 
duct were  allowed  entire  liberty  on  leaves 
of  absence,  being  placed  on  their  honor 
to  return.  "Self-government"  in  prisons 
is  another  feature  of  Mr.  Osborne's  gen- 
eral system,  which  is  now  practiced  at 
Portsmouth,  under  his  personal  direc- 
tion, and  at  Sing  Sing,  the  State  Prison 
for  women,  at  Auburn  and  at  the  Pres- 
ton Industrial  School,  in  California, 
with  such  a  high  degree  of  success  that 
other  prisons  throughout  the  country  are 
adopting  the  practice.  A  noteworthy  ex- 
ample of  legislative  eft'orts  toward  prison 
reform  was  the  effort  of  the  Prison  Re- 
form League,  of  Pennsylvania,  which  in 
1917  caused  the  appointment  of  a  special 
commission  to  study  prison  conditions, 
w^ith  the  object  of  recommending  legisla- 
tion with  the  object  of  prison  reform  in 
view.  The  report  of  this  commission  was 
rendered  in  1919,  but  the  recommenda- 
tions made  were  so  far-reaching  that 
they  have  not,  as  yet,  been  embodied  in 
any  legislation. 

PRISREND,  a  city  of  eastern  Ser- 
bia, close  to  the  frontier  with  Albania, 
75  miles  E.  of  Scutari,  and  fourth  city  in 
size  in  the  whole  of  Serbia,  with  a  pop- 
ulation, in  1911,  of  21,244.  The  city  has 
a  citadel  1,100  feet  above  sea  level,  and 
24  mosques.  It  was  part  of  the  territory 
taken  from  the  Turks  during  the  Balkan 
Wars,  in  1912.  Through  this  city  fled 
the  broken  remnants  of  the  Serbian 
Army,  after  the  invasion  of  the  country 
by  the  forces  of  the  Central  Powers,  in 
the  fall  of  1915,  this  being  the  last  ave- 
nue of  escape  left  open  after  their  final 


PRISTIJSTA 


351 


PRIVET 


defeat  on  Kossovo  Plain,  about  30  miles 
further  N. 

PRISTINA,  a  town  of  Serbia,  30  miles 
N.  E.  of  Prisrend,  administrative  seat  of 
a  department  of  the  same  name  in  the 
S.  E.  part  of  Serbia,  in  the  foothills  of 
the  mountains  of  Albania.  After  the  in- 
vasion of  Serbia  by  the  Austro-German 
forces,  in  the  latter  part  of  November, 
1915,  the  remnants  of  the  defeated  Ser- 
bian forces  made  their  last  stand  here, 
on  the  edge  of  the  great  Kossovo  Plain, 
where  300  years  before  the  last  of  the 
Serbian  Czars  had  been  crushed.  The 
battle  lasted  four  days,  the  aged  King 
Peter  being  in  the  field  with  his  men  dur- 
ing the  whole  period.  Finally  the  Ser- 
bian battle  formation  was  smashed,  and 
Pristina  was  taken  by  the  Teutons,  un- 
der General  Von  Mackensen,  on  Nov.  23, 
j-915.  The  population,  before  the  war, 
was  about  10,000. 

PRITCHARD,    JETER    CONNELLY, 

associate  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  District  of  Columbia;  born  in  1857, 
he  engaged  in  the  printing  business  as  a 
young  man  and  in  1873  became  the  editor 
of  the  "Roan  Mountain  Republican"  of 
Bakersville,  N.  C.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  political  affairs  and  though  a 
Republican,  was  elected  several  times  to 
the  State  Legislature  of  North  Carolina. 
In  1895  he  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  and  re-elected  in  1897, 
_As  he  was  the  only  Southern  Republican 
in  the  Senate  his  influence  was  consider- 
able. He  undertook  to  build  a  white  Re- 
publican party  in  the  South,  called  the 
"Lily-White"  party.  Appointed  asso- 
ciate justice  in  the  District  of  Columbia 
in  1903.  In  1912  he  was  appointed  by 
President  Taft  to  head  the  new  Circuit 
Court  of  Appeals  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia. 

PRITCHETT,    HENRY    SMITH,    an 

American  educator  and  head  of  the  Car- 
negie Foundation  for  the  Advancement 
of  Teaching  since  1906;  born  in  Missouri 
in  1857,  he  took  up,  after  his  graduation 
from  college,  the  study  of  astronomy, 
becoming  in  1878  assistant  astronomer 
in  the  United  States  Naval  Observatory 
in  Washington.  In  1882,  he  traveled 
tp  New  Zealand  to  observe  the  tran- 
sit of  Venus.  The  next  year  Washing- 
ton University,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  appointed 
him  professor  of  astronomy,  a  position 
he  held  until  1897.  For  the  three  years, 
1897  to  1900,  he  was  superintendent  of 
the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey.  From  1900  to  1906  he  was 
president  of  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology  in  Boston,  Mass. 

PRIVATEER,    a    ship    owned    by    a 
private  individual,  which  under  govern- 


ment permission,  expressed  by  a  letter 
of  marque,  makes  war  on  the  shipping  of 
a  hostile  power.  To  make  war  on  an 
enemy  without  this  commission,  or  on 
the  shipping  of  a  nation  not  specified  in 
it,  is  piracy.  Privateering  was  abol- 
ished by  mutual  agreement  among  Eu- 
ropean nations,  except  Spain,  by  the 
Declaration  of  Paris  in  1856;  but  the 
United  States  of  America  refused  to 
sign  the  treaty,  except  on  condition  that 
all  private  property  at  sea,  not  contra- 
band, should  be  exempt  from  capture. 
This  "Marcy,"  or  "American,"  amend- 
ment, as  it  was  called,  was  not  accepted. 
This  doctrine  was  again  affirmed  by  the 
United  States  delegates  to  the  Peace 
Conference  at  The  Hague  in  1898,  but 
was  again  rejected  by  the  European  pow- 
ers. While  not  considered  Piracy  iq-  v.) 
by  the  law  of  nations,  they  were  looked 
on  as  little  better  during  the  great  wars 
at  the  end  of  the  18th  and  the  beginning 
of  the  19th  century,  and  as  a  rule  re- 
ceived but  scant  mercy  at  the  hands  of 
the  regular  services. 


HENRY  SMITH    PRITCHETT 

PRIVET  (Ligustrum),  a  genus  o± 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Oleacex, 
containing  a  number  of  species  of  shrubs 
and  small  trees  with  opposite  leaves, 
which  are  simple  and  entire  at  the  mar- 


PRIVY    COUNCIL 


352 


PROBXJS 


gin;  the  flowers  small,  white.  Common 
privet  {L.  vulgare)  is  a  shrub  growing 
in  bushy  places  and  about  the  borders  of 
woods  in  the  middle  and  S.  of  Europe, 
and  in  some  parts  of  Great  Britain,  now 
also  naturalized  in  some  parts  of  North 
America.  It  has  half-evergreen,  smooth, 
lanceolate  leaves;  and  berries  about  the 
size  of  peas,. black,  rarely  white,  yellow, 
or  green.  The  flowers  have  a  strong  and 
sweetish  smell;  the  leaves  are  mildly  as- 
fcringent,  and  were  formerly  used  in  medi- 
cine. TTie  berries,  which  hang  on  the 
shrub  during  winter,  have  a  disagreeable 
taste,  but  serve  as  food  for  many  kinds 
of  birds;  they  are  used  for  dyeing  red, 
and,  with  various  additions,  green,  blue, 
and  black.  A  rose-colored  pigment  ob- 
tained from  them  is  used  for  coloring 
maps.  The  wood  is  hard,  and  is  used 
by  turners,  and  by  shoemakers  for  mak- 
ing wooden  pegs. 

PRIVY  COITNCrL,  in  English  law,  the 
principal  council  of  the  sovereign,  con- 
sisting of  members  chosen  at  his  or 
her  pleasure.  Its  dissolution  depends 
on  the  royal  pleasure;  by  common  law 
it  was  dissolved  ipso  facto  by  the  de- 
mise of  the  sovereign,  but  to  prevent 
the  inconvenience  of  having  no  coun- 
cil in  being  at  the  accession  of  a  new 
prince,  the  privy  council  is  enabled 
by  statute  to  continue  for  six  months 
after  the  demise  of  the  crown,  unless 
sooner  dissolved  by  the  successor.  It  is 
presided  over  by  the  Lord  President  of 
the  Council,  who  has  precedence  next 
after  the  Lord  Chancellor.  Members  of 
the  privy  council  are  addressed  as  Right 
Honorable.  The  oflice  of  a  privy  coun- 
cilor is  now  confined  to  advising  the  sov- 
ereign in  the  discharge  of  executive,  leg- 
islative, and  judicial  duties. 

PRIVY  SEAL,  the  seal  used  in  Eng- 
land to  be  appended  to  grants  which  are 
afterward  to  pass  the  great  seal,  and  to 
documents  of  minor  importance,  which  do 
not  require  to  pass  the  great  seal.  In 
Scotland  there  is  a  privy  seal  used  to 
authenticate^royal  grants  of  personal  or 
assignable  rfghts. 

PRIX  DE  ROME,  a  prize  given  by  the 
French  Government  to  a  number  of 
painters,  sculptors,  architects,  engravers 
and  musicians.  Founded  by  Louis  XIV. 
in  1866,  its  purpose  was  to  educate  young 
painters  and  sculptors  at  Rome  at  the 
expense  of  the  government.  Napoleon 
enlarged  the  prize  and  made  it  open  to 
musicians  and  architects,  in  addition  to 
painters  and  sculptors.  At  present  the 
winner  of  the  scholarship  is  selected  from 
a  group  of  10  which  have  passed  the 
rigid  examinations  in  their  respective 
fields.  The  winner  is  supported  by  the 
French  Government  for  four  years  while 


he  pursues  his  further  studies  at  the 
Academie  de  France  at  Rome.  The  prize 
is  awarded  every  year  to  painters,  sculp- 
tors, musicians,  and  architects,  and  every 
two  or  three  years  to  artists  in  other 
fields.  The  award  is  made  by  giving  the 
10  selected  artists  three  months  to  pre- 
pare a  specimen  of  their  work,  which  is 
then  judged  by  the  Academie  des  Beaux- 
Arts.  Specimens  of  the  work  of  the 
artists  in  Rome  holding  the  prize  are  ex- 
hibited in  Paris  every  year  to  show  the 
progress  of  the  scholars. 

PRIZE  COURT,  a  court  established  to 
adjudicate  on  prizes  captured  at  sea. 

PROBATE,  in  law,  the  official  proof  of 
a  will.  This  is  done  either  in  common 
form,  which  is  upon  the  oath  of  the  ex- 
ecutor before  the  judge  of  the  probate 
court;  or  per  testes  (by  witnesses),  in 
some  solemn  form  of  law,  in  case  the  val- 
idity of  the  will  is  disputed. 

PROBATE  COURT,  a  court  of  record 
established  to  exercise  jurisdiction  and 
authority  in  relation  to  probate  of  wills 
and  letters  of  administration,  and  to  hear 
and  determine  all  questions  relating  to 
matters  and  causes  testamentary. 

PROBATIONER,  one  who  is  in  a  state 
of  probation  or  trial,  so  that  he  may  give 
proof  of  his  qualifications  for  a  certain 
position,  place,  or  state.  Also  a  Btudent 
in  divinity. 

PROBOSCIDEA,  in  zoology,  an  order 
of  mammalia,  characterized  by  the  ab- 
sence of  canine  teeth,  the  molars  few  in 
number,  large,  and  transversely  ridged 
or  tuberculate;  incisors  always  present, 
growing  from  persistent  pulps,  and  con- 
stituting long  tusks.  One  living  genus, 
Elephas. 

PROBOSCIS  MONKEY,  or  KAHAU 
(Presbytes  nasalis),  a  native  of  Borneo, 
distinguished  particularly  by  its  elon- 
gated nose,  its  shortened  thumbs,  and  its 
elongated  tail.  The  general  color  is  a 
lightish  red. 

PROBUS,    MARCUS    AURELIUS,    a 

Roman  emperor;  born  in  Sirmium,  Pan- 
nonia;  early  entered  the  army,  and  at- 
tracted the  notice  of  the  Emperor  Val- 
erian. He  distinguished  himself  on  the 
Danube,  and  in  Africa,  Egypt,  Asia, 
Germany,  and  Gaul.  By  the  Emperor 
Tacitus  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
the  Asiatic  possessions  of  Rome,  and  on 
the  latter's  death  was  called  to  the 
throne  (A.  D.  276).  His  brief  reign  was 
brilliant;  the  Germans  were  driven  out 
of  Gaul,  and  the  barbarians  from  the 
Rhaetian,  Pannonian,  and  Thracian 
frontiers;  and  Persia  was  forced  to  ac- 
cept peace.  Probus  devoted  himself  to 
the  development  of  its  internal  resources. 


PROCEDURE 


353 


PROCTOR 


He  employed  the  soldiers  as  laborers  in 
executing  various  extensive  and  impor- 
tant works,  occupations  considered  as 
degrading  by  them;  and  a  lai-ge  body  of 
troops  engaged  in  draining  swamps 
murdered  the  emperor  in  282. 

PROCEDURE,  CIVIL,  the  method  of 
proceeding  in  a  civil  suit  throughout  its 
various  stages. 

PROCESS,  in  anatomy,  an  enlarge- 
ment, such  as  the  cygomatic  process  of 
the  temporal  bone,  the  vermiform  proc- 
ess of  the  cerebellum,  etc.  In  botany, 
any  extension  of  the  surface;  a  protru- 
sion whether  natural  or  monstrous.  In 
law,  a  term  applied  to  the  whole  course 
of  proceedings  in  a  cause,  real  or  per- 
sonal, civil  or  criminal,  from  the  orig- 
inal writ  to  the  end  of  the  suit. 

PROCESSIONAL,  a  service  book  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  for  use  in 
religious  processions. 

PROCHLORITE,  a  species  of  chlorite, 
consisting  of  a  hydrated  silicate  of  alu- 
mina, iron  and  magnesia.  Crystallizes  in 
the  monoclinic  system.  It  occurs  in 
granular  or  foliated  masses,  is  green  in 
color,  and  may  be  either  opaque  or 
translucent. 

PROCIDA,  an  islet  of  Italy,  between 
the  island  of  Ischia  and  the  mainland 
(Cape  Miseno),  12  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
Naples;  area,  1^/^  square  miles;  pop, 
about  15,000.  On  its  shores  is  the  city 
of  the  same  name,  with  a  harbor,  a 
royal  palace,  a  State  prison,  and  a  ma- 
rine school.  The  people  fish  coral,  tunny, 
and  sardines,  and  grow  fruits,  wine,  and 
oil.  The  island  was  occupied  by 
Great  Britain  on  two  or  three  occa- 
sions between  1799  and  1813.  Pop. 
about  5,000. 

PROCLUS,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
Neo-Platonic  school;  born  in  Byzan- 
tium in  412;  was  educated  at  Alexandria 
and  Athens.  As  a  teacher  at  Athens  he 
was  very  successful.  He  not  only  en- 
deavored to  unite  all  philosophical 
schemes,  but  made  it  a  maxim  that  a 
philosopher  should  embrace  also  all  reli- 
gions by  becoming  infused  with  their 
spirit.  His  works  include  a  "Sketch  of 
Astronomy,"  in  which  he  gave  a  short 
view  of  the  systems  of  Hipparchus,  Ar- 
istarchus  and  Ptolemy;  "The  Theology 
of  Plato,"  "Principles  of  Theology,"  a 
"Life  of  Homer,"  etc.  He  died  in  Athens 
in  485. 

PROCONSUL,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
an  officer  who,  though  not  actually  hold- 
ing the  office  of  consul,  exercised  in  some 
particular  locality  all  the  powers  of  a 
consul. 


PROCTER,  ADELAIDE  ANNE,  an 
English  poet;  daughter  of  Bryan  W.; 
born  in  London,  England,  Oct.  30, 1825. 
She  wrote  "Legends  and  Lyrics"  (1858), 
which  went  through  nine  editions  in 
seven  years;  and  a  second  series  (1860), 
which  had  a  like  success.  She  died  Feb. 
3,  1864. 

PROCTER,  BRYAN  WALLER,  pseu- 
donym Barry  Cornwall,  an  English 
poet;  born  in  London,  Nov.  21,  1787. 
Educated  at  Harrow,  with  Byron  and 
Peel  for  schoolfellows,  he  studied  law, 
and  in  1815  began  to  contribute  poetry  to 
the  "Literary  Gazette."  He  published 
four  volumes  of  poems,  and  produced 
a  tragedy  at  Covent  Garden.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1831.  His  works 
compi-ise  "Dramatic  Scenes"  (1819),  "A 
Sicilian  Story"  and  "Marcian  Colonna" 
(1820),  "The  Flood  of  Thessaly"  (1823), 
and  "English  Songs"  (1832),  besides 
memoirs  of  Kean  (1835),  and  Charles 
Lamb  (1866).     He  died  Oct.  5,  1874. 

PROCTOR,  in  English  law,  a  person 
employed  to  manage  another's  cause  in  a 
court  of  civil  or  ecclesiastical  law.  He 
answers  to  an  attorney  at  common  law. 
In  an  English  university,  two  officials 
chosen  from  among  the  Masters  of  Arts 
to  enforce  the  statutes,  and  preserve 
good  order  and  discipline.  In  an 
American  university,  an  executive  offi- 
cer whose  duty  it  is  to  preserve  order 
and  enforce  the  laws  of  the  institution. 
Proctors  of  the  clergy,  in  England, 
clergymen  elected  to  represent  cathe- 
dral or  other  collegiate  churches,  and 
also  the  common  clergy  of  every  diocese 
in  convocation. 

PROCTOR,  EDNA  DEAN,  an  Amer* 
ican  poet;  born  in  Henniker,  N.  H.,  Sept. 
18,  1829.  Her  works  are:  "Poems" 
(1866);  "A  Russian  Journey"  (1872); 
"The  Song  of  the  Ancient  People" 
(1892);  "Mountain  Maid  and  Other 
Poems  of  New  Hampshire"   (1900)  ;  etc. 

PROCTOR,  REDFIELD,  United  States 
Senator  and  Cabinet  officer;  born  in 
1831,  at  Proctorsville,  Vt.,  and  graduated 
from  Dartmouth  College  in  the  class  of 
'51.  He  attained  the  rank  of  colonel  by 
a  four  years'  service  in  the  Civil  War. 
After  the  war  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
practice  of  law,  and  to  the  development 
of  his  interests  in  the  stone  quarries  of 
his  State.  In  1878  he  was  chosen  gov- 
ernor of  Vermont;  in  1889  President 
Harrison  appointed  him  Secretary  of 
War,  and  he  resigned  this  office  to  become 
United  States  Senator,  a  position  which 
he  held  until  his  death  in  1908. 

PROCTOR,  RICHARD  ANTHONY, 
an  English  astronomer,  author  of  a  large 
number  of  popular  works,  principally  on 


PROFIT 


354 


PROGRESSIVE    PARTY 


astronomy;  born  in  London,  England, 
March  23,  1837.  He  was  a  graduate  of 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1860. 
About  1885  he  settled  in  St.  Louis,  and 
later  moved  to  Florida.  His  principal 
popular  books  are  the  following:  "Sat- 
urn and  Its  System,"  "Half-hours  With 
the  Telescope,"  "Half-hours  With  Stars," 
"Other  Worlds  Than  Ours,"  "Light 
Science  for  Leisure  Hours,"  "Elemen- 
tary Astronomy,"  "Chance  and  Luck," 
"First  Steps  in  Geometry,"  "Easy  Les- 
sons in  Differential  Calculus,"  and  "Old 
and  New  Astronomy."  He  edited 
"Knowledge."  He  died  in  New  York 
City,  Sept.  12,  1888. 

PROFIT,  any  advantage,  benefit,  or 
accession  of  good  resulting  from  labor 
or  exertion ;  valuable  results,  useful  con- 
sequence, benefit,  gain;  comprehending 
the  acquisition  of  anything  valuable  or 
advantageous,  corporeal,  or  intellectual, 
temporal  or  spiritual.  Net  profit,  the 
difference  in  favor  of  the  seller  of  any 
commodity  between  the  price  at  which  it 
is  sold,  and  the  original  cost  of  produc- 
tion, after  deduction  of  all  charges. 

PROFIT  SHARING,  a  feature  of  the 
general  efforts  being  made  to  reconcile 
the  interests  of  capital  and  labor,  where- 
by the  employees  of  a  factory,  or  any 
commercial  establishment,  are  given  a 
share  of  the  net  profits  produced  by  the 
business.  Profit  sharing  was  first  advo- 
cated by  a  small  group  of  English  social 
reformers,  in  the  middle  of  last  century, 
most  conspicuous  of  which  were  Thomas 
Hughes,  author  of  "Tom  Brown's  School 
Days,"  and  the  famous  novelist,  Charles 
Kingsley.  They  believed  that  the  work- 
ers in  factories  and  other  productive 
manufacturing  plants  should  not  only  re- 
ceive a  share  of  the  net  profits  of  the 
business,  but  should  also  have  a  voice 
in  conducting  it.  This  latter  feature 
has  very  seldom  been  attempted  by  pri- 
vate business  establishments,  but  it  is 
commonly  practiced  in  the  so-called 
"self-governing  workshops,"  co-operative 
groups  of  workingmen  who  also  furnish 
the  capital  with  which  the  business  is 
run. 

Profit  sharing  was  extensively  tried 
out  by  corporations  in  England,  a  gener- 
ation ago,  but  is  less  commonly  prac- 
ticed now  than  then.  In  this  country 
the  practice  ^  has  been  more  widely 
adopted,  and  is  now  being  advocated  as 
a  solution  of  the  conflicting  interests 
between  employers  and  employees. 
Many  corporations  see  in  it,  if  not  such 
a  solution,  at  least  a  preventative  against 
strikes  and  general  social  unrest.  Most 
conspicuous  have  been  the  examples  of 
the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  and 
the  Ford  Motor  Works,  in  Detroit,  Mich. 


In  the  steel  plants  a  finance  committee, 
com.posed  of  officials  of  the  corporation 
and  its  employees,  allocate  a  certain  per- 
centage of  the  net  profits  of  the  year's 
business  to  a  fund  which  is  divided 
among  a  certain  class  of  the  employees 
as  a  bonus  on  wages.  The  employees  are 
encouraged  to  allow  this  money  to  serve 
as  payments  toward  the  purchase  of 
stock  in  the  corporation,  the  object  be- 
ing to  make  them  part  owners  in  the 
business,  therefore  to  arouse  in  them  a 
sense  of  common  interest. 

Profit  sharing  in  the  Ford  Motor 
Works  was  first  instituted  in  1914, 
when  $20,000,000  was  equally  divided 
between  the  dividends  to  invested  capi- 
tal and  the  employees,  the  latter,  num- 
bering 15,000,  sharing  in  the  $10,000,000 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  their 
wages. 

Organized  labor,  as  a  whole,  has  taken 
a  very  strong  stand  against  profit  shar- 
ing as  an  institution.  The  contention 
of  the  representatives  of  the  labor  or- 
ganizations is  that,  while  profit  sharing 
gives  the  workers  no  control  in  the  man- 
agement of  the  business,  it  creates  in 
them  a  sense  of  dependence  on  their  em- 
ployers which  militates  against  the  in- 
terests of  labor  organization.  The  cor- 
poration which  can  afford  to  share  prof- 
its, labor  men  contend,  can  afford  to  pay 
better  wages.  The  tendency  is,  they 
say,  to  decrease  wages  where  profit 
sharing  is  in  practice  and  then,  when 
once  established,  the  workers  may  be 
cheated  of  their  bonws  by  dishonest  book- 
keeping. 

PROGNATHIC,  or  PROGNATHOUS, 

in  ethnology,  a  term  applied  to  the  skull 
of  certain  races  of  men  in  whom  the  jaw 
slants  forward  by  reason  of  the  oblique 
insertion  of  the  teeth. 

PROGRESSION,  the  act  of  progress- 
ing, advancing,  or  moving  forward ;  prog- 
ress, advance.  In  mathematics,  regu- 
lar or  proportional  advance  by  increase 
or  decrease  of  numbers.  A  series  in 
which  the  terms  increase  or  decrease  ac- 
cording to  a  uniform  law.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  progressions,  arithmetical 
and  geometrical.  In  music,  there  are 
two  kinds  of  progression,  melodic  and 
harmonic.  The  former  is  a  succession 
of  sounds  forming  a  tune  or  melody,  but 
the  term  is  also  applied  to  an  imitative 
succession  of  melodic  phrases,  that  is,  to 
a  melodic  sequence.  Harmonic  progres- 
sion is  the  movement  of  one  chord  to 
another,  and  is  diatonic  or  chromatic. 
The  term  is  also  sometimes  used  as  syn- 
onymous with  sequence. 

PROGRESSIVE  PARTY,  an  Amer- 
ican  political   party   that   figured    very 


PROGRESSIVE    PARTY 


355 


PROHIBITION 


largely  during  the  presidential  election 
of  1912.  The  origin  of  the  party  came 
from  the  group  of  Progressive  Republican 
senators  and  congressmen  who  opposed 
President  Taft's  attitude  toward  the 
tariff  and  the  conservation  of  natural 
resources,  regarding  his  position  as  too 
conservative  and  reactionary.  In  the 
pre-convention  primaries  of  1912  this 
group  of  Republicans  persuaded  ex- 
President  Roosevelt  to  become  their 
leader  and  to  again  become  a  candidate 
for  the  Republican  nomination.  Due 
largely  to  tne  forceful  personality  of 
Roosevelt  and  his  vigorous  campaigning 
he  was  able  to  win  sweeping  victories  in 
every  state  where  presidential  prefer- 
ence primaries  were  held  and  came  to 
the  Republican  convention  with  nearly 
half  of  that  body  pledged  to  his  nomina- 
tion. The  conservative  leaders  of  the 
party  by  the  use  of  the  national  com- 
mittee decided  all  of  the  contested  dele- 
gations from  the  south  in  President 
Taft's  favor,  and  thus  were  able  by  a 
narrow  margin,  to  control  the  conven- 
tion and  re-nominate  the  President. 

Roosevelt  and  his  fellow  progressives 
denounced  the  action  of  the  leaders  as 
fraud  and  decided  to  foi-m  a  third  party 
which  should  embody  in  its  platform  their 
principles  and  nominate  their  leader. 
Accordingly  in  August,  1912,  the  Pro- 
gressive party  was  formed  at  a  con- 
vention held  in  Chicago  and  Roosevelt 
was  named  for  President,  and  Governor 
Hiram  Johnson  of  California,  for  Vice- 
President.  The  platform  contained  the 
creed  of  the  Progressives.  It  declared 
in  favor  of  the  direct  election  of  Sen- 
ators, presidental  preference  primaries, 
the  initiative  and  referendum,  maximum 
safety  and  health  standards  for  laborers, 
prohibition  of  child  labor  and  night 
work  for  women,  minimum  wage  stand- 
ards for  women,  woman  suffrage,  and 
the  recall  of  judicial  decisions.  The 
convention  of  the  party  was  character- 
ized by  a  high  note  of  idealism  and  an 
almost  religious  fervor.  Although  not 
expected  to  be  much  of  a  factor  in  the 
race,  the  popularity  and  personality  of 
their  candidate  and  their  excellent  or- 
ganization made  them  formidable  com- 
petitors. The  Progressives  expected  to 
draw  many  votes  from  the  Democratic 
as  well  as  the  Republican  party,  but  the 
nomination  of  Governor  Wilson,  himself 
regarded  as  a  progressive  by  the  Demo- 
crats, largely  confined  the  Progressives 
to  dissatisfied  Republicans  and  moderate 
Socialists. 

During  the  excitement  of  the  cam- 
paign, an  attempt  was  made  to  assassi- 
nate Roosevelt.  Although  he  ultimately 
recovered  in  time  to  close  the  campaign, 
it  took  him  out  of  the  race  at  a  critical 


time.  The  result  of  the  election  was 
that  although  the  Democrats  won  the 
election  by  an  overwhelming  vote  in  the 
electoral  college,  the  Progressives  polled 
a  larger  popular  and  electoral  vote  than 
the  Republicans. 

After  1912,  the  enthusiasm  for  the 
new  party  steadily  waned,  President 
Wilson's  policies  uniting  the  Progres- 
sives and  Republicans  in  opposition.  In 
1916  the  conventions  of  the  two  parties 
were  both  held  in  Chicago  at  the  same 
time,  and  the  Progressives,  under  the 
leadership  of  Roosevelt,  decided  to  sup- 
port the  Republican  candidate.  Justice 
Hughes.  Although  quite  a  few  Pro- 
gressives were  dissatisfied  with  this 
merger,  they  were  not  numerous  or  in- 
fluential enough  to  carry  forward  the 
new  party. 

PROHIBITION,  legislation  forbidding 
the  manufacture  of  and  trade  in  alco- 
holic liquors,  or  even,  in  some  cases,  ren- 
dering the  private  possession  of  such 
liquors  illegal.  Though  the  use  of  spir- 
ituous liquors  is  as  ancient  as  history, 
the  idea  of  checking  their  use  by  legis- 
lation is  of  comparatively  recent  origin. 
It  has  required  the  investigations  of 
modern  medical  science  to  show  the  tre- 
mendous harm  done  to  human  well-being 
and  physical  health  by  the  unrestrained 
use  of  alcoholic  beverages.  With  this 
knowledge,  there  has  been  a  general 
awakening  on  the  part  of  all  peoples  to 
a  realization  of  this  evil  as  preventable, 
and  it  may  now  be  said  that  the  senti- 
ment for  prohibition  is  as  widespread  as 
civilization  itself. 

In  this  country  there  was  already  a. 
prohibition  movement  before  the_  Civil 
War,  which  took  concrete  form  in  the 
heavy  licensing  of  saloons,  with  local  op- 
tion legislation  in  many  small  communi- 
ties. The  first  legislation  of  more  than 
local  character,  however,  was  undoubt- 
edly the  laws  forbidding  the  sale  of 
liquors  to  the  Indians.  The  first  State 
to  take  action  was  Maine.  Here  the  evil 
results  of  drunkenness  was  especially 
obvious,  on  account  of  the  large  quanti- 
ties of  rum  brought  into  the  state  by  the 
traders  sailing  between  Maine  ports  and 
the  West  Indies.  A  strong  agitation  for 
legislation  began  in  1846,  with  the  re- 
sult that  in  1851  a  law  was  passed  pro- 
hibiting the  manufacture  of  and  traffic  in 
all  intoxicating  liquors.  This  law  was 
later  incorporated  into  the  state  consti- 
tution by  amendment.  In  1852  Rhode 
Island,  Massachusetts  and  Vermont  also 
passed  prohibition  laws,  but  these  were 
soon  after  repealed  by  the  two  latter 
states.  Beginning  in  the  early  eighties, 
a  strong  movement  for  prohibition  be- 
gan to  make  headway  in  the  Middle  West, 


PHOHIBITION 


356 


PROJECTILES,    THEORY    OF 


and  during  the  next  few  years  laws  were 
passed  in  Kansas,  Iowa,  North  and  South 
Dakota.  Iowa  later  modified  her  legis- 
lation, through  the  Mulct  Law,  passed  in 
1894,  which  sought  to  institute  a  system 
of  heavy  licensing,  instead  of  pure  pro- 
hibition. The  two  Dakotas  later  com- 
pletely repealed  their  prohibition  laws, 
but  North  Dakota  again  passed  over  to 
the  "dry"  States  in  1914.  Oklahoma 
went  dry  in  1907,  and  Idaho  in  1915. 

Shortly  after  1900  a  growing  sentiment 
against  the  liquor  traffic  became  mani- 
fest in  the  South.  While  moral  consid- 
erations undoubtedly  had  their  influence, 
this  sentiment  was  also  influenced  by  the 
fact  that  it  was  becoming  obvious  to  the 
Southerners  that  the  Negro  problem  was 
becoming  more  difficult  on  account  of  the 
growing  intemperance  of  the  Negroes. 
In  1907  Georgia  passed  a  law  for  prohi- 
bition, and  a  few  months  later  Alabama 
followed  her  example.  Alabama,  how- 
ever, virtually  repealed  her  law  in  1911, 
only  to  re-enact  it  again  in  1915.  Then 
followed  Mississippi  and  North  Carolina, 
in  1908;  West  Virginia,  in  1912;  Vir- 
ginia, in  1914;  Arkansas  and  South  Car- 
olina, in  1915.  Meanwhile,  in  the  West, 
Arizona,  Colorado,  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington joined  the  prohibition  States  in 
1914. 

Behind  this  growing  popular  senti- 
ment pushed  the  propaganda  of  two 
strong  organizations;  the  Prohibition 
party,  which  carried  on  an  intensive  agi- 
tation during  all  the  elections;  and  the 
Anti-Saloon  League.  Of  the  two  the 
latter  undoubtedly  made  the  stronger  ap- 
peal, especially  to  the  women,  who,  bet- 
ter than  the  men,  perhaps,  understood 
the  demoralizing  influence  of  the  saloon 
on  American  youth,  and  on  American 
politics.  As  one  State  after  another 
passed  laws  granting  suflPrage  to  women, 
the  political  power  of  the  Prohibition 
movement  also  grew. 

To  the  above  States,  which  had  passed 
prohibition  laws,  should  be  added  those 
which  passed  local  option  laws;  legisla- 
tion allowing  each  community  to  decide 
for  itself  the  question  of  whether  prohi- 
bition should  prevail  in  its  own  domain. 
These  were  Delaware,  Alabama  and 
Kentucky.  Altogether  there  were  in 
1915  only  three  States  which  had  not 
passed  some  kind  of  legislation  against 
intoxicating  liquors,  these  three  being 
Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey  and  Nevada. 

Early  in  1917  a  constitutional  amend- 
ment was  presented  to  Congress,  but 
failed  to  pass  by  the  necessary  two- 
thirds  majority.  On  December  17,  1917, 
it  was  again  presented,  and  this  time  it 
passed  both  the  House  and  the  Senate. 
On    Nov.    1,    1917,     Congress     enacted 


the  necesary  legislation  to  bring  the 
District  of  Columbia  over  into  dry  terri- 
tory. Meanwhile,  also,  on  Sept.  8, 
1917,  war  prohibition  was  instituted,  for- 
bidding the  further  manufacture  of  spir- 
ituous liquors,  with  the  exception  of  l^er 
and  the  lighter  wines,  this  modification 
being  made  through  the  personal  influ- 
ence of  President  Wilson.  Another  im- 
portant piece  of  legislation  passed  in 
1917  was  the  Reed  Amendment  to  the 
Bankhead  Bill,  going  into  effect  July  1, 
which  forbade  the  shipment  of  liquors 
into  States  where  prohibition  legislation 
had  already  been  enacted. 

During  1918  the  national  amendment 
for  prohibition  was  ratified  by  the  legis- 
latures of  15  States,  though  only  11  of 
these  were  in  regular  session,  indicating 
that  special  sessions  had  been  called  in 
four  cases.  Five  new  States  were  also 
added  to  the  completely  dry  list :  Florida, 
Nevada,  Ohio,  and  Wyoming,  these  by 
constitutional  amendments,  and  Texas, 
by  a  statutory  measure.  Minnesota 
was  only  saved  from  going  dry  by  the 
fact  that  the  majority  of  16,000  voters 
who  voted  in  favor  of  it  were  not  a  ma- 
jority of  the  general  electorate,  the  law 
being  that  a  majority  of  the  voters  in 
the  State  must  pass  it,  and  not  a  ma- 
jority of  those  who  voted  specially  for 
the  measure.  Porto  Rico  and  Alaska, 
of  the  outlying  possessions,  also  went 
dry. 

On  Jan.  16,  1919,  the  required 
ratification  of  three-fourths  of  the  States 
was  secured  by  the  act  of  the  Nebraska 
Legislature,  and  on  January  29  the 
amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  declaring  illegal  the  man- 
ufacture and  sale  of  all  alcoholic  liquors, 
was  adopted  and  incorporated  within  the 
basic  laws  of  the  nation,  to  take  efiect  on 
Jan.  16,  1920.  Eventually  the  amend- 
ment was  ratified  by  all  except  three 
States. 

PROJECTILE,  a  body  projected  or  im- 
pelled forward  by  force,  especially 
through  the  air.  Thus,  a  stone  dis- 
charged from  a  sling,  an  arrow  from  a 
bow,  and  a  bullet  from  a  rifle,  are  all 
projectiles,  but  the  term  is  more  par- 
ticularly applied  to  bodies  discharged 
from  firearms. 

PROJECTILES,  THEORY  OF,  that 
branch  of  mechanics  which  treats  of  the 
motion  of  bodies  thrown  or  driven  some 
distance  by  an  impelling  force,  and 
whose  progress  is  affected  by  gravity 
and  the  resistance  of  the  air.  The  most 
common  cases  are  the  balls  projected 
from  cannon  or  other  firearms.  If 
thrown  horizontally,  the  body  will  move 
in  a  curved  path,  while  it  falls  faster  and 
faster  toward  the  ground.     A  body  pro- 


PBOJECTION 


357 


PROMETHEUS 


jected  obliquely  has  initially  a  certain 
horizontal  velocity  and  a  certain  vertical 
velocity.  It  i-etains  its  horizontal  veloc- 
ity unchanged,  but  its  vertical  velocity  is 
altered  by  the  force  of  gravity,  and  in 
both  of  these  cases  we  find  that  the  path 
of  the  projectile  is  a  parabola.  With  a 
given  velocity  the  greatest  range  of  a 
projectile  is  obtained  by  projecting  at 
an  angle  of  45°  with  the  vertical. 

The  velocity  of  projectiles  fired  from 
modern  guns  ranges  from  1,500  to  3,000 
feet  i>er  second.  It  is  computed  that  the 
average  velocity  of  the  larger  guns  on 
the  cruiser  "New  York"  is  2,100  feet  per 
second.  Our  small  arm  shoots  a  bullet 
only  one-third  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
which  travels  2,000  feet  in  a  second,  or 
a  mile  in  three  seconds.  It  goes  so  fast 
that  it  becomes  hot  to  the  touch,  due  to 
the  resistance  of  the  air  which  it  pushes 
aside.  Strange  to  say,  the  heated  bullet 
will  cauterize  the  wound  of  its  own  mak- 
ing and  few  of  the  wounded  in  the 
Spanish- American  War  in  1898  bled  to 
death,  except  where  struck  in  a  vital 
Bpot. 

Rotational  Velocity. — The  projectile 
has,  besides  the  forward  velocity,  a  ro- 
tational velocity,  which  is  given  to  it  by 
the  rifling  of  the  gun.  Otherwise,  since 
its  length  is  much  greater  than  its  di- 
ameter, it  would  soon  begin  to  turn  end 
on.  The  rifling  prevents  this  by  causing 
the  bullet  to  bore  a  path  through  the  air, 
and  the  higher  the  forward  velocity  the 
higher,  too,  must  be  the  rotational. 

PBOJECTION.  (1)  The  act  of  pro- 
jecting, shooting,  or  throwing  out  or  for- 
ward. (2)  The  state  or  condition  of 
projecting  or  extending  out  farther  than 
something  else;  a  jutting  out.  (3)  A 
part  which  projects  or  extends  out  far- 
ther than  something  else;  a  portion  jut- 
ting out;^  a  prominence.  (4)  Tlie  act 
of  projecting,  planning,  devising,  or  con- 
triving; contrivance.  (5)  A  plan,  a 
project,  a  scheme,  a  design.  (6)  The 
representation  on  a  plane  surface  of  the 
parts  of  an  object;  especially  the  repre- 
sentation of  any  object  on  a  perspective 
plane. 

PBOLAPSUS,  in  pathology,  a  protru- 
sion, as  well  as  a  falling  down,  of  a  part 
of  some  entrail,  so  as  to  be  partly  ex- 
ternal, or  uncovered,  thus  differing  from 
procidence. 

PBOLOGUE,  a  preface  or  introduction 
to  a  discourse  or  performance;  especially 
an  introductory  discourse  or  verses 
spoken  before  a  dramatic  performance 
or  play  begins. 

PBOME,  capital  of  the  district  of 
Prome,  Lower  Burma,  India,  on  the  Irra- 
waddy,  160  miles  N.  of  Rangoon.    Build- 


ings include  a  splendid  Shevesandau  Pa- 
goda, with  83  gilded  temples,  administra- 
tion offices,  markets,  and  a  Christian 
church.  Industries  of  district  comprise 
rice,  sugar,  silk,  cotton.  Former  capital 
of  Prome  kingdom.  Taken  by  British  in 
1825.     Pop.   about  27,500. 

PBOMEBOPS,  in  ornithology,  the  sole 
genus  of  the  Promeropinw. 

PBOMETHEUS,  in  mythology,  the  sou 
of  the  Titan  Japetus,  was  brother  tc 
Atlas  and  Epimethcus,  and  surpassed  all 


PROMETHEUS  AND   THE  OCEANIDS 

mankind  in  cunning.  He  ridiculed  the 
gods,  and  deceived  Jupiter  himself.  To 
punish  Prometheus  and  the  rest  of 
mankind,  Jupiter  took  fire  away  from  the 
earth;  but  Prometheus  climbed  to  the 
heavens,  by  the  assistance  of  Minerva, 
and  stole  fire  from  the  chariot  of  the 
sun.  Jupiter  ordered  Vulcan  to  make 
a  woman  of  clay  and  endowing  her  with 
life  sent  her  to  Prometheus.  Prome- 
theus suspecting  the  snare,  induced  his 
brother  to  marry  her,  when  the  god,  still 
more  irritated,  caused  this  Avily  mortal 


PBOMISSORY    NOTE 


358 


PROPEBTIUS 


to  be  tied  to  a  rock  on  Mount  Caucasus, 
where,  for  30,000  years,  a  vulture  was 
to  feed  on  his  liver.  He  was  delivered 
30  years  afterward,  by  Hercules. 

PROMISSORY  NOTE,  a  wi'itten  prom- 
ise to  pay  a  given  sum  of  money  to  a 
certain  person,  at  a  specified  date.  The 
phrase  "for  value  received"  is  usually  in- 
serted. 

PRONG-HORN  ANTELOPE,  inhabit- 
ing the  W.  parts  of  North  America,  from 
53 '^  N.  to  the  plains  of  Mexico  and  Cali- 
fornia.    It  is  rather  more  than  four  feet 


PRONG-HORN  ANTELOPE 

in  length.  Pale  fawn  above  and  on  the 
limbs;  breast,  abdomen,  and  rump  white. 
The  horns  are  branched. 

PRONOUN,  a  word  used  in  place  of  a 
noun  or  name.  Pronouns  in  English 
are  divided  into:  (1)  Personal,  (2) 
Demonstrative,  (3)  Interrogative,  (4) 
Relative,  and  (5)  Indefinite.  Interrog- 
ative pronouns  are  those  which  serve  to 
ask  a  question,  as  who?  Indefinite  pro- 
nouns, or  such  as  do  not  specify  any 
particular  object,  are  used,  some  as  sub- 
stantives, some  as  adjectives;  as,  any, 
aught. 

PROOFS,      CORRECTION      OF.     The 

corrections  to  be  made  on  a  "proof"  of 
printed  matter  are  marked  on  "the  mar- 
gin; and  for  this  purpose  an  established 
set  of  signs  is  used.  The  following 
specimens  of  a  proof  exhibits  the  appli- 
cation of  most  of  these  signs: 

"To    rule    the    nations    with    imperial 

sw0y,    to    impose    termis    ot    peace,    to  la 

spare    the    humbled,    and   to    rcush    the  2  tr. 

proud,     resigning     itto     others     to     de-  3  J 

scribe   the    courses   of  the  heavens,    and  4  | 
explain    the    risinz    stars;    this,    to    use 


the    words    of    the    poet    of    the    ^neid  5  Itake, 
in     the      apostrophe      of      Anchises     to 

Fabius    in    the     Shades    was    regarded  6  ,/ 

as    the    proper    province    of    a    Roman.  5  S.  capt. 

The    genius    of    the    people    was    fivcn  7  stet. 

more   adverse   to  the   cultivation   of   the  8    9 

physical    sciences    than    that    the    Euro-  9  of 


pean   Greeks   and    lseen|    we  have!    th«t    8  •/  2  tr, 

A  

the    latter    left    experimental    philosophy 

chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Asian   and  10  wf. 

African  colonists.     The  elegant  litera-     8  0 

ture     and     metaphysical     speculations  11 5 

3  2      '       1 

of  Athens,   her  histories,  dramas,   epics,       2  tr, 

and   orations,    had   a   numerous   host   of 
admirers    in    Italy,     but    a    feeling    of  12  Romcm 
indifference      was      displayed      to      the 
practical   science   of  Alexandria.     ['This  13  T 
repugnance    of    the     Roman    mind    at  14  and  its 
home    to     mathematics    and    physics,  despotism 
extending    from    the    Atlantic    to    the      abroad, 
IndianO    cean,    from    Northern    Britain    3  jf  15  ^ 
to    the    cataracts    of    the    Nile,    annihi- 
lated   in    a    measure  -aA^  pure    sciences  18  the 
in    the    conquered    districts   where    they  17 
had  hadr  been   pursued,    and  prohibited  11  5 
attention     to     them 
country. 

Long,      indeed,      after     the     age     of 
Ptolemy^      the      school      in      connection     5  Caps. 
with     which     he     flourished,     remained 

20    V 


in    the    mother    is-/ 
A 

19  Run  on 


in  existence ;   &c 
A 


(1)  A  wrong  letter.  After  every  mark  of  cor- 
rection a  line  |  should  be  drawn,  to  prevent  its 
being  confounded  with  any  other  in  the  same  line. 
(2)  A  word  or  letter  to  be  transposed.  Where 
letters  only  are  to  be  transposed,  it  is  better  to 
strike  them  out,  and  write  them  in  their  proper 
sequence  in  the  margin,  like  a  correction.  (3) 
A  space  wanted.  This  mark  is  also  used  when  the 
spacing  is  insufficient.  (4)  A  space  or  quadrant 
sticking  up.  (5)  Alteration  of  type.  One  line  ia 
drawn  under  the  word  for  italics,  two  for  sm.\ll 
CAPITALS,  three  for  CAPITALS.  (6)  Correction 
or  insertion  of  stops.  (7)  A  word  struck  out.  and 
afterward  approved  of  (Latin  stet,  'let  it  stand"). 
(8)  A  turned  letter.  (9)An  omission.  (10)  A 
letter  of  a  wrong  font.  (11)  A  word  or  letter 
to  be  deleted.  (12)  Alteration  of  type.  (13)  A 
new  paragraph.  (14)  Insertion  of  a  clause.  (15) 
A  space  to  be  removed  or  diminished.  (16)  A 
wrong  word.  (17)  When  letters  or  lines  do  not 
stand  even.  (18)  Mark  for  a  hyphen.  (19)  No 
new  paragraph.  (20)  The  manner  in  which  tha 
apostrophe,  inverted  commas,  the  star  and  other 
references,  and  superior  or  "cock-up  "  letters  and 
figures   are  marked. 

PROPERTIUS.  SEXTT7S  AURELIITS, 
a  Roman  poet;  born  in  Melvina,  about 
52  B.  C.  Nothing  more  of  his  life  is 
known  than  that,  after  the  end  of  the 
civil  war,  he  found  a  patron  at  Rome, 
in  Maecenas,  through  whom  he  obtained 


PROPERTY    TAX 


359 


PROSSNITZ 


the  favor  of  the  emperor.  His  life  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  series  of  amours, 
and  his  "elegies"  are  expressions  of  his 
passion. 

PROPERTY  TAX,  a  rate  or  duty 
levied  by  the  State,  county,  or  muni- 
cipality on  the  property  of  individuals, 
the  value  of  the  property  being  fixed  by 
assessment. 

PROPHETS,  THE,  men  divinely  in- 
spired, and  who  often  uttered  predictions 
of  future  events.  Three  Hebraic  words 
are  applied  to  the  Old  Testament  pro- 
phets; the  most  common  is  nabhi,  from 
the  verb  nabka  =  primarily,  to  bubble 
forth,  to  send  forth  copious  floods  of 
speech,  hence  in  Niphal=to  speak  tinder 
a  divine  impulse,  to  prophesy. 

PROPORTION,  a  word  with  several 
applications. 

In  archseology,  art,  etc.,  that  due  ob- 
servance of  the  balance  of  parts,  in  a 
statue  or  picture,  which  constitutes  ex- 
cellence. In  arithmetic,  a  rule  by  which 
from  three  given  quantities  a  fourth 
may  be  found  bearing  the  same  ratio  to 
the  third  as  the  second  bears  to  the 
first.  Also  called  the  Rule  of  Three. 
In  mathematics,  the  relation  which  one 
quantity  bears  to  another  of  the  same 
kind,  with  respect  to  magnitude  or 
numerical  value. 

Compound  proportion,  the  equality  of 
the  ratio  of  two  quantities  to  another 
ratio,  the  antecedent  and  consequent  of 
which  are  respectively  the  products  of 
the  antecedents  and  consequents  of  two 
or  more  ratios.  Reciprocal  proportion: 
a  proportion  in  which  the  first  term  is 
to  the  second  as  the  fourth  to  the  third, 
4:2::3:6.  Rhythmical  proportion  in 
music.  The  proportion  in  relation  to 
time  or  measure  between  different  notes 
representing  durations;  thus,  the  semi- 
breve  is  to  the  minim  as  2:1,  the  semi- 
breve  to  the  crotchet  as  4:1.  Simple 
proportion:  The  relation  of  equality 
subsisting  between  two  ratios. 

PROPORTIONAL  REPRESENTA- 
TION, an  idea  of  representation  a  reali- 
zation of  which  would  insure  the  pres- 
ence in  a  representative  assembly  of 
members  divided  in  opinions  in  the  same 
proportion  in  respect  of  numbers  as  the 
community  represented. 

PROPOSITION,  in  geometry  and 
mathematics,  a  statement  in  terms  of 
something  proposed  to  be  proved  or  done. 
In  grammar,  a  sentence,  or  part  of  one, 
consisting  of  a  subject,  a  predicate,  and 
copula.  In  logic,  a  sentence,  or  part  of 
a  sentence,  affirming  or  denying  a  con- 
nection between  the  terms;  limited  to  ex- 
press assertions  rather  than  extended  to 


questions  and  commands.  In  poetry,  the 
first  part  of  a  poem,  in  which  the  author 
states  the  subject  or  matter  of  it.  In 
rhetoric,  that  which  is  proposed,  offered, 
or  affirmed,  as  the  subject  of  a  discourse 
or  discussion. 

PROPYLAEUM,  in  Greek  architec- 
ture, a  portico  in  front  of  a  gate  or 
temple  doorway;  the  entrance  to  a  Greek 
temple,  a  sacred  inclosure,  consisting  of 
a  gateway  flanked  by  buildings. 

PROSECUTION,  in  law,  (1)  the  in- 
stituting and  carrying  on  of  a  suit  in 
court  of  law  or  equity  to  obtain  some 
right,  or  to  redress  and  punish  an  injury 
or  wrong.  (2)  The  act  or  process  of 
exhibiting  formal  charges  against  an  of- 
fender before  a  legal  tribunal,  and  pur- 
suing them  to  final  judgment;  the  insti- 
tuting and  continuing  of  a  criminal  suit 
against  any  person  or  persons.  (3) 
The  party  by  whom  crinoinal  proceedings 
are  instituted;  the  prosecutor  or  prose- 
cutors collectively. 

PROSELYTE,  a  new  convert  to  some 
religion,  sect,  opinion,  party,  or  system. 

PROSERPINE,  in  mythology,  a 
daughter  of  Ceres  and  Jupiter,  of  ex- 
trenie  innocence  and  beauty,  and  who, 
while  gathering  flowers  in  the  lovely  vale 
of  Tempe,  was  carried  off  by  the  god  of 
the  infernal  regions,  Pluto.  The  pray- 
ers and  intercessions  of  her  mother  ulti- 
mately prevailed  on  Pluto  to  permit  her 
to  spend  half  of  each  year  on  earth. 

PROSKUROV,  a  town  in  Podolia, 
Russia,  near  the  confluence  of  Ploskaya 
and  the  Bug,  on  the  railway  from  Odessa 
to  Lemberg.  Its  manufactures  include 
sugar,  flour,  tobacco,  oil  and  pottery, 
while  market  gardening  is  extensive  in 
district.  Buildings  are  mostly  of  wood, 
with  Orthodox  Cathedral.  Jews,  who 
number  half  of  the  population,  carry  on 
export  trade.     Pop,  about  45,000. 

PROSODY,  that  part  of  grammar 
which  treats  of  the  quantities  of  sylla- 
bles, of  accent,  and  of  the  laws  of  versi- 
fication. 

PROSqPOPEIA,    or   PROSOPOPOEIA, 

in  rhetoric,  a  figure  by  which  things  are 
represented  as  persons,  or  inanimate  ob- 
jects as  animate  beings,  or  by  which  an 
absent  person  is  represented  as  speak- 
ing, or  a  deceased  person  as  alive  and 
present.  It  is  more  extensive  than  per- 
sonification. 

PROSSNITZ,  a  town  in  Moravia, 
Czecho-Slovakia,  on  the  Rumza,  12  miles 
S.  W.  of  Olmiitz.  Buildings  include 
town  hall,  large  grain  market,  fine 
church  and  schools.  Is  center  of  pros- 
perous  and   fruitful   region.     Its  indus- 


PROSTATE    GLAND 


360        PBOTECTIVE    ASSOCIATION 


tries  include  wool,  cotton,  linen,  liquors, 
tools,  and  geese  breeding.  Pop.  about 
35,000. 

PROSTATE  GLAND,  the  largest  of  all 
the  organs  connected  with  the  male  gen- 
erative system, 

PROSTITUTION.  In  law,  the  com- 
mon lewdness  of  a  woman  for  gain. 
The  act  of  permitting  a  common  and 
indiscriminate  sexual  intercourse  for 
hire. 

PROSTYLE,  in  architecture,  a  temple 
vvhich  has  a  portico  in  one  front,  con- 
sisting of  insulated  columns  with  their 
entablatures  and  fastigium.  Also  a 
portico  in  which  the  columns  stand  out 
quite  free  from  the  walls  of  the  build- 
ing to  which  it  is  attached. 

PROTAGORAS,  a  Greek  sophist;  born 
in  Abdera,  480  B.  C.  He  was  taught  by 
Democritus,  and  became  a  teacher  at 
Athens,  and  was  banished  on  the  charge 
of  atheism.  Plato  has  illustrated  the 
doctrines  and  the  fame  of  this  sophist  in 
the  dialogue  named  after  him.  None  of 
the  writings  of  Protagoras  are  extant. 
He  died  probably  about  411. 

PROTEACEiE,  proteads;  shrubs  or 
small  trees,  with  hard  dry  leaves.  From 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Australia. 
Known  genera  44,  species  650. 

PROTECTION,  one  of  the  theories 
concerning  the  best  development  of  a 
country's  industries  by  means  of  taxes 
levied  for  other  than   fiscal  purposes. 

Incidental  protectionists  deny  and 
limited  protectionists  affirm  the  wisdom 
of  levying  tariff  duties  with  the  inten- 
tion and  purpose  of  protecting  home  in- 
dustries. The  limited  protectionists 
would  have  the  legislation  of  the  state 
take  particular  cognizance  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  industries  of  the  people,  and 
would  have  the  law  enacted  with  con- 
stant reference  to  the  encouragement  of 
the  weaker — generally  the  manufactur- 
ing— pursuits.  The  doctrine  of  inci- 
lental  protection  is  to  "let  alone"  so  far 
IS  the  original  purpose  of  legislation  is 
oncerned,  but  would  at  the  same  time  so 
shape  the  tariff  that  a  needed  stimulus 
should  be  given  to  certain  industries. 
The  limited  protectionist  agrees  with 
the  free-trader  in  assenting  to  the  prop- 
osition that  the  original  condition 
of  industry  is  found  in  nature — in  the 
environment  of  the  laborer,  also  that  the 
necessity  for  a  varied  industry  is  so 
great,  so  important  to  the  welfare  and 
independence  of  a  people,  as  to  justify 
the  deflection  of  human  energies  by  law 
to  certain  pursuits  which  could  not  be 
profitably  followed  but  for  the  fact  of 


protection.  This  makes  a  reason  for 
tariff  legislation.  The  weaker  industry 
lives  and  thrives  by  the  side  of  the 
stronger  and  thus  modifies  the  crude 
rules  of  nature  by  the  higher  rules  of 
human  reason.  The  protectionist  would 
keep  in  view  the  strength  and  dignity  of 
the  State  and  would  be  willing  to  incur 
temporary  disadvantages  for  the  sake  of 
a  permanent  good. 

The  doctrine  of  high  protection  is  that 
the  assumptions  of  free  trade  are  spe- 
cious and  false.  The  influence  of  man  on 
his  environment  is  so  great  as  to  make  it 
virtually  whatever  the  law  of  right  rea- 
son would  suggest,  namely,  that  every 
nation  should  be  independent.  Its  sov- 
ereignty and  equality  should  be  secured 
by  every  means  short  of  injustice.  In 
order  that  a  State  may  be  independent 
and  able  to  make  out  for  itself  a  great 
destiny,  its  industries  must  afford  em- 
ployment for  all  the  talents  and  facul- 
ties of  man,  and  yield  products  adapted 
to  all  his  wants.  To  devote  the  energies 
of  a  people  to  those  industries  only  which 
are  suggested  by  the  situation  or  en- 
vironment is  to  make  a  man  a  slave  to 
nature  instead  of  nature's  master. 

Not  only  should  every  state,  but  every 
community,  be  made  comparatively  in- 
dependent. Every  community  should  be 
able,  by  its  own  industries,  to  supply  at 
least  the  larger  part  of  its  own  wants. 
This  cannot  be  accomplished  in  any  other 
way  than  by  the  legal  protection  of  those 
industries  which  do  not  flourish  under 
the  action  of  merely  natural  laws.  In- 
ternal trade  is,  according  to  this  doc- 
trine, the  principal  thing,  and  commer- 
cial intercourse  with  foreign  states  a 
matter  of  secondary  or  even  dubious  ad- 
vantage. If  the  price  of  the  given  home 
product  be  not  sufficient  to  stimulate  its 
production  in  such  quantities  as  to  meet 
all  the  requirements  of  the  market,  then 
that  price  should  be  raised  by  means  of 
legislation,  and  raised  again  and  again, 
till  the  foreign  trade  shall  cease,  and 
home  manufacture  be  supplied  in  its 
place. 

PROTECTIVE  ASSOCIATION, 
AMERICAN,  a  league  composed  of  ovei 
25,000  American  volunteers,  formed  in 
March,  1917,  to  aid  the  Government 
in  putting  down  sedition  and  espionage. 
Mr.  A.  Briggs  was  made  chairman  of  the 
volunteer  auxiliary.  The  first  working 
unit  of  the  league  was  organized  in  Chi- 
cago, with  Mr.  Frey  as  its  head.  The 
association  was  built  on  military  lines; 
every  large  city  forming  a  division; 
each  division  made  up  of  several  dis- 
tricts, with  a  captain  over  each  unit. 
The  executive  control  was  centralized  in 
a   Board   of   National    Directors,   whose 


mOTECTOB 


361 


PROTEST 


headquarters  were  at  Washington,  D.  C. 
The  league  co-operated  with  the  De- 
partment of  Justice,  Red  Cross,  Y.  W. 
e.  A.,  Army  Intelligence,  Navy  In- 
telligence, Alien  Property  Custodian, 
Shipping  Board,  Food  Administration, 
Jewish  Welfare  Board,  and  various 
other  organizatioBS. 

PB-OTECTOB,  in  English  history,  one 
who  had  the  care  of  the  kingdom  during 
the  minority  of  the  king;  a  regent;  speci- 
fically applied  to  Oliver  Cromwell,  who 
took  the  title  of  Lord  Protector  in  1653. 
In  ecclesiology,  a  cardinal  belonging  to 
one  of  the  more  important  Catholic  na- 
tions, who,  in  Rome,  watches  over  ques- 
tions affecting  his  country.  There  are 
also  cardinal  protectors  of  religious  or- 
ders, colleges,  etc. 

PROTEINS,  a  class  of  complex  sub- 
stances occurring  in  plants  and  animals, 
and  differing  from  the  other  main  con- 
stituents (carbohydrates  and  fats)  in 
that  they  contain  nitrogen.  They  are 
also  known  under  the  name  of  proteids, 
albumens  and  albumenoids,  but  there  is 
a  tendency  to  call  the  nitrogenous  con- 
stituents, as  a  class,  "proteins,"  restrict- 
ing the  terms  "albumen"  and  "albumen- 
oids" to  sub-groups.  Of  all  the  constit- 
uents of  food  the  proteins  are  the  most 
important.     Without   them    life    is    im- 

Sossible,  for  it  is  the  proteins  which 
uild  the  tissues  and  repair  the  waste  of 
daily  life.  On  the  other  hand,  with  pro- 
tein, water  and  a  little  mineral  matter, 
life  can  be  maintained  indefinitely. 
Flesh  foods  of  all  kinds,  including  fish, 
are  high  in  protein,  as  are  also  eggs, 
Huts,  cheese  and  peas  and  beans.  It  is 
estimated  that  an  adult  requires,  on  the 
average,  120  grams  of  protein  daily.  ^  In 
the  body,  proteins  are  decomposed  into 
peptones  and  then  to  amino  acids,  in 
which  form  they  are  carried  by  the  blood 
to  the  tissues,  any  excess  being  con- 
verted into  urea  by  the  liver,  this,  in 
turn,  being  excreted  by  the  kidneys. 

The  chemical  nature  of  proteins  has 
been  investigated  by  the  famous  German 
themist,  Emil  Fischer,  and  his  pupils. 
More  than  fifty  different  varieties  have 
been  identified.  A  classification  of  these 
varieties  was  made  by  a  joint  committee 
of  the  Chemical  and  Physiological  Socie- 
ties of  London,  and  was  submitted  to 
American  scientific  bodies  for  criticism. 
As  amended  and  completed  by  the  latter, 
the  classification  divided  the  proteins 
into  the   following   groups. 

A.  Simple  Proteins,  in  which  group 
are  included  the  protamines,  histones, 
albumins,  globulins,  prolamines,  glute- 
lins  and  sclero-proteins  (or  albumen- 
oids). 

B.  Conjugated  Proteins,  consisting  of 


those  proteins  having,  in  combination, 
other  groups,  such  as  carbohydrates, 
phosphorus,  etc.,  and  including  the 
nucleoproteins,  glycoproteins,  hemoglo- 
bins, phosphoproteins  and  lecithoprotcins. 

C.  Derived  Proteins,  consisting  of 
compounds  derived  from  proteins  by 
hydrolysis. 

D.  Proteans  or  Metaproieims,  includ- 
ing coagulated  proteins,  proteoses,  pep- 
tones, etc. 

Proteins  as  a  elass  are  distinguished 
by  the  large  size  of  their  molecules, 
which  renders  possible  their  separation 
from  simpler  substances  by  dialysis,  the 
smaller  molecules  passing  through  the 
dialyzer,  while  the  larger  protein  mole- 
cules are  retained.  In  other  respects 
the  proteins  of  the  various  groups  differ 
greatly  in  their  chemical  and  physical 
characteristics.  Some  (e.  g.  horn)  are 
Insoluble  in  all  solvents;  others,  such  as 
egg  albumin,  are  soluble  in  water;  still 
others,  of  which  the  globulins  are  an 
example,  are  insoluble  in  pure  water,  but 
soluble  in  salt  solutions.  Nearly  all  the 
soluble  proteins  can  be  precipitated  from 
their  solutions  by  the  addition  of  salts, 
although,  here  again,  there  is  great  vari- 
ation in  their  behavior  with  different 
salts,  and  in  the  amount  of  the  salt 
necessary  to  bring  about  the  precipita- 
tion. It  was  formerly  believed  that  no 
proteins  could  be  obtained  in  crystal- 
line form,  but  of  recent  years,  egg  al- 
bumin and  serum  have  both  been  crystal- 
lized, the  method  employed  being  to  mix 
the  protein  with  an  equal  bulk  of  con- 
centrated ammonium  sulphate  solution, 
filter,  and  acidify  the  filtrate  with  acetic 
or  sulphuric  acid. 

PROTEST,  ordinarily,  a  solemn  affir- 
mation or  declaration  of  opinion  (fre- 
quently in  writing),  generally  in  opposi- 
tion to  some  act  or  proposition;  a  solemn 
affirmation  by  which  a  person  declares 
either  that  he  entirely  dissents  from  and 
disapproves  of  any  act  or  proposition,  or 
else  only  conditionally  gives  his  assent 
or  consent  to  an  act  or  proposition,  to 
which  he  might  otherwise  be  considered 
to  have  assented  unconditionally. 

In  commerce,  a  formal  declaration  by 
the  holder  of  a  bill  of  exchange  or 
promissory  note,  or  by  a  notary  public  at 
his  direction,  that  acceptance  or  payment 
of  such  bill  or  note  has  been  refused, 
and  that  the  holder  intends  to  recover  all 
expenses  to  which  he  may  be  put  in 
consequence  of  such  non-acceptance  or 
non-payment. 

In  marine  insurance,  a  declaration 
made  on  oath  by  the  captain  of  a  vessel 
which  has  met  with  any  disaster  at  sea, 
or  has  been  compelled  to  run  into  a  for- 
eign   or    intermediate    port    for    safety. 


PROTESTANT 

The  protest  should  be  made  as  soon  as 
he  enters  the  port,  ...  the  limit  usually 
assigned  being  within  24  hours  of  his 
arrival. 

The  word  is  also  applied  to  a  declara- 
tion made  by  a  party  before  or  while 
paying  a  tax,  duty,  or  the  like  demanded 
of  him  which  he  deems  illegal,  denying 
the  justice  of  the  demand,  and  asserting 
his  own  rights  and  claims  in  order  to 
show  that  the  payment  was  not  volun- 
tary. 

PKOTESTANT,  one  who  protests.  In 
Church  history,  the  name  given  to  those 
princes  and  others  who,  on  April  19, 
1529,  at  the  second  diet  of  Speyer,  pro- 
tested against  the  decision  of  the  ma- 
jority, that  the  permission  given  three 
years  before  to  every  prince  to  regulate 
religious  matters  in  his  dominions  till 
the  meeting  of  a  General  Council  should 
be  revoked,  and  that  no  change  should 
be  made  till  the  council  met.  Besides 
protesting,  they  appealed  to  the  emperor 
and  to  the  future  council.  The  diet  re- 
jecting their  protest,  they  presented  a 
mere  extended  one  next  day.  Those  first 
Protestants  were  John,  Elector  of  Sax- 
ony; the  Margrave  George  of  Branden- 
burg, Onolzbach,  and  Culmbach;  the 
Dukes  Ernest  and  Francis  of  Liineburg; 
the  Landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse;  Wolf- 
gang, Prince  of  Anhalt,  and  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  imperial  cities  of 
Strassbui'g,  Ulm,  Nuremberg,  Constance, 
Reutlingen,  Windsheim,  Memmingen, 
Lindau,  Kempten,  Heilbronn,  Isny,  Weis- 
senburg,  Nordlingen,  and  St.  Gall.  The 
name  is  now  extended  to  all  persons  and 
churches  holding  the  doctrines  of  the 
Reformation  and  rejecting  papal  author- 
ity. 

PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL 
CHURCH,  a  denomination  in  the  United 
States  directly  descended  from  the 
Church  of  England,  which  doctrinally 
claims  to  be  based  on  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, as  interpreted  in  the  Apostles  and 
other  ancient  creeds  of  the  Church  that 
have  been  universally  received,  and  to 
have  kept  herself  aloof  from  all  the 
modern  systems  of  faith,  whether  of  Cal- 
vin, or  Luther,  or  Arminius,  leaving  her 
members  free  to  enjoy  their  own  opin- 
ions and  refusing  to  be  narrowed  down 
to  any  other  creed  or  creeds  than  those 
of  the  Apostles  and  the  Primitive 
Church.  She  claims  also  to  have  re- 
tained all  that  is  essential  to  church  or- 
ganization in  her  episcopate,  and  in  her 
liturgy  to  have  not  only  a  wise  and  judi- 
cious compend  of  doctrine  and  devotion, 
but  also  one  of  the  most  effectual  of  all 
possible  conservative  safeguards  for  the 
faith  once  delivered  to  the  saints.  The 
characteristic  tenets   of  the   Church   of 


362  PROTEUS 

England,  besides  the  fundamental  doc- 
trines of  the  Trinity  and  redemption 
through  the  all-sufficient  atonement  once 
made  for  all  by  the  death  of  Christ  on 
the  cross,  are  a  regeneration  or  spiritual 
birth  in  baptism,  in  which  the  baptized 
becomes  a  member  of  the  Church,  and  a 
growth  in  grace  by  the  use  of  the  sacra- 
ments and  ministrations  of  the  Church 
duly  administered  and  duly  received, 
made  efficacious  by  the  word  of  divine 
truth  and  the  gracious  influences  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  freely  given  to  all  who  duly 
seek  and  faithfully  use  them.  The 
Church  has  power  to  decree  rites  or  cere- 
monies, and  to  decide  matters  of  faith; 
clei-gymen  are  allowed  to  marry;  and 
communion  is  to  be  given  in  both  kinds. 
The  number  of  sacraments  is  two — bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  Supper.  Three 
clerical  orders  are  recognized — bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons.  Those  of  the  sec- 
ond order  are  entitled  archdeacons, 
deans,  rectors,  vicars,  or  curates,  accord- 
ing to  their  functions. 

From  the  time  of  the  first  congrega- 
tions of  the  Church  of  England  in  Amer- 
ica, in  1607,  to  the  close  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, all  the  clergy  in  the  colonies  were 
regarded  as  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Bishop  of  London.  The  first  American 
bishop  was  Rev.  Samuel  Seabury,  who, 
in  1783,  was  consecrated  in  Scotland  as 
Bishop  of  Connecticut.  All  Protestant 
Episcopal  churches  in  the  United  States 
are  associated  in  one  national  body, 
called  the  General  Convention,  which 
meets  triennially.  The  General  Conven- 
tion directs  the  manner  in  which  the 
qualifications  of  candidates  for  orders 
shall  be  estimated  and  determined;  regu- 
lates the  particulars  in  regard  to  the 
election  and  ordination  of  the  orders  of 
the  ministry;  defines  the  nature  of  ec- 
clesiastical offenses,  and  decrees  the  pun- 
ishment thereof;  settles  the  particular 
form  and  orders  of  its  common  prayer, 
and  publishes  authorized  editions  of  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer;  and  directs 
the  mode  and  manner  of  its  intercourse 
with  foreign  churches.  No  law  or  canon 
can  be  enacted  without  the  concurrence 
of  both  clergy  and  laity.  In  1919  the 
Communicants  in  the  United  States 
numbered  1,098,173,  the  Churches  7,425, 
and  the  Ministers  5,544. 

PROTEUS,  in  the  Homeric  or  oldest 
Greek  mythology,  a  prophetic  "old  man 
of  the  sea,"  who  tends  the  sea  flocks  of 
Poseidon  (Neptune),  and  has  the  gift  of 
endless  transformation.  His  ^  favorite 
residence,  according  to  Homer,  is  the  is- 
land of  Pharos,  off  the  mouth  of  the 
Nile;  but  according  to  Vergil,  the  island 
of  Carpathos  (now  Skarpanto),  between 
Crete    and    Rhodes.     Proteus    was    very 


PROTHERO 


363 


PROUTY 


"unwilling  to  prophesy,  and  tried  to  es- 
cape by  adopting  all  manner  of  shapes 
and  disguises.  When  he  found  his  en- 
deavors hopeless  he  resumed  his  proper 
form,  and  then  spoke  out  unerringly 
about  the  future. 

PROTHERO,   ROWLAND  EDMUND, 

an  English  historian  born  in  1852  at 
Clifton-on-Teme  in  Hampshire.  Edu- 
cated at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  he  grad- 
uated with  high  honors  in  modern  his- 
tory and  obtained  a  fellowship  in  All 
Souls'  College  in  1875.  From  1894  to 
1899  he  was  editor  of  the  "Quarterly 
Review."  He  became  one  of  the  princi- 
pal editors  of  the  "Cambridge  Modern 
History,"  the  most  authoritative  and 
scholarly  of  all  the  general  modern  his- 
tories in  English.  Among  his  other  his- 
torical works  are:  "Letters  of  Edward 
Gibbon"  (1896) ;  "Life  of  Queen  Vic- 
toria" (1897) ;  "Letters  and  Journals  of 
Lord  Byron"    (1900). 

PROTOCOL,  the  original  draft  or  copy 
of  a  deed,  contract  or  other  document. 
In  diplomacy,  the  minutes  or  rough  draft 
of  an  instrument  or  transaction;  the 
original  copy  of  a  treaty,  dispatch,  or 
other  document;  a  document  serving  as 
the  preliminary  to  diplomatic  negotia- 
tions; a  diplomatic  document  or  minute 
of  proceedings,  signed  by  the  representa- 
tives of  friendly  powers  in  order  to  se- 
cure certain  political  ends  peacefully;  a 
convention  not  subject  to  the  formalities 
of  ratification. 

PROTO-NOTARY,  a  member  of  the 
College  of  Proto-notaries  Apostolic  in 
the  papal  curia,  whose  duties  are  to 
register  pontifical  acts,  make  and  keep 
the  records  of  beatifications,  etc. 

PROTOPLASM,  in  biology,  etc.,  the 
living  matter  from  which  all  kinds  of 
living  things  are  formed  and  developed, 
and  to  the  properties  of  which  all  their 
functions  are  ultimately  referred.  It 
was  first  noticed  and  described  by  Roesel 
von  Rosenhof,  in  his  account  of  the  Pro- 
teus-animalcule, and  was  named  sarcode 
by  Dujardin  in  1835. 

PROTORNIS,  a  genus  of  Passerine 
birds,  with  one  species,  Protornis  glan- 
ensie,  from  the  Lower  Eocene  Slates  of 
Claris.  It  was  somewhat  similar  to  a 
lark,  and  is  the  earliest  known  Passerine. 

PROTOROSAURUS,  or  PROTERO- 
SAtTRUS,  a  genus  of  Lacertilia,  founded 
by  Von  Meyer,  to  include  what  was 
deemed  the  fossil  monitor  of  Thuringia. 
The  neck  is  long,  the  skull  of  moderate 
size,  the  tail  long  and  slender,  the  teeth 
sharp-pointed  and  implanted  in  sockets, 
the  cervical  vertebrse  slightly  amphicoe- 
lous. 


PROTOZOA,  a  group  of  animals,  oc- 
cupying the  lowest  place  in  the  animal 
kingdom.  They  consist  of  a  single  cell, 
or  or  a  group  of  cells  not  differentiated 
into  two  or  more  tissues ;  incapable,  as  a 
rule,  of  assimilating  nitrogen  in  its  dif- 
fusible compounds.  The  food  is  taken 
into  the  protoplasm,  either  by  a  special- 
ized mouth  or  by  any  part  of  the  cell  sub- 
stance, in  the  form  of  particles. 

PROTRACTOR,  a  mathematical  in- 
strument, used  in  drawing  or  plotting, 
for  the  laying  down  of  angles.  It  is 
variously  shaped,  and  may  be  circular, 
semicircular,  or  rectangular. 

PROUDHON,  PIERRE  JOSEPH,  a 
French  publicist;  born  in  Besangon, 
France,  July  15,  1809.  He  was  em- 
ployed in  various  printing  offices  till 
1837,  but  had  found  time  to  think  and 
study.  The  sense  of  the  inequality  of 
conditions  among  men,  and  of  the  social 
stigma  attached  to  poverty,  gave  perma- 
nent direction  to  his  speculations  and  en- 
deavors. In  1840  appeared  his  famous 
memoir,  entitled,  "What  is  Property?" 
his  answer  to  this  question,  "Property 
is  Theft,"  being  almost  all  that  is  popu- 
larly known  of  him.  After  the  revolu- 
tion of  February,  1848,  Proudhon  was 
editor  of  *'The  People's  Representa- 
tive," and  attracted  great  attention  and 
popularity,  and  was  chosen  member  of 
the  Constituent  Assembly.  But  he  found 
no  hearing,  and  therefore  started  a 
newspaper  under  the  title  of  "The  Peo- 
ple," which  was  suppressed.  In  1849,  he 
founded  his  People's  Bank,  but  being 
soon  after  sentenced,  under  the  press 
laws,  to  three  years'  imprisonment  and  a 
fine,  he  left  France,  and  the  bank  was 
closed  by  the  government.  He  died  in 
Passy,  France,  Jan  19,  1865. 

PROUT,  SAMUEL,  an  English  water- 
color  painter;  born  in  Plymouth,  Eng- 
land, Sept.  17,  1783.  He  studied  from 
nature,  and  sketched  with  Hay  don 
through  Devon  and  Cornwall,  his  draw- 
ings in  the  latter  county  being  made  for 
Britton's  "Beauties  of  England  and 
Wales."  In  1805  he  removed  to  Lon- 
don, in  1815  was  elected  to  the  Water- 
color  Society.     He  died  Feb.  9,  1852. 

PROUTY,  CHARLES  AZRO,  an 
American  economist.  Born  in  1853  at 
Newport,  Vt.,  he  graduated  from  Dart- 
mouth College  in  the  class  of  '75,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1882.  From 
1888  to  1896  he  held  the  position  of  re- 
porter of  the  Vermont  Supreme  Court. 
President  McKinley  in  1897  appointed 
him  a  member  of  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission  and  in  a  few  years 
was  a  recognized  master  of  the  growing 
problem  of  transportation.     In  1912  he 


PBOVENCAI. 


364 


PROVERB 


served  as  chairman  of  the  Commission. 
Prouty  is  the  author  of  two  works  on 
economics,  "Transportation— Everyday 
Ethics"  (1910),  and  "The  Trust  Prob- 
lem"  (1911). 

PROVENCAL,  a  romance  dialect  that 
sprang  up  m  France  on  the  decline  of 
literary  Latin.  Originally  Provencal 
and  Northern  French  came  from  the 
same  stock,  but  by  the  12th  century  they 
differed  almost  as  widely  as  French  and 
Italian.  Owing  to  its  rhyming  facilities 
it  was  essentially  the  language  of  the 
troubadours  and  extended  over  the  area 
from  the  Alps  to  the  Pyrenees  and  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Loire,  as  well  as  in 
Darts  of   Spain   and   Switzerland. 

The  first  historic  Provencal  author 
was  Guillem  IX.,  Count  of  Poitiers,  who 
lived  toward  the  end  of  the  11th  century. 
The  following  150  years  was  the  most 
brilliant  period  of  the  troubadours,  and 
marked  the  highest  development  of  Pro- 
vencal. With  the  13th  century  the  real 
literary  Provencal  disappeared,  but  in 
the  19th  it  was  again  revived  by  such 
poets  as  Jacques,  Jasmin,  Romanille,  Mis- 
tral, and  Aubanel,  who  started  a  move- 
ment for  the  preservation  of  Provencal 
languages  and  customs.  See  Trouba- 
dour. 

PROVENCE,  formerly  a  maritime 
province  of  France,  bounded  on  the  S. 
by  the  Mediterranean,  and  comprising 
the  modern  departments  of  Bouches  du 
Rhone,  Var,  Basses-Alpes,  and  parts  of 
Alpes  Maritimes  and  Vaucluse.  Pro- 
vence was  overrun  in  the  5th  century  by 
the  Visigoths  and  Burgundians,  for  a 
time  was  under  the  Saracens,  and_  in  879 
was  mostly  incorporated  with  Cisjuran 
Burgundy  and  with  it  was  attached  to 
Germany.  The  main  part  of  the  region 
remained,  however,  under  the  Counts  of 
Aries,  also  known  as  Counts  of  Provence, 
and  was  practically  independent.  Un- 
der the  Angevin  princes  the  constitution 
of  Provence,  vdth  its  three  estates  hold- 
ing the  power  of  the  purse,  was  well  bal- 
anced and  free;  and  it  is  possible  that 
"hrough  Simon  de  Montfort  the  English 
jjarliamentary  constitution  may  be  in- 
debted to  it.  The  last  of  the  counts, 
Charles,  grandson  of  Rene  the  Good,  be- 
queathed his  country  to  the  dauphin  of 
France;  and  it  was  united  to  that  coun- 
,ry  in  1486  by  Charles  VIII. 

PROVERB,  an  old  and  common  say- 
ing; a  short  or  pithy  sentence  often  re- 
peated, and  containing  or  expressing 
some  well-known  truth  or  common  fact 
ascertained  by  experience  or  observa- 
tion; a  sentence  which  briefly  and  forci- 
bly expresses  some  practical  truth.  Un- 
less a  saying  is  capable  of  being  applied 


to  a  variety  of  cases  it  can  never  be- 
come a  proverb.  Every  Oriental  collec- 
tion abounds  in  proverbs  like  "The  ant 
got  wings  to  her  destruction."  "They 
came  to  shoe  the  Pasha's  horses,  and  the 
beetle  held  out  his  foot,"  "They  asked 
the  mule,  'Who  is  thy  father?'  'The 
horse,'  said  he,  'is  my  maternal  uncle.' " 
By  purists,  perhaps,  these  and  others  ot 
the  same  species,  including  the  familiar 
"pot  and  kettle,"  may  be  denied  a  place 
among  the  proverbs  proper ;  but  thej  ful- 
fill all  the  functions  of  the  proverb,  and 
they  serve  moreover  to  show  how  near 
akin  are  these  two  venerable  vehicles  of 
old-world  wisdom,  the  fable  and  the  pro- 
verb. We  are  apt  to  use  proverbs  auto- 
matically. So  completely  have  they  en- 
grafted themselves  that  we  talk  of  gift 
horses,  and  half-loaves,  and  a  bird  in  the 
hand,  and  sauce  for  the  goose  mechani- 
cally and  without  any  thought  of  speak- 
ing proverbially.  There  is  no  family, 
perhaps,  that  has  not  proverbs  or  rudi- 
mentary proverbs  of  its  own,  founded  on 
some  adventure  or  drollery  or  blunder  of 
one  of  its  members,  and  used  proverbi- 
ally by  all,  often  to  the  perplexity  of  the 
uninitiated  \dsitor;  and  what  is  true  of 
the  family  is  true  of  the  community  on  a 
more  extensive  scale.  It  has  its  own 
current  sayings,  allusions,  comparisons, 
similitudes,  incomprehensible  to  the  out- 
sider, but  full  of  meaning  to  all  who  are 
to  the  manner  born. 

As  they  pass  from  the  family  and  the 
community  to  the  nation,  so  they  pass 
from  one  nation  to  another.  The  purely 
national  proverbs  form  only  a  portion 
of  the  proverbs  in  any  language. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  greater  number 
of  these  proverbs  which  seem  to  be  com- 
mon property  must  be  of  Eastern  birth. 
If  we  find  a  proverb  in  English,  German, 
Italian,  and  Spanish,  and  also  in  Arabic, 
Persian,  and  Hindustani,  which  is  the 
more  likely — that  it  has  passed  from 
Europe  to  Asia,  or  from  Asia  to  Europe? 
When  David  appealed  to  Saul  it  was 
with  "a  proverb  of  the  ancients,"  and 
it  was  with  proverbs  that  the  prophets 
drove  home  their  words,  proverbs  that 
are,  many  of  them,  in  use  there  to  this 
day,  like  "As  is  the  mother,  so  is  her 
daughter,"  and  "The  fathers  have  ^aten 
sour  grapes,  and  the  teeth  of  the  children 
are  set  on  edge."  "Judge  not  that  ye  be 
not  judged,"  "The  straw  in  another's  eye 
thou  seest,  but  not  the  beam  in  thine 
own,"  and  others,  are  still  current  in 
Syria.  "One  sows  and  another  reaps" 
and  "Who  makes  a  trap  for  others  falls 
into  it  himself"  are  Turkish,  and 
"Where  the  corpse  is  there  the  vultures 
will  be"  is  a  Bengali  proverb.  The  pro- 
verbs that  are  strictly  national  have  an 
interest   of   another   kind.     Coming    di- 


PBOVEBB 


365 


PROVIDENCE 


rectly  from  the  people,  the  chosen  vehi- 
cles of  their  sentiments  and  opinions, 
they  naturally  reflect  the  habits  of 
thought,  the  turn  of  mind,  the  way  of 
looking  at  things  that  prevail  among 
those  who  use  them. 

Of  the  national  groups  the  Spanish  is 
unquestionably  the  most  remarkable. 
The  number  of  Spanish  proverbs  is  pro- 
digious. In  any  other  language  5,000  or 
6,000  would  be  a  lai'ge  collection,  but  a 
Spanish  MS.  by  Yriarte,  the  royal  libra- 
rian, which  was  in  the  Heber  library, 
contained  between  25,000  and  30,000. 
Language,  it  may  be  observed,  plays  an 
important  part  in  proverbs.  Take,  for 
example,  the  Scotch  "Better  a  toom 
house  than  an  ill  tenant."  Compared 
with  the  English  "empty,"  how  much 
more  effective  is  the  Scandinavian 
"toom,"  to  say  nothing  of  the  alliteration. 

The  Italian  proverbs,  only  less  numer- 
ous than  the  Spanish,  are  more  re- 
markable for  wit,  often  bitter,  than  for 
humor;  in  the  French,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  is  little  or  none  of  that 
brilliant  wit  and  epigrammatic  neatness 
of  expression  which  distinguish  French 
literature.  English,  including  the  Low- 
land Scotch,  must  be  regarded  as  simply 
a  subdivision  of  the  great  Teutonic 
group  comprising  the  German,  the  Platt- 
deutsch,  the  Dutch,  the  Danish,  the 
Swedish,  and  the  Norwegian.  Each  of 
these  has,  of  course,  its  own  peculiar 
proverbs,  but  in  each  case  the  main  body, 
it  will  be  seen  on  comparison,  belongs  to 
a  common  stock.  Next  to  Spain,  the  re- 
gion richest  in  proverbs  in  Europe  is  the 
Anglo-Saxon  country.  Compared  with 
other  groups,  the  Celtic  proverbs  must 
be  rated  as  poor.  The  Gaelic  proverbs, 
as  Nicolson's  admirable  collection  shows 
and  he  himself  admits,  have  been  largely 
recruited  from  Norse  and  Lowland 
Scotch  sources;  and  the  purely  Celtic 
are  to  a  great  extent  made  up  of  say- 
ings in  praise  of  Fingal,  or  expressive 
of  the  opinion  which  one  clan  has  of  an- 
other, or  of  itself.  The  Welsh  proverbs 
gathered  by  Howell  are  very  flat;  and  of 
the  Irish  Dr.  Nicolson  observes  that  the 
wonder  is  they  are  so  few,  and  those 
few  so  remarkably  deficient  in  the  wit 
— a  remark  certainly  borne  out  by  the 
specimens  usually  given,  in  which  moral 
truisms  of  the  copy  book  order,  like  "vir- 
tue is  everlasting  wealth,"  "wisdom  ex- 
cels all  riches,"  "falling  is  easier  than 
rising,"  have  a  decided  predominance. 
Among  the  Oriental  proverbs  the  Arabic 
hold  the  first  place  in  respect  to  quantity, 
and  perhaps  quality  likewise,  but  the 
Persian  and  Hindustani  are  also  excel- 
lent, and  in  the  Turkish,  together  with 
abundant  worldly  shrewdness,  there  is 
sometimes  a  vein  of  poetry  that  is  very 

Vol.  VII— Cyo 


striking.  It  is  questionable  whether  the 
"tender  beauty,"  to  use  Trench's  praise, 
of  the  English  proverb  of  the  shorn 
lamb  is  not  rivalled  by  its  Turkish  par- 
allel, "God  makes  a  nest  for  the  blind 
bird." 

PROVEBBS  OF  SOLOMON,  one  of  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Old  Testament  as- 
cribed to  Solomon.  The  Hebrew  term 
translated  proverbs  means  literally  a 
similitude  or  comparison  of  two  objects, 
and  this  is  the  form  that  most  of  them 
take.  Solomon,  we  are  told,  uttered 
3,000  proverbs;  but  it  has  been  doubted 
whether  he  ever  made  any  collection  of 
them  in  writing;  and  it  is  expressly 
stated  that  the  latter  part  of  the  book, 
beginning  with  chapter  xxv.,  was  writ- 
ten and  added  by  order  of  King  Heze- 
kiah.  The  title  shows  the  author  rather 
than  the  compiler.  It  has  hardly  ever 
been  contended  that  a  large  share  in  the 
composition  of  the  book  is  to  be  ascribed 
to  the  Wise  King;  and  the  divine  author- 
ity of  the  book  is  sufficiently  proved  by 
i-iie  quotations  made  from  it  in  the  New 
Testament.  In  all  ages  this  book  has 
been  regarded  as  a  great  store  house  of 
practical  wisdom. 

PROVIDENCE,  a  city,  capital  of  the 
State  of  Rhode  Island,  and  county-seat 
of  Providence  co. ;  on  the  Providence 
river,  an  arm  of  Narragansett  Baj%  and 
on  the  New  York,  New  Haven,  and  Hart- 
ford, and  the  New  England  railroads; 
44  miles  S.  W.  of  Boston.  It  is  the  sec- 
ond city  of  New  England  in  population 
and  wealth,  and  is  built  on  a  rolling 
plateau. 

Business  Interests. — Providence  has 
upward  of  2,000  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, with  a  combined  capital  of 
about  $60,000,000,  and  employing  about 
40,000  persons.  It  is  noted  for  its  manu- 
factures of  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
jewelry,  and  stoves,  and  is  the  largest 
seat  of  fine  jewelry  manufacture  in  the 
United  States.  The  other  industries  in- 
clude silverware,  tools,  engines,  locomo- 
tives, boilers,  sewing  machines,  screws, 
files,  general  hardware,  yarn,  calico, 
laces,  braids,  worsteds,  broadcloth, 
chemicals,  etc.  There  is  an  ^  extensive 
coastwise  commerce  and  shipping  indus- 
try, especially  in  the  coal,  cotton,  and 
wool  trade.  There  is  also  an  important 
shell-fish  industry.  Lines  of  steamboats 
run  regularly  to  Boston,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore.  There  are 
7  National  and  several  other  banks;  and 
many  daily,  weekly,  and  monthly  peri- 
odicals. The  assessed  property  valua- 
tions exceed  $235,000,000,  and  the  net 
debt  $14,000,000. 

Public  Interests. — The  city  has  an 
area  of   19  square  miles:  268  miles  of 

24 


PROVISIONAL    ORDER 


366 


PRUDPEN 


streets,  of  which  74  miles  are  paved;  a 
system  of  waterworks,  owned  by  the  city, 
that  cost  nearly  $8,000,000,  with  437 
miles  of  mains;  and  a  sewer  system  cov- 
ering 252  miles.  The  streets  are  lighted 
by  gas  and  electricity,  at  a  cost  of  over 
$245,000  per  annum;  the  police  depart- 
ment costs  annually  about  $700,000,  and 
the  fire  department  about  $575,000. 
There  is  a  public  school  enrollment  of 
over  40,000  pupils;  and  an  annual  ex- 
penditure for  public  education  of  over 
$1,400,000.  The  cost  of  maintaining  the 
city  government  exceeds  $7,000,000. 
The  death  rate  average  15.47  per 
1,000.  The  city  of  Providence  is  the 
seat  of  Brown  University.  La  Salle 
and  St.  Xavier's  Academies  (R.  C),  Lin- 
coln School,  Academy  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Rhode  Island  School  of  Design, 
etc.  The  charitable  institutions  include 
the  Rhode  Island  Institute  for  the  Deaf, 
Dexter  Asylum  for  the  Poor,  Home  for 
Aged  Men,  Home  for  Aged  Women, 
State  Home  and  School  for  Indigent 
Children,  Rhode  Island  Hospital,  Butler 
Insane  Asylum,  orphan  asylums,  dispen- 
saries, etc.  There  is  also  the  Rhode  Is- 
land State  Prison.  There  are  about  120 
churches,  and  several  beautiful  parks, 
the  most  important  being  the  Roger 
Williams. 

History. — In  1636  Roger  Williams,  a 
Baptist  clergyman,  was  exiled  from 
Massachusetts  because  he  opposed  its 
theocratic  laws.  He  first  settled  at 
What  Cheer  rock,  on  the  Seekonk  river, 
and  later  at  the  head  of  the  Providence 
river,  where  the  Indian  chief,  Canonicus, 
granted  him  a  piece  of  land.  In  1643- 
1644  local  government  was  formed  under 
a  royal  charter.  In  1675,  during  King 
Philip's  War,  the  city  was  partly  burned. 
Providence  received  its  city  charter  in 
1832.  Subsequently  Cranston  and 
North  Providence  were  annexed,  and  a 
part  of  Johnson  in  1900.  Pop.  (1890) 
132,146;  (1900)  175,597;  (1910)  224,- 
326;    (1920)   237,595. 

PROVISIONAL  ORDER,  an  order 
granted,  under  the  powers  conferred  by 
an  act  of  Parliament,  by  a  department 
of  the  government,  by  the  Secretary  of 
State,  or  by  some  other  authority,  where- 
by certain  things  are  authorized  to  be 
done  which  could  be  accomplished  other- 
wise only  by  an  act  of  Parliament.  The 
order  does  not  receive  effect,  however, 
till  it  has  been  confirmed  by  the  Legisla- 
ture. Till  that  time  it  is  purely  pro- 
visional; and  even  after  it  has  been  so 
confirmed  and  is  in  reality  an  independ- 
ent act,  it  retains  the  title  of  a  provi- 
sional order.  Provisional  orders  are 
most  useful  in  facilitating  the  modifica- 
tion  or  extension   of   the   provisions   of 


general  acts,  so  as  to  adapt  them  to  the 
special  necessities  of  particular  districts. 
They  may  be  obtained  with  much  greater 
expedition  and  less  cost  than  a  private 
bill;  the  confirmatory  act  when  unop- 
posed may  be  obtained  in  a  week  or  two, 
and  has  all  the  facilities  of  a  government 
measure. 

PROVO,  a  city  of  Utah,  the  county- 
seat  of  Utah  CO.  It  is  on  the  Provo 
river,  and  on  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande 
and  the  San  Pedro,  Los  Angeles,  and 
Salt  Lake  railroads.  It  is  the  center  of 
an  important  agricultural,  fruit-grow- 
ing, and  cattle-raising  region.  Its  in- 
dustries include  the  manufacture  of 
woolen  gpods,  flour,  iron  and  tin  roofing, 
etc._  It  is  the  seat  of  Brigham  Young 
University,  a  Mormon  tabernacle.  Proc- 
tor Academy,  a  public  library.  Federal 
building,  the  State  Insane  Asylum,  etc. 
Pop.  (1910)  8,925;   (1920)  10,303. 

PROVOST,  the  heads  or  principals  of 
several  colleges  in  the  English  Universi- 
ties of  Oxford  and  Cambridge;  the  prin- 
cipal of  the  University  of  Dublin.  Also 
in  England  the  chief  dignity  of  a  cathe- 
dral or  collegiate  church.  In  Scotch 
burghs,  the  chief  magistrate,  correspond- 
ing to  the  mayor  in  English  boroughs. 
The  provosts  of  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow 
are  styled  lord  provosts,  as  the  provost 
of  Perth  formerly  was;  the  same  title  is 
popularly  given  to  the  provost  of  Aber- 
deen. 

PROVOST  MARSHAL,  a  commission- 
ed officer  specially  appointed,  at  great 
permanent  camps  or  in  the  field  on  active 
service,  to  carry  out  sentences  of  mili- 
tary law.  Formerly  they  had  powers  of 
immediate  punishment  on  the  commis- 
sion of  offenses  against  published  orders; 
but  now  they  can  only  arrest,  and  detain 
for  trial,  offenders,  and  carry  the  pun- 
ishments awarded  by  court-martial  into 
effect. 

PROXY,  the  agency  of  another  who 
acts  as  a  substitute  for  his  principal; 
agency  of  a  substitute.  The  person  who 
is  substituted  or  deputed  to  act  for  an- 
other. A  writing  by  which  one  person 
authorizes  another  to  vote  in  his  place. 
In  English  law,  every  peer,  spiritual  or 
temporal,  can  constitute  another  lord  of 
Parliament,  of  the  same  order  with  him- 
self, his  proxy,  to  vote  for  him  in  his 
absence ;  but  proxies  cannot  be  used  when 
the  house  is  in  committee,  nor  in  any 
judicial  cause. 

PRTJDDEN,  THEOPHIL  MITCH- 
ELL, an  American  bacteriologist;  born 
in  Middlebury,  Conn.,  July  7,  1849.  He 
was  Professor  of  Pathology  in  the  Col- 
lege  of   Physicians   and   Surgeons,   New 


PRUDHON 


367 


PRUSSIA 


York.  His  works  include:  "Handbook 
of  Pathological  Anatomy  and  Histology" 

(1835),  with  F.  Delafield;  "Story  of  the 
Bacteria"  (1889);  "Dust  and  its  Dan- 
gers" (1891);  "Water  and  Ice"  (1891); 
"An  Elder  Brother  to  the  Cliff  Dweller" 

(1897);  "Under  the  Spell  of  the  Grand 
Cafion"  (1898);  "On  the  Great  Ameri- 
can Plateau"   (1907). 

PBUD'HON,  PIERRE,  a  French  paint- 
er; born  in  Cluny,  France,  April  4,  1758; 
studied  art  at  Dijon  and  in  Rome,  where 
he  came  under  the  influence  of  Correggio 
and  of  Leonardo.  He  latterly  settled 
in  Paris,  where  he  became  famous  by 
his  "Truth  descending  from  Heaven," 
"Psyche  carried  off  by  Zephyr."  "Crime 
pursued  by  Justice  and  Divine  Ven- 
geance," etc.  He  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  16, 
1823. 

PRUNE,  the  dried  fruit  of  Primus 
domestica,  especially  of  the  varieties 
called  St.  Catherine  and  green  gage. 
They  contain  a  large  proportion  of 
sugar,  etc.,  so  that  brandy  can  be  dis- 
tilled from  them. 

PRUNELLA,  a  smooth,  dark-colored, 
woolen  stuff,  used  as  lasting,  for  making 
the  uppers  of  shoes  and  gaiters,  and  for 
clergymen's  gowns.  Also  spelled  pru- 
nello. 

PRUNING,  the  act  of  lopping  or  cut- 
ting off  what  is  superfluous;  specifically, 
the  act  of  lopping  or  cutting  off  superflu- 
ous branches  or  shoots  of  trees,  etc., 
with  a  view  to  strengthening  those  that 
are  left,  or  to  bringing  the  tree  or  plant 
to  a  particular  form.  In  falconry,  that 
which  is  cast  off  by  a  bird  when  it 
prunes   its   feathers;   refuse,   leavings. 

PRUSSIA,  the  largest  and  most  power- 
ful State  of  the  German  republic;  occu- 
pying a  N.  central  portion  of  the  Euro- 
pean continent;  between  lat.  49° and  56° 
N.,  and  Ion.  6°  and  23°  E.;  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  Baltic  and  Denmark;  on 
the  E.  by  Russia  and  Poland;  on  the  S. 
by  Bohemia,  Bavaria.  Wiirttemberg  and 
Baden;  and  on  the  W.  by  Belgium  and 
the  Netherlands.  From  the  extreme  E. 
frontier  of  Prussia  to  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
the  distance  is  about  775  miles,  and  from 
the  promontory  on  the  Baltic  above  Stral- 
sund,  to  the  extreme  S.  frontier,  of  Sile- 
sia, the  distance  is  404  miles.  The 
length  of  the  coast  line  is  about  250 
miles  on  the  North  Sea,  and  750  miles  on 
the  Baltic.  The  following  islands  belong 
to  Prussia:  Rugen,  Fehmarn,  Alsen, 
Heligoland  and  the  Frisian  Islands. 
Total  area,  before  the  World  War,  134,- 
650  square  miles;  total  ponulation  about 
40,000,000.     As    a    result    of   the    Peace 


Treaty  of  Versailles,  Prussia  lost  certain 
parts  of  Posen,  Silesia,  East  and  West 
Prussia,  Schleswig,  and  the  Rheinland, 
amounting  to  some  31,000  square  miles 
with  almost  8,000,000  inhabitants  and 
reducing  its  area  to  about  103,000 
square  miles  and  its  population  to  about 
32,000,000. 

Political  Divisions. — Prussia  before 
the  World  War  was  administratively 
divided  into  14  provinces,  which  were 
again  subdivided  mto  35  government  dis- 
tricts, with  the  principality  of  Hohen- 
zollern,  the  cradle  of  the  royal  family. 
The  provinces  were  as  follows,  with  pop- 
ulation in  1910:  Rhine  (Rheinland), 
7,120,519;  Silesia  (Schlesien),  5,226,311 ; 
Brandenburg,  4,093,007;  Westphalia 
(Westfalen),  4,125,904;  Saxony  (Sach- 
sen),  3,088,778;  Hanover  (Hannover), 
2,942,546;  East  Prussia  (Ostpreussen), 
2,064,368;  Posen,  2,100,044;  Hesse-Nas- 
sau, 2,220,956;  Berlin,  2,070,695;  Pome- 
rania  (Pommern),  1,716,481;  West 
Prussia  (Westpreussen) ,  1,703,042; 
Schleswig-Holstein,  1,619,673;  and  Ho- 
henzollern,  71,009.  The  principal  cities 
with  population  for  1910  are:  Berlin,  2,- 
064,153;  Breslau,  519,929;  Cologne,  511,- 
042;  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  414,406 
Hanover,  299,753;  Magdeburg,  279,644 
Diisseldorf,  356,733;  Stettin,  234,033 
Charlottenburg,  304,280 ;  Konigsberg, 
248,059. 

Topography. — The  surface  of  the 
kingdom  is  generally  level,  sloping  in  the 
N.  to  the  sea,  and  forming  part  of  the 
great  N.  plain  of  Europe.  The  S.  and 
S.  W.  parts  of  the  kingdom  are  hilly, 
or  even  mountainous.  The  principal 
ranges  are  the  Sudetic,  the  Thuringian, 
the  Hartz,  the  Teutoburgerwald,  the 
Weser,  the  Taunus  and  the  Westerwald. 
The  province  of  Hohenzollern  is  in  the 
Swabian  Alps.  Prussia  is  well  watered. 
The  Rhenish  provinces  are  traversed  by 
the  Rhine,  while  the  E.  frontier  is  partly 
formed  by  the  Weser.  The  Elbe  inter- 
sects the  Saxon  provinces;  the  Oder, 
which  is  almost  entirely  a  Prussian 
river,  runs  through  the  whole  extent  of 
the  monarchy,  from  the  S.  frontier  of 
Silesia  to  the  isle  of  Usedom,  where  it 
falls  into  the  Baltic.  Polish  Prussia  (or 
Posen)  is  watered  by  the  Wartha;  West 
Prussia  by  the  Vistula;  and  Ducal  or 
East  Prussia  by  the  Pregel  and  Nie- 
men.  Besides  the  above,  there  are 
many  other  large  streams,  as  the  Ems, 
Moselle,  Spree,  Havel,  Netze,  etc.  Ow- 
ing to  the  flatness  of  the  country  through 
which  they  flow,  none  of  the  great  rivers 
are  interrupted  by  cataracts,  and  they 
are  all  navigable — the  Rhine,  Elbe,  and 
Vistula,  throughout  their  whole  course 
in  the  Prussian  dominions;  the  Oder  for 
barges   as  far   as    Ratibor  in  southern 


PRUSSIA 


368 


PRUSSIA 


Silesia,  and  the  Pregel  and  Niemen  to  a 
considerable  distance  inland.  Lakes  are 
exceedingly  numerous,  particularly  in 
.'  East  Prussia  and  Pomerania.  There 
*  are  also  along  the  coast  several  large 
bays,  or  rather  lagoons,  communicating 
with  the  sea  by  narrow  mouths,  and  pos- 
sessing more  of  the  character  of  fresh- 
water lakes  than  of  arms  of  the  sea. 
They  are  denominated  haffs.  The  cli- 
mate of  Prussia  is  not  less  varied  than 
the  soil.  Along  the  Baltic  it  is  moist, 
and  in  East  Prussia,  especially,  the 
winter  is  long  and  severe.  It  is  also 
harsh  in  the  S.  part  of  Silesia,  Branden- 
burg, and  in  the  Saxon  and  Rhenish 
provinces  it  is  comparatively  mild.  The 
quality  of  the  soil  is  various.  In  Bran- 
denburg and  Pomerania  it  is  generally 
poor;  in  many  parts,  indeed,  it  consists 
of  tracts  of  loose  barren  sand,  diversified 
with  extensive  heaths  and  moors;  but,  in 
other  parts,  particularly  along  the  rivers 
and  lakes,  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
meadow,  marsh,  and  other  comparatively 
rich  land.  In  Ducal  Prussia  and  Prus- 
sian Poland,  including  the  province  of 
Posen,  the  soil  consists  generally  of  black 
earth  and  sand,  and  is,  in  many  parts, 
very  superior;  but  Silesia,  and  the  Saxon 
and  Rhenish  provinces,  are  naturally, 
perhaps,  the  most  productive.  The 
plain  of  Magdeburg,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Elbe,  is  also  very  fertile. 

Agriculture  ayid  Stock  Raising. — 
Large  estates  are  generally  managed  by 
stewards  and  the  occupants  of  smaller 
properties  are,  in  most  cases,  the  owners. 
Rye,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  potatoes,  beet 
root,  flax,  hops,  tobacco  and  hemp  form 
the  chief  products.  Chicory  is  also 
largely  cultivated.  The  extensive  beet 
root  plantations  give  rise  to  one  of  the 
most  important  industries.  Madder  and 
other  plants  used  in  dyeing  are  also 
raised.  Fruits  and  vegetables  are  most 
extensively  grown  in  the  W.  provinces, 
which  are  also  famous  for  their  wines. 
Horses,  cattle  and  sheep  are  extensively 
raised,  wool  being  an  important  product. 
Large  numbers  of  fine  horses  are  ex- 
ported from  East  Prussia. 

Mining. — The  mineral  products  are 
abundant,  coal  being  the  most  important. 
The  production  of  lignite  is  large.  Cop- 
per, iron  and  lead  are  extensively 
worked.  Prussia  yields  about  one-half 
of  the  v/orld's  annual  production  of  zinc. 

Manufacturing. — Though  more  of  an 
agricultural  than  a  manufacturing  coun- 
try, Prussia  has  greatly  distinguished 
herself,  particularly  of  recent  years,  in 
various  branches  of  manufacture.  The 
Rhenish  provinces,  and  Saxony  and  Sile- 
sia, are  the  districts  most  prominent  in 
this  industry.  Linens  and  coarse  wool- 
ens for  domestic  consumption  are  made 


in  every  village,  and,  indeed,  in  most 
cottages  throughout  the  kingdom. 
Large  quantities  of  silk  and  cotton 
goods,  and  linen,  are  produced  in  Elber- 
feld,  and  other  tovsms  of  the  Rhine  prov- 
inces. Very  superior  broadcloth  is 
largely  manufactured  at  Berlin  and  Aix- 
la-Chapelle.  Prussia  occupies  an  ad- 
vanced rank  as  a  producer  of  the  useful 
metals.  The  articles  of  hardware  made 
at  Berlin,  Iserlohn,  Hagen,  Solingen, 
Olpe,  and  Essen  enjoy  a  high  reputation, 
the  last-named  place  being  the  seat  of 
the  famous  Krupp  steel  and  gun  works. 
Porcelain,  jewelry,  watches,  and  car- 
riages are  also  manufactured  in  the 
latter  city  on  a  most  extensive  scale. 
Paper,  leather,  soap,  oil  and  cigars  are 
important  manufactures;  and  beer  and 
spirits  are  very  extensively  produced. 

Commerce. — Commerce  is  facilitated 
by  the  long  coast  line,  and  by  an  elabo- 
rate system  of  railways  and  canals.  In 
1919,  the  number  of  miles  open  for  traf- 
fic was  about  25,000.  The  Kiel  Canal 
is  of  especial  service  and  value  in  devel- 
opment of  agriculture  and  of  commerce, 
both  foreign  and  domestic.  There  are 
chambers  and  corporations  of  commerce 
in  all  of  the  larger  towns  of  the  kingdom. 
There  are  no  separate  statistics  for  the 
trade  of  Prussia;  they  are  included  un- 
der those  of  the  German  empire. 

Education. — Throughout  the  kingdom, 
education  is  general  and  compulsory  for 
the  elementary  grades.  The  school  age 
is  from  6  to  14  years.  In  1919  the  in- 
stitutions for  secondary  education  were 
as  follows:  Universities,  11;  classical 
and  scientific  high  schools  (gymnasia 
and  realschulen),  over  1,300;  public 
normal  schools,  204. 

Religion. — Absolute  religious  liberty  is 
guaranteed  by  the  constitution.  Nearly 
two-thirds  of  the  population  are  Protes- 
tants and  most  of  the  remainder  Roman 
Catholic.  The  State  Church  is  Evangel- 
ical or  Protestant,  and  since  1817  has 
consisted  of  a  fusion  of  the  Lutheran  and 
Calvinistic  bodies.  The  relations  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  the  gov- 
ernment difl'er  in  the  various  provinces. 

Government  and  Finances. — Previous 
to  the  World  War  the  constitution  vested 
the  executive  and  part  of  the  legislative 
authority  in  a  king.  The  crown  was 
hereditary  in  the  male  line,  according  to 
primogeniture.  The  king  was  advised 
by  a  council  of  ministers  appointed  by 
royal  decree.  The  representative  assem- 
bly, the  Landtag,  was  composed  of  two 
chambers,  the  House  of  Lords  (Herren- 
haus)  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
(Abgeordnetenhaus).  The  assent  of  the 
king  and  both  chambers  was  requisite 
for  all  lav/s.  The  executive  government 
was  carried  on  by  a  Ministry  of  State  ap- 


PRUSSIA 


369 


PRUTH 


pointed  by  the  king  and  holding  office  at 
his  pleasure.  Prussia  was  proclaimed  a 
republic  on  Nov.  13,  1918.  A  new  con- 
stitution was  adopted  in  April,  1920. 
Under  it  every  citizen  over  20  years  of 
age  became  a  voter,  the  term  of  parlia- 
ment was  set  at  4  years,  and  the  powers 
of  the  former  king  were  transferred  to 
the  ministry.  In  1919  the  revenue  and 
expenditures  were  each  estimated  at  6,- 
546,699,278  marks.  The  public  debt  on 
April  1,  1919,  was  14,724,436,874  marks. 
Histwy. — The  rise  of  the  Prussian 
power  has  been  rapid  and  extraordinary. 
The  kings  of  Prussia  trace  their  origin 
to  Count  Thassilo  of  Zollern,  one  of  the 
generals  of  Charlemagne.  His  suc- 
cessor, Count  Friederich  I,,  built  the 
family  castle  of  Hohenzollern,  near  the 
Danube,  in  the  year  980.  A  subsequent 
Zollern,  or  Hohenzollern,  Friederich  III., 
was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  prince  of 
the  Holy  Roman  empire,  in  1273,  and 
received  the  burgraviate  of  Nuremberg 
in  fief;  and  his  great-grandson,  Fried- 
erich VI.  was  invested  by  the  Emperor 
Sigismund,  in  1411,  with  the  province 
of  Brandenburg,  and  obtained  the  rank 
of  Elector  in  1417.  In  1608-1619  the 
duchy  of  Prussia  was  united,  to  the 
electorate  of  Brandenburg,  the  terri- 
tories of  which  had  been  greatly  ex- 
tended by  the  valor  and  wisdom  of  Fried- 
erich Wilhelm,  "the  Great  Elector," 
under  whose  fostering  care  arose  the  first 
standing  army  in  central  Europe.  Dy- 
ing in  1688,  he  left  the  province  to  his 
son,  Frederick  I.,  who  assumed  the  crown 
at  Konigsberg,  Jan,  18,  1701.  Pome- 
rania  was  soon  after  added  to  Prussia. 
When  Frederick  the  Great  (q.  v.)  as- 
cended the  throne  in  1740,  his  disjointed 
dominions  did  not  contain  2,500,000  in- 
habitants, and  these  had  made  but  little 
progfress  in  the  arts,  or  in  the  accumula- 
tion of  wealth.  But  before  his  death,  in 
1786,  Prussia  had  been  increased  in  size 
nearly  half;  while  the  population  had  in- 
creased to  about  6,000,000.  Prussia  ac- 
quired, by  the  subsequent  partition  of 
Poland  in  1792,  and  its  final  dismember- 
ment in  1795,  a  great  extension  of  terri- 
tory, and  upward  of  2,000,000  inhabi- 
tants. Her  disastrous  contest  with 
France  in  1806  lowered  Prussia  for  a 
while;  but  after  Napoleon's  Russian 
campaign,  the  people  rose  en  masse,  and 
drove  the  French  out  of  Germany.  At 
the  general  peace  of  1815,  Prussia  re- 
covered all  her  former  possessions^  (ex- 
cept a  portion  of  her  Polish  dominions), 
and  gained  valuable  acquisitions.  After 
the  accession,  in  1862,  of  King  William 
I.,  the  executive  government  presided 
over  by  Count  von  Bismarck  (g.  v.), 
made  laws,  and  even  decreed  budget  es- 
timates, without  the  concurrence  of  the 


chambers.  In  1864,  Prussia,  conjointly 
with  Austria,  sent  an  army  to  occupy  the 
duchy  of  Schleswig-Holstein.  A  war 
with  Denmark  followed,  which  resulted 
in  the  annexation  of  that  duchy  to  Prus- 
sia. In  1866,  Hanover  and  Saxony  were 
occupied  by  the  Prussian  troops,  and  a 
war  followed  with  those  kingdoms  and 
with  Austria,  in  which,  after  a  brilliant 
campaign  of  two  weeks,  the  latter  power 
was  obliged  to  sue  for  peace,  and  relin- 
quish her  claims  as  a  German  power. 
In  addition,  Saxony  was  left  a  mere 
nominal  sovereignty  under  the  control 
of  Prussia,  while  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel, 
Nassau,  and  the  former  free  city  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Main  became  absorbed 
in  the  Prussian  monarchy.  In  August, 
1870,  Napoleon  III.  declared  war  against 
Prussia,  and  the  French  armies  marched 
toward  the  Rhine.  An  alliance  having 
been  entered  into  between  Prussia  and 
the  southern  German  powers  of 
Bavaria,  Wiirttemberg,  and  Baden,  their 
combined  forces  crossed  the  Rhine  into 
France.  The  part  of  Prussia  in  the 
Franco-Prussian  war  is  inextricably  in- 
volved with  that  of  the  whole  German 
nation.  The  conflict  seemed  to  precipi- 
tate the  solution  of  the  question  which 
had  always  been  the  aim  of  the  king  and 
Bismarck,  German  unity  under  Prussian 
leadership.  On  Jan.  18,  1871,  King  Wil- 
liam was  crowned  at  Versailles  as  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  and  on  March  21,  the 
first  German  Reichstag  assembled  at 
Berlin.  The  history  of  Prussia  since  is 
that  of  Germany   (g.  v.). 

Kings  of  Prussia. 
(House  of   Hohenzollern.) 
Frederick  I.  Date  of  accession  1701 

Frederick   William   I.                       "                "  1713 

Frederick   II.    ("The  Great")      "               "  1740 

Frederick  William   II.                     "               "  1786 

Frederick   WilHam    III.                  "               "  1797 

Frederick  William  IV.                    "                "  1840 

WiUiam    I.,    1861;    Frederick   III.,    1888;  William 
II.  1888. 

PRUSSIAN  BLUE,  a  cyanide  of  iron 
(FcrCyis)  possessed  of  a  deep-blue  color, 
and  much  used  as  a  pigment.  It  is  also 
used  in  medicine. 

PRUSSIAN  BROWN,  a  color  obtained 
by  adding  a  solution  of  the  yellow  prus- 
siate  of  polish  to  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper,  which  throws  down  a  precipi- 
tate of  deep  brown.  This,  when  washed 
and  dried,  is  equal  to  madder,  and  pos- 
sesses greater  permanency. 

PRUSSIC  ACID,  a  name  given  to  hy- 
drocyanic acid  because  it  was  first  ob- 
tained from  Prussian  blue. 

PRUTH,  a  left-hand  affluent  of  the 
Danube,  rising  in  the  S.  E.  of  Austrian 
Galicia,  on  the  N.  E.  side  of  the  Car- 
pathian Mountains,  and  flowing  E.  past 


PRZASNYSZ 


370 


PSALMS 


Kolomea  and  Czernowitz;  from  the  point 
at  which  it  leaves  Austrian  territory  to 
its  embouchure  in  the  Danube  at  Reni, 
13  miles  below  Galatz,  it  forms  the  boun- 
dary between  Russian  Bessarabia  and 
Rumania.  Length  about  520  miles, 
navigable  from  near  Jassy,  168  miles. 
It  was  the  scene  of  many  military  opera- 
tions between  the  Russian  and  Austro- 
German  armies  in  the  World  War 
(1914-1918). 

PRZASNYSZ,  a  town  in  Russia,  59 
miles  N.  E.  of  Plock,  with  a  population, 
in  1900,  of  9,245,  of  importance  only  on 
account  of  the  heavy  fighting  which  took 
place  between  the  Russian  and  Teutonic 
forces  during  1915  and  later.  The  town 
was  taken  by  the  Germans  in  February, 
1915,  retaken  by  the  Russians  a  few 
weeks  later,  in  March,  and  again  cap- 
tured by  the  Germans,  in  July,  1915. 
These  conflicts,  constituting  a  series  of 
battles  of  the  first  magnitude,  have  ac- 
cordingly taken  their  name  from  the 
town,  and  are  known  as  the  Battles  of 
Przasnysz. 

PBZEMYSL,  a  fortified  city  of  the 
former  Austrian  crownland  of  Galicia, 
now  Poland,  on  the  river  San,  54  miles 
W.  of  Lemberg,  important  as  a  railroad 
center  and  on  account  of  its  trade  in 
flour,  naphtha,  chemicals,  wood,  grain, 
leather,  and  linen,  with  a  population  in 
1910  of  54,869.  The  name  of  the  city 
became  familiar  through  its  prominence 
in  the  dispatches  during  the  early 
period  of  the  war  on  the  eastern  front, 
1914-1916.  In  the  fall  of  1914  the  Rus- 
sians drove  the  Austrians  along  the  Ga- 
lician  front  back  into  the  Carpathians, 
leaving  the  Austrian  forces  in  the  city 
besieged  by  the  Russian  forces.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1914,  the  Russians  were  obliged 
to  retire  temporarily,  leaving  the  invest- 
ment broken  for  some  three  weeks,  and 
during  this  period  more  troops,  provis- 
ions and  war  materials  were  rushed  into 
the  garrison.  With  the  return  of  the 
Russians  the  siege  was  continued,  last- 
ing until  March  22,  1915,  when  the  city 
formally  surrendered  to  the  Russian 
commander,  causing  one  of  the  sensa- 
tions of  that  period  of  the  war.  The 
prisoners  taken  included  9  generals,  93 
superior  officers,  2,500  minor  commis- 
sioned officers,  and  170,000  rank  and  file. 
The  city  was  retaken  by  the  Austrians 
in  June,  1916. 

PSALMIST,  a  writer  or  composer  of 
psalms;  a  title  applied  especially  to  the 
authors  of  the  Scriptural^  psalms,  and 
t^pecifically,  v/ith  the  definite  article  pre- 
fixed, to  David.  Psalmists,  in  Church 
history,  were  singers  in  the  early  church 
whose   duty   it   was   to  lead   the   people. 


The  Roman  Catholic  Church  still  retains 
this  order  as  the  leaders  of  music. 

PSALMODY,  the  art  and  practice  of 
singing  psalms.  The  composition  of 
psalm  tunes  and  the  performance  of 
psalmody  appears  to  have  been  practiced 
and  encouraged  in  Germany,  France,  and 
the  Low  Countries  before  it  was  intro- 
duced into  Great  Britain.  In  France 
psalmody  was  popularized  at  the  refor- 
mation by  Clement  Marot  and  Claude 
Goudimel,  the  former  of  whom  trans- 
lated the  Psalms  of  David  in  verse,  while 
the  latter  set  them  to  music.  Psalm 
singing  was  introduced  by  the  Reform- 
ers; but  Calvin  discouraged  any  but 
simple  melody,  while  Luther  practiced 
and  favored  part  harmony,  as  did  also 
John  Knox  in  his  psalter.  The  first 
English  version  of  the  Psalms  of  David, 
which  appeared  soon  after  that  of  the 
French,  was  made  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.,  by  Thomas  Sternhold,  groom  of 
the  robes  to  that  monarch,  and  John 
Hopkins,  a  schoolmaster,  assisted  by 
William  Whittyngham,  an  English  di- 
vine. It  was  afterward  superseded  by 
the  version  of  Nahum  Tate,  the  poet 
laureate,  and  Dr.  Nicholas  Brady.  The 
first  important  compilation  of  psalm 
tunes  for  four  voices  was  published  in 
1621  by  Thomas  Ravenscroft,  and  in- 
cluded such  well-known  tunes  as  Bangor, 
St.  David's  Norwich,  York,  etc.  Stern- 
hold  and  Hopkins'  version  of  the  Psalms 
was  first  used  in  Scotland,  and  was  after- 
ward superseded  by  the  version  now  in 
use,  founded  on  that  of  Francis  Rous, 
provost  of  Eton,  a  member  of  Crom- 
well's government. 

PSALMS,  BOOK  OF,  a  book  of  the 
Old  Testament.  It  was  the  praise  book 
or  psalter  of  the  Hebrew  temple  or  syna- 
gogues. In  the  present  Hebrew  Bibles 
it  is  usually  placed  just  after  the  Proph- 
ets at  the  head  of  the  Hagiographa,  and 
in  Luke  xxiv:  44,  is  generally  supposed 
to  stand  for  that  division  of  the  Old 
Testament  books.  The  150  psalms  are 
arranged  in  Hebrew  in  five  books,  each 
terminating  with  a  doxology,  in  some 
cases  closing  with  "Amen  and  amen." 
The  revised  version  prints  them  separ- 
ately. All  but  34  psalms  have  titles  in 
the  Hebrew  Bible;  the  latter  were  called 
by  the  rabbis  orphan  psalms.  In  the 
Septuagint  all  but  two  have  titles. 
Though  not  as  a  rule  accepted  as  part 
of  Scripture,  they  are  ancient,  and 
worthy  of  high  respect.  They  attribute 
all  book  1  to  David,  except  Ps.  i.,  ii.,  x., 
and  xxxiii.  The  name  of  the  Supreme 
Being  used  in  this  book  is  chiefly  Jeho- 
vah. Book  2  assigns  Psalms  to  David, 
to  Korah,  to  Asaph,  and  to  Solomon, 
and     leaves      others     anonymous.     The 


PSALTER 


371 


PSYCHICAL    BESEARCH 


name  for  the  Supreme  Being  in  this  book 
is  Elohim  {q.  v.).  Book  3  ascribes 
Psalms  to  David,  to  Korah,  to  Asaph,  to 
Ethan,  and  to  Heman  the  Ezrahite. 
Elohim  and  Jehovah  are  about  equally 
common  in  the  book,  the  former,  how- 
ever, being  apparently  preferred.  Book 
4  ascribes  Psalm  xc.  to  Moses,  the  others 
not  anonymous  to  David.  Book  5  leaves 
many  psalms  anonymous,  attributing 
others  to  David.  The  Hebrew  Bible,  but 
not  the  Septuagint,  assigns  Ps.  cxxvii. 
to  Solomon.  This  volume  contains  the 
Songs  of  Degrees.  The  book  was  evi- 
dently brought  together  from  many 
sources.  The  book  of  Psalms  is  quoted  or 
alluded  to  as  an  inspired  composition  by 
Our  Saviour  and  His  apostles  at  least  70 
times;  no  Old  Testament  book  is  more 
frequently  quoted.  Its  canonical  au- 
thority has  never  been  seriously  doubted. 
It  has  become  the  psalter  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church. 

PSALTER,  the  Book  of  Psalms;  also 
a  book  containing  the  Psalms  separately 
printed,  and  with  musical  accompani- 
ment adapted  to  each;  also  specifically, 
the  version  of  the  Psalms  in  the  English 
Book  of  Common  Prayer.  In  the  Ro- 
man ritual,  the  daily  office  in  the  Brev- 
iary. Our  Lady's  Psalter  is  the  Little 
Office. 

PSALTERY,  a  stringed  instrument  of 
music  used  by  the  ancient  Jews,  the 
form  of  which  is  not  known.  That  which 
is  now  used  is  in  the  form  of  a  trape- 
zium or  triangle  truncated  at  the  top, 
having  13  strings  of  wire,  mounted  on 
two  bridges  at  the  sides,  and  is  struck 
with  a  plectrum. 

PSAMMETICHUS,  a  king  of  Egypt 
who  died  about  617  B.  C.  He  was  one  of 
the  12  kings  who  reigned  simultaneously 
in  Egypt  for  15  years  after  the  expul- 
sion of  the  .Ethiopian  dynasty;  but  be- 
ing suspected  by  the  other  kings  of  aim- 
ing at  sole  sovereigTity,  he  was  driven 
into  banishment.  With  the  aid  of  some 
Greek  mercenaries,  however,  he  defeated 
the  other  kings  in  a  battle  fought  at 
Momemphis,  on  the  E.  side  of  Lake 
Mareotis,  after  which  he  became  the  sole 
King  of  Egypt  (671  or  670  B.  c),  and 
the  founder  of  a  new  dynasty. 

PSARA,  or  IPSARA,  an  island  of 
Greece,  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  7 
miles  N.  W.  of  Scio,  about  5V2  miles  in 
length,  and  as  many  in  breadth. 

PSEUDOMORPH,  a  mineral  which  has 
replaced  another,  or  which  appears  in 
crystal  forms  which  are  foreign  to  its 
original  formation. 

_  PSETJDONYM,  a  false,  feigned,  or  fic- 
titious name;  a  pen-name. 


PSEUDOPODIA,  organs  of  locomotion 
and  prehension  in  the  lower  Protozoa. 

PSETJDOSCOPE,  in  optics,  an  instru- 
ment, invented  by  Wheatstone,  for  pro- 
ducing an  apparent  reversion  of  the  re- 
lief of  an  object  to  which  it  is  directed, 
by  the  transposition  of  the  distances  of 
the  points  which  compose  it.  A  false 
impression  is  thus  conveyed  to  the  eye, 
a  globe  becoming  apparently  concave 
and  a  hollow  body  assuming  a  convex 
form. 

PSITTACID.ffi,  the  parrot  tribe,  a 
family  of  scansorial  birds,  comprising 
over  300  species,  of  which  the  genus  Psit' 
tacus  is  the  type. 

PSKOV,  a  city  in  Russia,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Velikaya,  165  miles  S.  S.  W. 
from  Petrograd.  It  is  the  center  of  a 
considerable  trade  in  flax,  hemp,  hides, 
tallow  and  contains  a  large  number  of 
small  leather  goods  factories.  For 
nearly  300  years,  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  it  was  a  free  republic,  but  became 
subject  to  Moscow  in  1509.  During  the 
World  War,  it  was  the  center  of  much 
activity  behind  the  lines,  and  after  the 
disastrous  Brest-Litovsk  Peace  Confer- 
ence, in  the  winter  of  1917-1918,  was  in- 
vaded by  the  Germans.  Pop.,  in  1920, 
estimated  at  30,300. 

PSOAS,  in  anatomy,  two  muscles;  the 
psoas  magnus  and  psoas  parvus,  con- 
nected with  the  lumbar  vertebrae.  In 
entomology,  a  genua  of  beetles  allied  to 
Bostrichus. 

PSORALEA,  in  botany,  the  typical 
genus  of  Psoralieee.  P.  cory folia  is  con- 
sidered by  Indian  doctors  to  be  stomachic 
and  deobstruent.  An  extract  from  it, 
prepared  with  oil  or  ointment,  is  used 
externally  in  leprosy.  Camels  are  fond 
of  P.  plicata. 

PSORIASIS,  a  cutaneous  disease — the 
scaly  tetter.  It  is  often  hereditary,  and 
is  akin  to  lepra. 

PSYCHE.  In  the  later  Greek  writ- 
ings the  word  psyche  occurs  as  a  person- 
ification of  the  human  soul. 

PSYCHICAL  RESEARCH,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  the  process  of  inquiry  into  the 
"phenomena  designated  by  such  terms 
as  mesmeric,  psychical,  and  spiritualis- 
tic," to  use  the  words  of  the  programme 
of  the  British  Society  for  Psychical  Re- 
search. The  object  of  the  inquiry,  as 
described  by  this  society,  was  to  deter- 
mine the  nature  and  extent  of  any  in- 
fluence which  might  be  exerted  by  one 
mind  upon  another  apart  from  any  gen- 
erally recognized  mode  of  perception. 
Inquiry  had  to  be  made  into  hypnotism, 
the  so-called  mesmeric  trance,  tSirvoy* 


PSYCHICAL    RESEARCH 


372 


PSYCHOANALYSIS 


ance,  rei>orts  of  apparitions  and  haunted 
houses,  and  the  phenomena  of  spiritual- 
ism. The  British  society  was  established 
in  1882,  and  an  American  society  on 
similar  lines  two  years  later.  Since  that 
time  continued  inquiry  has  been  made 
for  the  purpose  of  testing  all  the  re- 
ported channels  of  thought  that  might 
exist  outside  the  known  channels  of  per- 
ception. The  methods  employed  include 
arrangements  by  which  an  agreed-upon 
individual  is  led  to  concentrate  his  mind 
on  some  simple  idea  or  object  and  to  seek 
by  methods  distinct  from  those  employed 
by  the  senses  to  transfer  the  idea  to  a 
second  individual,  who  is  usually  chosen 
as  being  endowed  with  a  supposed  acute 
sensibility  to  impressions  so  received. 
The  evidence  gathered  is  designed  to 
show  that  impressions  of  various  kinds 
have  been  communicated  from  one  mind 
to  another  in  this  way.  On  occasions  the 
person  acting  the  part  of  recipient  has 
been  put  into  a  hypnotic  condition,  and 
experiments  have  been  considered  as 
showing  that  acute  sensibility  so  induced 
has  made  thought  transference  more 
easy.  The  evidence  that  has  been  ac- 
cumulated up  to  the  present  as  a  result  of 
experiment  has,  however,  not  been  such 
as  to  establish  any  process  of  telepathy. 

Apart  from  the  evidence  that  has  been 
derived  from  repeated  experimental  at- 
tempts at  thought  transference,  the  so- 
cieties of  psychical  research  have  syste- 
matically gathered  all  available  data 
relating  to  human  experience  in  the  tele- 
pathic field.  This  group  of  experiences 
has  been  in  the  main  of  a  spontaneous 
character,  arising  without  any  prepara- 
tion of  milieu  or  conditions  on  the  part 
of  the  percipient.  The  larger  division 
relates  to  the  transference  of  presenti- 
ments in  connection  with  crises  in  the 
lives  of  persons  involved  in  the  presenti- 
ment. Only  a  small  proportion  of  the 
cases  so  recorded,  however,  were  bereft 
of  elements  that  tended  to  doubt  as  to  the 
actual  connection  between  the  event  and 
the  presentiment.  The  investigation, 
however,  showed  how  subject  the  human 
mind  is  to  ideas  of  this  kind,  even  in  a 
state  normal  and  healthy.  The  sum  to- 
tal of  inquiry  up  to  the  present  t'me  has 
not  established  the  telepathic  hypothesis 
on  a  scientific  basis,  but  it  has  at  least 
explored  mental  conditions  that  before 
the  introduction  of  psychical  research 
had  remained  unexplored,  and  if  it  has 
not  shown  with  certainty  telepathic  po- 
tentialities in  the  human  mind,  it  has  at 
least  aided  in  defining  more  clearly  hu- 
man limits  in  the  perception  and  com- 
munication of  ideas. 

The  American  Society  for  Psychical 
Research  was  for  som.e  years  connected 
with  the  British  society,  but  in  1906  it 


was  reorganized  into  an  independent  as- 
sociation. The  society  issues  a  monthly 
journal,  and  has  for  some  years  pub- 
lished its  proceedings.  It  participated 
in  the  census  of  hallucinations,  initiated 
by  the  British  society  and  carried  on  for 
three  years  ending  in  1892.  The  society 
does  not  aim  at  the  classification  of  a 
recognized  body  of  knowledge,  but  at 
an  investigation  and  interpretation  of 
groups  of  psychical  phenomena. 

PSYCHICAL  RESEARCH,   SOCIETY 

FOR,  an  English  society,  founded  in 
1882,  "for  the  purpose  of  making  an  or- 
ganized attempt  to  investigate  that  large 
group  of  debatable  phenomena  desig- 
nated by  such  terms  as  mesmeric,  psychi- 
cal, and  spiritualistic."  The  results  of 
its  investigations  are  published  in  "Re- 
ports" and  "Proceedings."  There  is  a 
branch  of  the  society  in  the  United 
States. 

PSYCHOANALYSIS,  a  form  of  thera- 
peutic treatment  originated  by  Profes- 
sor Freud  of  Vienna.  In  its  essence  it 
is  a  system  of  psychological  inquiry  into 
the  subconscious  psychic  forces  at  the 
base  of  psychic  disturbances,  preliminary 
to  the  formulation  of  a  method  of  treat- 
ment in  cases  of  neurasthenia,  hysteria 
and  the  like.  The  principle  lying  at  the 
foundation  of  his  theory  is  that  these 
psychical  manifestations  spring  from 
emotional  experiences  that  have  been 
forgotten  or  repressed  into  the  field  of 
unconsciousness,  while  still  holding  their 
place  in  the  mind. 

Professor  Freud's  method  of  treatment 
seeks  to  establish  the  connection  between 
the  neurotic  manifestations  of  the  pa- 
tient and  the  causes  that  lie  hidden  in 
his  memory.  Its  purpose  is  to  pierce  the 
obscurity  in  which  these  latent  ideas  are 
embedded  and  by  revealing  the  connec- 
tion between  them  and  their  symptoms 
to  bring  about  their  disappearance.  In 
this  connection  he  developed  his  theory 
on  the  nature  of  dreams,  which  in  his 
view  were  merely  distortions  of  unre- 
alized desires.  In  the  treatment  the  pa- 
tient is  led  to  repeat  what  he  remembers 
of  his  dreams  and  to  reveal  the  flowing 
course  of  his  aspirations  and  thoughts. 
On  the  basis  of  the  knowledge  so  ac- 
quired the  physician  shows  the  connec- 
tion between  cause  and  effect  to  the 
patient  and  dissipates  the  neurotic  condi- 
tion by  rationalizing  it. 

There  is  unquestionably  much  that  is 
sound  in  Psychoanalysis,  but  both  the  in- 
quiry and  the  treatment  call  for  great 
sagacity,  skill,  and  patience,  and  these 
qualities  are  not  always  present  in  those 
who  endeavor  to  apply  its  principles. 
In  the  United  States  the  theory  has  re- 
ceived further  development  and  is  being 


PSYCHOLOGY 


373 


PSYCHOTHERAPY 


used  with  success  in  the  milder  forms  of 
nervous  affections. 

PSYCHOLOGY,  the  science  of  mental 
phenomena.  Opinion  is  far  from  unani- 
mous on  many  of  the  most  important 
points  of  psychological  doctrine,  espe- 
cially on  such  points  as  involve  a  philo- 
sophical view  of  the  nature  of  mind. 

Thus,  in  the  first  place,  we  have  the 
view  that  psychology  deals  with  the  facts 
of  the  conscious  mind  which,  when 
knowing,  feeling,  or  striving,  is  always 
conscious  of  itself  as  knowing,  feel- 
ing, or  striving — *.  e.,  is  self-conscious. 
But  it  has  many  difficulties.  We  can 
hardly  ascribe  self-consciousness  to  the 
lower  animals  or  to  very  young  chil- 
dren, and  yet  some  kind  of  mental  life 
clearly  belongs  to  them ;  so  that  it  would 
seem  that  mental  life  and  self-conscious- 
iiess  cannot  be  identified.  Further,  many 
psychologists  (including  Hamilton)  are 
of  opinion  that  there  are  mental  phenom- 
ena unaccompanied  by  self-consciousness 
even  in  mature  human  life. 

In  the  second  place,  a  materialistic 
view  of  mind  is  connected  with  the  at- 
tempt to  make  brain  physiology  play  the 
part  of  a  psychology.  It  is  plain,  how- 
ever, that  a  sensation  or  a  feeling  of 
pleasure  or  pain  is  a  fact  of  an  entirely 
different  order  from  a  neural  disturbance. 
The  one  may  accompany  or  even  cause 
the  other  (or  both  may  be  only  different 
aspects  of  the  same  ultimate  existence), 
but  the  characteristic  nature  of  the  men- 
tal fact  is  not  reached  by  the  most 
thorough  investigation  of  its  physiolog- 
ical conditions,  while  the  latter  are  in 
many  cases  much  more  obscure  than  the 
phenomena  they  are  adduced  to  explain. 

In  the  third  place,  an  attempt  has  been 
made  (sometimes  apart  from  any  philo- 
sophical hypothesis  as  to  the  nature  of 
mind)  to  start  with  certain  mental  facts 
— called  presentations,  sensations,  or 
feelings — regarded  as  ultimate  or  inde- 
pendent, and  to  trace  the  laws  and  man- 
ner of  their  combination  and  succession. 
This  method  has  been  worked  with  excel- 
lent result  by  the  English  Associationist 
psychologists.  By  a  similar  method,  and 
by  treating  presentations  as  forces,  Her- 
bart  and  his  followers  have  elaborated  a 
mechanism  of  the  mind  and  reduced 
psychology  to  mathematical  form.  The 
difficulty  of  this  mode  of  conceiving  mind 
is  to  explain  how  a  series  of  sensations 
— on  any  interaction  of  presentations — 
can  generate  the  consciousness  of  a  self 
persisting  through  changing  states;  and 
even  to  give  any  meaning  to  sensation  or 
presentation  without  regarding  it  as  ex- 
perienced by  or  presented  to  mind.  On 
these  grrounds  many  psychologists,  while 
influenced  by  the  scientific  method  of  the 


Associationists  and  of  Herbart,  hold  that 
presentation  or  sensation  is  only  con- 
ceivable as  belonging  to  a  subject  or 
mind.  So  far,  mind  must  be  assumed  by 
the  psychologist  as  implied  in  the  experi- 
ence of  which  he  has  to  trace  the  develop- 
ment. This  subject,  or  mind  as  the  con- 
dition of  experience,  may  be  admitted  to 
elude  psychological  observation. 

Consult  "Psychological  Principles" 
Ward  (1918);  "Psychology  of  Peoples" 
Le  Bon  (1898) ;  "The  Mind  and  Its  Ed- 
ucation" Betts  (1916);  "Educational 
Psychology"   (1913-1914). 

PSYCHOTHERAPY,  treatment  of 
disease  by  the  application  of  mental  in- 
fluence. The  treatment  takes  various 
forms  and  the  conditions  of  its  efficacy 
depend  on  the  psychical  character  of  the 
disease  and  the  responsiveness  of  the 
symptoms  to  psychical  remedies.  Since, 
however,  there  is  hardly  a  malady  that 
has  not  its  psychical  factors  psychother- 
apy can  often  supplement  the  work  of 
ordinary  treatment  even  in  cases  where 
it  cannot  effect  a  cure.  It  is  estimated 
that  nearly  half  the  number  of  known 
diseases  have  a  psychical  origin,  though, 
on  the  other  hand,  every  illness  has  its 
physical  basis  also.  The  mental  influ- 
ence has  to  be  of  a  character  to  fit  the 
case.  In  the  case  of  children  the  remedy 
is  of  the  simplest  and  a  mere  prohibition 
or  command  or  word  of  flattery  and  en- 
couragement may  have  its  due  effect. 
There  is  no  limit  to  the  tricks  and  arti- 
fices that  may  be  used  from  harshness 
to  sympathy,  from  bullying  to  wheedling, 
from  playing  on  prepossessions  and  per- 
sonal weaknesses  to  philosophical  argu- 
ment :  all  have  their  place  in  dealing  with 
the  nervously  afflicted.  The  skill  of  the 
practitioner  will  be  shown  in  his  capacity 
for  trained  observation  of  the  connection 
between  cause  and  for  applying  his  sug- 
gestive influences  accordingly. 
^  Psychotherapeutic  treatment  in  prac- 
tice falls  into  a  number  of  divisions,  of 
which  the  most  important  fall  under  the 
heads  of  hypnosis,  suggestion,  re-educa- 
tion, and  psychoanalysis.  These  meth- 
ods of  treatment  interlap  more  or  less. 
Hypnosis,  as  here  used,  is  based  largely 
on  the  influence  of  suggestion,  seeking 
means  of  fixing  certain  ameliorative 
ideas  in  the  patient's  mind,  while  his 
will  and  consciousness  ai'e  held  in  re- 
straint by  conditions  such  as  hypnotic 
sleep.  Under  the  heading  of  sugges- 
tions are  included  methods  of  inducing 
desirable  emotional  conditions  by  in- 
fluences beyond  the  cognizance  of  the 
patient.  Re-education  has  as  its  purpose 
the  mental  reconstruction  of  the  patient 
by  clarifying  his  mind  and  showing  him 
what  he  is  capable  of  performing  and 


PTARMIGAN 


374 


PTEROSAURIA 


what  he  is  not.  Psychoanalysis  (q.  v,), 
is  an  extended  form  of  his  re-education, 
and  involves  the  moral  rehabilitation  of 
the  patient  by  leading  him  through  free 
association  to  bring  his  vi^hole  mind  into 
the  open,  hovi^ever  reluctant  he  may  be 
in  doing  so,  and  thus  reveal  the  re- 
pressed desires,  of  which,  according  to 
the  theory  of  Freud,  the  neurotic  mani- 
festations are  the  outward  symbols  and 
expressions. 

PTABMIGAN,  Lagopus  mutus,  a 
game  bird  found  in  the  N.  of  Europe, 
especially  in  Norway  and  Sweden,  and 
in  the  United  States.  In  winter  the 
plumage  of  the  male  is  almost  wholly 
white,  with  a  small  patch  behind  the  eye; 


ROCK   PTARMIGAN 

A.  Summer  Plumage 

B.  Winter  Plumage 

the  shafts  of  the  primaries  and  the  bases 
of  the  exterior  tail-feathers  are  black, 
and  there  is  a  patch  of  bare  red  skin 
around  the  eye.  In  the  summer  the 
black  retains  its  position,  but  the  white 
is  mottled  and  barred  with  black  and 
gray.  The  length  of  the  adult  male  is 
rather  more  than  15  inches.  Their  call 
is  a  harsh  croak. 

PTERASPIS,  a  genus  of  Placodermi, 
having  the  cephalic  shield  finely  grooved 
and  composed  of  seven  pieces.  It  had  a 
rostrum  in  front,  and  its  lateral  angles 
were  produced  so  as  to  form  short  cor- 
nua.  So  far  as  is  known,  it  is  the  most 
ancient    fish    form,    two    species    being 


known  from  the  Upper  Silurian,  and  six 
from  the  Lower  Devonian  of  Orkney  and 
Perthshire,  Scotland. 

PTERICHTHYS,  a  genus  of  Placo- 
derms,  discovered  by  Hugh  Miller  in  the 
Old  Red  Sandstone.  The  head  and  ante- 
rior part  of  the  trunk  were  defended  by 
a  buckler  of  large  ganoid  scales,  united 
by  sutures,  the  cuirass  articulating  at 
the  sides  with  a  back  plate;  the  rest  of 
the  body  covered  vdth  small  ganoid 
scales.  Pectorals  long  and  wing-like,  a 
scaly  short  tail.  Twelve  species;  eight 
from  the  lower,  and  four  from  the  Up- 
per Devonian  of  Orkney,  Cromarty, 
Caithness,  Scotland,  and  in  Ireland. 

PTERIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  Poly- 
podese.  Sori  continuous,  linear,  margi- 
nal; involucre  scarious  or  membranous, 
confluent  with  the  recurved  margin  of 
the  frond.  Known  species  80,  of  world- 
wide distribution. 

PTEROCARPUS,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  Dalhergieae,  having  a  thin  wing  at 
the  edge  of  the  fruit.  Large  trees, 
chiefly  from  the  tropics.  P.  marsupium, 
P.  indicus,  and  P.  macrocarpus  furnish 
East  Indian  kino,  and  P.  eriiiaceus,  Af- 
rican kino,  P.  draco  and  P.  santalinus, 
red  sandal  wood.  P.  balberggioides,  a 
good  Indian  wood,  and  P.  indicus,  the  ex- 
cellent Andaman  red  wood.  Cattle  and 
goats  feed  on  the  leaves  of  P.  m,arsupium. 

PTEROCERAS,  in  zoology,  scorpion 
shell,  or  spider  shell.  Shell,  when  young, 
like  that  of  Strombus;  afterward  the 
outer  lip  becomes  prolonged  into  several 
long  claws,  one  of  them  forming  a  pos- 
terior canal.  Recent  species  12,  from 
India  or  China. 

PTERODACTYL,  a  remarkable  genus 
of  fossil  lizards,  peculiar  to  the  Mesozoic 
strata.  Collini,  and  other  more  eminent 
naturalists,  referred  it  to  the  mammalia, 
finding  its  nearest  ally  in  the  bat.  The 
careful  investigations  of  Cuvier,  how- 
ever, showed  that  the  pterodactyl  was  a 
true  lizard,  but  possessed  of  the  power  of 
flight. 

PTEROPODA,  in  zoology,  a  class  of 
Cuvier's  embranchement  of  sub-king- 
dom Mollusca.  Also,  a  sub-class  of  Ce- 
phalopoda, in  which  the  mid-region  of 
the  foot  is  drawn  out  into  a  pair  of  wing- 
like muscular  lobes,  used  as  paddles. 
The  hind  region  is  often  absorbed,  but 
may  carry  an  operculum;  the  fore  region 
is  sometimes  drawn  out  into  tentacles, 
provided  with  suckers.  There  are  two 
orders:  Thecosomata  and  Gyninoso- 
mata. 

PTEROSAURIA,  an  order  of  flying 
Reptilia  of  Mesozoic  age.     No  exoskele- 


PT0LEM2EUS 


375 


PTOLEMY 


ton;  dorsal  vertebrae  proccelous,  anterior 
trunk-ribs  double-beaded;  broad  ster- 
num, with  median  keel,  and  ossified  ster- 
nal ribs.  Jaws  generally  armed  with 
teeth,  implanted  in  distinct  sockets. 
The  fore-limb  consists  of  a  humerus, 
ulna,  and  radius,  carpus,  and  hand  of 
four  fingers,  the  inner  three  unguiculate, 
the  outer  clawless  and  enormously  elon- 
gated.    Supported    by    this    finger,    the 


gest"  that  the  earth  was  a  fixed  body, 
remaining  constantly  at  rest  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  universe,  with  the  sun  and 
moon  revolving  round  it  as  attendant 
satellites.  To  account  for  the  more  com- 
plicated movements  of  the  planets,  a  con- 
trivance was  devised  by  which  each 
planet  revolved  m  a  circle,  while  the  cen- 
ter of  that  circle  described  another  circle 
round  the  earth.     The  Ptolemaic  system 


PTERODACTYLS 


side  of  the  body,  and  the  comparatively 
short  hind  limb,  was  a  patagium,  or  fly- 
ing membrane.  The  bones  were  pneu- 
matic. 

PTOLEM^TJS,  the  dynastic  name  of 
13  kings  of  Egypt,  who  reigned  from  323 
to  43  B.  c.  The  most  famous  was  Ptole- 
mjeus  Soter,  who  reigned  from  323  to  285 
B.  c.     See  Ptolei^iy  I. 

PTOLEMAIC  SYSTEM,  the  hypothe- 
sis maintained  by  Ptolemy  in  his  "Alma- 


prevailed  till  Copernicus  propounded 
what  is  now  accepted  as  the  true  sys- 
tem of  the  universe.  See  CoPERNiGUS; 
Ptolemy,  Claudius. 

PTOLEMY,  the  name  of  various  an- 
cient rulers,  as  follows: 

Ptolemy  I.,  surnamed  Soter,  founder 
of  the  Graeco-Egyptian  dynasty  of  the 
Lagides,  was  a  Macedonian,  and  became 
a  favorite  general  of  Alexander  the 
Great.     On  the  death  of  his  master,  in 


PTOLEMY 


376 


PTOLEMY 


323  B.  C,  Ptolemy  I.  obtained  Egypt  for 
his  province.  For  20  years  he  was  al- 
most constantly  engaged  in  war.  He 
defeated  his  rival  Perdiccas,  acquired 
Phoenicia  and  Coelo-Syria;  joined  the 
league  against  Antigonus;  was  defeated 
by  Demetrius  in  306,  and  lost  the  island 
of  Cyprus,  and  soon  after  took  the  title 
of  king.  He  saved  Rhodes  when  be- 
sieged by  Demetrius,  and  received  the 
title  of  Soter  (savior)  ;  and  after  the 
fall  of  Antigonus  he  applied  himself  to 
the  promotion  of  commerce,  literature, 
science,  and  the  arts  in  his  own  domin- 
ions. Philosophers,  poets,  and  painters 
gathered  to  his  court,  and  the  founda- 
tions were  laid  of  the  famous  Alex- 
andrian Library  and  Museum.  In  285 
Ptolemy  resigned  his  crown  to  his  son, 
surnamed  Philadelphus,  and  died  in  283. 

Ptolemy  II.,  surnamed  Philadelphus 
(lover  of  his  brother),  born  in  Cos,  311 
B.  C,  was  the  youngest  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding by  his  favorite  wife,  Berenice. 
He  became  king  on  the  abdication  of  his 
father  in  285.  He  completed  the  Alex- 
andrian Library  Museum,  patronizing 
learning  and  learned  men,  founding  col- 
onies, and  increasing  his  army  and  his 
revenue.  He  made  a  treaty  of  alliance 
with  the  Romans,  and  encouraged  the  re- 
sort of  Jews  to  Egypt.     He  died  in  247. 

Ptolemy  III.,  surnamed  Euergetes 
(benefactor) ;  was  early  engaged  in  an 
important  war  against  Syria,  which  hav- 
ing invaded  he  advanced  without  oppo- 
sition to  Antioch,  then  turned  E.,  sub- 
duing Mesopotamia,  Babylonia,  etc.  The 
fleets  of  Ptolemy  had  at  the  same  time 
subdued  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
carried  his  arms  to  the  Hellespont  and 
to  the  coast  of  Thrace.  Ptolemy  took 
some  part  in  the  affairs  of  Greece  against 
the  rulers  of  Macedonia,  and  maintained 
friendly  relations  with  Rome.  He  died 
in  222  B.  c. 

Ptolemy  IV.,  surnamed  Philopator, 
succeeded  Ptolemy  III.  His  Syrian  pos- 
sessions having  been  gradually  wrested 
from  him  by  Antiochus  the  Great,  Ptol- 
emy put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  large 
army  and  completely  defeated  Antiochus 
f^t  Raphia,  in  217  B.  c.  He  later  gave 
himself  up  completely  to  debauchery,  and 
died  205  b.  c. 

Ptolemy  V.,  surnamed  Epiphanes,  son 
of  Ptolemy  Philopator,  and  great-grand- 
son of  Philadelphus,  was  born  210  B.  c, 
and  at  5  years  of  age  succeeded  his 
father.  The  aid  of  the  Romans  was  ob- 
tained against  the  kings  of  Macedonia 
and  Syria,  who  threatened  to  dismember 
his  dominions.  The  young  king  was  de- 
clared of  age  at  14,  and  crowned  at 
Memphis;  and  three  years  later  he  mar- 
ried  Cleopatra,   daughter   of   Antiochus 


of  Syria.  He  had  an  able  and  upright 
minister  in  Aristomenes,  but,  notwith- 
standing his  great  service,  had  him  put 
to  death.  Most  of  the  foreign  posses- 
sions were  lost  to  Egypt  during  this 
reign.     Ptolemy    was    poisoned    in     181 

B.    C. 

Ptolemy  VI.,  surnamed  Philometer, 
son  of  the  preceding,  succeeded  his  father 
181  B.  c,  under  the  regency  at  first  of 
his  mother,  Cleopatra,  and  then  of  feeble 
and  corrupt  ministers,  who  involved  the 
kingdom  in  a  disastrous  war.  Egypt 
was  invaded,  and  \;he  young  king  taken 
prisoner  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes;  a 
younger  Ptolemy  was  set  up  as  king, 
and  the  two  brothers  tried  to  reign  joint- 
ly, supported  by  the  Romans;  but  they 
quarreled,  and  Philometer  was  driven 
av/ay.  He  was  restored  by  the  Romans, 
and  his  brother  (Euergetes  II.,  or  Phys- 
con)  was  made  king  of  Cyrene.  Philo- 
meter was  killed  in  a  battle  near  An- 
tioch, 146  B.  c. 

Ptolemy  XI.,  surnamed  Auletes  (flute- 
player),  was  driven  from  his  kingdom 
by  his  subjects,  who  were  ground  down 
by  taxation;  but  he  was  restored  by  the 
Romans,  and  died  in  51  b.  C. 

Ptolemy  XII.,  Dionysius,  son  of  Ptol- 
emy Auletes,  succeeded  to  the  throne  con- 
jointly with  his  sister  Cleopatra,  under 
the  protection  of  Pompey,  in  51.  He  be- 
came a  partisan  of  Caesar  in  the  Civil 
War,  and  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia 
caused  Pompey  to  be  assassinated.  As- 
piring to  be  sole  king,  he  then  took  arms 
against  Caesar,  who  had  decided  that 
Cleopatra  should  continue  to  reign  with 
him,  and  was  drowned  in  the  Nile  while 
flying  from  the  field  of  battle,  47  b.  c. 

Ptolemy  XIII.,  younger  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  11  years  of  age  when  Cle- 
opatra was  left  sole  mistress  of  Egypt 
by  his  death.  She  was  compelled  to 
marry  him  by  Caesar,  and  he  reigned 
with  her  till  his  death  in  44  or  43  B.  C. 

Ptolemy  XIV.,  Cassarion,  an  illegiti- 
mate son  of  Caesar  and  Cleopatra,  and 
the  last  of  the  Lagides,  obtained  the  title 
of  king  from  the  Roman  triumvirs,  42 
B.  c.  He  was  killed  by  order  of  Augustus 
at  the  age  of  18,  30  b.  c. 

PTOLEMY,  CLAITDIITS,  a  celebrated 
astronomer  and  geographer,  who  flour- 
ished at  Alexandria,  about  a.  d.  140-160. 
He  is  considered  the  first  astronomer  of 
antiquity.  He  corrected  Hipparchus' 
catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars,  and  formed 
tables  by  which  the  motions  of  the  sun, 
moon  and  planets  might  be  calculated 
and  regulated.  He  was  the  first  who 
collected  the  scattered  and  detached  ob- 
servations made  by  the  ancients,  and 
digested  them  into  a  system;  this  he 
called  the   "Great   Construction."     (See 


PTOMAINE 


377 


PUBLIC    UTILITIES 


Ptolemaic  System.)  The  "Great  Con- 
struction" was  translated  by  the  Ara- 
bians into  their  language  about  827, 
and  from  this  translation,  which  bears 
the  title  of  "Almagest,"  a  Latin  version, 
was  made  by  command  of  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II.,  in  1230. 

PTOMAINE,  a  putrescent  product  of 
animal  origin  and  of  a  basic  or  alka- 
loidal  nature,  closely  allied  to  the  vege- 
table alkaloids  J  a  cadaveric  poison. 
About  150  varieties  of  ptomaines  are 
known,  some  being  harmless,  others  very 
poisonous.  Ordinary  foods  frequently 
undergo  changes  that  render  them  harm- 
ful, and  especially  is  this  so  with  mus- 
sels, clams,  oysters,  fish,  meat,  sausage, 
milk,  ice-cream,  cheese  and  canned  goods. 
These  changes  are  due  to  the  presence 
of  ptomaines.  Heat  will  destroy  the 
ptomaine  bacteria,  but  their  poison  is  not 
eliminated   by    cooking.     See    Bacteria. 

PTOSIS,  in  pathology,  a  falling;  as 
Ptosis  fcdpehrse,  a  paralysis  of  the  mus- 
cle which  should  keep  the  upper  eyelid 
from  falling. 

PUBERTY,  the  age  at  which  persons 
are  capable  of  begetting  or  bearing  chil- 
dren; the  period  marked  by  the  func- 
tional development  of  the  generative 
system  in  both  male  and  female,  and 
their  corresponding  aptitude  for  pro- 
creation. In  botany,  the  period  at  which 
a  plant  first  begins  to  bear  flowers. 

PUBILIUS  VOLEBO,  the  author  of 
the  Pubilian  law  at  Rome;  a  law  by 
wH  h  the  power  of  the  plebs  or  people 
was  greatly  increased. 

PUBLICAN,  in  Roman  antiquities,  a 
collector  of  revenues,  or  farmer  of  the 
taxes  consisting  of  tolls,  tithes,  harbor 
duties,  duties  for  the  use  of  pasture 
lands,  mines,  salt  works,  etc.,  in  Roman 
provinces.  Also,  formerly  a  collector  of 
toll,  tribute,  customs,  or  the  like. 

PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE,  a  bu- 
reau of  the  United  States  Treasury  De- 
partment, formerly  going  under  the 
name  of  the  Marine  Hospital  Service, 
The  officials  in  its  service  have  the  work 
of  managing  the  marine  hospitals  and 
relief  stations  established  for  men  in  the 
American  merchant  marine  who  are  ill 
or  disabled.  It  is  also  charged  with  the 
supervision  of  the  quarantine  stations, 
and  the  collection  of  data  and  dissem- 
ination of  literature  relating  to  mor- 
tality and  health,  including  the  exami- 
nation of  persons  from  abroad  who  may 
be  suffering  from  infectious  diseases. 
The  Public  Health  Service  dates  from 
the  year  1798,  and  its  duties  have  de- 
veloped considerably  from  that  time.  At 
first  it  was  charged  with  the  supervision 


of  a  small  group  of  hospitals.  Then  in 
1871  the  bureau  was  brought  more  in 
touch  with  the  Treasury  Department  and 
was  established  on  a  broader  basis  under 
a  surgeon-general  with  headquarters  in 
Washington.  The  staff  was  gradually 
increased  till  the  number  of  surgeons  has 
totaled  over  400,  and  hospitals  have 
been  established  both  on  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  coasts,  on  the  coasts  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  in  other 
places  in  the  more  recent  possessions. 
In  1914  the  hospitals  numbered  24,  and 
the  relief  stations  120.  In  the  year  pre- 
vious the  bureau  distributed  close  on 
1,500,000  pamphlets  and  similar  pieces 
of  literature  dealing  with  matters  of 
health. 

PUBLICIST,  a  term  originally  applied 
to  a  writer  on  international  law,  now 
used  to  denote  a  writer  on  current 
politics. 

PUBLIC  PROSECUTOR,  an  officer  ap- 
pointed to  originate  and  conduct  prose- 
cutions in  the  public  interest.  In  the  Uni- 
ted States  his  title  is  usually  district 
attorney,  though  in  some  states  special 
prosecutors  are  assigned  to  minor  courts. 

PUBLIC  UTILITIES,  REGULATION 
OF,  in  which  the  government,  national, 
state  or  municipal,  on  behalf  of  the  pub- 
lic, asserts  its  right  to  interfere  in  the 
management  of  certain  corporations  for 
the  protection  of  the  public  interest.  It 
was,  at  one  time,  a  generally  accepted 
theory  that  the  right  of  private  individ- 
uals and  corporations  to  manage  their 
own  business  was  sacred.  Governments, 
however,  are  more  and  more  regulating 
private  business  in  the  social  interest. 
The  right  of  the  government  to  I'egulate 
the  control  of  public  utilities  is  no  longer 
questioned,  even  by  the  most  conserva- 
tive. Public  utilities  are  those  enter- 
prises which,  though  privately  owned  and 
controlled,  have  as  their  object  the  ren- 
dering of  service  to  the  general  public, 
chief  of  which  are  railways,  lighting 
plants,  telephone  and  telegraph  lines, 
water  supply,  etc.  Foremost  among 
these  are  such  enterprises  as  street  rail- 
ways, waterworks,  gas  companies,  etc., 
which  exercise  what  is  practically  a 
monopoly  in  their  own  domain.  Obvi- 
ously, in  granting  such  rights  of  mon- 
opoly, the  public  must  reserve  the  right 
of  regulation. 

Regulation  was  at  first  attempted 
through  legislation,  but  this  method 
proved  not  only  too  slow,  but  inadapta- 
ble  to  special  conditions  which  might 
arise.  Regulation  is,  therefore,  almost 
always  carried  on  by  commissioners,  or 
commissions,  which  exercise  the  right  of 
interference  as  the  conditions  may  arise. 
The  first  official  body  of  this  sort  created 


PUBLITJS    SYRT7S 


378 


PUDDING    BEimiES 


1.1  the  United  States  was  the  Gas  and 
Electric  Light  Commission,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1885.  Then  came  the  Fed- 
eral Interstate  Commerce  Commission, 
appointed  in  1887,  with  the  power  to  en- 
force the  laws  passed  by  Congress  regu- 
lating trade  between  the  various  States. 
This  body  has  gradually  been  given 
more  and  more  jurisdiction,  with  the 
growing  sentiment  in  favor  of  regula- 
tion. Having  found  her  gas  and  electric 
light  commission  a  success,  Massachu- 
setts later  created  a  Railroad  Commis- 
sion, a  Highways  Commission,  to  regulate 
telephone  and  telegraph  companies,  and 
granted  to  the  State  Board  of  Health 
the  authority  to  regulate  the  water  sup- 
ply companies.  In  1907  Governor  La 
FoUette,  in  Wisconsin,  was  authorized  by 
the  legislature  to  appoint  a  railroad  and 
a  public  service  commission,  and  Gover- 
nor Hughes,  in  the  same  year,  appointed 
two  public  service  commissions  in  New 
York.  One  of  the  New  York  commis- 
sions regulated  all  the  public  utilities  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  while  the  other's 
jurisdiction  covered  the  rest  of  the  State. 
In  1919  the  commission  for  the  city  was 
abolished,  and  two  created  in  its  place; 
one  to  regulate  public  utilities  in  gen- 
eral, the  other  to  regulate  only  rapid 
transit  corporations,  this  latter  com- 
mission being  paid  by  the  city,  the  for- 
mer by  the  State.  The  work  of  these 
public  service  commissions,  especially  in 
the  ca.se  of  street  railways,  has  become 
very  difficult  during  the  past  few  years, 
on  account  of  the  rising  cost  of  labor  and 
materials.  On  the  one  hand  justice  de- 
mands that  fare  increases  be  allowed, 
but  on  the  other  hand  commissioners 
granting  such  rises  are  compelled  to  face 
the  disapproval  of  the  public. 

PUBLIUS  (more  correctly  PUBLILI- 
US)  SYRUS,  a  Latin  writer,  so  called 
because  a  native  of  Syria,  was  carried 
as  a  slave  to  Rome  about  the  middle  of 
the  1st  century  b.  C.  His  master  gave 
him  a  good  education,  and  afterward  set 
him  free.  He  excelled  in  writing  mimi, 
or  farces,  which  were  interspersed  with 
moral  sentences,  and  a  collection  of  them 
was  used  by  the  Romans  as  a  school  book, 

PUCCINI,  GIACOMO,  an  Italian  com- 
poser and  musician;  born  at  Lucca  in 
1858.  He  was  trained  in  music  at  the 
conservatory  of  Milan.  In  1884  ap- 
peared his  first  opera  ''Le  Villi,"  but  it 
was  not  until  nine  years  later  upon  the 
appearance  of  "Manon  Lescaut"  that  his 
genius  received  world-wide  recognition. 
His  best  known  operas  include  "La  Bo- 
heme"  (1896)  ;  "La  Tosca"  (1900)  ; 
"Madame  Butterfly"  (1904),  and  "The 
Girl  of  the  Golden  West"  (1910).  The 
latter  piece  was  written  by  Puccini  es- 


pecially for  Americans,  but  it  has  had  a 
doubtful  success.  In  1907  Puccini  su- 
perintended the  rehearsals  and  conducted 
the  performance  of  his  opera  "Madame 
Butterfly"  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House  in  New  York.     This  opera  is  gen- 


GIACOMO  PUCCINI 

erally  conceded  his  masterpiece,  and 
Puccini  is  usually  regarded  as  the  suc- 
cessor of  Verdi  in  the  development  of 
Italian  opera. 

PUCCINIA,  in  botany,  the  typical 
genus  of  Puccinsei.  The  genus  is  para- 
sitic and  destructive  to  the  plants  on 
which  it  grows.  P.  graminis,  the  com- 
mon mildew,  causes  the  rust  or  blight  in 
corn. 

PUCK,  in  mediaeval  mythology,  the 
"merry  wanderer  of  the  night,"  depicted 
in  Shakespeare's  "Midsummer  Night's 
Dream."  This  fairy  is  known  as  Robin 
Goodfellow  and  Friar  Rush  in  England, 
and  in  Germany  as  Knecht  Ruprecht; 
but  it  is  by  his  designation  of  Puck  that 
he  is  most  generally  known  in  England, 
Germany,  and  the  more  northern  nations. 

PUD,  or  POOD,  a  Russian  weight 
which  contains  40  Russian  pounds,  equiv- 
alent to  36  pounds  avoirdupois. 

PUDDING  BERRIES,  the  berries  of 
the  Canadian  dogwood  (Cormis  canaden- 
sis),  common  throughout  North  America. 


PUDDING    STONE 


379 


PUFENDORF 


PUDDING  STONE,  a  name  given  to 
certain  siliceous  conglomerates,  notably 
that  of  Hertfordshire,  England,  in  which 
the  rounded,  jaspery  flint  pebbles  resem- 
ble the  plums  in  a  plum  pudding. 

PUDUKKOTTAI,  a  State  of  Madras, 
southern  India,  situated  between  the  dis- 
tricts of  MaduiV  and  Tanjore,  mainly 
rocky  and  undulating  plain,  sparsely 
cultivated.  Granite  quarries,  silk,  cotton 
and  perfume  works  represent  the  chief 
industries.  Small  export  trade,  chiefly 
groundnuts  and  bark  of  trees.  Pop. 
about  450,000.  Capital,  Pudukkottai, 
pop.  about  25,000. 

PUEBLA,  the  third  city  of  Mexico, 
capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name; 
(area,  12,992  square  miles;  pop.  about 
1,250,000) ;  on  a  fruitful  plain,  7,120 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  68  miles  S.  E. 
of  the  city  of  Mexico.  It  was  founded  in 
1531,  and  is  one  of  the  handsomest  towns 
in  the  republic.  The  city  contains 
nearly  50  churches,  theological,  medical, 
art  schools  and  a  museum  of  antiquities 
dating  from  1728.  On  the  great  square 
stands  the  cathedral,  the  interior  of 
which  is  decorated  in  the  most  sump- 
tuous manner  with  ornaments  of  gold 
and  silver,  paintings,  statues,  etc. 
Puebla  has  a  thriving  trade.  The  chief 
articles  produced  are  cotton,  paper,  iron, 
glass,  porcelain,  leather.  Puebla  was 
besieged  for  two  months  by  the  French, 
and  then  taken  by  storm.  May  17,  1863. 
Pop.  about  100,000. 

PUEBLO,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Pueblo  CO.,  Col.;  on  the  Arkansas  river, 
and  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe, 
Missouri  Pacific,  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
and  Pacific,  and  other  railroads;  118 
miles  S.  E.  of  Denver.  Here  are  the 
State  Hospitals  for  the  Insane,  the  State 
Agricultural  Society's  buildings,  etc. 
There  is  an  extensive  park  system,  ex- 
cellent schools,  public  and  private,  li- 
braries, county  court  house.  State  Min- 
eral Palace  and  Park.  The  city  has 
noted  iron  and  steel  plants  and  large 
stock-yards.  Pop.  (1910)  44,395;  (1920) 
42,908. 

PUEBLOS  (Spanish,  pueblo,  "vil- 
lage"), a  semi-civilized  family  of  Ameri- 
can Indians  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona, 
dwelling  in  large  single  habitations, 
which  are  sometimes  capacious  enough 
to  contain  a  whole  tribe.  In  New  Mex- 
ico there  are  19  such  villages,  with  over 
8,000  occupants,  who  are  skillful  agri- 
culturists, employing  irrigation  ditches 
extensively,  and  rearing  horses,  cattle, 
and  sheep.  Spinning  and  weaving  and 
the  manufacture  of  pottery  also  are  car- 
ried on.  The  Moquis  of  Arizona  are  a 
related  tribe,  numbering  about  1,800,  in 


seven  villages  built  on  the  summit  of  iso- 
lated hills.  The  Pueblos  are  under  Ro- 
man Catholic  missionaries,  and  are  mak- 
ing steady  progress  in  civilization  and 
education.  They  were  first  visited  by 
the  Spaniards  about  1530,  at  which  i)er- 
iod  their  habits  and  their  habitations 
were  very  much  the  same  as  today. 

PUERPERAL  FEVER,  the  low  fever 
of  childbed,  commencing  with  rigors  and 
chills.  There  are  three  marked  varie- 
ties :  the  simple  inflammatory,  the  mild 
epidemic  with  nervous  disturbance,  and 
the  putrid  or  malignant  epidemic.  It  is 
highly  infectious,  and  even  contagious, 
sometimes  associated  with  erysipelas. 

PUERTO  CABELLO,  a  seaport  of 
Venezuela,  in  the  State  of  Carabobo,  78 
miles  W.  of  Caracas.  It  stands  on  a 
long,  low  narrow  peninsula  on  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  34  miles  from  Valencia. 
There  is  an  active  foreign  trade;  the 
chief  exports  are  coffee,  cacao,  indigo, 
cinchona,  cotton,  sugar,  di^^-divi,  and 
copper  ore.     Pop.  about  15,000. 

PUERTO  DE  SANTA  MARIA,  a  sea- 
port of  Spain,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gua- 
dalete,  on  the  bay  of  Cadiz,  22  miles  N.  E. 
of  Cadiz.  It  is  one  of  the  principal  ex- 
port harbors  for  sherry,  and  manufac- 
tures silk,  soap,  hats,  leather,  spirits, 
beer,  etc.     Pop.  about  20,000. 

PUERTO  PLATA,  the  chief  port  of 
the  Dominican  Republic,  on  the  N.  coast 
of  the  island  of  Haiti.  It  has  an  open 
roadstead,  and  exports  a  good  deal  of  to- 
bacco, mahogany,  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa, 
divi-divi,  etc.     Pop.  (1916)  10,000. 

PUERTO  PRINCIPE,  an  important 
inland  town  in  the  E.  of  the  island  of 
Cuba,  40  miles  S.  W.  of  its  port, 
Nuevitas,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway.  It  manufactures  cigars. 
Now  known  as  Camaguey.  Pop.  (1916) 
30,000. 

PUFENDORF,  or  PUFFENDORF, 
SAMUEL,  BARON  VON,  a  (German 
writer  on  the  law  of  nature  and  nations; 
born  in  1632.  He  studied  theology  and 
law  at  Leipsic  and  Jena,  and  in  1660  ap- 
peared his  "Elem,ents  of  General  Juris- 
prudence." In  1661  he  became  profes- 
sor of  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations 
at  Heidelberg.  In  1667  he  published  his 
work  "The  Commonwealth  of  Germany," 
which,  from  the  boldness  of  its  attacks 
on  the  constitution  of  the  German  Em- 
pire, caused  a  profound  sensation.  In 
1670  he  went  to  Sweden,  became  Profes- 
sor of  Natural  Law  in  the  University  of 
Lund,  and  brought  out  his  chief  work, 
"Natural  Law  and  the  Law  of  Nations." 
Other  famous  works  are  "On  the  Spir- 
itual Monarchy  of  the  Pope"  (a  vindica- 


PUFF    ADDER 


380 


PULITZER 


tion  of  Protestantism) ;  "History  of  Swe- 
den," "History  of  Charles  Gustavus," 
etc.     Died  1694. 

PUFF  ADDER,  the  Vipera  {Clotho) 
arietans,  one  of  the  most  venomous  ser- 
pents of  South  Africa.  In  length,  when 
full  grown,  it  is  from  four  to  five  feet; 
is  as  thick  as  a  man's  arm,  and,  when 
disturbed,  puffs  out  the  upper  part  of  its 
body,  whence  its  popular  name. 

PUFF  BALL,  a  fungus  of  the  genus 
Lycoperdon.  They  mostly  grow  on  the 
ground  and  are  roundish,  at  first  firm 
and  fleshy,  but  afterward  powdery  with- 
in. 

PUFFIN,  the  Fratercula  arctica,  a 
common  English  sea  bird,  with  many 
popular  names — bottlenose,  coulterneb, 
pope,  sea-parrot,  and  tammy  norie,  with 
others  that  are  only  locally  known.  It 
is  rather  larger  than  a  pigeon;  plumage 
glossy  black  above,  under  surface  pure 
white;  feet  orange-red;  bill  very  deep, 
and  flattened  laterally,  parti-colored — 
red,  yellow,  and  blue,  and  grooved  dur- 
ing the  breeding  season.  Puffins  lay  a 
single  egg — white,  with  gray  markings — 
in  a  burrow. 

PUG  DOG,  a  dwarf  variety  of  the  com- 
mon dog,  like  a  diminutive  bull  dog. 

PUGET  SOUND,  an  inlet  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  on  the  N.  W.  Washington  coast, 
connecting  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca 
with  Admiralty  Inlet  and  the  Hood 
Canal;  in  all  an  area  of  over  2,000  square 
miles  and  having  1,600  miles  of  shore  line. 
The  sound  has  many  bays,  islets,  and  in- 
lets. Fishing,  especially  that  of  salmon, 
is  carried  on  extensively.  Clams  and 
oysters  are  found  in  profusion.  Ship- 
building is  an  important  industry.  Seat- 
tle and  Tacoma  are  the  most  important 
ports  situated  on  its  shores. 

PUGILISM,  the  practice  of  boxing  or 
fighting  with  the  fists.  It  formed  one  of 
the  earliest  of  the  athletic  games  of  the 
Greeks;  and  we  find  the  Greek  poets  de- 
scribing their  heroes  and  gods  as  excell- 
ing in  the  pugne.  Boxing  for  men  was 
introduced  in  the  Olympic  games  in  the 
23d  Olympiad,  and  for  boys  in  the  37th 
Olympiad.  With  the  exception  of  a  gir- 
dle about  the  loins,  the  ancient  pugilist 
^  fought  nude.  There  was  one  feature, 
I  however,  which  bore  no  analogy  to  the 
pugilism  of  modern  days;  this  consisted 
in  the  use  of  cagstus,  a  weapon  formed  of 
thongs  or  bands  of  raw  ox-hide  tied 
round  the  hands,  and  frequently  as  high 
as  the  elbows,  of  the  boxers.  Even  in  its 
simplest  and  most  primitive  forms,  it  was 
a  fearful  weapon  enough;  but  when  "im- 
provements" crept  in,  in  the  shape  of 
knobs  of  lead  or  iron,  and,  still  later, 


w^hen  it  assumed  the  form  of  a  disk  of 
bronze,  it  came  to  be  a  murderous  piece 
of  mechanism,  fraught  with  despair  and 
death  to  the  less  skillful  fighter.  As  the 
head  was  exposed  to  great  danger 
through  the  use  of  the  caestus,  ampho- 
tides,  or  armor  for  the  head,  by  which 
the  temporal  bones,  arteries,  and  ears 
were  protected,  were  invented;  alto- 
gether, they  were  not  unlike  helmets. 

Both  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  used 
the  right  arm  chiefly  in  attacking, 
the  left  being  reserved  as  a  protection  for 
the  head  and  upper  portions  of  the  body. 
Like  all  the  other  athletic  games  of  the 
Greeks,  boxing  was  regulated  by  certain 
rules;  the  principal  of  these  was  that 
the  pugilist  was  bound  to  continue  to 
fight  till  wounds,  fatigue,  or  despair 
compelled  him  to  desist.  It  was  not  till 
the  reign  of  George  I.  that  pugilism  came 
to  be  in  a  manner  appropriated  by  the 
English.  In  the  United  States,  as  in 
England,  the  art  has  been  brought  down 
to  the  present  day  through  a  succession 
of  pugilistic   champions. 

PUISNE,  in  law,  younger  or  inferior 
in  rank.  The  several  judges  and  barons 
of  the  divisions  of  the  high  court  of  jus- 
tice other  than  the  chiefs,  used  to  be 
called  puisne  judges. 

PULASKI,  COUNT  CASIMIR,  a 
Polish  patriot  and  military  officer,  who 
participated  in  the  war  of  the  American 
Revolution;  born  in  1748.  His  father, 
a  Polish  nobleman,  and  his  brothers  were 
killed  fighting  against  Russia  for  the  lib- 
erty of  Poland.  Casimir  escaped  to 
Turkey,  whence  he  proceeded  by  way  of 
France  to  join  the  Americans,  then  fight- 
ing for  independence,  bearing  recommen- 
dations from  Franklin  to  Washington, 
whom  he  joined  in  1777.  Entering  as  a 
volunteer,  he  so  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Brandywine  as  to  be  pro- 
moted by  Congrress  to  a  cavalry  com- 
mand, with  the  rank  of  Brigadier-Gen- 
eral. He  afterward  organized  an  inde- 
pendent corps  of  cavalry  and  light  in- 
fantry, with  which  he  rendered  effectual 
service  under  General  Lincoln,  in  South 
Carolina,  in  1779,  and  in  the  siege  of 
Savannah,  Ga.,  where,  in  an  assault  on 
the  latter  place,  he  was  mortally 
wounded.     He  died  in  1779. 

PULITZER,  JOSEPH,  an  American 
journalist;  born  in  Budapest,  Hungary, 
April  10,  1847.  When  quite  young  he 
came  to  the  United  States;  served  in 
the  Civil  War;  and  found  a  home  in  St. 
Louis,  Mo.  He  began  journalism  as  re- 
porter on  the  "Westliche  Post,"  of  which 
he  afterward  became  editor  and  chief 
proprietor.  He  was  well  known  in  that 
city  as  a  politician,  legislator  and  Con- 


PTJLKOWA 


381 


PULMOTOR 


gressman.  In  1878  he  assumed  control 
of  the  St.  Louis  "Post-Dispatch,"  and  in 
1883  purchased  the  New  York  "World." 
He  endowed  a  School  of  Journalism  at 
Columbia  University  (1903)  and  gave 
large  sums  for  educational  and  philan- 
thropic purposes.     He  died  in  1911. 

PTJLKOWA,  a  village  of  Russia,  10 
miles  S.  of  the  site  of  a  magnificent  ob- 
servatory (lat.  59°  46'  18"  N.  and  Ion. 
30°  19'  40"  E.),  the  "St.  Petersburg  ob- 
servatory," built  by  the  Czar  Nicholas  in 
1838-1839.  In  1882  one  of  the  largest 
telescopes  in  the  world  was  erected  here. 
Besides  being  one  of  the  largest  institu- 
tions for  original  research  in  the  world, 
it  is  also  a  school  for  the  training  of  as- 
tronomers and  geodesists.  It  contains 
the  largest  refracting  telescope  in  the 
world,  except  the  36-inch  Lick  glass,  and 
the  Yerkes  telescope  at  the  University 
of  Chicago,  111.,  its  objective  being  30 
inches  in  diameter.  It  was  made  by 
the  firm  of  Alvan  Clark  &  Sons,  of  Cam- 
bridgeport,  Mass.,  the  makers  (since 
then)  of  the  glass  for  the  Lick  telescope. 

^  PULLEY,  in  mechanics,  one  of  the 
six  simple  machines  or  mechanical  pow- 
ers. It  consists  of  a  small  circular  plate 
or  wheel  which  can  turn  round  an  axis 
passing  through  the  centers  of  its  faces, 
and  having  its  ends  supported  by  a 
framework  which  is  called  the  block. 
The  circular  plate  has  a  groove  cut  in  its 
edge  to  prevent  a  string  from  slipping 
off  when  it  is  put  round  the  pulley. 
With  a  single  fixed  pulley  (that  is  one 
in  which  the  block  in  which  the  pulley 
turns  is  fixed),  there  is  neither  gain  nor 
loss  of  power;  for,  as  the  tension  in 
every  part  of  the  cord  is  the  same,  if  a 
weight  be  suspended  at  one  extremity, 
an  equal  weight  must  be  applied  at  the 
other  to  maintain  equilibrium.  Hence, 
the  effect  of  a  fixed  pulley  is  simply  to 
change  the  direction  of  a  force.  By 
means  of  movable  pulleys  one  can  gain 
mechanical  advantage,  greater  or  less, 
according  to  the  number  and  mode  of 
combination  of  the  pulleys. 

Fast  pulley,  a  pulley  firmly  attached 
to  the  shaft  from  which  it  receives  or 
to  which  it  communicates  motion.  Loose 
pulley,  a  pulley  running  free  on  the 
shaft,  to  receive  the  belt  and  allow  it 
still  to  traverse  without  being  affected 
by,  or  affecting  the  motion  of,  the  shaft- 
ing. Sliding  pulley,  a  kind  of  coupling 
in  which  the  band-pulley  is  slipped  into 
or  out  of  engagement  with  an  arm  freely 
attached  to  the  shaft  and  rotating  there- 
with. 

PULLMAN,  GEORGE  MORTIMER, 
an  American  inventor;  born  in  Chautau- 
qua CO.,  N.  Y.,  March  3,  1831;  learned 

Vol.  VII— Cyc 


the  cabinetmaker's  trade;  settled  in  Chi- 
cago; studied  for  many  years  the  prob- 
lem of  making  journeys  by  rail  more 
comfortable;  and  as  a  result  invented 
the  Pullman  palace  car.  In  1863  he 
started  building  these  cars,  and  in  1867 
organized  the  Pullman  Palace  Car  Com- 
pany. He  also  invented  the  vestibule 
train  and  founded  the  town  of  Pullman, 
111.,  in  1880.  He  died  in  Chicago,  Oct. 
19,  1897. 

PULMOBRANCHIATA,  an  order  of 
gastropod  mollusks  (also  called  by  some 
naturalists  Pulmonata),  in  which  the 
respiratory  organ  is  a  cavity  formed  by 
the  adhesion  of  the  mantle  by  its  mar- 
gin to  the  neck  of  the  animal.  The 
greater  part  of  them  are  terrestrial, 
among  these  being  the  snails  and  slugs. 

PULMOTOR,  a  device  used  for  pro- 
ducing artificial  respiration.  It  is  used 
in  cases  of  drowning,  asphyxiation  by 
noxious  gases  and  electric  shock.  There 
are  several  types  of  pulmotor  on  the 
market  such  as  the  lung  motor,  the  Brat 
apparatus  and  the  pulmotor.  The  pul- 
motor which  automatically  makes  the 
respiratory  changes  is  the  most  common 
of  the  various  devices.  The  air  used  in 
the  pulmotor  is  a  mixture  of  atmospheric 
air  and  pure  oxygen,  while  in  the  Brat 
apparatus  pure  oxygen  is  used.  The 
pulmotor  consists  of  a  tank  of  com- 
pressed oxygen,  a  reducing  valve  which 
connects  with  an  injector,  from  which  a 
n^ixture  of  air  and  oxygen  pass  through 
a  hose  to  a  face  mask.  Although  the 
oxygen  in  the  tank  approximates  chemi- 
cal purity,  the  mixture  which  is  injected 
into  the  lungs  averages  only  about  30 
per  cent,  oxygen,  an  increase  of  about  9 
per  cent,  over  the  amount  contained  in 
pure  air.  A  valve  mechanism  causes  al- 
ternate pressure  and  suction  to  be  ap- 
plied at  the  face  mask.  The  lung  motor 
consists  of  a  pair  of  pumps  so  connected 
that  each  one  alternately  pumps  fresh 
air  to  the  face  mask  or  exhausts  the  air 
injected  by  the  other  pump.  Connec- 
tion may  be  made  to  an  oxygen  tank  and 
the  air  enriched.  It  was  felt  by  some 
people  that  the  backers  of  the  pulmotor 
had  been  somewhat  extravagant  in  the 
claims  which  they  made  for  their  ap- 
paratus and  a  committee  was  appointed 
to  make  a  scientific  study  of  its  actual 
worth.  The  committee  which  was  head- 
ed by  Professor  Yandell  Henderson  of 
Yale  University  acting  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Mines,  made  a  series  of  experiments  on 
various  animals,  but  the  results  obtained 
were  not  conclusive.  It  was  found  by 
the  investigation  that  expiration  was 
caused  by  suction,  the  extreme  strength 
of  which  often  caused  complete  collapse 

25 


PULPIT 


382 


PUMPELLY 


of  the  alveoli  and  small  bronchi,  and  that 
air  was  frequently  pumped  into  the 
stomach  in  place  of  the  lungs.  Like 
many  other  instruments  they  were  found 
to  be  dangerous  in  inexperienced  or  un- 
skilled hands,  and  it  has  been  suggested 
that  the  instruments  be  used  only  as  an 
auxiliary  to  the  established  manual 
methods  of  artificial  respiration  and  only 
used  for  periods  of  a  very  few  minutes. 
Many  cases  of  resuscitation  by  use  of 
the  pulmotor  reported  in  the  newspapers 
were,  upon  investigation,  found  to  be 
greatly  exaggerated. 

PULPIT,  formerly,  a  stand  from  which 
disputants  pronounced  their  disserta- 
tions and  authors  recited  their  works;  a 
rostrum.  Now,  a  raised  place  or  desk 
in  a  church,  from  which  the  preacher  de- 
livers his  sermon. 

PULQUE,  a  vinous  beverage,  made  in 
Mexico,  by  fermenting  the  juice  of  the 
various  species  of  the  agave.  It  resem- 
bles cider,  but  has  a  disagreeable  odor, 
like  that  of  putrid  meat. 

PULSE,  in  physiology,  the  beat  or 
shock  felt  in  any  artery  when  slight 
pressure  is  made  on  it,  caused  by  the 
systole  of  the  heart.  At  birth  the  num- 
ber of  beats  are  about  140,  at  the  end  of 
the  first  year  120,  at  the  end  of  the 
second  110;  during  middle  life  between 
70  and  80,  and  in  old  age  usually  a  little 
more.  To  feel  one's  pulse  is  to  sound 
one;  to  try  to  discover  one's  opinions, 
views,  or  feelings. 

PULSE,  a  general  name  for  legumi- 
nous plants  or  their  seeds;  leguminous 
plants,  such  as  beans,  peas,  etc. 

PULSOMETER,  a  form  of  pump  for 
raising  water,  by  the  condensation  of 
steam,  in  a  vessel  situated  at  such  ele- 
vation above  the  water  supply  that  the 
atmospheric  pressure  will  raise  the  wa- 
ter to  the  chamber  and  operate  the 
valves. 

PULTENEY,  WILLIAM,  Earl  of 
Bath,  an  English  statesman;  born  in 
1684.  He  studied  at  Oxford  and  entered 
Parliament  where  he  won  a  brilliant 
reputation.  At  first  the  friend  of  Wal- 
pole,  he  became  the  head  of  a  party  of 
malcontent  Whigs,  the  "Patriots,"  in 
1728,  and  was  henceforth  the  minister's 
bitterest  opponent.  He  was  Boling- 
broke's  chief  assistant  in  the  paper  called 
the  "Craftsman,"  which  involved  him  in 
many  political  controversies.  In  1731  he 
wrongly  ascribed  to  Lord  Hervey  the  au- 
thorship of  a  scurrilous  pamphlet;  a  duel 
was  the  consequence,  fought  with  swords 
in  St.  James'  Park,  when  both  combat- 
ants were  slightly  wounded.  On  the 
resignation  of  Walpole  in  1741  Pulteney 


was  sworn  of  the  privy-council,  and  soon 
afterward  created  Earl  of  Bath;  and 
from  that  time  his  popularity  was  gone. 
His  prose  was  effective  and  his  verse 
graceful.     He  died  in  1764. 

PULVERMACHER  CHAIN,  a  form 
of  galvanic  battery  consisting  of  a  series 
of  small  wooden  cylinders  on  which  a 
zinc  and  copper  wire  are  coiled  side  by 
side,  but  without  touching  each  other. 
The  zinc  of  one  cylinder,  touching  the 
copper  of  the  adjacent  one,  forms  with  it 
a  couple.  The  whole  is  immersed  in  vin- 
egar diluted  with  water. 

PUMA,  the  Felis  concolor,  the  couguar 
of  the  French,  the  leon  of  the  South 
Americans,  and  the  panther  or  "painter" 
of  the  trappers.  It  is  the  largest  feline 
of  the  New  World,  measuring  40  inches 
from  the  nose  to  root  of  tail,  which  is 
about  20  inches  more;  the  head  is  small, 
mane  absent;  general  color  of  upper 
surface  tawny  yellowish-brown.  The 
young,  when  born,  are  spotted  with 
brown,  and  the  tail  is  ringed.  The 
puma  is  destructive,  and  slays  far  more 
than  it  can  eat,  but  rarely,  if  ever,  at- 
tacks man,  and  may  be  tamed  with  little 
difficulty.  It  ranges  from  Canada  to 
Patagonia,  being  most  numerous  in  the 
forests  of  Central  America. 

PUMICE,  a  very  porous,  or  cellular, 
froth-like  rock,  of  extreme  lightness, 
floating  on  water.  In  commerce,  pumice 
stone.  It  is  imported  from  the  Lipari 
Isles,  and  is  used  for  polishing  metals 
and  marble,  and  smoothing  the  surface 
of  wood  and  pasteboard. 

PUMP,  a  machine,  engine,  or  device, 
consisting  of  an  arrangement  of  a  piston, 
cylinder,  and  valves,  for  raising  water 
or  other  liquid  to  a  higher  level,  or  for 
compressing  or  exhausting  air  and  other 
gases. 

PUMP,  a  light  shoe,  or  slipper,  with  a 
single  unwelted  sole,  and  chiefly  worn 
by  dancers. 

PUMPELLY,  EAlPHAEL,  an  Amer- 
ican geologist;  bom  in  Owego,  N.  Y., 
Sept.  8,  1837.  In  his  early  life  he  con- 
ducted explorations  for  the  governments 
of  Japan  and  China;  was  professor  at 
Harvard  for  several  years;  and  from 
1879  to  1892  geologist  in  charge  of  the 
Archaean  division  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey.  His  chief  works 
are:  "Geological  Researches  in  China, 
Mongolia,  and  Japan"  (18673 :  "Across 
America  and  Asia"  (1870);  "Mineral 
Industries  of  the  United  States"  (1886)  ; 
"Geology  of  the  Green  Mountains" 
(1894)  ;  "Explorations  in  Central  Asia" 
(1905),  etc.  His  "Reminiscences"  ap- 
peared in  1918. 


PUMPERNICKEL 


383 


PUPIN 


PUMPERNICKEL,  a  species  of  coarse 
bread,  made  from  unbolted  rye,  which 
forms  the  chief  food  of  the  Westphalian 
peasants, 

PUMPKIN,  the  Cuciirbita  pepo,  or 
more  loosely  any  gourd  akin  to  it.  It  is 
a  native  of  Astrachan,  but  is  now  culti- 
vated throughout  India  and  other  parts 
of  the  tropics;  also  in  the  United  States. 

PUN,  a  play  on  words,  the  wit  of 
which  depends  on  a  resemblance  in  sound 
between  two  words  of  different  and  per- 
haps contrary  meanings,  or  on  the  use 
of  the  same  word  in  different  senses,  etc. 

PUNCH,  with  his  wife  Judy  and  dog 
Toby,  the  chief  characters  in  a  popular 
comic  puppet  show,  of  Italian  origin,  the 
name  being  a  contraction  of  Punchi- 
nello, for  Pulcinello,  the  droll  clown  in 
Neapolitan  comedy.  The  full-grown 
modern  drama  is  ascribed  to  an  Italian 
comedian,  Silvio  Fiorillo,  about  1600. 

PUNCH,  or  the  LONDON  CHARI- 
VARI, the  chief  of  English  comic  jour- 
nals, a  weekly  magazine  of  wit,  humor, 
and  satire  in  prose  and  verse,  illustrated 
by  sketches,  caricatures,  and  emblematic 
devices.  It  was  founded  in  1841,  the 
first  number  appearing  July  17  of  that 
year,  under  the  joint  editorship  of  Henry 
Mayhew  and  Mark  Lemon. 

PUNCHEON,  a  liquid  measure  of  ca- 
pacity containing  from  84  to  120  gallons. 

PUNCHINELLO.     See  Punch. 

PUNCTUATION,  the  act,  art,  or 
method  of  punctuating  or  pointing  a 
writing  or  discourse;  the  act,_  art,  or 
method  of  dividing  a  discourse  into  sen- 
tences, clauses,  etc.,  by  means  of  points 
or  stops.  The  first  printed  books  had 
only  arbitrary  marks  here  and  there,  and 
it  was  not  till  the  16th  century  that  an 
approach  was  made  to  the  present  sys- 
tem by  the  Manutii  of  Venice. 

PUNGWE,  a  river  of  Portuguese  East 
Africa,  forming  the  principal  waterway 
to  Manicaland  and  Mashonaland;  its 
mouth  is  situated  about  25  miles  N.  E. 
of  Sofala  and  130  S.  W.  of  the  Zambezi 
delta. 

PUNIC,  the  language  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians. It  was  an  offshoot  of  ^  the 
Phoenician,  belonging  to  the  Canaanitish 
branch  of  the  Semitic  tongues. 

PUNIC  WARS,  three  great  wars  be- 
tween the  Romans  and  the  Carthagini- 
ans. The  first  (264-241  B.C.)  was  for 
the  possession  of  Sicily,  and  ended  by  the 
Carthaginians  having  to  withdraw  from 
the  island.  The  second  (218-202  b.  c), 
the  war  in  which  Hannibal  gained  his 
great   victories    in    Italy,   was    a    death 


struggle  between  the  two  rival  powers; 
it  ended  with  decisive  victory  to  the 
Romans.  The  third  (149-146  B,  c.)  was 
for  the  destruction  of  Carthage,  which 
was  effected  in  the  last-named  year. 

PUNISHMENT,  a  penalty  inflicted  on 
a  person  for  a  crime  or  offense,  by  the 
authority  to  which  the  offender  is  sub- 
ject; a  penalty  imposed  in  the  enforce- 
ment or  application  of  law. 

PUNJAB,  an  extensive  territory  in 
the  N.  W.  of  India,  most  of  it  under 
direct  Anglo-Indian  authority,  and  ruled 
by  a  lieutenant-governor,  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  remainder  constituting  the 
protected  state  of  Kashmir. 

PUNJNUD,  the  name  given  to  the 
stream  which  pours  into  the  Indus,  about 
70  miles  above  the  Sind  frontier,  the 
combined  waters  of  the  five  rivers,  the 
Sutlej,  the  Beas,  the  Ravi,  the  Chenab, 
and  the  Jhelum. 

PUNKA,  or  PUNKAH,  a  large,  broad 
fan,  suspended  from  the  ceiling,  or  a 
number  of  such  fans,  acting  simultane- 
ously, and  worked  by  an  attendant. 

PUNO,  capital  of  department  of  Puno, 
Peru,  on  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca.  Cen- 
ter of  trade  with  Bolivia,  and  connected 
by  rail  with  Arequipa.  Little  agricul- 
ture in  department,  but  industries  in- 
clude gold  and  silver  mining  and  stock 
breeding.  Town  has  churches,  college, 
and  hospital.     Pop.  about  10,000. 

PUNT,  a  large,  square-built,  flat- 
bottomed  vessel,  without  masts,  used  as 
a  lighter  for  conveying  goods,  etc.,  and 
propelled  by  poles.  Also,  a  small,  flat- 
bottomed  boat,  with  square  ends,  used  in 
fishing,  and  propelled  by  poles. 

PUNTA  ARENAS,  the  name  of  sev- 
eral cities  and  towns:  (1)  The  chief  port 
of  Costa  Rica  on  the  Pacific.  The  prin- 
cipal export  is  coffee,  and  after  that 
india-rubber,  hides,  dye-woods,  and  tor- 
toise-shell. Pop.  (19i6),  about  20,000; 
(2)   A  town  in  Patagonia. 

PUPA,  or  PUPE,  in  entomology,  the 
third  stage  in  the  development  of  an  in- 
sect between  the  larva  and  the  adult. 

PUPIN,   MICHAEL  IDVORSKY,    an 

American  scientist;  born  in  Idvar,  Hun- 
gary, Oct.  4,  1858;  was  graduated  at 
Columbia  University  in  1883;  studied  at 
the  University  of  Berlin;  and  was  ap- 
pointed Adjunct  Professor  of  Mechanics 
at  Columbia  University  in  1889.  In 
1901  he  announced  the  discovery  of  a 
new  method  of  ocean  telephony.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  American  Mathematical 
Society,  American  Philosophical  Society, 
etc.     He    ^vrote    "Propagation    of  Long 


PUPPET   SHOWS 


384 


PUBITAN 


Electrical  Waves";  "Wave  Propagation 
Over  Non-Uniform  Conductors."  Di- 
rector Phenix  Research  Laboratories 
(1911).  During  the  World  War  he 
placed  his  wireless  inventions  at  the 
service  of  the  U.  S.  Government  (1917) ; 
was  Honorary  Consul-General  of  Serbia 
in  New  York.  Organized  a  Serbian  Re- 
lief Association  at  Columbia  University 
(1915). 

PUPPET  SHOWS,  the  performances 
of  images  of  the  human  figure  moved  by 
fingers,  cords,  or  wires,  with  or  without 
dialogue. 

PURANA,  the  last  great  division  of 
Hindu  sacred  literature.  Eighteen  prin- 
cipal Puranas  are  enumerated,  called 
Brahma,  Padma,  Brahmanda,  Agni, 
Vishnu,  Garuda,  Brahmavaivarta,  Siva, 
Linga,  Naradiya,  Skanda,  Markandeya, 
Bhavishyat,  Matsya,  Varaha,  Kaurma, 
Vaman,  and  Bhagavat.  None  of  them  is 
dated.  Some  quote  from  others,  and  the 
period  of  their  redaction  embraces  per- 
haps a  dozen  centuries.  In  their  present 
form  none  of  them  appears  older  than 
the  9th  century  A.  D.  The  most  cele- 
brated are  the  Vishnua  and  the  Bhaga- 
vat Puranas. 

PURBECK,  ISLE  OF,  a  peninsula  S. 
of  Dorsetshire,  so  separated  from  the 
mainland  on  the  N.  by  Poole  harbor  and 
the  Frome  as  to  be  connected  with  it  by 
only  a  very  narrow  isthmus.  It  is  about 
12  miles  long  by  7  miles  broad.  The 
prevailing  rock  is  limestone. 

PURCELL,  HENRY,  an  English  com- 
poser; born  in  1658.  He  became  organ- 
ist of  Westminster  Abbey,  and  in  1882  of 
the  chapel-royal.  In  1680,  probably,  he 
composed  "Dido  and  JEnea.s,"  which  has 
been  called  the  first  genuine  English 
opera.  He  composed  mainly  anthems 
and  sacred  music,  all  of  great  excellence. 
In  1690  he  wrote  the  music  for  Dryden's 
version  of  "The  Tempest."  In  1691  he 
produced  the  music  to  Dryden's  "King 
Arthur,"  considered  his  dramatic  mas- 
terpiece. In  1694  he  wrote  his  great 
works  "The  Jubilate"  and  "Te  Deum," 
and  in  1695  the  music  to  "Bonduca,"  in 
which  was  "Britons,  Strike  Home."  He 
died  in  1695,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

PURCHAS,  SAMUEL,  an  English 
clergyman;  born  in  Thaxted,  Essex, 
England,  in  1577.  He  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  was  rector  of  St.  Mar- 
tin's, London,  His  great  works  were 
"Purchas,  His  Pilgrimage,  or  Relations 
of  the  World  and  the  Religions  Observed 
in  All  Ages"  (1613);  and  "Hakluyt's 
Posthumus,  or  Purchas  His  Pilgrimes: 
Containing  a  History  of  the  World,  in 


Sea  Voyages  and  Land  Travels  by  Eng- 
lishmen and  Others"  (1625).  Another 
work  is  "Purchas  His  Pilgrim :  Microcos- 
mus,  or  the  History  of  Man;  Relating 
the  Wonders  of  His  Generation,  Varie- 
ties in  His  Degeneration,  and  Necessity 
of  His  Regeneration"  (1619).  He  died 
in  London,  in  September,  1626. 

PURCHASE,  in  law,  the  suing  out 
and  obtaining  a  writ;  the  obtaining  or 
acquiring  the  title  of  lands  and  tene- 
ments by  money,  deed,  gift,  or  any  means 
except  descent.  In  mechanics,  a  means 
of  increasing  applied  power;  any  me- 
chanical hold,  advantage,  power,  or  force 
applied  to  the  raising  or  removing  of 
heavy  bodies:  mechanical  advantage 
gained  by  the  application  of  any  power. 

PURDUE  UNIVERSITY,  a  coeduca- 
tional non-sectarian  institution  in  Lafa- 
yette, Ind. ;  founded  in  1874;  reported  at 
the  close  of  1919:  Professors  and  in- 
structors, 187;  students,  2,470;  pres- 
ident, W.  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

PURGATORY,  in  comparative  re- 
ligions, any  place  or  state  succeeding  the 
moral  purification.  In  Roman  theology, 
a  place  in  which  souls  who  depart  this 
present  life,  and  serving  as  a  means  of 
life  in  the  grace  of  God,  suffer  for  a  time, 
because  they  still  need  to  be  cleansed 
from  venial,  or  have  still  to  pay  the  tem- 
poral punishment  due  to  mortal  sins,  the 
guilt  and  eternal  punishment  of  which 
have  been  remitted. 

PURIFICATION,  a  Jewish  rite.  It 
was  mainly  the  one  through  the  per- 
formance of  which  an  Israelite  was  re- 
admitted to  the  privilege  of  religious 
communion,  lost  through  uncleanness. 

PURIM,  the  Festival  of  Lots,  which 
was  instituted  by  Mordecai  (Esther  ix: 
27,  x:  3),  and  is  celebrated  to  this  day 
by  the  Jews  on  the  14th  and  15th  of  the 
month  Adar  (March) ,  in  commemora- 
tion of  their  wonderful  deliverance  from 
the  destruction  with  which  they  were 
threatened  by  Haman. 

PURITAN,  the  name  given,  at  first 
perhaps  in  contempt,  to  those  clergymen 
and  others  in  the  reign  of  the  English 
Queen  Elizabeth,  who  desired  a  simpler, 
and  what  they  considered  to  be  a  purer 
form  of  worship  than  the  civil  and  ec- 
clesiastical authorities  sanctioned.  The 
Puritan  controversy  commenced  as  early 
as  1550,  when  Hooper,  appointed  to  the 
see  of  Gloucester,  refused  to  be  conse- 
crated in  the  ecclesiastical  vestments 
then  in  use.  New  England  was  settled 
very  largely  by  the  Puritans.  ^  Also,  one 
who  has  severely  strict  notions  as  to 
what  is  proper  or  who  is  strict  in  his 
religious  duties. 


PURPLE    BLACK 


385 


PUTNAM 


PURPLE  BLACK,  a  preparation  of 
madder,  of  a  deep  purple  hue,  appi-oach- 
ing  to  black;  its  tints,  with  white-lead, 
are  of  a  purple  color. 

PURPLE  HERON,  in  ornithology,  the 
Adrea  purpurea,  about  the  same  size  as 
the  common  heron. 

PURPURA,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of 
Buccinidse;  British  species,  abounds  on 
the  coast  at  low  water,  and  is  very  de- 
structive to  mussel  beds.  Also,  a  pecul- 
iar unhealthy  condition  of  the  blood  and 
tissues,  evinced  by  purple  spots,  chiefly 
on  the  legs,  due  to  unhealthy  surround- 
ings, want  of  proper  food,  intemperance, 
and  other  depressing  causes. 

PURSER,  on  shipboard,  the  officer 
whose  duty  is  to  keep  the  accounts  of  the 
ship  to  which  he  is  attached.  In  mining, 
the  paymaster  or  cashier  of  a  mine,  and 
the  official  to  whom  notices  of  transfer 
are  sent  for  registration  in  the  cost-book. 

PURSLANE,  a  plant  of  the  genus 
Portulaca  (P.  oleracea) ,  with  fleshy  suc- 
culent leaves,  naturalized  throughout 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  world. 

PURSUIVANT,  in  heraldry,  an  at- 
tendant on  the  heralds;  one  of  the  third 
and  lowest  order  of  heraldic  officers. 
There  are  four  pursuivants  attached  to 
the  English  College  of  Arms,  styled 
Rouge  Croix,  Blue  Mantle,  Rouge 
Dragon,  and  Portcullis. 

PURU,  or  PURUS,  a  river  of  South 
America,  which  rising  in  the  E.  of  Peru 
enters  Brazil,  and  flowing  N.  E.  after  a 
course  of  400  miles  joins  the  Amazon 
about  100  miles  above  the  confluence  of 
the  Madeira  with  the  latter. 

PURVEYANCE,  formerly  in  England 
the  exercise  by  officials  called  purveyors 
of  the  royal  prerogative,  involving  a 
right  of  pre-emption,  by  which  the  king 
was  authorized  to  buy  pro\nsions  and 
necessaries  for  the  use  of  his  household 
at  an  appraised  value,  in  preference  to 
all  his  subjects. 

PUS,  in  physiology  and  pathology,  the 
product  of  suppuration,  a  thick,  viscid, 
yellow  fluid. 

PUSEY,    EDWARD   BOUVERIE,    an 

English  theological  writer,  a  leader  of 
the  Anglo-Catholic  (Tractarian)  party 
in  the  Established  Church;  born  near 
Oxford  in  1800.  He  was  associated  with 
Newman  and  others  in  the  "British 
Critic,"  "Tracts  for  the  Times,"  etc., 
and  his  conspicuousness  from  his  social 
position  (nephew  of  one  earl  and  grand- 
son of  another,  professor  and  canon  of 
Christ  Church),  wealth  and  munificent 
charities,  caused  the  Oxford  Movement 
to  be  known  as   "Puseyism."     He   pub- 


lished: "The  Holy  Eucharist  a  Comfort 
to  the  Penitent"  (1843),  a  sermon  which 
resulted  in  his  suspension  for  three 
years;  two  sermons  on  "The  Entire  Ab- 
solution of  the  Penitent"  (1846),  equally 
revolutionary.  Of  his  larger  works  the 
most  important  are:  "The  Doctrine  of 
the  Real  Presence"  (1855);  "The  Real 
Presence  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ 
the  Doctrine  of  the  English  Church" 
(1857) ;  "An  Eirenicon."  He  died  Sept. 
16,  1882. 

PUSHKIN,  ALEXANDER.  See 
POUSHKIN. 

PUSHTU,  or  PUKHTU,  the  language 
of  the  Afghans  proper  (see  Afghanis- 
tan). 

PUSTULE,  a  pimple,  a  little  blister. 
Also  a  vesicle  containing  pus. 

PUTCHOCK,  or  PUTCHUK,  the  roots 
of  Aplotaxus  lappa  {Saussurea  Lappa, 
Calc,  Exhib.  Rep.).  It  is  a  tall  com- 
posite plant,  with  purple  florets,  growing 
on  the  mountains  of  Cashmere.  The 
root  is  collected  in  enormous  quantities, 
and  exported  to  China,  to  be  used  as  in- 
cense. It  is  given  in  India  in  cough, 
asthma,  fever,  cholera,  dyspepsia,  etc. 
Its  dried  powder  is  the  principal  ingredi- 
ent in  an  ointment  for  ulcers;  it  is  also 
a  hair  wash. 

PUTEAUX,  a  town  2  miles  from  the 
W.  boundary  of  Paris,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Seine,  opposite  to  the  Bois  de  Bou- 
logne. Many  Parisians  have  fine  villas 
here.  There  are  manufactures  of  dye- 
stuffs  and  chemicals,  dyeing,  and  calico 
printing.     Pop.  about  35,000. 

PUTNAM,  a  city  of  Connecticut,  one 
of  the  county-seats  of  Windham  co.  It 
is  on  the  Quinebaug  river,  and  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford 
railroad.  It  is  the  center  of  an  impor- 
tant agricultural  region  and  its  indus- 
tries include  iron  works  and  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  silks, 
trunks,  boots  and  shoes,  etc.  The  city 
contains  a  public  library  and  a  hospital. 
Pop.  (1910)  7,280;   (1920)  7,711. 

PUTNAM,  FREDERICK  WARD,  an 
American  scientist;  born  in  Salem, 
Mass.,  April  16,  1839;  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  University  in  1862;  became 
curator  of  ornithology  at  the  Essex  In- 
stitute in  Salem  in  1856,  superintendent 
of  the  East  Indian  Marine  Society's 
Museum  there  in  1867,  and  chief  of  the 
Department  of  Ethnology  at  the  World's 
Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago  in 
1893.  He  edited  many  volumes  of  the 
"Annual  Reports  of  the  Trustees  of  the 
Peabody  Museum  of  Archeology  and 
Ethnologv,"  and  "Proceedings  of  the  Es- 
sex     Institute."    President      American 


PUTNAM 


886 


PUTS  and  CALLS 


Folk-lore  Society  (1901)  and  of  Ameri- 
can Anthropological  Society  (1905). 
Died  1915. 

PUTNAM,  GEOBGE  HAVEN,  an 
American  publisher  and  author,  son  of 
George  P.;  born  in  London,  England, 
April  2,  1844.  He  entered  the  publish- 
ing business  in  1866,  and  was  the  head  of 
the  firm  of  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New 
York.  His  works  include:  "Interna- 
tional Copyright"  (1879)  ;  "Authors  and 
Publishers"  (1883)  ;  "Authors  and  Their 
Public  in  Ancient  Times"  (1893)  ; 
"Books  and  Their  Makers  during  the 
Middle  Ages"  (1896) ;  "Abraham  Lin- 
coln" (1909) ;  "Memoirs  of  a  Publisher" 
(1915). 

PUTNAM,  GEORGE  PALMER,  an 

American  publisher  and  author;  born  in 
Brunswick,  Me.,  Feb.  7,  1814.  In  1848 
he  established  the  publishing  house  now 
conducted  under  the  name  of  G.  P.  Put- 
nam's Sons;  and  also  founded  "Putnam's 
Magazine."  His  works  include:  "Amer- 
ican Facts"  (1845);  "The  World's  Pro- 
gress" (1850) ;  "Ten  Years  of  the 
World's  Progress";  etc.  He  died  in  New 
York,  Dec.  20,  1872. 

PUTNAM,  HERBERT,  an  American 
librarian;  born  in  New  York  City,  Sept. 
20,  1861;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1883;  studied  at  the  Columbia  Law 
School;  was  admitted  to  the  Minnesota 
bar  in  1886;  librarian  of  the  Boston 
Public  Library  in  1895-1899;  librarian 
of  Congress  since  1899.  Twice  Presi- 
dent of  the  American  Library  Associa- 
tion. 

PUTNAM,  ISRAEL,  an  American 
general  in  the  Revolutionary  War;  born 
in  Danvers,  Mass.,  in  1718.  He  was  a 
farmer  until  the  French  and  Indian 
war  broke  out,  when,  at  the  age 
of  86,  he  took  service  in  the  Eng- 
lish army  having  command  of  a 
company  of  "rangers."  When  the  dis- 
pute between  his  country  and  England 
commenced,  he  was  created  Major-Gen- 
eral  by  Congress;  and  at  Bunker  Hill, 
New  York,  and  during  Washington's  re- 
treat through  New  Jersey,  he  showed 
himself  one  of  the  bravest  of  the  patriot 
leaders.  In  1779  he  was  stricken  with 
paralysis.  His  character  is  well  de- 
picted by  the  inscription  on  his  tomb: 
"He  dared  to  lead  where  any  dared  to 
follow."     He  died  in  1790. 

PUTNAM,  V/ILLIAM  LE  BARON, 
an  American  jurist;  born  in  Bath,  Me., 
May  26,  1835;  was  a  member  of  a  com- 
mission to  arrange  with  the  British  gov- 
ernment the  rights  of  American  fisher- 
men in  Canadian  waters  in  1887;  served 
also  as  a  commissioner  under  the  treaty 


of  Feb.  8,  1896,  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain;  and  was  ap- 
pointed a  judge  of  the  United  States 
Circuit  Court  in  1892.     Died  1918. 

PUTNAM,  FORT,  the  principal  de- 
fense of  West  Point  during  the  Revolu- 
tion.    Now  in  ruins. 

PUTNEY,  a  suburb  of  London,  Eng- 
land, in  Surrey,  6  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Waterloo,  on  the  S.  side  of  the  Thames. 
It  is  a  great  rowing  place,  the  starting 
point  of  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  boat 
race.  The  parish  church,  with  a  15th 
century  tower  and  the  chantry  of  Bishop 
West  of  Ely,  was  mainly  rebuitt  in  1836; 
in  the  churchyard  is  Toland's  grave. 
Putney  is  the  birthplace  of  Thomas 
Cromwell  and  Gibbon,  and  the  death 
place  of  Pitt  and  Leigh  Hunt. 

PUTNIK,  VOIVODE  (WAR  LEAD- 
ER) RADOMIR,  Serbian  general,  born 
in  1847,  in  Serbia,  but  son  of  Austrian 
Serbs ;  educated  in  the  iriilitary  academy 
in  Belgrade;  served  as  captain  of  in- 
fantry during  the  war  against  Turkey, 
in  1876;  served  in  the  war  against  Bul- 
garia, 1885;  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
first  Balkan  War,  when  Serbia,  Bul- 
garia, Montenegro  and  Greece  allied 
themselves  against  Turkey,  in  1912,  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Voivode,  mean- 
ing literally,  war  chief,  the  first  Serbian 
officer  to  attain  this  special  rank.  As 
such  he  was  in  command  of  all  the  Serb- 
ian forces,  during  the  second  Balkan 
War,  as  well,  when  Serbia  fought  Bul- 
garia. When  the  Austrians  opened  hos- 
tilities, in  1914,  by  their  attempted  in- 
vasion of  Serbia,  Voivode  Putnik  was 
still  in  command,  and  so  remained  until 
the  final  invasion  in  1915,  when  Austria 
received  German  reinforcements  under 
Von  Mackensen. 

PUTREFACTION,  the  apparently 
spontaneous  decomposition  of  organic 
substances,  especially  those  rich  in  nitro- 
gen. 

PUTS  and  CALLS,  terms  used  in 
American  stock  dealings.  The  trade  in 
privileges  is  something  which  is  scarcely 
understood  outside  of  Board  of  Trade 
and  Stock  Exchange  circles.  For  $1  per 
1,000  bushels  a  trader  can  purchase  the 
privilege  to  "put"  (sell)  or  "call"  (buy) 
from  the  seller  of  the  privilege  at  a  stip- 
ulated price  and  within  a  stipulated  time. 
The  ordinary  privileges  are  sold  one  day 
to  be  good  to  the  close  of  the  next  ses- 
sion. In  inactive  markets  the  "put"  and 
"call"  prices  may  be  close  together  and 
close  to  the  market  price  of  the  property. 
They  are  countenanced  by  the  State  of 
New  York  and  are  a  regular  feature  in 
the  New  York  Stock  Exchange.  In  Illi- 
nois they  are  specifically  classed  as  gam- 


PUTTY 


387 


PTLE 


bling  operations.  The  theory  of  "priv- 
ileges" is  that  they  are  a  species  of  in- 
surance by  which  an  operator  can  pro- 
tect himself  against  market  fluctuations. 
A  trader  who  is  "short"  in  the  market 
can  protect  his  position  to  a  certain  de- 
gree by  buying  "calls";  a  "long"  can 
prevent  losses  in  the  same  degree  by  buy- 
ing "puts."  The  insurance  proposition 
is  a  theory,  however,  as  "privileges" 
more  often  serve  to  originate  new  trades 
than  to  serve  as  an  insurance  on  existing 
business  conditions. 

PUTTY,  calcined  tin,  or  oxide  of  tin 
and  lead  mixed  in  various  proportions, 
used  as  polishing  powder  by  opticians 
and  lapidaries.  In  plastering,  a  fine 
mortar,  nearly  all  lime,  used  in  stopping 
crevices  of  shrinkage.  In  glazing,  a 
composition  of  pounded  whiting  and  lin- 
seed oil,  beaten  up  into  a  tough  tenacious 
cement.  In  pottery,  the  mixture  of 
ground  materials  in  which  in  potteries 
earthenware  is  dipped  for  glazing.  In 
foundry  work,  the  mixture  of  clay  and 
horsedung  used  in  making  molds  in 
foundries. 

PUTUMAYO,  a  province  of  Colombia, 
in  the  S.  E.,  bordering  on  Brazil,  Ecua- 
dor and  Peru,  watered  by  the  rivers  of 
the  same  name,  which  is  a  tributary  of 
the  Amazon.  The  district  is  rich  in  rub- 
ber, exploited  by  British  syndicates, 
driven  out  of  existence  in  1912  conse- 
quent on  exposures  of  cruelty  to  the  na- 
tives. Part  of  the  province  is  claimed 
by  Ecuador.  The  Putumayo  river 
crosses  the  equator  and  flows  1150  miles 
before  being  received  into  the  Amazon 
in  Brazil.     Pop.  about  35,000. 

PUTUMAYO,  or  IQA,  a  tributary  of 
the  Amazon,  rising  in  Colombia,  and 
flowing  S.  E.  for  950  miles. 

PUVIS  DE  CHAVANNES,  PIERRE, 
a  French  painter;  born  in  Lj^ons, 
France,  Dec.  14,  1824.  He  studied  un- 
der Couture  and  Henri  Scheffer;  painted 
mural  decorations  for  libraries,  etc.,  in 
France,  especially  "Ste.  Genevieve"  at 
the  Pantheon,  Paris;  "The  Sacred 
Grove";  a  mural  painting  for  the  Boston, 
Mass.,  Public  Library  (1894);  etc.  He 
died  in  Paris,  Oct.  25,  1898. 

PUY,  LE,  or  LE  PUY-EN-VELAY,  a 
to-wii  of  France  (department  Haute- 
Loire).  It  consists  of  the  new  town  in  a 
valley  and  the  old  town,  this  latter  one 
of  the  most  picturesque  in  France.  The 
town  of  Le  Puy  stands  on  the  steep  slopes 
of  Mount  Anis  (2,050  feet),  from  the 
summit  of  which  starts  up  precipitously 
the  basaltic  mass  called  Mont  Corneille, 
crowned  by  a  colossal  figure  (53  feet)  of 
the    Virgin,    made    of    Russian    cannon 


brought  from  Sebastopol.  The  most 
notable  building  is  the  Romanesque 
cathedral  (6th-12th  century).  Lace  and 
thread  work  are  manufactured.  Pop. 
about  22,500. 

PUYA,  in  botany,  a  synonym  _  of 
Pouretia,  a  genus  of  Bromeliaceas  (Lind- 
ley).  P.  chinensis  yields  an  extract  used 
in  healing  broken  bones,  and  the  spike  of 
P.  lanuginosa  is  a  transparent  gum. 

PY.ffiMIA,  or  PYEMIA,  a  diseased 
condition  in  which  the  blood  is  poisoned 
by  pus  or  by  some  of  its  constituents; 
blood  poisoning;  septicaemia. 

PUY-DE-d6mE,  a  central  department 
of  France,  containing  an  area  of  3,090 
square  miles  and  a  pop.  of  about  525,000 
The  W.  side  of  the  department  is  an  ele^ 
vated  volcanic  region.  (See  France). 
The  highest  cones  are  Puy-de-Sancy 
(6,188  feet)  and  Puy-de-D6me  (4,806)  ; 
on  the  E.  side  the  Forez  Mountains 
(5,380)  march  with  the  frontier.  Agri- 
culture and  cattle  breeding  are  the  chief 
occupations.  The  principal  minerals  are 
coal  and  lead.  Hot  and  cold  mineral 
springs  are  abundant. 

PYCNOGONUM,  a  genus  of  Arachni- 
da,  the  sea  spiders.  Some  species  are 
parasitic  upon  fishes  and  other  marine 
animals. 

PYGMALION,  in  Greek  mythology, 
grandson  of  Agenor,  King  of  Cyprus. 
He  fell  in  love  with  an  ivory  statue  of  a 
young  maiden  he  himself  had  made,  and 
prayed  to  Aphrodite  to  give  it  life.  His 
prayer  was  granted,  on  which  he  married 
the  maiden,  who  bore  him  Paphus. 

PYGMY,  or  PIGMY,  in  classical 
mythology,  one  of  a  fabulous  nation  of 
dwarfs  dwelling  somewhere  near  the 
shores  of  the  ocean,  and  maintaining 
perpetual  wars  with  the  cranes.  Also, 
a  very  short  or  dwarfish  person;  a 
dwarf;  anything  very  little.  In  zoologfy, 
the  chimpanzee. 

PYLADES,  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of 
Strophius,  King  of  Phocis,  and  Anaxibia, 
the  sister  of  Agamemnon,  after  whose 
murder  by  Clytemnestra,  their  son 
Orestes,  being  carried  secretly  to  the 
court  of  Strophius,  formed  the  friend- 
ship with  Pylades  which  has  become 
proverbial.  He  assisted  Orestes  in  mur- 
dering Clytemnestra,  and  eventually 
married  his  sister  Electra. 

PYLE,  HOWARD,  an  American  illus- 
trator and  author;  born  in  Wilmington, 
Del.,  March  5,  1853.  He  was  an  illus- 
trator for  periodicals,  and  became  popu- 
lar also  as  a  writer,  chiefly  of  juvenile 
literature.  His  works  include :  "With- 
in the  Capes"  (1885),  a  novel;  "Pepper 


PYLONS 


388 


PYRAMID 


and  Salt"  (1887):  "Otto  of  the  Silver 
Hand"  (1888);  ''Buccaneers  and  Ma- 
rooners  of  America"  (1891);  "Jack  Bal- 
lister's  Fortunes";  "The  Garden  Behind 
the  Moon"  (1895) ;  "Story  of  Launcelot" 
(1907);  "Story  of  the  Grail"  (1910). 
Died  1911. 

PYLONS,  in  Egyptian  architecture, 
the  name  given  to  towers  or  masses  of 
masonry,  somewhat  resembling  trun- 
cated pyramids,  placed  one  on  each  side 
at  the  entrance  of  temples. 

PYLORUS,  the  small  and  contracted 
end  of  the  stomach  leading  into  the  small 
intestines. 

PYM,  JOHN,  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  Somersetshire,  England,  in  1584. 
He  studied  at  Oxford  and  became  famous 
as  a  lawyer.  He  entered  Parliament  in 
1614,  and  during  the  reign  of  James  he 
attained  great  influence  by  his  opposi- 
tion to  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the 
king.  In  1626  he  took  part  in  the  im- 
peachment of  Buckingham  and  was  im- 
prisoned. In  the  Short  Parliament  of 
1640  Pym  and  Hampden  were  exceeding- 
ly active  as  leaders  of  the  popular  party. 
Pym  impeached  Strafford  and  at  his 
trial  appeared  as  accuser.  He  was  the 
main  author  of  the  Grand  Remonstrance, 
the  final  appeal  presented  in  1641,  and 
one  of  the  five  members  to  arrest  whom 
the  king  went  to  the  House  of  Commons 
in  January,  1642.  When  civil  war  be- 
came inevitable  Pym  was  appointed  one 
of  the  committee  of  safety.  He  died  in 
1643. 


gogue"  (1652) ;  "How  the  First  Sabbath 
was  Ordained"  (1654).  He  died  in 
Wraysbury,  England,  Oct.  29,  1662. 

PYORRHCEA  ALVEOLARIS,  a  dis- 
ease of  the  sockets  of  the  teeth,  also 
called  Rigg's  Disease.  The  symptoms 
are  pains  in  chewing,  and  redness  of  the 
gums  combined  with  a  tendency  to  re- 
cede, so  that  the  teeth  eventually  loosen 
and  fall  out.  The  treatment  consists  in 
the  removal  of  deposits  and  the  working 
out  of  the  pus  sockets.  The  disease  in 
a  chronic  state  deleteriously  affects  the 
digestion. 

PYRAMID,  in  Egyptian  antiquities,  a 
solid  structure  substantially  invariable 
in  form,  viz.,  a  simple  mass  resting  on  a 
square  or  sometimes  approximately 
square  base,  with  the  sides  facing  with 
slight  deviations  toward  the  four  princi- 
pal winds,  and  tapering  off  gradually  to- 
ward the  top  to  a  point  or  to  a  flat  sur- 
face, as  a  substitute  for  an  apex.  The 
pyramids  were  constructed  in  platforms, 
and  then  reveted  or  coated  with  blocks 
or  slabs  of  granite.  The  interior  of 
these  massive  structures  contains  narrow 
I>assages,  and  some  totally  dark  halls  or 
chambers,  and  probably  served  as  the 
burial  places  of  the  kings  who  had 
caused  them  to  be  constructed.  The 
pyramids  of  Egypt  begin  immediately 
S.  of  Cairo,  and  continue  S.  at  varying 
intervals  for  nearly  70  miles.  The 
largest  is  that  of  Cheops,  at  Ghizeh, 
standing  on  a  base  each  side  of  which 
was  originally  764  feet  long,  but  owing 
to  the  removal  of  the  coating  is  now  only 


PYRAMIDS,   EGYPT 


PYNCHON,  WILLIAM,  an  American 
colonist;  born  in  Springfield,  England, 
about  1590.  He  emigrated  to  New  Eng- 
land and  founded  the  town  of  Spring- 
field, Mass.  In  1650  he  published  "The 
Meritorious  Price  of  Our  Redemption," 
opposing  the  Calvinistic  view  of  atone- 
ment. The  book  was  denounced  as  her- 
etical, and  the  author  was  compelled  to 
return  to  England  to  avoid  persecution. 
His  other  works  are:  "The  Jewes  Syna- 


746  feet.  The  principal  chamber,  the 
so-called  Crowning  Hall  or  King's  Cham- 
ber, is  34  feet,  3  inches  long,  and  17  feet, 
1  inch  wide. 

In  Mexican  antiquities,  the  Teocallis, 
or  Houses  of  the  Gods,  which  have  come 
down  from  Aztec  times,  are  four-sided 
pyramids  rising  by  terraces  to  a  consid- 
erable height.  A  group  of  such  erec- 
tions still  exist  at  Teotihuacan,  about  20 
miles    N.    E.    of    the    City    of    Mexico. 


PYRENEES 


389 


PYRITES 


There  are  two  large  pyramids,  with  some 
hundred  smaller  ones.  The  base  of  the 
largest  is  900  feet  long,  its  height  160 
feet. 

In  anatomy,  a  conical  bony  eminence 
in  the  anterior  wall  of  the  tympanum  of 
the  ear.  In  geometry,  a  polyhedron 
bounded  by  a  polygon,  having  any  num- 
ber of  sides,  called  the  base,  and  by  tri- 
angles meeting  in  a  common  point,  called 
the  vertex.  Pyramids  take  different 
names  according  to  the  natures  of  their 
bases.  They  may  be  triangular,  quad- 
rangular, etc.,  according  as  their  bases 
are  triangles,  quadrilaterals,  pentagons, 
etc.  In  botany,  the  American  calumba 
or  Indian  lettuce,  Frasera  carolinensis. 
Pyramid  pool ;  A  game  played  with  15 
red  balls  and  one  white  ball,  the  former 
being  placed  in  a  triangular  form  at  a 
spot  on  the  top  of  the  table.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  players,  who  play  in  turn  with 
the  white  ball,  is  to  pocket  as  many  red 
balls  as  possible. 

PYRENEES,  an  extensive  mountain 
range  in  the  S.  of  Europe,  dividing 
France  from  Spain,  and  extending  al- 
most in  a  straight  line  from  St.  Sebas- 
tian, on  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  to  Cape 
Creux,  on  the  Mediterranean.  Length 
270  miles,  with  a  breadth  from  50  to  100 
miles.  The  principal  summits  are 
Mount  Perdu,  which  has  an  elevation  of 
10,994  feet;  the  Vignemale,  10,820  feet; 
and  the  Peak  of  Nethou,  11,168  feet. 
There  are  many  passes;  the  total  num- 
ber, including  paths  for  pedestrians,  ex- 
ceeds 50;  but  the  carriage-roads  hardly 
exceed  five;  and  of  these,  the  most  fre- 
quented are  from  Jonquera  to  Perpignan 
on  the  E.,  and  from  St.  Sebastian  to  St. 
Jean  de  Luz  on  the  W.,  and  from  Pampe- 
luna  to  St.  Jean  Pied  de  Port.  The 
passes  in  the  interior  are  over  very  high 
ground;  Pineda  is  8,248  feet  above  the 
sea;  Gavarnie,  7,654;  Lavareze,  7,350; 
and  Tourmalet,  7,143.  The  principal 
rivers  rising  in  the  Pyrenees  are  the 
Adour,  Garonne,  and  Aude,  flowing  N., 
and  the  Llobregat,  and  numerous  afflu- 
ents of  the  Ebro,  flowing  toward  the  S. 

PYRENEES,  BASSES,  a  department 
in  the  S.  W.  corner  of  France,  between 
the  Landes  and  Spain,  and  having  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  on  the  W. ;  area  2,977 
square  miles;  pop.  about  435,000.  It  is 
divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Pau, 
Oloron,  Orthez,  Bayonne,  and  Mauleon. 
Chief  town,  Pau.  The  department  oc- 
cupies the  N.  slopes  of  the  western 
Pyrenees.  Agriculture  is  the  principal 
industry;  large  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep 
are  fed  on  the  extensive  pastures,  and 
many  swine  in  the  wide  forests.  Of  the 
numerous  mineral  springs  the  most  im- 
portant   are    thos"    of    Biarritz,    Eaux- 


Bonnes,  and  Eaux-Chaudes.  The  W. 
half  of  the  department  is  the  home  of  the 
Basques   (q.  v.). 

PYRENEES,  HAUTES,  a  department 
of  France  lying  E.  of  Basses-Pyrenees; 
a  part  of  the  old  province  of  Gascony; 
area,  1,749  square  miles;  pop.  about  205,- 
000.  As  its  name  implies,  it  contains 
the  loftiest  summit  of  the  Pyrenees  (q. 
v.),  and  is  divided  into  the  three  arron- 
dissements of  Tarbes,  Argeles,  and  Bapr- 
neres  de  Bigorre;  chief  town,  Tarbes. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Adour  and 
the  Gave  de  Pau.  The  well-cultivated 
and  artificially  watered  lowlands  yield 
good  crops  of  cereals,  leguminous  plants, 
and  fruits  of  every  kind,  including  the 
grape.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  are 
reared.  Marble  and  slate  are  quarried. 
In  this  department  are  the  springs  of 
St.  Sauveur,  Bagneres-de-Bigorre,  Bar- 
reges,  and  Qauterets. 

PYRENEES-ORIENTALES,  a  S.  de- 
partment of  France;  bounded  on  the  E. 
by  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  S.  by 
the  Pyrenees;  area,  1,598  square  miles; 
pop.  about  213,000.  It  is  divided  into 
the  three  arrondissements  of  Perpignan, 
Prades,  and  Ceret.  The  chief  town  is 
Perpignan.  Agriculture  is  extensively 
prosecuted,  but  wines  constitute  the 
wealth  of  the  district,  and  include  the 
red  wines  of  Roussillon,  the  white  musca- 
tel of  Rivesaltes,  and  others.  This  de- 
partment takes  the  front  rank  as  a  pro- 
ducer of  iron  ore;  granite,  slate,  and 
limestone  are  quarried.  There  are  min- 
eral springs  at  Amelie-des-Bains,  and 
elsewhere. 

PYRETHRUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
Chrysanthemeie. 

PYRHELIOMETER,  an  instrument 
invented  by  Pouillet  for  measuring  the 
amount  of  heat  radiated  from  the  sun. 

PYRIDINE,  CH-.N,  a  liquid,  colorless 
when  pure,  possessing  a  characteristic 
and  unpleasant  odor.  Boiling  point, 
115°  C.  Obtained  in  the  distillation  of 
coal  tar.  Being  strongly  basic,  pyridine 
combines  with  the  sulphuric  acid  used  in 
the  process  of  purifying  coal  tar  prod- 
ucts. On  addition  of  soda  to  the  acid 
solution,  pyridine  is  liberated,  and  is 
isolated  by  fractional  distillation.  Pyri- 
dine is  used  as  a  denaturant  for  alcohol, 
and  as  a  solvent  in  rubber,  paint  and 
other  industries. 

PYRITES,  an  isometric  mineral  oc- 
curring frequently  crystallized,  also 
massive,  in  mammillary  forms  with 
iibrous  structure,  and  stalactitic  with 
crystalline  surface.  Occurs  abundantly 
distributed  in  rocks  of  all  ages,  either  as 
crystals,  crystal-grains,  or  nodules,  also 
in  metalliferous  veins. 


PYBOGALLIC    ACID 


390 


PYBRHIC 


PYROGALLIC  ACID,  in  chemistry, 
C6H603=CaH3(OH)3,  pyrogallol,  an  acid, 
discovered  by  Scheele.  Extensively  used 
in  photography  as  a  reducing  agent. 

PYRO GRAPH,  an  apparatus  for  en- 
graving on  w^ood  or  leather  by  means  of 
a  red-hot  metallic  point. 

PYROLIGNEOUS  ACID,  impure  acet- 
ic acid,  obtained  by  the  destructive  dis- 
tillation of  wood. 

PYROLITH,  or  LIQUID  MARBLE,  a 

composite,  plastic  material  that  so  close- 
ly resembles  marble  that  no  one  can 
detect  any  difference.  It  fulfils  the  re- 
quirements of  the  sculptor  as  to  durabil- 
ity and  hardness  and  forms  an  imperish- 
able material,  easy  to  work  and  capable 
of  receiving  every  delicate  line  and  curve 
of  the  clay  model.  It  was  discovered  by 
George  Julian  Zolnay,  an  American 
sculptor,  the  result  of  years  of  hard 
work. 

PYROLUSITE,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  ores  of  manganese.  Used 
in  preparing  oxygen  gas,  with  which  it 
parts  at  a  red  heat;  and  also  in  glass 
making. 

PYROMETER,  a  term  originally  ap- 
plied to  an  instrument  in  the  form  of  a 
single  metallic  bar,  employed  by  Mus- 
chenbroek  about  1730,  to  indicate  tem- 
peratures above  the  boiling  point  of  mer- 
cury, 660°  F.  It  is  now  applied  to  any 
instrument  used  for  such  purpose, 

Tremeschini's  pyrometer  is  founded 
on  the  expansion  of  a  thin  plate  of  plati- 
num, heated  by  a  mass  of  metal  previ- 
ously raised  to  the  temperature  of  the 
medium.  The  Trampler  pyrometer  is 
based  on  the  difference  in  the  coeffi- 
cients of  dilatation  for  iron  and  graph- 
ite; the  Gauntlet  pyrometer  on  the  dif- 
ference of  those  of  iron  and  fire-clay. 
The  Ducomet  pyrometer  consists  of  a 
series  of  rings  made  of  alloys  which  have 
slightly  different  melting  points.  In 
pyrometers  on  the  Watertype  principle, 
the  temperature  is  determined  by  notmg 
the  amount  of  heat  communicated  to  a 
current  of  water  of  known  temperature 
which  is  kept  circulating  in  the  medium 
to  be  observed. 

PYROPE,  in  mineralogy,  one  of  the 
garnet  group.  Color,  a  deep-red;  trans- 
parent. Found  associated  with  serpen- 
tines, and  in  streams  in  Bohemia. 
Much  used  in  jewelry. 

PYROPHYLLITE,  a  hydrated  silicate 
of  alumina,  occurring  in  foliated  masses, 
which  split  into  layers  on  heating. 
Crystallizes  in  the  monoclinic  system. 
The  color  may  be  either  yellow  or  green, 
some  specimens  being  almost  pure  white. 
It  somewhat  resembles   talc,  possessing 


a  soapy  feeling,  and  Is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  tailors'  chalk  and  slate 
pencils.  In  China  and  Japan  harder 
varieties  are  used  for  making  small  im- 
ages. It  is  found  in  North  Carolina, 
(Georgia,  Arkansas,  Brazil,  Sweden  and 
the  Urals. 

PYROSCOPE,  an  instrument,  invented 
by  Leslie,  to  measure  the  intensity  of 
heat  radiating  from  a  hot  body  or  the 
frigorific  influence  of  a  cold  body.  The 
instrument  is  like  a  differential  ther- 
mometer, one  ball  being  covered  with 
thick  silver-leaf;  the  other  ball  is  naked 
and  forms  the  pyroscope. 

PYROSOMA,  the  sole  genus  of  Pyro- 
somidse,  a  family  of  Tunicata,  with  three 
species.  They  are  brilliantly  phosphor- 
escent, and  Peron  compared  them  to 
small  incandescent  cylinders  of  iron. 

PYROTECHNY,  in  the  proper  sense, 
the  science  which  teaches  the  manage- 
ment and  application  of  fires.  In  the 
more  popular  sense,  however,  the  word 
chiefly  refers  to  the  art  of  making  fire- 
works. The  principal  ingredients  used 
are  purified  saltpeter,  sulphur,  and  char- 
coal. 

PYROXENE,  a  name  used  for  a  group 
of  minerals  of  very  variable  composition 
and  origin,  but  all  of  which  are  refer- 
able (like  the  analogous  group  of  am- 
phiboles)  to  the  same  chemical  type, 
under  the  general  formula  ROSiOs, 
where  R  may  represent  lime,  magnesia, 
the  protoxides  of  iron  and  manganese, 
and  sometimes  soda,  potash,  and  oxide  of 
zinc.  Two  or  more  of  these  bases  are 
always  present,  the  most  frequent  being 
lime,  magnesia,  and  protoxide  of  iron, 
lime  being  always  present  and  in  a  large 
percentage. 

PYROXYLIC  SPIRIT,  WOOD 
SPIRIT,  or  WOOD  NAPHTHA,  a  mix- 
ture of  acetone,  methyl-alcohol,  acetate 
of  methyl,  etc.,  obtained  by  the  destruc- 
tive distillation  of  wood  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  PYROLIGNEOUS  ACID  {q.  V.) .  It 
is  of  nearly  equal  value  to  alcohol  in 
making  varnishes,  as  it  dissolves  the 
resins,  oils,  and  other  similar  substances. 
It  is  used  in  making  Methylated  Spirit 
{q.  v.). 

PYROXYLIN,  a  form  of  nitrocellulose, 
produced  by  the  action  of  a  mixture  of 
sulphuric  and  nitric  acids,  slightly  dilut- 
ed with  water,  on  cotton.  Soluble  in  a 
mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether.  This  so- 
lution, on  evaporating,  leaves  a  film  of 
collodion.  Pyroxylin  is  largely  used  in 
photography.     (See  Nitrocellulose). 

PYRRHIC,  a  species  of  warlike  dance, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Pyrrhus    to    grace    the    funeral    of   his 


PYRRHO 


391 


PYX 


father  Achilles.  It  was  danced  by  boys 
in  armor,  accompanied  by  the  lute  or 
lyre.  Also  a  metrical  foot  consisting  of 
two  short  syllables. 

PYRRHO,  a  celebrated  philosopher  of 
Elis,  and  founder  of  the  sect  called  Skep- 
tics, or  Pyrrhonists,  flourished  about  340 
B.  C.  He  was  originally  a  painter,  but 
afterward  became  a  disciple  of  Anaxar- 
chus,  whom  he  accompanied  to  India  in 
the  train  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
while  there  obtained  a  knowledge  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Brahmins,  Gymjioso- 
phistes,  Magi,  and  other  eastern  sages. 
On  the  return  of  Pyrrho  to  Greece,  the 
inhabitants  of  Elea  made  him  their  high 
priest,  and  the  Athenians  gave  him  the 
rights  of  citizenship.  He  died  in  288  B.  C. 

PYRRHUS,  King  of  Epirus,  being 
obliged,  on  the  murder  of  his  father,  to 
seek  safety  by  flight,  found  a  home,  par- 
ent, and  tutor  in  Glaucus,  King  of  Illy- 
ria,  and  ascended  his  father's  throne, 
295  B.  C.  Having  attempted  to  possess 
himself  of  Macedon,  he  was  defeated  in 
a  great  battle.  In  281  B.  C.  he  made  war 
on  the  Romans  with  the  Samnites  and  in 
a  battle  fought  on  the  Syris,  in  Calabria, 
totally  defeated  the  Roman  army.  It 
cost  him  heavily  however  and  the  Ro- 
mans ultimately  triumphed.  Pyrrhus 
returned  to  Greece,  and,  in  a  subsequent 
■war  with  the  Argives,  was  killed,  by  a 
tile  thrown  on  his  head  from  the  roof  of 
a  house,  as  he  entered  Argos,  273  B.  C. 

PYRUS,  a  genus  of  Pomaceae,  of 
Pomeae,  a  tribe  of  Rosaceae.  Fruit  two 
to  five  celled,  with  cartilaginous  walls. 
North  temperate  zone.  Known  species 
about  40.  Five  most  familiar  are:  Pyu- 
Tu^  cormnunis,  the  wild  pear,  P.  mains, 
the  wild  or  crab  apple,  P.  (Soi'bus)  tor- 
minalis,  the  wild  service,  P.  (Sorbus) 
aria,  the  white  beam-tree,  and  P.  (Sor- 
bus) auciiparia,  the  mountain  ash  or 
rowan  tree. 

PYTHAGORAS,  the  celebrated  Greek 
philosopher,  born  in  Samos,  about  580- 
570  B.  C.  He  is  said  to  have  traveled 
extensively,  especially  in  Egypt.  Aver- 
sion to  the  tyranny  of  Poly  crates,  in 
Samos,  is  said  to  have  been  the  cause  of 
his  quitting  that  island,  and  he  ulti- 
mately settled,  between  540-530  b.  c.  at 
Crotona,  one  of  the  Greek  cities  of 
Southern  Italy.  There  he  set  himself  to 
carry  out  the  purpose  of  instituting  a 
society.  Pythagoras  himself  was  the 
chief,  or  general,  of  the  order.  Similar 
societies  were  founded  in  other  cities  of 
Italy.  His  teachings  relating  to  these 
subjects  became  at  length  the  occasion 
of  a  popular  rising  against  the  Pythag- 
oreans at  Crotona,  504  b.  c. — the  house 
in    which    they    were     assembled    was 


burned,  many  perished  and  the  rest 
were  exiled.  Similar  tumults  with 
similar  results,  took  place  in  other 
cities.  Among  the  doctrines  of  Pythag- 
oras are  the  following:  that  num- 
bers are  the  principles  of  all  things;  that 
the  universe  is  a  harmonious  whole  (kos- 
mos),  the  heavenly  bodies  by  their  mo- 
tion causing  sounds  (music  of  the 
spheres)  ;  that  the  soul  is  immortal,  and 
passes  successively  into  many  bodies 
(metempsychosis) ;  and  that  the  highest 
aim  and  blessedness  of  man  is  likeness  to 
the  Deity.  Pythagoras  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  took  the  title  of  phi- 
losopher, and  the  first  who  applied  the 
term  Kosmos  to  the  universe.  He  died 
in  Metapontum,  Magna  Grascia,  about 
500  B.  c. 

PYTHAGOREAN  THEOREM,  the 
47th  proposition  of  the  first  book  of 
Euclid's  "Elements,"  which  shows  that 
in  any  right-angled  triangle  the  square 
of  the  hypotenuse  is  equal  to  the  sum  of 
the  squares  of  the  other  two  sides. 

PYTHIAN  GAMES,  one  of  the  four 
great  national  festivals  of  the  Greeks, 
held  in  the  Crissaean  plain,  near  Delphi 
(anciently  called  Pytho),  said  to  have 
been  instituted  by  Apollo  after  van- 
quishing the  snaky  monster.  Python,  and 
celebrated  in  his  honor  every  four  years. 
Originally  the  contests  were  restricted 
to  singing,  with  the  accompaniment  of 
cithern  playing;  but  flute  playing,  ath- 
letic contests,  horse  racing,  contests  in  art 
and  poetry  were  afterward  introduced- 


PYTHON 

PYTHON,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  cele- 
brated serpent  -which  destroyed  the  peo- 
ple and  cattle  about  Delphi,  and  was 
slain  by  Apollo.     In  zoology,  rock  snake. 

PYTHONESS,  the  priestess  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  who  delivered 
the  oracles  of  the  god;  hence,  applied  to 
any  woman  who  pretended  to  foretell 
coming  events. 

PYX,  the  sacred  vessel  used  in  the 
Catholic  Church  to  contain  the  conse- 
crated eucharistic  elements  which  are 
preserved  after  consecration,  whether 
for  the  communion  of  the  sick  or  for  the 
adoration  of  the  faithful  in  the  churches. 
The  pyx  is  usually  made  of  some  precious 
metal,  and  the  interior  is  commonly  lined 
with  gold. 


0 


Q,  q,  the  17th  letter  and  the  13th  con-  QUADRAGESIMA  ("fortieth") ,  thr 
sonant  of  the  English  alphabet,  a  conso-  Latin  name  for  the  whole  season  of  Lent, 
nant  having  only  one  sound,  that  of  k    with  its  40  days,  but  the  name  is  com- 


or  c.  The  name  of  the  letter  is  said  to 
be  from  French  queue=a  tail,  the  form 
being  that  of  an  O  with  a  tail  to  it. 

As  an  initial,  Q  represents  the  Latin 
Quintus  in  inscriptions  or  literature;  in 
geometry,  etc.,  it  represents  the  Latin 
quod  (=which),  as  Q.  E.  D.=quod  erat 
de7nonstrandtim^=vfhich  was  to  be  shown 
or  proved;  Q.  E.  F.=quod  erat  facien- 
dwm=which  was  to  be  done. 


monly  assigned  to  the   first   Sunday  in 
Lent. 

QUADRANGLE,  a  square  or  four- 
sided  court  or  space  surrounded  by  build- 
ings, as  often  seen  in  the  buildings  of  a 
college,  school,  etc.  In  geometry,  a  fig- 
ure having  four  angles,  and  consequently 
four  sides. 

QUADRANT,     in     architecture,     the 


As  a  symbol,  Q  was  formerly  used  for    same  as  Quadrangle  (q.  v.).    In  geom 


500,  and  with  a  dash  over  it,  for  500,000. 

QUACKENBOS,  JOHN  DUNCAN,  an 
American  physician;  bom  in  New  York, 
N.  Y.,  April  22,  1848;  was  graduated  at 
Columbia  College  in  1868  and  at  the  Col- 
lege of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  in  1871; 
began  practice  in  New  York;  became  Ad- 


etry,  the  fourth  part  of  a  circle.  Nauti- 
cally,  an  instrument  for  making  angular 
measurements.  It  is  now  superseded  by 
the  Sextant  (g.  v.) 

QUADRATE  BONE,  in  comparative 
anatomy,  a  bone  by  means  of  which  the 
rami  are  articulated  with  the  skull  in 


junct  Professor  of  the  English  Language    birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes    (often  called 
and   Literature   at   Columbia   College  in    the  hypotympanic  bone). 
1884;  Professor  of  Rhetoric  in  Barnard 


College  in  1891-1893.  He  then  became 
a  specialist  in  mental  diseases  and  lec- 
tured extensively  on  scientific  and  liter- 
ary topics.  He  wrote  "History  of  the 
World";  "History  of  Ancient  Litera- 
ture"; ''Tuberculosis";  "Magnhild" 
(1919),  etc.  A  specialist  in  mental  dis- 
eases. 

QUACKENBUSH,  STEPHEN  PLATT, 
an  American  naval  officer;  bom  in  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  Jan.  23,  1823;  joined  the 
navy  in  1840;  promoted  lieutenant-com- 
mander in  1862;  had  charge  of  various 
vessels  in  blockading  fleets  during  the 
Civil  War;  participated  in  the  action  at 
Elizabeth  City  and  Newbem,  N.  C,  cap- 
tured the  "Princess  Royal"  and  won  dis- 
tinction in  other  operations.  He  was 
retired  with  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in 
1885.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
Feb.  4,  1890. 

QUADER    SANDSTONE,    a    siliceous 


QUADRATURE,  the  state  of  being 
quadrate  or  square^  a  square  space.  In 
astronomy,  the  position  of  one  heavenly 
body  with  respect  to  another  90°  dis- 
tant, as  the  moon  when  midway  between 
the  points  of  opposition  and  conjunction. 
In  geometry,  the  act  of  squaring;  the 
reducing  of  a  figure  to  a  square.  The 
quadrature  of  the  circle  is  a  famous 
problem,  which  has  probably  been  the 
subject  of  more  discussion  and  research 
than  any  other  problem  within  the  whole 
range  of  mathematical  science. 

QUADRATURES,      METHODS      OF, 

any  arithmetical  method  of  determining 
the  area  of  a  curve.  When  the  exact 
area  is  known  a  square  whose  area  is 
equal  to  it  can  be  found — hence  the  term 
"quadratures."  It  has  been  shown  (see 
Calculus)  that  the  area  of  a  curve 
whose  equation  is  ?/=/  (x)  is  fydx,  and 
can  therefore  be  found  when  the  integral 
can   be   evaluated.     Hence   the   approxi- 


sandstone  of  Cretaceous  age,  with  many  mate  determination  of  the  value  of  a 
^ssil  shells  identical  with  those  of  the  definite  integral  is  obtainable  by  the 
^.nglish  Chalk.  method  of  quadratures. 

392 


QUADEia^ 


393 


QUAIN 


QUADRIGA,  in  Roman  antiquities, 
a  two-wheeled  car  or  chariot  drawn  by 
four  horses,  harnessed  all  abreast.  In 
monumental  work  it  is  the  figure,  as  thus 
described,  surmounting  an  arch  or  main 
structure. 

QTJADRILATEHAX,  the  name  given 
in  history  to  the  four  fortresses  of 
north  Italy — Mantu^,  Verona,  Peschi- 
era,  and  Legnago — which  form  a  sort  of 
outwork  to  the  bastion  of  the  mountains 
of  the  Tyrol,  and  divide  the  N.  plain  of 
the  Po  into  two  sections  by  a  most  pow- 
erful barrier. 

QTTADIIILLE,  a  dance  consisting  of 
five  figures  or  movements,  executed  by 
four  sets  of  couples,  each  forming  the 
side  of  a  square.  Also,  the  music  com- 
posed for  such  a  dance;  and,  a  game  of 
cards  played  by  four  persons  vnth  40 
cards,  the  tens,  nines,  and  eights  being 
thrown  out  from  an  ordinary  pack. 

QTTADROON,     or     QTJAE-TERON,     a 

person  who  is  one-quarter  negro  and 
three-quarters  white;  that  is,  one  of 
whose  grandparents  was  white  and  the 
other  negro;  and  one  of  whose  immediate 
parents  was  white  and  the  other  mulatto. 

QTTADRTJMANA,  in  zoology,  an  order 
of  mammalia,  founded  by  Cuvier,  and 
containing  the  monkeys,  apes,  baboons, 
and  lemurs. 

QUADRUPED,  the  name  popularly 
applied  to  those  higher  vertebrate  ani- 
mals which  possess  four  developed  limbs. 
The  name  is  usually  restricted  to  four- 
footed  mammals. 

QUADRUPLE  ALLIANCE,  an  alli- 
ance, so  called  from  the  number  of  the 
contracting  parties,  concluded  in  1718 
between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Aus- 
tria, and  acceded  to  by  Holland  in  1719, 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  peace  of 
Utrecht.  The  occasion  of  the  alliance 
was  the  seizure  by  Spain  of  Sardinia  in 
1717,  and  Sicily  in  1718,  both  of  which 
she  was  forced  to  give  up.  Another 
quadruple  alliance  was  that  of  Austria, 
Russia,  Great  Britain,  and  Prussia,  in 
1814,  originating  in  the  coalition  which 
had  effected  the  dissolution  of  the  French 
empire. 

QU.ffiSTOR,  in  Roman  history,  two 
qusestores  parricidii,  who  acted  as  public 
prosecutors  in  cases  of  murder,  or  any 
capital  offense,  existed  in  Rome  dui-ing 
the  period  of  the  kings.  Two  qnsestores 
elassici,  who  had  charge  of  the  public 
money,  were  first  appointed  about  485 
B.  c.  The  number  was  doubled  B.  c.  421, 
and  it  was  decided  that  they  should  be 
chosen  from  the  patricians  and  the 
plebeians.     It  was  not,  however,  till  409 


B.  c.  that  a  plebeian  was  elected.  They 
also  had  chargfe  of  the  funds  of  the  army, 
to  which  they  were  paymasters.  The 
number  of  quaestors  was  increased  to 
eight  265  B.  c  Sylla  raised  the  number 
to  20,  and  Julius  Caesar  to  40. 

QUAGGA,  Equus  (Asinus,  Gray) 
quagga,  a  striped  equine  form,  from 
South  Africa,  now  nearly  extinct. 
Height  at  shoulders  about  four  feet; 
striped  only  on  head,  neck,  and  shoul- 
ders; prevailing  color  bro^vn;  abdomen, 
legs,  and  part  of  tail  whitish-gi-ay. 

_  QUAIL,  the  genus  Coturnix,  espe- 
cially C.  communis,  or  dactylisonans,  the 
latter  name  having  reference  to  the 
peculiar  dactylic  call  of  the  male,  which 
has  given  rise  to  the  provincial  name  of 
wet-my-lips,  wet-my-feet,  from  a  sup- 
posed similarity  of  sound.  It  is  widely 
distributed     over     the     Eastern     Hemi- 


QUAIL 

sphere,  visiting  Europe  in  early  summer 
and  returning  S.  in  the  autumn,  when 
immense  numbers  are  caught  and  fat- 
tened for  the  market,  as  their  flesh  is 
much  esteemed.  Length  about  seven 
inches,  general  color  reddish-brown. 
They  nest  on  the  ground,  laying  from  9 
to  15  pyriform  yellowish-white  eggs, 
blotched   with   dark-brown. 

QUAIN,  a  family  of  eminent  medical 
men.  (1)  Jones  Quain,  born  in 
November,  1796,  in  Mallow,  Ireland, 
studied  medicine  at  Dublin  and  Paris, 
and  in  1829  was  appointed  lecturer  on 
anatomy  and  physiology  in  the  Alders- 
gate  School  of  Medicine,  London.  Two 
years  later  he  was  made  Professor  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology  at  London  Uni- 


QUAKING    GRASS 


394 


QUARANTINE 


versity.  He  wrote  Quain's  "Elements  of 
Anatomy."  Jones  Quain  published  also 
a  series  of  elaborate  "Anatomical  Plates" 
(1858)  and  a  translation  of  Martinet's 
"Pathology"  (1835).  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, Jan.  27,  1865.  (2)  Richard 
Quain,  brother  of  the  above;  born  in 
Fermoy,  Ireland,  in  July,  1800,  studied 
at  London,  and  was  appointed  Professor 
of  Anatomy  and  Clinical  Surgery  in  Uni- 
versity College,  London,  in  1837.  He 
was  surgeon-extraordinary  to  the  queen, 
and  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons  in  1868.  Among  his 
works  the  principal  are:  "Anatomy  of 
Arteries,"  with  folio  plates  (1845) ; 
''Some  Defects  of  Medical  Education" 
(1870)  ;  he  edited  along  with  others  the 
fifth  edition  of  (Jones)  "Quain's  Anat- 
omy." By  his  will  he  left  nearly  $375,- 
000  to  University  College,  London,  for 
the  "education  in  modern  languages 
(especially  English)  and  in  natural 
science."  He  died  in  London  on  Sept. 
15,  1887.  (3)  Sir  Richard  Quain, 
Bart.,  first  cousin  to  both  the  above,  was 
born  in  Mallow,  Oct.  30,  1816.  He  was 
Lumleian  lecturer  at  the  Royal  College 
of  Physicians  ("Diseases  of  the  Muscu- 
lar Walls  of  the  Heart")  in  1872,  and 
Harveian  orator  ("The  Healing  Art  in 
its  Historic  and  Prophetic  Aspects")  in 
1885,  and  was  made  physician  extraordi- 
nary to  the  queen.  He  edited  the 
"Dictionary  of  Medicine"  (1883) ;  and 
contributed  to  the  "London  Jour- 
nal of  Medicine,"  etc.  Dr.  Quain 
was  made  LL.D.  of  Edinburgh  in 
1889,  president  of  the  General  Medical 
Council  in  1891,  was  created  a  baronet  in 
1891,  and  died  March  13,  1898.  (4)  SiR 
John  Richard  Quain;  born  in  Mallow 
in  It  17,  the  half-brother  of  Jones  and 
Richard  Quain,  was  made  a  judge  of  the 
Court  of  Queen's  Bench  in  1872,  and  jus- 
tice of  the  High  Court  of  Judicature  in 
1875.     He  died  Sept.  12,  1876. 

QUAKING  GRASS,  Briza,  a  genus  of 
grasses.  The  species  are  few  and  most- 
ly European.  They  are  all  very  beauti- 
ful. B.  maxima,  a  native  of  the  S.  of 
Europe,  is  often  planted  in  flower  gar- 
dens.^ B.  tnedia,  the  only  species  com- 
mon in  Great  Britain,  growing  in  almost 
all  kinds  of  poor  soil,  from  the  seacoast 
to  an  elevation  of  1,500  feet,  is  of  some 
value  as  a  pasture  grass,  being  very 
nutritious,  although  the  quantity  of 
herbage  is  scanty.  The  value  of  many 
poor  pastures  very  much  depends  on  it. 

QUAMASH,  the  North  American 
name  of  Camassia  esculenta,  a  plant  of 
the  lily  family  with  an  edible  bulb. 
These  bulbs  are  much  eaten  by  the  Indi- 
ans, and  are  prepared  by  baking  in  a 
hole  dug  in  the  ground,  then  pounding 


and  drying  them  into  cakes  for  future 
use. 

QUANTITY,  in  grammar  and  prosody, 
the  measure  of  a  syllable  or  the  time 
in  which  it  is  pronounced;  the  metrical 
value  of  syllables  as  regards  length  or 
weight  in  their  pronunciation.  In  logic, 
the  extent  to  which  the  predicate  in  a 
proposition  is  asserted  of  the  subject. 

In  mathematics,  anything  that  can  be 
increased,  diminished,  and  measured. 

QUARANTINE,  the  period  (originally 
40  days)  during  which  a  ship  coming 
from  a  port  suspected  of  contagion,  or 
having  a  contagious  sickness  on  board, 
is  forbidden  intercourse  with  the  place  at 
which  she  arrives.  Quarantine  was  first 
introduced  at  Venice  in  the  14th  century. 
It  is  now  required  to  be  performed  in  al- 
most every  important  country  except 
Great  Britain.  By  act  of  the  United 
States  Congress  passed  in  1879,  Na- 
tional quarantine  stations  were  estab- 
lished; and  it  is  made  a  misdemeanor 
punishable  by  fine  or  imprisonment,  or 
both,  for  the  master,  pilot,  or  owner  of 
any  vessel  entering  a  port  of  the  United 
States  in  violation  of  the  act,  or  regula- 
tions framed  under  it.  During  the 
period  of  quarantine,  all  the  goods,  cloth- 
ing, etc.,  that  might  be  supposed  capa- 
ble of  retaining  infection,  are  subjected 
to  a  process  of  disinfection,  which  is  a 
most  important  part  of  the  quarantine 
system. 

Quarantine  has  long  been  considered 
ineffective  against  the  introduction  of 
disease,  besides  being  a  source  of  much 
danger  to  those  who  were  compulsorily 
detained  under  the  system.  The  sani- 
tary ideas  of  our  day  favor  the  safer 
methods  used  in  England  against  chol- 
era. The  fate  of  quarantine  in  the  Brit- 
ish Islands  was  determined  in  1894  when, 
in  discussion  on  the  Pri\'y  Council  esti- 
mates objection  was  made  to  the  cost  of 
maintaining  the  quarantine  establish- 
ment in  the  Solent  on  the  ground  of  its 
uselessness,  and  the  government  prom- 
ised to  abolish  the  system.  As  a  result 
the  Public  Health  Act  of  1896  was 
passed,  by  which  yellow  fever  and  the 
plague  are  to  be  dealt  with  in  the  same 
manner  as  cholera,  and  regulations  made 
by  the  Local  Government  Board  will 
apply  equally  to  the  three  diseases. 

In  the  United  States,  under  the  law  of 
March  28,  1890,  known  as  the  Interstate 
Quarantine  Act,  the  supervising  sur- 
geon-general of  the  Marine  Hospital 
Service  is  charged  with  preparing  the 
rules  and  regulations,  under  direction  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  necessary 
to  prevent  the  introduction  of  certain 
contagious  diseases  from  one  State  to  an- 
other, and  he  has  also  supervision  of  the 


QUABLES 


395 


QUARTER    SESSIONS 


Qiedical  inspection  of  alien  immigrants, 
which,  under  the  law  of  March  3,  1891, 
is  conducted  by  the  miedical  officers  of 
the  Marine  Hospital  Service.  Under  the 
act  of  Feb.  15,  1893,  he  is  charged  with 
the  framing  of  reg^ulations  for  the  pre- 
vention of  the  introduction  of  contagious 
diseases  and  the  prevention  of  their 
spread;  and  he  is  also  charged  with  the 
conduct  of  the  quarantine  service  of  the 
United  States,  He  has  the  direction  of 
laboratories  established  to  investigate  the 
cause  of  contagious  diseases,  and  pub- 
lishes each  week,  under  the  title  of 
"Public  Health  Reports,"  sanitary  re- 
ports received  from  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  (through  the  State 
Department)  from  all  foreign  coun- 
tries. See  Bubonic  Plague;  Cattle- 
Plague. 

QUARLES,  FRANCIS,  an  English 
poet;  born  near  Rumford,  England,  in 
1592;  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and 
entered  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1621  went 
to  Dublin,  where  he  became  under-sec- 
retary  to  Archbishop  Ussher.  He  was 
driven  from  Ireland,  with  the  loss  of  his 
property,  by  the  rebellion  of  1641,  and 
was  appointed  chronologer  to  the  city  of 
London.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
civil  wars  he  wrote  a  work  entitled  the 
"Loyal  Convert,"  which  gave  offense  to 
the  Parliament.  Of  the  works  of 
Quarles,  in  prose  and  verse,  the  most 
celebrated  is  his  "Emblems,"  a  set  of 
designs  illustrated  by  verses.  Among 
his  poems  are  "Divine  Poems,"  and 
"Argalus  and  Parthenia."  His  "En- 
chiridion" is  a  collection  of  brief  essays 
and  aphorisms.     He  died  Sept.  8,  1644. 

QXJARNERO,  GULF  OF,  in  the  Adri- 
atic Sea,  between  Istria  and  the  Croa- 
tian coast,  15  miles  in  length  and  breadth. 
It  is  nearly  inclosed  to  the  leeward  by 
the  islands  of  Cherso  and  Veglia,  and 
communicates  with  the  Adriatic  by  three 
channels. 

QUARRY,  a  place,  pit,  or  mine  where 
stones  are  dug  out  of  the  earth,  or  are 
separated  from  the  mass  of  rock  by  blast- 
ing. The  term  mine  is  generally  con- 
fined to  pits  or  places  whence  coal  or 
metals  are  taken. 

QUART,  the  fourth  part  of  a  gallon; 
two  pints;  the  United  States  dry  quart 
contains  67.20  cubic  inches,  the  fluid 
quai-t  57.75  cubic  inches;  the  English 
quart  contains  69.3185  cubic  inches. 

QUARTER,  a  measure  of  weight, 
equal  to  the  fourth  part  of  a  hundred- 
weight— i.  e.,  to  28  pounds  avoirdupois. 
As  a  measure  of  capacity,  for  measur- 
ing grain,  etc.,  a  quarter  contains  eight 
bushels. 


QUARTER,  that  part  of  a  ship's  side 
which  lies  toward  the  stern,  or  which  is 
comprehended  between  the  aft-most  end 
of  tne  main  chains  and  the  sides  of  the 
stern.  In  heraldry,  one  of  the  divisions 
of  a  shield,  when  it  is  divided  into  four 
portions  by  horizontal  and  perpendicular 
lines  meetmg  in  the  fesse  point. 

QUARTER  DAY,  in  matters  influ- 
enced by  United  States  statutes  quarter 
days  are  the  1st  of  January,  April,  July, 
and  October.  In  the  relation  between 
landlord  and  tenant  in  some  of  the  States 
they  are  the  1st  of  May,  August,  No- 
vember, and  February,  respectively.  In 
England  it  is  the  day  which  begins  each 
quarter  of  the  year.  They  are  now  Lady 
day  (March  25),  Midsummer  day  (June 
24),  Michaelmas  day  (September  29), 
and  Christmas  day   (December  25). 

QUARTER  BECK,  in  nautical  lan- 
guage, a  deck  raised  above  the  waist  and 
extending  from  the  stern  to  the  main- 
mast. 

QUARTERMASTER,  in  military  af- 
fairs, an  officer  who  superintends  the  is- 
sue of  stores,  food,  and  clothing,  and  ar- 
ranges transportation  for  a  regiment 
when  necessary.  In  nautical  affairs,  a 
petty  officer,  who,  besides  having  charge 
of  the  stowage  of  ballast  and  provisions, 
coiling  of  ropes,  etc.,  attends  to  the  steer- 
ing of  the  ship.  He  is  appointed  by  the 
captain. 

QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL,  in 
the  United  States  a  staff-officer  with 
rank  of  Brigadier-General.  He  is  chief 
officer  in  the  quartermaster's  department. 
In  England  a  staff-officer,  specially  ap- 
pointed for  duties  connected  with  quar- 
tering, encamping,  embarking,  and  mov- 
ing troops.  In  both  armies  in  the  field 
he  is  responsible  for  the  surveys  and  re- 
connaissance necessary  for  the  conduct 
of  the  army,  and  has  the  general  direc- 
tion of  the  railways,  postal,  signaling, 
and  telegraph  services. 

QUARTERN,  a  term  sometimes  used 
to  designate  the  fourth  of  a  peck,  or  of  a 
stone;  as  the  quartern  loaf.  In  liquid 
measure  it  is  the  fourth  part  of  a  pint. 

QUARTER  SESSIONS,  in  England,  a 
general  court  of  criminal  jurisdiction 
held  in  every  county  once  in  each  quar- 
ter of  a  year  before  two  or  more  justices 
of  the  peace,  and  before  the  recorder  in 
boroughs.  Its  jurisdiction  is^  confined  to 
the  smaller  felonies  and  misdemeanors 
against  the  public,  and  certain  matters 
rather  of  a  civil  than  a  criminal  nature. 

In  Scotland,  a  court  held  by  the  jus- 
tices of  the  peace  four  times  a  year  at 
the  county  towns.  These  courts  have 
the  power  of  reversing  the  sentences  pro- 
nounced  at  the  special   and  petty  ses- 


QUARTERSTAFF 


396 


QUATREMi^RE    DE    QTJIiTCY 


sions,  when  the  sentence  is  of  a  nature 
subject  to  review. 

QUARTERSTAFF,  a  stout  staff  used 
as  a  weapon  of  offense  or  defense.  It 
was  generally  about  6%  feet  long,  and 
loaded  with  iron  at  each  end. 

QUARTET,  a  piece  of  music  arranged 
for  four  voices  or  instruments,  in  which 
all  the  parts  are  obligati;  i.  e.,  no  one 
can  be  omitted  vdthout  injuring  the 
proper  effect  of  the  composition.  Quar- 
tets for  stringed  instruments  are  gener- 
ally arranged  for  two  violins,  a  cello, 
qnd  violoncello. 

QUARTO,  name  of  the  size  of  a  book 
in  which  a  sheet  makes  four  leaves. 
Frequently  abbreviated  to  4to.  Also  a 
book  formed  by  folding  a  sheet  twice, 
making  four  leaves,  eight  pages.  The 
term,  by  modern  usage,  refers  to  a  book 
of  nearly  square  form. 

QUARTZ,  in  mineralogy,  a  rhombo- 
hedral  or  hexagonal  mineral,  crystalliz- 
ing mostly  in  hexagonal  prisms  with 
pyramidal  terminations.  Quartz  is  abun- 
dantly distributed,  is  an  essential  con- 
stituent of  many  rocks,  notably  granite, 
gneiss,  various  schists,  and  constitutes 
the  larger  part  of  mineral  veins.  Many 
of  its  varieties  are  largely  employed  in 
jewelry. 

QUARTZ  ROCK,  the  name  applied  to 
all  rocks  consisting  essentially  of  mas- 
sive quartz. 

QUASIMODO,  in  the  Roman  calendar, 
a  term  applied  to  the  first  Sunday  after 
Easter,  from  the  opening  words  of  the 
introit  for  that  day,  "quasi  modo  geniti 
infantes"=as   (infants)  lately  (born). 

QUASSIA,  in  botany  the  typical  genus 
of  the  order  Sim-arubacea;.  Q.  amara 
is  a  tree  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies 
and  the  parts  adjacent.  In  pathology, 
the  Surinam  quassia  is  Q.  amara;  Ja- 
maica quassia,  the  wood  of  Picrsena  ex- 
celsa.  It  comes  to  this  country  in  logs 
or  billets,  and  is  retailed  as  chips  or 
raspings.  It  is  given  as  an  extract,  an 
infusion,  or  a  tincture,  and  acts  as  a 
pure  bitter  and  stomachic,  and  as  an 
antiperiodic. 

QUATERNARY,  or  POST-TERTI- 
A.RY,  the  fourth  great  division  of  the 
fossiliferous  strata,  which  embraces  the 
Pleistocene  or  Glacial  and  Post-glacial 
and  Recent  systems. 

QUATERNION,  in  mathematics,  the 
metrographic  relation  existing  between 
any  two  right  lines,  having  definite 
lengths  and  directions  in  space,  depend- 
ing on  four  irreducible  geometrical 
elements. 


QUATHLAMBA  MOUNTAINS,  a 
range  in  South  Africa,  forming  the  W. 
boundary  of  Zululand  and  Natal;  also 
called  the  Drakensberg  Mountains. 

QUATRE-BRAS,  a  village  of  Belgium; 
about  10  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Waterloo;  at 
the  intersection  of  the  great  roads  from 
Brussels  to  Charleroi,  and  from  Nivelles 
to  Namur,  whence  its  name  ("four 
arms").  On  June  16,  1815,  two  days 
before  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  Quatre- 
Bras  was  the  scene  of  a  desperate  bat- 
tle between  the  English  under  Welling- 
ton and  the  French  under  Ney.  The 
honors  of  the  field  remained  with  the  for- 
mer; but  the  severe  defeat  of  Bliicher 
the  same  day  at  Ligny  compelled  Wel- 
lington to  retreat.  The  loss  on  the  Eng- 
lish side  was  5,200,  on  the  French  4,140, 
among  the  allies  being  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick,  the  gallant  chief  of  the 
Black  Brunswickers.  A  monument  to 
his  memory,  a  bronze  lion  10%  feet  high, 
was  erected  in  1890. 

QUATREFAGES,  JEAN  LOUIS 
ARM  AND  DE,  a  French  naturalist; 
born  in  Berthezeme,  France,  Feb.  10, 
1810;  studied  medicine  at  Strassburg, 
and  in  1838  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Zoology  at  Toulouse.  But  this  post  he 
soon  resigned  and  went  to  Paris.  In 
1850  he  was  elected  Professor  of  Natural 
History  in  the  "Lycee  Napoleon,"  and  in 
1855  of  Anatomy  and  Ethnology  at  the 
Natural  History  Museum  in  Paris.  He 
devoted  his  attention  principally  to  an- 
thropology and  the  lower  animals.  His 
chief  works  are:  "The  Human  Species" 
(1877);  "Memoirs  of  a  Naturalist" 
(1854) ;  "Unity  of  the  Human  Species" 
(1861)  ;  "The  Prussian  Race"  (1879)  ; 
"The  Pygmies"  (1887);  "Darwin  and 
His  French  Forerunners"  (1892) ;  and 
"Transformist  Theories"  (1892).  He 
died  Jan.  13,  1892.    See  Anthropology. 

QUATREFOIL,  in  architecture,  a 
piercing  or  panel  divided  by  cusps  or 
foliations  into  four  leaves,  or  more  cor- 
rectly the  leaf-shaped  figure  formed  by 
the  cusps.  The  name  is  also  given  to 
flowers  and  leaves  of  a  similar  form 
carved  as  ornaments  on  moldings,  etc. 
In  heraldry,  four-leaved  grass;  a  fre- 
quent bearing  in  coat-armor. 

QUATREMERE  DE  QUINCY,  AN- 
TOINE  CHRYSOSTOME,  a  French 
archjeologist;  born  in  Paris,  Oct.  28, 
1755;  held  political  offices  under  the  re- 
public, consulate,  empire,  and  restora- 
tion, and  in  1818  became  Professor  of 
Archjeology  in  the  Royal  Library.  His 
works  include:  "Dictionary  of  Archi- 
tecture," "Imitation  in  the  Fine  Arts," 
and  lives  of  Raphael,  Canova,  and 
Michael  Angelo.    He  died  Dec.  8,  1849. 


QUATROCENTO 


397 


QUEBEC 


QUATROCENTO,  a  term  applied  to 
the  characteristic  style  of  the  artists  who 
practiced  in  the  14th  century. 

QUAVER,  a  shake  or  rapid  vibration 
of  the  voice;  a  shake  on  an  instrument 
of  music.  Also  a  note  and  measure  of 
time,  equal  to  half  a  crotchet  or  the 
eighth  of  a  semibreve. 

QUAY,  a  landing  place;  a  wharf  pro- 
jecting into  a  stream,  harbor,  or  basin, 
to  which  vessels  are  moored  for  the  pur- 
pose of  receiving  and  delivering  freight. 

QUAY,  MATTHEW  STANLEY,  an 
American  legislator;  born  in  Dillsburg, 
Pa.,  Sept.  30,  1833;  was  graduated  at 
Jefferson  College,  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1854;  entered  the  Union  army  in  1861, 
was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel  and  as- 
sistant commissary  general;  received  a 
congressional  medal  of  honor  for  ex- 
ceptional service;  became  State  treasurer 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1885;  and  was  a 
United  States  Senator  in  1887-1899. 
Early  in  the  latter  year  he  was  placed 
on  trial  on  charges  of  misappropriation 
of  public  funds,  and  on  April  21  was  ac- 
quitted. Governor  Stone  appointed  him 
United  States  Senator  ad  interbn.  In 
1901  he  was  re-elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate.     He  died  May  29,  1904. 

QUEBEC,  a  province  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  fomierly  called  Canada  East; 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Labrador  and 
Hudson  Bay;  on  the  E.  by  Labrador  and 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence ;  on  the  S._  by 
New  Brunswick,  Chaleurs  Bay,  Maine, 
New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  and  New 
York;  on  the  S.  W.  and  W.  by  the  prov- 
ince of  Ontario;  gross  area,  706,834 
square  miles;  pop.  about  2,500,000;  cap- 
ital, Quebec.  The  surface  of  the  prov- 
ince is  varied,  being  diversified  by  moun- 
tains, rivers,  lakes,  and  extensive  forests. 
The  chief  mountains  are  the  Notre  Dame 
or  Shickshock  Mountains,  with  peaks 
rising  to  the  height  of  4,000  feet;  and 
the  Laurentian  Mountains,  or  Lauren- 
tides.  The  chief  river  is  the  St.  Law- 
rence, which  flows  through  the  entire 
length  of  the  province.  Next  to  it  in 
importance  is  its  chief  tributary,  the 
Ottawa,  over  700  miles  in  length.  There 
are  many  beautiful  lakes,  the  chief  be- 
ing Grand  Lake,  Temiscamangue,  and 
Lake  St.  John. 

Minerals. — Copper  is  mined  in  Brome 
and  Megantic  counties;  gold  in  Beauce; 
i^-on  ore  in  St.  Maurice;  and  nickel  in 
Pontiac.  The  other  mineral  productions 
include  asbestos,  apatite,  plumbago,  mica, 
slate-stone,  etc. 

Fisheries. — The  total  value  of  fish  sold 
in  1917  was  almost  $3,000,000.  The 
catch  consisted  principally  of  cod,  mack- 
erel, lobsters,  salmon,  and  herring. 

Vol.  VII — Cyc 


Agriculture. — About  half  of  the  pop- 
ulation of  Quebec  is  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture. The  chief  products  include  maize, 
buckwheat,  tobacco,  peas,  turnips,  barley, 
wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  and  hay.  Spruce 
and  pine  are  exported  and  the  other  for- 
est products  include  ash,  cedar,  cherry, 
oak,  elm,  maple,  birch,  and  beech.  Cat- 
tle, horses,  swine,  and  sheep  are  the 
principal  domestic  animals. 

Government. — The  affairs  of  the  prov- 
ince are  administered  by  a  Lieutenant- 
General,  appointed  by  the  Governor- 
General  of  Canada,  assisted  by  a  respon- 
sible executive  council.  There  are  two 
Chambers,  the  Legislative  Council,  com- 
posed of  24  members  who  hold  their  ap- 
pointments for  life,  and  a  Legislative 
Assembly,  which  has  81  members,  elected 
by  the  people  for  five  years. 

Education. — The  school  system  of 
Quebec  provides  for  compulsory  attend- 
ance between  the  ages  of  5  and  16. 
There  are  three  universities:  McGill, 
Lennoxville,  and  Laval,  and  over  8,000 
elementary  and  other  schools.  There  is 
a  total  enrollment  of  about  500,000 
pupils. 

History. — Quebec  was  the  earliest  set- 
tled part  of  Canada.  In  1534  Jacques 
Cartier  explored  Gaspe  Peninsula  and 
the  Bay  of  Chaleurs,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  explored  the  St.  Lawrence 
river  as  far  as  Montreal,  The  city  of 
Quebec  was  founded  by  Champlain  in 
1608,  who  later  established  trading  sta- 
tions and  forts  at  various  places.  The 
French  governed  Quebec  till  1759,  when 
General  Wolfe  won  the  battles  of  the 
Plains  of  Abraham,  and  the  English 
gained  control.  Prior  to  1841  Quebec 
was  called  Lower  Canada,  but  in  that 
year  it  was  united  to  Upper  Canada.  It 
was  made  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  {q.  v.)  in  1867  by  the  Act  of 
Confederation. 

QUEBEC,  a  city  and  capital  of  the 
province  of  Quebec,  Canada;  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  St. 
Charles  rivers,  and  on  the  Grand  Trunk, 
the  Canadian  Pacific,  the  Lake  St.  John; 
the  Intercolonial,  the  Quebec  Centi-al, 
and  other  raih'oads;  180  miles  N.  E.  of 
Montreal.  The  city  is  built  amid  beau- 
tiful scenery,  for  the  most  part  on  a  nar- 
row, elevated  strip  of  land.  It  is  di- 
vided into  two  parts,  called  the  Upper 
and  Lower  Towns.  The  former  is  built 
on  the  highest  part  of  the  plateau  and 
is  surrounded  with  a  wall  and  strongly 
protected  in  other  ways.  The  latter, 
which  is  chiefly  given  to  trade,  occupies 
the  base  of  Cape  Diamond,  the  exti-eme 
point  of  the  tableland.  Here  much  of 
the  rock  has  been  cut  away  to  make 
room    for    buildings.     Owing   to   its   ira- 

26 


QUEBRACHO 


398 


QUEENSLAND 


pregnable    character    Quebec    has    been 
called  the  Gibraltar  of  America, 

The  shipping  of  lumber  is  the  princi- 
pal industry.  The  chief  exports,  besides 
lumber,  include  iron  castings,  leather, 
boots  and  shoes,  grain,  peltries,  musical 
instruments,  nails,  machinery,  india- 
rubber  goods,  cutlery,  steel,  and  rope. 
There  is  an  abundant  water  supply  from 
Lake  St,  Charles, 

The  principal  buildings  are  the  Par- 
liament and  Departmental  buildings,  city 
hall,  custom  house,  court  house,  the  Ba- 
silica, Masonic  Hall,  the  Seminary  of 
Quebec,  Laval  University  (R,  C),  Mor- 
rin  College  (Pres.),  Ursuline  Convent, 
Church  of  England,  Female  Orphan  Asy- 
lum, St.  Bridget's  Asylum,  the  Ladies' 
Protestant  Home,  Jeffrey  Hale  Hospital, 
Marine  Hospital,  and  the  Gray  Nunnery. 
The  citadel  of  Quebec,  built  on  the  sum- 
mit of  Cape  Diamond,  at  a  height  of  333 
feet  above  the  river,  is  said  to  be  the 
most  formidable  fortification  in  North 
America.  There  is  a  beautiful  monu- 
ment to  the  memory  of  Wolfe  and  Mont- 
calm, in  the  governor's  garden  which 
overlooks  the  St.  Lawrence  river.  On 
the  Plains  of  Abraham  in  the  suburbs 
stands  a  monument  to  Wolfe,  commem- 
orating the  victory  of  1759. 

The  cite  of  Quebec,  originally  occupied 
by  an  Indian  village  named  Stadacona, 
was  discovered  by  Jacques  Cartier  in 
1535;  but  the  city  was  founded  by  Cham- 
plain  in  1608.  It  continued  to  be  the 
center  of  French  trade  and  civilization, 
as  well  as  of  Roman  Catholic  missions 
in  North  America  till  1759,  when  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Great  Britain  by  the 
victory  of  Wolfe  on  the  Heights  of  Abra- 
ham above  the  city.  Quebec  remained 
the  chief  city  of  Canada  till  the  British 
settlements  in  the  West  were  erected  into 
a  separate  province,  when  it  became  the 
capital  of  Canada  East,  now  forming  the 
province  of  Quebec.     Pop.  about  120,000. 

QUEBRACHO,  in  botany,  Aspido- 
sperma  quebracho,  a  Chilean  apocyna- 
ceous  tree;  its  bark  is  used  as  a  febrifuge 
and  in  lung  or  bronchial  diseases.  It  is 
called  also  white  quebracho,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  red  quebracho,  a  Mexi- 
can tree, 

QUEDAH,  or  KEBAH,  a  state  on  the 
W,  side  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  with  an 
area  of  3,600  square  miles.  Pop.  about 
250,000,  nominally  subject  to  Siam.  The 
capital,  from  which  the  state  takes  its 
name,  has  a  population  of  about  30,000. 

QUEDLINBURG,  a  town  of  Prussia, 
at  the  N,  base  of  the  Harz  Mountains; 
56  miles  S,  E.  of  Brunswick,  Founded 
by  Henry  the  Fowler  in  924,  it  is  still  in 
part  surrounded  by  a  wall  flanked  with 
towers.     On  an  eminence  overlooking  the 


town  stands  the  castle,  which  prior  to  the 
Reformation  was  the  residence  of  the  ab- 
besses of  Quedlinburg.  The  town  has 
manufactures  of  sugar,  wire  goods,  and 
farinaceous  foods.     Pop,  about  27,500, 

QUEEN  ADELAIDE  ARCHIPEL- 
AGO, a  group  of  islands,  belonging  to 
Chile;  N,  of  the  W,  entrance  of  the  Strait 
of  Magellan;  separated  by  Smyth  Chan- 
nel from  King  William  Land  on  the 
mainland, 

^  QUEEN  ANNE'S  BOUNTY,  the  name 
given  to  a  fund  appropriated  to  increase 
the  income  of  the  poorer  clergy  of  Eng- 
land, created  out  of  the  first  fruits  and 
tenths,  which  before  the  Reformation 
formed  part  of  the  papal  exactions  from 
the  clergy. 

QUEEN  BEE,  in  entomology,  a  fully 
developed  female  bee  in  a  hive  or  nest. 
She  lays  2,000  or  3,000  eggs  daily  during 
the  height  of  summer,  or  more  than 
1,000,000  during  her  lifetime,  which  is 
about  five  years.     See  Bee. 

QUEEN  CHARLOTTE  ISLANDS, 
a  group  to  the  N,  of  Vancouver  Island, 
off  the  coast  of  British  Columbia;  area, 
5,100  square  miles.  The  two  principal 
islands,  Graham  and  Moresby,  have  a 
length  of  160  and  a  greatest  breadth  of 
nearly  70  miles.  The  climate  is  healthy, 
but  very  rainy.  Anthracite  coal,  cop- 
per and  iron  ore,  and  gold  bearing  quartz 
have  been  found,  and  forests  abound. 
The  inhabitants  are  about  2,000  Indians, 
who  engage  in  fishing. 

QUEEN'S  BOROUGH.  See  New 
York. 

QUEEN'S  COLLEGE,  for  women,  was 
established  in  London,  in  1848,  and  in- 
corporated by  royal  charter  in  1853.  Its 
aim  is  to  provide  for  the  higher  education 
of  women,  in  the  first  place  by  a  liberal 
school  training,  and  subsequently  by  a 
six  years'  course  of  college  education. 

QUEENSLAND,  since  1901  an  Aus- 
tralian state,  comprising  the  whole  N. 
E.  portion  of  Australia  N.  of  New  South 
Wales  and  E.  of  South  Australia  and  its 
Northern  Territory,  being  elsewhere 
bounded  by  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria, 
Torres  Strait,  and  the  Pacific.  A  con- 
siderable portion  is  thus  within  the  trop- 
ics, the  extreme  N.  part  forming  a  sort 
of  peninsula,  known  as  York  Peninsula. 
It  has  an  area  of  670,500  square  miles; 
pop.  about  715,000. 

Topography. — Toward  the  W.  a  large 
portion  of  the  surface  is  dry  and  bar- 
ren, but  toward  the  E.,  and  for  a  long 
stretch  along  the  coast,  boundless  plains 
or  downs,  admirably  adapted  for  sheep 
walks.  The  highest  mountains  are  near 
the   coast,   the   greatest   elevation    being 


QUEEN'S    METAL 


399 


QUESNEL 


about  5,400  feet.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Brisbane,  the  Burnett,  the  Pi- 
oneer, the  Fitzroy,  and  the  Burdekin 
flowing  into  the  Pacific,  and  the  Fhnders 
and  Mitchell  into  the  Gulf  of  Carpen- 
taria. In  the  N.  part  the  climate  is 
tropical.  The  rainfall  in  the  interior  is 
scanty  and  variable;  the  mean  at  Bris- 
bane is  about  35  inches.  The  indige- 
nous animals  and  plants  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  rest  of  Australia.  Croco- 
diles inhabit  some  of  the  N.  rivers. 

Producticyns. — There  are  many  kinds 
of  valuable  timber  trees,  and  a  rare  thing 
in  Australia,  a  few  good  indigenous 
fruits.  Sheep  farming  is  the  chief  in- 
dustry, but  agriculture  (including  sugar- 
growing)  ,  cattle  rearing,  and  mining  are 
also  important.  The  soil  and  climate  are 
well  suited  for  the  production  of  all  the 
ordinary  cereals,  as  well  as  maize,  to- 
bacco, coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  etc.  The 
chief  products  are  sugar,  maize,  English 
and  sweet  potatoes,  arrow  root,  and 
semi-tropical  fruits.  Sugar  growing  is 
becoming  a  very  important  industry. 
Gold,  tin,  lead,  and  copper  are  the  prin- 
cipal minerals. 

In  the  N.  pearl  fishing  is  actively  car- 
ried on.  The  manufacturers  are  unim- 
portant. The  principal  manufactories, 
or  works  that  may  be  classed  as  such, 
are  sugar  mills,  steam  sawmills,  soap 
works,  agricultural  implement  works, 
and  distilleries.  The  staple  articles  of 
export  to  the  United  Kingdom  are  wool, 
tallow,  and  preserved  meats. 

Education  and  Religion. — Education 
is  free  and  secular  in  the  public  schools, 
and  is  under  a  special  department  con- 
trolled by  the  minister  for  education.  A 
university  was  established  at  Brisbane 
in  1911. 

History. — The  first  settlem.ent  of 
Queensland  took  place  in  1825,  when  the 
territory  was  used  as  a  place  of  trans- 
portation for  convicts,  who  continued  to 
be  sent  there  till  1839,  In  1842  the  coun- 
try was  opened  to  free  settlers.  It  was 
originally  a  part  of  New  South  Wales, 
and  was  organized  as  a  separate  colony 
in  1859.  The  government  of  the  colony 
is  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  the 
crown's  representative,  and  a  Parlia- 
ment of  two  houses,  the  legislative  coun- 
cil and  the  legislative  assembly.  The 
capital  of  the  colony  is  Brisbane;  pop. 
about  180,000.  In  January,  1896,  a  dis- 
astrous flood  caused  great  loss  of  life  and 
property  in  Brisbane  and  northern 
Queensland. 

QUEEN'S  METAL,  an  alloy  used  for 
making  teapots,  obtained  by  fusing  un- 
der charcoal  a  mixture  of  nine  parts 
tin,  one  part  each  antimony,  lead,  and 
bismuth. 


QUEEN'S  PIGEON,  a  magnificent 
ground  pigeon  inhabiting  the  islands  of 
the  Indian  Ocean,  named  after  Queen 
Victoria. 

QUEEN'S  or  KING'S  SPEECH,  a 
document  prepared  by  the  advisers  (i. 
e.,  the  cabinet)  of  the  sovereign  and 
read  by  him  or  her  from  the  throne  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  or  in  his  or  her 
absence  by  the  lord  chancellor,  at  the 
opening  and  closing  of  each  session  of 
Parliament,  in  which  are  set  forth  the 
general  relations  of  the  empire  and  the 
measures  the  ministers  intend  to  bring 
forward. 

QUEENSTOWN,  a  seaport  of  Ii'eland; 
on  the  S.  side  of  Great  Island;  in  the 
harbor  of  Cork,  12  miles  S.  E.  of  Cork, 
and  177  S.  W.  of  Dublin.  Its  original 
name  was  Cove  of  Cork;  the  present 
name  commemorates  the  visit  of  Queen 
Victoria  in  1849.     Pop.  about  8,500. 

QUEEN'S  YELLOW,  the  yellow  sub- 
sulphate  of  mercury,  used  as  a  pigment. 

QUELPART,  an  island  60  miles  off 
the  S.  coast  of  Korea;  about  40  miles 
long  by  17  broad.  It  is  rock-bound  and 
mountainous,  the  volcanic  Mount  Auck- 
land being  6,500  feet  high.  It  has 
fertile  soil  and  good  timber,  and  is 
populous. 

QUERETARO,  capital  of  State  of 
Queretaro  (area,  4,493  square  miles;  pop. 
about  250,000),  Mexico,  on  the  table- 
land 112  miles  N.  E.  of  Mexico  City.  Its 
buildings  include  a  magnificent  cathedral, 
State  palace,  city  hall,  ornate  theater 
and  bull  ring.  Streets  are  handsome, 
with  large  plazas  and  gardens.  Indus 
tries  include  cotton  mills,  and  mining 
Cattle  breeding  is  carried  on  throughout 
the  district  and  State,  and  in  the  valleys 
agriculture  is  highly  developed.  Pop. 
about  35,000. 

QUERN,  a  mill,  especially  a  hand  mill 
for  grinding  corn,  used  before  the  inven- 
tion of  water  or  windmills. 

QUESNEL,  PASQUIER.  a  French 
theologian;  born  in  Paris,  France,  July 
14,  1634.  After  a  distinguished  course 
in  the  Sorbonne,  he  entered  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Oratory  in  1657.  At  the 
age  of  28  he  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Paris  house  of  his  congregation.  It 
was  for  the  use  of  the  young  men  under 
his  care  that  he  commenced  the  cele- 
brated series  "Moral  Reflexions  on  the 
New  Testament."  In  1675  ho  published 
an  edition  of  the  works  of  Leo  the  Great, 
which  in  the  notes  was  held  to  maintain 
Gallicanism,  and  was  accordingly  placed 
on  the  "Index."  Having  refused  to  sub- 
scribe   the    formulary    condemnatory    of 


QUETTA 


400 


QUIETISM 


Jansenism  required  from  all  members  of 
the  Oratory,  Quesnel  was  compelled  to 
flee  to  the  Low  Countries.  He  continued 
at  Brussels  his  "Reflexions,"  which  were 
poiblished  in  a  complete  form.  The  Jes- 
uits were  unceasing  in  their  hostility, 
and  Quesnel  was  denounced  and  flung 
into  prison,  but  escaped  to  Holland.  He 
died  Dec.  2,  1719. 

QUETTA,  known  locally  as  Shalkot, 
a  town  near  the  N.  frontier  of  Baluch- 
istan, strategically  important  as  com- 
manding the  Bolan  Pass  and  the  Pishin 
valley.  Since  1877  Quetta  and  its  dis- 
trict have  been  administered  by  British 
officers,  the  headquarters  of  a  consider- 
able military  force,  and  is  strongly  for- 
tified. The  valley  is  fertile,  well  wa- 
tered, and  populous.  Coal  and  petroleum 
were  discovered  in  1890. 

QUETZALCOATL,  the  god  of  the  air 
of  the  ancient  Mexicans,  who  presided 
over  commerce  and  the  useful  arts,  and 
is  said  to  have  predicted  the  coming  of 
the  Spaniards  to  Mexico. 

QUEVEDO  Y  VELLEGAS,  DON 
FRANCISCO  DE,  a  Spanish  poet  and 
prose  writer;  born  in  Madrid,  Spain,  in 
1580.  His  prose  works  are  mostly  ef- 
fusions of  humor  and  satire.  His  "Vis- 
ions" (Sueiios)  have  been  translated  into 
most  European  languages.  He  died  in 
1645. 

QUEZAL,  a  most  beautiful  Central 
American  bird  of  the  Trogon  family 
(Trogon  or  Calurus  resplendens) .  It  is 
about  the  size  of  a  magpie,  and  the  male 
is  adorned  with  tail  feathers  from  3  to 
3%  feet  in  length,  and  of  a  gorgeous  em- 
erald color.  The  back,  head,  and  throat 
are  of  the  same  color;  the  lower  part  of 
the -chest  is  vivid  scarlet.  The  female 
lacks  these  long  feathers,  and  is  other- 
wise much  plainer.  The  food  of  the  que- 
zal  consists  chiefly  of  fruits. 

QUIBEBON,  a  small  fishing-town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Morbihan; 
at  the  extremity  of  a  long  narrow  penin- 
sula, 21  miles  S.  W.  of  Vannes.  It  was 
here  that  a  body  of  French  emigrant  roy- 
alists landed  from  an  English  fleet  in 
1795,  and  endeavored  to  rouse  the  peo- 
ple of  Brittany  and  La  Vendee  against 
the  Convention,  but  were  defeated  and 
driven  into  the  sea  by  General  Hoche. 
On  Nov.  20,  1759,  Hawke  completely  de- 
feated a  French  fleet  under  Admiral 
Conflans  in  Quiberon  Bay.  Pop.  about 
3,500. 

QUICHUA,  the  nanae  of  a  native  race 
of  South  America,  inhabiting  Peru,  parts 
of  Ecuador,  Bolivia,  etc.  With  the  Ay- 
maras  the  Quichuas  composed  the  larger 
portion  of  the  population  of  the  empire 


of  the  Incas.  The  Quichua  language, 
which  was  formerly  the  state  language 
of  the  Incas,  is  still  the  chief  speech  of 
Peru,  of  a  large  portion  of  Bolivia,  of  the 
part  of  Eucador  bordering  upon  Peru, 
and  of  the  N.  section  of  the  Argentine 
Republic. 

QUICKLIME,  lime  in  a  caustic  state; 
calcium  oxide  deprived  by  heat  of  its 
carbon  dioxide  and  water.  This  is  ex- 
tensively done  in  lime  kilns,  the  fuel  used 
being  faggots,  brushwood,  or  coal.  The 
firewood  and  lime  to  be  calcined  are 
mixed.  Quicklime  treated  with  water 
evolves  much  heat,  and  falls  into  a  thick 
paste.  Lime  thus  slaked  and  mixed  vtdth 
sand  constitutes  mortar. 

QUICKSAND,  in  its  usual  significance, 
a  tract  of  sand  which,  without  differing 
much  in  appearance  from  the  shore  of 
which  it  forms  part,  remains  perma- 
nently saturated  with  water  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  cannot  support  any  weight. 
Quicksands  are  mosc  often  found  near 
the  mouths  of  large  rivers.  They  ap- 
pear only  to  be  formed  on  flat  shores,  the 
substratum  of  which  is  an  irregular  ex- 
panse of  stiff  clay  or  other  imper\'ious 
formation.  Pools  of  water  are  retained 
in  the  hollows,  and  become  partially  filled 
with  sand  or  mud,  which  remains  like 
the  soft  sediment  in  a  cup  of  cocoa  on  ac- 
count of  the  absence  of  drainage.  The 
sand  on  a  uniform  shelving  shore  con- 
solidates at  low  tide  because  the  water 
which  permeates  it  drains  back  freely  to 
the  sea.  In  narrow  "hannels  through 
which  the  configuration  of  the  adjoining 
shore  causes  strong  tida^^  currents  to  run 
the  sand  may  be  kept  so  constantly 
stirred  up  by  the  moving  water  that  a 
quicksand  results.  Thus,  while  the  sum- 
mit of  a  sandbank  rising  from  a  gentle 
slope  is  usually  firm,  the  hollow  margin 
of  the  bank  where  it  meets  the  shore  is 
frequently  a  quicksand. 

Quicksand,  when  examined  under  the 
microscope,  will  be  seen  to  have  rounded 
comers  like  river  sand,  as  distinguished 
from  angular  or  "sharp"  sand,  which 
will  pack  more  solidly  than  the  other. 
It  is  quicksand  that  is  used  in  the  hour- 
glass and  in  the  smaller  egg-boiler. 

Quicksands  are  not  commonly  of  great 
extent,  and  their  danger  has  probably 
been  exaggerated  in  the  popular  mind 
by  sensational  descriptions  in  works  of 
fiction.  The  name  quicksand  is  some- 
times applied  to  the  drifting  sands  which 
are  carried  by  wind  over  cultivated  land 
bordering  the  seashore  or  a  desert. 

QUICKSILVEB.     See  MERCURY. 

QUIETISM,  the  doctrine  that  the  es- 
sence of  true  religion  consists  in  the 
withdrawal  of  the  soul  from  external  and 


QUILEUTE 


401 


QUINCY 


finite  objects,  and  its  quiet  concentration 
upon  God.  It  is  a  form  of  mysticism, 
and  has  been  held  by  individuals  in  the 
Church  in  all  ages.  In  the  14th  century 
it  attracted  notice  in  connection  with 
the  Hesychasts  of  the  Greek  Church.  The 
term  was  specially  used  to  describe  the 
views  advocated  by  Miguel  de  Molinos,  a 
Spanish  priest,  who  settled  at  Rome  in 
1669  or  1670.  In  1676  he  published  his 
"Spiritual  Guide,"  which  was  soon  after- 
ward translated  into  Italian,  French, 
Latin,  and  English.  On  Aug.  28,  1687, 
the  Inquisition  condemned  68  proposi- 
tions in  his  writings,  and  on  November 
20  he  was  imprisoned  for  life,  and  died 
Dec.  28,  1697.  It  was  believed  that  the 
Quietist  doctrine  tended  to  disparage  the 
external  observances  of  religion  and  sub- 
stitute the  authority  of  the  individual 
for  that  of  the  Church.  In  another  di- 
rection, also,  quietism  in  some  cases  tends 
to  antinomianism. 

QUILEUTE,  a  tribe  of  North  Ameri- 
can Indians,  who  formerly  lived  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  in  the  State  of 
Washington.  Their  numbers  were  grad- 
ually reduced  by  wars  with  other  tribes 
and  the  few  remaining  are  found  in  the 
Neah  Bay  reservation  in  Washington. 

QUILIMANE,  a  seaport  of  East 
Africa,  in  the  Portuguese  territory  of 
Mozambique,  about  15  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name. 
The  town  occupies  an  unhealthy  site. 
Exports,  ivory,  ground  nuts,  india-rub- 
ber, wax,  copal,  and  oil-seeds. 

QUILL,  or  QUILLE,  in  ornithology, 
the  larger  and  stronger  feathers  of  the 
wing.  They  are  of  three  kinds:  primar- 
ies, secondaries,  and  tertiaries.  In  mu- 
sic, a  small  piece  of  quill  attached  to  a 
piece  of  wood,  by  means  of  which  certain 
stringed  instruments,  as  the  virginal, 
were  played.  In  seal  engraving,  the  hol- 
low mandrel  of  the  lathe  or  engine  used 
by  the  seal  engraver.  In  weaving,  a 
small  spindle,  pirn,  or  rod  upon  which 
thread  is  wound  to  supply  the  shuttle 
with  the  woof,  weft,  or  filling,  as  it  is 
variously  called,  and  which  crosses  the 
warp,  or  chain. 

QUILLAIA,  QUILLAJA,  or  QUIL- 
LAYA,  large  everg-reen  trees.  Three  or 
four  species  are  known;  all  from  South 
America.  Q.  saponatna  is  the  Quillai  or 
Cullay.  Also  the  bark  of  the  Q.  sapona- 
ria.  It  is  used  as  a  source  of  saponin, 
which  is  extracted  with  alcohol. 

QUILLER-COUCH.  SIR  ARTHUR 
THOMAS,  an  English  writer  of  fiction; 
born  in  Cornwall,  Nov.  21,  1863.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  belonged 
to  the  staff  of  the  weekly  "Speaker." 
Among  his   stories   are:     "Dead    Man's 


Rock";  "The  Astonishing  History  of 
Troy  Town";  "The  Splendid  Spur";  "The 
Blue  Pavilions";  "The  Ship  of  Stars," 
etc.  He  completed  Robert  Louis  Steven- 
son's unfinished  novel  "St.  Ives." 
Among  his  more  recent  works  are : 
"Poison  Island"  (1907) ;  "Corporal  Sam" 
(1910);  "Nicky  Nan"  (1915),  etc. 
Knighted  in  1910.  Since  1912,  Professor 
of  English  Literature,  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity. 

QUILOA,  or  KILWA,  a  seaport  of 
East  Africa,  in  former  German  terri- 
tory, 190  miles  S.  of  Zanzibar,  and  an 
outlet  for  the  trade  with  Nyassaland, 
exports  ivory,  gum  copal,  rice,  and 
manioc. 

_  QUILTING,  a  method  of  sewing  two 
pieces  of  silk,  linen,  or  stuff  on  each 
other,  with  wool  or  cotton  between  them, 
by  working  them  all  over  in  the  form  of 
chequer  or  diamond  work,  or  in  flowers. 

QUIMPER,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Finistere,  on  the  Odet,  11 
miles  from  its  mouth,  and  63  miles  S.  E. 
of  Brest.  Its  cathedral  (1239-1515),  a 
stately  and  richly-carved  and  ornamental 
edifice,  is  the  principal  building.  Pot- 
teries are  in  operation,  as  well  as  tan* 
yards,  sailworks,  etc.     Pop.  about  20,000. 

QUIN,  JAMES,  an  English  actor,  of 
Irish  parentage;  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, Feb.  24,  1693.  He  made  his  first 
appearance  on  the  stage  at  Dublin  in 
1714;  shortly  afterward  he  obtained  an 
engagement  in  London,  and  gradually 
acquired  celebrity  as  a  tragic  actor  as 
well  as  in  comic  characters.  He  retained 
his  pre-eminence  till  the  appearance  of 
Garrick  in  1741.  His  last  performance 
was  Falstaff  (1753),  in  which  character 
he  is  supposed  never  to  have  been  ex- 
celled.    He  died  Jan.  21,  1766. 

QUINCE,  the  fruit  of  Cydonia  vul- 
garis, or  the  tree  itself.  It  is  15  or  20 
feet  high,  with  white  or  pale-red  flowers, 
and  ultimately  golden  fruit.  It  is  indig- 
enous in  the  S.  of  Europe,  the  N.  of 
Africa,  the  Himalayas,  etc.  The  iruit 
is  used  in  the  preparation  of  marmalade, 
jelly,  and  preserves.  Its  mucilaginous 
seeds  are  given  by  the  natives  of  India 
in  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  sore  throat  and 
fever.  The  Japan  quince  is  a  small  tree 
about  six  feet  high. 

QUINCY,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Adams  co.,  111.;  on  the  Mississippi  river, 
and  on  the  Wabash,  the  Burlington 
Route,  and  the  Quincy,  Omaha,  and  Kan- 
sas City  railroads;  104  miles  W.  of 
Springfield.  Here  are  the  St.  Francis 
Solanus  College  (R.  C),  Chaddock  Col- 
lege (M.  E.),  Gem  City  and  Union  busi- 
ness  colleges,   St.   Mary's   Institute    (R. 


QUINCY 


402 


QUINSY 


C),  public  library,  Blessing  and  St. 
Mary's  Hospitals,  State  Soldiers'  and 
Sailors'  Home,  residence  of  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop,  parks,  waterworks, 
street  railroad  and  electric  light  plants, 
National,  State  and  private  banks,  and 
several  daily  and  weekly  periodicals. 
There  is  daily  steamboat  connection  with 
cities  along  the  Mississippi  river. 
Quincy  has  flouring  mills,  carriage  fac- 
tories, machine  shops,  foundries,  saw 
mills,  planing  mills,  and  extensive  manu- 
factures of  cigars,  tobacco,  sash,  blinds, 
stoves,  elevators,  pumps,  furniture, 
bricks,  steam  engines,  plows,  etc.  A 
magnificent  railroad  bridge  crosses  the 
river  here.  Pop.  (1910)  36,587;  (1920) 
35,978. 

QUINCY,  a  city  in  Norfolk  cc,  Mass.; 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Quincy  river  where 
it  enters  Quincy  Bay,  and  on  the  New 
York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford  rail- 
road; 8  miles  S.  E.  of  Boston.  It  com- 
prises nearly  a  dozen  villages.  Here 
are  the  Adams  Academy  for  Boys, 
Woodward  Institute  for  Girls,  Thomas 
Crane  Public  Library,  city  hospital,  wa- 
terworks, electric  street  railroads,  elec- 
tric lights.  National,  co-operative,  and 
savings  banks,  and  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers.  The  city  contains  quarries 
of  the  celebrated  Quincy  granite,  which 
is  shipped  to  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
United  States.  It  also  has  a  large  boot 
and  shoe  industry.  Quincy  is  noted  as 
the  birthplace  of  John  Hancock,  of  John 
Adams  and  John  Quincy  Adams,  Presi- 
dents of  the  United  States.  Pop.  (1910) 
32,642;   (1920)  47,611. 

QUINCY,  JOSIAH,  sometimes  called 
JosiAK  Quincy,  Jr.,  an  American  law- 
yer; boi-n  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan,  23,  1744. 
He  graduated  from  Harvard  in  1763. 
He  joined  with  John  Adams  in  defending 
the  British  soldiers  in  the  Boston  Massa- 
cre case.  But  he  took  part  in  the  town 
meeting  ordering  the  "Boston  tea-party"; 
and  in  September,  1774,  went  to  England 
to  speak  in  behalf  of  the  colonists.  His 
best-known  works  are:  "An  Address  of 
the  Merchants,  Traders,  and  Freehold- 
ers of  Boston"  in  favor  of  a  non-impor- 
tation act  (1770),  and  "Observations  on 
the  Boston  Port  Bill"  (1774).  He  died 
April  26,  1775. 

QUINCY,  JOSIAH,  an  American  au- 
thor and  orator;  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Feb.  4,  1772,  son  of  Josiah  Quincy.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1790,  studied  law,  and  entered  Congress 
in  1805,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
as  a  favorite  orator  in  opposition  to  the 
policy  of  Jefferson  and  Madison,  and  was 
one  of  the  earliest  to  denounce  slavery. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Senate  of 
Massachusetts,  and  in  1822,  judge  of  the 


Municipal  Court  of  Boston.  In  1823  he 
was  elected  mayor  of  Boston;  and  in 
1829  accepted  the  post  of  president  of 
Harvard  College,  which  he  held  till 
1845.  Among  his  published  works  are 
a  "History  of  Harvard  University" 
(1840) ;  "The  Municipal  History  of  the 
Town  and  City  of  Boston"  (1852)  ;  "Life 
of  John  Quincy  Adams"  (1858)  ;  "Essays 
on  the  Soiling  of  Cattle"  (1859).  He 
died  in  Quincy,  Mass.,  July  1,  1864. 

QUINET,  EDGAB,  a  French  historian 
and  philosopher;  born  near  Bourg, 
France,  Feb.  17,  1803.  His  works  fill 
nearly  30  volumes,  of  which  only  a  small 
part  has  any  permanent  value.  He  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Foreign  Litera- 
tures at  Lyons,  and  afterward  at  the 
College  de  France  in  Paris.  His  princi- 
ples were  strongly  republican,  and 
brought  him  into  trouble  more  than  once. 
His  leading  works  are:  "Ahasuerus" 
(1834)  ;  "Merlin  the  Enchanter"  (1861)  ; 
"The  Revolution"  (1865);  and  "The 
Creation"  (1869).  He  also  wrote  sev- 
eral long  poems.  He  died  in  Versailles, 
March  27,  1875. 

QUININE,  in  chemistry,  C.oH=.N202, 
chinin  or  quinia;  the  most  important  al- 
kaloid of  the  true  cinchona  barks,  first 
obtained,  but  in  an  impure  state,  by 
Gomez,  of  Lisbon,  in  1811. 

QUININE  SULPHATES,  the  neutral 
or  common  medicinal  sulphate,  2CaoH2i 
N.OrHjS04+8H.O;  prepared  by  the  neu- 
tralizing quinine  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid.  Quinine  sulphate  is  largely  em- 
ployed as  a  febrifuge  and  tonic,  and  it 
possesses  powerful  antiseptic  properties. 

QUTNOA,  Chenopodium  Quinoa,  a 
valuable  food-plant,  a  native  of  Chile 
and  the  high  table-land  of  Mexico,  whici 
much  resembles  some  of  the  British 
species  of  Chenopodium.  In  the  coun- 
tries in  which  it  is  indigenous  it  is  much 
cultivated  for  its  seeds,  which  form  a 
principal  food  of  the  inhabitants.  It  is 
sometimes  cultivated  in  British  gardens 
for  its  leaves,  which  are  a  good  substi- 
tute for  spinach. 

QUINOLINE,  a  pungent  colorless 
liquid  obtained  by  the  distillation  of 
bones,  coal  tar,  and  various  alkaloids. 

QUINQUAGESIMA  SUNDAY,  the 
Sunday  next  before  Lent,  being  about  50 
days  before  Easter. 

QUINQUEREMES,  vessels  with  five 
banks  of  oars,  however  arranged;  may 
be  regarded  as  the  first-rates  of  the  an- 
cient navies. 

QUINSY,  or  QUINANCY,  inflamma- 
tory sore  throat.  There  is  swelling  of 
one  tonsil,  or  of  both,  attended  with  dif- 


QUINTAL 


403 


QUITMAN 


faculty  of  breathing  and  swallowing,  and 
febrile  symj)toms. 

QUINTAL,  a  weight  of  100  or  112 
pounds,  according  to  the  scale  used. 
The  French  quintal  vietrique  is  100  kilo- 
grammes or  220.46  pounds  avoirdupois. 

QUINTANA,  MANUEL  JOSE,  a 
Spanish  poet;  born  in  Madrid,  Spain, 
April  11,  1772;  was  lawyer,  journalist, 
and  man  of  letters,  as  well  as  poet.  He 
was  governor  or  preceptor  to  the  young 
Queen  Isabella,  was  made  senator  and 
peer  in  1835.  He  was  a  Liberal  in  poli- 
tics, and  twice  driven  from  office,  being 
imprisoned  from  1814  to  1820.  His  most 
famous  work  is  the  "Lives  of  Celebrated 
Spaniards,"  in  three  volumes  (1807- 
1833).     He  died  March  11,  1857. 

QUINTANA  ROO,  a  federal  state  of 
Mexico,  in  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan, 
bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  state  of  Cam- 
peche,  on  the  N.  by  the  state  of  Yucatan, 
on  the  E.  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  on 
the  S.  by  British  Honduras.  Puerto 
Morelos,  Chansantacruz  and  Santa  Cruz 
de  Bravo  are  the  chief  towns,  the  last 
being  the  capital.  Its  area  is  19,270 
square  miles.  It  was  organized  as  a 
territory  in  1902,  and  was  from  that 
time  on  administered  directly  by  the 
government  from  the  city  of  Mexico. 
Pop.  about  10,000. 

QUINTETTE,  or  QUINTET,  in  music: 
(1)  A  composition  in  five  parts  or  for 
five  performers.  (2)  Part  of  a  move- 
ment sung  by  five  voices  soli,  opposed  to 
coro.  (3)  A  composition  for  two  xno- 
Mns,  two  tenors,  and  a  violoncello;  or 
two  violins,  a  tenor,  and  two  violoncellos; 
or  two  violins,  a  tenor,  a  violoncello,  and 
double  bass,  having  the  same  form  as  a 
sonata. 

QUINTILIAN,  QUINTILIANUS 
MARCUS  FABIUS.  a  Roman  rhetori- 
cian; native  of  Spain.  In  his  early 
youth  he  was  at  Rome,  and  heard  the  lec- 
tures of  Domitius  Afer,  who  died  A.  p. 
59.  He  accompanied  Gabba  to  Rome,  in 
the  year  68,  became  an  eminent  pleader, 
and  still  more  eminent  as  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric.  He  taught  at  Rome  for  20 
years,  was  named  preceptor  to  the  errand- 
nephews  of  Domitian,  had  also  Pliny  the 
younger  among  his  scholars.  He  re- 
tived  from  his  public  duties  in  89,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  30  years 
longer.  His  great  work  is  entitled,  "On 
Oratory  as  an  Art." 

QUINTILIUS.  AURELIUS  CLAUD- 
IUS, brother  of  Claudius  II.,  was,  on 
his  death,  invested  with  the  purple  by 
the  army  in  Aquitaine,  a.  d.  270,  but  be- 
ing deserted  by  his  troops  on  the  ap- 
proach of  the  rival  Emperor  Aurelian, 


who  had  been  proclaimed  by  the  Italian 
army,  he  bled  himself  to  death  in  a  bath 
17  days  after  assuming  the  scepter. 

QUIRE,  a  collection  of  24  sheets  of 
paper.  Wrapping,  envelope,  flat-cap, 
printing,  and  many  other  papers  are  not 
folded.  News  paper  has  25  sheets  to  the 
quire.  Also  a  collection  of  one  of  each 
of  the  sheets  of  a  book  laid  in  consecu- 
tive order  ready  for  folding. 

QUIRINAL,  THE,  one  of  the  seven 
hills  of  ancient  Rome,  and  next  to  the 
Palatine  and  Capitoline,  the  oldest  and 
most  famous  quarter  of  the  city. 

QUIRINUS,  among  the  Romans,  a 
surname  of  Romulus  after  he  had  been 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  divinity.  Hence 
Quirinalia,  a  festival  in  honor  of  Rom- 
ulus, held  annually  on  the  13th  day  be- 
fore the  kalends  of  March,  that  is,  Feb- 
ruary 17. 

QUIRITES,  a  designation  of  the  citi- 
zens of  ancient  Rome  as  in  their  civil 
capacity.  The  name  of  Quirites  be- 
longed to  them  in  addition  to  that  of 
Romani,  the  latter  designation  applying 
to  them  in  their  political  and  military 
capacity. 

QUIRK,  in  architecture  and  carpen- 
try: (1)  A  sudden  turn,  applied  to  a 
form  of  molding  in  which  an  acute  recess 
separates  the  molding  proper  from  the  fil- 
let or  soffit.  It  is  much  used  between 
moldings  in  Gothic  architecture;  in  Gre- 
cian, and  sometimes  in  Roman,  architec- 
ture ovolos  and  ogees  are  usually  quirk- 
ed at  the  top.  (2)  A  projecting  fillet 
on  the  sole  or  side  of  a  grooving  plane, 
which  acts  as  a  fence  or  a  gauge  for 
depth  or  distance.  (3)  A  piece  taken 
out  of  any  regular  ground-plot  or  floor, 
so  as  to  make  a  court,  yard,  etc.;  thus, 
if  the  ground  plan  were  square  or  ob- 
long, and  a  piece  were  taken  oi:t  of  the 
corner,  such  piece  is  called  a  quirk. 

QUIT-CLAIM,  a  deed  of  release;  an  in- 
strument by  which  some  claim,  right,  or 
title,  real  or  supposed,  to  an  estate,  is  re- 
linquished to  another  without  any  cove- 
nant or  warranty,  express  or  implied. 

QUITMAN.  JOHN  ANTHONY,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in  Rhine- 
beck,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  1,  1799.  He  began  his 
career  by  teaching  school  from  his  16th 
to  his  19th  year,  when  he  commenced  the 
study  of  law.  Removing  to  Mississippi 
in  1821,  he  entered  the  political  arena, 
filling  successively  the  offices  of  member 
of  the  Legislature,  State  chancellor, 
member  of  the  convention  for  revising 
the  State  constitution.  State  Senator,  and 
governor,  which  latter  he  entered  on 
through   a   vacancy   in    1836.     He   soon 


QUITO 


404 


QTTO    WAHBANTO 


after  withdrew  from  political  life,  and 
joined  the  Texans  in  their  struggle  for 
independence.  In  1846  he  was  ap- 
pointed Brigadier-General  of  the  United 
States  army  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  dis- 
tinguishing himself  at  Monterey,  Vera 
Cruz,  and  Cerro  Gordo,  after  which  lat- 
ter engagement  he  was  brevetted  Major- 
General,  and  was  voted  a  sword  by  Con- 
gress for  gallantry.  He  participated  in 
the  attack  on  Chapultepec,  and  was  fore- 
most in  the  assault  on  the  City  of  Mexico, 
which  city  he  governed  till  order  was  es- 
tablished. He  was  elected  governor  of 
Mississippi  soon  afterward,  but  resigned 
in  consequence  of  accusations  of  complic- 
ity with  the  Lc^ez-Cuban  expedition,  of 
which  charge,  however,  he  was  acquitted. 
In  1855  and  1857,  he  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress by  large  majorities.  He  died  in 
Natchez,  Miss.,  July  17,  1858. 

QUITO,  a  city  and  capital  of  the  re- 
public of  Ecuador;  on  the  E.  slope  of  the 
W.  branch  of  the  equatorial  Andes;  150 
miles  from  Guayaquil.  The  volcanic 
mountain  of  Pichincha  is  the  basis  on 
which  it  rests.  In  the  principal  square 
stand  the  cathedral,  the  episcopal  palace ; 
the  town  house,  and  the  palace  of  the 
Audience.  Manufactures  include  coarse 
eotton  and  woolen  goods,  hosiery,  lace, 
jewelry,  and  confectionery.  It  has  a 
trade  in  agricultural  produce,  and  ex- 
ports iron,  steel,  and  indigo.  The  great 
danger  of  Quito  is  from  earthquakes,  and 
from  the  vicinity  of  burning  mountains, 
which  often  break  out  into  the  most 
tremendous  -jruptions.  On  Feb.  4,  1797, 
40,000  lives  were  lost.  The  height  of 
Quito  above  the  level  of  the  sea  is  9,534 
feet.     Pop.  about  70,000. 

QUIT-RENT,  r<int  paid  by  the  free- 
holders and  copyholders  of  a  manor  in 
discharge  or  acquittance  of  other  Berr- 
ices. 


QUOIN,  a  wedge-shaped  block.  Spe- 
cifically, in  grunnery,  a  wedge-shaped 
block  of  wood,  having  a  handle  inserted 
in  its  thicker  extremity;  used  in  some 
cases  for  giving  the  proper  elevation  to 
guns.  In  printing,  one  of  the  wedges  by 
which  the  pages  or  columns  of  type  are 
locked  in  a  chase,  ready  for  printing. 
Nautically,  a  wedge  used  as  a  chock  in 
stowing  casks,  to  prevent  rolling.  In 
masonry,  an  external  angle  of  a  wall; 
particularly  an  ashlar  or  brick  corner 
projecting  beyond  the  general  faces  of 
the  walls  which  meet  at  the  angle.  Rus- 
tic quoins  are  rusticated  ashlars  forming 
external  projecting  corners,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  wall  being  of  ordinary 
masonry,  rubble,  or  brick,  with  occasional 
piers  of  masonry. 

_  QUOITS,  a  game  played  with  a  flat- 
tish  ring  of  iron,  generally  from  8^/4  to 
9^/^  inches  in  external  diameter,  and  be- 
tween one  and  two  inches  in  breadth.  It 
is  convex  on  the  upper  side  and  slightly 
concave  on  the  under  side,  so  that  the 
outer  edge  curves  downward,  and  is 
sharp  enough  to  cut  into  soft  ground. 

QUORUM,  in  Old  English  law,  those 
justices  of  the  peace  whose  presence  is 
necessary  to  constitute  a  bench.  Also 
such  a  number  of  officers  or  members  of 
a  body  as  is  competent  by  law  or  consti- 
tution to  transact  business. 

QUOT,  in  Scotch  law,  one-twentieth 
part  of  the  movable  estate  of  a  person 
dying  in  Scotland,  anciently  due  to  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese  in  which  he  resided. 

QUO  "WARRANTO,  in  law,  a  writ 
issuing  against  any  person  or  corpora 
tion  that  usurps  any  office  or  franchise, 
to  inquire  by  what  authority  he  or  it 
supports  his  or  its  claim,  in  order  to  de- 
termine the  right. 


R 


R,  r,  the  18th  letter  and  the  14th  con- 
sonant of  the  English  language,  is 
classed  as  a  semi-vowel  and  a  liquid.  It 
is  also  called  a  trill.  It  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  have  two  sounds:  The  first, 
when  it  begins  a  word  or  syllable,  and 
when  it  is  preceded  by  a  consonant,  be- 
ing then  produced  by  an  expulsion  of  vo- 
calized breath,  as  in  ran,  tree,  morose, 
etc.;  the  second,  less  decidedly  conson- 
antal, heard  at  the  end  of  words  and  syl- 
lables, and  when  it  is  followed  by  a  con- 
sonant, being  formed  by  a  vibration  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  tongue,  as  in,  her, 
star,  beard,  etc.  In  Scotch  and  some  di- 
alects, r  has  always  the  same  sound,  be- 
ing uttered  with  a  strong  vibration  of 
the  tongue,  but  less  guttural  than  in 
French  or  German.  By  the  Romans  r 
was  called  the  "dogs'  letter,"  from  its 
sound  resembling  the  snarling  of  dogs. 
In  words  derived  from  the  Greek  we 
follow  the  custom  of  the  Romans,  who 
represented  the  aspirated  sound  with 
which  r  was  pronounced  by  the  Greeks, 
by  rh,  as  in  rhapsody,  rhetoric,  etc.  In 
such  words,  however,  the  h  has  no  influ- 
ence on  the  pronunciation  of  the  English 
word,  and  is,  therefore,  entirely  super- 
fluous. R  and  1  are  frequently  inter- 
changed  (see  remarks  under  L). 

As  an  initial,  R  represents  the  Latin 
rea;=king,  as  George  R.=George,  king; 
or  regina=queen,  as  Victoria  R.=Vic- 
toria,  queen.  It  also  represents  English 
royal,  as  R.  N.=Royal  Navy,  R.  A.= 
Royal  Artillery.  In  astronomy  it  stands 
for  right,  as  R.  A.=Right  Ascension;  in 
proper  names,  for  Richard,  Robert,  etc.; 
m  monumental  inscriptions,  for  reqiiies- 
eat,  as  R.  I.  'P.^=requiescat  in  pace=may 
he  (or  she)  rest  in  peace;  in  Biblical  lit- 
erature for  revised,  as  R.  V.=revised  ver- 
sion. As  a  syTnbol,  R  was  formerly  used 
to  stand  for  80,  and  with  a  dash  over  it, 
for  80,000.  In  medicine,  R  stands  for 
Latin  recipe— take.  The  three  R's,  a 
humorous  and  familiar  designation  for 
the  three  elementary  subjects  of  edu- 
cation: reading,  writing  and  arithmetic. 


RA  (more  properly  Re),  the  name  oi 
the  god  of  the  sun  among  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  He  is  represented,  like 
Horus,  with  the  head  of  a  hawk,  and 
bearing  the  disk  of  the  sun  on  his  head. 

RAASAY,  one  of  the  Inner  Hebrides, 
lies  between  the  isle  of  Skye  and  the 
mainland  of  Scotland,  and  belongs  to  In- 
verness-shire. It  is  13  miles  in  length 
from  N.  to  S.,  3%  miles  in  greatest 
breadth,  and  24  square  miles  in  area. 
The  W.  side  of  the  island  is  bare  and  un- 
interesting. On  the  E.  and  more  shel- 
tered side  there  is  some  striking  scenery. 
Dun  Caan  (1,456  feet)  is  the  highest 
point,  and  Brochel  Castle,  on  the  E. 
shore — now  a  mere  ruin — the  chief  ob- 
ject of  interest. 

RABAT,  or  NEW  SALLEE,  a  seaport 
of  Morocco,  on  the  S.  side  of  the  Bu- 
Ragreb,  at  its  entrance  into  the  Atlantic. 
It  stands  on  cliffs  in  the  midst  of  gar- 
dens, and  is  overlooked  by  a  large  cita- 
del. The  most  conspicuous  object  is, 
however,  the  tower  of  Beni-Hassan  (180 
feet  high),  near  it  is  the  ruined  mosque 
of  Almanzor.  Carpets,  shoes  and  mats 
are  made,  and  woolens  dyed.  Formerly 
it  was  the  center  of  the  European  trade 
with  Morocco;  it  still  exports  olive  oil, 
grain,  hides,  flax,  wool,  maize,  and  mil- 
let.    Pop.    (1917)    37,548. 

RABBI,  in  Jewish  history  and  litera- 
ture, rabbi  is  the  noun  Rab  with  the  pro- 
nominal suffix,  and  in  Biblical  Hebrew= 
great  man,  distinguished  for  age,  rank, 
office  or  skill.  In  post-Biblical  Hebrew 
it  is  used  as  a  title  indicating  sundry 
degrees  by  its  several  terminations. 
Thus,  the  simple  term  Rab=teacher, 
master,  and  was  the  title  which  Babylon- 
ion  Jews  gave  to  a  doctor  of  the  law. 

RABBIT,  the  Lepus  cuniculus,  a  well- 
known  burrowing  rodent,  with  a  very 
wide  geographical  range.  It  probably 
had  its  home  in  the  W.  portion  of  the 
Mediterranean  basin,  but  has  spread 
over  western  Europe,  Great  Britain, 
405 


RABELAIS 


406 


BACHEL 


Ireland,  Austral:?.  New  Zealand,  and 
America.  Tht  •  .^bit  is  smaller  than 
the  hare;  its  muzzle  is  slenderer,  and  the 
palate  larger  and  narrower.  They  be- 
gin to  breed  at  6  months  old,  and  have 
several  litters  in  each  year.  They  are 
domesticated  throughout  France  and 
form  an  important  article  of  food. 

RABELAIS.  FRANCOIS,  a  French 
satirist;  born  in  Chinon^,  Touraine,  about 
1483.  He  was  at  first  a  monk,  but  hav- 
ing been  punished  for  some  indecorous 


FRANCOIS   RABELAIS 

behavior,  he  quitted  the  Benedictine  or- 
der, studied  medicine  at  Montpellier,  and 
for  a  time  practiced  as  a  physician.  He 
subsequently  obtained  the  rectory  of 
Meudon.  He  was  author  of  several 
books;  but  the  only  one  by  which  he  is 
known  is  the  romance  called  "The  Lives, 
Heroic  Deeds,  and  Sayings  of  Gargantua 
and  Pantagruel,"  an  extravagant  satire 
upon  monks,  priests,  popes,  and  pedants, 
in  which  much  obscenity  and  absurdity 
are  blended  with  learning,  wit,  and 
humor.  Rabelais  was  a  conscientious 
teacher  of  his  flock,  his  purse  always 
open  to  the  needy,  and  his  medical  skill 
was  employed  in  the  service  of  his  par- 
ish.    He  died  in  1553. 

RABIES.     See  Hydrophobia. 

RACCOON,  or  RACOON,  the  genus 
Procyon  and  especially  P.  lotor,  a  hand- 
some animal,  about  the  size  of  a  large 
cat,  brown  furry  hair;  tail  bushy  and 
ringed;  body  large  and  unwieldy,  legs 
short,  feet  with  strong  fossorial  claws. 
It  is  omnivorous  and  ranges  over  a  large 
part  of  North  America,  where  it  is 
hunted  for  its  fur.  The  crab-eating 
raccoon  (P.  cancrworus) ,  from  South 
America,  ranging  as  far  N.  as  Panama, 
differs    chiefly    from   the   former   in    the 


shortness  of  its  fur,  and  consequent  slen- 
der shape. 

RACCOON  DOG,  in  zoology,  the  Nyc- 
tereutes  jn'ocyonides,  soniiewhat  resem- 
bling a  raccoon  in  appearance.  Also, 
any  dog  trained  to  chase  or  hunt  rac- 
coons, for  which  task  peculiar  sagacity 
is  necessary  in  the  dog  in  order  to  pre- 
serve himself  from  injury. 

RACCOON  RIVER,  a  stream  in  Iowa, 

rises  in  Buena  Vista  co.,  runs  S.  E.,  in- 
tersects Sac,  Carroll,  Greene,  and  Dallas 
counties,  and  enters  Des  Moines  river  at 
the  city  of  Des  Moines.  Its  length  is 
estimated  at  170  miles. 

RACE,  a  class  of  individuals  sprung 
from  a  common  stock ;  the  descendants 
collectively  of  a  common  ancestor;  a 
family,  tribe,  nation,  or  people  belong- 
ing, or  supposed  to  belong,  to  the  same 
stock. 

The  human  family,  according  to  Blu- 
menbach,  comprises  five  distinct  races 
of  men,  viz. :  The  Caucasian,  or  white 
race,  inhabiting  southwestern  Asia,  the 
gi'eater  part  of  Europe,  large  portions 
of  North  and  South  America,  and  Aus- 
tralia; the  Ethiopian,  black  or  negro 
race,  occupying  tropical  and  South 
Africa,  some  of  the  Pacific  islands,  part 
of  Australia,  and  portions  of  North 
America,  into  which  they  were  originally 
brought  as  slaves;  the  Mongolian,  or  yel- 
low race,  occupying  northern  and  east- 
ern Asia;  the  Malayan,  or  brown  race, 
inhabiting  the  islands  of  the  Indian  and 
Pacific  Oceans,  the  Australian  continent, 
and  the  Malay  Peninsula;  and  the  Amer- 
ican Indian,  or  red  race,  of  North  and 
South  America. 


RACCOON 

RACEME,  in  botany,  a  kind  of  inflo- 
rescence, in  which  the  flowers  are  on  sim- 
ple stalks  distinct  from  each  other,  and 
arranged  around  a  common  axis. 

RACEMOSE  GLANDS,  glands  in 
which  the  secreting  ca\aty  is  made  up 
of  a  number  of  smaller  lobules. 

RACHEL,  the  second  daughter  of 
Laban,  the  dearly  beloved  of  Jacob,  who, 
to  obtain  her,  devoted  seven  years  to  the 
flocks  and  herds  of  her  father.     But,  at 


RACHEL 


407 


RACINE 


the  end  of  that  period,  he  found  in  his 
veiled  bride  not  Rachel,  but  Leah,  her 
elder  sister,  whom  he  did  not  love,  and 
was  obliged  to  labor  during  seven  more 
years  in  order  to  gain  Rachel.  She  was 
the  mother  of  Joseph  and  Benjamin. 

RACHEL,  ELIZA  RACHEL  FELIX, 
a  French  actress;  born  in  Mumpf,  Swit- 
zerland, Feb.  28,  1820;  was  the  daughter 
of  a  Jew  peddler,  and  in  1830  went  to  re- 
side at  Paris.  Sarah,  her  elder  sister, 
used  to  sing  at  the  various  cafes.  In 
1832,  the  voices  of  the  two  sisters  hav- 
ing attracted  notice,  they  were  placed, 
by  the  kindness  of  some  connoisseurs,  un- 
der Choron,  a  celebrated  singing-master; 
and  in  1833,  the  younger  sister  Rachel, 
having  shown  great  tragic  power,  entered 
the  Conservatoire  at  Paris,  and  in  1838 
made  her  first  appearance  at  the  Theatre 
FranQais,  in  the  character  of  Camille, 
m  "Le  Horace,"  where  her  debut  was 
not  auspicious.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
months  Mademoiselle  Rachel  completely 
revived  the  classic  school  of  tragedy 
which  had  fallen  into  decay,  though  her 
crowning  triumph  was  gained  in  1843,  in 
her  representation  of  "Phedre."  Soon 
after  this  she  made  a  provincial  tour, 
visited  the  chief  European  cities,  and  at 
fest  came  to  London,  in  1846,  reaping 
fame  and  wealth  wherever  she  appeared. 
In  1855  she  made  a  professional  visit  to 
the  United  States,  interrupted  by  the 
failure  of  her  health,  returned  to  France, 
and  died  of  consumption  in  Cannes,  near 
Toulon,  Jan.  3,  1858. 

RACHIS  (ra'kis),  in  botany,  a  branch 
which  proceeds  nearly  in  a  straight  line 
from  the  base  to  the  apex  of  the  inflores- 
cence of  a  plant.  The  term  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  stalk  of  the  frond  in  ferns, 
and  to  the  common  stalk  bearing  the  al- 
ternate spikelets  in  some  grasses. 

RACHITIS,    a    term    which    properly 
implies  inflammation  of  the  spine,  but  it 
is  applied  to  the  disease  called  rickets, 
which  term  suggested  this  as  the  scien 
tine  name. 

RACHMANINOV,     SERGEI     V.,      a 

Russian  pianist  and  composer.  Born  in 
the  province  of  Novgorod  in  1873,  at 
nine  years  of  age  he  entered  the  St. 
Petersburg  Conservatory.  When  he 
graduated  from  the  Moscow  Conserva- 
tory in  1893  he  produced  his  first  opera 
"Aleko."  For  ten  years,  1893-1903  he 
taiight  in  the  Moscow  Girls'  Institute, 
and  from  1904-1906  was  the  conductor  of 
the  Moscow  Imperial  Theater.  For  the 
next  few  years  he  traveled  in  Europe  and 
America  giving  recitals,  but  finally  set- 
tled in  Dresden  where  he  devoted  him- 
self exclusively  to  creative  work.  He 
has  written  two  operas  in  addition  to  the 


one  already  mentioned,  "The  Niggardly 
Knight"  and  "Francesca  da  Rimini." 
He  has  composed  a  great  deal  of  piano 
music,  several  cantatas,  two  symphonies, 
and  a  symphonic  poem,  "The  Isle  of 
Death." 

RACINE,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Racine  co..  Wis.;  on  Lake  Michigan  at 
the  mouth  of  Root  river,  and  on  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul,  and  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroads;  23 
miles  S.  of  Milwaukee.  Here  are  Luther 
College,  Racine  College,  Racine  Acad- 
emy, the  Racine  Home  School,  St.  Cath- 
erine's Academy  (R.  C),  high  school, 
Taylor  Orphan  Asylum,  St.  Luke's  Hos- 
pital, waterworks,  electric  light  and 
street  railroad  plants,  many  churches,  a 
number  of  National  and  State  banks, 
and  several  daily,  weekly,  and  monthly 
periodicals.  The  harbor  is  one  of  the 
best  on  the  lake,  and  is  accessible  by 
vessels  drawing  14  feet  of  water.  Ra- 
cine has  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  carriages,  leather,  iron  cast- 
ings, lumber,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  38,002; 
(1920)  58,593. 


JEAN   RACINE 

B,ACINE,  JEAN,  an  eniinemt  French 
dramatic  poet;  born  in  La  Ferte  Milon, 
France,  Dec.  22,  1639,  and  was  educated 
at  Port  Royal.  In  1664  he  produced  his 
tragedy  of  "La  Thebaide,"  which  was 
followed  in  1665  by  "Alexandre."  In 
1667  appeared  his  "Andromaque,"  which 
placed  him  far  above  all  his  con- 
temporaries except  Corneille;  and  his 
fame  was  still  further  increased  by  the 
production  of  "Britannicus,"  "Berenice," 
and  other  tragedies.  In  1677  appeared 
his  tragedy  of  "Phedre."  He  wrote,  by 
desire  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame  de 
Maintenon,  the  sacred  dramas  of  "Es- 
ther" and  "Athalie."     Besides  kie  dra- 


BACK 


408 


BADCLIFFE 


matic  works,  he  wrote  "Canticles  and 
Hymns  for  the  use  of  St.  Cyr,"  the  "His- 
tory of  Port  Royal,"  etc.  In  1673  he  was 
received  into  the  academy,  and  continued 
to  enjoy  the  highest  favor  at  court;  but 
having  offended  the  king  by  a  too  free 
use  of  his  pen  in  drawing  up  a  memorial 
on  the  distresses  of  the  people,  he  lost 
favor.     He  died  April  21,  1699. 

RACK,  an  apparatus  for  the  judicial 
torture  of  criminals  or  suspected  per- 
sons. It  consisted  of  a  large,  open, 
wooden  frame,  within  which  the  person 
to  be  tortured  was  laid  on  his  back  on 
the  floor,  with  his  wrists  and  ankles 
fastened  by  cords  to  two  rollers  at  the 
end  of  the  frame.  These  rollers  were 
then  drawn  or  moved  in  opposite  direc- 
tions till  the  body  rose  to  a  level  with 
the  frame.  Interrogations  were  then 
put,  and  if  the  prisoner  refused  to  an- 
swer, or  if  his  answers  were  not  con- 
sidered satisfactory,  the  rollers  were 
further  moved,  until  at  last  the  bones  of 
the  sufferer  were  forced  from  their 
sockets. 

In  gearing,  a  toothed  bar  whose  pitch 
line  is  straight,  adapted  to  work  into  the 
teeth  of  a  wheel  for  the  purpose  of 
changing  rectilinear  into  circular  motion, 
or  vice  versa.  This  contrivance  is  called 
a  rack-and-pinion,  and  the  motion  so  im- 
parted rack-and-pinion  motion.  In  hor- 
ology, a  steel  piece  in  the  striking  part 
of  a  clock.  In  lace,  a  certain  length  of 
lace-work  counted  perpendicularly,  and 
containing  240  meshes.  In  metallurgy, 
an  inclined  frame  or  table,  open  at  the 
foot,  and  upon  which  metalliferous 
slimes  are  placed  and  exposed  to  a 
stream  of  water,  which  washes  off  the 
lighter  portions.  Nautically,  (1)  A 
frame  of  wood  with  belaying-pins,  or  a 
row  of  blocks  for  fair-leaders,  or  a  row 
of  sheaves  for  reeving  the  running-rig- 
ging. (2)  A  frame  with  holes  for  round 
shot.  (3)  A  box  in  which  the  halyards 
are  coiled  away. 

RACKET,  the  instrument  with  which 
players  at  tennis  or  rackets  strike  the 
ball;  a  bat,  consisting  of  an  elliptical 
loop  formed  of  a  thin  strip  of  wood, 
across  which  network  of  cord  or  gut  is 
stretched,  and  to  which  a  handle  is  at- 
tached. Also  a  snow-shoe  of  cords 
stretched  across  a  long  and  narrow 
frame  of  light  wood ;  and  a  broad  shoe  or 
pattern  made  of  wood,  used  on  a  man  or 
a  horse  to  support  him  on  the  surface 
of  boggy  ground.  In  ornithology,  a 
spatule. 

RACKHAM,  ARTHUR,  an  English 
water-color  painter  and  illustrator. 
Born  in  1867,  he  received  his  early  train- 
ing at  the  Lambeth  Art  School.  After 
making  several  successful   drawings  he 


undertook  to  illustrate  several  books, 
chiefly  those  dealing  with  the  American, 
English,  and  German  legends  and  folk 
stories.  He  has  contributed  illustra- 
tions for  the  following  works:  "Alice  in 
Wonderland,"  "Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,"  "Rip  Van  Winkle,"  "Grimm's 
Fairy  Tales,"  Dickens'  "Christmas 
Carol." 

RACQUETS,  a  game  played  in  a  pre- 
pared court,  open  or  close,  with  a  small 
hard  ball  and  a  bat  like  that  used  for 
playing  tennis.  The  closed  or  roofed 
court  is  now  generally  preferred  for 
playing  in.  It  is  an  oblong,  rectangular 
area,  80  feet  long  and  40  broad  when  of 
full  dimensions,  and  having  high  walls. 
The  floor  is  divided  into  two  chief  areas 
of  unequal  size  by  a  line,  called  the 
"short  line,"  drawn  across  it  at  two- 
fifths  of  the  length  of  the  court  from  the 
back  wall,  the  smaller  area  being  again 
divided  into  two  equal  parts  by  a  line 
at  right  angles  to  this,  and  two  small 
areas  being  marked  off  in  the  other 
space  next  the  short-line,  called  "service 
spaces."  Two  horizontal  lines  are  also 
drawn  across  the  front  wall,  one  2  feet 
2  inches  above  the  floor,  below  which  if 
the  ball  strike  it  is  out  of  play,  the  other, 
the  "cut  line,"  7  feet  9  inches  above  the 
floor.  The  game  may  be  played  with 
either  one  or  two  persons  on  each  side. 
It  is  decided  by  lot  which  side  goes  in 
first,  and  the  first  player  assumes  which 
side  of  the  court  he  pleases  (usually  the 
right),  while  the  other  stands  in  the 
opposite  corner.  The  first  player  then 
begins  to  "serve,"  which  consists  in 
striking  the  ball  with  the  bat  so  as  to 
make  it  strike  the  front  wall  above  the 
cut  line,  and  then  rebound  into  the  op- 
posite corner.  If  the  ball  is  properly 
served  the  second  player  must  strike  it 
before  it  has  made  a  second  bound,  so 
that  it  strikes  the  front  wall  above  the 
lower  line;  but  in  returning  the  ball  in 
this  manner  the  player  may  if  he  likes 
first  make  it  strike  either  of  the  side 
walls.  The  player  may  also  return  it 
before  it  touches  the  floor.  The  first 
player  then  returns  the  ball  in  the  same 
way,  and  this  goes  on  until  either  player 
fails.  If  it  is  the  first  player  who  fails, 
it  is  then  the  turn  of  the  second  player 
to  serve.  If  it  is  the  second  player,  the 
first  scores  one  (an  ace) ,  and  continues 
to  serve,  but  goes  to  the  opposite  side  of 
the  court.    In  general  15  is  the  game. 

RADCLIFFE,  ANN,  an  English  novel- 
ist whose  maiden  name  was  Ward;  born 
in  London,  England,  July  9,  1746.  Her 
first  performance  was  a  romantic  tale, 
entitled  "The  Castles  of  Athlin  and  Dun- 
bayne";  which  was  succeeded  by  "The 
Sicilian  Romance"  and  "The  Romance  of 


RADCLIFFE    COLLEGE 


409 


RADICAL 


the  Forest";  but  that  which  made  her 
reputation  was  the  "Mysteries  of  Udol- 
pho."     She  died  in  London,  Feb.  7,  1823. 

RADCLIFFE  COLLEGE,  an  educa- 
tional non-sectarian  institution  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  for  women;  founded  in 
1879;  reported  at  the  close  of  1919: 
Professors  and  instructors,  128;  stu- 
dents, 561;  president,  L.  R.  Briggs, 
LL.  D. 

RADETZKY,  JOSEPH  WENZEL, 
COUNT,  an  Austrian  general;  born  in 
the  castle  of  Trebnitz,  in  Bohemia,  Nov. 
2,  1766.  Called  to  participate  in  the 
long  struggle  against  Napoleon,  and  hav- 
ing won  his  way  to  the  rank  of  Major- 
General,  he  fought  at  Agram  and  Erlin- 
gen;  distinguished  himself  in  the  battles 
of  1813,  1814,  and  1815;  and  at  Kulm, 
Leipsic,  and  Brienne.  Having  been  suc- 
cessively governor  of  Ofen  in  Hungary, 
and  Lemberg  in  Poland,  he  was,  in  1822, 
appointed  commander-general  of  the 
Lombardo-Venetian  kingdom.  In  1848 
the  people  of  Milan  rose  against  their 
Austrian  oppressors,  and  after  a  gallant 
struggle  drove  them  out  of  the  city. 
Radetzky  retreated  upon  Verona,  to 
await  the  arrival  of  re-enforcements. 
Shortly  afterward,  Charles  Albert,  King 
of  Sardinia,  joined  the  popular  cause, 
but  was  defeated  at  Novara.  This  bat- 
tle decided  the  fate  of  the  Italian  cause, 
and  Austrian  tyranny  was  again  trium- 
phant in  Lombardo-Venetia.  After  ^  73 
years  of  service  in  the  Austrian  armies, 
Radetzky  resigned  in  the  year  1857.  He 
died  in  Milan,  Italy,  Jan.  5,  1858. 

RADHANPUR,  chief  town  of  a  pro- 
tected state  in  Bombay  presidency,  In- 
dia, 150  miles  N.  W.  of  Baroda.  It  is 
surrounded  with  walls  and  incloses  a 
fortified  castle,  the  residence  of  the  na- 
tive prince.  The  state  of  Radhanpur 
has  an  area  of  1,150  square  miles.  Pop. 
about  100,000. 

RADIANT,  in  botany,  diverging  from 
a  common  center,  like  rays.  In  heraldry 
an  epithet  applied  to  an  ordinary  or 
charge,  when  it  is  presented  edged  with 
rays  or  beams;  rayonnant;  reyonnee. 
In  astronomy,  the  point  in  the  heavens 
from  which  a  star  shower  seems  to  pro- 
ceed. In  geometry,  a  straight  line  pro- 
ceeding from  a  given  point  or  fixed  pole, 
about  which  it  is  conceived  to  revolve. 
In  optics,  the  luminous  body  or  point 
from  which  rays  of  light  falling  on  a  lens 
or  mirror  diverge. 

RADIATA,  in  zoology,  a  term  intro- 
duced by  Cuvier,  in  1812,  for  the  lowest 
of  his  great  groups  or  embranchments. 
He  described  them  as  having  radial  in- 
stead of  bilateral  symmetry,  apparently 
destitute   of   nervous   system  and   sense 


organs,  having  the  circulatory  system 
rudimentary  or  absent,  and  respiratory 
organs  on  or  coextensive  with  the  sur- 
face of  the  body;  and  included  the  Echi- 
nodermata,  Acalepha,  Entozoa,  Polypi, 
and  Infusoria.  Wider  knowledge  led  to 
the  narrowing  of  the  limits  of  this 
group,  and  through  Agassiz  pleaded  for 
its  retention  (with  the  three  classes  of 
Polypi,  Acalephse,  and  the  Echinoderms) . 
Huxley's  "Lectures  on  Comparative 
Anatomy"  finally  broke  up  what  is  called 
the  "radiate  mob"  and  distributed  its 
constituents  among  the  Echinodermata, 
Polyzoa,  Vermes,  Ccelenterata,  and  Pro- 
tozoa. 

RADIATION,  in  physics,  the  trans- 
mission of  heat,  light,  or  actinic  power 
(hence  known  as  forms  of  "radiant  en- 
ergy") from  one  body  to  another  without 
raising  the  temperature  of  the  interven- 
ing medium.  It  takes  place  in  all  direc- 
tions around  a  body.  In  a  homogeneous 
medium  it  takes  place  in  straight  lines. 
Radiation  proceeds  in  vacuo  as  well  as 
through  air.  Its  intensity  is  propor- 
tioned to  the  temperature  of  the  source, 
and  it  diminishes  according  to  the  obliq- 
uity of  the  rays  with  respect  to  the 
radiant  surface,  and  the  radiating  or 
emissive  power  of  a  body,  or  its  capa- 
bility of  emitting  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture, and  with  the  same  extent  of  sur- 
face, greater  or  less  quantities  of  heat. 
The  energy  received  from  a  radiating 
body  is  inversely  proportional  to  the 
square  of  the  distance,  and  the  radiation 
of  a  body  is  exactly  proportional  to  its 
absorbing  power.  If  the  radiating  power 
of  lampblack  be  reckoned  at  100, 
that  of  platinum  foil  is  10.80;  copper 
foil,  4.90;  gold  leaf,  4.28,  and  pure  lam- 
inated silver  3.80.  Solar  radiation  is  the 
radiation  from  the  sun;  terrestrial  radi- 
ation that  from  the  earth  into  space. 

RADICAL,  in  chemistry,  a  group  of 
elements  common  to  a  more  or  less  nu- 
merous series  of  allied  compounds,  and 
unaffected  by  the  processes  whereby  these 
compounds  are  transformed  one  into  an- 
other, e.  g.j  Ethyl  (C=H.),  the  radical  of 
common  alcohol  (C:HoHO).  In  mathe- 
matics, an  indicated  root  of  an  imperfect 
power  of  the  degree  indicated.  In  phi- 
lology, (1)  A  radix,  root,  or  simple  un- 
derived,  uncompounded  word.  (2)  A 
letter  which  belongs  to  the  root;  a  primi- 
tive letter.  In  English  and  American 
politics,  an  ultra-liberal,  verging  on 
Socialism;  one  of  that  party  in  the  state 
which  desires  to  carry  out  a  radical  re- 
form of  the  constitution,  and  to  give 
greater  power  to  the  democracy.  The 
term  was  first  used  in  England  and  ap- 
plied as  a  party  name  in  1818  to  Henry 
Hunt,  Major  Cartwright,  and  others  of 


RADICALISM 


410 


RADIOMETER 


the  same  party,  who  wished  to  introduce 
radical    reforms    in    the    representative 

system. 

RADICALISM,  signifying,_in  a  politi- 
cal sense,  those  elements  which  demand 
extreme  reform  measures  in  government 
organization.  The  term  was  first  ap- 
plied to  the  Radical  party  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, in  1819,  which  stood  opposed  to  the 
conservative  Tories,  demanding  univer- 
sal suffrage  and  an  extension  of  the 
rights  of  the  people.  In  this  country 
the  Progressive  party  corresponded  most 
nearly  to  a  radical  party.  Socialists  are 
also  generally  known  as  radicals,  but 
generally  speaking  a  radical  does  not  de- 
mand a  change  in  the  basic  laws  of  the 
nation,  which  a  Socialist  does,  for  which 
reason  the  latter  is  more  properly  a 
revolutionist,  even  though  he  does  not 
desire  to  bring  about  the  changes  by 
force  of  arms. 

RADIOACTIVITY,  the  phenomenon 
shown  by  certain  substances  of  emitting 
radiation  spontaneously.  First  observed 
in  1896  by  Henri  Becquerel,  who  found 
that  certain  uranium  salts  emitted  rays 
which  were  capable  of  affecting  a  photo- 
graph plate  through  black  paper  or  thin 
metallic  sheets,  and  were  also  able  to  dis- 
charge electrified  bodies  and  to  produce 
phosphorescence.  Becquerel's  discovery 
was  followed  in  1898  by  those  of  Schmidt 
and  Madam  Curie,  who  found  almost 
simultaneously  that  thorium  salts  also 
emit  rays.  Madame  Curie,  working 
with  her  husband,  discovered,  in  the  same 
year,  that  pitchblende  contained  in  addi- 
tion to  uranium,  two  radioactive  ele- 
ments, v/hich  were  named  polonium  and 
radium.  In  the  following  year,  1899, 
Debierne  discovered  actinium  in  the 
same  mineral. 

In  addition  to  radiations,  Rutherford 
found  that  radioactive  substances  give 
off  gases  which  are  themselves  tempo- 
rarily radioactive.  These  gases  are 
knov/n  as  emanations.  The  emanations 
from  actinium  lose  their  acti\aty  very 
quipkly,  those  from  thorium  more  slowly, 
while  those  from  radium  retain  their 
activity  about  six  thousand  times  as  long 
as  those  from  actinium.  By  boiling  the 
solution  of  a  radioactive  salt,  all  the 
emanations  contained  in  it  can  be  re- 
moved, but  the  de-emanated  salt  grad- 
ually regains  its  power  of  producing  em- 
anations. The  emanations  behave,  in 
every  way.  as  ordinary  gases,  and  can 
be  liquefied  by  cooling  to  very  low  tem- 
peratures. The  rays  emitted  are  of 
three  kinds,  and  are  known  as  the  A,  B, 
and  r  rays.  They  are  capable  of  pass- 
ing through  opaque  substances,  but  their 
penetrating  power  varies  greatly.  A 
rays    are   positively   charged   and   have 


very  small  penetrating  power;  B  rays 
are  negatively  charged  and  have  greater 
penetrating  power  than  the  A  rays,  but 
are  easily  absorbed  in  comparison  with 
the  r  rays,  which  have  no  electric  charge, 
but  are  very  penetrating.  According  to 
Rutherford,  a  piece  of  aluminum  8  cm. 
thick  is  required  to  cut  off  half  the  F 
rays,  whereas  a  sheet  0.05  cm.  thick  will 
cut  off  the  B  rays  and  0.0005  cm.  the 
A  rays,  but  these  figures  must  be  ac- 
cepted with  reserve,  as  rays  from  differ- 
ent elements  possess  varying  penetrating 
ability.  Crooks  discovered  that  when 
the  A  rays  are  allov/ed  to  impinge  upon 
a  screen  of  zinc  sulphide,  the  fluores- 
cence produced  is  not  a  continuous  glow 
but  a  succession  of  tiny  sparks.  An  in- 
strument in  which  this  phenomenon  is 
demonstrated  is  known  as  the  spinthari- 
scope. 

Madame  Curie  and  Laborde  found  that 
radium  is  always  at  a  temperature  above 
that  of  surrounding  bodies,  and  it  is 
stated  that  every  hour  it  generates  suf- 
ficient heat  to  raise  its  own  weight  of 
water  from  freezing  to  the  boiling  point. 
As  much  energy  could  be  obtained  from 
one  gram  of  radium  as  from  a  ton  of 
coal,  but  since  approximately  2500  years 
would  be  required  for  the  complete  dis- 
integration of  the  radium,  the  fact  ap- 
pears to  have  no  practical  significance. 
At  present  there  is  no  known  method  of 
increasing  the  speed  of  this  disintegra- 
tion, but  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  ex- 
istence of  the  phenomenon  of  radioac- 
tivity has  been  known  for  scarcely  a 
quarter  of  a  century,  it  is  too  soon  even 
to  hazard  a  guess  as  to  the  possibilities 
of  its  practical  application. 

RADIOGRAPH,  a  picture  of  an  object 
or  objects  obtained  by  means  of  the 
Roentgen  rays  instead  of  light  rays; 
called  also  skiagraph. 

RADIOLARIA,  in  zoology,  according 
to  E.  Ray  Lankester,  a  class  of  Protozoa, 
consisting  of  Gymnomyxa  in  which  the 
protoplasmic  body  of  the  dominant 
amoeba  phase  has  the  form  of  a  sphere 
or  cone,  and  incloses  a  spherical  or  cone- 
shaped  perforated  shell  of  membranous 
consistence,  known  as  the  central  capsule, 
and  probably  homologous  with  the  per- 
forated shell  of  a  Globigerina. 

RADIOMETER,  an  instrument  that 
is  used  for  taking  the  altitudes  of  the 
celestial  bodies.  Also  an  instrument  in- 
vented by  Crookes  for  measuring  the 
mechanical  effect  of  radiant  energy,  and 
exhibited  by  him  at  the  Royal  Society, 
Anril  7,  1875.  It  resembles  a  miniature 
anemometer,  and  revolves  by  the  action 
of  light.  The  cups  of  the  anemometer 
are  replaced  by  disks,  colored  white  on 
one  side  and  black  on  the  other,  and  the 


RADIOPHONE 


411 


BADIX 


instrument  is  inclosed  in  a  glass  globe 
from  which  the  air  has  been  exhausted, 
so  that  no  heat  is  transmitted.  When  the 
disks  are  exposed  to  light,  revolution 
begins  and  its  speed  is  governed  by  the 
intensity  of  the  light.  Two  candles  pro- 
duce twice  the  effect  of  one,  and  the 
flame  of  magnesium  wire  makes  the 
disks  spin  with  great  rapidity. 

RADIOPHONE,  a  word  that  applies 
to  any  invention  that  transmits  or  pro- 
duces sound  by  means  of  radiant  energy, 
particularly  a  device  similar  to  the  photo- 
phone,  whose  receiver  is  a  block  of  vul- 
canite, with  no  telephone,  the  vibratory 
contraction  and  expansion  being  pro- 
duced by  the  heat  of  the  beam  while 
vibrating,  which  is  accompanied  by  an 
audible  sound. 

RADISH,  the  Raphaniis  sativus,  the 
garden  radish.  It  was  cultivated  in  an- 
cient times  in  India,  whence  it  found  its 
way  to  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

RADIUM,  an  element  recently  dis- 
covered combined  with  polonium.  Radi- 
um was  discovered  in  1903  by  M.  and 
Mme.  Curie  of  Paris.  It  is  worth  from 
$100,000  to  $200,000  an  ounce.  It 
throws  out  heat,  light,  and  energy  with- 
out loss  of  intensity,  and  without  waste 
or  diminution.  Its  principal  practical 
use  thus  far  has  been  in  medical  science 
for  cure  of  cancer  and  restoration  of 
eyesight. 

RADIUM  THERAPY,  the  use  of 
radium  for  the  cure  of  disease.  It  is 
still  in  the  experimental  stage,  but  suf- 
ficient success  has  already  been  gained 
to  indicate  that  it  may  prove  of  great 
value  in  connection  with  certain  malig- 
nant growths.  The  rays  are  applied  by 
various  methods:  in  some  cases  a  tiny 
emanator  tube  is  buried  in  the  growth,  in 
others  the  emanation  is  condensed  in 
vaseline,  oil,  glycerine,  or  water  and  ap- 
plied externally;  or,  again,  the  rays  are 
condensed  on  arsenic,  bismuth  or  quinine 
and  taken  internally.  Another  method 
of  external  application  is  to  coat  linen, 
or  copper  plates  with  a  varnish  contain- 
ing radioactive  salts,  these  being  ap- 
plied to  the  affected  parts,  the  surround- 
ing flesh  protected  with  lead  foil. 

It  is  sometimes  found  that  treatment 
with  the  rays  will  produce  temporary 
improvement,  but  that  complete  cure 
does  not  take  place.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  with  epitheliomas  oi  the  mouth 
and  pharynx  and  laryngeal  mucous  mem- 
branes. Considerable  success  has  been 
obtained  in  treating  cancer  of  the  uterus. 
After  prolonged  treatment  amounting  to 
as  much  as  60  hours  spread  over  a  pe- 
riod of  five  to  ten  days,  there  has  followed 
a  decrease  in  pain,  the  arrest  of  hemor- 


rhage and  discharge,  and  a  healing  of 
ulcerations.  Similar  success  has  at- 
tended treatment  of  carcinoma  of  the 
rectum,  and  cancer  of  the  breast.  In 
some  instances  of  the  latter,  there  has 
been  apparently  complete  cure,  and  in 
the  case  of  rodent  ulcer  apparent  cure 
has  resulted  from  a  single  treatment. 
In  a  report  made  by  the  Radium  Insti- 
tute of  London  (1917)  it  is  stated  that 
of  169  cases  of  rodent  ulcer,  122  were 
cured  and  37  were  improved.  Favor- 
able results  are  also  reported  in  the 
treatment  of  lympho  sarcoma,  in  many 
cases  the  growth  steadily  shrinking  and 
finally  disappearing  completely,  while 
some  success  has  been  obtained  with 
fibroid  disease  of  the  uterus,  lupus  vul- 
garus  and  pruritis  arthritis. 

A  method  of  treatment  developed  in 
the  United  States  has  given  good  results 
in  the  treatment  of  cancer  of  the  bladder 
and  prostate.  A  gold  needle,  four  to 
six  inches  long,  containing  radium  in  the 
point,  is  thrust  into  the  center  of  the 
growth,  and  left  there  for  some  hours, 
local  anaesthetics  being  used  to  deaden 
the  pain  of  application.  In  nearly  all 
cases  after  such  applications  there  is  a 
period  of  reaction  which  may  last  sev- 
eral months.  Birthmarks  and  scars 
have  been  beneficially  treated  by  radium 
emanations.  It  must,  however,  be  em- 
phasized that  in  spite  of  much  real  or 
apparent  success,  radium  therapy  is  in  its 
early  stages  and  there  is  a  general  agree- 
ment that  the  only  reliable  treatment  for 
malignant  grouiihs  is  removal  by  opera- 
tion, and  that  treatment  by  radium 
should  only  be  resorted  to  in  those  cases 
where  surgical  operation  is  impossible  or 
inadvisable. 

RADIUS,  in  anatomy,  the  outer  of  the 
two  bones  of  the  forearm.  In  botany, 
and  plural  form,  the  peduncles  support- 
ing the  partial  umbels  in  an  umbellifer. 
In  fortification,  a  line  drawn  from  the 
center  of  the  polygon  to  the  end  of  the 
outer  side.  In  geometry,  the  distance 
from  the  center  of  a  circle  to  any  point 
of  the  circumference. 

RADIUS  VECTOR,  in  astronomy,  an 
imaginary  line  joining  the  center  of  a 
heavenly  body  to  that  of  any  second  one 
revolving  around  it.  In  geometry,  a 
straight  line,  or  the  length  of  such  line, 
connecting  any  point,  as  of  a  curve,  with 
a  fixed  point  or  pole,  round  which  it  re- 
solves, and  to  which  it  serves  to  refer 
the  successive  points  of  a  curve  in  a 
system  of  polar  co-ordinates. 

RADIX,  in  algebra,  the  root  of  a 
finite  expression  from  which  a  series  is 
derived.  In  anatomy,  the  root  or  portion 
of  anything  inserted  into  another,  as 
the  root  of  a  tooth.     In  botany,  the  root 


RADNORSHIIIE 


412 


RAFFLES 


of  any  plant.  In  pharmacy,  the  root  of 
a  medicinal  plant,  as  Rhei  radix=rhu- 
barb  root.  In  mathematics,  any  number 
which  is  arbitrarily  made  the  fundamen- 
tal number  or  base  of  any  system.  Thus 
10  is  the  radix  of  the  decimal  system  of 
numeration,  and  also  in  Briggs'  or  the 
common  system  of  logarithms. 

RABNORSHIE-E,  a  county  of  Wales, 
Great  Britain,  almost  in  the  center  of  the 
principality.  Very  mountainous,  save  in 
the  S.  E.,  where  agricultural  products 
abound  with  considerable  market  gar- 
dening. Radnor  forest  is  an  interesting 
natural  feature,  being  over  2,000  feet 
high.  There  are  several  rivers,  the 
largest  being  the  Wye,  which  separates 
the  county  on  the  S.  from  Brecknock. 
Capital,    Radnor.     Pop.    about   20,000. 

EADOM,  -a  town  of  Poland,  sixty  miles 
S.  of  Warsaw.  The  city  and  its  environs 
was  the  scene  of  heavy  fighting  during 
the  German  drive  for  Warsaw,  in  1916, 
and,  with  Warsaw,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Germans,  where  it  remained  until 
the  retirement  of  the  German  armies 
from  Poland,  after  the  conclusion  of  hos- 
tilities.    Pop.  about  50,000. 

RADOSLAVOV,  VASILE,  a  Bulga- 
rian statesman,  bom  in  Bulgaria  in  1850; 
educated  in  Germany;  returned  home 
and  entered  politics,  becoming  leader  of 
the  anti-Russian  Liberal  party.  Having 
once  served  as  Minister  of  the  Interior, 
King  Ferdinand,  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War,  in  1914,  appointed  Rad- 
oslavov  Premier,  on  account  of  his  well 
known  sympathy  toward  Austria  and 
Germany.  It  was  Radoslavov,  one  of 
the  wiliest  politicians  of  the  Balkans, 
who  guided  the  policy  of  Bulgaria  in  her 
double  dealing  with  the  Allies,  until 
ready  to  throw  her  lot  in  with  the  Cen- 
tral Empires,  in  the  fall  of  1915,  when  a 
treacherous  attack  was  made  on  the 
Serbians,  while  they  were  defending 
themselves  against  the  Austro-German 
invasion.  On  the  collapse  of  the  Bul- 
garian front  in  Macedonia,  Radoslavov 
v/as  dismissed  from  office  and  sent  into 
retirement. 

RADOWITZ,  JOSEPH  VON,  a  Prus- 
sian statesman;  born  in  Blankenburg, 
Feb.  6,  1797;  entered  the  Westphalian 
army  in  1813.  After  the  peace  of  1815  he 
taught  m  the  military  school  of  Cassel; 
btit  in  1823  he  entered  the  Prussian  serv- 
ice, and  in  1830  became  chief  of  the  gen- 
eral staff  of  artillery.  In  1836  RadoAvitz 
was  sent  as  Prussian  military  commis- 
sioner to  the  German  Diet  at  Frankfort, 
and  held  diplomatic  posts.  He  was  the 
confidant  and  adviser  of  King  Frederick 
William  IV.  After  the  revolution  of 
1848  the  endeavors  of  Prussia  to  give  a 


constitution  to  Germany,  by  means  of  the 
alliance  of  the  three  kings,  was  princi- 
pally his  work.  He  wrote  several  works, 
mainly  political,  and  died  Dec.  25,  1853. 

RADZIVIL,  or  RADZIWILL,  the 
name  of  an  ancient  Polish  family  of 
Lithuania,  which  commenced  to  figure  in 
history  in  the  14th  century.  Nicholas 
Radzivil,  the  first  of  the  name,  was  cre- 
ated by  Jagellon,  Grand-Duke  of  Lithu- 
ania, palatine  of  Wilna.  The  most  cele- 
brated of  his  descendants  were:  Nich- 
olas, palatine  of  Wilna  and  governor  of 
Livonia,  under  Sigismund  Augustus, 
King  of  Poland.  He  signalized  himself 
by  his  valor  against  the  Teutonic  order 
in  1557,  and  against  the  Russians,  whom, 
in  1565,  he  completely  defeated.  He  ab- 
jured the  Catholic  for  the  Protestant  re- 
ligion. Born  about  1500.  He  died  in 
1567.  Charles  Radzivil,  palatine  of 
Wilna.  Nominated,  in  1762,  governor  of 
Lithuania,  by  Augustus  III.,  King  of 
Poland,  he  energetically  combated  Rus- 
sian influence;  but,  not  succeeding  in 
preventing  the  dismemberment  of  his  na- 
tive country,  he  went  into  exile.  He  died 
in  1790. 

RAEBURN,  SIR  HENRY,  a  Scotch 
painter;  born  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
March  4,  1756.  Bound  apprentice  to  a 
goldsmith,  he  was  no  sooner  free  than  he 
devoted  himself  to  portrait  painting.  In 
1787,  he  established  himself  in  Edin- 
burgh, and  soon  rose  to  the  head  of  his 
profession  in  Scotland.  He  was  knight- 
ed by  George  IV.,  in  1822,  and  died  in 
Edinburgh,  July  8,  1823. 

RAFF,  JOACHIM,  a  German  com- 
poser; born  in  Lachen,  on  Lake  Zurich, 
May  27,  1822.  He  began  life  as  a  school- 
master, but  encouraged  by  Mendelssohn, 
he  devoted  himself  to  music.  From  1850 
to  1856  he  lived  near  Liszt  in  Weimar, 
then  taught  music  as  Wiesbaden  till 
1877;  and  from  that  year  till  his  death, 
June  24,  1882,  he  was  director  of  the 
musical  conservatory  at  Frankfort-on- 
Main.  He  published  more  than  200 
musical  productions.  The  symphonies 
"Leonore"  and  "In  the  Forest"  ax-e  re- 
puted his  best  works. 

RAFFLES,  SIR  THOMAS  STAM- 
FORD, an  English  naturalist;  born  at 
sea,  July  5,  1781.  He  entered  the  East 
India  Company's  civil  service,  and  in 
1811,  on  the  reduction  of  Java  by  the 
British,  he  was  made  lieutenant-gover- 
nor of  the  island.  In  this  post  he  con- 
tinued till  1816,  when  he  returned  to 
England  with  an  extensive  collection  of 
the  productions,  etc.,  of  the  Eastern  Ar- 
chipelago. The  year  following  appeared 
his  "History  of  Java."  Having  been  ap- 
pointed to  the  lieutenant-governorship  of 


RAFFLESIA 


413 


RAGTIME 


Bencoolen,  Sumatra,  he  went  out  in  1818 
to  fill  this  post;  founded  the  settlement 
of  Singapore,  and  returned  to  Europe 
in  1824.     He  died  July  5,  1826. 

RAFFLESIA.  named  after  Sir  Thomas 
Stamford  Raffles,  the  typical  genus  of 
Rafflesiaceas.  The  first  and  finest  spe- 
cies discovered  was  R.  amoldi,  found  by 
Raffles  and  Dr.  Arnold  in  Sumatra  in 
1818.  The  flower  (there  is  no  stem)  is 
more  than  a  yard  across. 

RAFFLESIACE^,  rafflesiads;  an 
order  of  rhizogens.  Stemless  plants, 
having  flowers  immersed  among  scales, 
and  grovsang  directly  from  the  surface 
of  leaves.  Perianth  globose  or  campanu- 
late,  superior,  limb  five-parted,  the 
throat  surrounded  by  calli  either  distinct 
or  constituting  a  ring.  Column  salver- 
shaped,  or  globose,  with  a  row  of  anthers 
one  or  many-celled.  Ovary  inferior, 
one-celled,  with  parietal  placentse,  and 
many  seeds;  fruit  indehiscent.  Para- 
sites from  the  East  Indies  and  South 
America.     Known  genera  five,  species  16. 

RAFT,  a  sort  of  float  or  framework, 
consisting  of  logs  or  other  pieces  of  tim- 
ber fastened  together  side  by  side,  for 
convenience  in  transporting  them  down 
rivers,  across  harbors,  etc.  Also  a  float- 
ing structure  made  and  used  in  the 
emergency  of  shipwreck.  Rafts  are 
made  of  materials  usually  accessible  on 
shipboard,  spars  lashed  together  by 
ropes,  the  flotative  power  being  in- 
creased by  empty  casks  lashed  in  the 
structure.  When  made  and  furnished 
as  a  part  of  a  ship's  equipment  they  are 
constructed  with  pontoons,  and  provided 
with  stanchions  and  ropes,  which  form  a 
protection  against  persons  falling  or 
being  washed  overboard.  Such  a  raft  is 
carried  in  a  collapsed  condition  for  com- 
pact stowage,  and  is  more  readily 
launched  in  that  less  bulky  condition; 
after  it  is  in  the  water  it  is  brought  into 
working  shape  by  the  purchases.  Also 
a  large  collection  of  timber  and  fallen 
trees,  which,  floating  down  the  great 
rivers  of  the  western  United  States  are 
arrested  in  their  downward  course  by 
flats  or  shallow  places,  where  they  accu- 
mulate, and  sometimes  block  up  the  river 
for  miles. 

RAFTER,  in  building,  one  of  the 
pieces  of  timber  which  follow  the  slox)e 
of  the  roof,  and  to  which  are  secured 
the  laths  into  which  the  shingle  or  slate 
nails  are  driven.  Rafters,  though  all 
performing  the  same  general  duty,  have 
specific  names  according  to  their  particu- 
lar functions;  as  hip-rafter,  jack-rafter, 
etc. 

RAGATZ,    a    spa    of    Switzerland,    in 
the   S.   E.   corner  of  the   canton   of  St. 
Vol.  VII — Cyo 


Gall,  68  miles  S.  E.  of  Zurich  and  13  N. 
by  W.  of  Chur  (Coire),  at  the  mouth  of 
the  ravine  leading  to  Pfafers,  from 
which  town  it  gets  its  healing  waters  by 
means  of  a  pipe  (1838-1840)  214  miles 
long.  Schelling,  the  German  philoso- 
pher, is  buried  in  the  parish  churchyard. 

RAGEE,  or  RAGGEE,  an  Indian  grain 
(Elensine  coracana) ,  very  prolific,  but 
probably  the  least  nutritious  of  all 
grains.  In  the  form  of  cake  or  porridge 
it  is  the  staple  food  of  the  poorer  classes 
in  Mysore  and  of  the  Neilgherries. 

RAGGED  SCHOOLS,  a  name  applied 
to  institutions  founded  during  the  19th 
century  for  the  moral  reclamation  and 
Christian  instruction  of  the  juvenile  and 
adult  necessitous  poor  in  England. 

RAGHTJVANSA,  a  great  Sanskrit 
epic,  attributed  to  Kalidasa.  The  sub- 
ject is  similar  to  that  of  the  "Rama- 
yana,"  but  begins  with  an  account  of 
Rama's  ancestors,  "the  family  of  Rag- 
hu,"  an  ancient  King  of  Ayodhya 
(Oudh).  The  text,  with  a  Latin  trans- 
lation, was  published  by  Stenzler  (Lond. 
1832). 

RAGLAN.  FITZROY  SOMERSET, 
LORD,  a  British  military  officer;  born 
Sept.  30,  1788.  He  was  the  son  of  the 
5th  Duke  of  Beaufort.  He  joined  the 
4th  Light  Dragoons  at  the  age  of  16, 
went  with  the  troops  to  Portugal,  and 
fought  in  all  the  great  Peninsular  bat- 
tles, winning  the  notice  and  strong  re- 
gard of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  who 
made  him  first  his  aide-de-camp,  and 
then  his  military  secretary.  At  Water- 
loo he  lost  his  right  arm.  On  the  death 
of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  Raglan  was 
appointed  Master-General  of  the  Ord- 
nance, and,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
between  France,  England,  and  Russia, 
he  was  selected  to  take  the  command  of 
the  forces  ordered  to  proceed  to  ths 
Crimea,  commanded  at  the  battles  of  the 
Alma,  Balaklava,  and  Inkermann,  and 
was  promoted  to  the  i"ank  of  field-mar- 
shal. Grief  at  the  unsuccessful  attack  on 
the  Malakoff  and  the  Redan,  and  the  loss 
of  life  which  it  entailed,  preyed  on  his 
mind.     He  died  in  1855. 

RAGOUT,  a  dish  of  meat  stewed  and 
highly  seasoned. 

RAGSTONE,  in  geology,  a  rough  sili- 
ceous rock,  breaking  into  rag-like  frag- 
ments. It  is  well  adapted  for  sharpening 
steel  instruments. 

RAGTIME,  s>Ticopated  music,  having 
its  origin  among  the  colored  people  of 
the  Southern  States  and  enjoy' ne  great 
vogue  in  vaudeville  and  dance  halls.  Its 
characteristics  are  achieved  by  exagger- 
ated noise  and  strongly  marked  accents 

rr 


RAGUSA 


414 


BAIL 


imitative  of  the  effect  produced  by  the 
elementary  musical  instruments  in  use 
among  the  nativee  of  Africa. 

RAGUSA,  a  city  of  Dalmatia ;  on  the 
E.  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  100  miles  S.  E. 
of  Spalato  and  opposite  the  Gulf  of  Man- 
fredonia  in  Italy.  It  is  surrounded  with 
strong  walls,  and  contains  several  strik- 
ing and  interesting  buildings,  chief 
among  them  being  the  palace  of  the  rec- 
tors in  the  Gothic  and  Classic  Renais- 
sance styles  between  1435  and  1464;  the 
custom  house  and  mint,  dating  from  be- 
fore 1312;  the  Dominican  church  (1306) 
and  monastery  (1348),  the  former  con- 
taining a  picture  by  Titian,  the  Fran- 
ciscan church  and  monastery  (1317) ; 
the  Church  of  St.  Biagio  (Blaise),  the 
patron  saint  of  the  town,  built  in  1348- 
1352,  rebuilt  in  1715;  and  the  churches 
of  San  Salvatore  and  AUe  Dance. 

The  city  seems  to  have  been  colonized 
by  refugees  from  Epidaurus,  Salona,  and 
other  Grseco-Roman  towns  destroyed  by 
the  Slav  invaders  of  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula. For  some  centuries  Ragusa  was  a 
Roman  outpost  on  the  edge  of  the  Slav 
states,  and  flourished  greatly  under  the 
suzerain  protection  of  Byzantium.  To- 
ward the  end  of  the  12th  century  Ragusa 
was  made  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy 
of  Vsnice.  In  1358  Venice  ceded  her 
Dalmatian  possessions  to  Hungary,  and 
from  that  time  down  to  the  era  of  the 
Napoleonic  wars  Ragusa  was  generally 
accustomed  to  look  to  Hungary  (i.  e.,  the 
German  empire)  for  help  against  her 
enemies,  though  from  the  beginning  of 
the  15th  century  she  was  a  free  and  in- 
dependent republic.  Ragusa  took  a 
prominent  place  among  the  trading 
states  of  the  Mediterranean,  due  to  her 
position  between  the  Christian  powers 
and  the  empire  of  the  Turks,  and  the 
privileges  she  enjoyed  of  trading  freely 
with  the  subjects  of  the  Sultan.  Her 
"argosies"  (i.  e.,  "vessels  of  Ragusa": 
see  Argosy)  traded  as  far  as  the  Baltic. 
Ragusa  was  the  home  from  the  middle 
of  the  15th  century  of  a  remarkable  lit- 
erary movement,  stimulated  by  the 
Renaissance  (see  Serbia).  During  the 
course  of  the  Napoleonic  wars  the 
French  entered  the  city  in  1805;  this  led 
the  Russians  to  bombard  the  place.  But 
in  1808  Napoleon  declared  the  republic 
of  Ragusa  to  be  at  an  end,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  incoroorated  it  in  the  king- 
dom of  Illyria.  Since  1814,  like  the  rest 
of  the  Dalmatian  seaboard,  it  has  be- 
longed to  Austria.  Ragusa  had,  how- 
ever, long  before  this  declined  from  her 
former  greatness.     Pop.  about  15,000. 

RAGWORT,  the  Senecio  jacobsea, 
producing  yellow  flowers.  Common  by 
roadsides  and  in  pastures. 


RAHU,  in  Indian  mythology,  the  de- 
mon who  is  imagined  to  be  the  cause  of 
the  eclipses  of  sun  and  moon. 

RAHWAY,  a  city  in  Union  CO.,  N.  J.; 
on  the  Rahway  river,  and  on  the  Penn- 
sylvania railroad,  19  miles  S.  W.  of  New 
York.  The  city  has  a  public  library, 
high  school,  about  20  churches,  several 
banks,  and  a  number  of  weekly  news- 
papers. It  has  manufactures  of  railroad 
signals,  carriages,  printing  presses,  hubs 
and  spokes,  clothing,  and  shoes,  a  large 
printing  and  bookbinding  establishment. 
Pop.  (1910)  9,337;  (1920)  11,042. 

RAIAN  MCERIS,  a  lake  basin,  or  an- 
cient storage  reservoir,  in  the  Fayum, 
Middle  Egypt.  It  is  long  since  dried  up, 
but  the  statements  of  Herodotus,  Strabo, 
and  others  show  that  the  Nile  has  been 
regulated  by  utilizing  a  depression  In  the 
desert  corresponding  in  shape  and  situa- 
tion to  the  Raian  basin.  A  proposal  to 
reconstruct  this  reservoir,  by  means  of 
which  an  immense  area  might  be  brought 
under  irrigation,  engages  attention.  See 
McERis,  Lake. 

RAIATEA,  one  of  the  Society  Islands 
in  southeastern  Poljmesia;  area,  75 
square  miles.  Exports  cotton  and  copra. 
Pop.  about  23,000. 

RAI   BARELI,    or  RAI   BAREILLY, 

a  town  and  district  of  India;  48  miles  S. 
E.  of  Lucknow;  has  a  large  brick  fort 
(15th  century),  a  magnificent  palace  and 
tomb  of  a  former  ruler,  and  some  fine 
mosques.  Pop.  tovm  (1911),  18,798.  The 
district  is  part  of  the  province  of  Oudh 
and  Agra.  Area,  1,751  square  miles. 
Pop.  about  1,100,000. 

RAIIDAE,  the  family  of  fishes  to 
which  the  rays  (skate,  etc.)  belong.  See 
Ray. 

RAIKES,  ROBERT,  an  English  phil- 
anthropist, the  originator  of  Sunday- 
schools  ;  born  in  Glouceter,  England,  Sept. 
14,  1735.  His  father  was  printer  and 
proprietor  of  the  "Gloucester  Journal," 
and  he  succeeded  to  the  business,  keeping 
it  till  1802.  His  pity  for  the  misery  and 
ignorance  of  many  of  the  children  in  his 
native  city  led  him,  about  1780,  to  start 
a  school  where  they  might  be  taught  to 
read  and  to  repeat  the  Catechism. 
Raikes  lived  to  see  his  schools  widely 
spread  over  England.  He  died  April  5, 
1811. 

RAIL,  the  common  name  of  the  Ral- 
lidx,  a  family  of  grallatoriaJ  birds  com- 
prehending the  rails  proper  (Rallus), 
the  coots,  water-hens,  and  crakes.  Most 
of  the  members  of  the  family  are  aqua- 
tic or  frequent  marshes;  but  some,  as 
the  crakes,  frequent  dry  situations.  The 
principal  species  of  the  genu,"  Rallus  are 


BAIL    WAGON 


415 


BAILWATS 


the  water  rail  of  Europe  (R.  aquaticus), 
about  11  inches  in  len^h,  of  an  olive 
brown  color,  marked  with  black  above, 
and  of  a  bluish-ash  color  beneath,  with 
white  transverse  markings  on  the  belly, 
much  esteemed  for  the  table;  the  Vir- 
ginian rail  of  the  United  States  (R.  vir- 
ginianus) ,  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
water  rail  of  Europe;  and  the  great- 
breasted  rail  or  fresh-water  marsh  hen 
\R.  elegans),  about  20  inches  long,  which 
inhabits  the  marshes  of  the  Southern 
States  of  the  United  States.  The  land 
rail,  so  named,  is  the  Corn  Crake 
{q.  v.). 

RAIL  WAGON,  a  combination  vehicle 
so  constructed  as  to  be  readily  convert- 
ible for  use  on  any  ordinary  roadway  or 
on  a  railroad  track.  It  was  invented  by 
Joseph  C.  Brovm,  of  Toledo,  0.,  in  1898. 

RAILWAY  BROTHERHOODS,  labor 
organizations  of  the  employees  of  Ameri- 
can railroads,  chief  of  which  are:  Grand 
International  Brotherhood  of  Locomotive 
Engineers,  founded  in  1863;  Order  of 
Railway  Conductors  of  America,  found- 
ed in  1868;  Brotherhood  of  Locomotive 
Firemen,  founded  in  1873;  Brotherhood 
of  Railway  Trainmen,  founded  in  1883; 
Brotherhood  of  Railway  Telegraphers, 
founded  in  1886.  A  number  of  others 
have  been  organized  since,  chief  of  which 
is  the  Brotherhood  of  Maintenance  of 
Way  Employees  and  Railroad  Shop 
Laborers.  This  latter  organization,  of 
insignificant  size  before  the  war  with 
Germany,  being  composed  largely  of  un- 
skilled laborers,  acquired  a  membership 
of  over  200,000  during  the  war  and  a 
large  surplus  in  the  treasury.  Over  a 
million  dollars  of  this  money  was  in- 
vested in  two  clothing  and  one  glove  fac- 
tory, from  which  the  organization  now 
supplies  its  members  with  laborers' 
clothing  and  underwear  and  gloves  at 
cost  price.  Before  the  war  the  railway 
brotherhood  organizations  were  consid- 
ered the  most  conservative  of  all  Ameri- 
can labor  organizations.  Through  a 
system  of  adjustment  boards,  involving 
extended  negotiations  with  employers  in 
the  settlement  of  complaints,  strikes 
were  rendered  almost  impossible.  A 
strong  legislative  committee  also  made 
their  influence  strongly  felt  in  the  legis- 
lative bodies  of  the  country.  Powerful 
and  influential,  the  members  of  the 
brotherhoods  were  the  best  paid  element 
of  the  working  classes  of  the  country. 
Their  organizations  stood  alone  and  inde- 
pendent from  the  rest  of  organized  labor, 
not  even  being  affiliated  with  the  Ameri- 
can Federation  of  Labor. 

Since  the  war,  however,  and  under 
the  influence  of  Warren  Stone,  Chief  of 
the    Brotherhood    of    Locomotive    Engi- 


neers, the  brotherhoods  have  become  the 
most  radical  of  the  regular  labor  bodies. 
In  1919  they  united  in  presenting  to  the 
Federal  Government  a  demand  for  the 
nationalization  of  the  railroads  of  the 
country,  the  proposal  becoming  known 
as  the  Plumb  Flan,  being  formulated  by 
Glenn  Plumb,  attorney  for  the  brother- 
hoods. Finding  neither  legislative  nor 
popular  support,  the  plan  was  abandoned 
early  in  1920.  In  the  latter  part  of  1919 
and  during  1920  several  of  the  brother- 
hoods turned  their  attention  toward  Con- 
sumers' Co-operation  as  a  means  to 
bringing  down  the  cost  of  living.  "We 
realize,"  said  Grand  Chief  Stone,  "that 
by  a  continuous  demand  for  higher 
wages,  even  though  granted,  we  gain 
nothing  if  the  cost  of  living  continues  to 
rise.  What  we  want  is,  not  a  rise  in 
wages,  but  a  lowering  of  the  cost  of  liv- 
ing." The  principal  brotherhoods  had 
begun,  in  1920,  the  establishment  of  a 
series  of  co-operative  banks  throughout 
the  country,  as  a  basis  for  further  co- 
operative enterprises.  In  the  spring  of 
1920  there  occurred  a  revolt  against  the 
authorized  heads  of  the  brotherhoods 
from  within  the  membership,  known  as 
the  "outlaw  strikes."  All  over  the  East- 
ern States,  beginning  in  Chicago,  rail- 
road employees  abandoned  their  work  by 
the  thousands,  in  spite  of  the  appeals  of 
the  brotherhood  leaders  that  they  remain 
at  their  posts.  The  protest  was  consid- 
ered to  be  against  the  delay  in  the  ful- 
fillment of  promises  made  by  government 
authorities  that  higher  wages  should  be 
granted.  Toward  the  summer  of  1920 
the  outlaw  strikes  gradually  dwindled 
without  disrupting  the  brotherhood  or- 
ganizations. 

RAILWAYS.  No  invention,  aside 
from  that  of  the  steam  engine  itself,  has 
had  so  revolutionary  an  influence  on 
modern  social  and  industrial  conditions. 
Without  railway  transportation  modern 
trade  and  commerce  would  be  an  im- 
possibility. 

Rails,  as  a  means  to  facilitating  the 
drawing  of  heavy  loads,  preceded  the 
invention  of  the  locomotive  by  more  than 
a  century.  In  1649  wooden  rails  were 
laid  by  the  collieries  in  the  north  of 
England  for  cars  drawn  by  horses,  for 
the  transportation  of  coal  from  the  pits 
to  the  near-by  towns,  and  even  to  the 
waterfronts,  where  it  could  be  loaded  on 
barges  and  vessels.  Along  these  flanged 
beams  cars  were  drawn  by  horses  with 
such  comparative  ease  that  instead  of  a 
load  of  1,700  lbs.  by  a  common  road,  a 
load  of  two  tons  could  now  be  drawn  by 
a  single  horse. 

In  about  1740  cast  iron  rails,  fastened 
on  wooden  sleepers,  were  instituted. 
Ten  years  later  iron  rails  were  in  gen- 


RAILWAYS 


416 


RAILWAYS 


eral  use  among  the  coal  mines  in  the 
north  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  then 
it  became  a  practice  to  link  the  cars  to- 
gether into  trains.  The  next  improve- 
ment was  putting  the  flanges  on  the 
wheels  instead  of  on  the  rails. 

The  invention  of  the  steam  engine 
drew  the  attention  of  inventors  to  the 
possibility  of  devising  an  engine  which 
should  serve  as  a  motive  power  for  the 
cars  instead  of  the  horses.  The  first 
man  to  complete  a  practicable  locomotive 
was  Richard  Trevethick.  In  1802  he 
took  out  a  patent  for  a  wheeled  engine 
which  should  run  on  rails  by  its  own 
power,  and  exhibited  a  model  of  it  in 
London.  Two  years  later,  in  1804,  he 
produced  a  steam  carriage  which  hauled 
ten  tons  of  coal  along  the  rails  at  a  speed 
of  five  miles  an  hour.  It  was  the  first 
locomotive,  and  although  a  success  as  far 
as  it  went,  a  considerable  period  passed 
before  further  experiments  were  made. 
This  was  due  to  the  fixed  belief  among 
engineers  that  a  smooth  wheel  could  not 
draw  a  heavy  load  along  a  smooth  track 
up  an  incline.  It  was  not  till  1812  that 
a  small  locomotive  was  put  to  practical 
use  in  drawing  carloads  of  coal  from  the 
neighboring  collieries  to  the  city  of 
Leeds,  in  the  north  of  England.  Treve- 
thick, meanwhile,  had  lost  interest  in  his 
invention. 

In  1814  George  Stephenson,  an  engi- 
neer, built  a  locomotive  and  put  it  in 
operation  near  Killingsworth,  and  demon- 
strated that  it  could  draw  heavy  loads 
up  an  incline;  his  engine  pulled  35  tons 
up  an  incline  at  a  speed  of  four  miles  an 
hour.  Yet  it  was  not  till  1825  that  the 
first  demonstration  of  a  railway  train  in 
motion  was  given,  on  the  Stockton-Dar- 
lington railway.  On  this  occasion  the 
locomotive,  the  product  of  Stephenson's 
genius,  drew  22  cars  filled  with  passen- 
gers, and  12  cars  filled  with  coal,  alto- 
gether 90  tons,  at  a  speed  of  from  five  to 
twelve  miles  an  hour. 

In  the  following  year  a  railway  was 
begun  between  Manchester  and  Liver- 
pool, a  distance  of  thirty  miles,  and  Oct. 
1,  1829,  was  fixed  as  the  day  on  which 
a  grand  competition  was  to  be  held  be- 
tween inventors  of  locomotives.  Four 
engines  appeared,  two  of  which  had  been 
built  by  Stephenson  and  John  Ericsson, 
the  later  subsequently  becoming  famous 
in  this  country  as  the  inventor  of  the 
"Monitor."  For  fourteen  days  the  trials 
continued,  Stephenson's  engine  being 
finally  accepted  as  the  sunerior  one. 

The  Manchester-Liverpool  railway 
was  opened  for  passenger  and  freight 
traffic  in  1830,  and  immediately  proved 
a  big  success.  The  great  railway  sys- 
tem was  thereby  inaugurated. 

Railway  promotion  now  assumed  the 


proportions  of  a  boom  and  spread  to 
other  countries,  in  spite  of  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  sceptical  and  the  owners  of 
canals.  It  is  said  that  the  King  of 
France  at  this  time  sent  one  of  his  most 
capable  ministers  to  investigate  the  new 
institution.  On  his  return  this  function- 
ary reported: 

"Sire,"  he  said,  "railways  may  prove 
beneficial  in  England,  but  they  are  not 
adapted  to  conditions  in  France."  Thus 
have  many  beneficial  inventions  been 
handicapped  by  the  bigoted. 

In  the  United  States  horse  tramways, 
the  predecessors  of  railways,  were  in  use 
as  early  as  1807,  when  one  was  put  in 
operation  along  Beacon  Street,  in  Bos- 
ton, for  passenger  service.  The  first 
railway  on  which  a  steam  locomotive  was 
utilized  was  laid  in  Pennsylvania,  from 
Carbondale  to  Honesdale,  a  distance  of 
sixteen  miles,  built  by  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  Canal  Co.,  in  1829,  when  a  loco- 
motive for  use  on  the  road  was  imported 
from  England.  The  first  railway  built 
in  the  United  States  especially  for  the 
purpose  of  steam  traffic  was  the  one  be- 
gun in  South  Carolina,  in  1830.  An- 
other road  was  built  by  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railway  Co.,  from  Baltimore  to 
Ellicott's  Mills,  Md.,  a  distance  of  fifteen 
miles,  being  finished  in  1830. 

As  in  England,  so  in  the  United  States 
there  now  began  an  era  of  railway  con- 
struction which  spread  all  over  the  coun- 
try, with  even  more  revolutionary  effects 
in  this  country  than  in  England.  Lines 
were  pushed  out  into  howling  wilder- 
nesses, not  to  accommodate  an  existing 
population  and  industry,  as  was  the  case 
in  England,  but  for  the  definite  purpose 
of  developing  population  and  industry  in 
the  future.  Isolated  settlements  of  pio- 
neers suddenly  found  themselves  facing 
the  possibility  of  marketing  their  farm 
produce  in  the  big  communities  near  the 
seacoast  and  along  the  waterways,  and 
extended  their  agricultural  enterprises 
accordingly.  Land  hitherto  valueless  on 
account  of  its  distance  from  civilization 
suddenly  acquired  a  growing  potential 
value,  for  railway  transportation  would 
bring  its  products  within  easy  reach  of 
the  centers  of  population.  The  imagina- 
tion of  the  more  ambitious  elements  of 
the  people  were  inflamed  with  these  pros- 
pects, and  a  general  migratory  movement 
of  the  people  began  westward,  followed 
by  the  railroads,  sometimes  actually  pre- 
ceded by  them.  The  coal  mines,  too, 
suddenly  found  the  whole  populated  part 
of  the  country  thrown  open  to  them  as  a 
market,  and  the  coal  industry  began 
to  experience  a  tremendous  stimulus. 
With  the  possibility  of  receiving  coal, 
small  manufactories  began  springing  up 
all  over  the  Eastern   States,  along  the 


BAILWAYS 


417 


BAILWAYS 


lines  of  the  newly  built  railways.  It 
was  the  beginning  of  the  period  of  big 
and  intensive  enterprise. 

Ever  farther  and  farther  westward 
pushed  the  railways.  In  1852  Chicago 
was  reached,  and  two  years  later  the 
Mississippi  river  was  in  railway  com- 
munication with  the  East.  The  produce 
of  the  big  Mississippi  Valley,  which 
hitherto  must  be  shipped  down  the  river 
to  New  Orleans,  now  found  a  quicker 
channel  to  the  markets  of  the  world 
directly  eastward.  It  was  as  though 
river  steamboats,  hitherto  the  only 
means  of  freight  transportation  on  a 
large  scale,  had  suddenly  found  it  pos- 
sible to  sail  over  land  as  well  as  water, 
regardless  of  the  devious  paths  of  the 
waterways. 

During  the  ten  years  ending  with  1840 
nearly  3,000  miles  of  tracks  were  laid. 
During  the  ten  years  following,  ending 
with  1850,  over  6,000  miles  were  laid, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  ten  years  following 
there  were  over  30,000  miles  of  track  laid 
in  the  country. 

The  Civil  War,  naturally,  checked  the 
further  development  of  railway  enter- 
prise for  five  years,  but  with  the  close  of 
hostilities  it  was  continued  more  ener- 
getically than  ever.  Railway  lines  wei'e 
now  pushed  out  into  the  great  broad, 
fertile  prairies,  and  where  only  a  few 
years  before  buffaloes  and  Indians  had 
roamed  undisturbed,  vast  grain  fields  be- 
gan to  appear.  Man  power  being  in- 
sufficient, machinery  was  invented  to 
work  these  broad  stretches  of  rich  agri- 
cultural lands,  and  the  reaper  and  har- 
vester appeared. 

On  May  10,  1869,  the  last  spike  was 
driven  which  fastened  dovpn  to  the  sleep- 
ers the  last  rail  necessary  to  complete 
the  railway  connection  between  the  Pa- 
cific Coast  and  the  Atlantic  Seaboard. 
Now  the  rich  fruit  country  W.  of  the 
Rockies  was  thrown  open  to  the  East  and 
to  Europe.  The  political  significance  of 
this  achievement  was  no  less  important 
than  its  economic  aspect,  for  without 
railway  connection  and  the  tremendous 
commerce  which  was  to  develop  between 
East  and  West,  it  is  highly  improbable 
that  the  United  States  would  have  re- 
mained united  under  one  Federal  Union. 
A  broad  wilderness  would  have  separated 
the  two  coast  regions  and  divided  their 
political  interests,  and  each  would  have 
naturally  followed  its  own  course. 
Without  railway  communication  so  broad 
an  area  under  the  jurisdiction  of  one 
government  would  be  inconceivable  on 
a  democratic  basis. 

Until  1890  the  building  of  railways  in 
the  United  States  developed  at  a  rate 
much  faster  than  the  rate  of  increase  of 
the  population.     The  building  was  being 


done  on  the  prospects  for  the  future. 
Then,  gradually,  there  came  a  slowing 
down.  The  following  table  shows  the 
rate  of  railway  construction  in  the 
United  States  by  decades: 

Miles. 

1830  23 

1840  2,218 

1850  9.021 

1860  30,626 

1870  52.922 

1880  93.263 

1890  106.654 

1900  194.321 

1910  240.439 

In  1918  the  total  mileapre  of  railways 
had  reached  the  total  of  253,529,  but 
since  then  there  has  been  a  decrease, 
rather  than  an  increase,  construction 
having  come  practically  to  a  standstill 
since  the  beginning  of  the  war  with  Ger- 
many. 

The  importance  of  the  railways  as  an 
industry  employing  labor  is  shown  in 
the  following  table : 


Tear 

Employees 

Per  Thousand 
of  Population 

1880 

1890 

418,957 

749,301 

1,017,653 

1,699,420 

84 
119 

1900 

134 

1910 

184 

The  employees  enumerated  in  the 
above  table  include  only  those  directly 
employed  in  the  operation  of  railways, 
and  not  the  many  thousands  of  addi- 
tional men  engaged  in  the  building  of 
railway  cars  and  equipment. 

The  financial  aspect  of  the  railway  in- 
dustry is  told  in  the  following  figures: 


Tear 

Invested 

Per  Cent. 

of  National 

Wealth 

1890 

$8,040,707,804 

9,035,732,000 

16,148,532,502 

12 

1900 

10 

1910 

8/, 

During  the  past  forty  years  the  pas- 
senger traffic,  or  the  use  made  of  the 
railways  by  the  people  for  purposes  of 
travel  has  increased  three  times  faster 
than  the  population.  And  while  the  pop- 
ulation doubled,  freight  traffic  increased 
twelvefold.  During  the  past  18  years, 
while  population  has  increased  a  little 
over  a  third,  freight  traffic  has  increased 
by  180  per  cent. 

In  1916  and  1917  there  came  a  crisis 
in  the  railway  industry  which  has  usu- 
ally been  associated  with  the  war  as  a 
cause,  a  fact  which  is  only  indirectly 
true. 

Early  in  the  seventies  the  constant 
friction  between  the  farmers  of  the  Mid- 
dle West  and  the  railways  over  freight 
rates  has  led,  largely  because  of  the 
agitation  of  the   Patrons  of   Husbandry 


RAILWAYS 


418 


BAIN 


and  similar  farmers'  organizations,  to 
the  institution  of  Federal  regulation  of 
interstate  commerce  (see  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission).  Thus  the 
power  of  the  Federal  Government  be- 
came the  chief  factor  in  the  fixing  of 
freight  rates.  Until  several  years  ago 
this  system  worked  with  fair  satisfac- 
tion to  all  parties  concerned.  But  then 
came  the  gradual  rise  in  the  prices  of  all 
products  of  industry,  and,  so  far  as  the 
railways  were  concerned,  the  prices  of 
steel  rails  and  other  metals  and  those 
raw  materials  needed  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  railway  equipment  also  rose. 
Finally  the  demands  of  the  powerfully 
organized  railway  employees  caused  a 
rise  in  the  cost  of  labor.  Unable  to  meet 
these  rising  costs  with  a  proportionate 
increase  in  rates,  to  which  the  regulating 
bodies  would  not  consent  for  fear  of 
popular  disapproval,  the  railway  man- 
agements gradually  found  themselves 
facing  a  deficit  in  the  financial  adminis- 
tration  of  their  lines. 

The  crisis  came  in  1917,  with  the  out- 
break of  the  war  with  Germany,  when 
many  of  the  railways  of  the  country 
were  on  the  verge  of  bankruptcy.  To 
avert  the  threatened  financial  crisis  in 
the  railway  industry,  President  Wilson, 
on  Dec.  26,  1917,  issued  a  proclama- 
tion instituting  government  administra- 
tion of  the  railways  of  the  country  and 
suspending  private  management.  The 
administration  of  all  railways  was  im- 
mediately placed  under  a  Director-Gen- 
eral of  Railways,  who  had  not  only  the 
power  to  control,  but  actually  to  manage 
them  and  to  appoint  or  dismiss  such 
heads  as  he  might  choose. 

Other  contributing  reasons  there  were, 
too,  for  this  act;  the  need  of  pooling  all 
the  transportation  resources  and  equip- 
ment of  the  nation  for  war  purposes, 
which  were  for  the  time  being  para- 
mount. 

By  an  Act  of  Congress,  which  became 
law  on  March  21,  1918,  the  proclamation 
of  the  President  was  approved  and  Fed- 
eral administration  of  railways  was 
fixed  for  the  duration  of  the  war  and  for 
twenty-one  months  after,  though  the 
President  retained  the  power  to  return 
the  roads  to  private  management  any 
time  after  the  close  of  hostilities,  should 
he  see  fit.  By  this  Act  the  private  own- 
ers were  to  be  allowed  remuneration 
equal  to  the  average  earnings  of  the  dif- 
ferent roads  during  the  three  years  pre- 
ceding the  taking  over  of  the  adminis- 
tration by  the  Government.  A  special 
Court  of  Claims  was  granted  jurisdic- 
tion over  any  claims  that  might  be  made 
by  railway  oAvners  under  this  guarantee, 
but  in  most  cases  special  contracts  were 
made  with  the  individual  railway  com- 


panies, whereby  these  claims  were  ad- 
justed. 

Under  Government  administration 
railway  rates,  both  passenger  and 
freight,  were  substantially  increased,  yet 
on  Aug.  1,  1919,  Director-General 
Hines  reported  a  deficit  in  the  revenues 
of  the  railways  under  his  control 
amounting  to  $296,000,000  for  the  first 
six  months  of  the  year. 

The  war  having  come  to  an  end,  there 
immediately  arose  a  strong  agitation, 
emanating  from  the  Railway  Brotrer- 
HOODS  iq.  V.)  against  the  return  of  the 
roads  to  their  private  ownership,  the  al- 
ternative offered  being  a  proposal  known 
as  the  Plumb  Plan,  whereby  it  was  pro- 
posed that  the  administration  of  the  rail- 
ways should  remain  in  the  hands  of  a 
commission  on  which  the  Government 
and  the  employees  should  be  equally  rep- 
resented. This  proposal,  however,  found 
little  support  outside  the  ranks  of  the 
organized  railway  employees  and  radical 
circles,  and  on  Dec.  24,  1919,  President 
Wilson  signed  a  decree  returning  the 
railways  to  private  administration,  to 
take  effect  on  March  1,  1920.  Since 
then  numerous  hearings  have  been  held 
regarding  the  financial  condition  of  the 
railways  of  the  country,  with  the  result 
that  a  demand  has  been  formulated  by 
the  various  owners  for  heavy  financial 
aid  to  be  granted  by  the  Government  for 
the  purpose  of  restoring  the  roads  and 
their  equipment  to  their  former  degree 
of  efficiency,  much  deteriorated  since 
the  early  days  of  the  war. 

BAIMONDI,  MARCANTONIO,  an 
Italian  engraver;  born  in  BologTia,  Italy, 
late  in  the  15th  century.  A  goldsmith 
by  trade,  he  early  turned  to  engraving, 
and  received  his  first  great  stimulus 
from  woodcuts  of  Albrecht  Diirer,  which 
he  saw  at  Venice  about  1505.  At  Rome, 
where  he  worked  from  1510,  he  was 
chiefly  engaged  in  engraving  Raphael's 
works,  as  "Lucretia,"  the  "Massacre  of 
the  Innocents,"  the  "Three  Doctors  of  the 
Church,"  "Adam  and  Eve,"  "Dido," 
"Poetry,"  the  "Judgment  of  Paris,"  etc., 
and  subsequently  those  of  Raphael's 
pupil,  Giulio  Romano.  He  is  accounted 
the  best  among  the  engravers  of  the 
great  painter.  He  died  some  time  before 
1534. 

RAIN,  in  meteorology,  the  fall  of 
water  in  drops  from  the  clouds,  or  the 
drops  which  fall.  A  cloud  consists  of 
aqueous  vapor,  the  individual  vesicles  of 
which  are  very  small.  When  by  the  con- 
stant condensation  of  fresh  aqueous  va- 
por these  vesicles  become  large  and 
heavy,  and  several  of  them_  unite,  they 
are  unable  to  resist  the  action  of  grav- 
ity and  fall  as  rain.     In  geology,  the 


RAINBIBD 


419 


BAINSFOBD 


direct  action  of  rain,  as  distinguished 
from  its  indirect  one  in  creating  streams, 
rivers,  etc.,  is  a  potent  aqueous  cause.  In 
many  places,  however,  its  effect  is  much 
diminished  by  the  protective  influence 
♦ver  the  soil  exei*ted  by  the  vegetation. 
Penetrating  into  crevices  of  rocks,  it  is 
frozen  and  splits  them.  Moreover,  in 
passing  through  the  atmosphere,  it  ab- 
sorbs a  considerable  amount  of  carbon 
dioxide,  which  enables  it  to  transform 
the  carbonate  of  lime  in  limestone  rocks 
into  the  soluble  bicarbonate,  and  ulti- 
mately waste  them  away;  it  acts  also 
on  feldspar,  etc. 

RAINBIErD,  a  name  given  somewhat 
indiscriminately  to  two  cuckoos  in  Ja- 
maica: (1)  Saiirothera  {Cuculus,  Linn.) 
vetula,  a  large  handsome  bird,  soft 
brown-gray  on  the  back,  dullish  yellow 
©n  the  under  surface,  and  rusty-red  on 
the  wings,  with  the  long  tail  showily 
barred  with  black  and  white.  It  feeds 
•n  bugs,  spiders,  etc.  It  is  sometimes 
also  called  tom  fool,  from  its  silly  habit 
•f  gratifying  its  curiosity  instead  of  se- 
curing its  safety.  (2)  Cucxdus  pluvia- 
Us;  head  dark  gray,  merging  on  the  neck 
into  dark  grayish-green,  the  hue  of  the 
back,  rump,  and  wings,  with  metallic 
gloss.  Tail  feathers  black,  barred  with 
white;  throat  and  breast  white;  remain- 
ing under  parts  deep  red-brovsm. 

RAINBOW.  The  rainbow  is  the  best 
known  of  all  optical  meteorological  phe- 
nomena, consisting  of  a  colored  arck 
formed  opposite  the  sun  on  falling  rain- 
drops, and  visible  whenever  the  neces- 
sary conditions  of  a  passing  shower  on 
one  side  and  a  clear  and  not  too  high  sun 
on  the  other  occur.  Two  bows  are  fre- 
quently seen,  each  exhibiting  the  full 
spectrum  of  colors  from  red  to  violet: 
but  in  the  inner  or  primary  bow  the  red 
is  the  ^  outer  edge  and  violet  the  inner, 
while  in  the  outer  or  secondary  bow  the 
order  is  reversed;  the  red  being  inside 
and  the  violet  on  the  exterior.  The  col- 
ors are  always  arranged  in  a  definite  or- 
der, that  of  the  solar  spectrum — viz.,  red, 
orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo,  and 
violet,  but  shade  imperceptibly  into  each 
other.  The  cause  of  this  breaking  up  of 
the  sunlight  into  its  constituent  colors  is 
explained  in  most  physical  and  meteoro- 
logical text-books. 

Intersecting  rainbows  have  frequently 
been  seen.  When  the  sun  is  reflected 
from  a  surface  of  still  water  a  bow  is 
formed  by  the  reflected  image  as  well  as 
by  the  sun  itself.  Lunar  rainbows  often 
occur,  but  the  feebleness  of  the  moon's 
light  usually  prevents  any  colors  being 
observed.  There  are  many  popular 
weather  prognostications  connected  vnth 
rainbows,  all  dependent  on  the  fact  that 


they  imply  local  passing  showers.  "A 
rainbow  in  the  morning  is  the  shepherd's 
warning;  a  rainbow  at  night  is  the  shep- 
herd's delight,"  is  easily  understood 
when  we  remember  that  the  rainbow  is 
formed  opposite  the  sun,  and  that 
weather-changes  generally  pass  from  W. 
to  E. 

RAINES  LIQUOR  LAW,  an  act 
passed  in  1896  by  the  Legislature  of 
New  York.  It  abolished  excise  boards; 
license  to  anyone  not  a  criminal ;  raised 
cost  of  license  from  $250  to  $800  in  New 
York  City;  divided  license  fees  b'^*-ween 
State  and  county  in  ratio  of  1  to  2;  per- 
mitted local  option  in  towns  but  not  in 
cities;  no  renewal  within  200  feet  of 
school  or  church  without  consent  of  two- 
thirds  of  owners;  revoked  license  on  in- 
dividual complaint;  forfeited  license  not 
renewed  within  five  years;  interior  of 
saloons  exposed  to  view  when  closed  on 
Sundays;  no  free  lunches;  restaurants 
not  to  serve  drinks  with  meals  on  Sun- 
day; imposed  penalty  of  six  months  to 
one  year  and  twice  license  fee  for  selling 
without  a  license. 

RAIN  GAUGE,  an  instrument  or  con- 
trivance for  measuring  the  amount  of 
rain  which  falls  on  a  given  surface. 
They  are  made  of  various  forms.  One 
simple  form  consists  of  a  copper  funnel 
five  to  seven  inches  in  diameter,  inserted 
in  the  neck  of  a  bottle  placed  on  a  stand 
and  protected  from  the  sun's  rays,  to 
prevent  evaporation.  The  rain  collected 
in  the  bottle  is  measured  in  a  glass  jar 
having  one-tenth  the  area  of  the  funnel, 
and  graduated  so  that  a  rainfall  of  one- 
tenth  of  an  inch  collected  by  the  funnel 
is  measured  by  one  inch  on  the  side  of 
the  vessel.  The  stand  should  be  placed 
at  a  sufficient  distance  from  any  build- 
ings, etc.,  to  prevent  their  affecting  the 
amount  falling  into  the  funnel. 

RAINIER,  MOUNT,  a  mountain  of 
volcanic  origin,  the  highe'^t  in  the  State 
of  Washington,  14,520  feet  high.  It  is  a 
part  of  the  coast  range  near  Puget 
Sound,  E.  of  Tacoma,  and  is  sometimes 
called  by  the  name  of  the  city.  The  first 
ascent  was  made  in  1870.  There  are 
several  glaciers  on  this  mountain,  and  it 
has  a  well-defined  crater,  which  induces 
the  belief  that  it  is  an  extinct  volcano. 

RAIN  PRINTS,  indentations  produced 
in  geological  times  by  raindrops  on  sedi- 
mentary strata  when  the  latter  were 
soft. 

RAINSFORD.  WILLIAM  STEPHEN, 
an  American  clergyman;  born  in  Dublin, 
Ireland,  Oct.  30,  1850;  was  graduated 
at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  Eng- 
land, in  1872;  was  curate  of  St.  Giles' 
Church,     Norwich,    England,    in     1873- 


BAIN    TBEE 


420 


BAKE 


1876;  made  missionary  tours  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada;  was  assist- 
ant rector  of  St.  James  Cathedral,  in 
Toronto,  in  1878-1882;  and  became  rec- 
tor of  St.  George's  Church,  New  York 
City,  in  1883.  His  publications  include 
"Sermons  Preached  in  St.  George's"  and 
"The  Church's  Opportunity  in  the  City 
of  Today";  "Preacher's  Story  of  his 
Work"  (1901);  "The  Reasonableness  of 
the  Religion  of  Jesus"  (1908).  He  did 
much  to  supply  wholesome  recreation  for 
the  young  of  both  sexes  in  the  vicinity  of 
his  church,  who  were  without  the  means 
to  secure  it  for  themselves. 

RAIN  TREE  (PithecolobiuTn  saman) , 
a  leguminous  tree  of  tropical  America, 
now  largely  planted  in  India  for  the 
shade  it  furnishes,  and  because  it  flour- 
ishes in  barren  salt-impregnated  soils,  as 
well  as  for  its  sweet  pulpy  pods,  which 
are  greedily  eaten  by  cattle.  Another 
species,  P.  dulce,  has  also  been  intro- 
duced into  India,  its  pods  also  being 
edible. 

RAINY  LAKE,  a  sheet  of  water  form- 
ing a  portion  of  the  boundary  line  be- 
tween Ontario  and  the  United  States, 
W.,  and  100  miles  distant  from  the  near- 
est point  of  Lake  Superior,  and  about 
50  miles  long.  It  discharges  by  Rainy 
river  into  Lake  of  the  Woods. 

RAISIN  RIVER,  a  stream  rising  in 
Hillsdale  co.,  Mich.,  and  falling  into 
Lake  Erie,  2%  miles  below  Monroe,  after 
a  circuitous  course  of  about  130  miles. 

RAISINS,  grapes  dried  in  the  sun. 
In  the  case  of  the  best  grapes  the  proc- 
ess is  effected  by  cutting  half  through 
the  fruit  stalk  without  detaching  it  from 
the  tree,  or  by  gatberini?  the  grapes 
when  fully  ripe  and  dipping  them  in  a 
lye  made  of  the  ashes  of  the  burned  ten- 
drils, after  which  they  are  exposed  to 
the  sun,  or  they  may  be  simply  laid  out 
to  be  desiccated.  Inferior  qualities  are 
dried  in  an  oven.  Raisins  are  exten- 
sively produced  in  California.  They  are 
slightly  refrigerant.  In  Europe  and  the 
United  States  they  are  used  solely  to 
sweeten  preparations,  in  India  they  are 
given  as  medicine.  They  are  an  ingre- 
dient of  compound  tincture  of  carda- 
moms and  tincture  of  senna. 

RAJAH,  or  more  correctly  Raja, 
originally,  a  title  which  belonged  to 
princes  of  Hindu  race  who,  either  as  in- 
dependent sovereigns  or  as  feudatories, 
governed  a  territory.  Now,  however, 
the  title  is  used  of  independent  sover- 
eigns, of  subiect  or  "protected"  princes, 
of  T)etty  chiefs,  of  great  landowners,  and 
of^  .^ome  persons  of  eminence  who  are 
neither  rulers  nor  landowners. 


RAJAMAHENDRI  (formerly  often 
spelt  Rajahmundry) ,  a  town  of  India,  in 
the  presidency  of  Madras;  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Godavari,  30  miles  from  its 
mouth.  It  has  a  museum,  a  provincial 
school,  two  jails,  and  some  Christian 
churches.  From  1753  to  1758  it  was 
held  by  the  French. 

RAJMAHAL,  a  decayed  town  of  In- 
dia; on  a  steep  eminence  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ganges;  170  miles  N.  N.  W. 
of  Calcutta.  It  was  long  the  chief  town 
of  the  Bengal  and  Bahar  provinces,  but 
is  now  deserted  and  ruinous,  being  only 
noteworthy  for  the  remains  of  its  pal- 
aces, formerly  belonging  to  Shah  Shuja 
and  Kasim  Ali,  and  as  a  station  in  an  im- 
portant transit  trade.  The  population 
consists  largely  of  hillmen  or  "Paha- 
rias."    Pop.  (1920)  about  75,000. 

^  RAJPUTANA,  an  administrative  ter- 
ritory of  India.  It  lies  between  Sind  on 
the  W.,  the  Punjab  on  the  N.,  the  North- 
western provinces  on  the  E.,  and  several 
native  states  of  central  India  on  the  S. 
Its  total  area  is  132,461  square  miles, 
and  its  total  pop.  about  11,000,000.  The 
most  important  of  the  native  states  is 
Jaipur,  pop.  137,000.  It  gets  its  name 
from  the  ruling  race  of  predominant 
Aryan  tribes,  called  Rajputs.  They  are 
a  proud  aristocracy,  own  the  soil,  and 
have  furnished  ruling  dynasties  to  very 
many  of  the  native  states  in  India.  At 
the  time  of  the  Mohammedan  invasions 
in  the  11th  century  the  Rajputs  ruled 
over  half  a  dozen  strong  states — 
Kanauj,  Ajmere,  Anhilwara,  Udaipur, 
and  Jaipur.  From  the  end  of  the  16th 
to  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  these 
states  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of 
the  Mogul  Emperor  of  Delhi.  Then  they 
were  made  to  recogniize  the  Mahrattas  as 
their  masters;  since  the  Mahrattas  were 
crushed  by  the  British  the  Rajput  states 
are  independent  allies. 

RAKE,  an  implement  having  a  head 
provided  with  teeth  and  a  long  handle 
projecting  from  the  head  in  a  direction 
transverse  to  that  of  the  teeth  and 
nearly  perpendicular  to  the  head.  Spe- 
cific names  indicate  purposes  or  con- 
struction, as  hay,  stubble,  barley,  man- 
ure, horse,  tilting,  drag,  etc.  Hand 
rakes  are  of  wood  for  hay  or  grain,  and 
of  metal  for  garden  use.  Horse  rakes 
are  of  several  kinds,  some  with,  others 
without,  wheels.  In  some  the  teeth  are 
independent,  so  as  to  yield  to  obstacles 
without  affecting  the  operation  of  other 
teeth.  Also  a  small  instrument,  some- 
what resembling  a  hoe,  having  a  turned- 
down  blade  set  at  right  angles  to  the 
handle,  used  by  the  croupier  to  collect 
the  stakes  on  a  gambling  table. 


(^Keystone  yiew  Company 


SPECIMENS    OF    AMERICAN    POTTERY 


©Keystone  Viczc  Comfa)ty 


SHAPING  CLAY  ON    THE   POTTER'S   WHEEL 


I  Ewing  Galloway 

BEEF    CATTLE    FROM    THE    CATTLE  RANGES    IN    THE    SOUTHWESTERN 
UNITED  STATES 


( Ewmg  Galloway 

A   HUGE   PUSHER  ENGINE   FOR   TAKING   HEAVY   TRAINS   UP   GRADES 


(Q  tziJiHS  Galloway 

A   POWERFUL   OIL-BURNING   LOCOMOTIVE  IN  THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


)Ezv:ng  Galloway 

TUP.NING    TIRES    FOR    A    LOCOMOTIVE    DRIVE   WHEEL    IN    THE    WORKS    AT 
BLOOMINCTON,    ILLINOIS 


BAEOCZY    MABCH 


421 


BALEIQH 


ILA.KOCZY  MABCH,  a  simple  but 
grand  military  air  by  an  unknown  com- 
poser, dating  from  the  end  of  the  17th 
century.  The  Hungarians  adopted  it  as 
their  national  march.  The  air  most  gen- 
erally known  out  of  Hungary  as  the 
Eakoczy  march  is  one  by  Berlioz  in  his 
"Damnation  of  Faust";  Liszt  also  wrote 
an  orchestral  version  of  the  original. 

EAKSHASAS,  in  Hindu  mythology,  a 
class  of  evil  spirits  or  genii,  cruel  mon- 
sters, frequenting  cemeteries,  devouring 
human  beings,  and  assuming  any  shape 
at  pleasure.  They  are  generally  hide- 
ous, but  some,  especially  the  females,  al- 
lure by  their  beauty. 

BALE,  in  pathology,  a  noise  or  crepi- 
tation caused  by  the  air  passing  through 
mucus  in  the  bronchial  tubes  or  lungs. 

BALEIGH,  a  city,  capital  of  the  State 
of  North  Carolina,  and  county-seat  of 
Wake  CO. ;  on  the  Southern,  the  Seaboard 
Air  Line  and  the  Norfolk  Southern  rail- 
roads, 28  miles  S.  E.  of  Durham.  Here 
are  the  State  Capitol,  United  States 
€k)vernment  Building,  State  Penitenti- 
ary, State  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and 
Dumb  and  the  Blind,  State  Asylum  for 
the  Insane,  Home  for  Incurables,  Rex 
Hospital,  State  Agricultural  and  Me- 
chanical College,  Baptist  Female  College, 
Male  Academy,  Shaw  University 
(Bapt.),  Peace  Institute  (Pres.),  St. 
Augustine's  School  (P.  E.),  St.  Mary's 
School  (P.  E.),  and,  near  the  city,  the 
University  of  North  Carolina,  and  Wake 
Forest  College  (Bapt.).  The  city  con- 
tains electric  street  railroads,  gas  and 
electric  lights,  waterworks,  National 
and  savings  banks,  and  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  cot- 
ton and  tobacco,  and  its  industries  in- 
clude flour  mills,  phosphate  works,  foun- 
di'ies  and  machine  shops,  brick  making 
plants,  car  and  car  wheel  shops,  ice  fac- 
tory, etc.  Pop.  (1910)  19,218;  (1920) 
24,418. 

BALEIGH,  SIB  WALTEB,  an  Eng- 
lish explorer,  historian,  and  essayist,  born 
at  Hayes,  Devon,  England,  about  1554. 
He  was  a  half-brother  of  two  other 
famous  Elizabethan  'Tjnights-errant  of 
the  seas,"  Humphrey  and  Adrian  Gil- 
bert. For  a  time  he  studied  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  but  in  1569  he  was  fight- 
ing in  France.  Tradition  has  it  that  he 
was  with  Sidney  in  Paris  at  the  time  of 
the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  (1572). 
By  1577  he  was  back  in  England  and  a 
little  later  had  his  first  over-seas  experi- 
ence under  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert.  In 
1580  he  was  in  Ireland,  with  Lord  Grey, 
returning  the  next  year  with  despatches, 
when  he  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
Queen,  according  to  tradition,  by  spread- 


ing his  new  cloak  upon  a  muddy  place  in 
her  pathway.  He  became  one  of  the 
Queen's  secretaries  and  held  many  im- 
portant offices.  He  was  interested  in 
colonizing  projects,  and  in  1584  secured  a 
charter  to  lands  in  America.  He  imme- 
diately fitted  out  two  ships  for  explora- 
tion along  the  coast  of  Virginia  and  the 
Carolinas,  and  a  few  months  later  sent 
his  cousin,  Sir  Richard  Grenville,  to 
plant  a  colony  on  what  is  now  the  eastern 
coast  of  North  Carolina.  The  increas- 
ing tension  with  Spain  diverted  him 
from  these  projects  for  a  time.  He 
played  an  important  part  in  the  defense 
against  the  threatened  invasion  by  the 
great  Armada  (1588),  and  after  the 
peril  was  over  went  to  Ireland,  where 
the  Queen  had  given  him  a  large  estate. 
Here   he   met    Spenser,   whom   he    per- 


Sm  WALTER  RALEIGH 

suaded  to  return  to  England  with  the 
first  part  of  the  "Faerie  Queene."  That 
the  two  men  were  on  terms  of  intimacy 
is  shown  by  the  facts  that  Spenser  dedi- 
cated his  great  poem  to  Raleigh,  that 
Raleigh  returned  the  compliment  by 
writing  a  beautiful  sonnet  in  praise  of 
his  friend's  poem,  and  that  Spenser  tells, 
in  "Colin  Clout,"  of  their  talks  together 
and  gave  him  the  happy  title  of  "Shep- 
herd of  the  Ocean." 

In  1591-1592  Raleigh  lost,  tempora- 
rily, the  Queen's  favor  throup:h  his  mar- 
riage with  Elizabeth  Throgmorton.  He 
wrote  a  spirited  account  of  the  last  fight 
of  the  "Revenge,"  lost  in  an  engagement 
with  the  Spanish  fleet  near  the  Azores, 
Raleigh's  story  being  the  basis  for  one 


BALEIGH 


422 


BAM 


of  the  best  of  Tennyson's  ballads.  After 
he  had  regained  the  favor  of  the  Queen, 
he  turned  once  more  to  his  colonizing 
schemes.  In  February,  1595,  he  began 
his  voyage  to  Guiana,  his  object  being  to 
fight  Spain  by  cutting  off  the  source  of 
Philip's  supplies,  the  immense  wealth  of 
the  South  American  provinces.  His 
story  of  this  expedition  is  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  stories  of  travel  in  our 
literature,  important  not  only  for  his- 
torical reasons  and  for  the  charm  of  its 
style,  but  also  because  it  showed  the  abid- 
ing passion  of  his  life,  to  found  an  Eng- 
lish nation  in  the  new  world.  Immedi- 
ately upon  his  return  he  was  one  of  the 
commanders  of  an  expedition  against 
Cadiz,  which  resulted,  largely  through 
his  efforts,  in  a  great  victory  for  Eng- 
land. Descriptions  of  the  battle,  and  of 
the  later  engagements  at  Fayal,  are  to 
be  found  in  his  writings;  he  was  both 
man  of  action  and  historian. 

It  is  impossible  within  the  limits  of  a 
brief  sketch  to  set  down  the  activities  of 
Raleigh,  now  at  the  zenith  of  his  power. 
He  was  in  high  favor  with  the  Queen. 
He  had  charge  of  the  entertainment  of 
distinguished  foreign  visitors.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the 
famous  meetings  of  wits  and  men  of  let- 
ters at  the  Mermaid.  He  sat  in  Parlia- 
ment, and  played  his  part  as  zealously 
as  though  his  one  ambition  were  to 
handle  parliamentary  business.  He  was 
Governor  of  Jersey,  and  instituted  many 
reforms.  He  never  abandoned  his  idea 
of  colonization,  sending  new  expeditions 
to  both  Guiana  and  Virginia.  He  de- 
veloped his  private  property  as  though 
his  sole  interest  were  to  be  a  man  of  af- 
fairs. Yet  he  won  no  office  at  all  com- 
mensurate with  his  great  ability,  and  the 
chief  impression  we  get  of  these  busy 
years  is  that  of  resistless  energy  spent 
on  a  dozen  fields,  any  one  of  which 
might  have  contented  a  man  of  ordinary 
ambition. 

"With  the  accession  of  James  (1603) 
his  fortune  failed.  Accused  from  the 
first  of  hostility  to  the  claims  of  the  new 
Stuart  King,  he  became  the  victim  of 
the  ambition  and  jealousy  of  men  who 
were  desperately  striving  to  secure 
favor  for  themselves.  He  was  accused 
of  treason,  was  convicted,  and  in  No- 
vember, 1603,  was  sentenced  to  death. 
In  a  short  time,  so  great  was  the  stoma 
of  indignation  aroused  by  this  treatment, 
he  was  reprieved,  and  began  his  long  im- 
prisonment in  the  Tower.  For  12  years 
he  was  a  captive,  but  he  made  these  years 
glorious  by  the  triumphs  of  his  mind. 
He  turned  his  cell  into  a  research  lab- 
oratory, scientific,  historical,  and  on  mat- 
ters of  state.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
the  World,"  distinguished  for  its  learn- 


ing, its  philosophy,  and  the  quality  of  its 
style.  He  wrote  many  tracts  on  govern- 
ment and  on  England's  destiny.  He 
urged  the  building  of  a  merchant  marine, 
the  building  of  a  fleet  able  to  command 
the  seas,  and  the  establishment  of  an 
imperial  domain  in  America.  Only  in 
this  way  could  England  curb  the  power 
of  Spain.  "The  matter,"  he  said,  "is 
nothing  less  than  the  sovereignty  of  the 
whole  world."  His  writings  had  the 
power  of  his  personality ;  they  stimulated 
the  imaginations  of  all  Englishmen.  He 
founded  no  colony,  no  navy,  no  merchant 
marine,  yet  it  was  his  vision  that  later 
became  the  reality  on  which  so  much  of 
England's  greatness  was  to  rest.  Final- 
ly, in  1617,  he  was  released  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  one  more  attempt  to 
found  a  colony  in  Guiana.  The  expedi- 
tion failed,  and  he  returned,  a  broken  old 
man,  to  the  Tower.  He  was  put  through 
the  formality  of  a  second  trial  for  trea- 
son; his  enemies  triumphed,  and  he  was 
executed,  Oct.  29,  1618. 

EALLENTANDO,  in  music,  a  direc- 
tion that  the  time  of  the  passage  over 
which  it  is  written  is  to  be  gradually  de- 
creased. 

RALPH.  JAMES,  an  English  poet; 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  about  1695. 
He  went  to  England  in  1725  with  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  and  was  unsuccessful 
in  his  first  efforts  to  win  public  favor. 
His  poem  on  "Night"  (1728)  was  ridi- 
culed by  Pope  in  his  "Dunciad";  but  his 
continuation  of  Guthrie's  "History  of 
England"  (1744-1746)  won  public  praise. 
He  died  in  Chiswick,  England,  Jan.  25, 
1762. 

RALPH,  JULIAN,  an  American  jour- 
nalist; born  in  New  York,  May  27,1853. 
He  was  connected  with  the  New  York 
"Sun"  (1875-1895);  the  New  York 
"Journal"  (1896);  the  London  "Daily 
Mail"  (1899).  His  publications  include: 
"On  Canada's  Frontier";  "Our  Great 
West";  "People  We  Pass";  "Alone  in 
China,  and  Other  Stories";  "An  Angel 
in  a  Web";  "War's  Brighter  Side";  etc. 
He  died  Jan.  20,  1903. 

RAM,  in  machinery,  the  weight  of  a 
pile  or  post  driver  (see  Monkey).  In 
nautical  language:  (1)  A  beak  of  iron 
or  steel  at  the  bow  of  a  war-vessel,  de- 
signed to  crush  in  the  sides  of  an  adver- 
sary by  running  against  her  "end  on"; 
the  ram  can  be  detached  from  the  ves- 
sel. (2)  A  steam  iron-clad,  armed  at 
the  bow  below  the  water-line  with  such 
a  beak.  In  old  warfare,  same  as  Bat- 
tering Ram  (q.  v.).  In  shipbuilding,  a 
spar,  hooped  at  the  end,  and  used 
for  moving  timbers  on  end  by  a  jolting 
blow. 


BAMADAN 


423 


IIAMESE3 


RAMADAN,  the  ninth  month  in  the 
Mohammedan  year.  In  it  Mohammed 
received  his  first  revelation,  and  every 
believer  is  therefore  enjoined  to  keep  a 
strict  fast  throughout  its  entire  course, 
from  the  dawn — when  a  white  thread 
can  be  distinguished  from  a  black  thread 
— to  sunset.  During  the  night,  how- 
ever, the  most  necessary  wants  may  be 
satisfied — a  permission  which,  practi- 
cally, is  interpreted  by  a  profuse  indulg- 
ence in  all  sorts  of  enjoyments.  The 
sick,  travelers,  and  soldiers  in  time  of 
war  are  temporarily  released  from  this 
duty,  but  they  have  to  fast  an  equal  num- 
ber of  days  at  a  subsequent  period  when 
this  impediment  is  removed.  Nurses, 
pregnant  women,  and  those  to  whom  it 
might  prove  really  injurious  are  ex- 
pressly exempt  from  fasting. 

RAMAYANA,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
two  great  epic  poems  of  ancient  India 
(the  other,  see  Mahabharata).  Its 
subject  matter  is  the  history  of  Rama, 
and  its  reputed  author  is  Valmiki,  who 
is  said  to  have  taught  his  poem  to  the 
two  sons  of  Rama.  But  though  this  lat- 
ter account  is  open  to  doubt,  it  seems 
certain  that  Valmiki  was  a  real  person- 
age, and,  moreover,  that  the  Ramayana 
was  the  work  of  one  single  poet — not, 
like  the  Mahabharata,  the  creation  of 
various  epochs  and  different  minds.  As 
a  poetical  composition  the  Ramayana  is 
therefore  far  superior  to  the  Mahabhar- 
ata; and  it  may  be  called  the  best  great 
poem  of  ancient  India.  Whereas  the 
character  of  the  Mahabharata  is  cyclo- 
pedic, its  main  subject  matter  over- 
grown by  episodes  of  the  most  diversi- 
fied nature,  the  Ramayana  has  but  one 
object  in  view,  the  history  of  Rama.  Its 
episodes  r.re  rare,  and  restricted  to  the 
early  portion  of  the  work,  and  its 
poetical  diction  betrays  throughout  tlie 
same  finish  and  the  same  poetical  genius. 
Whether  we  apply  as  the  test  the  aspect 
of  the  religious  life,  or  the  geographical 
and  other  knowledge  displayed  in  the 
two  works,  the  Ramayana  appears  the 
older.  It  is  the  chief  source  whence  our 
information  of  the  Rama  incarnation  of 
Vishnu  is  derived.  The  Ramayana  con- 
tains professedly  24,000  epic  verses,  or 
"Slokas,"  in  seven  lx)oks — some  48,000 
lines  of  16  syllables.  The  text  which  has 
come  down  to  us  exhibits,  in  different 
sets  of  manuscripts,  such  considerable 
discrepancies  that  there  are  practically 
two  recensions.  The  one  is  more  concise 
in  its  diction  and  has  less  tendency  than 
the  other  to  that  kind  of  descriptive  en- 
largement of  facts  and  sentiments  which 
characterizes  the  later  poetry  of  India; 
it  often  also  exhibits  grammatical  forms 
and   peculiarities  of  an   archaic   stamp. 


where  the  other  studiously  avoids  that 
which  must  have  appeared  to  its  editors 
in  the  light  of  grammatical  difficulty. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  former 
is  the  older  and  more  genuine  text. 

RAMBATJD,  ALFRED  NICOLAS,  a 
French  historian;  born  in  BesanQon, 
Doubs,  France,  July  2,  1842.  Of  his 
works  the  most  important  is  the  "History 
of  French  Civilization"  (.3  vols.  1885), 
which  is  used  as  a  text-book  in  nearly 
all  universities.  His  other  publications 
include:  "French  Domination  in  Ger- 
many, 1792-1804"  (1874)  ;  "Germany 
Under  Napoleon  I."  (1874) ;  "The  French 
and  the  Russians,"  etc.,  (1877)  ;  "His- 
tory of  Russia"  (1878)  ;  "History  of  Civ- 
ilization in  France"  (1887).  He  died 
Nov.  10,  1905. 

RAMBOUILLET,  CATHERINE  DE 
VIVONNE,  MARQinSE  DE,  a  French 
social  leader;  born  in  Rome,  Italy,  in 
1588.  In  1600,  when  only  12  years  old, 
she  married  Charles  d'Angennes,  son  of 
the  Marquis  de  Rambouillet,  to  whose 
title  and  estates  he  succeeded  on  the  death 
of  the  latter  in  1611.  Her  residence  at 
Paris,  the  Hotel  Rambouillet,  for  more 
than  50  years  formed  the  center  of  a 
circle  which  exercised  great  influence  on 
French  language,  literature,  and  civiliza- 
tion.    She  died  in  Paris  in  1665. 

RAMEAU,  JEAN  PHILIPPE,  a 
French  musician;  born  in  Dijon,  Sept. 
25,  1683.  At  18  he  went  to  Milan,  but 
soon  returned  to  France,  to  Paris,  Lille, 
and  Clermont  in  Auvergne.  Here  he 
acted  as  organist  to  the  cathedral,  and 
wrote  his  "Treatise  on  Harmony" 
(1722).  Removing  to  Paris,  he  pub- 
lished "Modern  System"  (1726);  "Har- 
monic Generation"  (1737),  and  "Modern 
Reflections"  (1752).  In  1733,  at  the  ma- 
ture age  of  50,  he  produced  his  first 
opera,  "Hippolyte  and  Aricie,"  the  libret- 
to of  which  was  written  by  the  Abbe  Pel- 
legrin.  It  created  a  great  sensation. 
Rameau's  best  opera  was  "Castor  and 
Pollux,"  produced  at  the  Academic 
Royale  de  Musique  in  1737.  Between 
1733  and  1760  he  composed  21  operas  and 
ballets,  as  well  as  numerous  harpsichord 
pieces.  Louis  XV.  created  for  him  the 
office  of  composer  of  chamber  music, 
granted  him  letters  of  nobility,  _  and 
named  him  a  Chevalier  de  St.  Michel. 
Rameau  died  Sept.  12,  1764. 

RAMEE,      LOUISE      DE      LA.     See 

OUIDA. 

RAMESES,  or  RAMSES,  the  name  of 
several  Egyptian  monarchs;  the  name 
signifies  ''bom  of  the  sun,"  or  the  "nas- 
cent sun."  The  family  is  supposed  to 
have  been  of  Theban  origin,  and  to  have 
been   descended  from   one  of  the   later 


BAMESES 


424 


RAMNAGAB 


queens  of  the  18th  dynasty.  According 
to  the  Roman  authors  Troy  was  taken  in 
the  reign  of  Rameses  11.  He  is  the  sup- 
posed Sesostris  of  most  authors,  and  his 
sarcophagus  and  mummy  were  found  in 
Egypt  in  1890.  Rameses  III.  was  the 
chief  of  the  20th  dynasty,  the  Rhamp- 
sinitus  of  Herodotus,  called  Meriamoun, 
or  beloved  of  Amnion,  who  defeated  the 
Philistines,  the  Mashuash,  and  the  Lib- 
yans, carrying  on  important  wars  from 
the  5th  to  the  12th  year  of  his  reign;  he 
also  made  conquests  in  the  16th,  and 
seems  to  have  reigned  55  more  years. 
He  founded  the  magnificent  pile  of  edi- 


fiAMESES  II. 

fices  of  Medinat  Habu,  embellished  Luxo-, 
Gurnah,  and  other  parts  of  Egypt.  In 
1889  the  sarcophagus  and  mummies  of 
himself  and  his  queen  were  discovered 
in  Egypt  in  a  marvelous  state  of  preser- 
vation. Rameses  IV.  reigned  a  short 
time  and  performed  no  distinguished  ac- 
tions. Rameses  V.,  of  whom  inscriptions 
are  found  in  Silsilis.  Rameses  VI., 
whose  tomb  at  the  Biban-El-Meluk  con- 
tains some  astronomical  records,  from 
which  the  date  of  his  reign  has  been  cal- 
culated at  1240  B.  c.  Rameses  VII. 
VIII.,  IX.,  X,,  and  XI.,  undistinguished 
monarchs.  Rameses  XII.,  who  reigned 
above  33  years,  in  whose  reign  the  statue 


of  the  god  Chons  was  sent  from  Egypt 
to  the  land  of  the  Bakhten  to  cure  a 
princess  of  the  royal  family  of  that  court 
with  which  Rameses  had  contracted  an 
alliance.  Rameses  XIII.  was  an  impor- 
tant monarch.  Rameses  ?S  also  the 
name  of  one  of  the  fortresses  or  treasure 
cities  built  by  the  Hebrews  during  their 
residence  in  Egypt. 

RAMESWARAM,  a  low  sandy  island 
in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar,  between  the  main- 
land of  India  and  Ceylon.  It  is  about  11 
miles  long  and  6  broad,  and  contains  one 
of  the  most  venerated  Hindu  temples  in 
India,  the  resort  of  thousands  of  pil- 
grims.    Pop.   about   18,000. 

RAMIL,  a  plant  producing  what  is 
popularly  kno"WTi  as  China  grass.  The 
value  of  ramil  as  a  textile  fiber  has  long 
been  known.  China  has  been  making 
ramil  fabrics  since  the  time  of  Confu- 
cius, and  the  ancient  Romans  wore  robes 
woven  of  its  silky  floss.  China  not  only 
supplies  an  enormous  home  demand,  but 
also  exports  annually  hundreds  of  mil- 
lions of  pounds  to  foreign  lands.  The 
plants,  which  are  indigenous  to  Asia,  are 
now  grown  quite  extensively  in  South 
America  and  other  warm  countries.  The 
plant  does  well  in  the  S.  part  of  the 
United  States  and  a  finer  fiber  can  be 
grown  there  than  in  the  tropics.  In 
such  a  climate  the  fiber  is  long,  silky  and 
brilliant,  and  textiles  made  from  it  are 
stronger  than  linen  and  have  the  luster 
of  silk.  One  obstacle  to  the  general  use 
of  this  fiber  has  been  the  difficulty  of  ex- 
tracting the  filaments  from  the  rest  of 
the  stalk,  but  a  machine  has  been  in- 
vented by  an  American  which  removes 
this, 

RAMILLIES,  a  village  of  Brabant, 
Belgium;  14  miles  N.  of  Namur;  memor- 
able as  the  place  near  which.  May  23, 
1706,  the  French  forces  under  Marshal 
Villeroy  and  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  were 
defeated  by  Marlborough,  with  the  loss 
of  almost  all  their  cannon  and  baggage, 
and  13,000  killed  and  wounded.^  This 
victory  compelled  the  French  to  give  up 
the  whole  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands. 
It  was  the  scene  of  hard  fighting  in 
1914  when  the  German  armies  overran 
Belgium.  It  was  held  by  them  until  the 
closing  months  of  the  war,  in  1918. 

RAMNAGAR,  two  towTis  of  India: 
(1)  a  town  of  the  Northwestern  Proy- 
inces;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges, 
2  miles  above  Benares.  It  contains  a 
palace,  the  residence  of  the  rajah  of 
Benares,  which  rises  from  the  banks  of 
the  sacred  stream  by  a  number  of  fine 
ghats  or  flights  of  stairs.  There  is^  a 
fort,  and  whips  and  wicker-work  chairs 
are  manufactured.     (2)   A  town  of  the 


BAKPANT 


425 


RAMSAY 


PBBJab,  on  th«  Chenab  river,  28  miles 
K.  W.  of  Gujranwala.  It  was  a  place  of 
great  importance  in  the  18th  century, 
being  then  known  as  Rasulnag-ar,  but  was 
stormed  by  the  Sikhs  under  Rai.jit  Singh 
in  1795,  and  its  name  changed  to  Ramna- 
gar.  The  inhabitants  make  leathern 
vessels.  A  large  fair  is  held  here  every 
April. 

_  RAMPANT,  in  heraldry,  standing  up- 
right on  the  hind  legs  (properly  on  one 
ioot  only) ,  as  if  attacking  (said  of  a 
beast  of  prey,  as  the  lion).  Counter- 
rampant,  said  of  an  animal  rampant  to- 
ward the  sinister.  When  applied  to  two 
animals  the  term  denotes  that  they  are 
rampant  contrariwise  in  saltire,  or  that 
they  are  rampant  face  to  face. 

_  RAMPART,  in  fortification,  an  eleva- 
tion or  mound  of  earth  round  a  place, 
•apable  of  resisting  cannon  shot,  and  on 
which  the  parapet  is  raised.  The  term 
in  general  usage  includes  the  parapet 
itself. 

RAMPHASTOS,  the  generic  name  of 
the  toucans. 

RAMPION,  Campanula  Rapunculus, 
a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Campanu- 
lacew,  or  bellworts,  indigenous  to  Great 
Britain,  as  well  as  to  various  parts  of  the 
continent  of  Europe.  Its  root  may  be 
eaten  in  a  raw  state  like  radish.  Both 
leaves  and  root  may  also  be  cut  into  win- 
ter salads. 

RAMPOLLA,  MARIANO  DEL  TIN- 
DARO,  an  Italian  clergyman;  born  in 
Polizzi,  Sicily,  Aug.  17,  1843;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Sicilian  aristocracy,  which  en- 
abled him  to  reach  a  very  exalted  posi- 
tion in  the  Catholic  hierarchy.  On  the 
decease  of  Cardinal  Jacobini,  the  Papal 
Secretary  of  State,  in  1887,  Pope  Leo 
XIII.  created  Rampolla  a  cardinal  and 
also  appointed  him  Papal  Secretary  of 
State.  He  at  once  began  to  make  his  in- 
fluence felt  in  foreign  affairs.  His  prin- 
cipal object  was  a  political  alliance  with 
France,  in  order  to  insure  the  support  of 
that  country  in  the  restoration  of  the 
temporal  power  of  the  Pope.  To  this  end 
he  was  the  first  to  discard  the  French 
Eoyalist  party.  The  French  Republic 
was  solemnly  recognized  by  him,  and  the 
French  clerical  electorate  encouraged  to 
Tote  for  the  Republican  candidates.  The 
Dreyfus  affair,  however,  having  given  to 
the  French  policy  a  different  turn,  de- 
stroyed entirely  the  plan.  Rampolla  was 
also  the  prefect  of  severa.  congregations, 
and  Grand  Prior  of  the  Military  Order 
of  Malta.  It  was  believed  that  he  would 
he  elected  Pope  in  1903,  but  Austrian 
interests  were  opposed  to  him,  and  Pius 
X.  was  raised  to  the  Papal  throne.  Ram- 
polla resigned  office.     He  died  in  1913. 


RAMPTJR,  the  capital  of  a  native 
State  of  India;  in  the  Northwestern 
Provinces;  on  the  Kosila  river,  110  miles 
K.  by  N.  of  Delhi.  It  manufactures 
damask,  pottery,  sword-blades,  and  jew- 
elry. Pop.,  city  about  80,000 ;  state  about 
550,000. 

RAMPUR  BATTLEAH,  chief  town  of 
the  Rajshahi  district  of  Bengal,  India; 
on  the  N.  bank  of  tl:e  Ganges;  is  a  cen- 
ter of  silk  and  indigo  trade,  and  has  an 
English  Presbyterian  mission. 

RAMSAY,  ALLAN,  a  Scotch  poet; 
born  in  Leadhills,  Lanarkshire,  Scotland, 
Oct.  15,  1G85.  In  early  youth,  he  was 
sent  to  Edinburgh,  and  there  bound  ap- 
prentice to  a  wig-maker.  In  1712,  he 
produced  his  first  poetic  effusion,  and  in 
1716,  commenced  business  as  a  bookseller 
in  Edinburgh.  In  1720,  he  published  a 
collection  of  his  fugitive  poems,  which 
realized  a  considerable  sum;  and  in  1724 
he  issued  the  first  volume  of  his  well- 
known  "Tea-Table  Miscellany."  His 
fame^  however,  reached  its  acme  on  the 
production  of  "The  Gentle  Shepherd," 
one  of  the  finest  dramatic  pastorals  ever 
penned.  Some  of  the  higher  class  poems 
of  Burns  alone  can  compete  with  it  in 
this  respect.  Ramsay  died  in  Edin- 
burgh, Jan.  7,  1758. 

RAMSAY,  ANDREW  MICHAEL, 
known  as  the  Chevalier  Rams.a.y,  a 
Scotch-French  writer;  born  in  Ayr, 
Scotland,  Jan.  9,  ir>86.  After  spending 
some  time  at  the  Universities  of  Edin- 
burgh and  St.  Andrews,  he  went  to  Ley- 
den.  In  1710  he  repaired  to  Cambray, 
where  he  was  converted  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith  by  Fenelon.  He  procured 
the  preceptorship  to  the  Duke  of  Cha- 
teau-Thierry and  the  Prince  of  Turenne, 
and  was  afterward  engaged  to  superin- 
tend the  education  of  Prince  Charles  Ed- 
ward Stuart  and  his  brother  Henry, 
afterward  Cardinal  York.  He  acquired 
distinction  by  his  writings.  The  chief 
of  these  are  a  "Life  of  Viscount  Tu- 
renne," a  "Life  of  Fenelon,"  the  "Travels 
of  Cyrus,"  a  romance,  and  a  large  work 
on  the  "Principles  of  Natural  and  Re- 
vealed Religion."  He  died  in  St.  Ger- 
main-en-Laye,  France,  May  6,  1743. 

RAMSAY,  SIR  WILLIAM,  a  British 
scientist;  born  in  Glasgow  in  1852.  He 
received  his  doctor's  degree  at  Tiibin- 
gen  when  he  was  but  20  years  of  age,  and 
a  few  years  later  became  Professor  of 
Chemistry  at  the  University  College, 
Bristol.  In  1887  he  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  chemistry  in  the  University 
College,  London,  a  position  he  held  until 
he  retired  in  1913.  He  made  several  im- 
portant discoveries  in  chemistry,  mostly 
in  connection  with  air,  discovering  argon, 


BAMSBOTTOM 


426 


KAND 


neon,  xenon,  and  krypton,  all  constitu- 
ents of  the  atmosphere.  He  has  written 
several  important  works,  among  them 
"The  Gases  of  the  Atmosphere:  the  His- 
tory of  Their  Discovery"  (1905)  ;  "In- 
troduction to  the  Study  of  Physical 
Chemistry";  "Elements  of  Electrons." 
He  died  in  1916. 

RAMSBOTTOM,  a  town  in  Lanca- 
shire, England,  on  the  river  Irwell,  near 
Bury.  It  is  a  modern  factory  town,  an 
outgrowrth  of  the  Lancashire  cotton  in- 
dustry. Its  industries  include  cotton 
mills,  calico-printing  works,  bleaching 
grounds,  coal  mining,  steel  foundries,  and 
granite  quarries.     Pop.  about  16,000. 

RAMSDEN,  JESSE,  an  English  mathe- 
matical instrument-maker;  born  in  Sal- 
terhebble,  near  Halifax,  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, in  1735.  He  began  life  as  a  cloth 
worker.  About  1755  he  moved  to  Lon- 
don, and  shortly  afterward  began  to 
work  as  an  engraver.  He  spent  his  best 
efforts  in  effecting  improvements  in  the 
sextant,  theodolite,  equatorial,  barom- 
eter, micrometer,  mural  quadrant,  etc. 
He  so  improved  the  sextant  that  its 
range  of  error  was  diminished  from  5 
minutes  to  30  seconds.  He  made  the 
theodolite  for  the  ordnance  survey  of 
England.  He  devised  the  mural  circle,  and 
made  the  first  for  Palermo  and  Dublin. 
He  spent  several  years  over  an  instru- 
ment for  graduating  mathematical  in- 
struments and  published  an  account  of 
it  as  "Description  of  an  Engine  for 
Dividing  Mathematical  Instruments" 
(1777).  He  was  elected  a  Fellov/  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1786,  and  was  voted 
the  Copley  medal  in  1795.  He  died  in 
Brighton,  England,  Nov.  5,  1800. 

BAMSGATE,  a  watering  place  and 
seaport  of  Kent,  England,  on  the  Isle  of 
Thanet;  72  miles  E.  by  S.  of  London. 
From  a  small  fishing  village  it  began  to 
increase  in  importance  during  the  18th 
century  through  successful  trade  with 
Russia  and  the  East  country,  and 
through  the  formation  here  (1750-1795) 
of  a  harbor  of  refuge  for  the  Downs. 
That  harbor,  51  acres  in  extent,  has  a  sea 
entrance  250  feet  wide,  is  inclosed  on 
the  E.  and  W.  by  two  piers  670  and  520 
yards  long.  _  Among  its  special  features 
are  an  obelisk  marking  the  spot  where 
George  IV.  in  1821  embarked  for  Han- 
over, a  beautiful  Roman  Catholic  church 
by  the  Pugins,  a  Benedictine  monastery, 
college,  and  convent,  and  a  Jewish  syna- 
gogue and  college  erected  by  Sir  Moses 
Montefiore,  who,  like  the  elder  Pugin, 
was  a  resident.  To  the  N.  is  Broad- 
stairs,  and  to  the  W.  Pegwell  Bay,  with 
Ebbsfleet,  the  landing  place  of  St.  Augus- 
tine, and  also,  traditionally,  of  Hengist 
and  Horsa.    Here,  too,  is  Osengall  Hill, 


with  an  early  Saxon  cemetery.  It  was 
bombarded  several  times  during  the 
World  War  by  German  naval  vessels. 
Pop.  about  30,000. 

RANGE,  ARMAND  JEAN  LE 
BOUTHILLIEB  DE,  the  founder  of  the 
reformed  order  of  La  Trappe;  born  in 
Paris,  France,  Jan.  9,  1626.  He  em- 
braced the  ecclesiastical  profession,  and 
held  no  fewer  than  six  benefices.  Re- 
siding at  Paris,  he  gave  himself  up  to  a 
life  of  dissipation.  In  1657,  however,  a 
marked  change  took  place  in  his  charac- 
ter. He  demitted  all  his  benefices  ex- 
cept the  priory  of  Boulogne  and  the 
abbey  of  La  Trappe.  Retiring  to  the 
latter  place  in  1664,  he  began  those  re- 
forms which  have  rendered  his  name 
famous  (see  La  Trappe).  He  died  in 
Soligny-la-Trappe,  Ome,  France,  Oct. 
12,  1700. 

RANCHING,  the  business  of  cattle- 
breeding  as  pursued  on  a  large  scale  in 
the  unsettled  districts  of  the  United 
States  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Pacific 
coasts,  and  from  the  Bad  Lands  of  the 
Upper  Missouri  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Spanish 
rancho,  properly  "mess"  or  "mess  room," 
but  used  in  Mexico  also  for  a  herdsman's 
hut,  and  finally  for  a  grazing  farm,  as 
distinguished  from  a  hacienda,  a  planta- 
tion or  cultivated  farm.  The  specialty 
of  ranching  is  that  the  cattle  are  raised 
and  kept  in  a  half-wild  condition,  with 
little  or  no  house  shelter  provided  and 
no  artificial  feeding. 

Large  fortunes  were  made  in  the  wild 
old  days,  but  the  gradual  settlement 
of  the  ranching  country  has  seriously 
embarrassed  the  business  of  the  ranch- 
man. 

The  great  events  of  the  ranchman's 
year  are  the  "round-up,"  when  stock  is 
taken,  the  cattle  are  branded,  and  such 
full  grown  cattle  gathered  into  a  herd  as 
are  suitable  for  market;  and  the  depar- 
ture of  the  herds  for  market  or  port — 
times  of  hard  work  and  severe  strain  for 
all  concerned. 

RANCHO,  a  rude  hut  where  herdsmen 
and  farm-laborers  live  or  only  lodge; 
a  farming  establishment  for  rearing 
cattle  and  horses.  It  is  thus  distin- 
guished from  a  hacienda,  which  is  a  cul- 
tivated farm  or  plantation. 

RAND,  THE,  or  WHITE  WATERS 
RANGE,  a  small  tract  of  land,  extend- 
ing 25  miles  either  side  of  Johannesburg, 
South  Africa,  and  famous  for  its  mineral 
wealth.  Discovered  in  1885.  The  reefa 
are  accessible  and  rather  easily  worked. 
The  deposits  are  unique  in  their  unpar- 
alleled persistence  of  ore,  which  is  inter- 
spersed in  the  quartz  and  sandstone.     It 


BANDALL 


427 


BANDOLPH 


is  not  of  very  high  quality,  yielding  about 
$10  per  ton.  There  are  about  10,000 
stamps  in  the  district,  which  can  crush 
7,000,000  tons  a  year.  The  Boer  War 
passed  over  Johannesburg  without  doing 
any  vital  damage  to  the  plants.  Just 
before  the  war  it  was  yielding  at  the  rate 
of  $100,000,000  a  year,  or  one-third  of 
the  world's  production.  The  reefs  are 
over  a  mile  deep,  and  conditions  favor 
deep  mining.  The  deposits  are  not,  as 
asserted,   practically  unlimited. 

South  Africa  rivals  the  United  States 
in  disrespect  for  tradition.  In  fact,  its 
brightest  pioneers  are  Americans,  and 
the  leading  figure  among  Johannesburg 
engineers  is  Hennan  Jennings,  a  Har- 
vard graduate.  There  are  many  prob- 
lems ahead  of  the  Rand,  the  chief  being 
that  of  power.  There  are  no  navigable 
rivers,  and  practically  no  waterfalls. 
The  Kaffir,  of  whom  there  are  100,000 
in  the  Rand,  is  lazy  and  dissolute,  and 
the  Boer  War  made  him  worse  and 
scarcer;  while  the  climate  makes  white 
menial  labor  impossible. 

BANDALL,  JAMES  BYDER,  an 
American  journalist  and  composer;  born 
in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Jan.  1,  1839;  was  edu- 
cated at  Georgetown  College,  D.  C.  He 
taught  for  a  while  in  a  Louisiana  col- 
lege, and  then  turned  to  journalism. 
Shut  out  from  the  army  by  a  delicate 
constitution,  he  still  gave  powerful  aid 
to  the  Southern  cause  by  his  lyrics. 
These  include,  besides  "Maryland,  My 
Maryland"  (1861;  called  forth  by  news 
of  the  passage  of  the  first  Massachusetts 
troops  through  the  streets  of  Baltimore) ; 
"Stonewall  Jackson";  "There's  Life  in 
the  Old  Land  Yet";  etc.  After  1866  he 
edited  a  paper  in  Augusta,  Ga.  He  died 
Jan.  14,  1908. 

BANDALL,  SAMUEL  JACKSON,  an 
American  statesman;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  Oct.  10,  1828.  In  1862  he  was 
elected  to  Congress,  serving  continuously 
till  his  death.  He  was  Speaker  of  the 
House,  1876-1881.  As  such  he  used  his 
influence  in  guiding  the  House  through 
the  dangerous  crisis  produced  by  the  un- 
certainty of  the  presidential  election  of 
1876.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
April  12,  1890. 

BANDOLPH,  ALFBED  MAGILL,  an 
American  clergyman;  born  in  Winches- 
ter, Va.,  Aug.  31,  1836;  was  graduated 
at  William  and  Mary  College  in  1855  and 
at  the  Virgrinia  Theological  Seminary  in 
1858;  was  ordained  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church;  became  rector  of  St. 
George's  Church,  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  in 
1860,  and  remained  there  till  the  as- 
sault on  the  town  by  the  Union  troops  in 
1862.  He  was  a  chaplain  in  the  Confed- 
erate army  in  1863-1865,  and  was  rector 


of  Emmanuel  Church,  Baltimore,  Md., 
in  1867-1883.  In  1892  he  was  elected 
bishop  of  the  Southern  Virginia  diocese. 
Published  "Reason,  Faith,  and  Authority 
in  Christianity"  (1902).  He  died  in 
1918. 

BANDOLPH,  EDMUND  JENNINGS, 
an  American  statesman;  born  in  Wil- 
liamsburg, Va.,  Aug.  10,  1753;  studied 
at  William  and  Mary  College,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1776  he  helped 
to  frame  the  constitution  of  Virginia,  and 
became  the  State's  first  attorney-general. 
In  1786-1788  he  was  governor  of  Vir- 
ginia, and  in  1787  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention which  framed  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States.  In  1789,  he  was 
appointed  by  Washington  Attorney-Gen- 
eral of  the  United  States.  In  1794  he 
was  made  Secretary  of  State,  but  after 
the  President's  signing  of  the  Jay  Treaty 
(1795)  with  England  he  resigned  in  or- 
der to  be  free  to  vindicate  his  own  con- 
duct. Meanwhile  he  was  practically 
ruined  by  the  responsibility  which  he 
had  incurred,  as  part  of  the  duties  of  his 
office,  for  certain  funds  provided  for  for- 
eign service;  and  had  to  assign  his  lands 
and  slaves.  He  died  in  Clarke  co.,  Va., 
Sept.  13,  1813. 

BANDOLPH,  JOHN,  "of  Roanoke," 
an  American  statesman;  born  in  Caw- 
sons,  Chesterfield  co.,  Va.,  June  2,  1773. 
He  claimed  descent  from  Pocahontas,  the 
Indian  princess.  He  was  educated  for 
the  law,  but  turned  to  politics.  In  1799 
he  was  elected  to  Congress,  where  he 
became  the  acknowledged  leader  of  the 
administration  party.  His  opposition  to 
the  War  of  1812  caused  his  defeat  in  the 
following  election;  but  he  was  re-elected 
to  Congress  in  1814.  From  1825  to  1827 
he  was  a  United  States  Senator.  In 
1829  he  was  a  member  of  the  convention 
for  revising  the  constitution  of  Virginia, 
and  the  year  following  was  appointed 
United  States  minister  to  Russia.  On 
his  return  he  was  again  elected  to  Con- 
gress, hut  was  unable  to  occupy  his  seat. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  June  24, 
1833. 

BANDOLPH,  THOMAS,  an  English 
poet  and  dramatist;  born  in  Houghton, 
Northamptonshire,  England,  in  1605. 
He  was  educated  at  Westminster  and 
Cambridge,  and  was  admitted  to  a  fel- 
lowship. He  early  began  to  write,  and 
gained  the  friendship  of  Shirley,  and 
Ben  Jonson.  He  left  a  number  of  bright, 
fanciful,  and  occasionally  too^  glowing 
poems,  and  six  plavs:  "Aristippus,  or 
the  Jovial  Philosopher";  "The  Conceited 
Peddler";  "The  Jealous  Lovers";  "The 
Muses'  Looking  Glass";  "Amyntas,  or 
the  Impossible  Dowry";  and  "Hey  for 
Honesty."     He  died  in  March,  1635. 


RANDOLPH-MACON    SYSTEM       428 


BANK 


RANDOLPH-MACON  SYSTEM  OP 
COLLEGES  AND  ACADEMIES,  a  group 
of  five  colleges  and  preparatory  schools, 
under  the  Methodist  Church,  located  in 
the  State  of  Virginia.  There  is  a  col- 
lege for  men,  the  Randolph-Macon  Col- 
lege, which  has  two  preparatory  schools 
leading  up  to  it,  viz.:  the  Randolph- 
Macon  Academy  at  Bedford  City,  Va., 
and  the  Randolph-Macon  Academy  at 
Front  Royal,  Va.  The_  system  is  de- 
signed to  avoid  loss  of  time  and  to  bet- 
ter correlate  the  work  of  the  preparatory 
school  with  the  college.  The  college  for 
men  was  founded  before  the  Civil  War, 
but  closed  during  that  struggle  to  re- 
open at  its  present  location,  Ashland, 
Va.  In  1914-1915  the  faculty  consisted  of 
15  professors,  and  the  student  body 
numbered  190. 

The  Randolph-Macon  Womens'  College 
is  situated  at  Lynchburg,  Va.,  and 
its  preparatory  school  is  the  Randolph- 
Macon  Institute  at  Danville,  Va.  ,The 
college  has  attained  a  high  position 
among  the  leading  higher  educational  in- 
stitutions for  women,  and  has  been  more 
successful  in  securing  students  than  the 
men's  college.  The  enrollment  of  1914- 
1915  amounted  to  more  than  600  stu- 
dents, with  a  faculty  of  45  instructors. 

RANELAGH,  a  building  erected  in 
1742  on  the  site  of  the  gardens  of  a  villa 
of  the  last  Earl  of  Ranelagh  at  Chelsea, 
London,  England.  Its  rotunda  was  150 
feet  in  diameter,  with  an  orchestra  in 
the  center  and  tiers  of  boxes  all  round. 
The  chief  amusement,  promenading,  as 
it  was  called,  was  going  round  and  round 
the  area  below,  and  taking  refreshments 
in  the  boxes,  the  orchestra  performing 
meanwhile.  Ranelagh  was  a  fashionable 
and  notorious  place  of  resort  in  1740- 
1803.  Its  last  public  appearance  was 
when  the  installation  ball  of  the  Knights 
of  the  Bath  was  given  there  in  1802. 
This  building  was  closed  the  next  year 
and  torn  dov^Ti.  Its  site  is  now  part  of 
the  Chelsea  Hospital  garden. 

RANGE,  in  gunnery:  (1)  The  hori- 
zontal distance  to  which  a  projectile  is 
throwTi.  Strictly,  it  is  the  distance  frona 
the  muzzle  of  the  gun  to  the  second  in- 
tersection of  the  trajectory  vnth  the  line 
of  sight.  A  cannon  lying  horizontally  is 
called  the  right  level  or  point-blank 
range;  when  the  muzzle  is  elevated  to 
45°  it  is  called  the  utmost  level.  (2) 
A  place  where  gun  or  rifle  practice  is 
carried  on.  In  music,  the  whole  ascend- 
ing or  descending  series  of  sounds  capa- 
ble of  being  produced  by  a  voice  or  in- 
strument; the  compass  or  register  of  a 
voice  or  instrument.  In  natural  science, 
the  geographical  limits  vdthin  which  an 
animal  or  plant  is  now  distributed,  au'd 


the  limits  in  point  of  time  within  which 
it  has  existed  on  the  globe.  The  first  is 
called  range  in  space,  and  the  second 
range  in  time.  As  a  nautical  term:  (1) 
A  length  of  cable  a  little  in  excess  of  the 
depth  of  water,  ranged  on  deck  ready  to 
run  out  when  the  anchor  is  let  go.  (2) 
A  large  cleat  in  the  waist  for  belaying 
the  sheets  and  tacks  of  the  courses. 

RANGER,  HENRY  WARD,  an  Amer- 
ican landscape  painter.  He  was  bora 
in  1858  in  western  New  York.  He 
developed  his  technique  by  the  study  of 
his  art  in  the  galleries  of  Europe,  and 
speedily  eliminated  the  faults  of  his 
earlier  work  till  he  came  to  be  looked 
upon  as  the  leader  of  the  tonal  school 
among  painters  of  American  landscapes. 
"Spring  Woods"  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum,  New  York;  "Sheep  Pastures" 
in  the  Pennsylvania  Academy;  and  "Top 
of  the  Hill"  in  Corcoran  Gallery,  Wash- 
ington, are  among  the  best  examples  of 
his  art.  He  is  represented  in  other 
American  museums,  received  gold  med- 
als at  Charleston  and  Philadelphia,  and 
in  1906  became  National  Academician. 
He  died  in  1916. 

RANGOON,  the  capital  of  Lower 
Burma,  and  the  chief  seaport  of  Burma, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Pegu,  Hlaing  or 
Rangoon,  and  Pu-zun-doung  rirers; 
about  21  miles  from  the  sea.  Since  its 
occupancy  by  the  British  in  1852  Ran- 
goon has  undergone  such  changes  that  it 
is  practically  a  new  town.  The  princi- 
pal streets  are  broad,  and  contain  many 
large  and  not  a  few  handsome  buildings. 
There  are  the  law  courts,  post-offices, 
Bank  of  Bengal,  custom  house,  Angli- 
can and  Roman  Catholic  churches,  St. 
John's  College,  high  school,  etc.  A  large 
and  increasing  commerce  is  carried  on 
with  British,  Indian,  and  Chinese  ports; 
and  an  extensive  trade  is  conducted  with 
inland  towns  as  far  as  Mandalay.  The 
chief  exports  are  rice,  timber,  cotton, 
hides,  gums  and  resin,  mineral  oil,  ivory, 
precious  stones.     Pop.  about  300,000. 

RANJIT  SINGH,  the  founder  of  the 
Sikh  kingdom  in  the  Punjab,  India ;  born 
in  Gujranwala,  Nov.  2,  1780.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  Sikh  chief.  After  the  Shah 
of  Afghanistan  had  given  him  the  prov- 
ince of  Lahore,  he  directed  all  his  ener- 
gies to  the  founding  of  a  kingdom  which 
should  unite  all  the  Sikh  provinces  un- 
der his  own  personal  rule.  He  procured 
from  an  Afghan  prince,  as  the  price  of 
his  assistance  in  war,  the  famous  Koh-i- 
nur  diamond  (see  Diamond).  He  died 
June  27,  1839. 

RANK,  a  line  of  soldiers  standing 
abi'east  or  side  by  side;  often  used  along 
with  "file,"  which  is  a  line  running  from 


BANK 


429 


BANKE 


the  front  to  the  rear  of  a  company,  bat- 
talion, or  regiment,  the  term  "rank  and 
file,"  thus  comprising  the  whole  body  of 
the  common  soldiers. 

BANK,  in  the  army  and  navy,  a  grade 
of  various  officers  established  by  law, 
each  one  carrying  distinct  rights,  privi- 
leges, and  emoluments.  Official  etiquette 
often  prescribes  that  certain  functions 
shall  be  performed  by  officers  of  certain 
grades,  and  that  an  officer  is  entitled  to 
have  an  officer  of  equal  rank  to  treat 
with.  In  order  to  facilitate  communica- 
tions between  officers  of  the  United 
States  army  and  navy  in  accordance 
with  the  principle  of  equality  in  rank,  as 
well  as  to  enable  them  to  communicate 
with  similar  officers  of  foreign  countries, 
a  correspondence  has  been  established 
between  military  and  naval  ranks.  Be- 
fore the  abolition  of  the  four  offices  the 
general  of  the  army  ranked  equal  with 
the  admiral  of  the  navy,  and  the  lieu- 
tenant-general with  the  vice-admiral. 
After  this  the  officers  ranked  as  follows: 
Major-generals  with  rear-admirals ;  brig- 
adier-generals with  commodores ;  colonels 
with  captains;  lieutenant-colonels  with 
commanders;  majors  with  lieutenant- 
commanders;  captains  with  lieutenants; 
first  lieutenants  with  masters;  and 
second  lieutenants  with  ensigns.  Chiefs 
of  naval  bureaus,  usually  captains, 
ranked  as  commodores  while  holding 
bureau  assignments,  and  after  vacating 
them  resume  their  lineal  rank. 

If  a  naval  officer  is  assigned  to  a  duty 
or  command  that  would  ordinarily  be 
given  to  an  officer  of  a  higher  rank  he 
is  advanced  to  that  rank,  either  full  or 
acting,  for  the  period  of  the  assignment. 
A  chaplain  ranks  as  a  captain  of  cav- 
alry in  the  army,  and  as  a  captain  in  the 
navy.  The  superintendent  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  ranks  as  a 
colonel  in  the  army,  but  the  superintend- 
ent of  the  Naval  Academy  is  not  re- 
stricted to  high  rank;  he  may  be  a  com- 
mander, captain,  or  rear-admiral.  A 
flag-officer  is  a  naval  officer  of  sufficiently 
high  rank  to  entitle  him  to  command  a 
fleet  or  a  subdivision  of  one.  Captains 
command  ships  of  high  rating;  commo- 
dores, formerly,  squadrons  of  not  less 
than  four  ships.  In  the  army  briga- 
dier-generals command  brigades,  and 
major-generals,  divisions  and  corps,  the 
last  being  the  largest  body  in  the  army 
as  constituted  for  the  war  with  Spain. 

In  1902,  under  several  acts  of  Con- 
gress, the  highest  rank  in  the  army  was 
the  revived  one  of  lieutenant-general; 
and  in  the  navy  that  of  admiral,  revived 
for  Dewey.  The  Naval  Personnel  Bill 
abolished  the  rank  of  commodore,  en- 
larged the  number  of  rear-admirals,  and 

Vol.  VII— Cyc 


divided  the  latter  into  two  classes  of 
nine  each,  the  first  nine  ranking  with 
major-generals  and  the  second  nine  with 
brigadier-generals. 

In  order  to  place  American  officers  in 
the  World  War  on  a  level  with  officers 
of  the  Allies,  an  act  was  passed  May  22, 
1917.  providing  for  the  appointment  of 
3  admirals  and  3  vice-admirals.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1917,  an  act  was  passed  reviving 
the  title  of  General  for  two  officers,  the 
Commander  of  the  Armies  in  France 
and  the  Chief  of  Staff  of  the  Army. 

BANKE.  LEOPOLD  VON.  a  Gorman 
historian;  born  in  Wiehe,  between  Goth  a 
and  Halle,  Dec.  21,  1795.  Though  he 
studied  theology  and  philology  at  Halle 
and  Berlin,  and  in  1818  began  to  teach 
at  the  gymnasium  of  Frankfort-on-Oder, 


LEOPOLD  VON   RANKE 

his  chiefest  thoughts  were  given  to  the 
study  of  history.  The  works,  "A  History 
of  the  Roman  and  German  People  from 
1494  to  1535"  (1824)  and  "A  Criticism 
on  Modern  Historians"  (1824),  procured 
him  a  call  to  Berlin  as  Professor  of  His- 
tory in  1825.  The  latter  of  these  works 
and  "Analecta"  to  his  subsequent  books, 
expound  his  views  of  the  functions  of 
history,  and  the  methods  of  the  ideal  his- 
torian. History  is  the  record  of  facts. 
It  should  know  nothing  of  the  political 
party,  or  Church  politics,  or  subjective 
views  of  the  writer.  It  should  be  based 
on  sound  documentary  evidence,  criti- 
cally examined  and  sifted.  In  1827  he 
was  sent  by  the  Prussian  Government  to 
consult  the  archives  of  Vienna,  Venice, 
Rome,  and  Florence ;  four  years  he  spent 

28 


RANEE 


430 


RANTERS 


in  this  work,  and  returned  with  a  mass  of 
the   most   valuable  historical  materials. 
The  results  of  his  labors  were  seen  in 
"The   Princes  and   Peoples  of  Southern 
Europe  in  the  16th  and  17th  Centuries" 
(1827),   and    other   books    dealing  with 
Serbia,  Turkey,  and  Venice;   and  "The 
Roman  Popes  in  the  16th  and  17th  Cen- 
turies"  (1834-1837;  9th  ed.  1889),  per- 
haps   the    most    finished    of    his    books. 
Then  he  turned  his  attention  to  central 
and  northern  Europe,  and  wrote  in  quick 
succession  "German  History  in  the  Early 
Reformation"       (1839-1847) ;       "Twelve 
Books     on     Prussian     History"     (1847- 
1848);  "History  of  the  French"   (1852- 
1861);  "English  History"   (1859-1867); 
and   "German   History   from  the  Refor- 
mation to  the  Thirty  Years'  War"  (1869). 
Later    periods    and    special    periods    of 
German  history  are  treated  of  in  books 
on  the  "Origin  of  the  Seven  Years  War" 
(2d  ed.  1874)  ;  the  "German  Powers  and 
the  Confederation"  (1871) ;  the  "History 
of  Germany  and  France  in  the  19th  Cen- 
tury"  (1887),  and  monographs  on  Wal- 
lenstein  (1869),  Frederick  the  Great  and 
Frederick  William  IV.    (1878).     To  the 
above    must    be    added    a    book    on    the 
revolutionary   wars   of    1791    and    1792 
(1875),    another    on    Venetian    history 
(1878),  and  "The  Universal  History,"  of 
whose  nine  volumes  (1881-1888)  he  lived 
to  see  only  seven  published.     This  last 
work,  which  is  the  copestone  of  Ranke's 
historical    labors,    was   begun  when   he 
was  an  old  man  of  82 ;  yet  at  that  great 
age  he  kept  two  schooled  historical  as- 
sistants    busy,     studied     critically     the 
Greek   and   other   sources,   dictated  and 
worked  8  to  10  hours   a  day,  and  pub- 
lished one  volume  a  vear  regularly,  till 
he   died,    May   23,   1886,   having   rested 
from  his  beloved  work  only  a  few  short 
days.     Even  his  long  life — he  was  over 
90    when    he    died— would  hardly  have 
sufficed  for  the  thorough  works  he  ac- 
complished had  he  not  been  a  man  of  un- 
wearied    industry,    with     a    marvelous 
memory,     and    a    swift    and     intuitive 
judgment  as  to  the  value  of  historical 
material.     His  style  is  not  brilliant,  yet 
sufficiently  clear  and  interesting.  He  al- 
ways wrote  from  the  standpoint  of  one 
who  had  the  whole  history  of  the  world 
before    his    mind's    eye.     This    and    his 
skill  in  the  portraiture  of  historical  per- 
sonages often  lend   the  deepest  interest 
to  his  narratives.    His  point  of  view  was, 
however,  that  of  the  statesman ;  and  he 
fails  to  give  due  prominence  to  the  social 
and   popular   sides   of  national   develop- 
ment.    Ranke  married  an  Irish  lady  in 
1843,  and  was  ennobled   in   1865.       He 
continued  to  lecture  till   1872.     His  lec- 
tures  exercised    a    grpat   influence   upon 
those  who  sat  at  his  feet  to  learn,  as  is 


seen  in  the  works  of  the  great  school  of 
historical  writers,  Waitz,  Von  Sybel, 
Giesebrecht,  and  others.  A  collected 
edition  of  his  "Works"  was  published  at 
Leipsic  in  47  volumes  in  1868.  He  died 
in  Berlin,  May  23,  1886. 

RANNOCH,  LOCH,  a  lake  of  Perth- 
shire, Scotland,  35  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Perth,  11  miles  long,  and  about  1  mile 
average  breadth.  It  contains  two  islands 
and  has  an  outlet  for  its  waters  in  the 
Tummel,  a  tributary  of  the  Tay. 

RANSDELL,    JOSEPH    EUGENE, 

United  States  Senator  from  Louisiana; 
born  in  Alexandria,  La.,  in  1858.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  Union  College 
in  New  York  State.  In  1883  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  Louisiana,  and 
practiced  law  until  his  election  as  a  Dem- 
ocrat to  the  National  House  of  Represent- 
atives in  1899.  He  represented  his  dis- 
trict in  Congress  13  years  until  he  was 
elected  to  the  Senate,  to  which  body  he 
was  re-elected  in  1918.  Senator  Rans- 
dell  vigorously  opposed  the  Underwood- 
Simmons  Tariff  bill  as  he  considered  it 
unfair  to  the  sugar  interests  of  his  State. 
He  was  also  active  in  furthering  the  in- 
terests of  an  American  Merchant  Marine 
and  for  improved  waterways. 

RANSOM,  in  ordinary  language,  re- 
lease from  captivity  or  bondage  by  pay- 
ment. Also  the  money  paid  for  the 
release  of  a  person  from  captivity,  bond- 
age, or  slavery,  or  for  the  redemption  of 
goods  captured  by  an  enemy.  Or  a  price 
paid  or  offering  made  for  procuring  the 
pardon  of  sins,  and  the  redemption  of 
the  sinner  from  the  consequences  of  sin 
(Mark  x:  45).  Formerly,  atonement, 
expiation.  In  feudal  law,  a  sum  paid  for 
the  pardon  of  some  great  offense,  and 
the  discharge  of  the  offender;  or  a  fine 
paid  in  lieu  of  corporal  punishment. 

RANSOM,  THOMAS  EDWARD 
GREENFIELD,  an  American  military 
officer;  born  in  Norwich,  Vt.,  Nov.  29, 
1834.  Before  the  Civil  War  he  was  an 
engineer  in  Illinois;  became  a  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  volunteers  in  July,  1861;  was 
severely  wounded  at  Fort  Donelson  in 
1862;  commanded  a  regiment  at  Shiloh 
in  April,  1862;  was  promoted  Brigadier- 
General  in  January,  1863 ;  served  under 
General  Banks  in  the  Red  River  expedi- 
tion; and  was  severely  wounded  at  Sa- 
bine Cross-Roads,  La.,  in  April,  1864. 
When  his  wound  had  healed  he  joined 
Sherman's  army  and  took  command  of 
a  division  just  before  the  capture  of  At- 
lanta, Sept.  2,  1864.  He  died  in  Rome, 
Ga.,  Oct.  29,  1864. 

RANTERS,  a  name  given  by  way  of 
reproach  to  a  denomination  of  Christians 
which  sprang  up  in  1645.     They  called 


RANUNCULACEiE 


431 


RAPHAEL 


themselves  "Seekers,"  the  members 
maintaining  that  they  were  seeking  for 
the  true  Church  and  its  ordinances,  and 
the  Scriptures,  which  were  lost.  The 
name  "Ranters"  is  also  applied  to  the 
Primitive  Methodists,  who  formed  them- 
selves into  a  society  in  1810,  and  who 
were  in  favor  of  street  preaching. 

RANUNCULACE-ffi,  crowfoots ;  an 
order  of  hypogynous  exogens.  Herbs, 
rarely  shrubs,  leaves  often  much  divided, 
with  dilated,  half-clasping  petioles,  often 
with  processes  like  stipules.  Flow- 
ers typically  polypetalous,  large,  gaily- 
colored,  sometin-ves  apetalous,  but  with 
colored  sepals.  Found  in  cold  damp 
places  in  Europe,  North  America,  etc. 
They  are  acrid,  and  often  poisonous. 
Tribes:  Clematese,  Anemonese,  Ranuncu- 
leae,  Helleboreae,  and  Actaeeae. 

RANUNCULUS,  buttercup,  crowfoot; 
the  typical  genus  of  the  order  Ranun- 
cidaceae.  Sepals  five,  rarely  three,  cadu- 
cous; petals  five,  or  more,  or  wanting, 
glandular  at  the  base;  stamens  many; 
fruit  of  many  achenes,  each  with  one 
ascending  seed.  Known  species  about 
160,  from  temperate  regions.  R.  scele- 
ratus  was  formerly  used  by  beggars  to 
create  artificial  sores;  it  is  poisonous 
when  raw,  but  is  eaten  boiled  by  the 
Wallachians.  The  juice  of  R.  thora  was 
used  by  the  Swiss  hunters  to  envenom 
their  javelins.  R.  glacialis  is  a  power- 
ful sudorific.  Many  species  are  very 
beautiful,  and  are  cultivated  in  gardens. 

RAP,  familiar  in  the  phrase  "not  a 
rap,"  a  counterfeit  Irish  coin  of  the  time 
of  George  I.,  which  passed  for  a  half- 
penny, though  not  really  worth  a  fourth 
of  that  value.  There  was  also  a  small 
Swiss  coin  called  "rappen,"  worth  a  cen- 
time. 

RAPE,  in  law,  carnal  knowledge  of  a 
woman  by  force  against  her  will.  Con- 
sent obtained  by  duress  or  threats  of 
murder  is  nugatory.  Rape  is  a  felony 
punishable  with  imprisonment  for  life, 
or  for  a  term  of  years,  or  with  death. 

RAPE,  two  species  of  Brassica. 
Summer  rape  is  B.  campestris,  and  win- 
ter rape  B.  napiis.  Sir  J.  Hooker  re- 
gards the  latter  as  a  sub-species  of  the 
former,  and  the  turnip  as  another  sub- 
species. B.  campestris  proper  has  the 
root  tuberous,  the  radical  leaves  hispid. 
It  is  the  Swedish  turnip.  B.  iiapus,  the 
rape  properly  so  called,  has  the  root 
fusiform,  and  the  leaves  all  glabrous  and 
glaucous.  It  is  cultivated  as  a  salad 
plant,  and  is  sometimes  also  used  in  lieu 
of  greens.  Sometimes  it  is  called  also 
cole  seed. 

RAPE  CAKE,  a  hard  cake  formed  by 
pressure  of  the  seeds  and  husks  of  rape 


after  the  oil  has  been  expressed.     It  is 

used  for  feeding  cattle   and  sheep,  and 

also    has    a    high  reputation    as    a    rich 
manure. 

RAPHAEL,  RAFFAELLO  SANZIO, 
or  SANTI  D'URBINO,  the  gieatest  of 
modern  painters,  and  head  of  the  Roman 
school;  born  in  Urbino,  Italy,  March  28, 
1483.  He  received  his  earliest  instruc- 
tions from  his  father,  Giovanni  Santi, 
after  whose  death,  in  1494,  he  became  the 
pupil  of  Perugino.  In  1504  he  visited 
Florence,  and  chiefly  lived  there  till  1.508, 
when  he  was  called  to  Rome  by  Pope 
Julius  II.,  and  employed  to  paint  the 
stanze  (chambers)  of  the  Vatican. 
Raphael  spent  the  rest  of  his  short  life  at 
Rome,  where  he  formed  a  numerous 
school  of  painters,  among  whom  the  most 
eminent  were  Giulio  Romano,  Gian  Fran- 
cesco Pennis,  Pierino  del  Vaga,  Polidoro 
da    Caravaggio,   and    Garofalo.     In    the 


RAPHAEL 

numerous  works,  frescoes,  and  oil  paint- 
ings of  this  unrivaled  master,  three 
styles  are  distinctly  recognizable.  The 
first  is  the  "Peruginesque,"  in  which 
sentiment  predominates,  and  was  the 
pure  imitation  of  his  master's  manner. 
The  second  is  the  "Florentine,"  marked 
by  a  great  advance  in  respect  to  form 
and  dramatic  composition;  it  was  the 
result  of  his  studies  at  Florence;  where 
he  was  impressed  by  the  cartoons;  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Michael  Angelo, 
and  the  works  of  Masaccio,  Francia,  and 


BAFHB 


432 


RAPP 


Fra  Bartolomeo  di  San  Marco.  The 
third  style  is  called  the  "Roman,"  and  is 
peculiarly  Raphael's  own — that  which 
constitutes  him  the  greatest  of  painters. 
Its  supreme  excellence  is  the  equable  de- 
velopment of  all  the  essential  qualities 
of  art,  composition,  expression,  design, 
coloring.  Of  the  paintings  executed  be- 
fore his  visit  to  Florence  must  be  named 
"Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  now  in  the 
Vatican,  and  the  "Sposalizio,  or  Mar- 
riage of  the  Virgin,"  in  the  Brera  at 
Milan.  Among  those  in  his  second  man- 
ner are  the  "Entombment  of  Christ,"  in 
the  Borghese  gallery  at  Rome;  the  "Ma- 
donna del  Baldacchino,"  in  the  Pitti  Pal- 
ace at  Florence;  the  "Madonna  del  Gran 
Duca,"  in  the  same  palace;  and  the  grand 
fresco,  "Theology,"  or  "Dispute  on  the 
Sacrament,"  the  first  he  executed  in  the 
Vatican.  "The  School  of  Athens,"  or 
"Philosophy,"  painted  in  1511,  first 
showed  traces  of  his  third  and  highest 
Btyle.  It  was  followed  by  the  "Parnas- 
sus," or  "Poetry,"  "Jurisprudence,"  "Ex- 
pulsion of  Helidorus  from  the  Temple  of 
Jerusalem."  The  works  of  Michael  An- 
gelo  in  the  Sistine  chapel  stimulated  him 
in  the  production  of  his  "Isaiah"  and 
"Sybils";  and  in  1515  he  prepared  the 
"Cartoons"  for  the  tapestry  of  the  Sis- 
tine  chapel,  three  of  which  are  lost,  and 
the  other  seven,  sent  to  Flanders,  were 
bought  by  Charles  I.,  and  now  form 
part  of  the  National  Collection  in  South 
Kensington  Museum,  London.  Among 
Raphael's  oil  paintings  are  the  "St.  Ceci- 
lia," at  Bologna;  the  famous  "Madonna 
di  San  Sisto,"  now  in  the  Dresden  gal- 
lery; the  "Spasimo  di  Sicilia,"  now  at 
Madrid;  and  the  "Transfiguration,"  his 
last  work,  and  perhaps  at  once  the  chef- 
d'oeuvre  of  Raphael  and  of  painting.  It 
is  now  in  the  Vatican.  His  drawings 
are  very  numerous,  and  are  to  be  found 
in  most  of  the  public  and  private  muse- 
ums of  Europe.  Raphael  died  in  Rome 
from  the  effects  of  a  cold  caught  in  the 
Vatican,  on  his  37th  birthday,  April  6, 
1520. 

RAPHE,  in  botany,  the  vascular  cord 
communicating  between  the  nucleus  of 
an  ovule  and  the  placenta,  when  the  base 
of  the  former  is  removed  from  the  base 
of  the  ovulum. 

RAPHIDES,  needle-shaped  transpar- 
ent bodies,  lying  either  singly  or  in 
bundles  among  the  tissue  of  plants;  any 
crystalline  formation  in  a  vegetable  cell. 
The  former  commonly  consist  of  oxalate 
of  lime. 

BAPIER,  a  light,  highly-tempered, 
edgeless,  and  finely-pointed  weapon  of 
the  sword  kind  used  for  thrusting.  It 
is  about  three  feet  in  length,  and  was 
long  a  favorite  weapon   for  duels.     Its 


use  now,  however,  is  restricted  to  occa- 
sions of  state  ceremonial. 

RAPP,  GEORGE,  a  German-American 
socialist,  founder  of  the  sect  oi  Har- 
monists; born  in  Wurttemberg,  in  1770. 
After  an  attempt  to  restore  the  Church 
of  New  Testament  days  in  Germany,  he 
emigrated  with  his  followers  to  western 
Pennsylvania  in  1803.  There  he  estab- 
lished a  settlement  which  he  named  Har- 
mony (whence  the  early  title  of  the  sect. 
Harmonists  or  Harmonites).  In  1815 
the  community  removed  to  Indiana,  and 
founded  New  Harmony;  but  this  was 
sold  in  1824  to  Robert  Owen,  and  Rapp 
and  his  followers  returned  to  Pennsyl- 
vania, where  they  built  Economy,  a  vil- 
lage on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ohio,  15 
miles  N.  W.  of  Pittsburgh,  and  engaged 
in  farming.  Impressed  with  the  certain- 
ty of  the  speedy  second  coming  of  Christ, 
his  absorbing  aim  was  to  amass  great 
wealth,  to  be  placed  then  at  the  Lord's 
disposal.  To  this  end  he  and  his  fol- 
lowers practiced  a  rigid  economy,  and 
lived  a  life  of  toil  and  self-denial,  in 
which  celibacy  formed  a  part;  and  with 
the  same  object  all  things  were  held  in 
common.  As  the  years  passed  the  com- 
munity became  wealthy.  Its  numbers, 
however,  have  not  increased,  and  in  1890 
did  not  exceed  70.  He  died  in  Economy, 
Pa.,  Aug.  7,  1847. 

RAPP,  JEAN,  COUNT,  a  French  mili- 
tary officer;  born  in  Colmar,  Haut-Rhin, 
France,  April  27,  1772.  He  was  intend- 
ed for  the  Church,  but  his  taste  for  a 
military  life  led  him  to  enroll  himself 
(1788)  in  the  mounted  "chasseurs"  of 
the  French  army.  Rapp  distinguished 
himself  by  dashing  gallantry  in  Ger- 
many and  Egypt,  and  on  the  death  of 
Desaix  at  Marengo  he  became  aide-de- 
camp to  Napoleon.  His  brilliant  charge 
at  Austerlitz  on  the  Russian  Imperial 
Guard  was  rewarded  with  the  grade  of 
general  of  divison  (1805).  For  his  serv- 
ices at  Lobau  he  was  named  a  count  of 
the  empire  (1809).  He  opposed  the 
Russian  expedition,  but  accompanied  the 
emperor  throughout  the  whole  of  it.  His 
obstinate  defense  of  Danzig  for  nearly  a 
year  against^  a  powerful  Russian  army 
gained  for  him  greater  renown,  and  his 
chivalrous  and  considerate  treatment  of 
the  unfortunate  inhabitants  during  the 
siege  was  warmly  appreciated  by  them. 
The  Russians,  contrary  to  the  articles  of 
capitulation,  sent  Rapp  and  his  garrison 
prisoners  to  Russia,  and  he  did  not  re- 
turn to  France  till  July,  1814.  On 
reaching  Paris  he  was  well  received  by 
Louis  XVIII. ;  but  in  1815  he  went  over 
to  his  old  master,  and  was  appointed 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Army  of 
the  Rhine,  and  peer  of  France.     After 


RAPPAHANNOCK 


433 


RASP 


Waterloo  Rapp  again  submitted  to  Louis. 
Re-created  a  peer  of  France  (1819),  he 
held  various  offices  about  the  court,  and 
died  in  Baden,  Nov.  18,  1821. 

RAPPAHANNOCK,  a  river  of  Vir- 
ginia, rising  in  the  Blue  Ridge  of  the 
Allegheny  Mountains,  receiving  the 
Rapidan  (above  this  point  it  is  some- 
times called  the  North  Fork),  and  flow- 
ing about  125  miles  S.  E.  to  Chesapeake 
Bay.  It  is  tidal  and  navigable  to  Fred- 
ericksburg. The  Rappahannock  and  the 
Rapidan  were  the  scenes  of  some  of  the 
most  sanguinary  battles  of  the  Civil  War, 
at  Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville,  and 
the  Wilderness. 

RAPPEE,  a  strong  kind  of  snuff  of 
either  a  black  or  brown  color;  it  is  made 
from  the  darker  and  ranker  kinds  of 
tobacco  leaves. 

RARATONGA,  or  RAROTONGA,  an 

island  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  be- 
longing to  Great  Britain,  of  the  group 
of  Hervey  Islands;  53  miles  in  circum- 
ference. It  consists  of  a  mass  of  moun- 
tains, becomes  visible  at  a  grreat  distance, 
and  has  a  very  romantic  appearance. 
The  inhabitants  have  been  converted  to 
Christianity.     Pop.  about  3,000. 

RAREFACTION,  in  physics,  the  act 
of  rendering  more  rare,  i.  e.,  less  dense. 
Used  specially  of  the  diminution  in  the 
density  of  the  air  in  the  receiver  of  an 
air  pump,  or  at  great  altitudes.  It  is 
produced  by  the  increase  in  the  size  of 
the  spaces  between  the  particles  of  air  or 
other  gases,  so  that  the  same  number  of 
particles  occupies  a  larger  space  than 
before  rarefaction  began.  Called  also 
dilatation. 

RARITAN,  a  river  of  New  Jersey, 
formed  by  two  branches  which  unitedly 
flow  S.  E.,  and  fall  into  Raritan  Bay 
near  Perth  Amboy.  It  is  navigable  as 
far  as  New  Brunswick. 

RASH,  an  eruption  or  efflorescence  on 
the  skin,  consisting  of  red  patches,  dif- 
fused irregularly  over  the  body. 

RASHI  (from  the  initials  of  Rabbi 
Shelomo  Izaaki,  often  erroneously  called 
Jarchi),  the  greatest  Jewish  commenta- 
tor and  exegete;  born  in  Troyes,  France, 
about  1040.  Philology,  philosophy,  med- 
icine, astronomy,  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
law,  and  exegesis  were  the  chief 
branches  of  his  learning;  and  to  a  rare 
proficiency  in  them  he  united  a  complete 
mastery  over  the  whole  range  of  Scrip- 
ture and  the  Talmudical  sources.  In  or- 
der further  to  perfect  himself  for  his 
gigantic  task  he  traveled  for  seven  years, 
visiting  the  schools  of  Italy,  Greece,  (Ger- 
many, Palestine,  Egypt.  His  chief  work 
is  his  "Commentary"  on  the  whole  of  the 


Old  Testament.  This  "Commentary"— 
entirely  translated  into  Latin  by  Breit- 
haupt,  was  the  first  book  ever  printed 
in  Hebrew  (Reggio,  1474).  Of  his  num- 
erous other  works  may  be  mentioned  his 
"Commentary  on  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud"; a  "Commentary  to  the  Pirke 
Aboth";  the  "Pardes,  Treating  of  Laws 
and  Ceremonies";  a  "Commentary  on 
Midrash  Rabbah";  a  "Book  of  Medi- 
cine"; and  a  "Poem  on  the  Unity  of 
God."     He  died  July  13,  1105. 

RASK,  RASMUS  CHRISTIAN,  a 
Danish  philologist;  born  in  Brandekilde, 
Denmark,  Nov.  22,  1787.  After  he  had 
studied  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen, 
he  journeyed  through  Sweden,  Russia, 
and  Iceland  to  increase  his  knowledge  of 
Northern  languages,  with  the  result  that 
he  published  "An  Introduction  to  the 
Knowledge  of  the  Icelandic  or  Old  Norse 
Tongue"  (1811)  ;  an  edition  of  Haldor- 
sen's  "Icelandic  Dictionary"  (1817)  ;  and 
an  "Anglo-Saxon  Grammar"  (1817). 
In  1817-1822  he  made,  at  the  expense  of 
the  government,  a  second  journey  to 
Russia,  Persia,  and  India.  He  then  re- 
turned to  Copenhagen  in  1822,  was  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Literary  History 
and  subsequently  Professor  of  Oriental 
Languages  and  librarian  to  the  univer- 
sity. During  this  period  he  published  a 
"Spanish  Grammar,"  a  work  on  the  Fri- 
sian language,  and  a  treatise  on  the  Zen- 
davesta,  in  which  he  showed  that  the 
language  was  closely  akin  to  Sanskrit. 
He  died  in  Copenhagen,  Nov.  14,  1832. 

RASKOLNIKS,  the  collective  name 
given  to  the  adherents  of  the  dissenting 
sects  in  Russia,  which  have  originated 
by  secession  from  the  State  Church. 
The  great  majority  of  these  sects  date 
originally  from  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century,  when  the  liturgical  books,  etc., 
were  revised  under  the  patriarch  Nikon. 
The  Raskolniks  clung  fanatically  to  the 
old  and  corrupted  texts,  and  regarded  the 
czar  and  the  patriarch  as  the  representa- 
tives of  Antichrist,  called  themselves 
Staro-obryadtsy  (old  ritualists)  or 
Staro-vertsy  (followers  of  the  old  faith). 
They  have  split  up  into  a  large  number 
of  sects,  which  may  be  grouped  generally 
in  two  classes;  those  who  have  a  priest- 
hood, and  those  who  have  none.  The 
tendency  of  the  Raskolniks  is  commu- 
nistic. They  include  about  one-third  of  the 
merchant  class,  and  nearly  all  the  Cos- 
sacks, but  none  of  the  noble  or  cultivated 
class.  Their  numbers  are  variously  es- 
timated at  from  3,000,000  to  11,000,000. 

RASP,  a  coarse  file  having,  instead  of 
chisel-cut  teeth,  its  surface  dotted  with 
separate  protruding  teeth,  formed  by  the 
indentations  of  a  pointed  punch.  It  is 
used  almost  exclusively  on  comparatively. 


RASPBEBRY 


434 


RASTRITES 


soft  substances,  as  wood,  horn,  and  the 
softer  metals.     Also  a  raspberry. 

RASPBERRY,  a  shrubby  plant  with 
many  suckers.  Found  in  America  and 
in  the  N.  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  spe- 
eies  in  gardens  is  the  wild  plant,  greatly 
improved  by  cultivation.  The  fruit  re- 
sembles the  strawberry  in  not  becoming 
acid  in  the  stomach.  There  are  red  and 
yellow  varieties. 

RASPUTIN   (NOVIKO),  GREGORY, 

a  Russian  monk  and  political  intriguer, 
born  in  Siberia,  of  illiterate  parents,  his 
father  being  a  fisherman.  He  received 
no  schooling,  and  was  known  throughout 
his  youth  as  a  worthless  fellow,  on  which 
account  he  became  known  as  "Rasputin," 
meaning  a  vagabond.  In  early  manhood 
he  became  an  itinerant  monk,  and  de- 
veloped peculiarly  strong  psychic  pow- 
ers, which  enabled  him  to  gain  a  liveli- 
hood as  a  mystic  healer.  He  eventually 
attracted  the  attention  of  Madam  Viru- 
bova,  the  favorite  lady-in-waiting  of  the 
Empress,  who  introduced  him  into  the 
court.  Here  his  healing  powers,  exer- 
cised over  the  young  Czarevitch,  deeply 
impressed  the  Czarina,  and  Rasputin 
thereby  gained  an  influence  over  her 
which  could  not  be  broken.  After  the 
outbreak  of  the  war,  in  1914,  Rasputin,  it 
was  said,  was  bribed  by  the  Germans,  to 
exercise  his  influence  at  court  in  favor 
of  bringing  about  a  premature  peace. 
That  he  was  at  the^  head  of  the  intrigu- 
ing pro-German  clique  in  the  Russian 
Court  is  beyond  dispute.  So  powerful 
became  his  influence  over  the  Czarina 
and  the  Czar,  that  even  the  Grand-Dukes 
were  turned  against  him,  and  sought  to 
eliminate  him.  This  proving  impossible, 
he  was  finally  inveigled  into  the  resi- 
dence of  Prince  Felix  Yusopov,  a  rela- 
tive of  the  Czar  by  marriage,  and  killed 
by  a  group  of  men,  one  of  whom  was 
Grand-Duke  Dimitri  Pavlovitch,  ex-Min- 
ister of  the  Interior.  Rasputin's  work 
had  been  done,  however,  and  the  machin- 
ery he  set  in  motion  finally  caused  the 
revolution  of  March,  1917,  the  result  of 
which  was  the  overthrow  of  the  auto- 
cratic government.     Died  1917. 

RASSAM,  HORMUZD,  a  Turkish  As- 
syriologist;  born  in  Mosul,  Mesopotamia, 
in  1826.  He  gained  the  friendship  of 
Layard,  and  assisted  him  in  his  excava- 
tions at  Nineveh  in  1845-1847  and  1849- 
1851,  and  then  succeeded  him,  till  1854 
as  British  agent  for  conducting  Assy- 
rian explorations.  His  grandest  success 
was  the  finding  of  the  palace  of  Assur- 
bani-Pal  (Sardanapalus).  After  holding 
in  the  following  years  political  offices  at 
Aden  and  Muscat,  he  was  sent  (1864) 
by  the  British  Government  to  Abyssinia, 
to  demand  the  release  of  the  Europeans 


kept  in  prison  by  King  Theodore;  but 
that  potentate  cast  him  also  into  prison 
and  only  released  him  with  the  rest  of 
his  captives  after  his  army  had  been  de- 
feated by  Sir  R.  Napier  in  1868.  From 
1876  to  1882  Rassam  was  employed  by 
the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum  in 
making  explorations  in  Mesopotamia, 
and  discovered  Sepharvaim  (Sippara) 
and  Kuthah.  He  published  "The  Brit- 
ish Mission  to  Theodore,  King  of  Abys- 
sinia"  (1869).     He  died  in  1910. 

RASSE,  a  carnivorous  quadruped, 
closely  allied  to  the  civet,  spread  over 
a  great  extent  of  Asia,  including  Java, 
various  parts  of  India,  Singapore,  Nepal, 
and  other  localities.  Its  perfume,  which 
is  secreted  in  a  double  pouch  like  that 
of  the  civet,  is  much  valued  by  the 
Javanese. 

RASTATT,  or  RASTADT,  a  town  and 
first-class  fortress  in  Baden;  on  the 
Murg,  3  miles  from  its  junction  with  the 
Rhine,  and  15  miles  S.  W.  of  Carlsruhe. 
Steel  wares,  beer,  and  tobacco  are  manu- 
factured. From  1725  to  1771  the  town 
was  the  residence  of  the  Margraves  of 
Baden-Baden.  The  present  fortifications 
were  erected  in  1840-1848  by  Austrian 
engineers  to  protect  the  N.  entrance  to 
the  Black  Forest.  Rastatt  is  memo- 
rable for  two  congresses — the  first  in 
1714,  when  a  treaty  of  peace,  which 
brought  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succes- 
sion to  a  close,  was  signed  between  Mar- 
shal Villars  and  Prince  Eugene;  and  the 
second  in  1797-1799.  On  the  breaking 
up  of  this  latter  congress  without  any 
definite  result  the  three  French  pleni- 
potentiaries set  out  for  Strassburg;  but 
they  had  scarcely  got  beyond  the  gates 
of  Rastatt  when  they  were  attacked  by 
Austrian  hussars,  and  two  of  the  three 
slain,  while  the  third  was  left  for  dead 
in  a  ditch.  Their  papers  were  carried 
oft",  but  no  further  spoil  was  taken.  It 
seems  that  the  Archduke  Charles  gave 
orders  to  the  hussars  to  drive  the  French 
representatives  out  of  Rastatt  and  take 
away  their  papers;  the  killing  was  the 
work  of  the  officers,  misunderstanding 
their  orders.  The  town  played  a  prom- 
inent part  in  1849  as  the  stronghold  of 
the  revolutionists  in  Baden.  Pop.  about 
16,000. 

RASTRITES,  in  palaeontology,  a  genus 
of  Graptolites  or  Rhabdophora.  The 
poTjrpary  consists  of  a  slender  axial  tube, 
having  on  one  side  a  row  of  cellules,  or 
hydrothecze,  sej^arate  and  not  overlap- 
ping. The  typical  species  is  R.  pere- 
grinus,  which,  with  R.  triangulatus,  is 
found  in  the  S.  of  Scotland.  Etheridge 
makes  a  zone  of  R.  peregrinus  in  the  Up- 
per Birkhill  or  Gray  Shale  group  of  the 
Lower  Llandovery.     Found  also  in  Bo- 


RAT 


435 


RATEL 


hernia  (where  it  is  said  to  extend  to  the 
Upper  Silurian),  in  Saxony,  etc. 

RAT,  in  zoology,  a  name  popularly 
applied  to  the  lai'ger  murines,  but  more 
strictly  applicable  to  two  species,  the 
English  black  rat  (Mus  rattiis) ,  and  the 
brown,  or  Norway  rat  (M.  deeumanus) . 
The  former  is  a  small,  lightly  built 
animal,  about  seven  inches  long,  with  a 
slender  head,  large  ears,  and  a  thin 
scaly  tail  longer  than  the  body.  In  tem- 
perate climates  the  color  is  a  bluish- 
black  lighter  on  the  belly.  The  species 
is  represented  in  warmer  climates  bj^  the 
Alexandrian  rat  {M.  alexandrinus, 
better  known  as  M.  rattus  't'ufescens) , 
with  a  gray  or  reddish  back,  and  white 


AUSTRALIAN   KANGAROO  RAT 

under -surface.  By  later  naturalists  it  is 
considered  as  only  a  variety.  The  albino 
and  pied  rats,  kept  as  pets,  also  belong 
to  this  species,  which  had  its  home  in 
India  and  penetrated  thence  to  almost 
every  part  of  the  world,  driving  out  the 
native  rats,  and  to  be,  in  its  turn  exter- 
minated by  the  brown  rat  (probably  a 
native  of  China,  where  a  similar  spe- 
cies, M.  humiliatus,  is  still  found).  The 
brown  rat  is  much  more  heavily  built 
than  the  black  rat,  grayish-brown  above 
and  white  beneath;  ears,  feet,  and  tail 
flesh-colored.  Melanism  often  occurs, 
but  such  animals  may  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  ordinary  specific  differ- 
ences from  the  true  black  rat.  Length 
of  head  and  body  eight  or  nine  inches 
long,  tail  shorter.  Both  the  species  are 
omnivorous,  predaceous,  and  extremely 
fecund,  breeding  four  or  five  times  in 
the  year,  the  female  producing  from  4 
to  10  blind,  naked  young,  which  breed 
in  their  turn  at  about  six  months 
old.  M.  fuscipes  is  the  brown-footed  rat 
of  Australia;  Nesokia  hmidicota,  the 
bandicoot,  or  pig  rat;  and  N.  bengalen- 
sis,  the  Indian  field  rat.  Figuratively: 
(1)  One  who  deserts  his  party  (espe- 
cially in  politics),  as  rats  are  said  to 
forsake  a  falling  house  or  a  doomed  ship. 


(2)  A  workman  who  takes  work  for 
less  than  the  regular  wages  current  in 
the  trade;  also  a  workman  who  takes 
employment  at  an  establishment  where 
the  regular  hands  have  struck;  a  term 
of  opprobrium  applied  to  non-union  men 
by  members  of  trades  unions ;  specifically 
to  non-union  printers. 

RATA  (Metrosideros  robusta) ,  a  New 
Zealand  tree  related  to  various  species  of 
ironwood.  The  seed  is  believed  to  be 
swallowed  by  a  caterpillar,  and  to  sprout 
in  its  interior,  the  fostering  grub  being 
of  course  killed.  The  tree  begins  life 
as  a  climber,  attached  to  other  forest 
trees,  and  attains  a  height  of  150  feet; 
but  when  it  has  killed  the  supporting 
stem  the  rata  is  able  to  sustain  its  own 
weight  and  to  grow  on  as  an  independent 
tree,  attaining  ultimately  a  height  of 
nearly  200  feet.  The  wood  is  very  hard, 
formerly  much  used  for  making  clubs, 
and  is  valuable  for  shipbuilding. 

RAT-BITE  FEVER,  an  infection  aris- 
ing probably  from  a  spirochete,  present 
in  the  blood  of  about  3  per  cent,  of  house 
rats,  and  consequently  called  spirochaeta 
morsusmuris  by  Japanese  specialists. 
The  spirochetal  theory  is  supported  by 
the  efficacy  in  the  fever  of  salvarsan, 
which  is  known  to  have  a  remedial  effect 
in  spirochete  cases. 

RATCHET,  in  machinery,  the  detent 
which  prevents  the  backward  motion  of 
a  racket  wheel. 

RATCHET  WHEEL,  a  wheel  having 
inclined  teeth  for  receiving  a  ratchet  or 
detent,  by  which  motion  is  imparted  or 
arrested.  The  teeth  are  of  such  shape 
as  to  revolve  and  pass  the  detent  in  one 
direction  only.  The  detent  may  be  a 
pallet  or  a  pawl.  The  former  receives 
an  intermittent  rotation  by  a  reciprocat- 
ing circular  movement  of  the  arbor  and 
its  cam.  Sometimes  the  wheel  is  int^- 
mittingly  rotated  by  the  motion  of  one 
pawl,  while  the  other  one  acts  as  a  de- 
tent in  the  intervals  between  the  for- 
ward motions  of  the  former. 

RATCHET  WRENCH,  a  wrench  oper- 
ated by  a  ratchet  and  pawl,  so  that  it 
may  be  turned  continuously  without  re- 
moval from  the  bolt  or  nut  to  which  it  is 
applied,  by  a  backward  and  forward 
movement  of  the  handle. 

RATCHMENT,  in  architecture,  a  kind 
of  flying  buttress  which  springs  fi'om  the 
principals  of  a  herse,  and  meets  against 
the  central  or  chief  principal. 

RATEL,  the  genus  MelUvora.  Two 
species  are  usually  distinguished,  M, 
indica,  the  Indian,  and  M.  rate!,  the  Cape 
ratel.     The    body   is    stout   and   heavily. 


HATHENOW 


436 


BATIO 


built,  legs  short  and  strong,  with  long 
curved  fossorial  claws,  tail  short,  ear- 
conches  rudimentary.  General  colora- 
tion iron-gray  on  the  upper,  and  black 
on  the  lower  surface,  reversing  the  gen- 
eral plan  of  coloration,  which  is  gener- 
ally lighter  on  the  under  surface.  A 
marked  white  stripe  divides  the  gray  of 
the  upper  parts  from  the  black  in  the 
Cape  ratel,  which  is  «aid  to  live  princi- 
pally on  honey.  Jerdon  says  that  M. 
mdica,  which  he  calls  the  Indian  badger, 
is  found  throughout  India,  living  usually 
in  pairs  and  eating  rats,  birds,  frogs, 
white  ants,  and  various  insects;  and  in 
the  N.  of  India,  where  it  is  accused  of 
digging  out  dead  bodies,  it  is  popularly 
known  as  the  grave-digger.  It  doubt- 
less also,  like  its  Cape  congener,  occa- 
sionally partakes  of  honey  and  is  often 
very  destructive  to  poultry.  In  confine- 
ment it  is  quiet,  and  will  eat  fruits,  rice, 
etc. 

RATHENOW,  a  town  of  Prussia,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Havel  (here  crossed 
by  a  stone  bridge),  43  miles  W.  by  N.  of 
Berlin.  Optical  instruments,  ^  wooden 
wares,  machinery,  bricks  and  tiles,  are 
made.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

RATHLIN,  a  crescent-shaped  island 
off  the  coast  of  Antrim,  6%  miles  N.  of 
Ballycastle.  '  Area,  3,398  acres.  St. 
Colomba  established  a  church  here  in 
the  6th  century;  and  Bruce  in  1306  took 
refuge  in  a  castle,  now  a  ruin. 

EATIBOR,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia ; 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oder,  44  miles 
S.  S.  E.  of  Oppeln  It  is  the  chief  town 
of  the  principality  of  Ratibor,  which,  a 
sovereign  duchy  from  1288  to  1532,  has 
since  1742  been  subject  to  Prussia.  The 
town  manufactures  tobacco,  shoes,  paper, 
glass,  sugar,  furniture,  etc.,  and  has 
large  ironworks.     Pop.  about  40,000. 

RATIFICATION,  in  law,  the  con- 
firmation, sanction  or  approval  given  by 
a  person  who  has  arrived  at  his  majority 
to  acts  done  by  him  during  his  minority. 
It  has  the  effect  of  giving  validity  to 
such  acts  as  would  be  otherwise  voidable. 
Ratification  by  a  wife,  in  Scotch  law,  a 
declaration  on  oath  made  by  a  wife  be- 
fore a  justice  of  the  peace  (her  husband 
being  absent)  that  the  deed  she  has  exe- 
cuted has  been  made  freely. 

RATIO,  in  law,  an  account;  a  cause, 
or  the  giving  judgment  therein.  In 
mathematics:  (1)  The  measure  of  the 
relation  which  one  quantity  bears  to  an- 
other of  the  same  kind;  that  is,  it  is  the 
number  of  times  that  one  quantity  con- 
tains ^  another  regarded  as  a  standard. 
This  is  found  by  dividing  the  one  by  the 
other.     The    quotient   or   ratio   thus   ob- 


tained is  the  proper  measure  of  the  rela- 
tion of  the  two  quantities.  Some  writers 
define  the  ratio  of  one  quantity  to  an- 
other as  the  quotient  of  the  first  quantity 
divided  by  the  second,  while  others  define 
it  as  the  quotient  of  the  second  divided 
by  the  first.  Thus,  the  ratio  of  2  to  4, 
or  of  a  to  6,  may  be  taken  either  as  2-^4 
or  4-f-2,  and  a^h  or  h-r-a.  In  every 
ratio  there  are  two  quantities  compared, 
one  of  which  is  supposed  known,  and  is 
assumed  as  a  standard;  the  other  is  to 
be  determined  in  terms  of  this  standard. 
These  quantities  are  called  terms  of  the 
ratio;  the  first  one,  or  that  which  is 
antecedently  known,  is  called  the  ante- 
cedent, and  that  whose  value  is  to 
be  measured  by  the  antecedent,  is 
called  the  consequent.  Ratios  are 
compared  by  comparing  the  fractions; 
thus,  the  ratio  of  8:5  is  compared  v/ith 
the  ratio  of  9:6,  by  comparing  the  frac- 
tions %  and  %;  these  fractions  are  re- 
spectively equal  to  •^^o  and  4%o  aiid  since 
^%o  is  greater  than  4%o,  the  ratio  of  8:5 
is  greater  than  that  of  9:6.  Ratios  are 
compounded  together  by  multiplying 
their  antecedents  together  for  a  new  an- 
tecedent, and  their  consequents  together 
for  a  new  consequent;  thus  the  ratio  of 
a:h,  compounded  with  that  of  c.d,  is  ac: 
hd.  Proportion  is  the  relation  of  equal- 
ity subsisting  between  two  ratios.  See 
Proportion.  (2)  A  name  sometimes 
given  to  the  rule  of  three  in  arithmetic. 

Compound  ratio:  (a)  The  ratio  of  the 
product  of  the  antecedents  of  two  or 
more  ratios  to  the  product  of  the  conse- 
quents: thus  if  3  :  6  :  :  4  :  12.  then 
12:72  is  the  compound  ratio.  (6)  When 
one  quantity  is  connected  with  two  others 
in  such  a  manner  that  if  the  first  is  in- 
creased or  diminished,  the  product  of 
the  other  two  is  increased  or  diminished 
in  the  same  proportion,  then  the  first 
quantity  is  said  to  be  in  the  compound 
ratio  of  the  other  two. 

Direct  ratio,  two  quantities  are  said  to 
be  in  direct  ratio  when  they  both  in- 
crease or  decrease  together,  and  in  such 
a  manner  that  their  ratio  is  constant. 

Duplicate  ratio,  when  three  quantities 
are  in  continued  proportion,  the  first  is 
said  to  have  to  the  third  the  duplicate 
ratio  of  that  which  it  has  to  the  second, 
or  the  first  is  to  the  third  as  the  square 
of  the  first  to  the  square  of  the  second. 

Inverse  ratio,  two  quantities  or  mag- 
nitudes are  said  to  be  in  inyerse  ratio, 
when  if  the  one  increases  the  other  neces- 
sarily decreases,  and,  vice  versa,  when 
the  one  decreases  the  other  increases. 

Mixed  ratio  or  proportion:  a  ratio  or 
proportion  in  which  the  sum  of  the  ante- 
cedent and  consequent  is  compared  with 
the  difference  of  the  antecedent  and  con- 
sequent.    Thus,  if  a\h'.'.c:d,  then  a  +  ft: 


RATION 


437 


RATIONALISM 


a — b::c+d:c — d   is   the   mixed    ratio   or 
proportion. 

Prime  and  ultimate  ratios,  a  method  of 
analysis,  devised  and  first  successfully, 
employed  by  Newton  in  his  "Principia." 
It  is  an  extension  and  simplification  of 
the  method  known  among  the  ancients  as 
the  method  of  exhaustions.  To  conceive 
the  idea  of  this  method,  let  us  suppose 
two  variable  quantities  constantly  ap- 
proaching each  other  in  value,  so  that 
their  ratio  continually  approaches  1,  and 
at  last  differs  from  1  by  less  than  any 
assignable  quantity;  then  is  the  ultimate 
ratio  of  the  two  quantities  equal  to  1. 
In  general  when  two  variable  quantities, 
simultaneously  approach  two  other 
quantities,  which,  under  the  same  cir- 
cumstances, remain  fixed  in  value,  the 
ultimate  ratio  of  the  variable  quanti- 
ties is  the  same  as  the  ratio  of 
the  quantities  whose  values  remain 
fixed.  They  are  called  prime  or  ulti- 
mate ratios,  according  as  the  ratio  of 
the  variable  quantities  is  receding  from 
or  approaching  to  the  ratio  of  the  limits. 
This  method  of  analysis  is  generally 
called  the  method  of  limits. 

Extreme  and  mean  ratio,  in  geometry, 
the  ratio  where  a  line  is  divided  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  greater  segment  is  a 
mean  proportional  between  the  whole 
line  and  the  lesser  segment:  that  is,  that 
the  whole  line  is  to  the  greater  segment 
as  that  greater  segment  is  to  the  less. 

Composition  of  ratios,  the  act  of  com- 
pounding ratios. 

Ratio  of  a  geometrical  progression,  the 
constant  quantity  by  which  each  term 
is  multiplied  to  produce  the  succeeding 
one.  To  find  the  ratio  of  a  given  pro- 
gression, divide  any  term  by  the  preced- 
ing one. 

Ratio  of  exchange,  a  phrase  used  in 
political  economy  to  denote  the  propor- 
tion in  which  a  quantity  of  one  com- 
modity exchanges  for  a  given  quantity 
of  another.  The  expression  can  never 
be  used  with  any  degn^ee  of  accuracy,  ex- 
cept in  those  cases  where  the  commodi- 
ties are  homogeneous  in  quality,  and  sus- 
ceptible of  weight  or  measurement,  as  in 
the  exchange  of  gold  for  silver,  copper, 
iron,  etc.,  or  that  of  wheat  for  barley, 
oats,  etc. 

RATION,  a  stated  or  fixed  amount  or 
quantity  dealt  out;  an  allowance.  SpecL- 
fically,  rations  are  the  allowance  of 
provisions  given  out  to  each  oflScer,  non- 
commissioned officer,  soldier,  or  sailor. 

RATIONALISM,  as  a  "system  of 
belief  regulated  by  reason/'  might  be  ex- 
pected to  mean  the  opposite  of  irration- 
ality, crass  ignorance,  and  perverse'  pre- 
judice; and  the  rationalism  would  then 
mean  the  progress  of  civilization,  the  de- 


velopment of  the  intellectual  and  moral 
nature  of  men  and  nations.  It  is  nearly 
in  this  sense  that  Lecky  uses  the  word; 
attributing  to  its  wholesome  influence 
the  decay  of  the  belief  in  magic,  witch- 
craft, and  other  hideous  superstitions, 
and  the  substitution  of  a  kindly  toler- 
ance in  place  of  blind  zeal  for  persecu- 
tion. 

But  in  ordinary  English  usage,  gen- 
eral as  well  as  theological,  the  connota- 
tion of  the  word  is  substantially  differ- 
ent. It  is  generally  employed  as  a  term 
of  reproach  for  those  who,  without  ut- 
terly denying  or  attempting  to  overthrow 
the  foundations  of  religion,  make  such 
concessions  to  the  enemy  as  tend  to  sub- 
vert the  faith;  who  admit  the  thin  end 
of  a  wedge  that  pressed  home  will  rend 
and  destroy  the  fabric.  They  rely,  more 
or  less  exclusively  and  blameworthily, 
on  mere  human  reason  instead  of  sim- 
ply, frankly,  and  fully  accepting  the 
dicta  of  the  divine  word.  An  atheist 
would  not  be  spoken  of  as  a  rationalist 
nor  would  an  irreligious,  blaspheming 
freethinker.  Rationalists  in  ordinary 
parlance  are  those  v/ho  are  more  "lib- 
eral" or  "advanced"  than  the  main  body 
of  the  orthodox;  in  especial  those  who 
take  a  "low"  view  of  inspiration,  and 
minimize  or  explain  away  the  miraculous 
details  of  the  history  of  revelation  and 
redemption.  Rationalism  is  not  so 
much  a  body  of  doctrine  as  a  mood  of 
mind,  a  tendency  of  thought  shown  in 
the  attempt  to  apply  to  religious  doc- 
trine, the  sacred  story,  and  the  sacred 
Scriptures  the  same  methods  of  research 
and  proof  as  are  used  in  mere  human 
science  and  history,  and  the  literatures 
of  all  times  and  peoples.  This  feature 
is  also  recognized,  though  with  approval, 
by  Lecky  in  his  wider  use  of  the  word: 
"Rationalism,"  he  says,  "leads  men  on 
all  occasions  to  subordinate  dogmatic 
theology  to  the  dictates  of  reason  and 
conscience.  ...  It  predisposes  men 
in  history  to  attribute  all  kinds  of  phen- 
omena to  natural  rather  than  to  mirac- 
ulous causes;  in  theology  to  esteem  suc- 
ceeding religious  systems  the  expression 
of  the  wants  and  aspirations  of  that 
religious  sentiment  which  is  implanted 
in  man ;  and  in  ethics  to  regard  as  duties 
only  those  which  conscience  reveals  to  be 
such."  Rationalism,  not  being  a  system 
but  a  temper  or  drift  of  mind,  has 
different  aims  at  different  times;  just 
as  "liberalism"  in  polities  was  not  the 
same  thing  before  1832  as  it  came  to  be 
after,  or  in  1832  what  it  was  in  1867, 
1885,  or  1900.  Opinions  are  heard  in 
sermons  and  expounded  in  books  by 
theological  professors  in  1902  without 
proving  serious  stumblingblocks  to  the 
majority,  which  in  1860  would  by  all  but 


RATIONALISM 


438 


RATIONALISM 


a  small  minority  have  been  regarded  as 
distinctly  rationalistic.  Thus,  till  lately 
it  was  alarming  rationalism  to  dispute 
the  Mosaic  authorship  of  Genesis,  the 
Solomonic  authorship  of  the  Song  of 
Songs,  and  the  Davidic  authorship  of 
any  of  the  Psalms,  now  the  newer  view 
is  assumed  by  many  orthodox  teachers. 
And  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury scholars  earnestly  supported  views 
which  they  themselves  treated  as  highly 
dangerous  20  or  30  years  earlier. 
Rationalism  of  this  kind  is  a  transition 
stage,  but  not  necessarily  a  transition 
to  unbelief. 

The  rationalistic  temper  may  be  traced 
in  almost  every  age  of  the  Church's  his- 
tory; no  doubt  the  extremer  representa- 
tives of  the  Petrine  party  in  sub-apos- 
tolic times  regarded  Paul's  views  as  lax 
and  rationalistic.  If  the  Reformation 
was  not  rooted  in  rationalism  (as  to 
Catholics  it  seems  to  have  been) ,  many  of 
the  contentions  of  the  reformers  were 
su(5h  as  all  rationalists  accept  and  sym- 
pathize with.  Zwingli  was  a  rationalist 
to  Luther  and  the  Lutherans;  Socinus 
was  of  course  a  rationalist  of  an  extreme 
type.  The  dry  and  barren  dogmatic  or- 
thodoxy of  Germany  in  the  17th  century 
fostered  a  rationalism  as  cold  and  un- 
spiritual.  In  the  England  of  the  18th 
century,  during  the  deistic  controversies, 
the  Evangelicals  of  Germany  thought, 
not  altogether  unjustly,  that  some  of  the 
most  conspicuous  opponents  of  the  deists 
were  not  themselves  free  from  the 
charge  of  rationalism;  and  the  Evangeli- 
cals of  Scotland  regarded  the  "mod- 
erates" of  the  18th  century,  however 
orthodox  in  dogma,  as  thoroughly  ration- 
alistic in  spirit.  Rationalism  is  not  so 
much  opposed  to  orthodoxy  as  to  the 
mysticism,  and  what  was  called  vari- 
ously fanaticism,  enthusiasm,  "high-fly- 
ing," and  methodism.  A  soulless  ortho- 
doxy has  not  seldom  been  opposed  by  a 
fervent  piety  that  by  a  not  unnatural 
antithesis  has  tended  to  run  into  heret- 
ical extremes;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
actual  rationalists  have  often  been  fore- 
most among  the  champions  of  religion, 
and  of  revealed  religion,  against  radical 
fx'eethinking,  deism,  naturalism,  and 
materialism. 

In  Germany  the  term  rationalism  is 
more  definite  in  its  reference  than  in 
England,  but  is  not  always  used  in  quite 
the  same  sense.  The  two  defective  and 
mutually  opposed  schools  of  thought  that 
Kant  sought  to  supersede  by  his  critical 
philosophy  were,  on  the  one  hand,  a  shal- 
low empiricism,  and  on  the  other,  a 
baseless  and  overweening  metaphysical 
dogmatism  or  rationalism.  Bacon  also 
contrasted  empirical  philosophers  with 
rationalists  who  spin  their   systems   as 


spiders  do  cobwebs,  out  of  their  own 
bowels.  Wolff  presents  the  most  con- 
spicuous example  of  the  philosophical 
rationalism  which  held  that  all  that  is 
in  heaven  above  and  earth  beneath  could 
be  "proved"  by  pseudo-mathematical 
methods;  and  as  God,  responsibility,  and 
immortality  were  among  the  things  that 
could  be  proved  at  endless  length  and  in 
various  ways,  this  philosophical  ration- 
alism led  directly  up  to  a  rationalist  the- 
ology, which  consisted  mainly  in  a  series 
of  dogmas  to  be  demonstrated  from  the 
philosophical  axioms,  including  some  at 
least  of  the  doctrines  of  revealed  reli- 
gion. What  in  revelation  could  not  be 
demonstrated  according  to  this  scheme 
was  disallowed  or  explained  away. 
Practical  religion  became,  in  the  Auf- 
kldnmg,  a  system  of  mere  utilitarian 
morals. 

Kant  prepared  the  way  for  a  deeper 
view  of  man,  history,  and  the  universe; 
but  his  own  explicit  statements  on  posi- 
tive religion  were  pronouncedly  ration- 
alistic; and  the  negative  side  of  his  phil- 
osophy was  well  calculated  to  lay  the 
foundations  of  another  school  of  theo- 
logical rationalists  (often  called  vulgar 
rationalism),  of  whom  Tieftrunk  (died 
1837),  Bretschneider  (1776-1848),  and 
Wegscheider  (1771-1849)  may  be  taken 
as  representatives.  De  Wette  (1780- 
1849)  shows  the  transition  to  Schleier- 
macher,  who  (though  in  the  English 
sense  of  the  word  he  was  an  outspoken 
rationalist)  combined  what  was  best  in 
the  opposing  schools  of  rationalists  and 
supernaturalists,  founded  a  higher  and 
truer  religious  philosophy,  and  heralded 
even  the  "pectoral  theology"  of  the  medi-  ^ 
ation  school.  ,[ 

But  it  was  not  in  the  sphere  of  specu- 
lation and  dogma,  but  in  that  of  Biblical 
criticism,  that  German  rationalism  ac- 
complished its  main  work,  and  left  its 
deepest  mark  on  subsequent  theological 
development.  In  the  early  18th  century 
the  "Germans  in  Greek  were  sadly  to 
seek,"  as  English  scholars  thought ;  Ger- 
mans themselves  admitted  that  in  study- 
ing the  Scriptures  they  failed  to  escape 
from  dogmatic  presuppositions,  and  that 
it  was  the  English  divines  who  approach- 
ed the  New  Testament  in  a  historical 
spirit,  which  in  the  Germany  of  that  day 
caused  misgivings.  It  is  noteworthy  that 
Semler  (1725-1791),  "the  father  of  ra- 
tionalism," obtained  the  doctorate  for  a 
thesis  virritten  against  Whiston,  Bentley, 
and  other  English  scholars  in  defense  of 
the  "three  heavenly  witnesses"  of  I  John, 
v:  7.  Semler  in  the  schools,  supported  by 
Lessing  and  Herder  in  literature,  was 
soon  teaching  that  the  books  of  the 
Bible  must  be  studied  as  human  produc- 
tions: Eichhorn   (1752-1827)   thoroughly 


BATIBBON 


439 


RATTAZZl 


accepted  and  applied  that  principle.  Ra- 
tionalist criticism  was  carried  to  an  ab- 
surd length  by  Paulus  (1761-1851),  who 
taught  that  the  Gospels  contained  natu- 
ral and  not  supernatural  events,  and 
whose  most  ingenious  but  inept  "explana- 
tions" of  the  miracles  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, "retaining  everywhere  the  husk 
but  surrendering  the  religious  kernel," 
were  made  a  laughingstock  by  Strauss. 
Strauss*  "mythical  theory"  (excessively 
rationalist  in  the  English  sense  of  the 
term)  was  in  its  turn  superseded  by 
Baur,  and  the  new  Tubingen  school, 
whose  epoch-making  work  marks  the 
opening  of  the  most  recent  period  in 
Scriptural  criticism.  The  "notes"  of  the 
newer  criticism,  whether  more  or  less 
rationalist  from  the  older  English  point 
of  view,  are  the  conviction  that  all  truth 
is  one,  whether  derived  from  the  natural 
sciences,  historical  research,  the  dictates 
of  conscience,  or  the  records  of  divine 
revelation,  and  the  willingness  to  accept 
what  is  apparently  established  by  the 
consensus  of  scholars  even  where  this 
involves  giving  up  the  belief  in  the 
inerrancy  of  Scripture.  Many  of  the 
contentions  of  self-confident  and  aggres- 
sive rationalism  have  long  since  mutu- 
ally destroyed  one  another.  Nothing 
can  be  more  contrary  to  the  true  historic 
and  scientific  spirit  than  the  assump- 
tions of  a  reckless  sciolism:  there  is  a 
false  and  a  true  rationalism;  and  it 
«hould  be  remembered  that  much  that  is 
now  most  surely  believed  by  aU  has  at 
one  time  or  another  been  branded  as 
rationalistic. 

_  BATISBON  (German  Regensburg),  a 
city  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Danube,  opposite 
the  influx  of  the  Regen,  67  miles  from 
Munich.  Though  built  of  stone,  it  has  all 
the  defects  of  an  old  town.  The  best 
edifices  are  the  cathedral,  and  the  palace 
of  the  Prince  of  Thurn  and  Taxis,  for- 
merly the  abbey  of  St.  Emmeran,  con- 
taining many  good  paintings;  the  town 
house,  in  which  the  diet  of  the  empire 
was  held  from  1662  to  1806;  the  episco- 
pal residence,  the  arsenal,  and  the  Haid- 
platz,  whei'e  tournaments  were  given  in 
the  days  of  chivalry.  Manufactures  to- 
bacco, porcelain,  leather,  and  steel 
wares;  also  extensive  dockyards  for  the 
building  of  boats  and  lighters.  In  1524 
the  Roman  Catholics  here  formed  a 
league  against  the  Protestants;  and 
here,  in  1809,  Napoleon  I.  was  wounded 
in  a  battle  in  which  he  forced  the  Aus- 
trians  to  retreat.  Ratisbon  was  made  a 
free  port  in  1853.     Pop.  about  55,000. 

IlATIT.ffi,  a  division  of  birds.  They 
are  all  incapable  of  flight;  though  some 
run  very  sAviftly,  the  abnormally  small 
wings  acting  as  a  kind  of  sail,  and  help- 


ing the  birds  along.  They  may  be  divid- 
ed into  two  groups:  (1)  Those  in  which 
the  wing  has  a  rudimentary  or  very 
short  humerus,  and  not  more  than  one 
ungual  phalanx  (the  casuariidie,  the 
fast-vanishing  Apterygidse) ,  and  the  ex- 
tinct Dinomithida;,  often  treated  as  one 
family  (Apterygidse)  ;  and  (2)  those 
having  a  long  humerus  and  two  ungual 
phalanges  (Rheidse  and  Struthionidse, 
often  combined  under  the  latter  name). 

RAT  SNAKE,  Ptyas  mucosus;  a 
powerful  snake,  attaining  a  length  of 
seven  feet  and  upward.  Common  in  In- 
dia and  Ceylon,  scarce  in  the  Archipel- 
ago. It  frequently  enters  houses  in 
search  of  mice,  rats,  and  young  fowls. 
It  is  fierce,  and  always  ready  to  bite. 

RATTAN,  the  commercial  name  for 
the  stem  of  various  species  of  the  genus 
Calamus.  They  abound  in  southern  Asia 
in  moist  situations,  and  are  used  for 
making  splints  for  chair  seats  and  backs, 
hanks  for  sails;  cables,  sometimes  as 
much  as  42  inches  round;  cords,  withes, 
and  walking  sticks;  also  for  making 
splints  for  baskets  and  brooms,  fish 
weirs,  hurdles,  hoops,  carriage  seats,  and 
many  other  purposes.  The  larger  spe- 
cies grow  to  a  size  of  three  inches 
diameter,  and  to  a  height  of  100  feet. 

RATTAZZl,  TJRBANO,  an  Italian 
statesman;  born  in  Alessandria,  Italy, 
June  29,  1808.  He  studied  law  at  Turin 
and  practiced  as  an  advocate  with  great 
success  at  Casale.  After  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  constitution  in  1848  he  was 
elected  member  of  the  Second  Chamber 
for  Alessandria,  and  began  his  political 
career  as  a  democrat.  Gioberti  made 
him  minister  of  the  interior  and  later  of 
justice;  but  after  the  defeat  of  Novara 
he  was  obliged  to  retire  with  the  rest  of 
the  ministry.  When  Napoleon  III. 
threatened  the  liberty  of  Piedmont, 
Cavour,  Rattazzi,  and  their  parties 
joined  together  to  defeat  his  schemes, 
and  in  1853  Rattazzi  took  the  portfolio 
of  Justice  under  Cavour,  and  presented 
the  bill  for  the  abolition  of  convents. 
Being  accused  of  weakness  in  suppress- 
ing the  Mazzinian  movement  in  1857,  he 
retired  from  office  early  in  the  following 
year.  In  1859,  however,  he  was  back 
again  in  office  as  Minister  of  the  Interior. 
The  threatened  cession  of  Savoy  and 
Nice,  which  he  opposed,  led  to  his  retire- 
ment in  1860.  Having  changed  his  views 
on  this  point,  he  was  in  March,  1862; 
intrusted  with  the  formation  of  a  new 
ministry,  but  had  to  resign  at  the  end  of 
the  year  in  consequence  of  his  opposition 
to  Garibaldi;  and  once  more  prime  minis- 
ter for  six  months  in  1867,  he  lost  the 
post  for  the  same  reason.  He  died  in 
Frosinone,  June  5,  1873. 


RATTLESNAKE 


440 


RAVENNA 


RATTLESNAKE,  the  English  name 
for  any  species  of  the  American  genus 
Crotalus,  the  tail  of  which  is  furnished 
with  a  rattle.  Garman  enumerates  13 
species  and  13  varieties,  falling  into  two 
groups:  (1)  Having  the  upper  side  of 
the  head  covered  with  nine  dermal 
shields;  (2)  having  the  shields  behind  the 
eyes  broken  up  or  replaced  by  small 
scales.  The  second  group  comprises  the 
more  formidable  kinds,  generally  de- 
scribed as  C.  horridus  and  C.  durissv^. 
The  first  name  was  formerly  applied  to 


HEAD    OF 
/RATTLESNAKE 

A  =  POIhON 
GLf\r^O 


RATTLESNAKE 

the  reptile  extending  from  Paraguay  and 
Chile  through  Brazil,  into  Mexico,  and 
the  latter  to  the  North  American  rattle- 
snake. In  recent  American  works  this 
nomenclature  is  reversed.  The  poison 
of  the  rattlesnake  is  usually  fatal  to 
man,  though  fortunately  they  are  slug- 
gish, and  never  attempt  to  strike  unless 
they  are  molested.  They  are  widely  dis- 
tributed on  the  American  continent. 

RATTLESNAKE  ROOT,  a  name  for 
Poly  gala  Senega,  an  American  plant  used 
to  cure  the  bite  of  the  rattlesnake. 

RATTLESNAKE  WEED,  the  Amer- 
ican plant  Eryngium  virginiciiTn,  used 
as  a  cure  for  the  bite  of  the  rattlesnake. 

RAVANA,  in  the  Hindu  religious  sys- 
tem, the  name  of  the  Rakshasa  who,  at 
the  time  of  Rama,  ruled  over  Lanka  or 
Ceylon,  and  having  carried  off  Sita,  the 
wife  of  Rama,  to  nis  residence,  was  ulti- 
mately conquered  and  slain  by  the  latter. 
He  is  described  as  having  been  a  giant 
with  10  faces,  and  in  consequence  of 
austerities  and  devotion,  as  having  ob- 
tained from  Siva  a  promise  which  be- 
stowed on  him  unlimited  power,  even 
over  the  gods.  As  the  jpromise  of  Siva 
could  not  be  revoked,  Vishnu  evaded  its 
efficacy  in  becoming  incarnate  as  Rama, 
and  hence  killed  the  demon  giant. 


RAVELIN,  in  fortification  a  detached 
work  having  a  parapet  and  ditch  forming 
a  salient  angle  in  front  of  the  curtain. 
It  is  erected  on  the  counterscarp,  and 
receives  flank  defense  from  the  body  of 
the  place.  Inside  the  ravelin  may  be  a 
redoubt  and  ditch;  the  gorge  is  unpro- 
tected, and  the  ravelin  may  be  considered 
a  redan  on  the  counterscarp. 

^  RAVEN,  the  genus  Ccrrviis,  and  espe- 
cially C.  eorax,  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
Passerines.  It  is  about  26  inches  long, 
plumage  black,  glossed  with  steel-blue 
and  purple;  very  widely  distributed  in 
the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The  raven 
has  played  an  important  part  in  myth- 
ology and  folk-lore.  It  is  the  first  bird 
mentioned  by  name  in  the  Old  Testament 
(Gen.  viii:  7) ;  by  the  ministry  of  ravens 
Elijah  was  fed  (I  Kings  xvii:  6),  and 
they  were  to  be  the  ministers  of  venge- 
ance on  unruly  children  (Prov.  xxx: 
17).  The  raven  was  the  bird  of  Odin, 
and  in  classic  mythology  was  of  iU- 
omen,  a  character  often  attributed  to  it 
by  the  early  English  dramatists.  Mar- 
lowe calls  it  the  "sad  presageful  raven," 
and  Shakespeare  repeatedly  refers  to 
the  belief  that  its  appearance  foreboded 
misfortune.  This  belief,  which  is  wide- 
spread, probably  arose  from  the  preter- 
naturally  grave  manner  of  the  bird,  its 
sable  plimiage,  and  the  readiness  with 
which  it  learns  to  imitate  human  speech. 

RAVENALA,  or  RAVINALA,  a  genus 
of  Uy^anem.  The  U.  speciosa  is  a  fine 
banana-like  tree  with  edible  seeds,  from 
Madagascar,  where  the  French  call  it 
he  traveler's  tree,  perhaps  because  water 
is  found  in  the  cup-like  sheaths  of  the  ^ 
leaf-stalks. 

RAVENNA,  an  important  city  and 
province  of  central  Italy,  43  miles  E.  S. 
E.  of  Bologna,  and  4V2  miles  from  the 
Adriatic.  It  is  situated  in  the  midst 
of  a  well-watered,  fertile,  and  finely 
wooded  plain,  and  is  surrounded  by  old 
bastions,  and  by  walls  where  may  still 
be  seen  the. iron  rings  to  which  the  cables 
of  ships  were  formerly  fastened;  the  sea 
is  now  at  the  distance  of  about  4  miles 
from  the  city.  The  streets  are  wide ;  the 
squares  are  adorned  with  the  statues 
of  the  Popes.  The  cathedral,  built  in 
the  4th  century,  was  almost  wholly  re- 
built in  1734.  Of  the  other  14  churches 
and  other  architectural  antiquities  sev- 
eral date  from  the  5th  and  6th  centuries. 
San  Francesco  possesses  the  tomb  of 
Dante,  erected  in  the  15th  century.  The 
library  of  Ravenna  contains  50,000  vol- 
umes. It  has  an  archffiological  museum, 
and  many  educational  institutions.  Ra- 
venna has  manufactures  of  silk,  and  its 
trade   is   facilitated   by  a   canal  to  the 


RAVIGNAN 


441 


BAWLINSON 


sea.  The  city  was  probably  of  Umbrian 
origin.  Augustus  made  it  a  first-class 
seaport  and  naval  station;  400  years 
later  the  Emperor  Honorius  took  refuge 
there,  and  made  it  the  capital  of  the 
empire.  In  1218  it  became  a  republic. 
In  1275  Guide  da  Polenta  conducted  it, 
and  there  established  his  court,  where  he 
received  Dante.  Ravenna  was  after- 
ward taken  by  the  Venetians,  who  kept 
it  till  1509.  Under  Charles  V.  it  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Popes.  Under  its 
walls  a  great  battle  was  fought  in  1512 
between  the  French  and  the  Spaniards, 
in  which  Gaston  de  Foix  purchased  vic- 
tory with  his  life.  Pop.,  city,  about 
75,000;  province,  about  260,000. 

BAVIGNAN,  GUSTAV  FRANCOIS 
XAVIER  DELACROIX  DE,  a  French 
Jesuit  preacher;  born  in  Bayonne, 
France,  Dec.  2,  1795;  was  professor  at 
Montrouge,  and  became  famous  in  1837 
as  preacher  at  Notre  Dame  in  Paris. 
He  published  an  Apology  of  his  order  in 
1844,  and  in  1854  a  more  lengthened 
work  with  the  same  view,  "Clement  XIII. 
and  Clement  XIV."  He  died  Feb.  26, 
1858. 

RAWALPINDI,  a  town  and  impor- 
tant military  station  of  the  Punjab, 
India,  between  the  Indus  and  Jhelum 
rivers,  160  miles  N.  W.  of  Lahore. 
There  are  an  arsenal  (1883),  a  fort,  a 
fine  public  park,  and  several  European 
churches.  The  place  carries  on  an  active 
transit  trade  with  Kashmere  and  Af- 
ghanistan. Here  the  Sikhs  surrendered 
after  their  defeat  at  Gujrat  (1849),  and 
here  too  was  held,  in  1885,  a  great  durbar 
or  review,  at  which  the  Ameer  of  Af- 
ghanistan met  Earl  Dufferin,  governor- 
general  of  India.  Pop.,  district,  about 
4,500,000;  town,  about  90,000. 

RAWA  RTJSSKA,  BATTLE  OF,  a 
series  of  engagements  of  the  first  mag- 
nitude between  the  Russian  and  Austrian 
armies,  beginning  Sept.  8,  1914,  and 
lasting  eight  days,  taking  its  name 
from  a  small  city  in  Galicia,  inhabited 
chiefly  by  Jews.  About  250,000  men 
on  both  sides  were  engaged  during  the 
first  few  days,  added  re-enforcements 
brining  the  number  up  to  fully  300,000 
during  the  later  phase  of  the  fighting. 
The  Austrians  were  disastrously  de- 
feated. 

RAWLINS,  JOHN  AARON,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer;  born  in  Galena, 
111.,  Feb.  13,  1831.  Before  the  Civil  War 
he  was  a  lawyer;  adjutant-general  of 
General  Grant  in  September,  1861,  and 
served  as  such  in  the  campaigns  of  1862 
and  1863;  in  March,  1865,  was  appointed 
chief  of  General  Grant's  staff,  with  the 
rank  of  Brigadier-General  in  the  U.  S.  A. 


He  became  Secretary  of  War  in  March, 
1869.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
Sept.   9,   1869. 

RAWLINSON,  GEORGE,  an  English 
Orientalist;  born  in  Chadlington,  Eng- 
land, Nov.  23,  1812;  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge; preached  the  Bampton  Lectures 
in  1859;  was  elected  Camden  Professor 
of  Ancient  History  in  1861,  and  made  a 
canon  of  Canterbury  in  1872.  He  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Herodotus  with  a 
commentary  (1858-1860);  "The  Five 
Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern 
World"  (1862-18G7),  followed  by  the 
Sixth  (1873)  and  the  "Seventh  Oriental 
Monarchy"  (1876);  "History  of  Ancient 
Egypt"  (1881);  "Egypt  and  Babylon" 
(1885) ;  "Phoenicia"  (1889)  ;  "Memoir  of 
Gen.  H.  C.  Rawlinson"  (1898).  He  died 
in  1902. 

RAWLINSON,  SIR  HENRY  CRES- 
WICKE,  an  English  Orientalist  and  dip- 
lomatist; born  in  Chadlington,  England, 
April  11,  1810;  entered  the  East  Indian 
Company's  army  in  1827.  In  1833  he 
went  to  Persia  to  assist  in  organizing  the 
Persian  army.  During  the  six  years  he 
spent  there  he  began  to  study  the  cunei- 
form inscriptions,  and  made  a  translation 
of  Darius'  famous  Behistun  inscription, 
which  he  published  in  the  "Journal  of  the 
Royal  Asiatic  Society."  After  he  left 
Persia  he  held  command  of  Kandahar 
during  the  troublous  times  of  1840-1842 
(see  Afghanistan)  ;  was  appointed  po- 
litical agent  at  Bagdad  in  1844,  and 
consul-general  there  in  1851.  Five  years 
later  he  returned  home  to  England,  w^as 
made  K.  C.  B.,  and  appointed  by  the 
crown  director  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. In  1858  he  went  back  to  Persia 
as  British  minister,  but  remained  at 
Teheran  only  one  year.  Appointed  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  India  in  1868, 
he  was  nominated  its  vice-president  in 
1876.  Other  public  positions  he  held — 
the  presidency  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  (1871);  a  trusteeship  of  the 
British  Museum  (1879)  ;  a  directorship 
of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  He  was 
made  a  baronet  in  1891.  He  wrote:  "A 
Commentary  on  the  Cuneiform  Inscrip- 
tions of  Babylon  and  Assyria"  (1850)  ; 
"Outline  of  the  History  of  Assyria" 
(1852)  ;  "The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of 
Western  Asia";  "England  and  Russia  in 
the  East"  (2d  ed.  1875);  etc.  He  died 
in  London,  March  5,  1895. 

RAWLINSON.  BARON  HENRY 
SEYMOUR,  a  British  military  officer. 
He  was  born  in  1864,  at  Knoyle,  Wilts, 
and  was  educated  at  Eton,  Sandhurst, 
and  the  Staff  College,  Camberley.  In 
1884  he  entered  the  60th  K.  R.  Rifles, 
and  in  1887  was  A.  D,  JD,  to  Sir  Fred- 


RAWSON 


442 


RAY 


erick  Roberts,  Commander-in-chief  in 
India.  He  served  with  the  Mounted  In- 
fantry, Burma  campaign  (medal  and 
clasp).  He  returned  to  England  in 
1889  and  exchanged  into  Coldstream 
Guards  in  1892.  He  served  in  the  Sou- 
dan campaign  in  1898  and  was  present 
at  the  battles  of  Atbara  and  Khartoum. 
He  served  in  the  South  African  War  at 
Ladysmith  in  1900  and  commanded  a 
mobile  column  1901-1902.  In  the  World 
War  he  was  mentioned  in  dispatches 
twice  in  1914-1915,  and  was  promoted 
major-general  in  1917,  serving  in  Monte- 
negro. He  has  published  "The  Officers* 
Note-Book." 

B,AWSON,      EDWABD      KIRK,      an 

American  educator;  born  in  Albany,  N. 
Y.,  Feb.  21,  1846;  was  graduated  at 
Yale  University  in  1868  and  at  the 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1872; 
Vv^as  ordained  in  the  Congregational 
Church  and  served  as  a  chaplain  in 
the  United  States  navy  in  1871-1890; 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Department 
of  Ethics  and  English  Studies  at  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1888 
and  was  made  superintendent  of  "Naval 
War  Records,"  March  31,  1897.  His 
publications  include  "Twenty  Famous 
Naval  Battles";  "Salamis  to  Santiago" 
(1899)  ;  and  essays  including  "Anarchic 
Socialism";  "New  Englander"  (1884) ; 
"The  Naval  Chaplaincy"  (1892) ;  "The 
Rationale  of  Russian  Socialism"; 
(1888) ;  "Twenty  Famous  Battles" 
(1899) ;  etc. 

RAY,  of  a  composite  flower,  the  outer 
or  circumferential  whorl  of  florets,  as 
distinguished  from  those  of  the  disk.  In 
many  composites  the  former  are  ligulate 
and  the  latter  tubular.  Medullary  rays 
are  vertical  plates  radiating  from  the 
pith  to  the  bark  through  the  wood  of 
exogenous  stems.  In  the  cross  section, 
the  medullary  rays  constitute  fine  radi- 
ating lines;  in  a  longitudinal  section, 
they  impart  to  the  wood  a  satiny  luster, 
which  in  the  plane,  the  sycamore,  etc., 
is  so  marked  as  to  be  highly  beautiful. 
The  medullary  rays  maintain  a  connec- 
tion between  the  bark  and  the  central 
part  of  a  stem.  Carpenters  call  medul- 
lary rays  the   silver  grain. 

In  ichthyology,  one  of  the  radiating, 
bony  rods  serving  to  support  the  fins. 
They  are  of  three  kinds;  (1)  Simple; 
(2)  Articulated  (showing  more  or  less 
numerous  joints)  ;  and  (3)  Branched 
(dichotomically  split,  the  joints  increas- 
ing in  number  toward  the  extremity). 
The  differences  in  the  character  of  the 
rays  in  the  dorsal  fin  are  an  important 
factor  in  classification.  In  optics,  etc., 
a  line  of  light  proceeding  from  a  radiant 
point,  or  a  point  of  reflection,     A  collec- 


tion of  rays  is  called  a  pencil.  An  inci- 
dent ray  entering  a  doubly-refracting 
crystal  is  resolved  into  two,  called  from 
their  properties  an  ordinary  and  an 
extraordinary  ray.  The  term  ray  is 
used  also  of  one  of  the  component  ele- 
ments of  light,  as  the  violet  rays  of  the 
spectrum;  or  the  luminous,  actinic,  or 
heat  rays:  Visual  ray,  in  perspective,  a 
straight  line  drawn  through  the  eye. 

RAY,  in  ichthyology,  any  individual 
of  the  genus  Raja;  but  the  family  Raji- 
dse,  and  even  the  section  Batoidei,  are 
often  spoken  of  as  rays.  Their  flattened 
shape  indicates  that  they  live  on  level 
sandy  bottoms,  generally  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  the  coast  and  in  moderate 
depths.  They  are  carnivorous,  but  by  no 
means  active,  swimming  like  the  flat- 
fishes by  the  undulating  motion  of  the 
pectoral  fins,  the  thin  flagelliform  tail 
having  entirely  lost  its  locomotive  func- 
tion, and  serving  merely  as  a  rudder. 
They  may  be  divided  into  two  groups: 

(1)  rays  proper,  vnth  a  short  snout,  and 

(2)  skates  (attaining  a  much  larger 
size)  with  a  long,  pointed  snout.  In 
species  armed  with  bucklers  or  asper- 
ities it  is  the  female  which  has  these 
dermal  developments,  the  male  being  en- 
tirely or  nearly  smooth.  The  color  also 
frequently  varies  in  the  sexes.  The  My- 
liohatidss  are  popularly  known  as  eagle 
rays,  the  Torpeainidse  as  electric  rays, 
and  the  Trygonidse  as  sting  rays. 

RAY,  or  WRAY,  JOHN,  an  English 
naturalist;  born  in  Black  Notley,  Essex, 
England,  Nov.  29,  1628.  From  Brain, 
tree  free  school  he  went  to  Cambridge^ 
where  he  was  fellow,  Greek  lecturer, 
mathematical  tutor,  and  junior  dean  in 
Trinity  College,  but  after  a  time  began 
to  devote  himself  entirely  to  the  study  of 
natural  history.  At  the  Restoration  he 
accepted  Episcopal  ordination,  but  was 
ejected  by  the  "Black  Bartholomew" 
(1662),  Thereupon,  accompanied  by  a 
kindred  spirit,  Francis  Willughby,  Ray 
traveled  over  most  of  the  United  King- 
dom, collecting  and  investigating  botan- 
ical and  zoological  specimens;  and  in 
1663  they  started  on  a  tour  through  the 
Low  Countries,  Germany,  lialy,  and 
France,  with  a  similar  object.  In  1667 
Ray  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  After  several  changes  of  resi- 
dence, in  1679  Ray  settled  down  in  his 
native  village.  As  a  botanist  and 
zoologist  he  ranks  very  high,  the  classifi- 
cation of  plants  which  he  proposed  being 
practically  in  the  main  the  foundation  of 
what  is  now  known  as  the  "Natural  Sys- 
tem" of  classification.  Ray's  zoological 
works  are  considered  by  Cuvier  as  the 
foundation  of  modern  zoology.  The  chief 
of  his  works  on  botany  are  "New  Method 


RAYAH 


443 


SAYNAL 


of  Plants"  (1682);  "Catalogue  of  the 
Plants  of  England"  (1670),  the  basis  of 
all  the  subsequent  floras  of  Great  Brit- 
ain; and  "History  of  Plants"  (1686- 
1704).  His  zoological  works  include  the 
"Methodical  Synopsis  of  Animals" 
(1893).  Ray  died  in  Black  Notley,  Jan. 
17,  1705. 

BAYAH,  in  Turkey,  a  person  not  a 
Mohammedan,  who  pays  the  capitation 
tax,  called  the  haratch. 

RAYLEIGH,  JOHN  STRUTT,  3rd 
EARON,  an  English  scientist;  born  in 
Essex,  England,  Nov.  12,  1842;  was 
graduated,  as  senior  wrangler,  at  Cam- 
bridge, in  1865;  succeeded  to  the  title  of 
baron  in  1873;  in  1884  was  president  of 
the  British  Association;  successor  to 
Professor  Tyndall  as  Professor  of  Nat- 
ural Philosophy,  in  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion, London,  in  1887;  Professor  of  Ex- 
perimental Physics  in  the  University  of 
Cambridge  (1879-1884).  Columbia  Col- 
lege, New  York,  bestowed  on  him  the 
Barnard  medal  for  "meritorious  service 
to  science"  since  he  shares  with  Ramsay 
the  merit  of  discovering  the  element 
Argon  (q.  v.).  He  published  scientific 
papers  of  great  value;  also  "The  Theory 
of  Sound"  (1877-1878).  Awarded  Nobel 
prize  for  physics  (1904);  Lord  Chancel- 
lor of  Cambridge,  1908.     He  died  in  1919. 

RAYMOND,  the  name  of  seven  Counts 
of  Toulouse.  Raymond  I.  reigned  852- 
865.  Raymond  VI.,  son  of  Raymond  V., 
born  in  1156,  succeeded  1194,  and,  being 
a  friend  of  the  Albigenses,  was  twice 
excommunicated,  1208  and  1211,  and  de- 
spoiled of  his  estates  by  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort,  1218;  died  1222.  Raymond  VIL, 
son  of  Raymond  VI.,  and  last  Count  of 
Toulouse,  was  born  1197,  and  after 
struggling  with  his  father  for  the  re- 
covery of  his  possessions,  vanquished 
Simon  de  Montfort  in  1224.  He  was  so 
enfeebled  by  these  continual  wars,  how- 
ever, that  he  submitted  to  a  humiliating 
peace  with  the  Pope  and  the  King  of 
France  in  1229.  He  died  1242,  leaving 
his  estates  to  his  only  daughter,  Jeanne, 
who  had  married  Alphonse,  Count  of 
Poitiers,  brother  of  Louis  IX. 

RAYMOND,   BRADFORD  PAUL,   an 

American  clergyman;  born  in  Stamford, 
Conn.,  April  22,  1846;  was  educated  at 
Hamline  University,  Minn.,  and  Lawrence 
University,  Wis.,  and  was  graduated  at 
the  Theological  School  of  Boston  Uni- 
versity and  ordained  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  1874.  He  held  pas- 
torates in  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  and  in  Nashua,  N.  H.,  and 
was  president  of  Lawrence  University 
from  1883  to  1889,  resigning  to  become 


president  of  Wesleyan  University,  Mid- 
dletown.  Conn.     Died  1916. 

RAYMOND,  HENRY  JARVIS,  an 
American  journalist;  born  in  Lima,  N. 
Y.,  Jan.  24,  1820;  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Vermont  in  1840;  soon  aft- 
erward removed  to  New  York;  and,  while 
studying  law,  taught  the  classics  and 
wrote  for  the  "New  Yorker."  In  1841 
he  became  managing  editor  of  the  New 
York  "Tribune,"  and  afterward  leading 
editor  of  the  New  York  "Courier  and 
Enquirer."  In  1849  he  was  elected  to 
the  State  Assembly;  was  re-elected  and 
made  speaker.  In  1851,  he  established 
the  New  York  "Times."  In  1852  he  be- 
came a  delegate  to  the  Baltimore  Con- 
vention, and  in  1856  a  leader  of  the 
Republican  party,  and  was  chosen  lieu- 
tenant-governor of  New  York.  He  was 
a  delegate  to  the  Chicago  Convention 
of  1860;  was  again  elected  to  the  State 
Leg:islature,  and,  in  1864,  was  chosen  as 
representative  from  New  York  to  the 
39th  Congress.  He  subsequently,  in 
1866,  was  the  leading  spirit  of  the  Wig- 
wam Convention  in  Philadelphia,  the 
resolutions  of  which  body  were  from  his 
pen.  He  died  in  New  York,  June  18, 
1869. 

RAYMOND,     JEROME     HALL,     an 

American  educator;  born  in  Clinton,  la., 
March  10,  1869;  was  graduated  at  the 
Northwestern  University  in  1892;  was 
private  secretary  to  George  M.  Pullman 
in  1889-1890;  traveled  in  Europe  and 
Asia;  made  the  circuit  of  the  world  in 
1890-1892;  was  professor  of  history  and 
political  science  at  Lawrence  University, 
Appleton,  Wis.,  in  1893-1894;  accepted 
the  chair  of  sociology  and  was  made  sec- 
retary of  the  University  Extension  De- 
partment at  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin in  1895;  served  as  president  and 
professor  of  economics  and  sociology  at 
the  West  Virginia  University  in  1897- 
1901;  and  in  the  latter  year  became 
associate  professor  of  sociology  at  the 
University  of  Chicago. 

RAYMOND,  JOHN  T.,  right  name 
John  O'Brien,  an  American  actor;  born 
in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  April  5,  1836.  He 
was  educated  for  a  mercantile  life.  He 
first  appeared  on  the  stage  as  Lopez  in 
the  "Honeymoon,"  June  27,  1853,  in 
Rochester.  The  following  year  he  played 
Timothy  Quaint  in  the  "Soldier's  Dauprh- 
ter."  His  greatest  characters  were 
those  of  Asa  Trenchard  in  "Our  Ameri- 
can Cousin"  and  Colonel  Sellers  in  the 
"Gilded  Age."  He  died  in  Evansville, 
Ind.,  April  10,  1887. 

RAYNAL,  GUILLAUME  THOMAS 
FRANCOIS,  known  as  the  Abbe  Raynal, 
a  French  historian  and  political  writer; 


BAYNOUAUD 


444 


REACTION 


bora  in  St.  Geniez,  France,  April  12, 
1713.  He  acquired  a  European  reputa- 
tion "by  his  "Philosophical  History  of  the 
Two  Indies."  He  died  in  Paris,  March 
6,  1796. 

RAYNOTJARD,  FRANgOIS  JUSTE 
MARIE,  a  French  poet  and  philologist; 
born  in  Brignolles,  Provence,  France, 
Sept.  18,  1761.  He  studied  at  Aix,  and 
became  a  prosperous  advocate,  and  in 
1791  was  sent  to  the  Legislative  Assem- 
bly, where  he  joined  the  Girondins. 
Flung  into  prison,  he  was  fortunately 
forgotten  till  the  fall  of  Robespierre 
brought  release.  His  poems  and  trage- 
dies were  successful,  and  in  1807  he  was 
elected  to  the  Academy,  of  which  he 
became  perpetual  secretary  in  1817.  A 
member  of  the  imperial  legislative  body 
from  1806,  he  continued  to  produce 
dramas,  but  toward  the  fall  of  the  empire 
turned  his  attention  to  linguistic  and 
particularly  Provencal  studies.  Ray- 
nouard  died  in  Passy,  near  Paris,  Oct. 
27,  1836. 

RAZOR,  a  keen-edged  steel  instrument 
for  shaving  off  the  beard  or  hair.  The 
great  center  of  the  razor  manufacture  is 
Sheffield,  England.  The  savages  of 
Polynesia  still  use  two  pieces  of  flint  of 
the  same  size,  or  pieces  of  shells  or 
sharks'  teeth  ground  to  a  fine  edge  for 
shaving. 

RAZORBACK,  one  of  the  largest 
species  of  the  whale  tribe,  the  Balasnop- 
tera  or  Rorqualus  borealis,  the  great 
rorqual  (see  Rorqual).  Also  a  name 
given  to  a  kind  of  hog,  especially  in  the 
S.  part  of  the  United  States. 

RAZORBILL,  in  ornithology,  the  Alca 
torda,  the  sole  species  of  the  genus  Alca 
impennis,  the  great  auk,  being  extinct. 
It  is  about  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  plum- 
age of  head,  neck,  and  upper  surface 
brilliant  black,  under  surface  pure  white. 
They  make  no  nest,  but  lay  a  single 
white  or  yellowish  egg  blotched  and 
streaked  with  dark-brown,  on  the  bare 
rock.  Called  also  the  black-billed  auk 
and  murre. 

RAZOR  FISH,  a  species  of  fish  with  a 
compressed  body,  much  prized  for  the 
table.     It  is  the  Coryphsena  novacula. 

RAZOR  SHELL,  a  genus  of  lamelli- 
branchiate  mollusca,  forming  the  type  of 
the  family  Solenidge.  They  are  common 
on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic;  the  shells 
are  sub-cylindrical  in  shape;  the  hinge- 
teeth  number  two  on  each  valve;  and  the 
ligament  for  opening  the  shells  is  long 
and  external  in  position.  The  mantle 
is  open  in  front,  to  give  exit  to  the 
powerful  muscular  "foot,"  used  by  these 
mollusks  for  burrowing  swiftly  into  the 


sandy  coasts  which  they  inhabit.  These 
curious  mollusks  always  live  buried  in 
the  sand  in  an  upright  position,  leaving 
only  an  opening  shaped  like  a  keyhole, 
which  corresponds  with  the  two  siphon 
tubes.  They  are  generally  found  at  a 
depth  of  one  or  two  feet,  and  when  they 
make  their  burrows,  as  they  are  often 
in  the  habit  of  doing,  among  the  rocks, 
not  even  the  hooked  iron  can  draw  them 
from  their  retreat.  The  familiar  species 
are  the  Solen  siliqua,  S.  ensis,  S.  vagina, 
S.  vmrginatus,  and  S.  pellucidus. 

RE,  ILE  DE,  a  small,  low-lying  island 
off  the  coast  of  the  French  department  of 
Charente-Inferieure,  opposite  the  city  of 
La  Rochelle,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Pertuis  Breton.  It  is  about  18 
miles  long  and  3  broad,  measures  28 
square  miles,  and  its  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  engaged  in  the  preparation  of 
salt.  Oyster  farming  has  of  late  become 
an  important  branch  of  industry.  Wine 
is  made  and  exported.  Pop.  about 
15,000. 

REA,  GEORGE  BRONSON,  an  Amer- 
ican electrical  engineer;  born  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  Aug.  28,  1869.  He  practiced 
his  profession  in  Cuba  till  the  beginning 
of  the  revolution ;  accompanied  the  insur- 
gent forces  of  Gomez  and  Maceo  as  spe- 
cial correspondent  of  the  "New  York 
Herald";  was  present  at  80  engage- 
ments between  Cubans  and  Spaniards, 
and  was  wounded  in  the  action  at  La  Por- 
tela.  He  was  present  at  the  bombard- 
ment of  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  and  in 
the  operation  before  Santiago.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  Porto  Rico  campaign 
he  traveled  through  the  island  as  an 
agent  in  the  secret  service  of  the  United 
States  Government.  He  is  the  author  of 
"Facts  and  Fancies  about  Cuba." 

REA,  SAMUEL,  president  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad;  born  at  Holli- 
daysburg,  Pa.,  in  1855.  At  an  early  age 
he  entered  the  engineering  department  of 
the  Pennsylvania  railroad.  Some  years 
later  he  directed  the  work  of  construct- 
ing the  tunnels  for  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  under  the  city  of  Baltimore.  In 
1892  he  became  assistant  to  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1809 
his  first  assistant.  Appointed  in  that 
year  fourth  vice-president  of  the  road  he 
rose  continually  until  in  1913  he  was 
chosen  president.  Perhaps  his  greatest 
engineering  exploit  was  the  construction 
of  the  tunnels  under  the  Hudson  and 
East  rivers. 

REACTION,  in  chemistry,  the  chemi- 
cal change  or  effect  produced  by  bringing 
at  least  two  elements  or  compounds  to- 
gether whereby  one  or  more  new  bodies 
are  formed,  which  may  consist  either  of 


READ 


445 


READE 


a  gas,  liquid,  or  solid,  or  a  mixture  of 
these;  as  when  sulphuric  acid  is  added 
to  chalk,  the  products  of  the  reaction 
are  sulphate  of  lime,  water,  and  carbonic 
acid  gas. 

In  pathology,  action  of  one  kind  in  an- 
tagonism with  action  of  another;  action 
immediately  following  on  action  of  a 
directly  contrary  character;  or  a  state 
succeeding  to  a  directly  contrary  one,  as 
the  exhaustion  consequent  on  a  paroxysm 
of  fever. 

In  physics,  the  action  of  one  body  on 
another  one  acting  on  it  in  the  opposite 
direction.  Reaction  period,  in  physi- 
ology, the  time  that  elapses  between  the 
application  of  a  stimulus  to  the  nerves, 
and  the  contraction  of  the  muscles,  fol- 
lowing it  in  consequence.  Roughly 
speaking,  it  is  for  feeling  one-seventh, 
for  hearing  one-sixth,  and  for  sight  one- 
fifth  of  a  second. 

READ,  JOHN  MEREDITH,  an  Amer- 
ican jurist;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
July  21,  1797;  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1812;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1818.  He  held  a 
seat  in  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature  in 
1822-1823;  was  United  States  attorney 
for  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1837-1844;  and  served  as  chief-justice 
and  attorney-general  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  solicitor-general  of  the  United  States 
in  1860-1874.  He  was  long  a  Democrat, 
and  was  prominent  in  the  founding  of 
the  Free-soil  branch  of  that  party.  He 
affiliated  with  the  Republican  party  when 
it  was  formed,  and  in  the  presidential 
campaign  of  1856  made  an  address  on 
the  "Power  of  Congress  over  Slavery  in 
the  Territories,"  which  had  much  in- 
fluence throughout  the  country.  In 
1858,  on  the  first  victory  of  the  Republi- 
can party  in  Pennsylvania,  he  was 
elected  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court,  by 
a  majority  of  30,000.  In  1860  he  was 
mentioned  as  a  candidate  for  the 
presidential  nomination  with  Abraham 
Lincoln  for  Vice-President,  but  early  in 
that  year  Simon  Cameron  defeated  the 
movement  in  the  Pennsylvania  Republi- 
can Convention.  Several  votes,  how- 
ever, were  cast  for  him  in  the  Chicago 
Convention,  though  he  exerted  all  his  in- 
fluence in  favor  of  Lincoln.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Views  on  the  Suspension 
of  the  Habeas  Corpus"  which  became 
the  basis  of  the  law  of  March  3,  1863, 
authorizing  the  President  to  suspend 
the  habeas  corp^is  act.  His  opinions  are 
found  in  41  volumes  of  reports.  The 
best  known  of  his  numerous  published 
addresses  include  "Plan  for  the  Admin- 
istration of  the  Girard  Trust"  (1833)  ; 
"The  Law  of  Evidence"  (18G4) ;  "Jeffer- 
son Davis  and  His  Complicity  in  the 
Vol.  VII— Cyc 


Assassination  of  Abraham  Lincoln" 
(1866) ;  etc.  He  died  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Nov.  29,  1874. 

READ,  OPIE,  an  American  journal- 
ist; born  in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Dec.  22, 
1852.  He  established  and  edited  for 
many  years  the  "Arkansaw  Traveler." 
His  studies  of  Arkansas  life  have  been 
widely  read,  and  include:  "Len  Gansett" 
(1888);  "My  Young  Master";  "An  Ar- 
kansaw Planter";  "Up  Terrapin  River"; 
"A  Kentucky  Colonel";  "On  the  Suwanee 
River";  "Miss  Polly  Lop,  and  Other 
Stories";  "The  Captain's  Romance"; 
"The  Jucklins,"  a  novel;  "Bolanyo";  "A 
Yankee  from  the  West";  "A  Tennessee 
Judge";  "In  the  Alamo"  (1900)  "Mys- 
tery of  Margaret"  (1907). 

READ,  THOMAS  BUCHANAN,  an 
American  portrait-painter  and  poet; 
born  in  Chester  co..  Pa.,  March  12,  1822. 
His  most  important  works  are:  "Poems" 
(1847);  "Lays  and  Ballads"  (1848)  "Tha 
Wagoner  of  the  Alleghanies"  (1862); 
and  "Poetical  Works"  (1867).  His  best 
known  poems  are  "Sheridan's  Ride"  and 
"Drifting."  He  also  published :  "Female 
Poets  of  America"  (1848);  "The  Pil- 
grims of  the  Great  St.  Bernard,"  a  ro- 
mance; "The  New  Pastoral"  (1854),  his 
most  ambitious  poem;  "Sylvia;  or,  The 
Lost  Shepherd"  (1857);  and  "The  Good 
Samaritans"  (1867).  He  died  in  New 
York,  May  11,  1872. 


CHARLES   READE 

READE,  CHARLES,  an  English  novel- 
ist; born  in  Ipsden  House,  Oxfordshire, 
England,  June  8,  1814.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford.  In  1843  he  was  called  to  the 
bar  as  a  member  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  but 

2d 


BEADEP, 


446 


BEADING 


devoted  himself  to  fiction  writing.  His 
first  works  to  attract  attention  were 
"Peg  Woflfington"  and  "Christie  John- 
stone." Among  his  subsequent  works 
are:  "The  Course  of  True  Love";  "White 
Lies";  "The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth"; 
"Hard  Cash";  "Griffith  Gaunt";  "Put 
Yourself  in  His  Place";  "A  Terrible 
Temptation";  "Never  Too  Late  to 
Mend";  "Foul  Play,"  etc.;  and  the  plays 
"Gold  Masks  and  Faces"  (with  Tom 
Taylor) ;  "A  Scuttled  Ship"  (with  Bouci- 
cault).  His  last  novel  was  "A  Perilous 
Secret."  He  died  in  London,  England, 
April  11,  1884. 

READER,  specifically,  one  whose  of- 
fice it  is  to  read  prayers,  lessons,  lec- 
tures, and  the  like  to  others;  as  (a)  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  one  of  the 
five  inferior  orders  of  the  priesthood; 
(b)  in  the  English  Church,  a  deacon  ap- 
pointed to  perform  divine  service  in 
churches  and  chapels,  of  which  no  one 
has  the  cure,  (c)  A  kind  of  lecturer  or 
professor  in  universities,  etc.  (d)  In 
printing  offices,  a  proof-reader  is  a  per- 
son who  reads  and  corrects  proofs. 

READING,  a  parliamentary  and  mu- 
nicipal borough  of  England;  capital  of 
the  county  of  Berks;  on  the  Kennet,  near 
its  confluence  with  the  Thames;  36  miles 
W.  of  London.  The  town  is  well  built 
and  laid  out,  and  there  are  an  assize 
hall,  the  Royal  Berkshire  hospital,  a 
town  hall  of  recent  erection  in  the 
Renaissance  style,  etc.  The  industrial 
establishments  include  a  large  and  cele- 
brated biscuit  factory,  iron  foundries, 
breweries,  corn  mills,  etc.,  and  there  is 
a  considerable  agricultural  trade.  There 
are  interesting  remains  of  a  magnificent 
abbey  founded  by  Henry  I.,  who  was 
buried  within  its  precincts  in  1135.  Pop. 
(1917)    82,475. 

READING,  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  in 
Middlesex  co.  It  is  on  the  Boston  and 
Maine  railroad.  It  is  chiefly  a  resi- 
dential town  and  has  manufactures  of 
organ  pipes,  carriages,  boots  and  shoes, 
rubber,  games,  etc.  It  has  a  public 
library.  Pop.  (1910)  5,818;  (1920) 
7,439. 

READING,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Berks  co..  Pa.;  on  the  Schuylkill  river, 
the  Schuylkill  canal,  and  the  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading 
railroads;  54  miles  E.  of  Harrisburg; 
58  miles  N.  W.  of  Philadelphia.  The 
city  is  regularly  laid  out  on  a  site  gradu- 
ally rising  to  picturesque  hills,  which  not 
only  afford  fine  scenic  views,  but  give  a 
copious  supply  of  pure  water.  Here  are 
waterworks  owned  by  the  city  and  cost- 
ing $1,500,000,  gas  and  electric  lights, 
inclined   gravity  and  electric  railroads, 


several  National  and  State  banks,  and 
Mineral  Springs  and  Penn's  Common 
parks.  The  charitable  institutions  in- 
clude the  Reading,  St.  Joseph's,  and  the 
Homeopathic  Medical  and  Surgical  Hos- 
pitals, several  dispensaries,  and  a  Home 
for  Orphans.  The  city  contains  over  60 
churches,  about  50  school  buildings,  and 
public  school  property  valued  at  over 
$1,000,000.  There  are  upward  of  500 
manufacturing  establishments.  Reading 
is  the  seat  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Read- 
ing railroad  car  and  machine  shops. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  foundry  and 
machine  shop  products,  iron  and  steel, 
stoves,  woolen  hats,  brick  and  tile,  cigars 
and  cigarettes,  and  planing  mill  products. 
Reading  was  settled  in  1748,  became  a 
borough  in  1783,  and  a  city  in  1847. 
Pop.  (1910)  96,071;   (1920)   107,784. 

READING,  EARL  OF,  RUFUS 
DANIEL  ISAACS,  Lord  Chief  Justice 
of  England.  Born  in  London,  1860,  the 
son  of  a  Jewish  fruit  dealer,  he  was  edu- 


EARL  OF  READING 

Gated  in  various  universities  of  London, 
Brussels,  and  Hanover.  After  several 
years  of  traveling,  he  finally  studied  law. 
Such  was  his  success  in  the  legal  pro- 
fession that  in  1898  he  became  queen's 
counsel.  In  1904  he  was  elected  as  a 
Liberal  to  the  House  of  Commons.  In 
1910  he  seized  as  solicitor-general  and 
attorney-general.  Although  accused  of 
having  speculated  in  stock  to  the  preju- 
dice of  his  official  duties,  he  was  made 


REAGENT 


447 


REALISM 


lord  chief-justice  in  1913  and  elevated 
to  the  peerage.  In  1915  he  came  to 
America  to  negotiate  the  Anglo-French 
loan,  which  he  successfully  accomplished. 
Upon  the  death  of  the  British  ambassa- 
dor at  Washington,  Earl  Reading  was 
commissioned  to  take  his  place,  where  he 
remained  until  1918,  when  he  returned 
to  England  to  resume  his  position  as 
lord  chief -justice.  He  was  appointed 
Viceroy  of  India  in  1920. 

BEAGENT,  in  chemistry,  any  sub- 
stance employed  to  bring  about  a  chem- 
ical reaction  or  change  in  another 
element,  or  compound,  with  the  view 
generally  of  either  detecting  its  presence 
or  affecting  its  separation  from  other 
substances. 

BEAL,  the  old  unit  of  value  in  Spain. 
By  the  monetary  law  of  June,  1864,  the 
silver  real  was  made  to  weigh  1.298 
grammes,  .81  fine,  and  equivalent  to  AVz 
cents.  The  real  has  varied  in  value 
from  AVz  to  10  cents. 

BEAL,  in  law,  pertaining  to  things 
fixed,  permanent  or  immovable.  Thus 
real  estate  is  landed  property,  including 
all  estates  and  interest  in  lands  which  are 
held  for  life  or  for  some  greater  estate, 
and  whether  such  lands  be  of  freehold 
or  copyhold  tenure.  So  a  real  action  is 
an  action  brought  for  the  specific  re- 
covery of  lands,  tenements,  and  heredita- 
ments. 

BEAL  COMPOSITION,  in  law,  an 
agreement  made  between  the  owner  of 
land  in  countries  having  an  endowed 
church  and  the  parson  or  vicar  with 
consent  of  the  ordinary,  that  such  lands 
shall  be  discharged  from  payment  of 
tithes,  in  consequence  of  other  land  or 
recompense  given  to  the  parson  in  lieu 
and    satisfaction   thereof. 

BEALF,  BICHABD,  an  English- 
American  poet;  born  in  Framfield,  Sus- 
sex, England,  June  14,  1834.  At  18  he 
published,  under  the  patronage  of  several 
literary  people,  a  collection  of  poems, 
"Guesses  at  the  Beautiful."  In  1854  he 
came  to  the  United  States,  enlisted  in  the 
army  in  1862,  and  wrote  some  of  his  best 
lyrics  in  the  field.  His  most  admired 
poems  are:  "My  Slain,"  "An  Old  Man's 
Idyl,"  and  "Indirection."  He  died  in 
Oakland,  Cal.,  Oct.  28,  1878. 

BEALGAB,  a  monoclinic  mineral,  oc- 
curring but  rarely  in  crystals,  but  mostly 
granular  to  compact-massive.  Hardness, 
1.5-2;  sp.  gr.,  3.4-3.6;  luster,  resinous; 
color  and  streak,  aurora-red  to  orange- 
yellow;  transparent  to  translucent;  frac- 
ture, conchoidal;  brittle.  Occurs  in  fine 
crystals  in  Hungary  and  Transylvania,  . 


and  massive  in  many  localities,  fre- 
quently associated  with  orpiment;  on  ex- 
posure to  light  changes  to  orpiment.  In 
chemistry,  AsS^.  A  sulphide  of  arsenic 
formed  artificially  by  heating  arsenic 
acid  with  the  proper  proportion  of  sul- 
phur. It  is  a  fusible  and  volatile  sub- 
stance, having  an  orange-red  color,  is 
used  for  painting  and  for  the  production 
of  white-fire. 

BEALISM,  in  philosophy,  a  doctrine 
diametrically  opposed  to  Nominalism, 
as  involving  the  belief  that  genus  and 
species  are  real  things,  existing  inde- 
pendently of  our  conceptions  and  their 
expressions,  and  that  these  are  alike 
actually  the  object  of  our  thoughts  when 
we  make  use  of  the  terms.  Again,  as 
opposed  to  Idealism,  the  word  implies  an 
intuitive  cognition  of  the  external  ob- 
ject, instead  of  merely  a  mediate  and 
representative  knowledge  of  it. 

In  art  and  literature  the  word  realism 
or  naturalism  is  employed  to  describe  a 
method  of  representation  without  ideal- 
ization, which  in  our  day  in  France  has 
been  raised  to  a  system  and  claims  a 
monopoly  of  truth  in  its  artistic  treat- 
ment of  the  facts  of  nature  and  life.  It 
claims  that  the  enthusiasms  and  ex- 
aggerations of  romanticism  must  give 
place  to  a  period  of  reflection  and  criti- 
cism; that  we  must  not  select  from  the 
facts  put  before  our  eyes,  but  merely 
register  them  and  the  sensations  they 
engender  for  themselves  alone,  apart 
from  all  considerations  of  mere  beauty, 
to  say  nothing  of  religion  or  morality; 
and  that  the  experimental  romance  must 
hereafter  follov/  the  rigid  methods  of 
science,  in  being  based  alone  on  "human 
documents"  supplied  from  the  close  ob- 
servation of  the  present,  or  from  labo- 
rious erudition — the  retrospective  obser- 
vation of  the  past.  As  a  gospel 
this  militant  realism  is  the  offspring 
of  the  positive  philosophy  and  the 
physiology  and  psychology  of  the  age; 
and  in  effect,  in  the  hands  of  its  apostles, 
it  has  become  a  new  morality  which  re- 
forms not  by  precept  but  example,  not 
by  the  attraction  of  the  good,  but  by 
the  repulsion  of  the  evil.  The  practical 
result  is  that  for  French  realists  there 
is  in  the  moral  world  only  the  evil,  in 
the  visible  world  only  the  ugly,  and  the 
triumphs  of  modern  fiction  are  the  piti- 
less impersonality  of  "Madame  Bovary," 
the  cold  splendors  of  "Salammbo,"  the 
vulgarities  of  Zola,  the  refined  sensual- 
ism of  Bourget  and  Guy  de  Maupassant, 
the  pretentious  inanities  of  the  Gon- 
court  brothers,  and  the  dreary  pessim- 
ism of  Dostoievsky  and  Tolstoi.  If  real- 
ism were  perfect  it  would_  include  all 
reality,   order  as  well  as  disorder,  the 


BEAL    PBESENCE 


448  REASON 


general  as  well  as  the  particular,  the 
lofty  as  well  as  the  low.  For  there  are 
men  and  women  who  are  neither  selfish 
nor  drunken,  nor  lecherous;  your  ex- 
perimental cesspool  is  not  Paris,  your 
Paris  is  not  the  universe;  your  hospital 
wards  may  contain  cases  of  all  moral 
maladies,  but  you  forget  the  moving 
world  of  health  and  life  outside  its 
walls;  your  vaunted  collection  lacks  one 
specimen,  not  the  rarest,  and  certainly 
the  most  beautiful.  For  the  dream  is 
as  true  a  leaf  of  life  as  the  sober  vision, 
and  idealism  is  the  permanent  revenge 
of  man  over  the  inequalities  of  life — the 
protest  of  creative  mind  against  exter- 
nal fatality.  Idealistic  art  seizes  life  at 
its  richest  moments,  and  presents  it  pre- 
served forever  by  its  immaterial  essence 
from  inconstancy  and  degradation.  This 
so-called  realism  is  not  reality — ^the  steps 
of  true  art  must  ever  be  elimination  and 
generalization;  its  postulates,  the  eter- 
nal conventions  of  form,  style,  language, 
and  subject,  necessary  because  they  are 
elemental. 

REAL  PRESENCE,  the  doctrine  of  the 
actual  presence  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ  in  the  eucharist. 

REAL  SCHOOLS  (German,  Real- 
schulen),  those  educational  institutions 
of  Germany  between  the  elementary 
school  and  the  university  having  for  their 
special  object  the  teaching  of  science,  art, 
the  modern  languages,  etc.;  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  ordinary  grammar 
schools  and  gjTiinasiums,  in  which  the 
classical  languages  hold  a  more  impor- 
tant place. 

REAM,  a  quantity  of  paper  of  any 
size  containing  20  quires  or  480  sheets. 
A  common  practice  is  now  to  count  500 
sheets  to  the  ream. 

REAPING  HOOK,  a  curved  blade  of 
steel  set  in  a  short  handle,  and  used  for 
reaping;  a  sickle. 

REAPING  MACHINE,  a  machine  for 
reaping  or  cutting  down  grain  in  the 
field.  There  are  numerous  varieties. 
Properly  speaking,  the  Reaping  Hook 
(</.  V.)  (represented  1490  B.  c.  in  a  har- 
vest scene  on  a  tomb  at  Thebes,  and  still 
in  use)  and  the  scythe  are  reaping  ma- 
chines; but  the  term  is  generally  con- 
fined to  the  modern  machines,  in  which 
operations  formerly  carried  out  by  the 
human  hand  are  effected  by  machinery. 
The  idea  of  a  mechanical  reaper  was 
probably  suggested  by  Capel  Lloft  in 
1785,  and  in  1786,  Pott,  an  Englishman, 
made  the  first  machine.  In  1822  a  self- 
sharpening  mowing  machine  was  pat- 
ented in  the  United  States.  Between 
1852  and  1874  nearly  3,000  patents  for 


reaping  machines  were  taken  out  for  the 
United  States.  Two  of  the  most  cele^ 
brated  are  McCormick's,  invented  about 
1831,  and  improved  in  1846,  and  Wood's 
reaping  and  automatic  binding  machine, 
first  used  in  1874.  Modern  reapers  are 
of  three  classes,  manual  delivery,  self- 
raking,  and  self-binding.  A  binder 
largely  used,  and  pushed  by  4  to  6 
horses,  clears  a  strip  12  to  20  feet  v\dde. 
There  are  combined  headers  and  thresh- 
ers which  cut,  thresh,  and  sack  grain, 
doing  100  acres  a  day. 

REASON,    in    logic,    the    premise    or 
or  premises  of  an  argument,  and  espe- 
cially the  minor  premise.     In  metaphys- 
ics, the  power  of  thinking  consecutively; 
the  power  of  passing  in  mental  review 
all  the  facts  and  principles  bearing  on 
a  subject,  and,  after  a  careful  considera- 
tion of  their  bearings,  drawing  conclu- 
sions  in   many   cases   conformable   with 
truth.     Reason,  weighing  facts,  discovers 
the  law  of  gravitation,  calculates  eclipses, 
weighs  the  planets,  ascertains  the  con- 
stituent elements  of  the  sun,  and  even 
of  more  distant  worlds.     It  can  exercise 
itself  on  the  most  abstract  and  spiritual 
theories,  as  well  as  on  those  of  a  simpler 
character.     Reid   distinguished   between 
reason    and    judgment,   considering  the 
sphere  of  the  former  to  be  propositions 
capable  of  demonstration.     Stewart  con- 
sidered the  word  reason  as  ambiguous. 
In     common     discourse    it    denotes  the 
power     of     discriminating    truth     from 
falsehood,    and    right   from   wrong.     To 
these    he    adds    the    power   of  devising 
means     to     accomplish  ends;  or   reason 
may  be  limited  to  the  power  of  distin- 
guishing   truth    from    falsehood;    or   it 
may  be  used  of  our  rational   power  in 
general,    or    of    the    discursive  faculty 
alone.     Brown  thinks   that   there   is   no 
faculty  of  reason  which  is  nothing  more 
than  a  series  of  relative  suggestions.  Im- 
manuel  Kant's  "Critique  of  Pure  Reason" 
appeared  in  1781.    Mill  considers  reason- 
ing in  its  extended  sense  to  be  synony- 
mous with  inference,  and  divides  it  into 
induction,  i.  e.,  reasoning  from  particu- 
lars to  generals,  and  ratiocination,  rea- 
soning   from    generals    to    particulars. 
Formerly   it   was   believed   that  of   the 
whole    visible    creation    man    alone    was 
capable  of  reasoning;   but  Darwin   con- 
siders that  only  a  few  persons  now  dis- 
pute that  animals  possess  some  power  of 
reason.     Their  actions  may   be  due  to 
instinct  or  to  the  association  of  ideas, 
the  last  named  principle  being  connected 
with  reason. 

In  history:  On  Nov.  10,  1793,  the 
French  National  Convention  ordered  the 
worship  of  the  Goddess  of  Reason. 
Madame    Maillard,    selected    as    such    a 


REAUMUR 


449 


RECAMIER 


goddess,  was  drawn  on  a  splendid  car 
to  the  cathedral  of  Notie  Dame  to  re- 
ceive homage  from  the  multitude.  For 
some  time  afterward  that  cathedral  was 
designated  the  Temple  of  Reason. 

REAUMUR,  RENE  ANTOINE  FER- 
CHAULT  DE,  a  French  physicist  and 
naturalist;  born  in  La  Rochelle,  France, 
Feb.  28,  1683.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1703; 
in  1708  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences;  and  for  nearly  50 
years  continued  to  be  one  of  its  most 
active  members.  As  a  natural  philos- 
opher he  is  celebrated  for  the  invention 
of  an  improved  thermometer,  which  he 
made  known  in  1873,  but  his  greatest 
work  is  "Natural  History  of  Insects"  (6 
vols.).  He  died  in  Maine,  France,  Oct. 
18,  1757. 

REAUMURIACE.ffi,  in  botany,  reau- 
muriads;  an  order  of  hypogynous  exo- 
gens,  alliance  Guttiferales ;  small  shrubs, 
with  fleshy  scale-like  exstipulate  leaves, 
covered  with  resinous  sunk  glands. 
From  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  salt  plains  of  temperate  Asia. 
Known  genera  three,  species  four. 

REAUMUR'S  SCALE,  a  scale  for  a 
thermometer,  in  which  the  two  fixed 
points  being  as  in  the  Centigrade,  the 
division  is  into  80  instead  of  100  parts. 
It  is  still  occasionally  used. 

REBEC,  or  REBECK,  the  English 
name  of  a  three-stringed  musical  instru- 
ment played  with  a  bow.  It  was  of 
Arabian  or  Turkish  origin,  and  in  its 
earliest  form  it  probably  had  a  long  neck 
and  small  round  body,  made  of  cocoanut 
shell,  or  some  such  material,  over  which 
parchment  was  stretched  to  form  the 
sound  board.  After  its  introduction  into 
Europe,  the  third  string  was  added.  The 
rebec  gradually  assumed  the  form  of  a 
viol,  of  which  it  was  the  precursor. 

REBEKAH,  DAUGHTERS  OF,  a  de- 
gree in  the  ritual  of  Odd  Fellowship,  to 
which  women  are  admitted. 

REBELLION,  the  taking  up  of  arms, 
whether  by  natural  subjects  or  others, 
residing  in  the  country,  against  a  settled 
government.  By  international  law  re- 
bellion is  considered  a  crime,  and  all 
persons  voluntarily  abetting  it  are  crim- 
inals, whether  subjects  or  foreigners. 
When  a  rebellion  has  attained  such  di- 
mensions and  organization  as  to  make  of 
the  rebel  party  a  state  de  facto,  and  its 
acts  reach  the  dimensions  of  war  de 
facto,  it  is  now  the  custom  of  the  state 
to  yield  to  the  rebels  such  belligerent 
privileges  as  policy  and  humanity  re- 
quire, and  to  treat  captives  as  prisoners 
of  war,  etc. 


REBUS  ("by  things"),  a  word,  name, 
or  phrase  represented  by  the  figure  of 
an  object  which  resembles  in  sound  the 
words,  or  syllables  of  the  words,  indi- 
cated; an  enigmatical  representation  of 
words  by  the  use  of  figures  or  pictures; 
thus,  a  "bolt"  and  a  "tun"  represent 
"Bolton."  In  heraldry,  a  device  intended 
to  represent  a  proper  name  by  a  picture; 
a  bearing  or  bearings  on  a  coat  of  arms, 
containing  an  allusion  to  the  name  of  the 
owner;  as  in  the  coat  of  the  family  of 
Arches,  which  consists  of  three  arches. 

RECALL,  a  method  of  compelling  an 
elective  official  to  resign  or  submit  him- 
self to  a  new  election  before  his  reg- 
ular term  of  office  expires.  It  was 
first  adopted  in  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  in 
1904.  Under  its  provisions  a  certain 
percentage  of  the  voters  who  are  dis- 
satisfied with  the  official  circulate  a  peti- 
tion for  his  recall.  The  percentage  of 
the  electorate  who  must  sign  the  petition 
in  order  to  make  it  effective  varies  in 
different  States,  the  usual  percentage 
being  25  per  cent.,  as  the  law  is  in 
Oregon.  When  the  required  proportion 
has  signed  the  official  must  either  resign 
or  submit  to  a  new  election.  It  has 
been  adopted  by  more  than  two  hundred 
cities  and  by  thirteen  States,  viz.:  Ore., 
Cal.,  Wash.,  Nev.,  Mich.,  Ariz.,  Colo., 
Idaho,  Kans.,  La.,  Wyo.,  N.  D.,  Wis. 

When  Arizona  applied  for  admission 
to  the  Union,  President  Taft  refu?ed  to 
sign  the  bill  admitting  her  to  statehood 
until  the  recall  of  judges  was  eliminated 
from  the  State  Constitution.  Roosevelt 
advocated  in  the  primary  campaign  of 
1912  the  recall  of  judicial  decisions  by 
which  the  decision  of  the  courts  on  ques- 
tions involving  the  powers  of  the  Legis- 
lature under  the  Constitution  should  be 
subject  to  a  popular  referendum.  The 
scheme  was  never  adopted  by  any  State 
and  soon  became  a  dead  issue  politically. 
The  recall  of  judges  likewise  has  not 
been  generally  adopted  and  American 
public  opinion  has  rather  tended  to 
agree  with  President  Taft  that  the  prac- 
tice is  not  in  consonance  with  American 
institutions. 

RECAMIER.  MADAME  (JEANNE 
FRANgOISE  JULIE  ADELAIDE  BER- 
NARD), a  famous  Frenchwoman;  born 
in  Lyons,  France,  Dec.  4,  1777.  At  15  she 
was  married  to  M.  Jacques  Recamier,  a 
rich  banker  about  thrice  her  own  age. 
Her  salon  was  soon  filled  with  the  bright- 
est wits  of  the  literary  and  political 
circles  of  the  day.  For  Madame  de  Stael 
she  had  a  warm  affection  that  survived 
the  exile  required  by  the  jealousy  of 
Napoleon.  Soon  after  this  her  husband 
was  completely  ruined,  and  Madame 
Recamier    visit-ed    Madame    de    Stael   at 


RECANATI 


450 


RECIPROCAL 


Coppetin  Switzerland  (1806).  Here  she 
met  Prince  Augxist  of  Prussia,  who  alone 
of  all  her  innumerabb  admirers  is  sup- 
posed to  have  touched  her  heart.  The 
most  distinguished  friend  of  her  later 
years  was  M.  de  Chateaubriand.  In 
1846  he  became  a  lAadower,  and  he  then 
wished  to  marry  Madame  Recamier, 
whose  husband  had  been  dead  since  1830, 
but  the  lady  declined.  She  died  May  11, 
1849.  Her  "Recollections  and  Corre- 
spondence" were  edited  by  her  niece, 
Madame  Lenormant  in  1859. 

RECANATI,  a  town  of  Italy,  15  miles 
S.  of  Ancona;  has  a  Gothic  cathedral 
with  a  monument  to  Pope  Gregory  XII. 
Here  Leopardi  was  born.  Porto  Reca- 
nati  is  6  miles  N.  E.  on  the  Adriatic 
coast. 

RECAPTION,  in  law,  recaption  or  re- 
prisal is  another  species  of  remedy  by  the 
mere  act  of  the  party  injured.  This 
happens  when  anyone  has  deprived  an- 
other of  his  property  in  goods  or  chat- 
tels personal,  or  wrongfully  detains  one's 
wife,  child,  or  servant;  in  which  case 
the  owner  of  the  goods,  and  the  husband, 
parent,  or  master,  may  lawfully  claim 
and  retake  them,  wherever  he  happens 
to  find  them;  so  it  be  not  in  a  riotous 
manner,  or  attended  with  a  breach  of 
the  peace. 

RECEIPT,  a  written  document,  de- 
claring that  certain  goods  or  a  sum  of 
money  have  been  received.  A  receipt, 
though  evidence  of  payment,  is  not  abso- 
lute proof,  and  this  evidence  may  be 
rebutted  by  proving  that  it  was  given 
under  misapprehension. 

RECEIVER,  a  person  specially  ap- 
pointed by  a  court  of  justice  to  receive 
the  rents  and  profits  of  land,  or  the 
produce  of  other  property,  which  is  in 
dispute  in  a  cause  in  that  court.  The 
name  is  also  given  to  a  person  appointed 
in  suits  concerning  the  estates  of  in- 
fants, or  against  executors,  or  between 
partners  in  business,  or  insolvents,  for 
the  purpose  of  winding  up  the  concern. 

RECEIVER  OF  STOLEN  GOODS, 
one  who  takes  stolen  goods  from  a  thief, 
knowing  them  to  be  stolen,  and  incurs 
the  guilt  of  partaking  in  the  crime.  If 
the  theft  amounts  to  felony  the  punish- 
ment is  penal  servitude  of  from  3  to  14 
years,  or  imprisonment  for  two  years; 
if  a  misdemeanor,  penal  servitude  from 
three  to  seven  years,  or  imprisonment 
for  not  above  two  years.  In  the  United 
States  the  penalty  is  fixed  by  statutes  in 
the  several  States. 

RECENT,  in  geology,  a  term  applied 
to  a  division  of  the  post-Tertiary  in 
which  all  the  mammalia,  as  well  as  all 


the  shells,  are  identical  with  living 
species.  In  certain  places  it  is  difficult 
to  draw  a  distinction  between  the  Recent 
and  the  Pleistocene  deposits.  Alluvium 
brought  down  by  rivers,  modern  peat,  the 
Clyde  marine  strata  with  canoes,  the 
kitchen  middens  of  Denmark,  and  the 
lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland  belong  to 
the  Recent  period. 

RECEPTACLE,  in  botany:  (1)  Any 
part  which  supports  another  part.  The 
receptacle  of  a  flower  is  the  top  of  the 
peduncle  on  which  the  flowers  are  in- 
serted. It  may  be  a  flattened  area,  or  a 
vanishing  point,  or  may  be  greatly  dilat- 
ed. The  receptable  of  a  fruit  is  its  torus. 
The  receptacle  of  an  ovule  is  the  pla- 
centa. The  receptacle  of  the  sporangia 
in  a  fern  is  the  vein  passing  through 
their  axis.  (2)  A  cavity  for  the  re- 
ception of  any  substance.  The  recep- 
tacle of  oil  is  one  of  the  cysts  which 
contain  it,  as,  for  instance,  those  on  the 
rind  of  the  orange. 

RECHABITE,  a  member  of  a  section 
of  the  Kenites,  called  in  Hebrew  recha- 
bim,  from  Rechab  (=  the  horseman; 
rachab  =  to  ride),  the  father  of  Jonadab, 
who  enjoined  his  descendants  to  abstain 
from  wine,  from  building  houses,  sowing 
seed,  and  planting  vineyards,  and  com- 
manded them  to  dwell  in  tents  (Jer. 
xxxv:  2-19).  Wolff  mentions  an  inter- 
view he  had  with  a  nomadic  Jew  near 
Senaa,  who  claimed  to  be  a  descendant  of 
Jonadab,  stating  that  his  tribe  were  60,- 
000  in  number,  and  adhered  to  their 
ancient  laws,  and  that  they  were  a  liv- 
ing fulfillment  of  the  prophecy  of  Jer. 
xxxv:  19.  Hence,  one  who  abstains 
from  alcoholic  beverages;  a  teetotaler. 
Also  a  member  of  the  Independent  Order 
of  Rechabites,  a  friendly  society  founded 
on  temperance  principles,  "so  that  ab- 
stainers could  be  united  together,  and 
have  the  privileges  of  a  benefit  society 
as  well."  The  first  meeting  was  held 
at  the  Temperance  Hotel,  Bolton  sti-eet, 
Salford,  Lancaster,  England,  Aug.  25, 
1835.  The  Rechabite  pledge  is  extremely 
stringent  and  far-reaching,  but  the  order 
is  steadily  increasing  in  Great  Britain, 
and  has  been  introduced  into  the  United 
States,  Canada  and  Australia.  Their 
lodges  are  called  "tents"  in  allusion  to 
Jer.  xxxv:  7.  The  Independent  Order  of 
Rechabite  was  established  in  the  United 
States  in  1842.  Its  headquarters  are  at 
Washington,  D.  C.  The  total  number  of 
members  in  the  United  States  on  Jan. 
1,  1921,  was  538,078. 

RECIPROCAL,  in  grammar,  reflexive. 
Applied  to  verbs  which  have  as  an  object 
a  pronoun  standing  for  the  subject;  as, 
"Bethink   yourself."     It   is   also   applied 


RECIPROCATING    ENGINE 


451 


RECONNAISSANCE 


to  pronouns  of  this  class.  As  a  noun, 
that  which  is  reciprocal  to  another  thing. 
Specifically,  in  mathematics,  the  quo- 
tient resulting  from  the  division  of  unity 
by    the    quantity;    thus    the    reciprocal 

1                                             1 
of  a  is — ,  of  2  is  ^2,  oi  a  -\-h  is ,  etc. 

a  a  +  6 

The  product  of  a  quantity,  and  its 
reciprocal,  is  always  equal  to  1.  The 
reciprocal  of  a  vulgar  fraction  is  the 
denominator  divided  by  the  numerator; 
thus  the  reciprocal  of  Yz  is  2,  of  %  is 
%,  etc. 

RECIPROCATING  ENGINE,  the 
common  form  of  engine,  in  which  the 
piston  and  piston-rod  move  backward 
and  forward  in  a  straight  line,  abso- 
lutely or  relatively  to  the  cylinder,  as  in 
oscillating-cylinder  engines.  The  term 
is  used  in  contradistinction  to  rotary 
engines. 

RECIPROCITY,  a  policy  under  which 
there  exist  two  sets  of  tariff  duties;  one 
to  be  put  in  force  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances; the  other  a  much  lower  one 
to  be  established  in  case  another  coun- 
try reduces  its  tariff  schedules  to  a  cor- 
responding scale.  In  the  case  of  the 
United  States  reciprocity  has  been 
greatly  talked  of  as  existing  between 
that  nation  and  Canada.  In  1854  a  reci- 
procity treaty  was  negotiated  between 
the  two  countries  which  provided  for 
mutual  free  trade  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  While  it  was  popu- 
lar at  first  in  stimulating  trade  the  busi- 
ness depression  in  the  IJnited  States  in 
1857  greatly  influenced  that  nation  to  re- 
peal the  act  in  1865. 

The  Republican  party  a  few  years  la- 
ter, in  order  to  please  the  agricultural 
and  exporting  classes  who  were  in  gen- 
eral opposed  to  the  high  tariff,  cham- 
pioned the  principle  of  reciprocity.  In 
1875  a  reciprocity  treaty  was  negotiated 
and  signed  between  Hawaii  and  the 
United  States,  but  it  was  not  until  the 
McKinley  Administration  that  such  trea- 
ties were  made  with  any  important  na- 
tions. During  that  administration  reci- 
procity was  established  with  France, 
Portugal,  Germany,  and  Italy.  Treaties 
were  negotiated  with  other  countries 
which  the  Senate  refused  to  ratify. 
President  McKinley  in  his  last  public  ad- 
dress, the  Buffalo  Exposition  speech, 
strongly  advocated  reciprocity.  In  1903 
a  reciprocity  treaty  with  Cuba  was  nego- 
tiated and  ratified  by  the  Senate. 

In  1911  President  Taft  negotiated  a 
reciprocity  treaty  with  Canada  and  in 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  many  of  the 
Western  members  of  his  party  he  suc- 
ceeded in  securing  its  passage  by  Con- 


gress, only  to  have  it  rejected  by  Can- 
ada. The  Democrats,  believing  as  they 
do  in  low  tariff  duties,  have  never  es- 
poused reciprocity,  holding  that  the  re- 
ciprocal action  of  another  country  is 
immaterial. 

RECITATIVE,  in  music,  a  species  of 
musical  declamation,  not  necessarily  in 
rhythmical  form,  but  so  arranged  or  de- 
signed as  to  assimilate  musical  sounds  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  ordinary  speech. 
It  is  used  in  operas,  oratorios,  etc.,  to 
relate  a  story,  to  express  some  action  or 
passion,  or  to  reveal  a  secret  or  design, 
and  is  of  two  kinds,  unaccompanied  and 
accompanied,  the  latter  being  the  more 
common  in  modern  music.  Also,  a  piece 
of  music  intended  to  be  sung  in  recita- 
tive. 

RECLUS,  JEAN  JACQUES  ELISEE, 
a  French  geographer;  born  in  Sainte- 
Foix  la  Grande,  France,  March  15,  1830. 
In  consequence  of  his  extreme  democratic 
views  he  left  France  after  the  coup 
d'etat  of  1851,  and  spent  the  next  seven 
years  in  England,  Ireland,  North  and 
Central  America,  and  Colombia.  He  re- 
turned to  Paris  in  1858,  and  published 
"Journey  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Sainte 
Marthe"  (1861),  and  an  introduction  to 
the  "Dictionary  of  the  Communes  of 
France"  (1864).  For  being  concerned 
in  the  Communistic  outbreak  of  1871  he 
was  banished  from  France,  but  returned 
under  an  amnesty  in  1879.  While  liv- 
ing in  exile  in  Switzerland  he  began  his 
great  masterpiece,  "New  General  Ge- 
ography" (14  vols.  1876-1889).  Reclus 
has  also  written  another  great  work,  a 
physical  geography  entitled  "The 
Earth"  (Eng.  trans.  1871  and  1887); 
"History  of  a  Brook"  (1866)  ;  besides 
"Terrestrial  Phenomena"  (1873)  and 
"History  of  a  Mountain"  (1880).  Died 
1905. 

RECOGNIZANCE,  or  RECOGNI- 
SANCE, in  law  an  obligation  of  record, 
which  a  man  enters  into  before  some 
court  of  record  or  magistrate  duly  au- 
thorized, with  condition  to  do  some  pai"- 
ticular  act;  as,  to  keep  the  peace,  to  pay 
a  debt,  or  the  like.  Also  the  verdict  of  a 
jury  impaneled  upon  assize. 

RECONNAISSANCE,  the  act  or  pro- 
cess of  reconnoitering;  a  preliminary 
survey  or  examination;  specifically  ap- 
plied to:  (1)  The  examination  of  a  ter- 
ritory, district,  etc.,  or  of  an  enemy's 
position,  for  the  purpose  of  directing 
militai-y  operations.  (2)  The  examina- 
tion or  survey  of  a  region  in  reference 
to  its  general  geological  character.  (3) 
A  preliminary  examination  of  a  county 
or  district  in  reference  to  its  general  nat- 
ural character,  preparatory  to  a  more 


RECONSTRUCTION 


452 


RECONSTRTJCTION 


particular  survey  for  the  purposes  of  the 
construction  of  public  works,  as  of  a 
road,  canal,  railway,  etc. 

RECONSTRTJCTION,  in  United  States 
history,  a  making-over  of  the  political 
fabric  of  the  States  that  composed  the 
Southern  Confederacy.  At  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War,  these  States  were  prac- 
tically without  governments,  those  which 
they  had  established  after  their  with- 
drawal from  the  Union  having  been  over- 
thrown. They  had  been  declared  insur- 
gents and  therefore  their  relation  to  the 
United  States  Government  was  that  of 
a  conquered  territory. 

The  treatment  of  these  States  became 
a  problem.  Plans  for  the  solution  were 
submitted  which  may  be  classified  as 
follows:  (1)  The  theory  that  as  soon  as 
the  bare  number  of  Union  men  who  had 
always  been  in  these  States,  had  estab- 
lished a  loyal  government,  the  States 
would   then    be    regularly    reconstituted. 

(2)  The  theory  in  President  Lincoln's 
proclamation  of  Dec.  8,  1863,  stipulating 
that  if  after  having  taken  a  prescribed 
oath  of  allegiance,  one-tenth  of  the  num- 
ber of  voters  of  1860  should  establish  a 
loyal  government  it  should  be  recog- 
nized, this  stipulation  applying  to  all 
such  governments;  the  theory  including 
a  provision  of  amnesty  on  certain  con- 
ditions for  all,  with  the  exception  of  a 
specified   portion    of   those  in   rebellion. 

(3)  Sumner's  theory  that  a  State  re- 
nounces its  State  rights  through  the  act 
of  withdrawal,  and  in  doing  so  abol- 
ishes a  right  to  slavery  which  is  an  in- 
stitution based  merely  on  State  author- 
ity; that  Congress  should  institute 
measures  to  establish  this  conclusion  as 
a  fact,  and  also  to  protect  all  the  in- 
habitants of  the  State,  and  therein  to 
set  up  a  republican  form  of  government. 

(4)  Thaddeus  Stevens'  theory  that  in- 
superable resistance  to  the  Constitution 
suspends  its  operations  and  that  it  then 
become;,  incumbent  on  the  National 
government  to  decide  when  it  is  to  be 
resumed.  (5)  The  Davis- Wade  theory 
introduced  by  Henry  Winter  Davis  and 
Benjamin  F.  Wade,  from  the  "Committee 
on  Rebellious  States."  This  theory  made 
provisions  for  the  appointment  of  pro- 
visional governors,  the  emolument  of  citi- 
zens ready  and  willing  to  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance,  the  approval  and  adoption 
of  a  constitution,  and  recognition  of  the 
State  by  admission.  (6)  The  congres- 
sional theory  which  was  really  carried 
into  effect. 

Measures  radically  discriminating 
against  the  negroes  had  been  adopted  by 
the  Legislatures  reconstructed  under  the 
proclamation  of  Dec.  8,  1863.  This  had 
gjccited  and  united  Republican  feeling  in 


the  North  against  the  President's  policy. 
Meantime  President  Lincoln  had  been 
assassinated  and  Vice-President  John- 
son had  taken  the  presidential  chair. 
When  Congress  assembled,  in  December, 
1865,  Republican  opposition  was  mani- 
fest in  an  enactment  that  no  State  should 
be  represented  in  either  House  till  Con- 
gress had  declared  its  right  to  represen- 
tation. A  bill  was  passed  proposing  the 
Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the  National 
Constitution,  and  declaring  the  right  of 
representation  to  any  States  ratifyin;;. 
The  Civil-Rights  Bill  followed,  and  tie 
bill  enlarging  the  provisions  of  the 
freedman's  bureau,  were  passed  over 
the  President's  veto.  According  to  Con- 
gress, the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  retained  the  authority  vested  in  it 
over  States  which  through  their  act  of 
withdrawal,  had  suspended  their  State 
governments,  since  those  States  were  not 
viewed  as  "destroyed,"  but  as  being  in  a 
position  for  restoration  to  "their  former 
political  relations"  in  the  Union,  by  con- 
sent of  the  law-making  power  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Republicans  were  divided  in  their 
policy,  one  faction  sustaining  the  Presi- 
dent in  his  opinions,  the  other  faction  be- 
ing resolute  in  the  feeling  that  adher- 
ence to  his  opinions  was  treason  to  the 
party.  Some  indiscreet  speeches  made 
by  President  Johnson  during  a  trip 
through  some  Northern  and  Western 
States  accentuated  Republican  opposi- 
tion to  his  policy.  Congress  then  passed 
a  series  of  laws,  some  of  them  over  the 
President's  veto.  Among  these  were  the 
Tenure  of  Office  Act,  establishment  of 
universal  suffrage  in  the  territories,  ad- 
mission of  Nebraska  into  the  Union,  and 
making  General  Grant  irremovable  as 
head  of  the  army.  Meantime,  but  one 
State,  Tennessee,  had  been  admitted, 
July  24,  1866,  none  of  the  others  adopted 
the  Fourteenth  Amendment.  In  view  of 
the  situation,  Congress  divided  the  South 
into  five  military  districts.  A  military 
governor  was  appointed  for  each  dis- 
trict, and  he  was  empowered  to  protect 
life  and  property  through  local  courts 
or  military  commissions.  Each  governor 
was  to  supervise  the  election  of  delegates 
to  a  constitutional  convention  to  which 
all  but  certain  disqualified  classes  were 
to  be  admitted,  such  delegates  to  be 
elected  by  those  eligible  to  vote.  It  was 
provided  that  such  constitutions  should 
be  ratified  by  a  popular  vote,  and  then 
placed  before  Congress,  the  next  meas- 
ure to  be  a  ratification  of  the  Four- 
teenth Amendment  by  the  new  Legisla- 
ture so  including  the  amendment  in  the 
Statfj  constitution,  which  act  should  en- 
title the  State  to  representation  in  Con- 


HECOBD 


453 


BECTIFY 


gress.  The  bill  with  such  provisions  was 
passed  over  the  President's  veto,  March 
2,  1867.  The  provisions  of  the  bill  were 
carried  out,  and  the  constitutions  which 
were  adopted  abolished  slavery,  re- 
nounced the  right  of  secession,  and 
agreed  to  pass  no  laws  limiting  the  lib- 
erty of  any  class  of  citizens  and  repudi- 
ated the  debts  incurred  during  the  Civil 
War.  Governors  and  legislators  were 
elected  under  these  constitutions.  Ar- 
kansas was  admitted  June  22,  1868; 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
Florida,  Alabama,  and  Louisiana,  June 
25,  1868;  Virginia,  Jan.  26,  1870;  Mis- 
sissippi, Feb.  23,  1870;  Texas,  March  30, 
1870.  Congress  did  not  complete  the 
readmission  of  Georgia  till  July  15,  1870, 
that  State  having  failed  in  its  compli- 
ance with  the  general  policy.  The  four 
States  last  named  were  compelled  to 
ratify  the  Fifteenth  Amendment,  also 
before^  their  admission,  as  a  penalty  for 
delay  in  complying  with  the  plan  of  Con- 
gress. The  Union  of  the  United  States 
was  thus  restored,  and  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  in  the  case  of 
Texas  vs.  White  declared  the  action  of 
Congress  constitutional. 

Reconstruction  measures  instituted 
after  the  World  War  are  treated  under 
the  name  of  the  countries  involved. 

RECORD,  the  list  of  known  facts  in  a 
person's  life,  especially  in  that  of  a  pub- 
lic man;  personal  history.  Also  some- 
thing set  down  in  writing  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preserving  the  memory  of  a  fact 
or  event;  specifically  a  register;  an  au- 
thentic or  official  copy  of  a  document,  or 
account  of  any  facts,  acts,  or  proceed- 
ings, whether  public  or  private,  entered 
in  a  book  for  preservation;  also,  the 
book  containing  such  entries.  In  law, 
authentic  or  official  testimonies  in  writ- 
ing, contained  in  rolls  of  parchment,  and 
preserved  in  a  court  of  record.  Con- 
gressional Record,  a  pamphlet  published 
daily  during  sessions  of  Congress  and 
containing  a  record  of  the  proceedings  of 
that  body.  Conveyances  by  record,  in 
law,  conveyance  evidenced  by  the  au- 
thority of  a  court  of  record,  as  a  con- 
veyance by  private  act  of  Legislature  or 
a  government  grant.  Court  of  record, 
in  law,  a  court  of  record  is  defined  to 
be  that  where  the  acts  and  judicial  pro- 
ceedings are  enrolled  or  recorded;  which 
rolls  "ire  called  the  records  of  the  court, 
and  are  of  such  high  authority  that  their 
truth  is  not  to  be  called  in  question. 
Nothing  can  be  averred  against  the  rec- 
ord nor  shall  any  plea,  or  even  proof,  be 
admitted  to  the  contrary.  And  if  the 
existence  of  a  record  be  denied,  it  shall 
be  tried  by  nothing  but  itself;  that  is, 
upon  bare  inspection  whether  there  be 


any  such  record  or  no;  else  there  will 
be  no  end  of  disputes.  Debt  on  record, 
in  law,  a  debt  which  appears  to  be  due 
by  the  evidence  of  a  court  of  record. 
Geological  record,  the  record  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  globe,  as  written  upon  the 
rocks  especially  by  means  of  fossils.  It 
is  imperfect;  many  gaps  existing,  some 
of  which  may  never  be  filled  up.  To 
beat,  break,  or  cut  the  record,  in  sport- 
ing  concerns,  to  do  a  distance  in  less 
time  than  has  yet  been  officially  re- 
corded, to  excel  any  previous  perform- 
ance. Trial  by  record,  in  law,  a  trial 
which  is  heard  when  a  matter  of  record 
is  pleaded. 

RECORDER,  a  musical  instrument, 
formerly  popular  in  Great  Britain,  re- 
sembling a  flageolet  in  shape.  The  in- 
strument was  wider  in  the  lower  half 
than  in  the  upper;  its  tones  were  soft 
and  pleasing,  and  an  octave  higher  than 
the  flute. 

RECORDER,  in  England,  the  chief  ju- 
dicial officer  of  a  borough  or  city,  ex- 
ercising within  it,  in  criminal  matters, 
the  jurisdiction  of  a  court  of  record, 
whence  his  title  is  derived.  The  appoint- 
ment of  recorders  is  vested  in  the  crown, 
and  the  selection  is  confined  to  barristers 
of  five  years'  standing.  The  same  name 
is  given  to  similar  legal  functionaries 
elsewhere,  as  in  some  American  cities. 

RECTANGLE,  in  geometry,  a  paral- 
lelogram or  quadrilateral  figure  whose 
angles  are  all  right  angles.  An  equilat- 
eral rectangle  is  a  square.  A  rectangle 
is  said  to  be  contained  by  any  two  of  tlie 
sides  about  one  of  its  angles;  thus,  if 
A  B  and  B  C  represent  two  adjacent 
sides,  the  rectangle  is  said  to  be  con- 
tained by  A  B  and  B  C,  or,  as  it  is  some- 
times expressed,  it  is  the  rectangle  under 
A  B  and  B  C.  The  area  of  a  rectangle 
is  equal  to  the  product  of  its  base  and 
altitude.  Rectangles  ha\ing  equal  bases 
are  to  each  other  as  their  altitudes;  rec- 
tangles having  equal  altitudes  are  to 
each  other  as  their  bases. 

RECTIFY,  to  refine  or  purify  spirit 
or  common  alcohol  by  a  process  of  distil- 
lation, with  the  aid  of  certain  herbs,  es- 
sences, and  other  flavoring  ingredients. 
More  strictly,  to  separate  the  lighter 
portions  of  any  liquid,  and  render  pure 
and  homogeneous  any  alcohol,  ether,  or 
volatile  oil,  by  repeated  distillation.  In 
geometry,  to  construct  a  straight  line 
equal  in  length  to  a  definite  portion  of. 
(Said  of  a  curve.)  To  rectify  the  globe 
in  astronomy  or  geometry,  to  bring  the 
sun's  place  in  the  ecliptic  on  the  globe 
to  the  brass  meridian,  or  to  adjust  it  in 
order  to  prepare  it  for  the  solution  of  a 
proposed  problem. 


RECTOR 


454 


RED    CROSS 


RECTOR,  in  the  Established  Church 
of  England  a  clergyman  who  has  charge 
of  a  parish,  and  has  the  parsonage 
and  tithes;  the  clergyman  of  a  parish 
where  the  tithes  are  not  impropriate,  as 
distinguished  from  a  vicar.  In  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church,  the  head  of  a  re- 
ligious house;  among  the  Jesuits,  the 
head  of  a  house  that  is  a  seminary  or 
college.  Also  the  principal  of  a  univer- 
sity in  France  and  Scotland,  also  the 
heads  of  Exeter  and  Lincoln  Colleges, 
Oxford.  In  Scotland  the  headmaster  of 
an  academy,  or  important  public  school. 

_  RECTUM,  in  anatomy,  the  lov/est  por- 
tion of  the  large  intestine  extending 
from  the  sigmoid  flexure  of  the  colon  to 
the  anus. 

RECUSANT,  one  who  is  obstinate  in 
refusing;  one  who  will  not  conform  to 
general  opinion  or  practice.  In  English 
history,  one  who  refused  to  acknowledge 
the  sovereign's  supremacy,  or  who  re- 
fused or  neglected  to  attend  divine  serv- 
ice in  the  Established  Church,  and  to 
worship  according  to  its  forms  and 
rites.  It  differed  from  a  non-conformist 
in  that  it  included  popish  recusants. 

RED,  a  color  resembling  that  of  ar- 
terial blood;  the  color  of  that  part  of 
the  solar  spectrum  which  is  farthest 
from  violet;  one  of  the  three  primary 
colors.  Also  a  pigment.  The  most  use- 
ful red  pigments  are  carmine,  vermilion 
{sulphuret  of  mercury),  chrome-red, 
scarlet-lake  (biniodide  of  mercury), 
madder-lake,  light  red,  burnt  sienna; 
these  are  yellow  reds.  Venetian  red,  In- 
dian red  (carbonate  of  oxide  of  iron), 
and  crimson-lake  are  blue  reds. 

RED    ADMIRAL    BUTTERFLY 

(Vanessa  Atalanta) ,  the  popular  name 
of  a  common  butterfly.  The  anterior 
vvings  are  marked  by  a  broad  red  band, 
outside  of  which  are  six  white  markings, 
while^  a  bluish  streak  follows  the  wing 
margin.  _  The  posterior  wings  are  bor- 
dered with  red,  dotted  with  black  spots, 
and  have  two  bluish  markings  on  the  in- 
ner angles. 

REDAN,  in  fortifications,  a  work  hav- 
ing tAvo  faces  forming  a  salient  angle  in 
the  direction  from  which  an  attack  may 
be  expected.  It  is  open  at  the  gorge. 
A  double  redan  has  a  re-entering  angle 
for  mutual  defense.  The  redan  is  the 
simplest  field  work,  and  is  used  for  de- 
fending the  avenues  of  approach  to  a 
village,  bridge,  or  defile.  In  front  of 
another  field  work,  it  is  called  a  fieche. 
When  flanks  are  added  to  the  faces,  the 
work  becomes  a  detached  bastion  or 
lunette. 


REDAN,  THE,  one  of  the  strongest 
Russian  fortifications  on  the  S.  side  of 
Sebastopol.  It  was  unsuccessfully  as- 
saulted by  the  English  on  June  5  and 
Sept.  8,  1855.  The  retirement  of  the 
Russians  to  the  N.  side  left,  on  the  latter 
date,  the  place  in  the  hands  of  the  allies. 

RED  BANK,  a  town  in  Monmouth 
CO.,  N.  J.,  on  the  Shrewsbury  river,  and 
on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Central  of 
New  Jersey  railroads;  26  miles  S.  of 
New  York,  The  town  has  regular 
steamboat  connection  with  New  York. 
Here  are  a  public  library,  high  school, 
National  banks,  and  weekly  newspapers. 
There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  fish  and 
oysters.  The  town  has  manufactories 
of  gold-leaf,  carriages,  and  canned  goods. 
Pop.    (1910)   7,398;    (1920)    9,251. 

RED  BAT,  in  zoology,  Atalapha 
novasboracensis,  from  the  temperate 
parts  of  North  America.  Length  about 
two  inches;  fur  long  and  silky,  generally 
light  russet,  tinged  with  yellow,  darker 
and  richer  on  the  back. 

RED-BILLED  CURLEW,  in  ornithol- 
ogy, Ibidorhynchus  struthersi,  found 
only  in  the  Himalaya  Mountains  and  the 
hills  of  central  Asia, 

REDBIRD,  the  popular  name  of  sev- 
eral birds  in  the  United  States,  as  the 
Tanagra  asstiva  or  summer  red  bird,  the 
Tanagra  rubra,  and  the  Baltimore  oriole 
or  hang  nest. 

RED  BOOK,  an  English  government 
book  containing  the  names  of  all  persons 
in  the  service  of  the  state. 

RED  BROCKET,  in  zoology,  the 
Cervus  rufus  or  Subulo  rufus.  It  is 
about  30  inches  high,  reddish-brovinti; 
vnth  simple,  unbranched  antlers;  fe- 
males hornless.  Habitat,  the  low,  moist 
woods  of  South  America, 

RED  CEDAR,  a  species  of  juniper 
(Juniperiis  virginiana)  found  in  North 
America  and  the  West  Indies;  the  heart 
wood  is  of  a  bright  red,  smooth,  and 
moderately  soft,  and  is  in  much  request 
for  the  outsides  of  black  lead  pencils. 

RED  CORAL  (Corallium  rubrum),  an 
important  genus  of  sclerobasic  corals 
belonging  to  the  order  Alcyonaria.  Red 
coral  is  highly  valued  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  jewelry,  and  is  obtained  from 
the  coasts  of  Sicily,  Italy,  and  other 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean, 

RED  CROSS,  THE,  is  a  society  organ- 
ized under  governmental  authority  to 
furnish  volunteer  relief  to  the  sick  and 
wounded  of  armies  in  time  of  war  and  to 
all  who  may  need  relief  in  time  of  great 
national  calamities ;  and  to  prevent  other 


BED    CROSS 


455 


BED    CROSS 


suffering  in  time  of  peace.  Thus  its 
emblem  has  come  to  stand  for  the  world 
ideal  of  mercy.  It  knows  neither  race, 
color  nor  creed. 

Previous  to  the  American  Civil  War 
there  had  been  no  organization  which 
occupied  the  position  now  held  by  the 
Red  Cross,  although  there  had  been 
heroic  and  organized  effort  made  to  care 
for  the  sick  and  wounded  in  most  of  the 
great  wars  in  history  by  such  nursing 
orders  as  the  Knights  Hospitaller  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem,  of  Rhodes,  and  Malta, 
and  the  sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul. 

In  1854  when  the  allies  were  fighting 
the  Russians  in  the  Crimea,  there  came 
a  call  from  the  British  War  Depart- 
ment for  "devoted  women  willing  to  go 
forth  and  minister  to  the  suffering  sol- 
diers in  the  hospitals  of  Scutari." 
Florence  Nightingale  and  thirty-eight 
nurses  answered  the  appeal.  This  band 
may  be  called  the  seed  from  which 
sprang  the  Red  Cross,  for  out  of  it  de- 
veloped the  movement  for  a  universal 
relief  organization. 

Florence  Nightingale's  work  in  the 
Crimea  vitalized  the  desire  of  Henri  Du- 
nant,  a  Swiss  physician,  to  alleviate  the 
sufferings  in  the  French-Sardinian  war 
against  Austria.  He  organized  the 
workers  at  Solferino,  Italy,  who  cared 
for  suffering  friend  and  foe  alike.  Out 
of  this  grew  the  movement  for  a  per- 
manent society  of  volunteers,  which,  in 
time  of  war,  would  render  succor  to 
the  wounded  without  distinction  of  na- 
tionality ;  and  it  was  largely  through  the 
efforts  of  Dunant  that  the  movement 
grew  and  received  the  support  of  the 
crowned  heads  of  the  world. 

For  many  years  there  had  existed  in 
Geneva  a  Society  of  Public  Utility,  whose 
efforts  were  devoted  to  the  furtherance 
of  philanthropic  and  humane  work. 
Aroused  by  Dunant's  plea,  this  society 
appointed  a  special  committee,  which 
sent  out  an  invitation  for  a  conference 
to  be  held  at  Geneva  in  October,  1863, 
to  consider  the  question  of  volunteer  aid 
for  the  medical  service  of  armies  in  time 
of  war  and  also  the  neutralization  of  its 
personnel.  At  this  first  conference  four- 
teen countries  were  represented.  The 
results  were  meager,  but  encouraging. 
They  are  expressed  in  the  following  reso- 
lution : 

"That  in  each  country  adhering  to  the 
proposed  agreement  a  committee  should 
be  formed  to  co-operate  in  time  of  war 
with  the  military  medical  service,  each 
committee  being  organized  as  its  mem- 
bers deemed  expedient;  in  time  of  peace 
a  trained  personnel  should  be  organized 
and  supplies  collected;  the  aid  of  soci- 
eties of  neutral  nations  might  be  invited; 
the  volunteer  Bocieties  irrespective  of  the 


country  to  which  they  belonged  should 
wear  a  distinctive  badge — a  red  cross  on 
a  white  ground;  and  that  the  personnel 
should  be  neutralized." 

Because  of  the  success  of  this  confei'- 
ence,  the  Swiss  Government,  in  1864,  ad- 
dressed an  invitation  to  twenty-five  sov- 
ereign states  to  send  representatives  to 
a  diplomatic  convention  to  be  held  in 
Geneva  in  August  of  that  year.  At  this 
convention  a  treaty  was  adopted  which 
is  generally  called  the  Geneva  Treaty, 
but  sometimes  the  Red  Cross  Treaty.  It 
provides  for  protection  for  hospital  for- 
mations and  their  personnel  in  time  of 
war.  Out  of  compliment  to  Switzerland, 
the  Swiss  flag  with  its  colors  reversed — 
a  red  cross  on  a  white  ground — was 
adopted  as  the  world-wide  insignia  of  hu- 
manity and  neutrality. 

This  treaty,  revised  at  a  convention 
held  in  Geneva  in  1906,  includes  under 
its  protection  the  Red  Cross,  or  volun- 
teer aid  societies  which  have  received 
official  sanction  from  their  respective 
governments.  The  Treaty  of  The  Hague 
extends  to  naval  warfare  the  treaty  of 
Geneva. 

During  the  American  Civil  War  there 
was  created  by  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment an  organization  known  as  the 
Sanitary  Commission,  which,  though  un- 
popular with  government  officials  at  first, 
developed  rapidly  into  one  of  the  most 
popular  commissions  working  in  con- 
junction with  the  military  organiza- 
tions. Once  the  need  of  a  service  which 
should  not  only  care  for  the  sick  and 
wounded,  but  should  likewise  preserve 
the  morale  of  the  men,  became  evident, 
the  success  of  this  commission  was  as- 
sured. By  1863  its  value  was  so  well 
established  that  Gen.  U.  S.  Grant,  com- 
manding the  Federal  Army,  ordered  that 
it  should  be^  given  every  opportunity  for 
increasing   its   effectiveness. 

It  is  agreed  by  all  historians  that  the 
Treaty  of  Geneva  in  1864  was  very 
largely  the  outcome  of  the  practical 
labors  of  this  Sanitary  Commission. 
"Herald  of  the  spirit  of  the  Red  Cross," 
writes  Miss  Mabel  T.  Boardman  in  her 
book  on  the  Red  Cross,  "the  Sanitary 
Commission  recogrnized  neither  friend  nor 
foe  in  the  care  of  wounded  men." 

The  Treaty  of  Geneva  is  not  manda- 
tory upon  any  country  unless  the 
enemy's  government  is  also  one  of  the 
signatory  powers. 

The  United  States  did  not  sign  the 
Treaty  of  Geneva  until  1882,  although 
a  Red  Cross  organization  was  incorpo- 
rated in  the  District  of  Columbia  in  July 
1881,  of  which  Miss  Clara  Barton  was 
named  president,  under  the  name  Amer- 
ican National  Association  of  the  Red 
Cross.     In   1900  it  was  re-incorporated 


BED    CBOSS 


456 


ItED    CBOSS 


by  act  of  Congress,  the  charter  requir- 
ing that  a  financial  statement  should  be 
made  annually.  Again  in  1905  this  as- 
sociation was  dissolved  and  a  new  cor- 
poration created  by  act  of  Congress,  the 
charter  of  which  provides  that  its  ac- 
counts shall  be  audited  by  the  War  De- 
partment and  that  an  annual  report  shall 
be  submitted  to  Congress. 

In  each  country  the  Red  Cross  is  or^ 
ganized  to  suit  local  conditions  and  is 
governed  by  a  Central  Committee.  To 
the  American  Red  Cross  Central  Com- 
mittee the  President  of  the  United  States 
appoints  the  chairman  and  representa- 
tives of  the  Departments  of  State,  Treas- 
ury, War,  Justice  and  Navy.  The  incor- 
porators— a  self-perpetuating  board — 
elect  six,  and  the  delegates  of  boards, 
chapters  and  affiliated  bodies  elect  six. 
This  committee  of  eighteen  selects  an  ex- 
ecutive committee  of  seven  from  among 
its  own  members. 

Not  infrequently  the  expression  "the 
International  Red  Cross"  is  used,  as  if 
this  were  the  name  of  some  definite  or- 
ganization. There  is  no  such  interna- 
tional order  of  the  Red  Cross  except  the 
International  Committee  at  Geneva. 
The  Red  Cross  of  each  country  is  ab- 
solutely independent  of  all  others  ex- 
cept in  so  far  as  it  has  become  a  member 
of  the  League  of  Red  Cross  Societies. 
What  is  required  of  each  society  is 
official  authorization  by  its  own  govern- 
ment to  enable  it  to  obtain  the  recog- 
nition of  the  governments  of  other  pow- 
ers. The  International  Committee  of  the 
Red  Cross  consists  of  nine  residents  of 
Switzerland. 

Every  five  years,  up  to  1912,  there  was 
held  an  International  Red  Cross  confer- 
ence, at  which  have  been  represented  not 
only  the  Red  Cross  societies,  but  the  gov- 
ernments and  the  knightly  orders  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem  and  of  Malta.  The 
conference  of  1902  was  in  Petrograd, 
of  1907  in  London  and  in  1912  in  Wash- 
ington. 

Immediately  after  the  organization  of 
the  American  Red  Cross  in  1881  it  was 
called  upon  to  render  relief  service  in 
fires  and  floods  which  swept  over  numer- 
ous sections  of  the  United  States.  Al- 
though only  recently  organized  it  did 
heroic  work  and  started  that  form  of 
relief  now  designated  by  congressional 
charter  as  one  of  its  functions. 

The  Russian  Red  Cross  up  to  the  time, 
at  least,  when  the  government  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Bolshevists,  was  an  ex- 
tensive organization.  The  majority  of 
Red  Cross  organizations  are  supported 
entirely  by  voluntary  gifts,  but  the 
Russian  Red  Cross  has  also  been  aided 
by  special  taxes  collected  on  theater 
tickets,  railroad  fares  and  passport  fees. 


Russia,  through  its  Red  Cross,  has  gen* 
erously  extended  aid  to  other  countries 
in  war.  It  is  doubtful  if  in  any  other 
country  the  women  of  the  royal  house- 
hold and  the  nobility  have  taken  a  more 
active  part. 

The  Japanese  Red  Cross  has  sho"v\Ti  a 
rapid  and  wonderful  development.  The 
famous  lyeyasu  said  to  his  soldiers: 
"The  object  of  battle  is  to  disable  the 
enemy  by  shooting  him  down,  but  not  to 
torment  him  needlessly  and  inhumanly.** 
It  is  said  that  this  spirit  of  the  old  sov- 
ereign of  Japan  accounts  for  the  won- 
derful growth  of  the  Red  Cross  spirit 
in  the  Mikado's  realm.  Japan  did  not 
become  a  signatory  of  the  Treaty  of  Ge- 
neva until  1884,  when  the  association  be- 
came the  Red  Cross  of  Japan  under  the 
patronage  of  the  emperor  and  empress. 
The  governor  of  every  district  in  Japan 
has  accepted  the  presidency  of  the  local 
branch.  In  its  work  of  preparedness 
the  Japanese  Red  Cross  is  not  surpassed 
by  that  of  any  other  country. 

The  great  struggle  which  overwhelmed 
Europe  in  1914  put  upon  the  Red  Cross 
a  burden  almost  beyond  comprehension, 
and  especially  upon  the  French  Red 
Cross.  The  French  society  consists  of 
three  independent  branches  under  one 
central  committee.  The  war  came  so 
suddenly  that  it  found  these  branches 
overlapping  and  confusion  ensued  for  a 
time.  Co-ordination  was  soon  worked 
out  and  Red  Cross  work  was  successfully 
prosecuted. 

Great  Britain  had  no  regular  Red 
Cross  organization  until  1897.  It  had, 
however,  an  organization  that  partook 
of  the  name,  which  was  formed  in  1870, 
but  it  carried  no  centralized  power. 
Confusion,  overlapping,  delay  and  waste 
of  material  were  the  inevitable  results 
for  a  time  but  organization  finally  was 
perfected. 

The  German  Red  Cross  is  said  to  have 
been  the  most  constantly  active  of  all 
nations.  Not  only  has  it  served  in  time 
of  disaster,  but  it  has  undertaken  a  con- 
stant daily  service  in  health  and  sani- 
tary matters  not  only  about  military 
camps,  but  among  the  civilian  popula- 
tion. The  German  First  Aid  organiza- 
tion is  considered  a  model. 

Soon  after  the  United  States  entered 
the  World  War  there  began  an  enormous 
expansion  of  membership  and  activities 
of  the  American  Red  Cross.  With  stead- 
ily increasing  facilities  the  organiza- 
tion extended  its  work  in  the  countries 
of  the  Allies,  co-operating  fully  with  the 
respective  national  Red  Cross  societies, 
and  relieving  them  more  and  more  of  the 
burden  they  had  carried  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  conflict.  This  was  an  en- 
tirely  separate    function   from   that   of 


BED    CBOSS 


457 


REDEMPTIONISTS 


providing  for  the  welfare  of  the  Amer- 
ican Expeditionary   Forces. 

The  American  Red  Cross  had  on  May 
1,  1917,  an  enrollment  of  486,000  mem- 
bers in  562  chapters,  and  on  Feb. 
28,  1919,  there  were  20,000,000  adult 
members  in  3,724  chapters  with  17,186 
branches,  and  11,000,000  junior  mem- 
bers among  school  children.  During 
these  twenty  months  the  total  revenues 
were  roundly  $400,000,000,  with  expendi- 
ture of  $273,000,000.  Of  this,  $104,000,- 
000  went  for  relief  abroad,  and  $109,- 
000,000  for  relief  in  the  United  States. 
The  remaining  $127,000,000  was  used  in 
both  foreign  and  domestic  relief  during 
1919. 

Wartime  domestic  activities  included 
the  recruiting  of  23,822  nurses,  most  of 
whom  were  inducted  into  the  Army 
Nurse  Corps;  the  formation  of  fifty-four 
base  hospitals  and  forty-seven  ambu- 
lance companies  which  served  overseas; 
home  service  to  soldiers  and  their  de- 
pendents; operation  of  cantonment  can- 
teens; maintenance  of  a  large  auxiliary 
motor  corps.  Women  and  children  in 
chapters  produced  hospital  supplies  and 
garments  valued  at  $100,000,000,  more 
than  100,000  tons  of  which  were  sent 
abroad. 

Working  on  a  vast  scale  in  Belgium, 
England,  France,  Italy,  Palestine,  Ru- 
mania, Russia,  Serbia,  Siberia,  Switzer- 
land, Syria  and  Turkey,  the  American 
organization  operated  military  hospitals, 
canteens,  convalescent  homes;  re-edu- 
cated war  cripples,  supervised  plastic 
curative  surgery,  supplied  and  fitted  ar- 
tificial limbs,  gave  relief  to  allied  pris- 
oners of  war;  fed,  clothed  and  provided 
medical  care  for  refugees,  a  great 
number  of  whom  it  repatriated;  rebuilt 
destroyed  towns;  conducted  civilian  hos- 
pitals, dispensaries  and  clinics,  and  car- 
ried on  widespread  measures  against 
tuberculosis,  typhus  and  other  diseases. 

With  the  dissolution  of  the  War  Coun- 
cil, Feb.  28,  1919,  the  American  Red 
Cross  launched  a  peacetime  proqrram 
tinder  the  pre-war  form  of  organization. 
This  program  includes  continuation  of 
aid  to  disabled  and  needy  veterans  of  the 
World  War,  service  for  the  peace  time 
army  and  navy,  development  of  stouter 
national  resistance  to  disease  through 
health  centers,  increase  of  the  nation's 
nursing  resources  and  co-operation  with 
oflficial  health  agencies,  continued  pre- 
paredness for  relief  in  disasters,  home 
service  and  community  work,  and  com- 
pletion of  relief  work  among  disease  rid- 
den and  war  exhausted  peoples  abroad. 

As  an  outgrowth  of  co-operative  work 
during  the  war,  and  as  a  necessity  to 
meet  worldwide  reconstruction  problems, 
there  was  formed  by  the  national  organi- 


zations of  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  France,  Italy  and  Japan,  at 
Cannes,  France,  in  May,  1919,  the 
League  of  Red  Cross  Societies,  whose 
peacetime  duties  would  be  equivalent  to 
the  wartime  duties  of  the  International 
Committee. 

The  League's  charter  states  that  it 
will  "encourage  and  promote  in  every 
country  in  the  world  the  establishment 
and  development  of  a  duly  authorized 
voluntary  national  Red  Cross  organiza- 
tion, having  as  purposes  the  improving 
of  health,  the  prevention  of  disease  and 
the  mitigation  of  suffering,  and  to  secure 
the  co-operation  of  such  organizations 
for  these  purposes;  will  promote  the  wel- 
fare of  mankind  by  furnishing  a  me- 
dium for  bringing  within  reach  of  all 
peoples  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from 
present  known  facts  and  new  contribu- 
tions to  science  and  medical  knowledge 
and  their  application;  and  will  furnish 
a  medium  for  co-ordinating  relief  work 
in  case  of  great  national  or  interna- 
tional calamities."  Besides  the  founder 
members  the  League  included,  Oct.  1, 
1920,  the  Red  Cross  organizations  of 
Argentina,  Australia,  Belgium,  Brazil, 
Canada,  China,  Cuba,  Denmark,  Greece, 
Holland,  India,  New  Zealand,  Norway, 
Peru,  Poland,  Portugal,  Roumania, 
Serbia,  South  Africa,  Spain,  Sweden, 
Switzerland  and  Venezuela.  Control  of 
the  League  reposes  in  a  General  Council 
composed  of  representatives  of  all  mem- 
ber societies,  a  governing  board  of  fifteen 
members  and  two  ex-officio  members. 

The  enrollment  in  the  American  Red 
Cross,  Oct.  1,  1920,  was  10,000,000 
adult  memb<^rs  and  14,000,000  juniors. 
Argentine  had  4,000;  Brazil,  6,600; 
China,  26,000;  Denmark,  25.000;  France, 
250,000;  Holland,  18.000;  Italy,  300,000; 
Japan,  1,900,000;  New  Zealand,  10,000; 
Norway,  9,000;  Poland,  30,000;  Portu- 
gal, 5,500;  Roumania,  14,000;  Serbia, 
2,850;  Spain,  63,000;  Sweden,  65,000; 
Switzerland,  42,500;  Uruguay,  300. 
Figures  for  England,  Canada  and  Aus- 
tralia, which  have  important  organiza- 
tions, were  not  available  on  that  date. 

RED  CURRANT  (Ribes  riibrum) ,  a. 
deciduous  shrub  much  cultivated  for  its 
fruit,  indigenous  in  the  N.  portions  of 
Europe  and  America.  The  juice  of  the 
fruit  is  used  for  making  jelly,  and  a  well- 
known  fermented  liquor  called  currant 
wine. 

RED  DEER.     See  STAG. 

REDEMPTIONISTS,  one  of  the  names 
of  an  order  of  monks  devoted  to  the  re- 
demption of  Christian  captives  from 
slavery.  They  are  more  frequently 
called  Trinitarians. 


REDEMPTORISTS 


458 


RED    JACKET 


REDEMPTORISTS,  members  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Re- 
deemer, founded  by  St.  Alphonsus  Maria 
de  Liguori  (1696-1787),  at  Scala,  in 
1732.  The  members  take  the  three  sim- 
ple, but  perpetual,  vows,  and  a  fourth, 
of  perseverance  in  the  Institute  till 
death.  Their  principal  object  is  the 
preaching  of  missions  and  retreats  to  all 
classes  of  Roman  Catholics,  giving  pref- 
erence to  the  ignorant  and  neglected. 
Their  dress  is  a  black  serge  cossack,  with 
cloth  girdle  and  rosary  beads. 

REDESDALE,  the  valley  of  the  river 
Reed  in  Northumberland,  England;  ex- 
tending almost  from  the  Scottish  border 
in  a  S.  E.  direction  for  over  16  miles, 
till  it  opens  up  into  the  valley  of  the 
Tyne,  the  river  joining  the  North  Tyne 
at  Reedsmcuf^  The  river  springs  out 
of  the  Cheviot  Hills,  which  lie  athwart 
the  head  of  the  dale,  and  down  its  course 
from  Carter  Toll  on  the  border  lay  one 
of  the  chief  roads  into  England.  Wat- 
ling  Street  itself  traverses  its  middle  and 
upper  part.  Near  the  S.  end  of  Redes- 
dale  is  the  famous  field  of  Otterburn. 
Redesdale  gave  from  1877  the  title  of 
earl  to  John  Thomas  Freeman  Mitford 
(1805-1886),  who  was  son  of  the  ex- 
speaker,  John  Mitford  (died  1830),  first 
Baron  Redesdale. 

RED-EYE,  or  RTJDD,  a  fish  belonging 
to  the  same  genus  as  roach,  chub,  and 
minnow.  It  is  common  in  lakes,  slow 
rivers,  and  fens,  in  many  parts  of  Europe 
and  in  England. 

REDFIELD,  ISAAC  FLETCHER,  an 

American  jurist;  born  in  Wethersfield, 
Vt.,  April  10,  1804;  was  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College  in  1825 ;  and  practiced 
his  profession  in  Windsor  and  Derby,  Vt. 
In  1835,  he  was  made  judge  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Vermont,  and  in  1852 
became  chief-justice,  retiring  from  the 
bench  in  1860.  He  was  Professor  of 
Jui'isprudence  at  Dartmouth  College  in 
1857-1861;  removed  to  Boston  in  the  lat- 
ter year;  and  in  1867-1869  was  special 
counsel  for  the  United  States  in  Europe, 
conducting  numerous  important  legal 
matters  in  England  and  France.  He 
was  the  author  of  "A  Practical  Treatise 
on  the  Law  of  Railways"  (1857) ;  "A 
Practical  Treatise  on  Civil  Pleading  and 
Practice,  with  Forms"  (with  William  A. 
Herrick,  1868)  ;  "The  Law  of  Carriers 
and  Bailments"  (1869)  ;  etc.  He  died  in 
Charlestown,   Mass.,   March   23,   1876. 

REDFIELD,  WILLIAM  C,  an  Amer- 
ican statesman  and  manufacturer.  Born 
in  1858,  as  a  boy  he  entered  the  J.  H. 
Williams  Co.  mill  in  Brooklyn  and  twenty 
years  later  became  president  of  the  firm. 


A  Democrat  in  politics,  he  served  as  com" 
missioner  of  public  works  under  Seth 
Low  in  New  York  in  1902  and  1903,  and 
in  1910  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives. As  a  Democrat  he  was  an 
opponent  of  high  tariff  and  made  several 
important  speeches  upon  the  subject. 
President  Wilson  appointed  him  Secre- 
tary of  Commerce  in  1913,  a  position 
which  be  resigned  in  1919  because  of  ill 
health. 

RED  FISH,  a  species  of  fish  {Sebastes 
marinus)  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
North  America,  a  large  red  fish  caught 
in  considerable  numbers  for  food.  A 
smaller  species  (S.  viviparus)  receives 
the  same  name,  and  is  called  also  red 
perch,  rose  fish,  etc. 

REDGRAVE,  RICHARD,  an  English 
painter;  born  in  London,  April  30,  1804; 
in  1826  was  admitted  a  student  of  the 
Academy,  and  was  elected  an  A.  R.  A, 
in  1840,  and  R.  A.  in  1851.  In  1857  was 
appointed  Inspector-General  of  Art 
Schools,  which  office,  with  that  of  Sur- 
veyor of  the  Royal  Pictures,  he  resigned 
in  1880,  being  then  created  a  C.  B. 
From  1825  to  1882  he  contributed  145 
pictures  to  the  Academy,  besides  40  sent 
elsewhere.  He  wrote,  with  his  brother, 
"A  Century  of  English  Painters"  (1866). 
He  died  Dec.  14,  1888. 

REDGrUM,  strophulus;  a  popular  dis- 
ease with  an  eruption  of  minute  hard, 
sometimes  slightly  red,  clustered  or  scat- 
tered pimples  on  the  face,  the  neck,  or 
even  the  whole  body  of  young  infants. 
Cause,  derangement  of  the  stomach  or 
intestines  through  improper  feeding  or 
from  dentition. 

RED  GUM  TREE,  one  of  the  Austra- 
lian Eucalypti  (EucoAyptus  resinifera), 
yielding  a  gum  resin  valued  for  medic- 
inal uses. 

REDISCOUNTING,  a  financial  prac- 
tice little  in  use  in  this  country,  but 
quite  common  in  European  countries, 
where  it  is  a  large  part  of  the  general 
banking  business.  Instead  of  holding  in 
their  vaults  notes  or  bills  of  exchange, 
where  they  are  held  as  "dead"  assets,  the 
European  banks  employ  them  as_  cur- 
rency and  they  are  passed  on,  until  fin- 
ally they  reach  the  central  banking  in- 
stitution of  the  country.  In  other  words, 
local  institutions  are  able  to  put  to 
active  use  the  capital  represented  by 
such  instruments. 

RED  JACKET,  or,  as  he  was  termed 
by  the  Indians,  Sa-go-ye-wat-ha,  a  chief 
of  the  Senecas,  of  the  Wolf  tribe;  born 
near  the  present  site  of  Buffalo  in  1752. 
His  original  name  was  0-te-ti-ani 
(Always  Ready),  his  other  name  being 


REDLANDS 


459 


REDMOND 


conferred  on  him  when  he  was  elected  to 
the  dignity  of  a  sachem,  and  means,  "He 
koeps  them  awake."  His  name  of  Red 
Jacket  was  conferred  on  him  for  the 
embroidered  scarlet  coat  which  he  con- 
stantly wore.  He  first  became  known 
through  the  part  he  took  in  the  treaty 
of  Fort  Stanwix  in  1784.  A  council 
had  been  called  to  negotiate  between  the 
United  States  and  the  Six  Nations  for 
the  cession  of  lands,  and  on  the  occasion 
he  spoke  eloquently  against  the  proposed 
treaty,  but  without  avail.  In  all  his 
dealings  with  the  whites  in  regard  to 
land,  Red  Jacket  was  a  strenuous  de- 
fender of  the  rights  of  the  Indians.  His 
paganism  never  yielded  to  the  influences 
of  Christianity  and  he  proved  an  in- 
veterate enemy  of  the  missionaries.  Un- 
der his  leadership  the  Senecas  joined  the 
Americans  in  the  War  of  1812  and  in 
the  battle  of  Chippewa  behaved  well  as 
soldiers.  In  1792  Washington,  on  the 
occasion  of  a  treaty  of  peace  having 
been  signed  between  the  United  States 
and  the  Six  Nations,  gave  Red  Jacket 
a  solid  silver  medal.  On  account  of  his 
intemperance  he  was  deposed  as  chief 
of  the  tribe.  He  died  Jan.  20,  1830. 
Red  Jacket  was  on  the  warpath  during 
both  conflicts  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain.  He  had  great  sagac- 
ity as  a  statesman,  but  lacked  firmness 
of  nerve. 

BEDLANDS,  a  city  of  California,  in 
San  Bernardino  co.  It  is  on  the  Santa 
Fe  and  the  Southern  Pacific  railroads. 
Its  beautiful  situation  makes  it  a  popu- 
lar health  resort.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
University  of  Redlands,  and  has  a  pub- 
lic library  and  many  parks.  It  is  the 
center  of  one  of  the  greatest  orange 
producing  regions  in  the  world.  Its 
other  industries  include  the  manufacture 
of  brick  and  lumber  products.  Pop. 
(1910)  10,449;   (1920)   9,571. 

BED  MEN,  IMPROVED  ORDER  OF, 
a  social,  fraternal,  and  benevolent  secret 
organization  founded  on  the  customs  and 
traditions  of  the  aborigines  of  the  Amer- 
ican continent,  and  the  oldest  benevolent 
society  in  the  United  States  of  distinc- 
tively American  origin  and  growth.  The 
first  authenticated  Red  Man's  Society 
was  organized  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  early 
in  1772.  On  March  12,  1834,  the  "Red 
Men's  Society,  Tribe  of  Maryland,"  was 
organized  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  shortly 
after  (May  20,  1835)  forming  the  Great 
Council  of  Maryland,  and  adopting  the 
present  name  of  the  order.  The  order 
is  composed  of  subordinate  bodies  called 
tribes,  officered  by  a  sachem,  senior  saga- 
more, junior  sagamore,  prophet,  chief  of 
records,  keeper  of  wampum,  and  minor 
«ub-chiefs.     In     each     Stat€    possessing 


necessary  membership  a  Great  Council  is 
constituted,  composed  of  representatives 
from  the  various  tribes  under  its  juris- 
diction, and  officered  by  similar  chiefs  to 
the  subordinate  tribes,  with  the  prefixed 
title  of  great.  The  Great  Council  of  the 
United  States  is  the  supreme  legislative 
body,  and  is  composed  of  representatives 
from  each  Great  Council.  There  is  also 
a  Degree  of  Pocahontas,  to  which  women 
relatives  of  the  members  may  belong. 
There  are  now  about  half  a  million  mem- 
bers of  the  Order  of  Red  Men,  including 
some  50,000  women  in  the  Pocahontas 
Degree.  Over  a  million  dollars  is  dis- 
bursed annually  in  benefits. 

REDMOND,  JOHN  E.,  an  Irish  states- 
man and  leader  of  the  Irish  Nationalist 
party  in  the  House  of  Commons.  Born 
in  1851,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  he  was  early  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment, and  after  the  passing  of  Parnell 


JOHN   E.  REDMOND 

became  in  1900  the  leader  of  the  Irish 
party  in  Parliament.  He  believed  it  pos- 
sible to  obtain  Home  Rule  for  Ireland 
by  propaganda  in  England  and  by  wise 
Parliamentary  leadership.  For  a  time 
in  1913  his  efforts  seemed  likely  to  be 
crowned  by  success  when,  after  great 
difficulties,  the  Home  Rule  bill  became  a 
law.  The  World  War,  which  broke 
out  in  1914,  caused  Parliament  to  sus- 
pend the  operation  of  the  act  until  after 
the  peace.     In  the  interval  came  the  Sinn 


BED    OCHER 


460 


BED    SEA 


Fein  movement,  which  rejected  Home 
Rule  and  Redmond's  leadership.  He  died 
in  1918,  when,  in  spite  of  all  his  efforts, 
the  relations  between  Ireland  and  Eng- 
land were  more  bitter  than  ever. 

RED  OCHER,  a  name  common  to  a 
variety  of  pigments,  rather  than  desig- 
nating an  individual  color,  and  compre- 
hending Indian  red,  light  red,  Venetian 
red,  scarlet  ocher,  Indian  ocher,  reddle, 
bole,  and  other  oxides  of  iron.  As  a 
mineral  it  designates  a  soft  earthy 
variety  of  hjematite. 

REDOUBT,  in  fortification,  a  detached 
field  v/ork  inclosed  by  a  parapet,  the 
salient  points  of  which  are  but  imper- 
fectly or  not  at  all  protected  by  a  flank 
fire.  It  may  be  square,  star-shaped,  or 
irregular  in  plan,  according  to  the  re- 
quirements of  its  site  and  surroundings. 
Also,  an  interior  work  within  the  main 
line  of  ramparts. 

REDOUT  KAIiE,  a  fortified  post  on 
the  Black  Sea  coast  of  Russian  Caucasia; 
in  a  marshy  region  at  the  mouth  of  a 
small  river,  about  10  miles  N.  of  Poti. 
It  was  the  chief  shipping  place  for  Cir- 
cassian girls  to  Turkey,  and  was  cap- 
tured by  the  British  fleet  in  1854. 

RED  PINE,  a  species  of  pine  (Pinus 
rubra) ,  also  called  Norway  pine.  Its 
wood  is  very  resinous  and  durable,  and 
is  much  used  in  house  and  shipbuilding. 
It  produces  turpentine,  tar,  pitch,  resin, 
and  lampblack. 

REDPOLE,  or  REDPOLL,  in  ornithol- 
ogy, a  popular  name  for  two  species  of 
the  genus  Linota,  found  both  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Europe,  from  the 
glossy  blood  red  hue  of  the  space  from 
the  forehead  to  behind  the  eyes.  The 
mealy  redpole,  L.  canescens,  is  larger  than 
the  lesser  redpole,  L.  linaria,  of  which  it 
has  been  regarded  by  some  ornithologists 
as  a  race  or  variety. 

RED  RAIN,  rain  tinged  red  by  cobalt 
chloride  derived  from  meteoric  dust. 

RED  RIVER,  the  lowest  W.  branch  of 
the  Mississippi,  rises  near  the  E.  border 
of  New  Mexico,  flows  E.  through  Texas, 
s  what  was  the  S.  boundary  of  Indian 
Territory,  thence  S.  E.  through  Arkan- 
sas and  Louisiana,  and  enters  the  Missis- 
sippi below  lat.  31°  N.  It  is  1,600  miles 
long,  and_  receives  numerous  branches, 
the  Washita  the  most  important.  It  is 
navigable  for  seven  months  to  Shreve- 
port  (350  miles). 

RED  RIVER,  or  SONG-KA,  a  large 
river  of  Tonkin,  formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  Leteen  and  Song-shai,  the  former 
rising  in  China,  the  latter  in  Laos.     It 


flows  S.  E.,  passes  Hanoi,  and  falls  by 
several  mouths  into  the  Gulf  of  Tonkin. 

BED    RIVER    OF    THE    NORTH,    a 

navigable  river  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  rises  in  Elbow  Lake,  Minn.,  near 
the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  and  flows 
S.  and  W.  to  Breckinridge,  then  N., 
forming  the  boundary  between  Minnesota 
and  North  Dakota,  and  so  into  Manitoba 
and  through  a  flat  country  to  Lake  Win- 
nipeg. Its  course  is  665  miles  (525  in 
the  United  States).  The  Red  River  Set- 
tlement was  the  origin  of  Manitoba. 

RED  ROOT  (Ceanothus),  a  genus  of 
deciduous  shrubs  of  the  natural  order 
Rhamnacese.  The  common  red  root  of 
North  America  (C  americanus) ,  which 
abounds  from  Canada  to  Florida,  is  a 
shrub  of  two  to  four  feet  high,  with 
beautiful  thyrsi  of  numerous  small  white 
flowers.  It  is  sometimes  called  New 
Jersey  tea,  an  infusion  of  its  leaves  being 
sometimes  used  as  tea.  It  serves  also 
as  an  astringent,  and  for  dyeing  wool 
of  a  cinnamon  color.  A  Mexican  species 
has  blue  flowers,  and  a  California  kind 
is  used  for  evergreen  hedges. 

REDRUTH,  a  town  of  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, in  the  center  of  a  great  mining 
district,  9  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Truro.  It 
has  a  town  hall  (1850),  public  rooms 
(1861),  a  miners'  hospital  (1863).  Wil- 
liam Murdock  here  in  1792  first  used 
gas  for  lighting  purposes.  Pop.  about 
11,000. 

RED  SEA,  an  arm  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  running  N.  N.  W.  from  the  Gulf 
of  Aden,  with  which  it  communicates  by 
the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  13  V^  miles 
across.  Its  length  is  about  1,200  miles, 
and  its  width  in  the  central  portion  is 
between  100  and  200  miles,  the  gi-eatest 
breadth  being  about  205  miles;  it  nar- 
rows toward  the  S.  entrance,  while  in  the 
N.  it  is  divided  by  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai  into  two  gulfs,  the  Gulf  of  Suez, 
170  miles  long  by  30  miles  wide,  and  the 
Gulf  of  Akaba,  100  miles  in  length. 

The  Arabian  coasts  of  the  Red  Sea  are 
usually  narrow,  sandy  plains  backed  by 
ranges  of  barren  mountains;  the  African 
coasts  toward  the  N.  are  flat  and  sandy, 
but  farther  S.  high  table-lands  rise  some 
distance  inland,  culminating  still  farther 
S.  in  the  lofty  mountains  of  Abyssinia. 
A  marked  feature  in  the  configuration 
of  the  Red  Sea  is  found  in  the  large  ex- 
isting and  upraised  coral  reefs  running 
parallel  to  both  the  E.  and  W.  shores, 
those  to  the  E.  being  more  extensive  and 
farther  from  the  coast  than  those  to  the 
W. ;  the  most  important  are  the  Farsian 
Archipelago  in  the  E.  reef,  and  the  large 
island  of  Dahlak,  lying  oif  Annesley  Bay, 
in    the    W.    reef.      In    addition    to    the 


BED    SEA 


461 


REDSTART 


islands  of  organic  formation  mention 
may  be  made  of  the  volcanic  group  lying 
in  lat.  14°  N.,  the  largest  of  which,  Jebel 
Zugur,  is  10  miles  long,  7  miles  wide, 
and  2,074  feet  in  height;  farther  N.,  on 
the  islet  of  Jebel  Teir,  is  a  volcano 
which  was  active  till  quite  recently.  A 
dangerous  reef,  the  Daedalus,  lies  directly 
in  the  path  of  steamers  in  lat.  24%°  N., 
and  a  lighthouse  has  been  placed  on  it. 
The  principal  harbors  on  the  Red  Sea 
are  Mocha,  Hodeida,  Lokeyyah,  Jiddah, 
and  Yenbo,  on  the  Arabian  coast,  and 
Massowah,  Khor  Nowarat,  and  Suakim 
on  the  African  coast. 

In  ancient  times  the  Red  Sea  was  used 
as  a  means  of  communication  by  the 
Phoenicians  and  other  maritime  peoples, 
till  the  discovery  of  the  route  round  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  diverted  the  traffic 
into  another  channel,  only  to  be  revived, 
however,  on  a  much  more  extensive  scale 
with  the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal. 

The  tides  are  very  variable,  depend- 
ing largely  on  the  direction  and  force  of 
the  winds,  which  also  to  a  great  extent 
determine  the  direction  and  velocity  of 
the  surface  currents.  The  hot  climate 
is  due  to  the  almost  cloudless  sky,  and 
consequent  want  of  rain,  the  altitude  of 
the  sun,  and  the  absence  of  rivers.  The 
mean  temperature  of  the  air  generally 
ranges  between  70°  and  94°  F.  during 
the  day,  though  readings  of  over  100° 
are  often  registered  in  the  shade;  but 
during  the  night  the  temperature  may 
fall  to  the  freezing  point,  owing  to  radi- 
ation in  the  clear  atmosphere.  The  pre- 
vailing wind  on  shore  is  N.  N.  W.  almost 
universally,  but  from  October  to  May 
S.  S.  E.  winds  prevail  over  the  S.  por- 
tions of  the  sea,  a  belt  of  calms  and 
variable  winds  occurring  in  the  central 
regions,  while  in  the  N.  portions  the 
usual  N.  N.  W.  winds  are  met  with. 
Evaporation  is  very  great,  and  the  air 
over  the  water  is  always  very  moist  in 
the  summer;  hurricanes  are  unusual, 
but  rain  squalls  frequently  occur  with 
the  S.  winds,  and  moderate  gales  and 
sandstorms,  called  "dragons"  in  the 
popular  language  of  the  Arabs,  are  not 
uncommon. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  below 
the  surface  decreases  down  to  a  depth 
of  about  200  fathoms,  from  whence 
down  to  the  bottom  a  mean  temperature 
of  about  71°  is  found  all  the  year  round; 
this  agrees  with  the  temperature  condi- 
tions prevailing  in  the  inclosed  seas  of 
ohe  East  Indies,  for  instance,  according 
to  the  observations  made  on  board  the 
"Challenger,"  the  depth  at  which  the 
minimum  temperature  occurs  (i.  e.,  200 
fathoms  in  the  Red  Sea)  indicating  the 
depth  of  water  over  the  barrier  sepa- 
rating the  sea  from  the  open  ocean.    In 

Tol.  VII— Cyc 


winter,  in  the  N.  part,  the  whole  body 
of  water  from  surface  to  bottom  usually  y 
has  a  mean  temperature  of  71°. 

The  salinity  of  the  water  is  almost 
constant  at  about  1.030  (ordinary  ocean 
water  is  about  1.026),  and  this  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  no  rivers  flow  into  it, 
little  rain  falls,  and  the  evaporation  is 
excessive.  It  has  been  estimated  that, 
were  the  Red  Sea  entirely  inclosed,  it 
would  become  a  solid  mass  of  salt  in  less 
than  2,000  years,  but  this  is  prevented  by 
an  inflow  of  water  through  the  Strait  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb,  and  it  is  also  known  that 
a  current  of  very  salt  water  flows  out 
underneath  the  incoming  surface  current. 

The  greatest  depth  in  the  Red  Sea  is 
about  1,200  fathoms,  and  the  mean  depth 
of  the  whole  area  about  375  fathoms. 
From  the  point  of  greatest  depth,  which 
is  near  the  center,  the  bottom  rises 
toward  each  end.  Owing  to  the  absence 
of  rivers  the  deposits  approach  in  char- 
acter those  formed  in  the  open  ocean, 
being  largely  composed  of  Foraminifera, 
Pteropods,  and  other  pelagic  shells.  The 
marine  fauna  and  flora  are  extensive, 
and  have  been  described  by  Haeckel  and 
other  naturalists ;  it  has  been  shown  that 
a  migration  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Mediter- 
ranean faunae  is  taking  place  along  tho 
Suez  Canal.  The  path  by  which  the 
Israelites  went  out  of  Egypt  was  along 
the  course  of  the  valley  called  Wady 
Tumeilat,  apparently  an  old  arm  of  the 
Nile  now  silted  up.  The  Lake  of 
Ismailieh  (Timsah)  was  then  most  prob- 
ably the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  but 
the  exact  point  of  passage  of  this  arm 
of  the  sea  still  remains  obscure. 

REDSHANK,  a  term  applied  to  a 
Scotch  Highlander  having  buskins  of  red 
deer  skin,  with  the  hair  outward;  used 
also  in  derision  of  his  bare  legs.  lu 
ornithology,  the  Totanus  calidris,  toler- 
ably common  over  the  greater  part  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  from  Iceland  to  China, 
retiring  to  the  S.  in  winter.  It  derives 
its  popular  name  from  the  color  of 
the  bare  parts  of  its  legs.  The  body  i« 
about  the  size  of  a  snipe's,  but  the  red- 
shank, ha\ang  longer  wings,  legs,  and 
neck,  appears  the  larger  bird. 

REDSTART,  the  Ruti cilia  phcenictira; 
common  in  Europe  and  western  Asia, 
migrating  S.  in  the  winter.  Forehead 
pure  white,  throat  black,  upper  surface 
dark  gray;  breast,  sides,  and  tail  bright 
rust-red.  It  nests  usually  in  a  hollow 
tree  or  in  a  hole  in  a  wall  or  rock,  and 
lays  five  to  seven  delicate  greenish-blue 
eggs,  sprinkled  with  faint  spots  of  red. 
The  black,  or  black-capped  redstart,  R. 
titys  (or  litis)  is  common  on  the  Conti- 
nent, but  has  not  the  extended  N.  range 
of  the  common  redstart.     In  the  United 

3» 


REDUCTIO    AD    ABSURDUM      462 

States  the  name  is  given  to  Setophaga 
ruticilla,^  a  fly-catching  warbler.  Male, 
black  with  patches  of  orange-red.  Fe- 
male, olive  with  yellow  patches. 

REDUCTIO  AD  ABSURDUM,  a 
species  of  argument  much  used  in  geom- 
etry, which  proves  not  the  thing  as- 
serted, but  the  absurdity  of  everything 
which  contradicts  it.  In  this  way  the 
proposition  is  not  proved  in  a  direct 
manner  by  principles  before  laid  down, 
but  it  shows  that  the  contrary  is  absurd 
or  impossible. 

REDUCTION,  a  word  with  several  ap- 
plications, as:  (1)  the  act  or  process  of 
reducing  to  any  state  or  condition;  the 
state  of  being  reduced;  as,  the  reduction 
of  a  substance  to  powder.  (2)  the  act 
of  reducing  or  bringing  into  subjection; 
conquest,  subjugation;  as,  the  reduction 
of  a  kingdom  or  fortress.  (3)  the  act 
of  reducing  or  diminishing  in  size,  dimen- 
sionc,  value,  quantity,  force,  etc.,  diminu- 
tion, abatement;  as,  the  reduction  of 
expenses,  the  reduction  of  forces.  (4) 
the  amount,  value,  quantity,  etc.,  by 
which  anything  is  reduced  or  lessened; 
as,  he  made  a  reduction  of  5  per  cent. 
(5)  the  act  or  process  of  making  a  copy 
of  a  figure,  map,  plan,  design,  etc.,  on  a 
smaller  scale  than  the  original,  but  pre- 
serving  the    form    and    proportion. 


RED  WATER,  the  haematuria  in 
cattle,  occurring  occasionally  in  sheep. 
It  is  of  two  kinds:  (1)  Acute,  ushered 
in  by  a  discharge  of  bloody  urine,  gen- 
erally preceded  by  dysentery,  suddenly 
changing  to  obstinate  costiveness  im- 
mediately before  the  red  water  appears. 
There  is  laborious  breathing,  with  every 
indication  of  fever.  The  disease  rapidly 
runs  its  course,  and  the  beast  soon  suc- 
cumbs. (2)  Chronic,  the  more  prevalent 
form.  The  urine  is  brown  or  yellowish- 
brown,  the  beast  feeds  fairly,  but  rumi- 
nates slowly,  and  after  a  few  days  a 
natural  diarrhoea  carries  off  the  evil 
symptoms.  Youatt  considers  these  two 
forms  essentially  different  maladies ;  the 
first,  inflammation  of  the  kidney;  the 
second,  inflammation  of,  or  altered  se- 
cretion from  the  liver. 

REDWAY,  JAQUES  WARDLAW,  an 

American  geographer;  born  Murfrees- 
boro,  Tenn.,  in  May,  1849;  studied  at  the 
University  of  California  and  at  Munich, 
Bavaria;  became  instructor  of  chemistry 
at  the  former  institution  and  professor 
of  physical  geography  and  chemistry 
at  the  State  Normal  School  of  Califor- 
nia. He  engaged  in  mining  in  Cali- 
fornia and  Arizona;  traveled  in  South 
America,  Europe,  and  Asia  for  the  pur- 
pose of  pursuing  geographical  investiga- 
tions, and  was  author  of  several  treatises 


BEBD 

on  physical  geography,  etc.,  among  them 
"Modem  Facts  and  Ancient  Fancies  in 
Geography";  "Climate  and  the  Gulf 
Stream";  "A  Traatise  on  the  Projection 
of  Maps";  and  a  Geography  in  1902. 

REDWING,  the  Turdus  iliacus,  a 
European  thrush,  closely  allied  to  the 
common  thrush,  but  with  red  instead  of 
gold  color  on  the  wings.  It  feeds  on 
worms,  slugs,  and  berries  injurious  to 
man.  Called  also  red-sided  thrush,  wind 
thrush,  and  swine-pipe.  The  name  is 
also  given  to  a  North  American  pas- 
serine bird,  Agelaius  phoeniceus,  of  the 
family  Icteridas.  Male,  black  with  red 
spots,  bordered  with  orange,  on  the 
wings. 

REDWING,  a  city  and"  county-seat  of 
Goodhue  cc,  Minn.;  on  the  Mississippi 
river,  and  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
and  St.  Paul,  and  the  Chicago  Great 
Western  railroads;  41  miles  S.  E.  of  St. 
Paul.  Here  are  electric  lights,  public 
library,  city  hospital,  Hage  Seminary, 
State  Training  School,  and  Redwing 
Seminary  (Luth.).  The  city  is  a  great 
market  for  wheat,  its  chief  article  of 
export.  It  has  manufactures  of  flour, 
steam  engines,  agricultural  machinery, 
lumber,  doors,  sash,  and  blinds.  Pop. 
(1910)    9,048;    (1920)    8,637. 


REDWOOD,  the  name  of  various  sorts 
of  wood  of  a  red  color,  as  an  Indian 
dyewood,  the  produce  of  Pterocarpus 
santalinus;  the  wood  of  Gordonia  Hsema- 
toxylon,  the  redwood  of  Jamaica ;  that  of 
Pterocarpus  dalbergioides,  or  Andaman 
wood;  that  of  Ceanothus  columbrinus, 
the  redwood  of  the  Bahamas;  that  of 
Sequoia  sempervirens,  a  coniferous  tree 
of  California,  the  redwood  of  the  timber 
trade;  that  of  Soymida  fehHfuga,  of 
which  the  bark  is  used  in  India  for 
fevers,  and  has  been  employed  success- 
fully in  Europe  for  typhus.  The  Cali- 
fornia redwood  is  the  best  known.  The 
tree  reaches  a  very  great  size,  and  forms 
forests  in  the  coast  mountains  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

REE,  LOUGH,  a  lake  of  Ireland, 
formed  by  the  Shannon,  between  the 
counties  of  Longford,  Westmeath,  and 
Roscommon,  17  miles  long  and  1  mile  to 
6  miles  broad,  studded  with  islands. 

REEBOK,  or  RHEEBOK,  the  Anti- 
lope  capreolus  (Pelea  capreola) ,  from 
South  Africa.  Length  about  5  feet, 
height  at  shoulder  30  inches ;  uniform  ash 
color  on  neck,  shoulders,  sides,  croup, 
and  thighs,  white  or  light  gray  on  under 
surface  and  inside  of  limbs.  They  live 
in  small  groups  of  five  or  six  individuals. 

REED,  in  music,  the  sounding  part  of 
several   instruments,   such   as   the   clari- 


BEED 


463 


BEED    WARBLER 


onet,  bassoon,  oboe,  and  bagpipe,  so 
called  from  its  being  made  from  the 
outer  layer  of  a  reed  (Ai-undo  sativa  or 
donax)  found  in  the  S.  of  Europe.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  the  speaking 
part  of  the  organ,  though  made  of  metal. 
Reeds  are  generally  divided  into  two 
kinds — the  beating  reed,  used  in  the 
organ,  clarionet,  etc.,  requiring  to  be 
placed  within  a  tube  to  produce  a  musical 
sound,  and  the  free  reed,  used  in  instru- 
ments of  the  harmonium  and  concertina 
kind. 

REED,  ANDREW,  an  English  philan- 
thropist; born  in  London,  England,  Nov. 
27,  1787;  was  educated  in  his  native 
city  and  in  1811  was  there  ordained 
pastor  of  an  independent  congregation. 
He  visited  the  United  States  in  1834, 
where  he  studied  educational  and  reli- 
gious conditions.  In  1813  he  established 
the  London  Orphan  Asylum;  in  1827  the 
Infant  Orphan  Asylum;  in  1847  the 
Asylum  for  Fatherless  Children  in  Croy- 
don; and  later  the  Royal  Hospital  for 
Incurables  and  the  Royal  Asylum  for 
Idiots.  He  was  the  author  of  "Martha" 
(1836);  "The  Day  of  Pentecost";  "The 
Revival  of  Religion"  and  "Earnest  Piety 
Essential  to  Eminent  Usefulness" 
(1839)  ;  and  "Advancement  of  Religion 
the  Claim  of  the  Times"  (1847)  ;  etc. 
He  died  in  London,  England,  Feb.  25, 
1862. 


JAMES  A.   REED 

REED,  JAMES  A.,  United  States 
Senator  from  Missouri;  born  in  Ohio  in 
1861,  he  was  educated  at  Coe  College, 


Iowa,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Cedar 
Rapids  in  the  same  State.  In  1887  he 
moved  to  Missouri,  where  he  became  a 
leader  in  the  Democratic  party  in  the 
State.  From  1900  to  1904  he  served  as 
mayor  of  Kansas  City,  and  was  elected 
to  the  Senate  for  the  term  1911-1917. 
In  1917  he  was  re-elected,  and  during 
this  term  he  broke  from  the  leader- 
ship of  President  Wilson  and  became 
one  of  the  bitterest  opponents  of  the 
League  of  Nations  as  championed  by 
the  President. 

REED,     THOMAS     BRACKETT,     an 

American  statesman;  born  in  Portland, 
Me.,  Oct.  18,  1839;  was  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1860;  studied  law; 
appointed  assistant  paymaster  United 
States  navy  in  1864;  admitted  to  the 
Portland  bar;  member  of  the  Maine 
Legislature  1868-1869,  and  of  the  Senate 
1870;  State  attorney-general,  1870-1872; 
member  of  Congress  1877-1899;  and 
speaker  of  51st,  54th,  and  55th  Con- 
gresses. In  1896  Mr.  Reed  was  a  prom- 
inent candidate  for  the  Republican  presi- 
dential nomination.  He  resigned  from 
Congress  in  1899,  and  entered  the  prac- 
tice of  law  in  New  York  City.  He  died 
in  1902. 

REED  BUNTING,  the  Emberiza 
schaeniclus,  common  in  swampy  places, 
all  over  Europe,  length  of  male,  six 
inches;  head,  chin,  and  throat  black; 
belly  and  nuchal  collar  white ;  upper  sur- 
face brownish  black,  each  feather  bor- 
dered with  bright  bay.  Called  also  reed 
sparrow. 

REED  COLLEGE,  an  educational  in- 
stitution at  Portland,  Ore.  It  is  co- 
educational and  non-sectarian.  In  1919 
it  had  338  students  enrolled  in  its  arts 
and  science  course,  and  had  a  faculty 
numbering  20.  The  college  has  an  en- 
dowment of  over  $3,000,000.  The  presi- 
dent is  William  T.  Foster. 

REED  MACE,  a  plant  of  the  genus 
Typha,  natural  order  Typhaceae.  Tv.o 
species  are  common,  T.  lati folia,  or  great- 
er reed  mace,  and  T.  angustifolia,  the 
lesser.  These  plants  are  also  known  by 
the  name  of  cat-tail,  and  grow  in  ditches 
and  marshy  places,  and  in  the  borders  of 
ponds,  lakes,  and  rivers.  They  are  some- 
times erroneously  called  bulrush. 

REED  WARBLER,  the  Acrocephalus 
streperus,  a  summer  migrant  to  tem- 
perate Europe  late  in  April,  and  leaving 
late  in  September.  It  is  an  incessant 
songster,  and  its  notes  are  varied  and 
pleasing.  The  male  is  about  5H  inches 
long,  upper  surface  uniform  pale  brown, 
with  a  tinge  of  chestnut;  chin,  throat, 
and  belly  white. 


BEEF 


464 


BEFEBENDUM 


BEEF,  a  chain,  mass,  or  range  of 
rocks  in  various  parts  of  the  ocean,  lying 
at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  water. 

BEEF  KNOT,  in  nautical  language,  a 
knot  formed  by  passing  the  ends  of  the 
two  parts  of  one  rope  through  the  loop 
formed  by  another  w'  ose  two  ends  are 
similarly  passed  through  a  loop  on  the 
first;  the  two  parts  of  one  rope  are 
passed  above,  and  of  the  other  below 
the  loop  through  which  they  are  inserted. 
A  longitudinal  pull  tightens  the  knot, 
which  can  only  be  untied  by  pushing  the 
loops  in  opposite  directions. 

BEEL,  a  revolving  contrivance  on 
which  fiber,  thread,  cord,  rope,  fabric, 
etc.,  are  wound,  to  form  them  into  hanks 
or  skeins,  and  for  various  other  pur- 
poses;   applied  to: 

Agriculture,  a  device  having  radial 
arms  carrying  horizontal  slats,  and  ro- 
tated by  gear  or  pulley  connected  with 
the  axle  of  a  harvester,  for  pressing 
backward  and  holding  the  stalks  of  grain 
in  position  for  being  severed  by  the 
knives.  Angling,  a  skeleton  barrel  at- 
tached to  the  butt  of  a  fishing  rod, 
around  which  the  inner  end  of  the  line  is 
wound,  and  from  which  it  is  payed  out 
as  the  fish  runs  off  with  the  bait,  and 
is  gradually  wound  in  again  as  his  strug- 
gles become  less  violent,  bringing  him  to 
land  or  to  the  landing  net.  Baking,  a 
cylinder  with  radial  arms  rotating  in  a 
heated  chamber,  carrying  pans  in  which 
loaves  of  bread  are  placed  for  baking  in 
the  reel-oven.  Cotton  machinery,  a  ma- 
chine on  which  cotton  is  wound,  making 
hanks  of  thread,  each  840  yards  in 
length.  Domestic,  a  spool  or  bobbin  of 
wowi  on  which  cotton,  thread,  silk,  etc., 
is  wound  for  use  in  sewing.  Milling, 
the  barrel  or  drum  on  which  the  bolting 
cloth  is  fastened.  Nautically,  a  revolv- 
ing frame  to  hold  a  line  or  cord,  as:  (a) 
the  log-reel;  (b)  the  deep  sea-reel;  and 
(c)  the  spun-yarn-reel,  etc.  Rope-mak- 
ing, spun-yams  are  wound  on  a  reel 
preparatory  to  tarring  or  laying  up  into 
strands  as  the  twisting  of  each  length 
is  completed.  Silk-making,  the  revolv- 
ing frame  on  which  silk  is  wound  from 
the  cocoons,  or  yarn  is  wound  off  from 
the  spindle  of  a  hand-spinning  machine, 
and  reeled  into  cuts  or  hanks.  Teleg- 
raphy, a  barrel  on  which  the  strip  of 
paper  for  receiving  the  message  is 
wound  in  a  recording  telegraph. 

BEEL,  a  lively  rustic  dance,  peculiar 
to  Scotland.  In  the  United  States,  the 
Virginia  reel  is  widely  popular.  Also 
the  music  for  such  a  dance,  gener- 
ally written  in  common  time,  but  some- 
times in  jig  time  of  six  quavers  to 
a  bar. 


BE-ENTBY,  in  law,  the  resuming  or 
retaking  the  possession  of  lands  lately 
lost.  A  proviso  for  re-entry  is  a  clause 
usually  inserted  in  leases,  that  upon  non- 
payment of  rent,  etc.,  the  term  shall 
cease. 

BEEVE,  the  title  of  the  official  existing 
in  early  times  in  England,  who  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  king  to  carry  into  execu- 
tion the  judgments  of  the  courts  presided 
over  by  the  ealdorman  (earl)  and  other 
high  dignitaries,  to  levy  distresses,  exact 
the  imposts,  contributions,  tithes,  and 
take  charge  of  prisoners. 

BEEVES,  JOHN  SIMS,  an  English 
singer;  born  in  Shooters'  Hill,  Kent,  Oct. 
21,  1822.  At  14  he  was  a  clever  per- 
former on  various  instruments,  and  was 
appointed  organist  and  director  of  the 
choir  in  the  church  of  North  Cray  in 
Kent.  He  first  appeared  in  public  as  a 
baritone  at  Newcastle  in  1839.  This 
debut  was  a  complete  success;  and  he 
acquired  fresh  fame,  but  as  a  tenor,  in 
London.  In  order  to  perfect  his  voice 
and  style  he  studied  at  Paris  (1843)  for 
some  time,  and  then  appeared  at  Milan 
in  the  tenor  part  of  Edgardo  in  "Lucia 
di  Lammermoor."  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1847,  and,  at  Drury  Lane  as 
Edgardo,  was  immediately  recognized  as 
the  first  English  tenor.  He  was  en- 
gaged in  1848  at  Her  Majesty's  Theater, 
and  in  1851  sang  as  first  tenor  at  the 
Italian  Opera  in  Paris.  After  1860  he 
became  popular  all  over  the  country  as 
a  ballad  singer  at  concerts.  He  espe- 
cially excelled  in  singing  oratorio  parts, 
his  first  oratorio  role  having  been  in 
"Judas  Maccabaeus"  in  1848.  He  died 
in  1900. 

BEFEBENCE,  the  act  or  process  of 
assigning  a  cause  depending  in  court,  or 
some  particular  point  in  a  cause  for 
hearing  and  decision,  to  a  person  or 
persons  appointed  by  the  court. 

BEFEBENDUM,  a  system  of  legisla- 
tion which  consults  all  the  electors  of  a 
State  as  to  whether  new  laws  shall  be 
confirmed.  In  some  cantons  of  Switzer- 
land a  method  resembling  the  referen- 
dum has  been  practiced  since  the  16th 
century.  The  present  form  was  adopted 
in  the  canton  of  St.  Gall  in  1830.  In 
1848,  in  spite  of  Conservative  opposition 
the  referendum  was,  by  the  action  of  the 
Radicals,  incorporated  in  the  Swiss  fed- 
eral constitution,  and  in  1874  its  appli- 
cation was  extended.  In  all  the  Swiss 
cantons,  except  Freiburg,  the  referen- 
dum is  now  established.  Accord  ng  to 
the  Swiss  federal  constitution,  all  con- 
stitutional amendments  must  be  ratified 
by  the  Swiss  electorate  before  they  be- 
come law.    Other  measures  must  be  sub- 


REFINING    OF    METALS 


465 


REFLECTION 


mitted  to  the  popular  vote,  if  demanded 
within  90  days  after  their  publication  by 
30,000  voters,  or  by  the  government  of 
eight  cantons.  During  the  17  years, 
1874  to  1891,  out  of  149  laws,  27  were 
referred  to  the  people;  of  these  15  were 
rejected.  The  referendum  has  worked 
so  well  that  it  has  conquered  all  opposi- 
tion to  it,  and  it  is  now  generally  re- 
garded as  a  check  on  hasty  and  class 
legislation.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
essence  of  it  is  that  it  submits  to  the 
people  a  single  and  clear  issue  upon 
which  they  may  give  their  decision. 
There  exists  also  an  obligatory  referen- 
dum in  eight  cantons,  where  every  law 
and  every  expenditure  beyond  a  fixed 
maximum  must  be  submitted  to  the  mass 
of  the  electors,  and  it  is  not  necessary 
that  a  demand  for  this  submission  to  the 
electors  should  be  made.  In  Great  Britain 
what  may  be  termed  a  kind  of  local  refer- 
endum with  regard  to  the  "Adoptive 
Acts"  was  set  up  by  the  Parish  Coun- 
cils Act  of  1894.  There  is  a  growing 
demand  in  the  United  States  for  the  gen- 
eral introduction  of  direct  legislation  by 
means  of  the  referendum,  and  in  several 
places  the  system  is  practiced. 

REFINING  OF  METALS,  the  proc- 
esses by  which  the  various  metals  are 
extracted  from  their  ores,  and  obtained 
in  a  state  of  purity.  See  the  articles  on 
the  several  metals. 

REFLECTING  CIRCLE,  an  instru- 
ment for  measuring  altitudes  and  angu- 
lar distances,  invented  by  Mayer  about 
1744,  and  afterward  improved  by  Borda 
and  Troughton.  In  principle  and  con- 
struction it  is  similar  to  the  sextant, 
the  graduations,  however,  being  con- 
tinued completely  round  the  limb  of  the 
circle.     Also  called  a  repeating  circle. 

REFLECTING        GALVANOMETER, 

Sir  William  Thomson's  insti'ument,  con- 
sisting of  a  very  small  magnet,  made  of  a 
piece  of  watch  spring,  suspended  between 
two  flat  bobbins  of  fine  insulated  copper 
wire.  The  magnet  carries  a  very  small 
concave  mirror,  which  is  adjusted  by 
means  of  a  directing  magnet  to  throw  the 
rays  of  light,  issuing  from  a  lamp  and 
reflected  from  the  mirror,  on  the  zero  of 
a  horizontal  graduated  scale  when  no 
current  is  passing,  or  when  two  equal 
and  opposite  currents  neutralize  each 
other.  In  any  other  case  the  vibrations 
of  the  magnet  cause  the  image  to  be 
deflected  to  the  right  or  left  of  zero  by 
an  amount  proportional  to  the  force  and 
duration  of  the  current. 

REFLECTING  MICROSCOPE,  a  form 
of  microscope  first  proposed  by  Newton, 
in  which  the  image  formed  by  a  small 
concave  speculum  may  be  viewed  either 


by  the  naked  eye  or  through  an  eyepiece. 
The  object  is  placed  outside  of  the  tube  of 
the  microscope,  and  reflects  its  image  to 
the  speculum  by  means  of  a  plane  mir- 
ror, inclined  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the 
axis  of  the  former. 

REFLECTING  TELESCOPE,  a  tele- 
scope in  which  the  rays  are  received  on 
an  object-mirror  and  conveyed  to  a  focus, 
at  which  the  image  is  viewed  by  an  eye- 
piece. 

REFLECTION,  that  which  is  reflected, 
or  produced  by  being  reflected;  an  image 
given  back  from  a  reflecting  surface. 
Also  the  act  or  habit  of  turning  the 
mind  to  something  which  has  already 
occupied  it;  thoughtful,  attentive,  or 
continued  consideration  or  deliberation; 
meditation,  thought. 

A  surface  on  which  a  beam  of  light 
falls  may  be  either  rough  or  smooth. 
If  it  be  rough,  the  greater  part  of  the 
incident  light  is  irregularly  scattered  by 
the  innumerable  surface  facets,  so  as 
to  be  reflected  or  dispersed  in  all  direc- 
tions; if  it  be  smooth,  a  proportion  (but 
never  the  whole)  of  the  incident  light  is 
regularly  reflected  or  turned  back  in 
definite  paths.  A  smooth,  dustless  mir- 
ror is  not  visible  to  an  eye  outside  the 
track  of  rays  reflected  from  it.  If  the 
polished  surface  be  that  of  a  transparent 
substance  (e.  g.,  glass)  optically  denser 
than  the  medium  conveying  the  light  to 
it,  compai-atively  little  light  is  reflected; 
but  the  more  oblique  the  incidence,  the 
smoother  the  polish,  and  the  greater  the 
difference  between  the  optical  density  of 
the  glass  and  that  of  the  medium  in 
which  it  is  immersed,  the  greater  the 
proportion  reflected.  Thus  less  light  is 
reflected  from  glass  under  water  than 
from  glass  in  air;  and  conversely,  if  the 
light  travel  in  the  denser  medium 
and  strike  the  bounding  surface  between 
it  and  a  rarer  medium — as  where  light 
ascending  through  water  strikes  its 
upper  free  surface — it  will,  if  its  ob- 
liquity of  incidence  exceed  a  certain 
limit,  be  almost  totally  reflected;  the 
small  loss  that  ensues  arising  wholly 
from  absorption,  while  no  light  is  trans- 
mitted into  the  air  above.  This  may  be 
shown  by  holding  a  clear  tumbler  of 
water  above  the  head;  the  image  of  ob- 
jects beneath  is  seen  reflected  in  a 
bright  mirror  surface;  and  a  phenome- 
non of  the  same  order  is  seen  on  thrust- 
ing a  test  tube  containing  air  below  the 
surface  of  water,  when  it  will  appear  to 
have  a  luster  like  quicksilver.  If  the 
reflecting  surface  be  that  of  an  opaque 
body  the  bulk  of  the  incident  light  is 
reflected,  a  percentage  being  lost  by 
absorption.  What  has  been  said  about 
light  applies  equally  to  ether  undulations 


REFLECTION 


466 


REFLECTION 


of  all  kinds,  and  therefore  the  theory  of 
reflection  has  general  reference  to  ra- 
diant heat,  light,  actinic  radiation,  and 
electro-magnetic  undulations.  Reflection 
arises  in  all  cases  from  a  difference  in 
the  transmissibility  of  ether  disturb- 
ances on  the  two  sides  of  the  bounding 
surface. 

On  reflection  from  polished  surfaces 
we  have,  so  far  as  regards  the  directions 
of  the  reflected  rays,  the  following  laws 
observed:  (1)  The  incident  "ray,"  the 
normal  (i.  e.,  a  line  draviTi  perpendicu- 
lar) to  the  surface  at  the  point  of  inci- 
dence, and  the  reflected  "ray"  all  lie  in 
one  plane,  the  "plane  of  incidence";  and 
(2)  the  angle  of  incidence  (the  angle 
which  the  incident  "ray"  makes  with  the 
normal  to  the  reflecting  surface)  is  equal 
to  the  angle  of  reflection  (the  corre- 
sponding angle  between  the  normal  and 
the  reflected  "ray").  These  laws  apply 
equally  to  ether  waves  of  all  lengths,  and 
therefore  to  light  of  all  colors;  and  they 
also  hold  good  whatever  be  the  shape  of 
the  surface.  If  the  surface  be  plane 
their  application  is  simple;  and  if  the 
surface  be  curved  we  have,  in  effect,  to 
consider  the  curved  surface  as  made  up 
of  indefinitely  small  facets,  to  each  of 
which  the  above  laws  can  be  applied. 
The  geometrical  consequences  of  these 
laws  make  up  what  used  to  be  called 
catoptrics,  that  part  of  geometrical 
optics  which  deals  with  reflection;  and 
this  coincides  in  its  propositions  with 
that  part  of  kinematics,  which  gives 
an  account  of  the  reflection  of  waves. 
Here  the  other  waves  (using  the  term 
"waves"  in  its  most  general  sense)  are 
assumed  to  travel  through  optically  ho- 
mogeneous media,  and  can  consequently 
be  traced  out  by  imaginary  lines  drawn 
at  right  angles  to  the  wave  fronts  or 
along  the  directions  pursued  by  the 
waves,  these  imaginary  lines  being  called 
"rays." 

Plane  Reflecting  Surfaces. —  (1)  Rays 
which  are  paralled  to  one  another  before 
striking  a  plane  reflecting  surface  are 
parallel  after  reflection.  (2)  If  light 
diverging  from  or  converging  toward 
a  point  be  reflected  from  a  plane  mirror, 
it  will  appear  after  reflection  to  diverge 
from  or  converge  toward  another  point 
situated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  mirror 
and  at  an  equal  distance  from  it.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  course  of  the  light  is 
such  that  the  rays  appear  before  reflec- 
tion to  converge  on  the  second  point,  they 
will  after  reflection  actually  pass  through 
the  first  one.  (3)  A  consequence  of  the 
preceding  proposition  is  that  when  an  ob- 
ject Is  placed  before  a  plane  mirror  the 
virtual  image  is  of  the  same  form  and 
magnitude  as  the  object,  and  at  an  equal 
distance   from  the  mirror   on   the  other 


side  of  it.  The  right  hand  of  the  image 
taken  as  looking  toward  the  mirror,  is 
necessarily  opposite  to  the  left  hand  of 
the  object;  so  that  no  one  ever  sees  him- 
self in  a  single  plane  mirror  as  others 
see  him  or  as  a  photograph  shows  him, 
but   he   sees   all   his   features   reversed. 

(4)  When  two  mirrors  are  placed  paral- 
lel to  one  another,  light  from  an  object 
between  them  is  reflected  back  and  fore, 
so  as  to  appear  on  each  occasion  of  re- 
flection as  if  it  came  from  images  more 
and  more  remote  from  the  mirrors. 
On  each  occasion  the  course  of  the  rays 
of  light  is  the  same  as  if  the  virtual 
image  behind  the  mirror  had  been  a  real 
object;  and  a  new  virtual  image  is  pro- 
duced, apparently  as  far  behind  the  re- 
flecting mirror  as  the  virtual  object  had 
been  in  front  of  it.  If  the  mirrors  were 
perfectly  plane  and  parallel,  and  if  they 
reflected  all  the  light  which  fell  on  them, 
an  observer  between  the  mirrors  would 
see  in  this  experiment  (which  is  called 
the  endless  gallery)  an  indefinite  num- 
ber of  images.  A  variation  of  this  experi- 
ment, carried  out  with  mirrors  not  par- 
allel to  one  another,  but  inclined  at  an 
angle  which  is  some  aliquot  part  of  180°, 
gives  the  principle  of  the  kaleidoscope. 

(5)  When  a  beam  of  lig;ht  is  reflected 
from  a  mirror  and  the  mirror  is  turned 
through  a  given  angle,  the  reflected  beam 
is  swept  through  an  angle  t^vice  as  great. 
This  principle  is  utilized  in  the  con- 
struction of  many  scientific  instruments, 
in  which  the  reflected  beam  of  light 
serves  as  a  weightless  pointer,  and  en- 
ables us  to  measure  the  deflection  of  the 
object  which  carries  the  mirror.  (6) 
When  a  beam  of  light  is  reflected  at  each 
of  two  mirrors,  inclined  at  a  given  angle, 
the  ultimate  deviation  of  the  beam  is  (if 
the  whole  path  of  the  light  be  vdthin  one 
plane)  equal  to  twice  the  angle  between 
the  mirrors.  This  proposition  is  applied 
in  the  quadrant  and  sextant.  (7)  When 
a  wave  of  any  form  is  reflected  at  a 
plane  surface  it  retains  after  reflection 
the  form  which  it  would  have  assumed 
but  for  the  reflection,  this  form  being, 
however,  guided  by  reflection  into  a  dif- 
ferent direction. 

Curved  Reflecting  Surfaces. — In  these 
we  have  to  trace  out  the  mode  of  reflec- 
tion of  incident  rays  from  each  "ele- 
ment" or  little  bit  of  the  reflecting  sur- 
face; and  this  leads,  through  geometrical 
working,  to  such  propositions  as  the  fol- 
lowing: (1)  Parallel  rays,  traveling 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  a  concave  parab- 
oloid mirror  are  made  to  converge  so  as 
all  actually  to  pass  accurately  through 
the  geometrical  focus  of  the  paraboloid; 
and,  conversely,  if  the  source  of  light  be 
at  the  geometrical  focus,  the  rays  re- 
flected from  the  mirror  emerge  parallel 


REFLECTION 


467       REFLEX  NERVOUS  ACTION 


to  one  another — a  proposition  of  great 
utility  in  lighthouse  work,  search-lights, 
etc,  (2)  If  the  paraboloid  mirror  be 
convex,  parallel  incident  rays  have,  after 
reflection,  the  same  course  as  if  they  had 
come  from  the  geometrical  focus  of  the 
paraboloid.  (3)  In  a  concave  ellipsoid 
mirror,  light  diverging  from  one  "focus" 
of  the  ellipsoid  is  reflected  so  as  to  con- 
verge on  the  other  "focus"  of  the  curved 
surface;  and  by  a  convex  ellipsoidal  mir- 
ror light  converging  toward  the  one 
focus  is  made  to  diverge  as  if  it  had  come 
directly  from  the  other  focus.  (4)  In  a 
hyperboloid  reflector  the  two  geometrical 
foci  have  properties  corresponding  to 
those  of  the  ellipsoid.  (5)  In  spherical 
reflectors,  which  are  those  most  easily 
made,  there  is  no  accurate  focus  except 
for  rays  proceeding  from  the  center  and 
returning  to  it.  When  parallel  rays  are 
incident  on  a  concave  spherical  mirror 
we  see  that  if  they  be  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  mirror  each  ray  is  made  to 
pass  after  reflection  through  a  point, 
which  is  nearer  to  a  point  midway  be- 
tween the  mirror  and  its  center,  the 
narrower  is  the  pencil  of  rays.  If  there- 
fore, the  pencil  of  rays  be  very  narrow 
in  comparison  with  the  radius,  the  rays 
will,  after  reflection,  approximately  con- 
verge on  the  midway  point,  which  is 
called  the  principal  focus  of  the  mirror. 
The  reflected  rays  from  the  various  parts 
of  the  mirror  form  by  their  intersection 
a  caustic,  the  apex  or  cusp  of  which  is 
at  the  midway  point. 

As  to  the  quality  of  the  light  reflected 
there  are  some  peculiarities  to  be  ob- 
served. From  the  surface  of  a  trans- 
parent body,  of  greater  optical  density 
than  the  sun-ounding  medium,  light 
polarized  in  the  plane  of  incidence  and 
reflection  is  more  largely  reflected  at 
oblique  incidences  than  light  polarized 
at  right  angles  to  that  plane;  when  the 
angle  of  incidence  is  such  that  the  re- 
flected and  refracted  rays  tend  to  be  at 
right  angles  to  one  another,  the  whole  of 
the  light  reflected  is  polarized  in  the 
plane  incidence  and  reflection;  and  if 
light  polarized  at  right  angles  to  that 
plane  be  made  to  fall  on  glass  at  the 
particular  angle  of  incidence  just  re- 
ferred to,  it  will  not  be  reflected  at  all, 
but  will  wholly  enter  the  glass.  Plane- 
polarized  light  polarized  in  any  other 
plane  than  that  of  incidence  or  one  at 
right  angles  to  it,  is,  after  total  reflec- 
tion in  glass,  found  to  be  elliptically  po- 
larized; and  this  phenomenon  is  always 
presented  in  reflection  from  metals.  In 
the  case  of  electro-magnetic  radiation 
theory  and  practice  concur  in  indicating 
that  conductors  are  good  while  non-con- 
ductors are  bad  reflectors;  and  the  same 
general  proposition  holds  good  with  ref- 


erence to  those  more  frequent  but  other- 
wise similar  ether  oscillations  to  which 
the  phenomena  of  radiant  heat,  light, 
and  actinism  are  due. 

REFLECTION    OBSERVATIONS,    in 

astronomy,  those  which  measure  the 
direction  of  a  beam  of  light  which  has 
been  reflected  from  the  surface  of  some 
liquid,  generally  mercury.  Sometimes  it 
is  a  beam  from  a  heavenly  body,  as  in 
sextant  observations  with  an  artificial 
horizon,  or  in  measuring  the  reflected 
zenith  distance  of  a  star  with  a  meridian 
circle  in  an  observatory,  and  sometimes 
it  is  a  beam  of  light,  or  rather  the  want 
of  light,  which  makes  the  shadow  of 
the  wires  of  a  transit  or  meridian  circle 
from  a  lamp  used  in  the  nadir  observa- 
tions of  an  observatory. 

REFLECTOR,  that  which  reflects,  or 
throws  back  rays  of  light,  heat,  etc.;  a 
reflecting  surface.  In  optics,  a  device 
by  which  the  rays  proceeding  from  a 
luminous  or  heated  object  are  thrown 
back  or  diverted  in  a  given  direction. 
The  reflecting  surface  may  be  either 
plane  or  curved.  In  practice  it  is  often 
made  spherical  or  parabolic.  A  mirror 
is  a  familiar  example  of  a  plane  re- 
flector. The  material  should  be  as 
smooth  and  highly  polished  as  possible. 
Sheet  tin  is  frequently  used  for  common 
purposes,  as  for  door,  hall,  or  vehicle 
lamps,  while  for  other  purposes  a 
more  perfectly  reflecting  surface  is  em- 
ployed, such  as  speculum  metal  or  silver 
protected  by  glass.  Silver  is  the  most 
perfectly  reflecting  substance  known, 
absorbing  but  9  per  cent,  of  the  incident 
rays,  while  speculum  metal  absorbs  37 
per  cent.  Glass  itself,  owing  to  its  prop- 
erty of  totally  reflecting  incident  rays 
at  a  low  angle,  is  used  in  certain  cases. 
Reflectors  with  parabolic  surfaces  are 
employed  for  throwing  the  light  emanat- 
ing from  objects  placed  in  their  foci  in 
parallel  straight  lines  to  a  great  dis- 
tance, and  for  converging  the  heat  rays 
from  a  distant  object,  as  the  sun,  to  a 
focus,  and  also,  in  connection  with  eye 
glasses,  in  the  reflecting  telescope,  which 
is  itself  often  simply  denominated  a 
reflector. 

REFLEX     NERVOUS     ACTION,     in 

physiology,  those  actions  of  _  the_  nervous 
system  whereby  an  impression  is  trans- 
mitted along  sensory  nerves  to  a  nerve 
center,  from  which  again  it  is  reflected  to 
a  motor  nerve,  and  so  calls  into  play 
some  muscle  whereby  movements  are  pro- 
duced. These  actions  are  performed  in- 
voluntarily, and  often  unconsciously,  as 
the  contraction  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye 
when  exposed  to  strong  light.  See 
Nerve. 


BEFORM    ACTS 


468 


BEFOBMATION 


REFORM  ACTS,  a  term  applied  to 
certain  acts  of  the  British  Parliament 
by  which  the  regulations  as  to  the  parlia- 
mentary representation  of  the  people 
were  altered,  and  especially  to  those  of 
1832,  1867,  and  1884-1885.  The  first 
two  acts  provided  both  for  an  extension 
of  the  franchise  and  for  a  redistribution 
of  seats.  The  Reform  Act  of  1832  dis- 
franchised 56  rotten  boroughs  with  less 
than  2,000  inhabitants  each,  and  return- 
ing 111  members;  30  boroughs  with  less 
than  4,000  inhabitants,  and  two  above 
that  number,  lost  each  a  member,  and 
thus  143  seats  were  obtained  for  distri- 
bution. Forty-three  new  boroughs  were 
created,  22  of  which  received  two  mem- 
bers each,  and  21  one  member  each.  The 
county  members  for  England  and  Wales 
were  increased  from  95  to  159,  26  of  the 
large  counties  being  divided,  and  a  third 
member  given  to  seven  important  county 
constituencies.  Scotch  and  Irish  Acts 
followed;  the  Scotch  representation, 
fixed  by  the  Act  of  Union  at  45  was 
raised  to  53  (30  of  them  given  to  coun- 
ties and  23  to  cities  and  boroughs),  and 
the  Irish  members  fixed  by  the  Act  of 
Union  at  100,  were  increased  to  105.  The 
Reform  Act  of  1867  disfranchised  11 
small  English  boroughs,  took  a  member 
from  35  more,  and  two  from  Scotch 
counties,  which  with  four  seats  obtained 
from  boroughs  disfranchised  for  corrup- 
tion, gave  52  seats  for  redistribution. 
Five  of  these  were  given  to  as  many 
large  English  and  Scotch  boroughs  on 
the  three-cornered  system,  and  three  to 
universities,  the  others  to  old  or  new 
coiznty  or  borough  divisions.  Seven 
members  were  added  to  Scotland.  There 
was  no  redistribution  in  Ireland.  In 
the  third  successful  effort  for  parlia- 
mentary reform,  that  of  1884-1885, 
the  franchise  and  redistribution  of 
seats  constituted  two  distinct  acts.  The 
franchise  bill  received  the  royal  assent 
on  Dec.  6,  1884,  and  came  into  operation 
on  Jan.  1,  1885.  It  established  household 
and  lodger  franchise  in  the  counties,  in- 
troduced a  service  franchise,  diminished, 
though  it  did  not  destroy,  fagot  voting, 
and  made  a  uniform  occupation  franchise 
of  $50  rent  both  in  counties  and  in 
boroughs  in  place  of  the  three  formerly 
existing.  It  left  untouched  the  40-shil- 
ling  freeholders  of  inheritance,  and  con- 
ferred votes  on  copyholders  possessing 
land  of  greater  value  than  $25  annually. 
By  the  Redistribution  Act  of  1885,  81 
English,  2  Scotch,  and  22  Irish  boroughs 
were  totally  disfranchised;  36  English 
and  3  Irish  boroughs,  each  lost  a  mem- 
ber, as  did  two  English  counties;  the 
city  of  London  was  reduced  from  four 
to  two;  six  seats  were  obtained  from 
places  disfranchised  for  corruption,  and 


the  members  of  the  House  of  Commons 
were  increased  by  12.  The  seats  thus 
obtained  for  redistribution  were  180. 
The  great  feature  of  the  scheme  which 
followed  was  the  separation  of  populous 
boroughs  and  counties  into  divisionb, 
each  returning  a  single  member.  Only  a 
few  places  hitherto  with  two  member? 
were  left  with  the  old  arrangement. 
England  has  now  465  members,  Wale^ 
30,  Scotland  72,  and  Ireland  103,  Tc? 
reduction  from  105  occurring  through 
the  disfranchisement  of  Sligo  and  Cashel 
some  years  ago  for  corruption. 

REFORMATION.  The  religious  rev- 
olution of  the  16th  century,  known  as  the 
Reformation,  is  the  greatest  event  in 
the  history  of  civilization  since  Paganism 
gave  place  to  Christianity  as  the  faith 
of  the  leading  nations  of  the  world.  It 
marks  the  supreme  importance  of  this 
revolution  that  the  age  which  preceded 
and  the  age  which  followed  it  belong  to 
two  different  phases  of  the  human  spirit. 
With  the  Reformation  begins  what  is 
distinctively  known  as  Modern  Europe, 
while  the  epoch  that  preceded  it  bears 
the  equally  distinctive  designation  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  In  the  articles  on  Luther, 
Charles  V.,  Henry  VIII.,  Calvin,  Knox, 
and  others  details  will  be  found  regard- 
ing the  aims  and  methods  of  the  revolu- 
tion in  the  various  countries  where  it  de- 
clared itself.  Here,  therefore,  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  indicate  briefly  the  general 
causes  which  produced  it,  the  special 
course  and  character  it  took  among  the 
different  peoples,  and  its  chief  results 
for  the  human  spirit  at  large. 

The  central  fact  of  the  Reformation 
was  the  detachment  from  papal  Christi- 
anity of  the  nations  distinguished  by  the 
general  name  of  Protestant.  By  thir 
severance  an  order  of  things  came  to  an 
end  under  which  Christian  Europe  had 
been  content  to  exist  from  the  close  of 
the  8th  century.  From  the  year  800, 
when,  by  a  mutual  understanding  of 
their  respective  functions,  Charlemagne 
was  crowned  emperor  of  the  Romans  by 
Pope  Leo  III.,  western  Europe  had  come 
to  regard  the  papacy  as  the  essential 
condition  of  individual  and  corporate  lifCj 
as  a  prime  necessity  in  human  affairs. 
Thus  conceived,  the  power  of  the  Church 
underlay  all  human  relations.  It  was 
the  consecration  of  the  Church  that  con- 
stituted the  family;  the  Church  defined 
the  relations  of  rulers  and  their  subjects, 
and  the  Church  was  the  final  court  of 
appeal  on  the  ultimate  questions  of 
human  life  and  destiny.  In  the  nature 
of  things  such  a  power  could  never  be 
realized  as  it  was  ideally  conceived.  Yet 
during  the  11th  and  12th  centuries,  the 
period  when  the  power  of  the  Popes  was 


REFORMATION 


469 


REFORMATION 


most  adequate  to  their  claims,  they  un- 
doubtedly went  far  to  make  the  idea  a 
reality.  But  the  energies  of  the  human 
spirit  were  bound  sooner  or  later  to 
issue  in  developments  with  which  mediae- 
val conceptions  were  fundamentally 
irreconcilable.  But  in  the  13th  century 
along  every  line  of  man's  activity,  there 
were  protests,  conscious  and  uncon- 
scious, against  the  system  typified  in 
the  Roman  Church. 

The  most  remarkable  of  these  protests 
was  the  order  of  ideas  associated  with 
the  name  of  Joachim  of  Flora  in  Calabria 
(died  1202).  Under  the  name  of  the 
"Eternal  Gospel"  (used  for  the  first  time 
in  1254)  these  ideas  ran  a  course  which 
for  a  time  seriously  thieatened  the  exist- 
ence of  the  mediaeval  Church.  The  new 
teaching  struck  at  the  very  root  of  the 

Sapal  system  ,  for  its  essence  was  that  the 
our  had  come  when  a  new  dispensation, 
that  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  should  supersede 
the  provisional  Gospel  delivered  by 
Christ.  During  the  second  half  of  the 
13th  and  the  first  half  of  the  14th 
ceiitury  the  influence  of  these  ideas 
is  traceable  in  every  country  of  Christen- 
dom, and  it  was  only  the  unflinching 
action  of  the  Church  that  postponed  its 
disintegration  for  over  three  centuries. 
Numerous  sects  which  either  sprang 
from  or  were  quickened  by  this  move- 
ment speak  clearly  to  the  revolutionary 
fever  that  had  seized  on  men's  spirits 
and  was  impelling  them  to  other  ideals 
than  the  traditions  of  Rome.  Mainly 
the  offspring  of  the  third  order  of  St, 
Francis,  these  sects  swarmed  throughout 
every  Christian  country  under  the  names 
of  Beguins,  Bekhards,  Fratricelli,  Flagel- 
lants, Lollards,  Apostolic  Brethren,  etc., 
and  everywhere  spread  discontent  with 
the  existing  Church.  Even  John  Knox 
(in  answer  to  a  letter  by  James  Tyrie,  a 
Scottish  Jesuit)  claims  Joachim  of  Flora 
as  an  ally  in  the  work  which  it  was  the 
labor  of  his  own  life  to  achieve — the 
change  of  the  papacy,  and  the  promotion 
of  what  he  deemed  a  pure  Gospel. 

Simultaneously  with  this  manifestation 
of  revolutionary  feeling  there  were  tend- 
encies in  the  sphere  of  pure  thought  in 
essential  antagonism  to  the  teaching  of 
the  Church.  The  labor  of  the  thinkers 
of  the  Middle  Ages  was  to  reconcile 
faith,  as  inculcated  by  religious  author- 
ity, with  human  reason  as  they  found  it 
embodied  in  the  accessible  writings  of 
Aristotle.  In  the  13th  century,  the 
Arabic  texts  of  Aristotle,  and  notably 
that  of  the  great  commentator  Aver- 
rhoes,  made  their  way  into  the  Christian 
schools,  and  thenceforward  a  leaven  of 
skepticism  was  a  present  element  in  all 
the  universities  of  Europe.  As  a  result 
of  the  teaching  of  Averrhoes,  a  name  of 


the  most  sinister  import  to  every  true 
son  of  the  Church,  materialism  and  pan- 
theism became  common  creeds  among 
thinkers,  and  the  notion  spread  even 
among  intelligent  laymen  that  Christian- 
ity was  not  the  absolute  thing  the 
Church  had  taught  them  to  believe.  In 
Dante's  (died  1321)  fierce  exclamation 
that  the  knife  is  the  one  reply  to  him 
who  denies  the  immortality  of  the  soul  we 
have  the  outburst  of  a  passionate  faith 
in  presence  of  a  wide-spread  libertinism 
of  thought. 

But  the  most  serious  menace  against 
the  integrity  of  the  papal  system  lay 
in  the  political  development  of  Europe 
during  the  last  three  centuries  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  As  the  countries  of  west- 
ern Europe  became  more  and  more  in- 
dividualized, their  peoples  grew  every 
year  into  a  fuller  consciousness  of  dis- 
tinct national  interests  and  national 
ideals.  While  this  was  the  tendency  of 
the  various  nations,  the  Pope  during 
these  centuries  gradually  lost  his  position 
as  the  disinterested  umpire  of  Europe, 
and  sank  into  an  Italian  prince,  with  a 
temporal  policy  of  his  own  which  led 
him  to  seek  allies  among  other  poten- 
tates, as  they  fell  in  with  his  own  special 
ends  of  the  moment.  But  such  alliances 
naturally  gave  offense  to  the  princes  ex- 
cluded from  them,  and  led  to  a  sus- 
picious discontent  with  the  Roman  see, 
which,  as  was  afterward  proved  in  the 
case  of  England,  needed  only  the  requi- 
site occasion  to  flame  into  outright  re- 
bellion. The  saving  of  Philip  Augustus 
(died  1223)— "Happy  Saladin,  who  has 
no  Pope!" — expressed  the  feeling  which 
every  century  grew  stronger,  that  the 
Pope  would  become  an  impossible  factor 
in  European  politics.  To  this  feeling 
should  be  added  the  fact  that,  as  the 
middle  classes  grew  in  intelligence  and 
well-being  they  looked  with  en\'y  on  the 
immense  wealth  of  the  clergy,  and 
grumbled  at  the  large  sums  that  annu- 
ally went  to  the  coffers  of  Rome. 

During  the  14th  and  15th  centuries 
mediaevalism  gave  every  sign  of  a  har- 
monic phase  of  human  development.  By 
the  so-called  Babylonish  Captivity,  when 
the  papal  residence  was  fixed  for  70 
years  at  Avignon  (1305-1376),  and  by 
the  Great  Schism  (1378-1417),  during 
which  the  spectacle  was  seen  of  first 
two  and  afterward  three  Popes  claiming 
to  be  the  vicars  of  God  on  earth,  the 
papacy  suffered  a  loss  of  prestige  in  the 
eyes  of  all  Europe  which  it  never  after- 
ward fully  recovered.  It  was  the  fur- 
ther misfortune  of  the  Church  during 
this  eclipse  of  its  ancient  gloi*y  that 
spiritual  life  seemed  to  have  gone  out 
of  every  rank  of  its  clergy.  Testimonies 
from  every  country  prove  beyond  ques- 


BEFOBMATION 


470 


REFORMATION 


fion  that  by  the  end  of  the  15th  century 
the  clergy  had  become  often  illy,  some- 
times grossly,  unfit  to  be  the  spiritual 
guides  of  the  people.  The  sources  of  in- 
tellectual life  had  equally  failed  where- 
ever  the  old  philosophy  authorized  by 
the  Church  continued  to  be  the  subject 
of  teaching  and  study.  In  the  later  half 
of  the  15th  century  scholasticism  had 
become  the  veriest  casuistry  which  ever 
engaged  the  mind  of  man.  In  all  the  in- 
terests of  man's  well-being,  therefore,  a 
renaissance  was  needed  to  evoke  new 
motives  and  supply  new  ideals  which 
should  lift  humanity  to  a  higher  plane 
of  endeavor.  Such  a  renaissance  came 
and  evolutionally  the  Church  did  not 
prove  equal  to  suppressing  this  second 
burst  of  life  as  it  had  suppressed  that  of 
the  12th  and  13th  centuries. 

It  was  again  in  Italy  that  the  new 
life  first  declared  itself.  While  N.  of  the 
Alps  scholasticism  reigned  in  all  the 
schools,  the  movement  known  as  the 
Renaissance  had  in  Italy  been  in  full 
course  for  above  a  century.  In  itself 
the  Renaissance  was  as  far  as  possible 
from  leading  men  to  higher  ideals  in 
religion,  yet  in  two  of  its  results  it  gave 
a  direct  impetus  to  the  Reformation.  In- 
spired by  the  life  of  antiquity,  the  hu- 
manism of  the  Renaissance  paganized 
the  Church  and  quickened  that  moral 
disintegration  which  was  the  prime 
cause  of  the  religious  revolution.  On 
the  other  hand,  through  its  opening  of 
men's  minds  by  new  studies,  and  new 
rneasures  of  things,  the  Renaissance 
lightened  the  load  of  tradition,  and  made 
a  new  departure  in  the  life  of  Christen- 
dom a  less  formidable  conception.  In 
Erasmus  (1467-1536),  who  has  always 
been  regarded  as  a  true  nursing  father 
of  the  Reformation,  we  clearly  discern 
these  two  results  of  the  revival  of  the 
ancient  literatures.  In  so  many  words 
he  states  his  grave  fears  lest  the  Church 
should  be  wholly  paganized  by  the  uni- 
versal imitation  of  classical  modes  of 
thought  and  speech;  while  his  own  un- 
sparing criticism  of  the  Church  and  it3 
traditions  proves  how  much  he  owed  to 
the  so-called  "new  learning." 

The  very  zeal  with  which  the  revival 
of  antiquity  was  pursued  in  Italy  was 
itself  a  countercheck  to  religious  reform 
in  the  country  that  of  all  others  needed 
it  the  most.  All  contemporary  literature 
proves  that  during  the  later  part  of  the 
15th  and  the  opening  of  the  16th  century 
the  court  of  Rome  was  as  profoundly 
immoral  as  that  of  any  of  the  heathen 
emperors  had  been  in  the  same  city. 
The  spiritual  claims  of  the  papacy  were 
the  jest  of  ecclesiastics  themselves. 
"This  fable  of  Christ,"  a  certain  digni- 
tary of  the  Church  is  reported  to  have 


said  in  the  Vatican,  "has  been  to  us  a 
source  of  great  gain."  Among  the 
Italian  people,  however,  there  was 
never  the  slightest  indication  of  a 
national  movement  toward  any  serious 
breach  with  the  papacy.  The  religious 
melodrama  enacted  by  Savonarola  at 
Florence  (1489-1498)  never  struck  at  the 
central  ideas  of  papal  Christianity;  and 
Savonarola,  besides,  never  like  Luther 
or  Knox  woke  a  deep  response  in  the 
national  consciousness.  While  in  Italy, 
thei'ef ore,  there  was  no  widespread  re- 
ligious quickening  as  in  other  countries 
of  Christendom,  there  was  no  political 
reason  such  as  elsewhere  produced  a 
breach  with  the  papacy.  For  the  Italian 
people  the  Pope  was  not  a  foreign  prince 
with  temporal  interests  of  his  own  con- 
flicting with  those  of  the  nation  at  large. 
The  different  republics  which  partitioned 
the  country  might  at  times  regard  the 
Pope  as  an  enemy  to  their  individual 
ambitions ;  but  the  nation  as  a  whole  was 
fully  conscious  of  the  honor  of  having 
the  vicar  of  God  in  their  midst,  and  as 
in  the  past  they  had  stood  by  him  against 
the  emperors,  so  in  the  great  religious 
revolution  of  the  16th  century  they  also 
remained  faithful  to  him  throughout  the 
gradual  dismemberment  of  his  spiritual 
dominion. 

Of  the  countries  N.  of  the  Alps  Ger- 
many was  the  first  to  be  widely  influ- 
enced by  that  revival  of  learning  which 
had  its  origin  in  Italy.  In  Germany, 
however,  the  new  spirit  wrought 
under  fundamentally  different  con- 
ditions, and  lighted  the  way  to  vastly 
different  issues.  There  was  every 
reason  why  Germany  should  lead  the 
way  in  the  schism  from  Rome.  Outside 
Italy  Germany  was  the  country  where 
every  abuse  of  the  mediaeval  Church  was 
seen  in  its  fatalest  form.  The  ignorance 
and  sensuality  of  the  clergy,  the  scan- 
dalous sale  of  livings,  the  disproportion- 
ate papal  exactions — all  these  evils  came 
to  be  vividly  realized  by  the  quickened 
consciousness  of  the  nation.  Between 
Rome  and  Germany,  moreover,  an  an- 
tagonism existed  in  the  very  conditions 
from  which  mediaevalism  had  sprung.  It 
was  in  virtue  of  the  mutual  understand- 
ing between  Pope  and  emperor  that  the 
Church  came  to  fill  the  place  it  did  in 
western  Europe.  But  almost  from 
the  first  the  interests  of  Rome  and 
the  empire  had  been  in  collision,  so  that 
Pope  and  emperor  came  to  be  mere  rivals 
for  the  first  place  among  the  Western 
powers.  It  was  natural,  therefore,  that 
in  Germany  Rome  should  be  regarded 
with  a  jealousy  and  suspicion  which 
might  easily  grow  into  irreconcilable 
hostility. 
These  workings  of  the  national  mind 


REFORMATION 


471 


REFORMATION" 


found  intensified  expression  in  the  acts 
and  writings  of  Martin  Luther,  who, 
with  a  genius  and  audacity  which  have 
given  him  a  place  among  the  molders  of 
man's  destinies,  proclaimed  the  need  of  a 
new  departure  in  the  religious  life  of 
humanity.  In  rejecting  the  traditional 
claims  of  the  papacy  Luther  at  the  same 
time  supplied  a  new  principle  by  which, 
as  he  contended,  a  higher  and  truer  life 
of  the  soul  might  be  lived.  By  his 
doctrine  of  Justification  by  Faith  Luther 
threw  each  individual  on  his  own  re- 
sponsibility for  the  reason  and  life  which 
is  intrusted  to  hinv  Hitherto  the  deep- 
est concerns  of  men  had  been  inex- 
tricably bound  up  with  Pope  and 
priest,  and  in  this  had  lain  the  essen- 
tial principle  of  mediaeval  Christianity. 
By  the  new  principle  Luther  made 
the  Pope  no  longer  an  indispensable 
factor  in  individual  or  corporate  life, 
and  thus  initiated  a  new  phase  in  the 
development  of  society.  As  Avas  to  be 
expected,  this  principle,  so  organic  in  its 
working,  cleft  the  German  nation  in 
twain,  and  gave  rise  to  a  struggle  which 
did  not  close  till  more  than  a  century 
after  the  death  of  Luther  himself.  Lu- 
ther's attack  on  the  sale  of  indulgences 
(1517),  the  burning  of  the  papal  bull 
(1520),  Luther's  condemnation  by  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms  (1521),  his  temporary  triumph 
at  the  first  Diet  of  Spires  in  1526  (the 
beginning  of  modern  Germany,  accord- 
ing to  Ranke) ,  the  confession  of  the  Prot- 
estant faith  at  Augsburg  (1530),  are 
the  outstanding  events  in  the  contest 
closed  by  the  peace  of  Augsburg  in  1555, 
nine  years  after  Luther's  owti  death,  but 
again  renewed  in  the  disastrous  Thirty 
Years'  War  (1619-1648),  and  finally 
settled  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia 
(1648). 

The  religious  revolt  of  Germany  left  no 
iountry  of  Christendom  unmoved.  Be- 
fore the  16th  century  had  closed  the  bulk 
of  the  Teutonic  peoples  had  followed  her 
example  and  broken  with  the  papacy. 
Under  one  aspect,  indeed,  the  Reforma- 
tion may  almost  be  regarded  as  a 
Teutonic  revolt  against  the  domination 
of  the  Latin  races.  Between  1525  and 
1560  Denmark  and  Sweden,  taking  the 
occasion  of  a  political  revolution,  both 
declared  for  Protestantism;  and  in  1581, 
the  United  Provinces  definitively  threw 
off  their  double  allegiance  to  Spain  and 
the  Pope.  But  it  is  more  important  to 
trace  the  course  of  the  revolution  in  the 
great  powers  of  the  West. 

In  Spain  heresy  of  all  kinds  had  no 
chance  of  finding  a  home.  In  its  hated 
Inquisition,  reorganized  in  1478,  it  had 
an  institution  ready  made  for  effectually 
dealing  with  all  attempts  at  reform  or 


revolution.       Luther  found  followers  in 
Spain    as    in    other  countries;  but  they 
were  literally  extinguished  before  their 
voices   could   be   heard,   and   of   all   the 
great  powers  Spain  profited  least  by  tho 
evolutionary  spirit  of  the   Reformation. 
Much  more  interesting  and  important 
is    the    history    of   religious    reform    in 
France.     Between    1520    and    1530,    the 
period  of  Luther's  greatest  activity,  both 
renaissance    and    reform    found    a    firm 
footing  in  France,  and  so  many  circum- 
stances  seemed   to  favor  the   future   of 
both     that    for    a    time  it  was  doubtful 
with     which     side     the     victory     would 
eventually    lie.      On   the  one   side  was 
the  University  of  Paris,  which  through- 
out the  Middle  Ages  had  claimed  for  it- 
self the  right — denied  to  the  Pope  him- 
self-;—of  sovereign  decree  on  the  truth  or 
falsity  of  all  religious  doctrine.     As  its 
decrees  had  in  every  case  the  strenuous 
support  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  the 
university  was  a  formidable  force  to  be 
reckoned    with    by    every    innovator    in 
studies  or  religion.     In  1519  Luther's  dis- 
pute with  Eck  had  been  referred  to  the 
doctors  of  Paris  for  decision,  and  their 
judgment,    delayed    for   two   years,   had 
been  the  unqualified  censure  of  Luther's 
position.     Thenceforward  every  advocate 
of  the  new  religion,  and  they  daily  grew 
in  numbers,  especially  among  the  middle 
class,  both  in  Paris  and  in  the  provinces, 
was  pursued  by  the  fixed  disapproval  of 
the  Parliament  and  the  university.     On 
the  other  hand,  the  king    (Francis   I.), 
eagerly  encouraged  by  his  famous  sister, 
Margaret  of  Navarre,  who  herself  had 
strong  Protestant  leanings,  was  at  first 
disposed  to  use  the  new  religious  move- 
ment as   a  weapon  to  his  hand  in   his 
dealings    with    the   court   of    Rome.     In 
the    end    Francis    saw    that    separation 
from  Rome  meant  the  disruption  of  the 
French  nation,  and  after  1534  he  reso- 
lutely set  himself  to  the  extermination 
of  every  heretic  in  his  dominions.     His 
son    and    successor,    Henry    II.     (1547- 
1559),  carried  out  his  policy  with  even 
greater  rigor,  but  in  spite  of  all  efforts 
to  suppress  them  the  French  Protestants 
grew  into   a   body   formidable    alike   by 
their  position,  wealth,   and   intelligence. 
The    Huguenot   wars,    the    massacre    of 
St.  Bartholomew    (1572),  and  the  Edict 
of  Nantes    (1598),   are  the   outstanding 
events  of  this  long  struggle,  which,  in- 
volving    political    as    well    as    religious 
questions  of  the  first  importance,  threat- 
ened   the    very  existence  of   France  by 
suggesting'  to   Philip   II.   the   possibility 
of    annexing   the    divided    country   as   a 
province    of    Spain,      By    the    edict    of 
Nantes  the  French  Protestants  attained  a 
certain  measure  of  religious  freedom;  by 
its  revocation  in  1685  Protestantism  was 


REFORMATION 


472 


REFORMATION 


stamped  out  of  the  country,  and  France 
thus  deprived  of  the  most  divaricating 
elements  in  its  society. 

The  religious  revolution  in  Switzerland 
is  second  only  to  that  of  Germany  in 
its  direct  influence  on  the  subsequent  for- 
tunes of  the  European  nations.  In 
Switzerland  we  have  the  case  of  a  double 
revolt  from  Rome  springing  from  the 
same  conditions,  yet  each  having  a  char- 
acter and  an  animating  soul  of  its  own. 
At  Zurich,  as  early  as  1519,  and  inde- 
pendently of  Luther,  Ulrich  Zwingli, 
who,  according  to  Ranke,  combined  in 
himself  the  best  elements  of  renaissance 
and  reform,  gave  rise  to  a  movement 
ivhich  split  the  Swiss  cantons  into  two 
hostile  sections,  and  issued  in  the  peace 
of  Cappel  (1531),  which  permitted  to 
each  canton  the  choice  of  its  own  form 
of  faith.  More  important  than  the  move- 
ment of  Zwingli  at  Zurich  is  that  asso- 
ciated with  Calvin  and  Geneva.  As  in 
almost  every  other  case  of  revolt,  polit- 
ical considerations  wrought  with  reli- 
gious zeal  in  the  breach  of  Geneva  with 
Rome.  Before  1530  the  town  had  re- 
ceived the  new  religion  from  French 
refugees,  who  thus  gave  its  peculiar 
character  to  the  creed  eventually  asso- 
ciated with  Calvin  and  Geneva.  But  it 
was  in  the  successful  effort  of  the  town 
in  throwing  off  the  yoke  of  the  Catholic 
Dukes  of  Savoy  (1534)  that  it  found 
itself  forced  to  join  the  great  Protestant 
schism,  and  to  fashion  a  civil  and  re- 
ligious polity  compatible  with  an  inde- 
pendent corporate  life.  It  was  in  the 
accomplishment  of  this  task  that  Calvin 
proved  himself  the  great  consolidator  of 
the  tendencies  that  underlay  the  Prot- 
estant movement.  Inspired  by  Calvin, 
it  was  the  pre-eminent  destiny  of 
Geneva  at  once  to  produce  a  reasoned 
civil  and  religious  creed  and  a  type  of 
Christian  believer  that  offered  a  solid 
front  against  the  vast  powers  still  at  the 
command  of  the  Roman  see,  and  assured 
to  Protestantism  its  own  independent 
course  in  the  history  of  mankind. 

In  1532  the  schism  of  England  from 
Rome  also  becazne  an  accomplished  fact. 
In  this  result  had  issued  the  negotiations 
of  Henry  VIII.  with  Pope  Clement  VII. 
for  his  divorce  from  Catharine  of  Aragon. 
But  the  view  summed  up  in  Gray's  line, 
"And  gospel  light  first  dawned  from  Bul- 
len's  eyes,"  implies  a  totally  inadequate 
recognition  of  the  many  forces  that  went 
to  produce  the  English  Reformation. 
The  king's  divorce  was  the  mere  occa- 
sion of  what  must  sooner  or  later  have 
been  the  only  solution  of  England's  rela- 
tions with  the  papacy.  In  England  all 
the  forces,  in  greater  or  less  degree,  were 
at  work  which  had  produced  the  religious 
revolutions    in    Germany.       As  in   Ger- 


many, the  Church  alike  in  its  teaching 
and  practice  no  longer  represented  the 
highest  consciousness  of  the  nation.  It 
has  of  late  been  shown  that  its  degrada- 
tion was  far  from  being  so  general  or 
so  complete  as  the  official  reports  of 
Henry  had  seemed  to  prove;  yet  the 
state  to  which  it  had  come  was  clearly 
such  as  to  lend  some  countenance  to  the 
most  drastic  measure  against  it.  By  the 
end  of  the  15th  century,  also,  the  Renais- 
sance, which  was  everywhere  the  solvent 
of  tradition,  had  found  its  representa- 
tives in  England.  Linacre,  Grocyn,  Colet, 
and  Sir  Thomas  More  were  all  men  more 
or  less  emancipated  from  medisevalism, 
though  none  of  them  broke  communion 
with  Rome.  Both  More  and  Colet  spoke 
their  minds  freely  on  the  unworthy  lives 
of  the  clergy;  and  the  latter  by  his 
foundation  of  St.  Paul's  School  in  1510, 
and  by  his  placing  it  under  lay  super- 
vision, took  a  step  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance in  the  direction  of  the  new  order. 
But  it  is  in  the  political  development  of 
England  that  we  find  the  adequate  ex- 
planation of  her  final  breach  with  Rome. 
For  centuries  the  Pope  had  come  to  be 
more  and  more  regarded  as  a  foreign 
prince,  whose  powers,  as  he  claimed  the 
right  to  exercise  them  over  Englishmen 
and  English  property,  were  incompatible 
with  English  interests  and  English 
liberty.  When  Clement  VII.,  therefore, 
declared  against  the  divorce  from  Cath- 
arine, Henry  regarded  the  decision  not  ag 
the  oracle  of  Christendom,  but  as  the 
counsel  of  an  earthly  prince  whose  own 
interests  left  him  no  other  alternative. 

The  breach  with  Rome  was  thus  in- 
evitable. Henry  himself  to  the  close  of 
his  life  professed  to  have  broken  with 
the  old  only  in  the  one  point  of  the  head- 
ship of  the  Church.  In  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI.  a  clear  departure  was  made 
from  the  doctrinal  system  of  the  ancient 
Church;  but  the  temporary  reaction 
under  Mary  showed  how  strong  a  hold 
that  system  still  possessed  on  the  hearts 
of  the  people.  When  Elizabeth  came  to 
the  throne  in  1558  it  was  only  her 
prudent  policy  that  saved  the  country 
from  the  internecine  divisions  of  France 
and  Germany.  Three  parties  were 
equally  bent  on  realizing  their  own  con- 
ceptions of  a  religious  settlement.  The 
adherents  of  the  old  religion,  who  still 
probably  made  a  half  of  the  people,  had 
not  lost  hope  of  a  return  to  the  old 
spiritual  allegiance.  Those  who  had  re- 
nounced the  papacy  themselves  made  two 
distinct  parties,  each  bent  on  ends  so  con- 
flicting, that  it  was  evident  from  the  first 
that  they  could  never  work  in  common. 
The  governing  principle  of  the  one  party, 
from  which  eventually  sprang  the 
Church    of    England,    was    to   minimize 


REFORMATION 


473 


BEFOBMATION 


the  differences  between  the  old  faith  and 
the  new,  and  as  far  as  possible  to  main- 
tain the  continuity  of  the  religious  tradi- 
tion in  the  country.  The  other,  which 
drew  its  inspiration  from  Calvin  and 
Geneva,  and  was  afterward  known  as 
the  Puritan  party,  aimed  at  a  root  and 
branch  rejection  of  papal  Christianity, 
as  at  once  in  the  interest  of  what  they 
thought  a  purer  creed,  and  as  the  only 
safeguard  against  a  return  to  the  old 
constitution.  It  was  owing  to  her 
politic     handling     of     these     conflicting 

f)arties  that  at  Elizabeth's  death  Eng- 
and  was  of  one  mind  regarding  the 
question  of  the  papal  supremacy,  and 
that  the  severance  from  Rome  became 
a  definitive  fact  in  the  development  of 
the  country.  By  happy  turns  of 
events,  such  as  her  excommunication  by 
Pius  V.  in  1570,  and  by  the  extraordi- 
nary issue  of  the  Spanish  Armada  in 
1588,  not  only  was  the  number  of  Cath- 
olics reduced,  but  such  as  still  clung  to 
the  ancient  faith  thenceforward  put  their 
allegiance  to  their  native  prince  before 
any  claim  of  the  Roman  see.  It  was  this 
final  triumph  of  the  Protestant  revolution 
in  England  that  saved  the  movement  in 
all  the  other  countries  of  Europe. 

The  triumph  of  the  Protestant  move- 
ment in  Scotland  is  likewise  a  fact  of 
the  first  importance  in  European  history. 
In  Scotland  from  the  very  beginning 
of  Luther's  revolt,  we  find  the  presence 
of  the  same  elements  which  elsewhere 
led  to  revolution.  As  in  other  countries, 
the  Scotch  clergy  had  lost  the  respect  of 
the  country.  As  early  as  1525  Lutheran 
books  were  so  widely  read  that  an  act  of 
Parliament  was  passed  forbidding  their 
importation.  The  very  efforts  of  the 
Church  to  stamp  out  the  new  heresy,  as 
in  the  burning  of  Patrick  Hamilton  in 
1528,  and  of  George  Wishart  in  1546, 
served  only  to  hasten  the  turn  of  affairs 
which  it  had  dreaded.  Jealousy  of  the 
wealth  and  political  influence  of  the 
clergy  disposed  the  nobility  to  throw  in 
their  lot  with  the  party  of  revolution. 
When  in  1559  Knox  returned  from  his 
long  sojourn  abroad,  his  unflinching  zeal 
and  personal  force  supplied  the  momen- 
tum that  was  needed  to  complete  a  rev- 
olution already  in  full  course;  and  in  the 
following  year  Protestantism  was  for- 
mally established  as  the  religion  of  the 
country.  The  consequences  of  this  rev- 
olution extended  far  beyond  Scotland. 
Had  Mary  on  her  return  in  1561  found 
Scotland  united  in  the  Catholic  faith, 
she  would  have  commanded  the  destinies 
of  England.  Elizabeth  could  never  have 
effected  a  religious  settlement,  and.  with 
England  paralyzed.  Protestantism  could 
not  have  held  its  own  against  the  vnited 
forces  of  Catholicism. 


Thus,  by  the  middle  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, it  seemed  as  if  the  revolution  must 
sweep  all  before  it,  and  the  papal  system 
be  as  completely  effaced  by  Protestantism 
as  paganism  had  been  effaced  by  Chris- 
tianity. At  the  beginning  of  the  revolt 
the  authorities  of  the  ancient  Church 
did  not  fully  realize  that  the  forces  ar- 
rayed against  them  menaced  their  very 
existence.  When  the  true  extent  of  th€ 
danger  was  realized  the  Church  dis- 
played all  the  resources  of  an  institution 
whose  roots  were  in  the  Tery  heart  of 
Christendom,  and  which,  alike  by  its 
traditions  and  by  its  special  adapta- 
tions to  the  wants  of  the  human  spirit, 
appealed  to  the  deepest  instincts  of  a 
large  section  of  all  the  peoples  of  west- 
ern Europe.  The  Society  of  Jesus, 
founded  in  1540,  supplied  an  army  of 
enthusiasts,  whose  policy  and  devotion 
saved  Rome  from  dissolution.  By  the  de- 
crees of  the  Council  of  Trent  (1545- 
1563),  inspired  by  the  spirit  and  aims 
of  the  Jesuits,  the  Church  reaffirmed  its 
traditional  teaching,  conceding  nothing 
either  to  renaissance  or  reform;  and  a 
succession  of  Popes  during  the  later  half 
of  the  16th  century  carried  out  with  the 
zeal  worthy  of  the  better  ages  of  the 
papacy  the  policy  marked  out  for  them 
by  the  Jesuits.  Through  the  disunion  of 
the  Protestants  and  the  strenuous  efforts 
of  the  papacy,  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century  saw  the  tide  of  revolution 
checked;  and  in  certain  countries,  more 
especially  in  Germany,  the  Jesuits  even 
gained  ground  which  had  been  lost.  By 
the  close  of  the  same  century  Europe 
was  portioned  between  the  two  religions 
almost  by  the  same  dividing  lines  as 
exist  at  the  present  day. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  central  fact 
of  the  religious  revolution  of  the  16th 
century  was  the  severance  of  the  Prot- 
estant nations  from  the  Roman  see;  but 
the  great  schism  inevitably  led  to  issues 
of  which  the  Protestant  reformers  never 
dreamed,  and  which  they  would  have  de- 
nounced in  as  unqualified  terms  as  any 
theologian  of  the  medisval  Church.  The 
reform  of  religion  preached  by  Luther 
or  Calvin  implied  no  real  change  in  the 
modes  of  thought  that  distinguished 
mpdirevalism.  Their  theology  was  but 
another  form  of  scholasticism,  their  at- 
titude to  the  classical  tradition  or  to  any 
departure  from  their  own  conception  of 
the  scheme  of  things  was  precisely  that 
of  the  Schoolmen  trained  on  the  De- 
cretals and  Aristotle.  For  an  infallible 
Church  they  substituted  the  Bible  as 
the  unerring  expression  of  God's  re- 
lation to  man;  the  interpretation  of 
the  Bible  they  left  to  the  individual  con- 
sciousness. Thi'^  freedom  was  of  neces- 
sity only  nominal,  since  the  members  of 


BEFORMATORY    SCHOOLS 


474 


REFORMED    CHURCH 


any  Protestant  Church  were  members 
only  on  condition  of  their  accepting  the 
Church's  interpretation  of  the  contents 
of  the  Bible,  and  since  each  different 
Church  deemed  itself  the  special  deposi- 
tary of  the  only  true  conception  of  the 
perfect  will  of  God.  Nevertheless,  it 
was  from  this  attitude  of  the  Protestant 
reformers  to  the  Bible  that  the  develop- 
ments of  modern  thought  sprang.  A  re- 
former like  John  Knox  would  have 
stamped  out  every  form  of  thought  hos- 
tile to  his  own  synthesis  of  things  divine 
and  human;  but  it  was  not  in  the  power 
of  the  Protestant  system  to  do  what  had 
been  so  effectually  done  by  the  Church  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  mediaeval  con- 
ception Church  and  State  made  one 
organism;  what  menaced  the  life  of  the 
one  menaced  the  life  of  the  other.  Hence 
the  State  was  at  the  Church's  bidding 
whenever  its  arm  was  needed  to  deal 
with  any  suggestion  of  heresy.  But 
having  no  great  central  head,  such  an 
organic  union  was  impossible  for  any 
Protestant  Church,  and  religious  error 
could  not  be  regarded  as  a  crime  against 
the  existing  government.  So  complete 
was  the  revolution  wrought  by  this 
changed  relation  of  Church  and  State 
that  toleration  of  different  creeds,  and 
not  an  iron  uniformity,  was  in  time  seen 
to  be  the  indispensable  condition  of  civil 
society.  But  in  this  lies  the  fundamen- 
tal distinction  between  medisevalism  and 
the  modern  spirit.  Medievalism  rested 
on  the  belief  that  society  was  threatened 
if  any  of  its  members  questioned  the 
body  of  truth  of  which  the  Church  was 
the  custodian;  it  is  the  distinctive  prin- 
ciple of  the  modem  spirit  that  truth 
shall  be  followed  wherever  facts  are  be- 
lieved to  lead. 

REFORMATORY  SCHOOLS,  schools 
instituted  for  the  training  of  juvenile 
offenders  who  have  been  convicted  of 
an  offense  punishable  by  imprisonment. 
The  first  reformatory  managed  under 
legislative  control  was  the  one  estab- 
lished in  New  York  in  1824,  known  as 
the  New  York  House  of  Refuge.  Its 
success  was  so  marked  that  similar  in- 
stitutions were  established  throughout 
the  country.    See  Juvenile  Courts. 

REFORMED  CHURCH,  the  name 
given  first  to  the  Helvetic  Church,  which 
rejected  both  transubstantiation  and  con- 
substantiation,  regarding  the  communion 
as  simply  a  commemorative  ordinance. 
Afterward,  the  name  Reformed  Churches 
was  extended  to  all  other  religious  bodies 
who  held  similar  sacramental  views. 
The_  founder  of  the  Helvetic  Church  was 
Ulrich  Zwingli,  who  began  to  preach 
reformed  doctrines  in  1516.  Between 
1526  and  1532  the  movement  was  com- 


municated from  Berne;  it  was  at  once 
German  and  French,  and  extended  to  the 
center  of  Switzerland  from  the  gorges 
of  the  Jura  to  the  deepest  valleys  of  the 
Alps.  In  1532  Geneva  took  the  lead. 
Here  the  Reformation  was  essentially 
French.  The  first  or  German  part  of  the 
movement  was  conducted  by  Zwingli,  till 
his  death  at  the  battle  of  Cappel  (Oct. 
11,  1531),  the  second  by  various  reform- 
ers, the  third  part  by  William  Farel, 
and  then  by  John  Calvin. 

REFORMED  CHURCH,  a  religious 
body  in  the  United  States,  whose  desig- 
nation has  been  changed  from  that  of 
its  progenitor,  the  Reformed  Protestant 
Dutch  Church,  which  arose  in  the  Neth- 
erlands early  in  the  16th  century  and 
attained  its  form  and  organization  dur- 
ing the  struggle  against  Philip  II.  under 
the  leadership  of  the  princes  of  Orange. 
The  Church  was  introduced  into  America 
early  in  that  century.  Public  worship 
was  commenced  at  New  Amsterdam  in 
1643.  After  the  surrender  of  New 
Amsterdam  to  the  English  in  1664  the 
growth  of  the  Church  was  slow.  The 
Dutch  language  was  used  exclusively  in 
worship  down  to  1763.  About  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century  arose  the  noted 
coetus  and  conferentie  controversy, 
which  turned  on  the  question  of  depend- 
ence of  the  Church  of  Holland.  An  in- 
dependent Church  organization  was  ef- 
fected in  1771.  From  1817  to  1857  the 
Reformed  Church  co-operated  with  other 
bodies  in  supporting  foreign  missions; 
and  from  1836  with  the  American  Board. 
In  1857  an  amicable  separation  from  the 
latter  was  effected,  and  the  missions  of 
Amoy  and  Arcot  were  transferred  to  the 
Reformed  Church.  The  doctrinal  stand- 
ards of  the  Church  are:  (1)  the  Belgic 
confession  of  faith;  (2)  the  Heidelberg 
catechism;  (3)  the  canons  of  the  Synod 
of  Dort.  The  synod  of  1874  adopted  a 
revised  liturgy,  the  use  of  which  is 
optional.  _  The  government  of  the  Church 
is  according  to  the  Genevan  model.  The 
officers  are  ministers,  elders,  and  dea- 
cons, who  compose  the  consistory,  to 
which  the  government  of  the  individual 
church  belongs.  The  classis,  consisting 
of  the  ministers  within  a  certain  district 
and  one  elder  delegated  from  each 
church,  corresponds  to  the  presbytery  in 
the  Presbyterian  Church.  The  particu- 
lar synods,  of  which  there  are  four,  New 
York,  Albany,  New  Brunswick,  and  Chi- 
cago, are  delegated  bodies  composed  of 
four  ministers  and  four  elders  from  each 
classis  within  the  bounds  of  each  synod. 
These  are  courts  of  appeal  from  the  de- 
cisions of  the  classis.  The  general  synod 
is  the  highest  court  of  appeal,  and  exer- 
cises a  general  supervisory  power  over 


REFORMED  CHURCH 


476 


REFORMED  EPISCOPAL 


the  Church.  It  is  composed  of  three 
ministers  and  three  elders  from  each 
classis.  In  1867  the  word  "Dutch"  was 
dropped  from  the  corporate  name  of  the 
body.  "The  Christian  Intelligencer,"  a 
weekly  journal  devoted  to  the  interests 
of  the  Church,  was  established  in  New 
York,  1828.  There  are  two  theological 
seminaries,  one  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
the  other  in  connection  with  Hope  Col- 
lege, at  Holland,  Mich.  Statistics,  1919 : 
Churches,  708;  ministers,  756;  members, 
144,166. 

REFORMED  CHURCH  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES,  formerly  German 
Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America,  an  off-shoot  of  the  Reformed 
Church  of  Germany.  The  first  minister 
was  the  Rev.  George  Michael  Weiss,  who 
emigrated  with  about  400  people  of  the 
Palatinate  in  1727,  and  settled  in  Penn- 
sylvania, E.  of  the  Susquehanna.  In 
1746  the  Rev.  Michael  Schlatter  was 
commissioned  by  the  synods  of  north  and 
south  Holland  to  visit  their  German  mis- 
sions in  America,  and  regulate  their  rela- 
tions. He  assembled  in  Philadelphia  the 
first  sjmod  or  coetus  of  the  German  Re- 
formed Church,  1747.  The  German  Re- 
formed coetus  continued  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Church  of  Holland  till 
1793,  when  an  independent  synod  was 
formed.  It  increased  rapidly  in  mem- 
bership and  congregations.  The  first 
triennial  general  synod,  with  jurisdiction 
over  the  whole  Church,  met  in  Pitts- 
burgh, 1863.  The  general  synod  of  1869 
resolved  to  drop  the  word  "German" 
from  the  title  of  the  Church.  The  Heidel- 
berg catechism  is  the  only  standard  of 
doctrine.  The  worship  of  the_  Church  is 
liturgical;  its  government  is  presby- 
terian.  Reception  into  the  full  com- 
munion of  the  Church  takes  place  by  the 
rite  of  confirmation.  Christmas,  Good 
Friday,  Easter,  and  Whitsunday  are  ob- 
served with  much  solemnity.  Eleven 
English  and  five  German  papers  are 
published  in  the  interest  of  the  Church; 
and  there  are  16  theological  and  literary 
institutions  under  its  control.  Statistics, 
1919:  Churches,  1,731;  ministers,  1,242; 
members,  340,671. 

REFORMED  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH, 
a  denomination  organized  by  members 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  who 
give  substantially  the  following  state- 
ment of  the  events  and  circumstances 
which,  as  they  believe,  justify  their 
course:  (1)  The  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion in  England  had  outwardly  a  politi- 
cal origin  (in  the  act  of  the  king, 
Henry  VIII.,  renouncing  allegiance  to 
the  Pope,  and  proclaiming  himself  head 
of  the  English  Church),  by  which  the 
work  was  biased  and  cut  short.     During 


the  brief  life  of  the  young  king,  Edward 
VI.,   the  regent,   or   protector,   being  in 
favor  of  the  Reformation,  great  progress 
in  it  was  made.     Under   Mary  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Pope  was  again  acknowl- 
edged.    When    Elizabeth   became   queen, 
wishing  to   harmonize   her   divided   sub- 
jects, and  hoping  for  reconciliation  with 
Rome,    she    strove    to    have    the    liturgy 
framed    so   as    to   satisfy    both    parties. 
Consequently  it  contained  contradictory 
elements.     At  a  later   period,  when   she 
had  found  her  hope  futile,  the  articles  of 
faith  adopted  were  decidedly  Protestant. 
Thus  it  came  to  pass  that  in  the  Church 
of   England  two   parties   found   support 
in   her   ritual;    the   one    Protestant,   the 
other  having  an  affinity  with  Rcme.      (2) 
After    the    American    Revolution,    when 
the  Church  of  England   in  the  colonies 
became  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
of  the  United  Gtates,  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  having  been  adopted  with- 
out   material    alterations,    retained    its 
conflicting     elements.     (3)      The     Trac- 
tarian   movement,   which   began   at   Ox- 
ford, 1833,  was  a  successful  endeavor  to 
revive   the   principles    of   antiquity    and 
Catholicity  contained  in  the  prayer  book, 
in  opposition  to  its  Protestant  elements. 
It   discarded    Protestant   principles    and 
taught   the    doctrines    of    apostolic    suc- 
cession, priestly  absolution,  baptismal  re- 
generation,  the   real   presence,   and   the 
authority    of    the    Church.     (4)     These 
teachings  produced  a  powerful  effect  in 
the  United  States  also.     A  great  increase 
in   ritualism,    and   of   the    drift   toward 
Rome,   was   soon   manifested;   the   oppo- 
sition between  the  "High"  and  the  "Lo^v 
Church"    parties    was    intensified,    and 
practical  measures  were  adopted  by  each 
which  widened  the  chasm.      (5)    Several 
subsequent    public     events     fanned     the 
flame   of  discontent,  especially  the   cen- 
sure of  one  clergyman  for  preaching  in 
a  Methodist  Church,  and  the  suspension 
of  another  for   omittu.g   the   word   "re- 
generate" in  the    baptismal   office.      (6) 
Remonstrances  and  petitions   for  relief, 
which    were    numerously    and    urgently 
presented    to    the    General    Convention, 
produced  no  effect.      (7)  During  the  ses- 
sions of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  in  New 
York  in  October,  1873,  Bishop  Cummins 
of  the  diocese  of  Kentucky,  having,  by 
invitation,  officiated  at  a  union  celebra- 
tion of  the   Lord's   Supper,  in  company 
with  representatives  of  other  denomina- 
tions, was  for  this  act  of  Christian  fel- 
lowship   bitterly    censui'ed    through    the 
press  by  members  of  the  "High  Church" 
party.     After    this,    convinced    that    he 
could  no  longer  rightfully  continue  in  a 
church   whose   theory   and   practice    (as 
interpreted  by  the  majority  of  its  mem- 


EEFORMED    PRESBYTERIAN      476 


REFRACTION" 


bers)  denied  the  brotherhood  of  believ- 
ers in  Christ,  Bishop  Cummins  withdrew 
from  the  ministry  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church.  (8)  This  led  to  the  or- 
ganization, Dec.  2,  1873,  of  the  Reformed 
Episcopal  Church,  of  which  Bishop  Cum- 
mins and  the  Rev.  Dr.  Charles  E.  Cheney- 
were  elected  bishops.  At  the  same  time 
the  following  declaration  of  principles 
was  adopted:  I.  The  Reformed  Episco- 
pal Church  "holding  the  faith  once  de- 
livered to  the  saints"  declares  its  belief 
in  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  as  the  Word  of  God, 
and  the  sole  rule  of  faith  and  practice; 
in  the  creed  "commonly  called  the 
Apostles'  Ci*eed";  in  the  divine  institu- 
tion of  the  sacraments  of  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper;  and  in  the  doctrines 
of  grace  substantially  as  they  are  set 
forth  in  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  Reli- 
gion. II.  This  Church,  recognizes  and 
adheres  to  Episcopacy,  not  as  of  divine 
right,  but  as  a  very  ancient  and  desir- 
able form  of  Church  polity.  III.  This 
Church,  retaining  a  liturgy  which  shall 
not  be  imperative  or  repressive  of  free- 
dom in  prayer,  accepts  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  as  it  was  revised,  proposed, 
and  recommended  for  use  by  the  General 
Convention  of  the  Protestant  Church, 
1785;  reserving  full  liberty  to  alter, 
abridge,  enlarge,  and  amend  the  same  as 
may  seem  most  conducive  to  the  edifica- 
tion of  the  people,  "provided  that  the 
substance  of  the  faith  be  kept  entire." 
IV.  This  Church  condemns  and  rejects 
the  following  erroneous  and  strange 
doctrines  as  contrary  to  God's  word: 
(1)  That  the  Church  of  Christ  exists 
only  in  one  order  or  form  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal policy.  (2)  That  Christian  minis- 
ters are  "priests"  in  another  sense  than 
that  in  which  all  believers  are  "a  royal 
priesthood."  (3)  That  the  Lord's  table 
is  an  altar  on  which  the  oblation  of  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  is  offered  anew 
to  the  Father.  (4)  That  the  presence 
of  Christ  in  the  Lord's  Supper  is  a 
presence  in  the  elements  of  bread  and 
wine.  (5)  That  regeneration  is  insep- 
arably connected  with  baptism.  To  this 
statement  it  may  be  added  that  in  this 
Church  the  bishops  do  not  constitute  a 
separate  order,  but  are  presbyters;  in 
council  they  vote  with  and  as  their 
brother  presbyters,  and  are  subject  to 
confirmation  or  appointment  by  the 
general  council.  In  1919  the  denomina- 
tions had  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  11,217  communicants. 

REFORMED  PRESBYTERIAN 
CHURCH,  or  CAMERONIANS,  a  body 
of  Christians  who  profess  to  hold  the 
principles  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  at 
the  period  of  the  second  Reformation  be- 


tween 1638  and  1650.  They  claim  to  be 
the  legitimate  successors  of  that  section 
of  the  Covenanters  which  was  headed 
by  Cameron  and  Cargill,  who  consid- 
ered that  Charles  II.  had  forfeited  all 
title  to  their  allegiance,  having  broken 
the  solemn  vows  which  he  made  at  his 
coronation.  When  William  of  Orange 
was  called  to  the  throne  in  1688  they 
were  among  the  first  to  welcome  him; 
but  while  they  avowed  their  readiness  to 
yield  all  loyal  obedience  and  submission 
they  openly  declared  their  dissatisfac- 
tion with  the  Revolution  settlement.  In 
1690  Presbyterianism  was  established  in 
Scotland,  but  because  the  state  claimed 
a  certain  control  over  the  Church  this 
settlement  was  also  repudiated  by  the 
Reformed  Presbjiierians.  The  position 
which  the  sect  was  thus  compelled  to  oc- 
cupy was  that  of  dissenters  from  the 
Church  and  protesters  against  the  state. 
For  upward  of  16  years  after  they  had 
publicly  avowed  their  principles  they  re- 
mained in  an  unorganized  condition  and 
without  a  regular  ministry.  The  first 
who  exercised  this  office  was  the  Rev. 
John  McMillan,  who  in  1706  demitted  his 
charge  as  parish  minister  of  Balmaghie, 
and  in  1743  he  met  with  a  coadjutor  in 
the  Rev,  Thomas  Nairne,  whereupon 
these  two  constituted  a  Reformed  pres- 
bytery in  1743.  In  1810  three  presby- 
teries were  formed,  and  in  1811  a  synod 
was  constituted.  The  number  of  pres- 
byteries was  afterward  increased  to  six, 
and  the  number  of  ministers  rose  to 
about  40.  In  1876  a  large  portion  of 
them  united  with  the  Free  Church  of 
Scotland.  The  Reformed  Presbyterians 
in  the  United  States  in  1919  had  about 
10,000  members. 

REFRACTION.  When  a  beam  of 
light  traveling  in  a  transparent  medium, 
impinges  obliquely  upon  the  surface  of 
another  transparent  medium,  what  oc- 
curs in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  is  that 
a  part  of  it  is  reflected  (see  Reflection) 
and  a  part  of  it  enters  the  second  me- 
dium, but  in  so  doing  is  "refracted"  or 
bent  out  of  its  former  course.  If,  for 
example,  the  light  travel  in  air  and  im- 
pinge obliquely  on  glass,  the  course  of 
the  refracted  portion  is  bent  so  that  the 
refracted  light  travels  more  directly  or 
less  obliquely  through  the  glass;  and, 
conversely,  if  the  light  travel  in  glass 
and  impinge  on  an  air  surface,  the  por- 
tion which  is  refracted  into  the  air  vsdll 
travel  through  the  air  more  obliquely 
with  respect  to  the  refracting  surface 
than  the  original  light  had  approached 
it.  The  law  of  refraction  was  discov- 
ered by  Snell  in  1621,  and  is  the  follow- 
ing: The  refracted  ray  is  in  the  same 
plane  with  the  incident  and  the  reflected 


REFRACTION 


477 


REFRACTION 


ray,  and  is  therefore  in  the  "plane  of 
incidence,"  and  the  sine  of  the  angle  of 
incidence  bears  to  the  sine  of  the  angle 
of  refraction  a  ratio  which  remains  con- 
stant, for  any  two  media,  whatever  be 
the  angle  of  incidence. 

The  observed  fact  that  light  is  dif- 
ferently bent  in  its  course  by  different 
refracting  media  shows  that  there  is  a 
difference  between  bodies  in  their  power 
of  receiving  light  through  their  bound- 
ing surface.  Newton,  in  accordance 
with  his  corpuscular  theory,  interpreted 
this  as  showing  that  when  the  luminous 
corpuscles  come  very  near  the  surface 
of  a  denser  substance  they  are  as  it  were 
jerked  or  made  to  swerve  out  of  an 
oblique  path  and  hurried  in  by  the  at- 
traction of  the  denser  substance  so  as 
to  enter  that  substance  more  directly; 
and  that  when  the  light  quits  the  denser 
substance  it  is  retarded  by  a  similar  at- 
traction. The  consequence  of  this  would 
be  that  light  would  travel  in  the  denser 
medium  perhaps  not  appreciably  faster 
than  in  air,  but  with  a  mean  velocity 
certainly  not  less.  On  the  undulatory 
theory,  however,  refraction  is  a  neces- 
sary consequence  of  a  slower  travel  of 
ether-disturbances  in  the  denser  medium. 

When  a  spherical  wave  impinges  on  a 
plane  surface  it  is  modified  into  a  hyper- 
boloid,  the  center  of  curvature  of  the  cen- 
tral portion  of  which  is  farther  away 
than  or  nearer  than  the  center  of  the 
sphere  in  the  ratio  of  the  refractive  in- 
dex of  the  second  medium  to  that  of  the 
first.  An  eye  within  a  rarer  medium 
will  thus  see  the  image  of  a  point  situ- 
ated within  the  denser  medium  as  if  it 
were  nearer  than  it  really  is;^  hence  a 
stick  appears  bent  when  partly  immersed 
obliquely  in  water;  and,  owing  to  differ- 
ences in  the  amount  of  refraction  at  dif- 
ferent angles,  the  bottom  of  a  tank 
looked  down  upon  appears  sunk  in  the 
middle. 

Why  ether  disturbances  of  differing 
wave  lengths  are  differently  refracted  in 
such  a  medium  as  glass  is  not  yet  per- 
fectly clear.  The  fact  that  ether  dis- 
turbances of  grreater  frequencies  are 
propagated  more  slowly  through  opti- 
cally denser  matter  may  be  fairly  in- 
ferred to  arise  from  a  mutual  interac- 
tion of  the  ether,  periodically  stressed 
and  released,  and  the  matter  amid  whose 
molecules  the  disturbance  is  propagated. 
The  question  is  complicated  by  the  down- 
right absorption  or  non-transmission  of 
many  particular  wave  lengths,  and  by 
the  peculiar  behavior  of  some  particular 
transparent  substances  which  produce 
"anomalous  dispersion";  for  example, 
iodine  vapor  refracts  red  light  more  than 
blue,   and   blue   more   than   violet;    and 

*  Vol.  VII— Cyc 


fuchsine  refracts  blue  and  violet  light 
less  than  it  does  red,  orange,  and  yellow, 
while  it  absorbs  the  rest.  Further,  it  is 
found  that  in  these  cases  of  anomalous 
dispersion  the  substance  generally  has  in 
the  solid  form  a  surface  color  different 
from  that  seen  through  its  solution;  and 
there  are  always  absorption  bands,  on 
the  red  side  of  which  the  refrangibility 
is  increased,  while  on  the  other  side  it  is 
diminished,  as  if  the  molecules  them- 
selves took  up  oscillations  of  particular 
periods  and  hurried  on  the  propagation 
of  slightly  slower  or  retarded  that  of 
slightly  more  rapid  oscillations  of  the 
ether.  It  appears  as  if  this  kind  of  ac- 
tion were  never  wholly  absent;  the  spec- 
trum produced  by  a  prism  never  wholly 
coincides  with  the  diffraction  spectrum  in 
which  the  deviation  for  each  wave  length 
depends  directly  on  the  wave  length  it- 
self; and  the  spectrum  produced  by  a 
prism  say  of  crown  glass  does  not  ex- 
actly coincide  in  its  visible  distribution 
of  colors  with  a  spectrum  of  equal  length 
made  by  a  flint-glass  prism.  This  is 
called  the  "irrationality  of  dispersion.'* 
If  we  take  two  prisms,  one  of  crown, 
the  other  of  flint-glass  and  pass  a  beam 
of  light  through;  then,  if  the  angles  of 
these  prisms  be  suitable,  the  rays  dis- 
persed by  the  one  will  be  collected  by 
the  other,  and  there  will  on  the  whole 
be  deviation  wdthout  dispersion;  but  not 
absolutely  so,  on  account  of  the  irration- 
ality of  dispersion  of  both  prisms,  the 
effect  of  which  is  that  a  calculated  ratio 
of  angles  and  refractive  indices  which 
will  cause  deviation  without  dispersion 
for  any  given  pair  of  wave  lengths  will, 
to  a  very  slight  extent  in  most  cases, 
fail  to  do  so  for  the  other  wave  lengths 
present  in  the  mixed  light  transmitted 
through  the  system.  By  the  use  of  three 
prisms  three  wave  lengths  may  similarly 
be  achromatized. 

Double  Refraction. — The  wave  surface 
developed  when  a  disturbance  originates 
at  a  point  in  a  homogeneous  mediurn, 
like  glass,  is  spherical  in  form.  In  uni- 
axial crystals  the  disturbance  _  travels 
with  two  wave  fronts,  one  spherical,  the 
other  ellipsoidal;  and  the  two  wave 
fronts  are  coincident  along  the  directioa 
of  the  optic  axis.  Of  such  crystals  some 
are  "positive,"  such  as  quartz  and  ice, 
and  in  these  the  sphere  incloses  the  el- 
lipsoid; in  "negative"  crystals,  such  as 
Iceland  spar  and  tourmaline,  the  ellip- 
soid incloses  the  sphere.  In  biaxial 
crystals  the  three  optical  axes  are  dis- 
similar, and  the  wave  surfaces  become 
complex;  there  are  two  refracted  rays. 
If  a  doubly  refracting  substance  be  put 
between  two  crossed  Nicol's  prisms  light 
passes;  and  by  this  means  it  is  found 

31 


BEFBIGEBATION 


478 


BEFUGE,    CITIES    OF 


that  many  substances  ordinarily  not 
double  refracting  become  so  when  ex- 
posed to  unequal  stress,  as  by  pressure, 
heat,  or  rapid  cooling. 

Conical  Refraction. — In  certain  cases 
light,  passing  as  a  single  ray  through  a 
plate  of  a  biaxial  crystallized  body, 
emer<Tes  as  a  hollow  cone  of  rays;  and 
in  others  a  single  ray,  falling  on  the 
plate,  becomes  a  cone  inside  the  crystal, 
and  emerges  as  a  hollow  cylinder.  These 
extraordinary  appearances  were  pre- 
dicted from  the  wave  theory  of  light  by 
Sir  W.  R.  Hamilton,  and  experimentally 
realized  by  Lloyd.  See  Preston's 
"Theory  of  Light"  (1890). 

BEFBIGEBATION.  In  refrigerating 
machines  there  is  a  transference  of  heat 
from  the  substance  which  is  to  be  re- 
frigerated to  the  cooling  agent,  which  is 
evaporating  fluid,  expanding  gas,  or  a 
material  which  promotes  evaporation  of 
the  liquid  to  be  cooled.  If  80.025  pound- 
Centigrade  units  of  heat  be  withdrawn 
from  a  pound  of  water  at  0"  C.  it  will 
become  a  pound  of  ice  of  the  same  tem- 
perature. If  this  heat  be  withdrawn 
from  the  water  by  an  evaporating  liquid 
there  are  two  conditions  which  must  be 
fulfilled;  the  evaporating  liquid  must 
evaporate  very  rapidly,  and  the  latent 
heat  of  evaporation  (i.  €.,  the  heat  ab- 
sorbed from  outside  during  evaporation) 
must  be  as  great  as  possible.  Ether 
boils  at  35.5°  C.  (95.9°  F.),  and  has  at 
0°  C.  (32°  F.)  a  vapor-pressure  of  18.4 
cm.  (7.36  inches)  of  mercury;  at  0°  C. 
it  requires  94-pound-Centigrade  units  of 
heat  to  evaporate  a  pound  of  it;  and  at 
that  temperature  its  evaporation  ought 
accordingly  to  be  able,  if  the  whole  of 
the  heat  required  for  evaporation  were 
withdrawn  from  water,  to  free  94  -4- 
80.025  times  its  weight  of  water  at 
0°  C,  so  that  a  ton  of  ice  (2,240  pounds) 
would  be  produced  by  the  evaporation 
at  0°  C.  of  a  minimum  of  1,907  pounds 
of  ether.  Liquid  ammonia  boils  at 
--35°  C.  (—31°  F.),  and  has  at  0°  C. 
a  vapor-pressure  of  318  cm.  (127.2 
inches),  or  more  than  four  atmospheres; 
it  is  thus  extremely  rapidly  volatilized 
at  0°  C;  and,  as  its  latent  heat  of  evap- 
oration is  as  much  as  294,  the  produc- 
tion of  a  ton  of  ice  would  thus  only  de- 
mand the  evaporation  of  a  minimum  of 
610  pounds  of  liquid  ammonia.  Ma- 
chines for  using  ether  have  been  con- 
structed by  Siebe,  Duvallon,  Lloyd,  Miihl 
and  others.  The  ether  is  caused  to  evap- 
orate rapidly  by  an  air  pump  or  pumps 
worked  by  steam;  it  cools  brine  or  a 
solution  of  calcium  chloride,  and  this 
cools  the  water  to  be  frozen  or  the  air 
to  be  refrigerated;  the  ether  vapor  is 
condensed  by  pressure  and  cold  and  used 


over  again.  Ammonia  was  first  used 
by  Carre  in  1860;  ammonia  gas  driven 
off  by  heat  from  its  solution  in  water  is 
condensed  in  a  cooled  vessel  under  its 
own  pressure;  the  original  ammonia  ves- 
sel is  now  cooled,  and  the  liquid  ammonia 
rapidly  evaporates  (its  vapor  being  ab- 
sorbed), chilling  its  surroundings.  An- 
hydrous liquid  ammonia  has  been  used  by 
Reece  and  others. 

The  Bell-Coleman  apparatus,  greatly 
employed  for  producing  cold  dry  air  for 
use  in  the  refrigerating  chambers  of 
dead-meat-carrying  steamers,  the  prin- 
ciple is  that  compressed  and  cooled  air 
will,  when  allowed  to  expand  against  an 
external  resistance,  so  that  it  does  me- 
chanical work  during  expansion,  lose 
heat  equivalent  to  the  energy  which  it 
has  expended. 

Porous  jars,  used  to  keep  water  cool, 
are  among  the  simplest  kinds  of  refrig- 
erating apparatus;  the  evaporation  at 
the  outer  surface  of  the  jar  of  the 
water  passing  through  the  porous 
earthenware  taking  latent  heat  from 
the  water. 

BEFBIGEBATOB,  that  which  refrig- 
erates, cools,  or  allays  heat.  Specifically 
applied  to:  Brewing:  An  apparatus 
consisting  of  a  shallow  vat  traversed  by 
a  continuous  pipe,  through  which  a 
stream  of  cold  water  passes.  Steam: 
(1)  The  casing  with  connecting  tubes, 
through  which  feed-water  passes  on  its 
way  to  the  boiler,  and  is  warmed  by  the 
current  of  hot  brine  passing  in  the  other 
direction,  on  the  outside  of  the  tubes. 
The  hot  brine,  at  a  temperature  of  say 
218°  F.,  is  that  which  has  been  removed 
from  the  boiler  by  the  brine  pump.  (2) 
A  form  of  condenser,  in  which  the  injec- 
tion water  (fresh)  is  cooled  by  a  surface 
application  of  cold  sea  water.^  A  chest 
or  closet  holding  a  supply  of  ice  to  cool 
provisions  and  keep  them  from  spoiling 
in  warm  weather. 

BEFTJGE,  that  which  shelters  or  pro- 
tects from  danger,  distress,  or  calamity; 
a  sanctuary;  a  place  to  flee  to  in  time  of 
danger.  Specifically,  an  institution  for 
affording  temporary  shelter  to  the 
destitute  or  the  homeless;  a  house  of 
refuge. 

BEFTJGE,  CITIES  OF,  in  Jewish  law 
and  history,  six  Levitical  cities  divinely 
appointed  as  places  of  refuge  to  one  who 
had  committed  manslaughter,  and  was 
pursued  by  the  "Revenger"  or  "Aven- 
ger" of  Blood.  Three  (Kedesh  Naph- 
tali,  Schechem,  and  Hebron)  were  W. 
of  the  Jordan,  and  three  (Bezer  in  Reu- 
ben, Ramoth  Gilead  in  Gad,  and  Golan 
in  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  were  E.  of 
that  river. 


REFUGEE 


479 


BEGGIO 


REFUGEE,  a  word  that  probably 
came  into  existence  when  the  Protestants 
under  Louis  XIV.  escaped  from  their  op- 
pressors to  other  lands.  It  is  applied 
also  to  one  who  takes  refuge;  one  who 
flees  to  a  place  of  refuge  or  shelter,  and 
to  one  who  flies  for  refuge  in  time  of 
persecution  or  political  commotion  to  a 
foreign  country. 

REGALECUS,  the  deal-fish;  a  genus 
of  acanthopterygian  fishes;  division 
Tseniiformes.  Each  ventral  fin  is  re- 
duced to  a  long  filament,  dilated  at  the 
extremity,  somewhat  like  the  blade  of  an 
oar,  whence  they  have  been  called  oar 
fishes.  Range  wide;  they  have  been 
taken  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  Atlantic 
and  Indian  Oceans,  and  on  the  coast  of 
New  Zealand. 

REGELATION,  the  union,  by  freez- 
ing together,  of  two  pieces  of  ice,  with 
moist  surfaces  when  placed  in  contact 
at  a  temperature  of  32°.  A  snowball  is 
formed  by  the  regelation  of  the  particles 
composing  it,  so  are  the  snow  bridges 
spanning  chasms  on  high  mountains. 
See  Glacier. 

REGENERATION,  in  biology,  the 
genesis  or  production  of  new  tissue  to 
supply  the  place  of  an  old  texture  lost 
or  removed.  In  some  of  the  inferior  ani- 
mals an  organ  or  a  limb  can  thus  be  sup- 
plied; in  man  regeneration  is  much  more 
limited  in  its  operation.  Thus,  when  a 
breach  of  continuity  takes  place  in  a 
muscle,  it  is  repaired  by  a  new  growth 
of  connective  tissue,  but  muscular  sub- 
stance like  that  lost  is  not  restored. 
Nerve,  fibrous,  areolar,  and  epithelial 
tissues  are  more  easily  repaired.  In 
Scripture,  regeneration  is  the  state  of 
being  born  again,  i.  e.,  in  a  spiritual 
manner.  The  word  regeneration  (Greek 
■paling enesia)occnrs  twice  in  the  Author- 
ized Version  and  Revised  Version  of  the 
New  Testament.  In  Matt,  xix:  28,  if 
connected,  as  seems  natural,  with  the 
words  which  follow,  not  with  those 
which  precede  it.  it  refers  to  the  renova- 
tion or  restoration  of  all  things  which 
shall  take  place  at  the  second  advent  of 
Christ.     The  other  passage  is: 

"Not  by  works  done  in  righteousness  which 
we  did  ourselves,  but  according  to  his  mercy  he 
saved  us  through  the  washing  [margin,  laverl 
of  regeneration  and  renewing  of  the  Holy 
Ghost."— Titus    iii:    5    (R.    V.). 

The  doctrine  of  regeneration  was  for- 
mally expounded  by  Jesus  in  his  inter- 
view with  Nicodemus  (John  iii:  1-10). 
All  theologians  consider  the  Holy  Spirit 
the  author  of  regeneration.  Two  views 
exist  as  to  the  relation  between  baptism 
and  the  new  birth.  One  considers  the 
water  in  John  iii:   5,  and  the  washing 


or  laver  of  Titus  iii:  5,  to  be  that  of 
baptism,  and  that  the  administration  of 
the  rite  of  baptism  is  immediately  fol- 
lowed or  accompanied  by  what  is  called 
in  consequence  "baptismal  regeneration." 
The  other  view  is  that  the  water,  wash- 
ing and  laver,  in  these  passages,  are  but 
figurative  allusions  to  the  power  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  in  removing  the  corruption 
of  the  heart,  and  that  regeneration  is 
effected,  quite  independently  of  baptism, 
by  the  Holy  Spirit  alone. 

REGENSBURG.      See  RatisboN. 

REGENT,  one  invested  with  vicarious 
authority,  one  who  governs  a  kingdom 
during  the  minority,  absence,  or  disabil- 
ity of  the  sovereign.  In  hereditary  gov- 
ernments the  regent  is  usually,  but  not 
necessarily  or  always,  the  nearest  re- 
lative who  is  capable  of  undertaking  the 
office.  Also  a  member  of  a  governing 
board;  a  trustee;  as  the  Regents  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  at  Washington, 
etc.  Also  a  member  of  one  of  the  Eng- 
lish universities,  having  certain  duties 
of  instruction  or  government.  At  Cam- 
bridge the  regents  are  all  resident  mas- 
ters of  less  than  four  years'  standing, 
and  all  doctors  of  less  than  two  years 
standing.  At  Oxford  the  period  of  re- 
gency is  shorter.  Masters  and  doctors 
of  a  longer  standing,  who  keep  their 
names  on  the  college  books  are  termed 
non-regents.  At  Oxford  the  regents 
compose  the  congregation,  by  whom  de- 
grees are  conferred,  and  the  ordinary 
business  of  the  university  transacted. 
Together  with  the  non-regents  they  com- 
pose convocation.  At  Cambridge  the  re- 
gents compose  the  upper,  and  the  non- 
regents  the  lower  house  of  the  senate  or 
governing  body. 

REGENT  BIRD,  the  Sericidm  chryso- 
cephalus,  a  bower  bird  of  beautiful  plum- 
age. In  the  adult  male  it  is  golden  yel- 
low and  rich  velvet  black;  the  female  is 
of  more  sober  hue,  all  the  upper  surface 
being  deep  olive  brown.  The  normal 
number  of  eggs  is  apparently  two,  that 
number  of  young  birds  having  been  re- 
peatedly found.  It  is  sometimes,  but  er- 
roneously, called  the  regent  oriole. 

REGGIO  (Reggio  di  Calabria),  a  sea- 
port and  province  of  south  Italy;  on  the 
Strait  of  Messina;  9  miles  S.  E.  of  the 
city  of  Messina.  It  is  the  seat  of  an 
archbishop,  and  has  a  fine  cathedral. 
Manufactures  of  silks,  perfumes,  gloves, 
stockings,  and  caps — the  last  three  made 
from  the  byssus  of  the  Pinna  iq.v.)  — 
fruits,  \vine,  and  olives  are  cultivated, 
and  fishing  is  carried  on.  Pop.  province, 
about  475,000;  city,  about  45,000.  The 
ancient  Rhegium  was  founded  by  Greeks 
8th  century  B.  C.    It  was  taken  and  de- 


BBOOIO 


480 


BEGISTRATION 


stroyed  by  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  (387 
B.  C),  the  Romans  (270),  Alaric  (A.  D. 
410),  Totila  (549),  the  Saracens  (918), 
and  captured  by  Robert  Guiscard  (1060), 
Pedro  of  Aragon  (1282),  and  the  Gari- 
baldians  (1860).  In  1783  and  1908  it 
was  ruined  by  an  earthquake. 

BEGGIO  (Reggio  nell*  Emilia),  a  city 
and  province  of  central  Italy;  on  the 
ancient  Via  Emilia  (Emilian  Road) ;  17 
miles  S.  E.  of  Parma;  still  surrounded 
with  walls.  It  has  a  good  cathedral  of 
the  15th  century,  a  natural  history  and 
an  antiquarian  museum,  etc.  There  are 
manufactures  of  silk,  hemp,  turnery, 
leather,  etc.,  and  carry  on  considerable 
trade,  especially  in  timber.  Reggio  is 
the  birthplace  of  Ariosto.  During  the 
later  Middle  Ages  it  was  an  independent 
city,  but  was  subject  to  the  D'Estes  from 
1409  onward.  The  bishopric  was 
founded  in  450.  Pop.  province,  about 
330,000;   city,  about  75,000. 

REGICIDES,  the  men  who  were  ap- 
pointed on  the  Parliamentary  committee 
to  try  King  Charles  I.,  but  in  a  narrower 
sense  the  men,  67  in  number,  who  actu- 
ally sat  in  trial  on  him.  Of  these  only 
59  signed  the  death  warrant.  After  the 
Restoration  the  regicides  were  brought 
to  trial  on  a  charge  of  high  treason. 
Twenty-nine  were  condemned  to  death, 
but  only  10  were  executed,  19,  together 
with  six  others  who  were  not  tried,  be- 
ing imprisoned,  most  of  them  for  life. 
More  than  20  who  were  already  dead 
were  tried  and  condemned,  notwithstand- 
ing, and  Cromwell,  Ireton,  and  Brad- 
shaw,  three  of  them,  were  exhumed  and 
hanged  at  Tyburn,  and  then  reburied  at 
the  foot  of  the  scaffold.  For  regicides 
in  a  wider  xise  of  the  term,  see  Assassi- 
nation. 

REGILLUS,  LAKE,  a  body  of  water 
which  lay  in  Latium,  to  the  S.  E.  of 
Rome,_  probably  near  the  modern  Fras- 
cati;  it  is  celebrated  in  the  semi-legen- 
dary history  of  Rome  as  the  scene  (496 
B.  c.)  of  a  great  battle  between  the  Ro- 
mans and  the  Latins,  fighting  on  behalf 
of  the  banished  Tarquins,  in  which  the 
latter  were  entirely  defeated. 

REGINA,  city  and  capital  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Saskatchewan;  formerly  capital 
of  the  Northwest  Territories,  Canada ;  on 
the  Canadian  Pacific,  Canadian  National, 
and  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  railroads, 
356  miles  W.  of  Winnipeg.  Here  are  the 
government  buildings  and  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  Mounted  Police  and  of  the 
Indian  Department.  The  town  contains 
churches  representing  the  Anglican, 
Baptist,  Methodist,  Presbyterian,  and 
Roman  Catholic  bodies.  It  is  steadily 
growing  in  importance  as  a  manufactur- 


ing and  trade  center.  Louis  Riel,  the 
half-breed  insurgent,  was  executed  here 
in  1885. 

Regina  nobly  responded  to  the  call  for 
troops  in  1914 — sending  4  battalions  as 
fighting  units  to  the  front  and  thousands 
as  re-enforcements.     Pop.  about  40,000. 

REGIOMONTANUS,  a  German  as- 
tronomer, whose  real  name  was  Johann 
Miiller;  born  in  Konigsberg  (in  Latin 
Regiomontum,  whence  came  his  name), 
in  Franconia,  June  6,  1436.  He  was 
educated  at  Leipsic;  studied  mathematics 
at  Vienna;  accompanied  Cardinal  Bes- 
sarion  to  Rome,  where  Beza  gave  him 
further  instructions  in  Greek  literature, 
which  enabled  him  to  complete  a  new 
abridgment  in  Latin  of  the  Almagest  of 
Ptolemy.  In  1471  he  built  an  observa- 
tory at  Nuremberg,  but  he  returned  to 
Rome  on  the  invitation  of  Sixtus  IV., 
who  employed  him  in  the  reformation  of 
the  calendar.  His  "Kalendarium  No- 
vum" (New  Calendar)  is  believed  to  be 
the  first  almanac  issued  in  Europe.  He 
died  July  6,  1476. 

REGISTER,  a  device  for  automatically 
indicating  the  number  of  revolutions 
made  or  amount  of  work  done  by  ma- 
chinery; or  recording  steam,  air,  or  wa- 
ter pressure,  or  other  data,  by  means  of 
apparatus  deriving  motion  from  the  ob- 
ject or  objects  whose  force,  distance,  ve- 
locity, direction,  elevation,  or  numerical 
amount  it  is  desired  to  ascertain.  There 
are  various  special  appliances  of  this 
kind,  each  particularly  adapted  for  the 
peculiar  operation  which  is  to  be  in- 
vestigated; many  depending  on  the  ac- 
tion of  clock-work  mechanism,  others,  as 
in  registering  meteorological  instru- 
ments, having  means  for  recording  vary- 
ing conditions,  as  with  the  anemometer, 
barograph,  etc.  In  music,  the  compass 
of  a  voice  or  instrument,  or  a  portion  of 
the  compass  of  a  voice;  as,  the  upper, 
middle,  or  lower  register.  Also,  an  or- 
gan stop,  or  the  knob  or  handle  by  means 
of  which  the  performer  commands  any 
given  stop.  In  printing,  the  agreement 
of  two  printed  forms  to  be  applied  to  the 
same  sheet,  either  on  the  same  or  the 
respective  sides  thereof.  The  former  is 
used  in  chromatic  printing,  where  a  num- 
ber of  colors  are  laid  on  consecutively. 

REGISTRATION,  a  modern  social  or 
civil  system  pertaining  to  births,  mar- 
riages, and  deaths,  variously  regulated 
in  different  countries.  In  England,  par- 
ish registers  of  baptisms,  marriages,  and 
burials  were  instituted  by  Lord  Crom- 
well while  he  was  vicar-general  to  Henry 
VIII.,  and  subsequently  regulated  by 
various  acts  of  Parliament.  No  thor- 
ough   system,    however,   existed    till    in 


jREGNAL    YEARS 


481 


KEHAN 


1836  a  Registration  Act  was  passed  ap- 
plicable to  England  and  Wales,  which 
has  buen  amended  by  subsequent  acts. 
In  the  United  States,  there  is  no  national 
law  on  the  subject,  such  regulations  be- 
ing made  by  States,  municipalities,  or 
religious  bodies. 

REGNAL  YEARS,  the  years  a  sov- 
ereign has  reigned,  numbered  succes- 
sively, and  used  for  chronological  pur- 
poses, as  in  the  enumeration  of  acts  of 
Parliament,  The  practice  of  dating  a 
new  reign  from  the  day  following  the 
last  of  the  late  king's  reign  has  generally 
been  adopted  since  the  reign  of  Richard 
II.,  but  before  this  time  a  reign  was 
generally  considered  to  begin  with  some 
act  of  sovereignty. 

REGNAULT,  ALEXANDRE 
GEORGES  HENRI,  a  French  painter; 
born  in  Paris,  Oct.  30,  1843,  the  son  of 
Henri  Victor  Regnault  (q.v.).  His 
aptitude  for  drawing  manifested  itself 
very  early,  and  he  was  continually 
sketching  the  animals  in  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes.  He  studied  art  under  Lamothe 
and  Cabanel;  and,  after  two  unsuccess- 
ful attempts,  gained  the  prix  de  Rome 
(the  Rome  prize)  in  1866.  He  executed 
there  a  remarkable  portrait  of  Madame 
Duparc,  and  his  historical  subject  of 
"Automedon  Breaking  the  Horses  of 
Achilles,"  and  drew  on  wood  illustra- 
tions for  Way's  "Rome."  In  1869  he 
painted  an  equestrian  portrait  of  Gen- 
eral Prim,  now  in  the  Louvre,  and  in 
1870  "The  Execution  Without  Judgment 
Under  the  Moorish  Kings  of  Granada'* 
to  be  found  in  the  same  collection. 
Other  works  of  1870  are  "Judith"  and 
"Salome."  He  returned  to  Paris  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War; 
and  though  exempt  from  military  serv- 
ice, he  volunteered  as  a  private  soldier, 
and  was  killed  at  Buzenval,  Jan.  19, 
1871. 

REGNAULT,     HENRI     VICTOR,     a 

French  scientist;  born  in  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle,  Prussia,  July  21,  1810.  A  shopman 
in  a  Paris  bazaar,  he  entered  the  Poly- 
technic School,  and,  after  the  two  years' 
course,  came  out  as  a  mining  engineer. 
He  became  a  professor  in  Lyons,  whence, 
in  1840,  he  was  recalled  to  Paris  as  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  in 
consequence  of  some  important  discov- 
eries in  organic  chemistry.  He  filled 
chairs  in  the  Polytechnic  School  and  the 
College  of  France,  and  became  in  1854 
director  of  the  imperial  porcelain  manu- 
factory of  Sevres.  He  devoted  himself 
to  the  determination  of  important  physi- 
cal data,  the  Royal  Society  of  London 
awarded  him  their  Rumford  medal  and 
the  Copley  medal  (1869) .  He  published  an 


"Elementary      Course      in      Chemistry" 
(1871).     He  died  Jan.  20,  1878. 

REGULAR  CLERGY,  the  term  ap- 
plied in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to 
priests  who  have  taken  the  vows,  and 
who  are  bound  to  follow  the  rules  of 
some  monastic  order,  as  opposed  to  the 
secular  clergy,  that  is  parish  priests,  etc., 
not  connected  with  any  of  the  orders. 

REGULUS,  a  term  in  metallurgy,  now 
used  in  a  generic  sense  for  metals  in 
different  stages  of  purity,  but  which  still 
retain,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  the 
impurities  they  contained  in  the  state 
of  ore. 

REGULUS,  the  star  Alpha  Leonis,  the 
brightest  in  the  constellation  of  the  Lion. 

REGULUS,  MARCUS  ATTILIUS,  a 
Roman  general,  celebrated  for  his  pa- 
triotism and  devotion  in  the  service  of 
his  country.  Made  consul  a  second  time 
about  256  B,  c,  with  his  colleague,  Man- 
lius  Vulso,  he  commanded  in  the  first 
war  against  Carthage.  Taken  prisoner 
by  the  Carthaginians,  he  was  sent  to 
Rome  with  an  embassy,  that  peace  might 
be  procured,  and  bound  himself,  by  an 
oath,  to  return  if  the  terms  were  rejected. 
He  considered  it  his  duty  to  advise  the 
continuance  of  the  war;  which,  being 
determined  on,  no  entreaties  could  pre- 
vent him  from  fulfilling  his  solemn  en- 
gagement; and  the  Carthaginians,  on 
his  return,  put  him  to  a  cruel  death. 

REGULUS,  or  RULE,  ST.,  according 
to  legend,  a  monk  of  Constantinople  or 
Bishop  of  Patras,  who  in  A.  D,  347,  came 
to  Muckross  or  Kilrimont  (afterward  St. 
Andrews) ,  bringing  relics  of  St.  Andrew 
to  Scotland  from  the  East. 

REGURGITATION,  the  flowing  back 
into  the  vessels  of  the  heart  of  the  blood 
which  had  just  left  them.  It  is  the  re- 
sult of  valvular  disease  of  the  heai-t.  It 
is  of  three  kinds:  aortal,  mitral,  and 
tricuspid  regurgitation. 

REHAN  (originally  Crehan),  ADA, 
an  American  actress;  born  in  Limerick, 
Ireland,  April  22,  1860.  In  1865  she 
came  with  her  parents  to  the  United 
States.  She  first  appeared  on  the  stage 
in  Newark,  N.  J.,  when  14  years  old. 
In  1879  she  joined  Augustin  Daly's  com- 
pany. She  frequently  played  before 
London  audiences,  and  also  in  France 
and  in  Germany.  Miss  Rehan  created 
over  40  roles  in  comedy.  Among  her 
best  kno\vn  personations  are  Katherine, 
in  "The  Taming  of  the  Shrew";  Rosa- 
lind, in  "As  You  Like  It";  Viola,  in 
"Twelfth  Night";  Maid  Marian,  in  "The 
Foresters";  etc.  She  only  acted  occa- 
sionally after  1889.     Died  1916. 


£EICHE17B£B.G 


482 


BEID 


REICHENBERG,  the  chief  seat  of  the 
cloth  manufacture  in  north  Bohemia;  on 
the  Neisse  river;  52  miles  N.  E.  of 
Pragxie.  Some  10,000  workmen  are  em- 
ployed; cotton  and  woolen  fabrics,  ma- 
chinery, and  leather  are  manufactured. 
The  cloth  industry  was  establised  here 
in  the  16th  century.     Pop.  about  40,000. 

BEICHSRATH,  the  representative 
council  of  the  former  Empire  of  Austria. 
See  Austria. 

REICHSTADT,  NAPOLEON  FBAN- 
COIS   CHABLES  JOSEPH,   DUKE  DE. 

See  Napoleon  II. 

BEICHSTAG,  under  the  empire,  the 
representative  legislative  body  of  the 
German  nation  as  a  whole,  as  the  Bun- 
desrath  was  of  the  separate  German 
states.  The  president  of  the  Reichstag 
was  elected  by  the  deputies.  See  GER- 
MANY. 

EEID,  GEOBGE,  a  Scotch  artist;  born 
In  Aberdeen,  Scotl'^nd,  Oct.  31,  1841. 
After  having  been  trained  as  a  lithog- 
rapher, he  studied  art  in  Edinburgh, 
Utrecht,  Paris,  and  The  Hague.  In  1891 
he  became  president  of  the  Royal  Scot- 
tish Academy.  He  is  most  widely  known 
by  his  portraits.  He  was  also  noted  as 
a  flower  and  landscape  painter  and  a 
book  illustrator.    Died  1913. 

BEID,  SIB  GEOBGE  HOUSTOUN,  an 

Australian  political  leader,  born  in  Scot- 
land in  1845  and  died  in  Australia  in 
1918.  In  1852  his  family  emigrated  to 
Australia  and  he  entered  the  government 
service  there  when  he  was  nineteen  years 
old.  In  1880,  after  having  served  in 
the  colonial  legislature  of  New  South 
Wales,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  in- 
struction, a  position  he  occupied  but  a 
few  months.  From  1894  to  1899  he  was 
premier  of  New  South  Wales,  and  later 
when  the  Commonwealth  was  formed  be- 
came prime  minister,  championing  the 
cause  of  free  trade.  Defeated  in  1905, 
he  continued  to  lead  his  party  for  three 
years  afterward,  when  he  retired  from 
active  politics. 

BEID,  MAYNE,  a  British  novelist; 
born  in  north  Ireland^  in  1818.  His 
love  of  adventure  took  him  to  Mexico  and 
then  to  the  United  States,  where  he  trav- 
eled extensively  as  hunter  or  trader;  he 
joined  the  United  States  army  in  1845 
and  fought  in  the  Mexican  War.  He 
afterward  returned  to  London,  where  he 
became  well  known  as  a  writer  of  thrill- 
ing juvenile  stories.  Among  the  num- 
ber are  the  "Rifle  Rangers,"  "Scalp 
Hunters,"  the  "War  Trail,"  the  "Head- 
less Horseman,"  the  "White  Chief,"  etc. 
He  died  near  London,  Oct.  22,  1883. 


BEID,  OGDEN  MILLS,  an  American 
newspaper  editor  and  owner,  son  of 
Whitelaw  Reid.  Born  in  New  York  in 
1882  he  graduated  from  Yale  University 
in  1904  and  then  went  to  Bonn  Univer- 
sity, Germany.  In  1908  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  but  soon  afterward 
joined  the  editorial  staff  of  the  New 
York  "Tribune."  In  1913  he  succeeded 
his  father  as  editor  of  the  paper. 

BEID,  THOMAS,  a  Scotch  philoso- 
pher; born  in  Strachan,  Scotland,  April 
26,  1710.  He  was  educated  at  Maris- 
chal  College,  Aberdeen,  and  in  1737  was 
presented  to  the  living  of  New  Machar 
in  Aberdeenshire.  His  first  philosophi- 
cal work  was  an  "Essay  on  Quantity" 
(1748).  In  1752  the  professors  of 
King's  College,  Aberdeen,  elected  Reid 
Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  that 
college;  and  in  1764  he  published  his 
well-known  work,  "An  Inquiry  Into  the 
Pluman  Mind  on  the  Principles  of  Com- 
mon Sense."  The  same  year  he  suc- 
ceeded Adam  Smith  as  Professor  of 
Moral  Philosophy  in  Glasgow  Univer- 
sity, a  position  which  he  occupied  till 
1781.  His  other  writings  are  "Essays 
on  the  Intellectual  Powers  of  Man,"  and 
"Essays  on  the  Active  Powers  of  the 
Human  Mind."  His  philosophy  was  di- 
rected against  the  principles  and  infer- 
ences of  Berkeley  and  Hume,  to  which 
he  opposed  the  doctrine  of  common  sense. 
He  died  Oct.  7,  1796. 

BEID,  SIB  WEMYSS,  an  English 
journalist;  born  in  Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
in  1842.  He  contributed  largely  to  Eng- 
lish reviews  and  magazines,  and  pub- 
lished: "Cabinet  Portraits:  Sketches 
of  Leading  Statesmen  of  Both  Parties" 
(1872);  "Charlotte  Bronte:  A  Mono- 
graph" (1877) ;  "Politicians  of  Today" 
(1879);  "A  Memoir  of  John  Deakin 
Heaton"  (1883);  "Gladys  Fane:  A 
Story  of  Two  Lives"  (1883)  ;  "Maulever- 
er's  Millions"  (1885);  "Life  of  William 
Edward  Forster"  (1888).  He  was  edi- 
tor of  the  "Speaker"  from  its  founda- 
tion till  1899.  He  was  knighted  in  1894, 
and  died  in  1905. 

BEID,  WHITELAW,  an  American 
editor;  born  in  Xenia,  O.,  Oct.  27,  1837. 
He  was  graduated  at  Miami  University 
in  1856;  was  on  the  editorial  staff  of 
several  leading  Ohio  papers;  in  1869  be- 
came managing  editor  of  the  New  York 
"Tribune,"  and,  after  1872,  editor-in- 
chief  and  in  financial  control.  He  twice 
declined  appointment  as  minister  to  Ger- 
many; and  was  minister  to  France  in 
1889-1892,  where  he  negotiated  valuable 
reciprocity  treaties.  In  1892  he  was  the 
unsuccessful  Republican  candidate  for 
Vice-President.     He      represented      the 


BEIGATE 


483 


BEINDEER    MOSS 


TJniterf  States  as  special  ambassador  at 
Queen  Victoria's  jubilee  in  1897;  mem- 
ber of  the  American-Spanish  Peace  Com- 
mission in  1898;  special  ambassador  of 
the  United  States  at  the  coronation  of 
King  Edward  VII.  in  1902,  and  am- 
bassador 1905-1912.  He  is  author  of: 
"Ohio  in  the  War"  (1868);  "Schools  of 
Journalism"  (1871)  ;  "The  Scholar  in 
Politics"  (1873) ;  "Some  Consequences  of 
the  Last  Treaty  of  Paris"  (1899) ;  "Our 
New  Duties"  and  "Later  Aspects  of  Our 
New  Duties"  (1899);  "Our  New  Inter- 
ests" (1900)  ;  "Problems  of  Expansion" 
(1900).    Died  in  1912. 

REIGATE,  a  thriving  market-town 
of  Sux'rey,  England;  21  miles  S.  of  Lon- 
don. Of  the  castle  of  the  Earls  of  War- 
renne  little  remains  save  a  grassy 
mound.  The  church  contains  the  grave 
of  Lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  and  a  li- 
brary (1701)  with  some  curious  MSS. 
and  many  of  Evelyn's  books.  Foxe,  the 
martyrologist,  lived  here,  and  here  Arch- 
bishop Usher  died.     Pop.  about  30,000. 

REIGN  OF  TERROR,  a  period  of  the 
French  Revolution,  conspicuous  for  its 
horrors  and  cruelties.  It  is  generally 
considered  to  extend  from  Jan.  21,  1793, 
the  date  of  the  execution  of  Louis  XIV., 
to  July  28,  1794,  when  Robespierre  and 
other  sanguinary  leaders  were  guillo- 
tined on  the  spot  where  their  victims 
had  been  killed. 

REIMS.     See  Rheims, 

REINAOH,  JOSEPH,  a  French  states- 
man and  journalist.  Born  in  1856,  he 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Paris 
and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1877.  From 
1881-1882  he  was  private  secretaiT  to 
Gambetta.  In  1886  he  became  part 
owner  of  a  newspaper  called  "Republique 
Fran^aise."  Three  years  later  he  was 
chosen  as  a  Liberal-Republican  member 
of  the  House  of  Deputies.  He  took  a 
great  interest  in  the  defense  of  Dreyfus 
and  has  published  an  authoritative  his- 
tory of  the  case.  So  bitterly  did  he 
wage  war  in  behalf  of  his  republican 
ideas  that  he  was  at  one  time  expelled 
from  his  captaincy  in  the  army  and  de- 
prived of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

REINDEER,  the  Rangifer  tarandus, 
the  only  domesticated  species  of  the 
family.  It  extends  over  the  boreal  re- 
gions of  both  hemispheres,  and  runs  into 
several  well  marked  varieties.  Many 
authors  consider  the  American  reindeer 
or  caribou,  which  has  never  been  domes- 
ticated, as  a  distinct  species.  The  rein- 
deer formerly  had  a  much  wider  geo- 
graphical range,  and  is  probably  the 
bos  cervi  figura  described  by  Caesar  as 
inhabiting  the  Hercynian  forests,  prob- 


ably when  the  European  winters  were 
much  severer  than  now.  Both  the  male 
and  female  have  antlers,  and  these  are 
not  alike  on  both  sides,  the  great  pal- 
mated  brow  antler  being,  as  a  rule,  de- 
veloped on  one  side  only.  In  the  winter 
the  fur  is  long,  grayish  brown  on  the 
body;  neck,  hind-quarters,  and  belly 
white.  In  summer  the  gray  hair  dark- 
ens into  a  sooty  brown,  and  the  white 
parts  become  gray.  To  the  Laplander 
the  reindeer  is  the  only  representative  of 
wealth,  and  it  serves  him  as  a  substi- 
tute for  the  horse,  the  cow,  the  sheep, 
and  the  goat.  It  is  extensively  employed 
as  a  beast  of  draught  and  carriage, 
being  broken  to  draw  sledges,  or  to 
carry  men  or  packages  on  its  back-     A 


REINDEER 

full-grown  animal  can  draw  a  weight  of 
300  pounds,  and  travel  at  the  rate  of  100 
miles  a  day,  its  broad  deeply  cleft  hoofs 
fitting  it  admirably  for  traveling  over 
the  broken  snow.  In  winter  the  herds 
feed  in  the  woods  on  the  lichens  which 
hang  from  the  trees;  in  summer  they 
seek  the  mountains  in  order  to  escape 
the  mosquitoes  and  gad-flies.  In  1891 
domestic  reindeer  were  introduced  into 
Alaska  by  Dr.  Sheldon  Jackson  for  the 
benefit  of  the  natives  who  frequently 
suffered  for  food,  and  for  purposes  of 
transportation.  In  1898  Dr  Jackson,  as 
agent  of  the  United  States  Government, 
procured  a  colony  of  Laplanders  to  train 
the  natives  in  the  care  of  the  reindeer. 

REINDEER  MOSS,  a  lichen,  the 
Cenomyce  rangifei-ina,  or  ^  Cladonia 
rangiferina,  which  forms  the  winter  food 
of  the  reindeer.  It  is  abundant  in  the 
pine  forests  of  Lapland,  and  flourishes 


BEINHABT 


484 


BELAPSING    FEVER 


even  when  they  have  been  burnt.  Rein- 
deer feed  upon  it  and  dig  for  it  when 
it  is  covered  by  snow.  It  tastes  like 
wheat  bran,  but  leaves  a  slightly  burn- 
ing sensation  on  the  palate.  It  is  the 
badge  of  the  clan  Mackenzie.  See 
Lichens. 

REINHART,  CHARLES  STANLEY, 
an  American  artist;  born  in  Pittsburgh, 
Pa.,  May  16,  1844;  went  to  Paris  in 
1867,  where  he  studied  at  the  Atelier 
Suisse,  and  to  Munich  in  1868,  where  he 
attended  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1870 
he  entered  the  publishing  house  of  Har- 
per &  Brothers,  New  York  City,  remain- 
ing there  till  1876.  After  five  years  of 
independent  art  work  he  returned  to 
Harpers  in  1881,  and  in  the  same  year 
went  to  Paris  where  he  resided  till  1886. 
He  exhibited  in  Paris,  Munich,  and  New 
York  City.  His  paintings  include  "Sep- 
tember Morning";  "Coast  of  Nor- 
mandy"; "In  a  Garden";  and  "Washed 
Ashore."  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Aug.  30,  1896. 

REINITE,  a  tetragonal  mineral  oc- 
curring in  octahedrons.  Hardness,  4.0; 
sp.  gr.,  66.40;  luster,  dull;  color,  blackish- 
brown;  streak,  brov/n,  opaque.  Compo- 
sition: Tungstic  acid,  76.31;  protoxide 
of  iron,  23.68  =  99.99;  formula  as  in 
Wolframite,  FeWO*.  Found  at  Kim- 
bosan,  Kei,  Japan. 

REINSCH,  PATJL  SAMUEL,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  in  1869;  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Wisconsin  in  1892  ana 
at  its  Law  Department  in  1894.  After 
studying  abroad,  he  was  Professor  of 
Political  Science  at  the  University  of 
Wisconsin  1899-1913.  Minister  to  China 
1913-1919.  Publications  include  "The 
Common  Law  in  the  Early  American 
Colonies"  (1899) ;  "World  Politics  at 
the  End  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  as 
Influenced  by  the  Oriental  Situation" 
(1900)  ;  "Colonial  Government"  (1901)  ; 
"Colonial  Administration"  (1905) ;  "In- 
tellectual Currents  in  Far  East"  (1911). 

REIS  (ra'is),  a  Turkish  title  for 
various  persons  of  authority,  as  for  in- 
stance the  captain  of  a  ship.  Reis  Ef- 
fendi  was  formerly  the  title  of  the  Turk- 
ish chancellor  of  the  empire  and  minister 
of  foreign  affairs. 

REISNER  WORK,  a  kind  of  inlaid 
cabinet  work,  on  the  principle  of  Buhl 
iq.v.),  but  differing  in  being  composed 
of  woods  of  contrasted  color;  named  af- 
ter its  inventor,  Reisner,  a  German  work- 
man in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV. 

REITHRODON,  a  genus  of  Murinas, 
with  three  species:  Reithrodon  cunicu- 
loides,  the  rabbit-like   Reithrodon,  from 


Patagonia;  R.  typicus,  from  La  Plata; 
and  R.  chinchilloides,  from  the  Straits 
of  Magellan.  The  profile  is  arched,  the 
eyes  large,  ears  hairy,  first  and  fifth 
toes  of  hind  feet  very  short,  upper  in- 
cisors grooved.  The  first  species  was 
discovered  by  Darwin.  Fur  yellowish 
gray,  mixed  with  black,  throat  and  belly 
pale  yellow,  rump  and  feet  white;  length 
of  head  and  body  about  seven  inches, 
tail  half  as  much  more. 

REJANE,  GABRIELLE,  the  stage 
name  of  Charlotte  Reju,  an  actress  on 
the  French  stage.  Born  in  Paris  in 
1857,  she  entered  at  the  Vaudeville  in 
1875  and  became  popular  because  of  her 
impersonations.  In  1893  Victorien  Sar- 
dou  wrote  his  "Madame  Sans  Gene,"  with 
Rejane  in  mind  for  the  title  role.  She 
gained  a  tremendous  success,  and  ap- 
peared in  it  in  London  and  in  the  United 
States.  In  1905  she  founded  the  Theatre 
Reiane.     She  died  in  1920. 

RELAPSING  FEVEK  (also  known  as 
Famine  Fever  and  Seven-day  Fever), 
one  of  the  three  great  species  of  con- 
tinued fever,  the  two  others  being  typhus 
and  typhoid.  It  was  first  definitely  dis- 
criminated from  these  diseases  by  Dr. 
Henderson  of  Edinburgh  and  other 
Scotch  physicians  about  1842.  During 
the  19th  century  it  was  met  with  in  Ire- 
land, Scotland,  England,  in  central  and 
eastern  Europe,  the  countries  surround- 
ing the  Levant,  north  Africaj  India, 
China,  and,  though  never  extensively,  in 
North  America.  Relapsing  fever  usu- 
ally begins  suddenly  with  rigors,  a  sense 
of  chilliness,  and  frontal  headache. 
There  is  severe  aching  pain  in  the  joints 
and  muscles,  and  gTcat  sleeplessness;  but 
delirium,  if  present  at  all,  usually  comes 
on  only  toward  the  end  of  the  first  week. 
After  the  above-described  symptoms  have 
lasted  for  a  period  varying  from  five  to 
eight  days,  generally  on  the  seventh  day 
a  sudden  change  takes  place.  This  crisis 
commences  with  a  copious  perspiration, 
which  is  followed  by  a  rapid  falling  of 
the  pulse  and  temperature  to  or  below 
the  normal,  and  the  patient  appears 
nearly  well.  But  from  the  fifth  to  the 
eighth  day  of  this  seeming  convalescence 
a  sudden  relapse  occurs,  and  all  the  pri- 
mary symptoms  return;  these  often  run 
a  rather  shorter  course  than  before,  and 
again  terminate  in  sweating  and  in  a 
second  convalescence,  which  is  in  most 
cases  permanent.  The  relapse  some- 
times, however,  occurs  three  or  even 
four  times.  Death  is  a  rare  termina- 
tion of  relapsing  fever;  except  enlarge- 
ment of  the  spleen.  One  form  of  the 
disease,  however,  is  much  more  severe, 
and  very  often  fatal.  It  was  originally 
described  as  a  distinct  disease  under  thg 


BELATIVITY  OF  KNOWLEDGE      485 


BELEASE 


name  of  bilious  typhoid,  and  is  character- 
ized by  more  marked  implication  of  the 
digestive  organs,  by  the  constant  pres- 
ence of  jaundice,  and  by  absence  or  in- 
complete development  of  the  crisis  and 
intermission.  It  has  now  been  shown  to 
be  really  identical  with  relapsing  fever 
proper.  Relapsing  fever  is  generally 
met  with  among  those  living  under  un- 
favorable hygienic  conditions;  it  is  spe- 
cially apt  to  attack  a  population  suffer- 
ing from  insufficient  nourishment  (hence 
the  name  famine  fever),  and  is  seldom 
met  with  among  the  upper  classes,  or 
among  Europeans  residing  in  the  tropics, 
unless  they  are  brought  closely  in  con- 
tact with  the  sick.  At  the  same  time 
it  is  very  infectious,  spreading  either 
directly  from  the  patient  to  doctors, 
nurses,  etc.,  or  from  clothes  and  bedding 
to  washerwomen,  who  have  suffered  se- 
verely  in   some  epidemics. 

BELATIVITY  OF  KNOWLEDGE,  a 
philosophical  doctrine  that  is  almost 
a  commonplace  in  some  philosophical 
schools,  and  is  as  strenuously  denied  by 
others.  It  is  connected  primarily  with 
the  contrast  between  the  absolute  and 
the  relative,  or  the  noumenon  and  phe- 
nomenon, and  is  one  phase  of  the  great 
discussions  as  to  the  relation  of  knowl- 
edge to  reality.  In  its  modern  form  the 
doctrine  has  obtained  currency  chiefly 
through  the  speculations  of  Kant,  Ham- 
ilton, and  Herbert  Spencer.  Knowledge 
evidently  implies  a  knower  and  a  rela- 
tion between  the  knower  and  the  object 
known.  Hence  it  is  argued  that  the  ob- 
ject is  conditioned  by  the  relation  into 
which  it  is  brought;  merely  by  becoming 
an  object  the  thing  as  it  is  in  itself  un- 
dergoes a  change  or  accommodation. 
Our  knowledge  therefore  can  never  yield 
us  the  reality  of  things — the  noumenon 
or  thing-in-itself — but  only  the  phenome- 
non, the  thing  as  it  appears  to  us.  Or, 
as  it  is  otherwise  expressed,  in  being 
known  the  object  must  conform  to  the 
nature  of  the  knowing  faculty;  the  men- 
tal constitution  or  organization  of  the 
knower;  we  cannot,  therefore,  conclude, 
says  Hamilton,  that  the  properties  of  ex- 
istence are  known  "in  their  native  purity 
and  without  addition  or  modification 
from  our  organs  of  sense,  or  our  ca- 
pacities of  intelligence."  Hamilton's 
general  conclusion  is:  "Of  things  abso- 
lutely or  in  themselves,  be  they  external 
or  be  they  internal,  we  know  nothing,  or 
know  them  only  as  incognizable;  and  we 
become  aware  of  their  incomprehensible 
existence  only  as  this  is  indirectly  or  ac- 
cidentally revealed  to  us,  through  certain 
qualities  related  to  our  faculties  of 
knowledge.  All  we  know  is  therefore 
phenomenal,     phenomenal     of    the     un- 


known." This  is  adopted  by  Spencer, 
and  made  the  basis  of  his  theory  of 
knowledge,  or  rather  of  what  Ferrier 
would  have  called  his  agnoiology,  his  doc- 
trine of  our  necessary  ignorance:  "The 
reality  existing  behind  all  appearances 
is,  and  must  ever  be,  unknown."  In 
Kant  a  similar  doctrine  is  associated 
with  the  asserted  subjectivity  of  the 
forms  of  space  and  time;  but  it  is  also 
based  on  the  broader  consideration  that 
perception  can  give  us  "only  the  rela- 
tion of  an  object  to  the  subject,  not  the 
inward  essence  which  belongs  to  the  ob- 
ject in  itself."  The  empirical  .schools, 
which  resolve  our  knowledge  into  im- 
pressions of  sense  manipulated  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  association,  likewise 
accept  in  its  widest  sense,  as  J.  S.  Mill 
points  out,  the  doctrine  of  "the  entire 
inaccessibility  to  our  faculties  of  any 
other  knowledge  of  things  than  that  of 
the  impressions  which  they  produce  in 
our  mental  consciousness."  But,  inas- 
much as  they  in  many  cases  profess  a 
skeptical  idealism  which  denies,  or  leaves 
doubtful,  the  existence  of  any  reality  be- 
yond the  states  of  consciousness,  their 
views  are  less  usually  associated  with 
the  term. 

The  doctrine  is  frequently  based  on 
the  large  extent  to  which  sensation  en- 
ters into  all  our  knowledge.  In  the 
structure  of  their  sense  organs  different 
living  creatures  differ  appreciably,  and 
there  will  be  a  corresponding  difference 
in  the  image  of  the  world  which  they 
make  to  themselves.  The  knowledge  of 
every  being,  it  is  argued,  is  thus  ine\'it- 
ably  conditioned  by  its  organization,  and 
there  is  no  possibility  of  arriving  at  an 
objective  criterion.  Man,  in  the  Protag- 
orean  formula,  is  the  measure  of  all 
things;  but  he  measure  them  only  as 
they  seem  to  him.  Such  a  formula  may 
be  interpreted  either  in  a  sensational- 
istic  and  individualistic  fashion,  as  seems 
to  have  been  done  by  Protagoras,  or  in 
a  rationalistic  and  humanistic  fashion, 
as  is  seen  in  Kant.  The  case  for  the 
relati\'ity  of  knowledge  will  be  found 
strongly  put  in  Sir  W.  Hamilton's  "Dis- 
cussions and  Lectures  on  Metaphysics," 
in  Dean  Mansel's  "Bampton  Lectures," 
and  in  Herbert  Spencer's  "First  Pi-in- 
ciples," 

RELEASE,  a  discharge  of  a  right;  an 
instrument  in  writing,  by  which  estates, 
rights,  titles,  entries,  actions,  and  other 
things  are  extinguished,  and  di.scharged, 
and  sometimes  transferred,  abridged,  or 
enlarged;  and,  in  general,  a  person's  giv- 
ing up  or  discharging  the  right  or  action 
he  has,  or  claims  to  have,  against 
another  or  his  lands.  In  mechanics,  the 
opening  of  the  exhaust  port  of  the  steam 


RELICS 


486 


RELICS 


engine,  before  the  stroke  is  finished  to 
lessen  the  back  pressure. 

RELICS,  personal  memorials  of  those 
among  the  dead  who  have  been  distin- 
guished during  life  by  eminent  qualities: 
especially,  in  the  history  of  the  Church, 
objects  which  derive  their  value  from 
their  connection  with  our  Lord  and  with 
the  saints;  as,  for  example,  fragments 
of  our  Lord's  cross  or  crown  of  thorns, 
portions  of  the  dust,  the  bones,  the 
blood,  the  instruments  of  torture,  the 
chains,  etc.,  of  the  martyrs,  the  mortal 
remains,  the  clothes,  the  books,  and  other 
objects  of  personal  use  of  the  other 
saints.  With  them  may  be  grouped  ob- 
jects to  which  a  certain  indirect  sacred 
interest  is  given  by  their  being  brought 
into  contact  with  the  direct  memorials 
of  the  distinguished  dead,  as  by  their 
being  placed  on  the  tombs  of  the  martyrs, 
touched  with  the  relics,  or  blessed  at  the 
shrine  or  sanctuary  of  the  saints,  etc. 
Reverence  for  relics  developed  with  the 
increasing  honor  that  ivas  paid  to 
martyrs. 

The  earliest  monuments  of  Christian 
history  contain  evidences  of  the  deep 
and  reverential  affection  with  which 
martyrs  of  the  faith,  their  mortal  re- 
mains, and  everything  connected  with 
their  martyrdom  were  regarded  by  their 
fellow  Christians,  and  for  which  Roman 
Catholics  profess  to  find  warrant  in 
many  passages  of  the  Old  and  of  the 
New  Testament,  as  Ex.  xiii:  19;  II 
Kings  xiii:  21;  and  xxiii:  16-18;  Matt. 
ix:  20-22;  Acts  v:  12-16,  and  xix:  11, 
12.  The  letter  of  the  Church  of  Smyrna 
attests  this  plainly  as  to  the  martyrdom 
of  Polycarp;  Pontian's  "Life  of  Cyprian" 
tells  of  their  stealing  the  martyr's  body, 
and  carrying  it  away  by  night  in  holy 
triumph.  The  Apostolic  Constitutions 
bear  witness  to  the  honors  paid.  Mir- 
acles, too,  are  described  as  connected 
with  relics.  Thus,  Ambrose  tells  of  a 
blind  man's  sight  being  restored  by  his 
touching  the  bodies  of  the  martyrs  Ger- 
vasius  and  Protasius;  and  similar  won- 
ders are  detailed  by  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
Chrysostom,  and  Leo  the  Great;  so  that 
the  possession  of  relics  of  the  martyrs, 
and  even  the  occasional  touching  of 
them,  was  regarded  as  a  special  happi- 
ness. According  to  Theodoret,  even 
cities  were  content  to  share  with  each 
other  portions  of  the  sacred  treasure. 
Connected  with  this  feeling,  too,  is 
found  a  belief  of  a  certain  sacred  effi- 
cacy in  the  presence  or  the  touch  of  the 
relics ;  and  especially  there  is  ascribed  by 
Chrysostom,  Basil,  Theodoret,  and  other 
fathers,  to  prayers  offered  before  the 
relics,  a  virtue  in  dispelling  or  warding 
off  sickness,  diabolical  machinations,  and 


other  evils.  Hence  we  find  that  altars 
were  erected  over  the  tombs  of  the  mar- 
tyrs, or  at  least  that  relics  were  invari- 
ably placed  on  the  altars,  wherever 
erected;  insomuch  that  the  Trullan 
Council  ordered  the  demolition  of  all 
altars  in  which  no  relics  had  been 
deposited.  Far  more  sacred  than  the 
relics  of  martyrs  was  the  cross  of  our 
Lord,  which  was  believed  to  have  been 
discovered  at  Jerusalem  by  Helena, 
mother  of  the  Emperor  Constantine. 
Minute  portions  of  the  wood  were  dis- 
tributed to  the  principal  churches;  and 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  within  less  than  a 
century  after  the  discovery  of  the  cross, 
describes  the  precious  wood  as  dispersed 
throughout  the  world.  According  to  Ro- 
hault  de  Fleury,  "The  total  cubic  volume 
of  all  the  known  relics  of  the  True  Cross 
is  about  5,000,000  cubic  millimeters, 
whereas  a  cross  large  enough  for  the 
execution  of  a  man  must  have  contained 
at  least  180,000,000  or  thereby."  The 
practice  of  relic  worship  and  the  feeling 
on  which  it  was  founded,  were  not  suf- 
fered to  pass  without  a  protest.  At 
quite  an  early  period  many  abuses  and 
superstitions  had  crept  in,  which  even 
the  fathers  who  admit  the  worship  do 
not  fail  to  condemn;  and  Vigilantius,  in 
a  treatise  now  lost,  reprobated  in  the 
strongest  terms  the  excesses  to  which  it 
was  _  carried,  and  indeed  the  essential 
principles  on  which  the  practice  rests. 
He  had  so  few  followers,  however,  that 
were  it  not  for  the  refutation  by  Jerome 
of  his  work  against  relics  we  should 
have  no  record  of  his  opposition  to  the 
popular  view;  and  it  is  urged  by  Roman 
Catholics,  as  a  proof  of  the  universal  ac- 
quiescence of  the  Church  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury in  the  practice  of  relic-worshipj 
that  it  was  not  even  found  to  be  neces- 
sary to  call  a  single  council  for  the  pur- 
pose of  condemning  Vigilantius. 

The  writings  of  Augustine,  of  Pauli- 
nus  of  Nola,  of  Ephraem  the  Syrian,  of 
Gregory  the  Great,  and  others  are  full 
of  examples  of  the  miraculous  virtue  as- 
cribed to  relics,  and  of  the  variety  and 
the  extensive  multiplication  of  sacred 
memorials  of  all  kinds.  Nor  was  this 
confined  to  the  orthodox  alone;  all  the 
different  parties  in  the  controversy  on 
the  Incarnation  agreed  with  Roman 
Catholics  and  with  one  another  on  this 
subject,  and  even  the  Iconoclasts,  at  the 
very  time  that  they  most  fiercely  repu- 
diated the  use  of  images,  admitted  with- 
out difficulty  the  veneration  of  relics. 

In  the  age  of  the  Crusades  a  fresh 
impulse  was  given  to  the  worship  of 
relics  in  the  West  by  the  novelty  and 
variety  of  the  sacred  objects  brought 
home  from  the  churches  of  Syria,  Asia 
Minor,  and  Constantinople  by  crusaders, 


BELICS 


487 


RELIEF,    WAR 


by  palmers  returning  from  Palestine,  and 
by  the  Latin  conquerors  of  Constanti- 
nople; and  it  is  admitted  by  the  most 
zealous  Roman  Catholics  that  at  this 
period  many  false,  and  perhaps  even 
absurd  and  ridiculous  relics  were  intro- 
duced, and  were  successfully  commended 
to  the  veneration  of  individuals  or  in- 
dividual churches  in  the  West;  nor  do 
they  venture  to  doubt  that  abuse  and 
superstition  found  their  way  side  by  side 
with  what  they  regard  as  the  genuine 
and  authorized  worship  of  the  Church. 
Nevertheless,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Waldenses,  Wyclif,  and  a  few  iso- 
lated individuals,  the  practice  remained 
unchallenged  till  the  16th  century,  when, 
in  common  with  many  other  doctrines 
and  practices  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  it 
was  utterly  repudiated  by  the  Reformers. 
Roman  Catholics,  however,  allege  that 
the  practice,  as  sanctioned  by  the 
Church,  has  nothing  in  common  with  the 
abuses  which  form  the  main  ground  of 
the  objections  alleged  by  Protestants. 
The  Roman  Catholic  use  of  relics,  as 
authorized  by  the  Church,  is  to  serve  as 
incentives  to  faith  and  piety,  by  recalling 
vividly  to  men's  minds  the  lives,  and,  as 
it  were,  the  corporeal  presence  and  the 
earthly  converse  of  the  saints,  and  thus 
placing  before  them,  in  a  more  touching 
manner,  the  virtues  which,  in  the  ex- 
amples, are  held  up  for  men's  imitation. 
The  decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent  con- 
nects the  subject  of  relic  worship  with 
the  general  question  of  saint  worship, 
and  regards  the  relics  of  the  saints  not 
as  possessing  intrinsic  virtue,  but  only 
as  instruments  "through  which  God  be- 
stows benefits  on  men."  The  Fourth 
Lateran  Council  (1215)  forbade  the  sale 
or  veneration  of  relics  till  their  authen- 
ticity had  been  approved  by  the  author- 
ities; the  Council  of  Trent  renewed  the 
prohibition.  In  the  pastoral  of  the 
Bishop  of  Treves,  inviting  pilgrims  to  the 
exhibition  of  the  Holy  Coat  (1891),  it  is 
expressly  stated  that  "the  authenticity 
of  no  relic,  be  it  the  most  eminent  of  the 
eldest  Church  of  Christendom,  falls 
under  any  precept  of  Catholic  faith." 
Relics  are  usually  venerated  in  costly 
cases  or  "reliquaries"  set  on  the  altar; 
they  are  also  carried  in  procession,  and 
the  faithful  are  blessed  with  them. 

The  Greek  and  other  Oriental  Churches, 
and  most  of  the  Oriental  sects,  agree 
with  Roman  Catholics  in  the  practice  of 
relic  worship.  On  the  contrary,  the  Re- 
formed Churches,  without  exception,  have 
reiected  the  usage;  though  non-religious 
relic  worship  is  rife  enough,  in  the  form 
of  swords  of  Wallace  and  Bruce,  locks 
ol  Prince  Charlie's  hair,  etc.  The  prac- 
tice of  relic  worship  forms  a  notable 
feature   of   the    Mohammedan    usage    of 


pilgrimages,  and  is  an  even  more  impor- 
tant feature  of  Buddhism. 

RELIEF,  a  fine  or  composition  paid 
by  the  heir  of  a  tenant,  holding  by 
knight's  service  or  other  tenure,  to  the 
lord  on  the  death  of  the  ancestor  for 
the  privilege  of  succeeding  to  the  estate, 
which  by  strict  feudal  law  had  lapsed 
or  fallen  to  the  lord  on  the  death  of 
the  tenant. 

In  physical  geography,  the  undulations 
or  surface  elevations  of  a  country.  In 
painting,  the  appearance  of  projection 
and  solidity  in  represented  objects,  so  as 
to  cause  them  to  appear  precisely  as  they 
are  found  in  nature.  In  sculpture,  archi- 
tecture, etc.,  the  prominence  of  a  sculp- 
tured figure  from  the  plane  surface  to 
which  it  is  attached.  According  to  the 
degree  of  prominence,  it  is  known  as  alto- 
relievo,  or  high  relief,  mezzo-  or  demi- 
relief,  and  bas-relief,  or  low  relief. 

RELIEF,  WAR.  When  the  war  broke 
out  in  Europe  in  1914  very  little  time 
was  allowed  to  pass  before  organizations 
were  brought  into  being  for  the  purpose 
of  assisting  the  people  in  Europe  who 
were  the  chief  sufferers  in  the  zones 
affected.  Sympathy  was  particularly 
aroused  on  behalf  of  the  Belgians  who 
were  recognized  as  having  no  part  in 
the  opening  of  hostilities,  and  who  bore 
the  chief  brunt  of  the  first  German 
attacks.  The  other  peoples  whose  lands 
formed  the  terrain  over  which  the  first 
battles  were  waged,  northern  France, 
Poland,  Serbia,  and  other  countries,  like- 
wise were  included  in  the  appeal  for  aid 
addressed  to  the  citizens  of  the  United 
States.  Moreover,  the  desolated  lands 
of  Hungary  and  east  Germany  were  the 
objects  of  much  sympathy,  particularly 
among  people  having  kin  in  the  countries 
of  the  Central  Powers,  before  the  United 
States  entered  the  war,  but  relief  in 
that  direction  was  largely  blocked,  for 
the  British  navy'  held  the  seas  and  made 
communication  with  the  Central  Powers 
difficult.  But  measures  for  war  relief  ^ 
were  developed  on  a  very  large  scale.  A 
Commission  for  Relief  in  Belgium  was 
one  of  the  first  organizations  formed, 
but  the  Red  Cross,  the  Rockefeller  Foun- 
dation, the  Allied  War  Charities,  and 
similar  organizations  were  soon  active 
both  in  campaigns  for  subscriptions  and 
in  the  distribution  of  war  relief  over 
wide  areas.  The  enormous  variety  of 
suffering  that  followed  in  the  train  of 
the  war  called  for  heroic  measures  and 
as  the  months  passed  and  it  was  borne 
in  on  the  world  that  the  war  was  to  be 
a  long  one,  the  organizations  devoted  to 
the  work  of  war  relief  extended  their 
activities  in  every  direction.  Not  only 
had  the  families  left  behind  by  the  bread- 


RELIEF,    WAR 


488 


RELIGION 


winners  to  be  assisted,  but  disabled  sol- 
diers had  to  be  tak'^r  care  of,  and  when 
the  United  States  entered  the  war,  much 
of  the  kind  of  relief  chat  went  to  Europe 
had  to  be  dispensed  also  in  this  country. 
The  Commission  for  Relief  in  Belgium 
was  organized  in  October,  1914,  and 
carried  out  its  distribution  of  supplies 
through  the  Comite  Nationale  de  Secours 
et  d'Alimentation.  The  personnel  was 
American  until  the  declaration  of  war 
by  the  United  States,  but  thereafter  the 
work  in  Belgium  was  intrusted  to  Span- 
sh  and  Dutch  citizens  appointed  by  their 
governments.  Through  the  work  of  this 
commission  something  like  7,000,000  peo- 
ple were  regularly  provided  with  food. 
Warehouses  were  established  in  Holland 
and  Belgium,  and  these  received  Ameri- 
can and  Argentine  supplies  from  the 
port  of  entry  at  Rotterdam.  Up  to  June 
1,  1917,  a  total  of  nearly  $300,000,000 
was  spent  by  the  commission. 

As  the  war  went  on  the  number  of 
relief  organizations  greatly  increased, 
and  some  of  them  came  to  wear  a  doubt- 
ful character.  There  were,  however, 
80  such  organizations  working  in  New 
York  City  that  were  vouched  for  by  the 
Charity  Organization  Society,  and  the 
chief  among  them  made  it  their  object 
to  distribute  necessities,  such  as  food 
and  clothing.  Every  known  device  was 
employed  in  the  campaigns  to  raise  foods, 
bazaars,  concerts,  street  collecting,  and 
the  like.  These  became  so  numerous 
that  division  of  responsibility  and  proper 
accounting  became  manifestly  impossible, 
but  the  public  continued  to  give,  and 
though  millions  of  dollars  went  into  the 
wrong  hands,  the  stream  of  supplies 
?oing  to  Europe  continued  to  grow. 

Among  the  other  organizations  that 
devoted  their  energies  to  the  work  of  re- 
lief were  the  Allied  War  Charities,  which 
through  nearly  80  subsidiary  organiza- 
tions, covered  the  whole  nation;  the 
American  Fund  for  French  "Wounded, 
the  Secours  National  Fund  for  the  relief 
of  French  women  and  children,  the 
Serbian  Relief  Committee,  the  American 
ambulance,  which  organized  ambulance 
sections  for  work  behind  the  battle  line; 
Jewish  Relief,  the  British  War  Relief 
Association,  the  American  Committee  for 
Training  in  Suitable  Trades  the  Maimed 
Soldiers  of  France,  the  Vacation  War 
Relief  Committee,  the  Polish  Victims' 
Relief  Fund,  the  Lafayette  Fund,  the 
American  Girls'  Aid  for  the  Collection 
of  Clothing  for  the  Victims  of  the 
World  War  in  France,  the  Duryea  War 
Relief,  the  French  Comfort  Packets' 
Committee  for  the  United  States  and 
Allies,  the  Stage  Women's  War  Relief, 
the  Committee  of  Mercy,  Le  Bien  Etre 


du  Blesse,  the  New  York  Committee  for 
the  Fatherless  Children  of  France,  the 
Dollar  Christmas  Fund  for  Destitute 
Belgian  Children,  the  French  Tubercu- 
losis War  Victims'  Fund,  the  American 
Committee  of  the  Scottish  Women's  Hos- 
pital for  Home  and  Foreign  Service,  the 
National  Allied  Relief  Committee,  the 
Balkan  Refugees  and  Sufferers,  Polish 
Refugees,  War  Babies'  Cradle,  the  Polish 
Children's  Relief  Fund,  the  American 
Committee  for  Armenian  and  Syrian  Re- 
lief, the  New  York  Surgical  Dressings 
Committee,  and  many  others.  New  or- 
ganizations continued  to  be  formed  while 
the  war  lasted,  and  none  of  them  ap- 
peared to  find  difficulty  in  raising  funds. 
See  Red  Cross,  Knights  of  Columbus, 
Jewish  Welfare  Board,  Etc. 

RELIGION,  a  term  that  since  the  16th 
century  has  become  naturalized  in  most 
European  languages.  It  has  even  in  the 
Teutonic  tongues  taken  the  place  of  the 
native  terms  formerly  in  use.  As  to  its 
etymology,  the  derivation  from  relin- 
quere  is  universally  recognized  to  be  in- 
consistent with  phonetic  laws;  the 
necessity  for  assuming  the  existence  of 
a  lost  transitive  verb  ligere,  "to  look," 
has  not  been  made  out;  and  the  deriva- 
tion from  relegere,  which  implies  care- 
fulness and  attention  to  what  concerns 
the  gods  to  be  the  primary  signification 
of  the  word,  is  better  than  that  from 
religare,  which  refers  the  origin  of  reli- 
gion to  a  sense  of  dependence  on  or  con- 
nection with  Deity  by  the  bond  of  piety, 
inasmuch  as  the  latter  does  not  accord 
with  the  way  in  which  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans used  the  terms  religens  and  reli- 
giosus,  and  supposes  in  them  a  higher 
conception  of  religion  than  they  are 
likely  to  have  possessed.  The  Lacta- 
nian  derivation  (religare),  however,  has 
not  been  shown  to  violate  any  known 
linguistic  law;  and  the  reason  which 
Professor  Max  Miiller  gives  ("Natural 
Religion,"  p.  35)  as  "the  real  objection" 
to  it  does  not  apply  to  it  at  all.  It  is 
not  "the  fact  that  in  classical  Latin 
religare  is  never  used  in  the  sense  of 
binding  or  holding  back."  Binding  or 
holding  back,  or  behind,  or  fast,  is  its 
common  meaning  in  classical  Latin;  it 
is  its  meaning  in  Csesar,  Cicero,  Sueto- 
nius, Vergil,  Horace,  and  Ovid.  Its  only 
other  meaning  is  to  unbind. 

General  terms  equivalent  in  meaning 
to  religion  are  not  to  be  found  even  in 
such  languages  as  Chinese,  Sanskrit, 
Hebrew,  or  Arabic,  and  need  not  of 
course  be  looked  for  in  the  languages 
of  uncultured  peoples.  There  is  no  de- 
finition of  religion  in  the  Bible,  nor  any 
designation  or  description  of  it  which 
applies   to   the   heathen    religions.     The 


BELIGION 


489 


KELIGION 


fathers  and  Schoolmen  attempted  only 
to  give  a  definition  of  true  religion.  The 
difficulty  of  framing  a  correct  definition 
of  religion  is  very  great.  Such  a  defini- 
tion ought  to  apply  to  nothing  but  reli- 
gion, and  to  differentiate  religion  from 
everything  else,  as,  for  example,  from  im- 
aginative idealization,  art,  morality,  or 
philosophy.  It  should  apply  to  every- 
thing which  is  naturally  and  commonly 
called  religion;  to  religion  as  a  sub- 
jective spiritual  state,  and  to  all  reli- 
gions, high  or  low,  true  or  false,  which 
have  obtained  objective  historical  real- 
ization. And  it  should  neither  expressly 
nor  by  implication  exclude  any  essential 
element  of  religion,  but  express  in  a 
general  way  all  that  is  necessarily  in- 
cluded in  its  nature,  indispensible  to  its 
notion.  Since  the  need  for  definitions 
of  this  kind  was  felt — i.  e.,  since  the 
comparative  study  of  religions  began  to 
be  cultivated — numerous  attempts  to 
supply  it  have  been  made,  but  few,  if 
any,  of  the  definitions  of  religion  as  yet 
proposed  fulfill  all  the  requirements. 
Those  of  Kant,  Fichte,  Schleiermachei-, 
Hegel,  Strauss,  Wundt,  Pfleiderer,  Her- 
bert Spencer,  Matthew  Arnold,  Tylor, 
John  Caird,  and  Max  Miiller  have  at- 
tracted most  attention. 

The  classification  of  religions  also  pre- 
sents great  difficulties.  To  distribute 
them  into  (1)  true  and  false  religions, 
or  (2)  natural  and  revealed  religions,  or 

(3)  natural    and    positive    religions,    or 

(4)  religions  of  savage  and  of  civilized 
peoples,  or  (5)  book -religions  and  re- 
ligions not  possessed  of  sacred  books,  or 
(6)  individual  religions  (i.  e.,  founded  by 
great  individual  teachers)  and  natural 
or  race  religions  (i.  e.,  the  collective 
products  of  peoples  or  races,  the  growth 
of  generations),  must  obviously  be  sci- 
entifically inadequate  and  unsatisfactory, 
though  some  of  the  classifications  thus 
obtained  may  not  be  without  truth  or 
interest.  Max  Miiller  holds  that  "the 
only  scientific  and  truly  genetic  classifi- 
cation of  religions  is  the  same  as  that  of 
languages,"  and  Maurice  Vernes  that 
they  must  be  classified  according  to 
races.  And  there  can  be  no  doubt  that, 
if  religions,  languages,  and  races  are 
properly  classified,  the  classifications 
will,  on  the  whole,  correspond  or  coincide. 
Still  they  ought  to  be  classified  independ- 
ently, from  a  study  of  their  own  proper 
natures,  and  a  complete  accordance 
of  their  classifications  is  not  to  be 
looked  for.  The  fact,  for  instance,  that 
there  are  universal  religions,  reli- 
gions not  limited  by  language  or  race, 
must  not  be  ignored  or  depreciated. 
Hegel's  classification  is  very  ingenious 
and  suggestive.     He  distributes  religions 


into  religions  of  nature,  religions  of 
spirituality,  and  the  absolute  or  Chris- 
tian religion,  answering  respectively 
both  to  the  chief  stages  of  the  historical 
realization  of  religion,  and  to  the  child- 
hood, youth,  and  manhood  of  humanity. 
The  religions  of  nature  are  represented 
as  including  (1)  immediate  religion 
(sorcery  and  fetish-wor.ship)  ;  (2)  pan- 
theistic religion,  which  comprehends  the 
religion  of  measure  (China),  the  religion 
of  phantasy  (Brahmanism) ,  and  the  re- 
ligion of  being-in-itself  (Buddhism)  ;  and 
(3)  religion  which  tends  to  freedom,  and 
which  is  exemplified  in  the  religion  of 
the  good  or  of  light  (ancient  Persian), 
the  religion  of  sorrow  (Syrian),  and  the 
religion  of  mystery  (Egypt).  The  re- 
ligions of  spirituality  are  held  to  be  these 
three — the  religion  of  sublimity  (He- 
brew), the  religion  of  beauty  (Greek), 
and  the  religion  of  the  understanding 
(Roman).  The  classification  of  Von 
Hartman  is  of  the  same  character,  being 
very  ingeniously  conformed  to  the  needs 
of  his  own  philosophy,  and  yet  not 
conspiciously  inconsistent  with  the 
facts.  The  classifications  of  Lubbock, 
Tylor,  Spencer,  Reville,  and  D'Alvi- 
ella  deserve  attention  as  being  based  on 
an  extensive  and  close  study  of  religions, 
including  those  vague  and  rude  religions 
to  which  it  is  especially  difficult  to  as- 
sign appropriate  places  in  a  natural  and 
comprehensive  scheme  of  distribution. 
No  general  agreement,  however,  has  been 
as  yet  reached  either  in  determining  the 
species  of  these  religions  or  the  order  of 
their  succession. 

Professor  Tiele  classifies  religions  as 
follows:  I.  Nature  religions,  which  com- 
prehend (a)  Polydaemonistic  magical  re- 
ligions under  the  control  of  animism;  (6) 
Purified  or  organized  magical  religions — 
Therianthropic  polytheism  (1)  unorgan- 
ized, and  (2)  organized;  (c)  Worship  of 
manlike  but  superhuman  and  serai-ethical 
beings — Anthropomorphic  polytheism, 
il.  Ethical  religions,  which  are  either 
(a)  National  nomistic  (nomothetic)  re- 
ligious communities — Taoism,  Confucian- 
ism, Brahmanism,  Jainism  and  Primitive 
Buddhism,  Mazdaism,  Mosaism,  and 
Judaism;  or  (6)  Universalistic  religious 
communities — Islam,  Buddhism,  Christi- 
anity. 

Religion  is  virtually  universal,  though, 
of  course,  neither  the  possibility  nor  the 
existence  of  atheism  can  be  reasonably 
denied.  The  instances  which  Biichner, 
Lubbock,  and  others  have  adduced  to 
prove  that  there  are  whole  peoples  des- 
titute of  religion  will  not  stand  the  test 
of  examination.  Not  one  adequately  at- 
tested case  of  the  kind  has  yet  been 
produced;  and  even  if  such  a  case  were 


RELIGION 


490 


BELIGION 


established  it  would  go  only  a  very  little 
way  toward  proving  that  man  is  not 
naturally  and  normally  a  religious 
being. 

The  starting  point  of  religious  develop- 
ment has  been  variously  represented  as 
fetishism    (De   Brosses,   Comte,   Tylor), 
belief  in   ghosts    (Spencer,   Caspari,   Le 
Bon),  polytheism    (Hume,  Voltaire,  Du- 
puis),      pantheism       (Tholuck,      Ulrici, 
Caird),      henotheism       (Schellin,      P^ax 
Miiller,  Von   Hartmann),  and   monothe- 
ism     (Creuzer,      Professor      Rawlinson, 
Canon  Cook).     All  these  representations 
are    conjectural.     The    present    state    of 
our  knowledge  does  not  enable  us  to  de- 
cide   what    the    primitive    religion    was. 
Historical     research    does    not   take   us 
back  to  it.     Nor  does  it  show  us  what 
stages  of  religion  intervened  between  it 
and   the   earliest   known    historical   reli- 
gions.      The  ways   in   which   the   ruder 
phases    of   religion    are    represented    by 
anthropologists    and    comparative    theo- 
logians as  having  succeeded  one  another 
are    merely    more     or    less    suggestive 
hypotheses,    founded    on    data    both    in- 
sufficient   and    ambiguous.       All     serial 
arrangements   of  the  kind   ought  to   be 
regarded    as    of   a   merely   logical,    non- 
historical   character,    though   they   may, 
perhaps,  aid  in  leading  to  a  discovery  of 
the     historical     order    of    development. 
Hence  the  best  mode  of   arranging  the 
ruder  religions  may  be  that  which  be- 
gins with  the  logically  simplest  phase  of 
religion,  and  assigns  the  others  a  place 
in  the  order  of  their  logical  dependence 
and  complexity.      Adopting  this  principle, 
Naturism,  the  worship  of  natural  objects 
regarded    as    powers    or    agents,    should 
come  first,  implying  as  it  does  no  original 
or  special  faculty  or  tendency,  and  being 
the  direct  and  natural  interpretation  of 
physical  facts.  It  may  have  many  forms 
corresponding  to  the  differences  of  the 
natural    objects,    and    these    forms   may 
imply    very    different    degrees    of    intel- 
lectual    capability     and     very     different 
qualities  of  disposition  in  the  worship- 
ers, though  they  have  certainly  not  been 
shown  to  be  successive  stages  of  religious 
development.     Nature     worship    affords 
a  basis  for  all  other  forms   of  religion 
and  worship,  and  in  most  of  them  its 
presence  as  a  constituent  is  obvious.     It 
is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  conceive 
how  men  could  have  risen  to  any  higher 
stage  of  religion  except  by  means  of  it, 
or  how  they  could  have  failed  to  enter 
it  unless  raised  above  it  by  a  special  rev- 
elation.^    And   the   notion    of    a   special 
revelation     to     men    who    had   not   by 
natural  means  acquired  any  belief  in  or 
thought  of  deity  is  scarcely  conceivable. 
Animism  comes  next  as  a  natural  result 
of  the  growth  of  the  idea  of  soul.     It 


is  often  indistinguishable  or  difficult  to 
distinguish  from  nature  worship,  which 
is,   as   it  were,  implicit   animism,  while 
animism     is     explicit     nature     worship. 
When  man  has  drawn  a  distinction  be- 
tween body  and  life  or  soul,  it  is  natural 
that   he   should   work   it   out    in   regard 
to  himself,  and  then  judge  of  other  things 
by  himself;  and  the  phenomena  of  sleep 
and     dreams,     of     swooning,     apoplexy, 
ecstasy,    insanity,    and    death,    all    con- 
tribute to  mold  his  thought  when  once 
they  have  been  turned  in  this  direction. 
Hence  a  third  phase  of  religion,  spirit- 
ism,  in  which   the   souls   worshiped   are 
human,  or  conformed  to  the  human  type 
and    conceived    of    according    to    human 
experience,  but  affected  and  modified  by 
physical  impressions  and  analogies.     The 
hypothesis  of  Mr.  Spencer  that  religion 
begins    at    this    stage,    the    first    deities 
being  deceased  ancestors,   and   the   first 
worship  funeral  rites,  takes  no  account 
of  a  vast  mass  of  philological  evidence 
which  establishes  that  the  names  of  the 
oldest   known   gods   were    descriptive   of 
natural     phenomena,    and    of    historical 
evidence  which  shows  that  ancestor  wor- 
ship has  been  grafted  in  various  locali- 
ties on  an  older  nature  worship.     It  also 
rests  on  a  very  improbable  assumption 
as    to    savage    man's    mode  of  viewing 
natural  ^  objects     worshiped,     and    fails 
to  explain  the  common  features,  similar- 
ities, and  analogies  in  the  various  myth- 
ologies,    the     transformations     of     the 
ghosts   into    gods,    the    inferior    position 
of     properly    ancestral     gods,    and     es- 
pecially    the     characteristics    of   nature 
worship.       The     fourth    phase    of    reli- 
gious development  is   Polytheism  in  the 
special  sense  of  the  term,  anthropological 
mythology,   the   worship   of   divine   indi- 
vidualities,   generally    in    origin    nature 
gods,    but    transformed    by    imagination 
operating   under   the    belief  that  beings 
analogous  to  the  human  rule  the  course 
of  things.     The   fifth   phase   is   that   in 
which  polytheism  is  subordinated  to,  or 
reduced  under,   a   Dualistic  or   Monistic 
conception  of  the  divine.     The  conception 
may  be  mainly  reached  either  by  specu- 
lative   or    ethical    thought.     The    sixtk 
phase  is  represented  by  the  Monotheistic 
religions — the     Jewish,     Christian,     and 
Mohammedan.     These  religions  all  claim 
to  rest  on   special   revelation.     In  thera 
only  is  belief  in  a  plurality  of  gods  en- 
tirely   transcended.     Philosophical   mon- 
ism   in    a    religion    does    not    cast    out 
polytheism.     Fetishism,  image  worship, 
totemism,  shamanism,  and  sorcery  prob- 
ably should  be  regarded  not  as  distinct 
phases  or  natural  logical  stages  of  re- 
ligious development,  but  as  adjuncts  and  | 
incidental  perversions  of  religion  which  ' 
pre-suppose  its  normal  or  logical  phases  , 


RELIGION 


491 


BKLIGION 


or  stages.  An  adequate  proof  of  this 
view  would  necessarily  dislodge  and  de- 
stroy a  number  of  current  hypotheses. 

The  theories  regarding  the  psycho- 
log^ical  origin  and  the  essence  of  religion 
are  numerous  and  divergent.  It  was 
common  among  the  atheists  of  the  18th 
century  to  speak  of  religion  as  the  in- 
vention of  individuals  desirous  of  deceiv- 
ing their  fellowmen  in  order  to  further 
their  own  selfish  and  ambitious  views. 
Feuerbach,  Lange,  Spencer,  and  others 
account  for  its  appearance  by  imagina- 
tion, illusion,  or  the  misinterpretation 
of  ordinary  or  exceptional  phenomena. 
Some  zealous  supernaturalists  have  ar- 
gued that  it  must  have  originated  in  a 
primitive  revelation.  It  may  be  referred 
exclusively  to  the  intellectual  province  of 
human  nature.  This  mistake,  however, 
is  too  gross  to  have  been  often  com- 
mitted, and  is  sufficiently  refuted  by  the 
obvious  consideration  that  the  measure 
of  religion  is  not  the  measure  of  in- 
telligence or  of  knowledge.  Hegel  did 
not,  as  is  often  said,  fall  into  the  error 
of  identifying  religion  v/ith  thought,  but 
only  emphasized  strongly  the  importance 
of  thought  in  religion.  Peschel  regards 
the  principle  of  causality,  and  Max 
Miiller  the  perception  of  the  infinite,  as 
the  roots  of  religion.  And  it  may  well 
be  admitted  that  without  both  of  these 
intellectual  principles  religion  would  be 
impossible.  But  are  they  more  than 
merely  conditions  of  its  appearance? 
The  origin  of  religion  is,  of  course,  re- 
ferred to  intellect  by  those  who  hold 
that  God  is  known  intuitively,  perceived 
directly,  apprehended  without  medium; 
but  both  psychology  and  history,  both 
internal  analysis  and  external  observa- 
tion seem  to  disprove  this  hypothesis. 
Religion  has  often  been  resolved  into 
feeling  or  sentiment.  Thus  Lucretius, 
Hobbes,  and  Strauss  have  traced  it 
mainly  to  fear;  the  followers  of  Ritschl 
to  a  desire  to  secure  life  and  its 
goods  amidst  the  uncertainties  and 
evils  of  earth;  the  disciples  of  Schlei- 
ermacher  to  a  feeling  of  absolute  de- 
pendence, of  pure  and  entire  passive- 
ness;  and  others — e.g.,  Brinton  and 
Newman  Smyth — to  the  religious  feeling 
regarded  either  as  a  distinct  primary 
feeling  or  a  peculiar  compound  feeling. 
Kant  represented  religion  as  essentially 
a  sanction  for  duty,  and  Matthew  Arnold 
has  defined  it  as  "morality  touched  by 
emotion,"  "ethics  heightened,  enkindled, 
lit  up  by  feelings."  This  great  diver- 
sity of  views  of  itself  indicates  what  in- 
vestigation is  found  to  confirm — viz., 
that  religion  is  a  vast  and  complex 
thing,  an  inexhaustible  field  for  psycho- 
logical study.     Almost  all  the  views  re- 


ferred to  have  some  truth  in  them,  and 
most  of  them  are  only  false  in  so  far  as 
they  assume  themselves  to  be  exclusively 
true.  The  whole  nature  of  man  ha.? 
been  formed  for  religion,  and  is  en- 
gaged and  exercised  in  religion.  Every 
principle  of  that  nature  which  has  been 
singled  out  as  the  root  of  religion  has 
really  contributed  to  its  rise  and  de- 
velopment. The  study  of  religion  as  a 
process  of  mind,  and  of  the  factors 
which  condition  and  determine  its  de- 
velopment, is  the  special  task  of  the  psy- 
chology of  religion,  a  department  of  re- 
search to  which  many  contributions  have 
been  made  since  Hume  initiated  it  in  his 
"Natural  History  of  Religion"  (17.59) 
by  showing  the  importance  of  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  causes  and  the 
reasons  of  religion. 

A  religion  is  a  group  or  whole  of  re- 
ligious phenomena — of  religious  beliefs, 
practices,  and  institutions — so  closely 
connected  with  one  another  as  to  be 
thereby  differentiated  from  those  of  any 
other  religion.  Each  religion  has  had  a 
history  and  its  rise  and  spread,  forma- 
tion and  transformations,  as  a  religion 
can  only  be  truly  traced  by  being  his- 
torically traced.  Also  religions  are  his- 
torically connected,  are  related  to  one 
another,  and  have  influenced  one  an- 
other, in  ways  which  may  be  discovered, 
and  can  only  be  discovered,  by  historical 
research.  Hence  the  history  of  reli- 
gions is  also  the  history  of  religion,  not 
an  aggregation  of  the  histories  of 
particular  religions,  but  a  truly  general 
history.  Like  the  histories  of  art, 
industry,  science,  and  society  in  gen- 
eral, it  is  found  on  examination  to  have 
been  a  process  of  development  in  which 
each  stage  of  religion  has  proceeded 
gradually  from  antecedent  factors  and 
conditions.  The  precise  nature  of  the 
development  can  only  be  ascertained  by 
investigation  of  the  history  itself.  No 
hypothesis  of  development  should  be 
assumed  as  a  pre-supposition  of  such 
investigation.  Naturalistic  apriorisni 
is  as  illegitimate  in  historical  inquiry 
as  theological  or  metaphysical  aprior- 
ism.  The  history  of  religion  is  not 
only  of  great  importance  in  itself, 
but  indispensable  to  the  right  under- 
standing of  general  history,  of  the  his- 
tory of  art,  of  philosophy,  etc.  It  has 
been  studied  with  more  zeal  and  success 
during  the  19th  century  than  in  all  the 
preceding  ages.  The  history  of  religious 
beliefs  is,  of  course,  only  a  part  of  the 
history  of  religions.  It  is,  however,  dis- 
tinguishable, though  inseparable,  from 
it,  and  is  often  and  conveniently  desig- 
nated Comparative  Theology.  It  com- 
Krehends  comparative  mythology  and  the 
istory  of  doctrines,  myths  being  beliefs 


KELIGION 


492 


REMBRANDT 


which  are  mainly  the  products  of  im- 
agination and  doctrines   of  reflection. 

The  Psychology  of  Religion,  the  His- 
tory of  Religions,  and  Comparative  The- 
ology are  clearly  distinct,  and  ought  not 
to  be  confounded.  At  the  same  time  they 
are  closely  connected.  They  agree  in 
that  they  are  alike  occupied  with  religion 
as  an  empirical  fact.  Hence  they  may 
be  regarded  as  parts  of  a  comprehensive 
science,  to  which  it  might  be  well  to  con- 
fine the  designation  "Science  of  Re- 
ligions," instead  of  using  it  in  the  vague 
and  ambiguous  way  which  is  so  common. 
Thus  understood,  the  Science  of  Religions 
may  be  said  to  deal  with  religion  as  a 
phenomena  of  experience,  whether  out- 
wardly manifested  in  history  or  inwardly 
realized  in  consciousness;  to  seek  to  de- 
scribe and  explain  religious  experience  so 
far  as  it  can  be  described  and  explained 
without  transcending  the  religious  ex- 
perience itself.  Its  students  have  only 
to  ascertain,  analyze,  explain,  and  ex- 
hibit experienced  fact.  Were  religion  a 
physical  fact,  to  study  it  merely  as  a 
fact  would  be  enough.  The  astronomer, 
the  naturalist,  the  chemist  have  no  need 
to  judge  their  facts;  they  have  only  to 
descriTC  them,  analjTze  them,  and  deter- 
mine their  relations.  But  it  is  other^v-ise 
with  the  students  of  religion,  of  moral- 
ity, of  art,  of  reasoning.  They  soon 
come  to  a  point  where  they  must  be- 
come judges  of  the  phenomena  and 
pronounce  on  their  truth  and  worth.  Ex- 
perience in  the  physical  sphere  is  experi- 
ence and  nothing  more;  experience  ia 
the  spiritual  sphere  is  very  often  expe- 
rience of  what  is  irreverent  and  impious, 
immoral  and  vicious,  ugly  and  erroneous, 
foolish  or  insane.  Has  the  mind  simply 
to  describe  and  analyze,  accept,  and  be 
content  with  such  experience?  Even  the 
logician  and  the  aesthetician  will  answer 
in  the  negative,  will  claim  to  judge  their 
facts  as  conforming  to  or  contravening 
the  laws  of  truth  and  the  ideals  of  art. 
Still  more  decidedly  must  the  moralist 
and  the  student  of  religion  so  answer. 
Religion,  then,  is  not  completely  studied 
when  it  is  only  studied  historically. 
Hence  it  must  be^  dealt  with  by  other 
sciences  or  disciplines  than  those  which 
are  merely  historical.  What  these  are, 
and  how  they  are  related  to  religion,  the 
writer  has  elsewhere  endeavored  to  show. 

All  the  particular  theological  sciences 
or  disciplines  treat  of  particular  aspects 
of  religion  or  of  religion  in  particular 
ways.  Their  relationships  to  one  an- 
other can  only  be  determined  by  their 
relationship  to  it.  They  can  only  be 
unified  and  co-ordinated  in  a  truly  or- 
ganic manner  by  their  due  reference  to 
it.  When  religion  is  studied  not  merely 
in  particular  aspects  and  ways,  but  in  its 


•unity  and  entirety,  with  a  view  to  its 
comprehension  in  its  essence  and  all 
essential  relations,  it  is  the  object  of 
the  Philosophy  of  Religion.  Though  a 
distinct  and  essential  department  of 
philosophy,  and  the  highest  and  most 
comprehensive  theological  science,  the 
philosophy  of  religion  could  only  appear 
in  an  independent  and  appropriate  form 
when  both  philosophy  and  theology  were 
highly  developed.  It  is,  therefore,  of 
comparatively  recent  origin,  and  indeed 
was  chiefly  cultivated  in  Germany  during 
the  19th  century. 

RELIQUARY,  a  depository  for  a  relic 
or  relics;  a  casket  or  case  in  which  relics 
are  kept, 

R:^AINDER,  in  law,  an  estate  in 
remamder  may  be  defined  to  be  an  estate 
limited  to  take  effect  and  be  enjoyed 
after  another  estate  is  determined.  Thus 
if  a  man  seized  in  fee  simple  grants  lands 
to  A  for  20  years,  or  other  period,  and, 
after  the  determination  of  the  said  term, 
then  to  B  and  his  heirs  forever,  here  A 
is  tenant  for  years,  with  remainder  to  B, 
since  an  estate  for  years  is  created  out 
of  the  fee,  and  given  to  A,  and  the  resi- 
due or  remainder  to  B.  Also  in  publish- 
ing, an  edition,  the  sale  of  which  has 
practically  ceased,  and  which  is  cleared 
by  the  trade  at  a  reduced  price. 

REMBRANDT,  VAN  RYN,  one  of  the 

most  celebrated  painters  and  engravers 
of  the   Dutch   school;   born   in  Leyden, 


VAN   RYN   REMBRANDT 

Holland,  July  15,  1606.  He  acquired  his 
art  from  several  masters  at  Amsterdam, 
and  early  in  life  grew  famous.  Rem- 
brandt was  master  of  all  that  relates  to 
coloring,  distribution  of  light  and  shade, 
and     composition.     His     etchings     have 


BEMENSNYDER 


493 


EEMITTENT    FEVER 


wonderful  freedom,  facility,  and  boldness. 
Rembrandt  was  twice  married,  resided 
during  the  greater  part  of  his  life  at 
Amsterdam.  Among  his  well-known 
works  are :  "The  Anatomical  Lecture" 
(1632);  "Descent  from  the  Cross" 
(1633);  "St.  Thomas"  (1634);  "Tobias 
and  the  Angel"  (1638)  ;  "Portrait  of  his 
Mother"  (1639);  "The  Gilder"  (1640); 
"The  Night  Watch"  (1642)  considered 
his  masterpiece;  "Christ  Healing  the 
Sick"  (1651);  "Burgomaster  and  Wife" 
(1657);  "The  Synodics"  (1661);  and 
"The  Betrothed  Jewess"  (1669).  He 
died  in  Amsterdam  and  was  buried  Oct. 
8,  1669. 

BEMENSNYDER,  JUNIUS  BENJA- 
MIN, an  American  clergyman;  born  in 
Staunton,  Va.,  Feb.  24,  1843;  was 
graduated  at  Pennsylvania  College, 
Gettysburg,  in  1861,  and  at  its  theo- 
logical seminary  in  1865;  was  ordained 
in  the  Lutheran  Church  in  1865;  held  a 
charge  in  Philadelphia  in  1865-1874,  and 
in  Savannah,  Ga.,  in  1874-1880.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  called  to  St.  James' 
Lutheran  Church  in  New  York.  His 
publications  include  "Heavenward" 
(1874);  "Doom  Eternal";  "Lutheran 
Literature";  "Work  and  Personality  of 
Luther";  "Six  Days  of  Creation";  "What 
the  World  Owes  to  Luther"  (1917)  ; 
"Lights  on  the  Shadows  of  Life"  (1919). 

REMENYI,  EDOUARD,  a  Hunga- 
rian Aaolinist;  born  in  Heves,  Hungary, 
in  1830;  received  a  musical  education  at 
the  Vienna  Conservatory,  In  1851,  after 
the  Hungarian  revolution,  he  was  forced 
to  flee  to  the  United  States,  but  returned 
to  Europe  in  1853.  In  1854  he  visited 
London,  where  he  was  appointed  solo 
violinist  to  Queen  Victoria.  In  1860  he 
obtained  his  amnesty  and  returned  to 
Hungary,  where  he  attained  to  great  dis- 
tinction. In  1865  he  went  to  Paris, 
achieving  there  a  tremendous  success. 
Thenceforth  he  made  repeated  concert 
tours  on  the  Continent  and  in  England. 
In  1878  he  returned  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  spent  much  of  his  time  and 
gave  many  concerts.  He  died  in  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  May  15,  1898. 

REMEY,  GEORGE  COLLIER,  an 
American  naval  officer;  born  in  Burling- 
ton, la,,  Aug,  10,  1841;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
1859;  served  with  distinction  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  was  captured  during  the 
assault  on  Fort  Sumter,  in  1863,  When 
the  war  with  Spain  broke  out  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  naval  base  at 
Key  West,  Fla.  He  was  promoted  rear- 
admiral  in  1898,  and  in  1900  was  given 
command  of  the  Asiatic  Station  at  Yoko- 
hama, where  he  directed  the  operations 

Vol.  VII — Cvc 


of   the    United    States    naval    forces    in 
China, 

REMIGIUS,  the  name  of  three  emi- 
nent French  ecclesiastics,  the  most  fa- 
mous of  whom  (St,  Remigius  or  St. 
Remy)  was  Bishop  of  Rheims  for  over 
20  years,  and  in  496  baptized  Clovis, 
King  of  the  Franks  and  founder  of  the 
French  monarchy, 

REMINGTON,  FREDERIC,  an  Amer- 
ican artist  and  author;  born  in  Canton, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  4,  1861 ;  was  educated  at  the 
Yale  Art  School,  and  at  the  Art  Student's 
League,  New  York.  In  early  life  he  be- 
came a  cowboy  and  stockman  on  a  ranch 
in  Montana.  He  became  an  illustrator 
for  magazines,  treating  of  military  and 
Western  subjects,  and  during  1897-1898 
of  Cuban  scenes.  Among  his  best-knowa 
productions  are,  "An  Impression  from 
the  Pony  War  Dance";  "The  Last  Lull 
in  the  Fight";  "The  Last  Stand";  "The 
Advancer,  or,  The  Military  Sacrifice"; 
"The  Arrival  of  the  Courier";  "A  Buck 
Jumper,"  etc.  He  published  "Crooked 
Trails";  "Frontier  Sketches";  and  "The 
Sundown  Leflare."  In  sculpture,  Mr. 
Remington  has  produced  "The  Broncho 
Buster";  "The  Wounded  Bunkie";  etc. 
He  was  conspicuous  for  his  success  in 
"black  and  white."     He  died  in  1909. 

REMINGTON,  PHILO,  an  American 
inventor;  born  in  Litchfield,  N.  Y.,  Oct. 
31,  1816.  He  entered  the  small  arms 
factory  of  his  father,  and  for  25  years 
supeinntended  the  mechanical  depart- 
ment. The  perfecting  of  the  Remington 
breech  loading  rifles  and  of  the  Reming- 
ton typewriter  was  largely  due  to  his  in- 
ventive skill.  In  1886  he  retired,  and  in 
1889  he  died. 

REMITTENT  FEVER,  one  of  the  va- 
rieties of  fever  arising  from  malaria  or 
marsh  poison — one  being  intermittent 
fever,  or  ague.  In  its  milder  forms  it 
scarcely  differs  from  severe  intermittent 
fever;  while  in  its  more  serious  form  it 
may  approximate  closely  to  yellow  fever. 
The  attack  may  be  either  sudden  or  pre- 
ceded by  languor,  chilliness,  and  a  ge«- 
eral  feeling  of  illness.  Then  comes  a 
cold  stage,  usually  of  short  duration. 
This  is  followed  by  a  hot  stage,  in  which 
the  symptoms  are  commonly  far  more 
intense  than  those  exhibited  in  the  worst 
forms  of  ague.  Giddiness  proceeding  to 
delirium  is  not  uncommon,  and  is  a  bad 
symptom;  while  in  other  cases  drowsi- 
ness or  lethargy  is  one  of  the  most 
marked  symptoms.  There  is  often  great 
tenderness  or  pain  in  the  region  of  the 
stomach,  and  vomiting — the  vomited 
matter  frequently  containing  bile  or 
blood,  A  remission  of  these  symptoms 
occurs,  in   mild  cases,   in  six  or   seven 

32 


BEMONSTBANTS 


494 


BEMTJSAT 


hours;  but  in  severe  cases  the  paroxysm 
may  continue  for  24  hours  or  longer. 
The  remission  is  sometimes,  but  not  al- 
ways, accompanied  with  sweating.  The 
duration  of  the  remission  is  as  varied  as 
that  of  the  paroxysm,  varying  from  2  or 
3  to  30  hours,  or  even  longer.  The  fever 
then  returns  with  increased  severity,  and 
without  any  cold  stage;  and  then  the 
paroxysms  and  remissions  proceed,  most 
conmionly  according  to  no  recognizable 
law,  till  the  case  terminates  either 
fatally  or  in  convalescence.  In  favorable 
cases  convalescence  is  usually  estab- 
lished in  about  a  week.  The  severe 
forms  of  this  fever  are  often  accom- 
panied with  more  or  less  jaundice,  and 
hence  the  disease  has  received  the 
name  of  bilious  remittent  fever.  It  is 
also  known  as  jungle  fever,  lake  fever 
(from  its  prevalence  on  the  border  of 
the  great  African  lakes) ;  and  the 
African,  Bengal,  Levant,  Walcheren,  and 
other  similar  local  fevers  are  merely 
synonyms  of  this  disease.  In  England 
the  disease  is  very  rare;  and  when  it 
occurs  it  is  usually  mild.  The  disease  is 
most  severe  in  southern  Asia,  western 
Africa,  central  America,  and  the  West 
India  Islands. 

The  first  object  of  treatment  is  to  re- 
duce the  circulation  during  the  hot  stage. 
This  is  done  by  a  dose  of  ft.  e  grains  each 
of  calomel  and  James'  powder  and 
after  an  interval  of  three  or  four  hours, 
by  a  sharp  cathartic — as,  for  instance, 
the  ordinary  black  draught.  On  the 
morning  of  the  following  day  the  remis- 
sion will  probably  be  more  complete, 
when  quinine  should  be  freely  and  re- 
peatedly administered.  A  mixture  of 
antimonial  wine  with  acetate  of  potash 
should  also  be  given  every  two  or  three 
hours,  so  as  to  increase  the  action  of  the 
skin  and  kidneys.  The  patient  must  be 
carefully  watched  during  the  period  of 
convalesence.  A  timely  removal  from 
all  malarious  influence,  by  a  change  of 
climate  or  a  sea  voyage,  is  of  the  highest 
importance. 

REMONSTHANTS,  a  name  given  to 
the  Dutch  Protestants,  who,  after  the 
death  of  Arminius  (a.  d.  1609)  continued 
to  maintain  his  views,  and  in  1610,  pre- 
sented to  the  States  of  Holland,  at  Fries- 
land,  a  remonstrance  in  five  articles 
formulating  their  points  of  departure 
from  Calvinism. 

BEMORA,  the  sucking-fish,  or  sucker; 
a  popular  name  for  any  species  of  the 
genus  Echeneis;  specifically,  E.  remora, 
about  eight  inches  long,  common  in  the 
Mediterranean.  By  means  of  the  suc- 
torial disk,  a  transformation  of  the 
spinous  dorsal  fin,  the  species  can  attach 
themselves  to  any  flat  surface.     The  ad- 


hesion is  so  strong  that  the  fish  can  be 
dislodged  only  with  difficulty,  unless 
pushed  forward  with  a  sliding  motion. 
Being  bad  swimmers,  they  attach  them- 
selves to  vessels,  or  to  animals  having 
greater  power  of  locomotion  than  them- 
selves; but  they  cannot  be  regarded  as 
parasites,  as  they  do  not  obtain  their 
food  at  the  expense  of  their  host.  It  has 
been  believed  that  the  remora  is  able  to 
arrest  vessels  in  their  course;  this  is 
fabulous,  though  the  attachment  of  one 
of  the  larger  species  may  retard  the 
progress  of  sailing,  especially  when,  as  is 
sometimes  the  case,  several  individuals 
accompany  the  same  ship. 

REMSEN,  IRA,  an  American  chem- 
ist; born  in  New  York  City,  Feb.  10, 
1846;  was  graduated  at  the  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York  in  1865,  and  later 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  and 
University  of  Gottingen;  was  Professor 
of  Chemistry  at  Williams  College  in 
1872-1876;  founded  the  "American 
Chemical  Journal"  in  1879.  He  was  the 
author  of  numerous  text-books  including 
"The  Principles  of  Theoretical  Chemis- 
try"; "Inorganic  Chemistry";  "Chemical 
Experiments";  "Laboratory  Manual," 
(1895)  "The  University  Movement," 
(1915)  etc.,  became  Professor  of  Chemis- 
try at  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  1876, 
and  succeeded  Dr.  Daniel  Coit  Gilman  as 
president  there  in  1901. 

REMUS,  the  twin  brother  of  Romulus, 
who  was  the  fabled  founder  of  Rome. 
According  to  the  old  myth,  Romulus 
killed  his  brother. 

REMXJSAT,  FRANCOIS  MARIE 
CHARLES,  COMTE  DE,  a  French  au^ 
thor;  born  in  Paris,  March  14,  1797,  the 
son  of  Augustin  Laurent,  Comte  de 
R6musat  (1762-1823).  Remusat  early 
developed  Liberal  ideas,  and  took  eagerly 
to  journalism.  He  signed  the  journal- 
ists' famous  protest  against  the  Ordi- 
nances of  Polignac,  which  brought  about 
the  "July  revolution,"  and  was  elected 
deputy  for  Toulouse;  allied  himself  with 
the  Doctrinaire  party,  and  in  1836  be- 
came under-secretary  of  state  for  the 
interior;  in  1840  minister  of  the  interior, 
he  was  exiled  after  the  coup  d'etat  of 
Louis  Napoleon.  In  1871,  he  held  the 
portfolio  of  foreign  affairs.  He  died 
June  6,  1875. 

REMUSAT,  JEAN  PIERRE  ABEL 
(ra-mii-sa),  a  French  Orientalist*  born 
in  Paris,  Sept.  5,  1788.  He  studied  medi- 
cine, and  took  his  diploma  in  1813;  but 
as  early  as  1811  he  had  published  an 
essay  on  Chinese  literature.  In  1814 
he  was  made  Professor  of  Chinese  in  the 
College  of  Finance.  His  most  important 
work  was  "Elements  of  Chinese  Gram- 


HENAISSANCE 


495 


RENAIT 


mar"  (1822).  He  wrote  also  on  the  ori- 
gin of  Chinese  writing  (1827),  on 
Chinese  medicine,  on  the  topography  and 
history  of  the  Chinese  empire,  and 
"Asiatic  Miscellanies"  (1843).  In  1818 
he  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
"Journal  des  Savants";  in  1822  he  found- 
ed the  Asiatic  Society  of  Paris;  and  in 
1824  he  was  appointed  curator  of  the 
Oriental  Department  in  the  Royal  Li- 
brary.    He  died  in  Paris  June  3,  1832. 

RENAISSANCE,  a  name  given  to  the 
great  intellectual  movement  which  marks 
the  transition  from  the  Middle  Ages  to 
the  modern  world.  It  was  a  change  in 
attitude  of  mind  and  ideal  of  life,  in 
philosophy,  art,  literai-y  criticism,  politi- 
cal and  religious  thought.  Substantially 
a  revolt  against  the  dogmatism  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  new  spirit  claimed  the 
entire  liberation  of  reason,  aimed  at  a 
complete  rehabilitation  of  the  human 
spirit  with  all  the  free  activities  and 
arts  and  graces  which  invested  the  clas- 
sical age.  Zeal  for  the  Litterae  Humani- 
ores  brought  forth  a  new  ideal  of  culture, 
and  the  new  view  of  life  for  which  the 
name  of  Humanism  is  frequently  used. 
Renaissance,  rebirth,  was  originally  used 
as  synonyinous  with  the  Revival  of 
Letters,  the  revived  study  in  a  new  spirit 
of  the  classical  languages  and  classical 
literatures  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The 
new  spirit  powerfully  aided  in  weaken- 
ing the  power  of  the  papacy,  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  Protestantism  and  the 
right  of  free  inquiry.  Under  its  impulse 
astronomy  was  eventually  reformed  by 
Copernicus  and  Galileo,  and  science 
started  on  its  modem  unfettered  career; 
by  it,  too,  feudalism,  which  had  been 
weakened  by  the  communal  movements 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  abolished,  and 
the  demand  for  political  liberty  was  ad- 
vanced. National  languages  began  to 
flourish.  To  the  same  general  impulse 
belonged  also  the  invention  of  printing 
and  multiplication  of  books,  new  methods 
of  paper  making,  the  use  of  the  mar- 
iner's compass,  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica, and  the  exploration  of  the  Indian 
Sea.  The  fall  of  the  Eastern  empire  in 
1453  sent  Greek  scholars  to  promote  the 
revival  of  scholarship  already  in  progress 
in  western  Europe.  _  No  definite  date  can 
be  given  for  the  beginning  of  the  Renais- 
sance. In  its  main  elements  the  move- 
ment originated  in  Italy  toward  the  end 
of  the  14th  century,  and,  attaining  its 
full  development  there  in  the  earlier  half 
of  the  16th  the  Renaissance  communi- 
cated itself  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
rest  of  Europe;  France,  Germany,  Eng- 
land, and  other  countries  participating 
later  in  the  movement.  The  culmination 
of  the  Henaissance  in  Italy  may  be  re- 


garded as  having  fallen  within  the  half 
century  1456-1500;  and  its  close  for  the 
land  of  its  birth  may  be  fixed  at  the  sack 
of  Rome  in  1527  by  the  Constable  de 
Bourbon,  followed  by  the  transference  of 
Humanism  in  its  later  developments  to 
France,  England,  and  the  rest  of  Europe. 

In  Germany  the  change  was  as  marked 
as  in  Italy,  but  the  Humanism  of  Ger- 
many and  the  Low  Countries  was  very 
different  in  spirit  from  that  of  Italy. 
Not  less  tinged  by  a  reviv^ed  love  for  an- 
cient learning,  it  was  never  divorced 
from  morality  nor  hostile  to  Christianity ; 
and  its  most  important  direct  outcome 
was  the  Reformation.  Biblical  and  Ori- 
ental studies  were  strenuously  cultivated. 
Among  the  noted  leaders  were  Erasmus, 
Melanchthon,  Reuchlin,  and  Von  Hutten. 
In  the  Netherlands  and  Flanders  the  new 
school  of  painting  was  a  notable  develop- 
ment. In  France  the  movement  had  rich 
results  in  art  and  letters.  Villon,  Marot, 
Ronsard,  but  above  all  Rabelais  are  types 
of  the  French  Renaissance  in  pure  liter- 
ature ;  while  within  the  sphere  of  scholar- 
ship and  religious  reform  are  Scaligers, 
Dolet,  Muretus,  Cujacius,  Salmasius, 
Casaubon,  Beza,  Calvin. 

In  England,  Wyclif  and  Chaucer  may 
be  regarded  as  the  forerunners  of  the 
Reformation  and  the  Renaissance;  but 
the  main  streams  of  both  these  move- 
ments reached  England  contempora- 
neously. In  scholarship  the  great  names 
are  Grocyn,  Linacre,  Colet,  Ascham,  and 
More;  but  the  fullest  English  outcome  of 
the  Renaissance  was  the  glorious  Eliza- 
bethan literature,  with  Spenser  and 
Shakespeare,  and  in  philosophy  Bacon,  as 
its  most  noted  representatives. 

EENAN,  JOSEPH  ERNEST  (re- 
naw<7),  a  French  writer;  bom  in  Tre- 
guier,  France,  Feb.  27,  1823.  He  studied 
at  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris, 
but  in  1845  gave  up  all  intention  of  be- 
coming a  priest  and  devoted  himself  to 
historical  and  linguistic  studies,  espe- 
cially the  study  of  Oriental  languages. 
In  1848  he  obtained  the  Volney  prize  for 
an  essay  on  the  Semitic  languages.  In 
1849  he_  was  sent  by  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres  on  a  mis- 
sion to  Italy,  and  in  1860  on  a  mission  to 
Syria.  In  1862  he  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and  Syriac 
in  the  College  de  France,  but  the  skep- 
tical views  manifested  in  his  "Life  of 
Jesus"  (1863),  raised  an  outcry  against 
him,  and  he  was  removed  from  his  chair, 
to  be  restored  again,  however,  in  1871. 
This  work,  the  publication  of  which 
caused  intense  excitement  throughout 
Europe,  was  the  first  part  of  a  compre- 
hensive work  on  the  "History  of  the  Ori- 
gins   of    Christianity,"    which    includes 


BENDSBUBQ 


496 


RENNIE 


"The  Apostles"  (1866);  "St,  Paul" 
(1867);  "The  Antichrist"  (1873);  "The 
Gospels"  (1877)  ;  "The  Christian  Church" 
(1879),  and  "Marcus  Aurelius"  (1880), 
all  written  from  the  standpoint  of  one 
who  disbelieves  in  the  supernatural 
claims  of  Christianity.  Renan's  latest 
important  work  is  the  "History  of  the 
People  of  Israel  till  the  Time  of  King 
David."  Other  works  are  "General  His- 
tory and  Comparative  System  of  Semitic 
Languages,"  "Studies  in  Religious  His- 
tory," "Discourses  and  Lectures,"  several 
philosophical  dramas,  and  his  personal 
reminiscences  called  "Recollections  of 
Childhood  and  Youth."  He  became  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1878. 
He  died  Oct.  2,  1892. 

RENDSBURG,  a  town  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein,  Prussia,  on  the  North  Sea  and 
Baltic  Canal,  19  miles  W.  of  Kiel.  Pop. 
about  20,000.  Rendsburg  was  taken  by 
the  Imperialists  in  1627;  by  the  Swedes 
in  1643;  and  by  the  Prussians  and  con- 
federate troops  in  1848.  The  first  diet 
of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  met  there 
April  3,  1848.  It  was  reoccupied  by  the 
Danes  in  1852,  and  taken  by  the  Prus- 
sians after  a  serious  conflict  July  21, 
1864. 

RENE,  surnamed  The  Good,  Duke  of 
Anjou,  Count  of  Provence,  and  King  of 
Sicily;  born  in  Angers,  France,  Jan.  16, 
1409;  son  of  Louis  II.,  Count  of  Anjou. 
He  married  in  1420  Isabella  of  Lorraine, 
but  was  driven  from  that  duchy  and  kept 
prisoner  by  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  for 
several  years.  He  succeeded  his  brother, 
Louis  III.,  in  1434,  and  was  chosen  suc- 
cessor to  the  kingdom  of  Naples  by 
Queen  Joanna  II.;  was  liberated  in  1436, 
and  v/as  afterward  engaged  in  war  for 
thi-ee  years  with  Alfonso  of  Aragon. 
Being  unsuccessful  in  this  conquest, 
Rene  retired  to  Provence.  His  daughter 
Margaret  was  married,  in  1445,  to  Henry 
VI.  of  England.  On  the  seizure  of  An- 
jou by  Louis  XI.  of  France,  in  1473, 
Rene  retired  to  Aix,  in  Provence,  where 
he  died  in  1480.  His  work  on  tourna- 
ments, and  some  of  his  poems  and  paint- 
ings, are  still  extant. 

RENFREW,  a  town  in  Scotland,  on 
the  S.  bank  of  the  Clyde,  6  miles  below 
Glasgow.  Its  charter  of  regality  dates 
from  1396,  but  it  was  a  burgh  at  least 
as  early  as  the  reign  of  David  I.  (1124- 
1153.)  A  knoll  called  Castlehill  commem- 
orates the  site  of  Renfrew  castle,  the 
original  seat  of  the  royal  house  of  Stew- 
art. The  principal  industries  are  ship- 
building and  weaving. 

RENIERA,  in  zoology,  the  type-genus 
of  Renierinse,  with  12  species.  Sponges, 
easily     crumbled,     elump-like     masses; 


canal  system  like  that  of  Halisarca. 
Skeleton  of  four,  five,  or  three  sided,  or 
polygonal  meshes;  spicules  acerated, 
pointed,  or  rounded  off,  and  connected 
by  horny  matter  at  their  ends  only. 
Distribution,  probably  world-wide. 

RENIERINiE,  in  zoology,  a  group  in- 
cluding all  sponges  which  resemble  Re- 
niera  in  having  a  skeleton  formed  of 
loose  network  of  acerate  or  cylindrical 
spicules,  (renera:  Amorphina,  Pel' 
Una,  Eumastia,  FolioUna,  Tedania, 
Schmidtia,  Plicatella,  and  Auletta.  Dis- 
tribution, world-wide. 

RENNENKAMPF,  PAUL  K.  VON,  a 

Russian  (General;  born  in  the  Baltic 
provinces  in  1854;  received  a  military 
education,  was  commissioned  and,  by 
1900,  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  In  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
(1904-1905)  he  acquired  prominence  as 
the  commander  of  a  division  of  Cossack 
cavalry.  During  the  early  part  of  the 
World  War  he  commanded  an  army  in 
East  Prussia,  but,  being  repeatedly  de- 
feated, was  finally  retired. 

RENNES,  the  former  capital  of  the 
province  of  Brittany,  France,  234  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Paris.  A  seven  days'  fire 
in  1720  destroyed  nearly  4,000  houses. 
Four  bridges  connect  the  upper  or  new 
town  and  the  lower  or  old  town,  and  the 
most  noteworthy  of  the  public  buildings 
are  the  cathedral,  finished  in  1844,  and 
Italian  in  style;  Notre  Dame,  with  its 
dome  surmounted  by  a  huge  image  of  the 
Virgin;  the  archbishop's  palace  (1672); 
the  stately  court  house  (1618-1654) ;  the 
university  buildings  (1855),  with  a  pic- 
ture gallery;  the  theater  (1835);  the 
Hotel  de  Ville,  with  a  public  library;  and 
the  Lycee.  As  the  focus  of  main  and 
branch  lines  of  railway  between  Paris 
and  the  N.  W.  of  France,  and  command- 
ing good  river  and  canal  navigation, 
Rennes  is  favorably  situated  for  com- 
merce. Its  ^  manufactures  include  sail 
cloth,  table  linen,  etc.  The  second  court- 
martial  of  Captain  Dreyfus  was  held  in 
Rennes  during  the  summer  of  1899. 
Pop.  about  80,000. 

RENNET,  an  aqueous  infusion  of  the 
dried  stomach  of  the  calf.  It  is  a  valua- 
ble agent  in  the  coagulation  of  the 
casein  of  milk  preparatory  to  the  manu- 
facture of  cheese.  Also  several  sub- varie- 
ties of  apple,  with  more  or  less  spotted 
fruit;  ground  color  gray,  or  golden. 
There  is  a  French  and  a  Canadian  ren- 
net; called  also  a  queen. 

RENNIE,  GEORGE,  an  English  civil 
engineer,  eldest  son  of  John  Rennie; 
born  in  Surrey,  England,  Jan.  3,  1791; 
educated  at  St.  Paul's  School,  London, 
and  at  Edinburgh  University.     In  1811 


RENNIE 


497 


RENWICK 


he  became  associated  with  his  father  in 
business,  and  on  his  father's  death  with 
his  brother  John.  He  constructed  great 
naval  works  at  Sebastopol,  Nicolaiev, 
Odessa,  Cronstadt,  and  in  the  principal 
ports  of  England,  built  several  English 
and  continental  railways  and  was  the  au- 
thor of  important  works  on  engineering. 
He  died  March  30,  1866. 

RENNIE,  JOHN,  an  English  civil  en- 
gineer; born  in  Phantassie,  Scotland, 
June  7,  1761;  educated  at  Dunbar  and 
Edinburgh.  He  labored  for  some  time  as 
a  workman  in  the  employment  of  a  mill- 
wright. He  was  afterward  employed  in 
London  in  the  construction  of  machin- 
ery. Here  his  reputation  rapidly  in- 
creased, till  he  was  regarded  as  stand- 
ing at  the  head  of  the  civil  engineers  of 
Great  Britain.  He  built  or  designed  nu- 
merous bridges,  canals,  docks,  and  har- 
bors; among  others,  London  Bridge 
across  the  Thames,  the  Crinan  Canal, 
the  Lancaster  Canal,  and  the  Avon  and 
Kennet  Canal;  the  London  Docks,  the 
East  and  West  India  Docks,  and  docks 
at  Hull,  Greenock,  Leith,  Liverpool,  and 
Dublin;  the  harbors  at  Queensferry, 
Berwick,  Howth,  Holyhead,  Kingstown, 
and  Newhaven;  and  the  government 
dockyards  at  Portsmouth,  Chatham, 
Sheerness,  and  Plymouth.  He  died  in 
London,  Oct.  16,  1821. 

RENO,  a  city  of  Nevada,  the  county- 
seat  of  Washoe  co.  It  is  on  the  Truckee 
river,  and  on  the  Southern  Pacific,  the 
Virginia  and  Truckee,  and  the  Nevada, 
California,  and  Oregon  railroads.  It  is 
also  on  the  Truckee-Carson  canal,  a 
government  irrigation  project  extending 
over  30  miles.  It  is  the  chief  city  of  the 
State  in  industry,  and  contains  railroad 
shops,  reduction  works,  flour  mills,  and 
meat-packing  houses.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  Nevada  State  University,  and  has  the 
United  States  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  the  State  Hospital  for  Mental 
Diseases,  the  Mackay  School  of  Mines,  a 
public  library,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  buildings,  etc. 
Pop.   (1910)   10,867;    (1920)   12,016. 

RENOIR,  (PIERRE)  AUGUSTE,  a 
French  figure  and  landscape  painter; 
born  in  1841,  at  Limoges.  He  began 
his  artistic  career  by  painting  figures 
upon  china  and  porcelain.  After  study- 
ing in  Paris  he  became  associated  with 
the  leaders  of  the  modern  impressionist 
school  and  in  1879  his  works  were  exhib- 
ited in  the  Salon.  He  has  devoted  him- 
self to  the  portraiture  of  women  and 
children  and  his  best  work  has  been  done 
in  this  field  rather  than  in  landscape 
painting.  Among  his  best  works  are 
found  "Young  Girls  at  the  Piano" 
(1888);  "Fem-Je  Torso"    (1906);   "Ma- 


dame Charpentier  and  Her  Children" 
(1878,  Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York) ;  and  the  portraits  of  his  contem- 
poraries Monet  and  Sisley. 

RENSSELAER,  a  city  of  New  York, 
in  Rensselaer  co.  It  is  on  the  Hudson 
river,  directly  opposite  Albany,  and  on 
the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River 
and  the  Boston  and  Albany  railroads. 
Its  industries  include  the  manufacture 
of  ice  tools,  chains,  dyes,  medicines, 
clothing,  furniture,  lumber  products,  etc. 
It  has  the  shops  and  freight  yards  of  the 
Boston  and  Albany  railroad.  It  has 
several  parks  and  public  buildings.  Pop. 
(1910)   10,711;    (1920)   10,823. 

RENSSELAER  POLYTECHNIC  IN- 
STITUTE, an  engineering  and  scientific 
school  located  at  Troy,  N.  Y.  Founded 
by  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer  in  1824,  the 
first  engineering  school  that  has  had  a 
continued  existence  to  be  founded  in 
America.  The  old  buildings  were  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1904,  so  that  the  pres- 
ent buildings  are  new,  well  arranged, 
and  well  equipped  with  modern  appara- 
tus. There  are  courses  leading  to  de- 
grrees  of  Chemical  Engrineering,  Mechan- 
ical Engineering,  Civil  Engineering  and 
Electrical  Engineering.  Graduate  de- 
grees in  these  subjects  are  also  given  on 
the  completion  of  advanced  work.  In 
1919  the  number  of  students  enrolled 
registered  641,  with  a  faculty  of  60. 
Palmer  C.  Ricketts  is  the  president  of 
the  institute. 

RENT,  a  sum  of  money,  or  other  valu- 
able consideration,  payable  periodically 
for  the  use  of  lands  or  tenements;  the 
return  made  to  the  owner  by  the  occupier 
or  user  of  any  corporeal  inheritance.  It 
does   not   necessarily   consist   in    money. 

Adam  Smith  considers  rent  as  the 
price  paid  for  the  use  of  land.  Ricardo 
and  his  followers  considered  that  the 
rent  of  superior  soils  is  equal  to  the 
difference  between  their  produce  and 
that  of  the  worst  soils  cultivated.  There 
is  great  doubt  as  to  the  accuracy  of  this 
view.  Land  let  by  a  landlord  to  a  ten- 
ant for  purpose  of  cultivation  is  anal- 
ogous to  money  lent  to  a  borrower.  The 
rent  of  the  land  is  virtually  the  interest 
on  the  land  viewed  as  a  loan.  See 
Single  Tax. 

RENUNCIATION,  the  act  of  renounc- 
ing a  title;  applied  especially  to  the  act 
of  an  executor,  who,  ha\ang  been  nomi- 
nated in  a  will,  and  having  the  option 
of  acting  as  such  or  not,  declines  to  act, 
and  in  order  to  avoid  any  liabilitj/  ex- 
pressly renounces  the  office. 

RENWICK.  JAMES,  the  last  of  the 
martyrs  of  the  Covenant;  born  in  Mon- 


BEORGANIZED    CHURCH 


498 


REPORTING 


iaive,  Scotland,  Feb.  15,  1662.  He  at- 
tended Edinburgh  University  with  a  view 
to  the  ministry,  but  was  denied  his  de- 
gree, as  he  refused  the  oath  of  allegiance. 
He  was  chosen  by  the  "Societies,"  as  the 
bands  of  men  devoted  to  the  Covenant 
were  called,  to  proceed  to  Holland  to 
complete  his  studies  in  1682,  was  or- 
dained in  1683,  and  returned  to  Scot- 
land. His  life  was  now  exposed  to  great 
hazards,  and  often  reduced  to  great  des- 
titution. In  1684  he  published  his 
"Apologetic  Declaration,"  for  which  he 
was  outlawed.  When  James  II.  came  to 
the  throne  in  1685  Ren  wick  with  200  men 
went  to  Sanquhar,  and  published  a  dec- 
laration rejecting  him.  A  reward  was 
offered  for  his  capture,  he  was  hunted 
from  place  to  place,  and  was  at  last  cap- 
tured in  Edinburgh.  He  was  condemned 
and  executed  Feb.  17,  1688. 

REORGANIZED  CHURCH  OF  JESUS 
CHRIST  OF  LATTER-DAY  SAINTS, 
an  ecclesiastical  organization  claiming  to 
be  the  church  of  Latter-Day  Saints  es- 
tablished by  Joseph  Smith  and  associates 
at  Fayette,  New  York,  on  April  6,  1830. 
Following  the  death  of  Smith  the  church 
left  by  him  combined  and  fixed  their 
headquarters  at  Zarahemla,  Wis.,  in 
1852,  under  the  title  given.  They  re- 
enunciated  the  distinctive  tenets  enun- 
ciated by  the  founder  and  promulgated 
their  creed  in  his  words.  The  clause  re- 
lating to  marriage  says  that  the  church 
believes  "that  marriage  is  ordained  of 
God  and  that  the  law  of  God  provides  for 
but  one  companion  in  wedlock,  for  either 
man  or  woman,  except  in  cases  of  death 
or  where  the  contract  of  marriage  is 
broken  by  transgression."  There  has 
been  much  litigation  between  the  Re- 
organized Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of 
Latter-Day  Saints  and  the  Mormons  of 
Utah  as  to  which  organization  is  the  true 
successor  to  the  church  founded  by 
Joseph  Smith  and  the  courts  have  in 
every  case  sustained  the  former.  It  has 
now  churches  on  almost  every  continent 
and  a  membership  of  about  75,000. 

REPASSANT,  in  heraldry,  a  term  ap- 
plied when  two  lions  or  other  animals 
are  borne  going  contrary  ways,  one  of 
which  is  passant,  by  walking  toward  the 
dexter  side  of  the  shield  in  the  usual 
way,  and  the  other  repassant  by  going  to- 
ward the  sinister. 

REPEAT,  in  music,  a  sign  that  a 
movement  or  part  of  a  movement  is  to  be 
twice  performed.  That  which  is  to  be 
repeated  is  generally  included  within 
dots  in  the  spaces.  When  the  performer 
does  not,  on  repeating,  go  so  far  as  the 
last  dot  sign,  but  finishes  at  a  previous 
cadence,  it  is  usual  to  write  over  the  re- 


peat, Da  Capo,  placing  a  pause  and  Fine 
over  the  chord  at  which  the  performer  is 
to  stop.     See  Segno. 

REPEATER,  in  arithmetic,  an  inde- 
terminate decimal  in  which  the  same 
figures  continually  recur  or  are  repeated. 
In  firearms,  an  arm  which  may  be  caused 
to  fire  several  successive  shots  without 
reloading.  In  horology,  a  watch  or  clock 
made  to  strike  the  time  when  a  spring  is 
pushed  in.  Some  strike  the  hour  and 
quarters,  others  the  hour,  quarter,  and 
odd  minutes.  In  telegraphy  the  same  as 
relay. 

REPENTANCE,  or  REPENTAUNCE, 
the  act  of  repenting;  the  state  of  being 
penitent;  sorrow  or  regret  for  what  has 
been  done  or  left  undone  by  one's  self; 
especially  sorrow  and  contrition  for  sin; 
such  sorrow  for  the  past  as  leads  to 
amendment  of  life;  penitence,  contrition. 
(Matt,  ix:  13), 

Two  kinds  of  repentance  are  recog- 
nized in  the  New  Testament:  "Repent- 
ance to  salvation  not  to  be  repented  of," 
which  is  characterized  by  "godly  sor- 
row"; and  repentance  characterized  by 
"the  sorrow  of  the  world  that  worketh 
death."     (II  Cor.  vii:  9,  10). 

REPLEVIN,  a  personal  action  which 
lies  to  recover  possession  of  goods  or 
chattels  wrongfully  taken  or  detained, 
upon  giving  security  to  try  the  right  to 
them  in  a  court  of  law,  and  to  return 
them  if  the  suit  be  determined  against 
the  plaintiff.  Originally  a  remedy  pe- 
culiar to  cases  of  wrongful  distress,  it  is 
now  applicable  to  all  cases  of  wrongful 
taking  or  detention.  Also  the  writ  by 
which  goods  and  chattels  are  replevined. 

REPLICA,  in  the  fine  arts,  the  copy 
of  a  picture,  etc.,  made  by  the  artist  who 
executed  the  original. 

REPORTING,  an  important  branch  of 
journalism;  the  act,  system,  or  practice 
of  making  reports  of  meetings,  debates, 
or  the  like.  Accounts  of  single  speeches, 
and  at  times  of  entire  debates  in  the  Eng- 
lish Parliament,  having  come  down  to  us 
from  a  very  early  period.  Sir  Symonds 
d'Ewes  edited  the  "Journals  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Parliaments,"  and  the  Com- 
mons "Journals"  contain  notes  of 
speeches  in  the  Parliaments  of  James  I. 
Rushworth,  assistant  clerk  in  the  Long 
Parliament,  1640,  took  down  in  a  species 
of  shorthand  any  speech  of  importance; 
and  his  account  of  "Remarkable  Pro- 
ceedings in  Five  Parliaments"  forms  one 
of  the  most  valuable  portions  of  his 
"Historical  Collections."  In  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne,  a  monthly  pamphlet, 
called  the  "Political  State,"  gave  an  out- 
line  of  the   debates   in   Parliament.     In 


REPORTING 


499 


REPOUSSE 


the  reign  of  George  I.  the  "Historical 
Register,"  published  annually,  professed 
to  give  reports  of  parliamentary 
speeches.  The  "Gentleman's  Magazine" 
began  a  monthly  publication  of  the  de- 
bates August,  1735. 

The  Commons  in  1588,  and  the  Lords 
in  1698,  passed  resolutions  declaring  such 
publications  a  breach  of  privilege  and 
that  offenders  vi^ould  be  severely  punished. 
The  reports,  notwithstanding,  still  ap- 
peared, but  under  the  disguise  of  "De- 
bates in  the  Senate  of  Lilliput,"  in  the 
"Gentleman's  Magazine,"  and  "Debates 
in  the  Political  Club,"  in  the  "London 
Magazine."  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  was 
employed  by  Cave,  publisher  of  the  "Gen- 
tleman's Magazine,"  in  the  composition 
of  his  parliamentary  debates,  and  the  re- 
ports from  1740  to  1743  are  held  to  have 
been  entirely  prepared  by  him.  It  was 
not  till  30  years  later  that  the  parlia- 
mentary debates  descended  from  the 
magazines  to  the  newspapers. 

The  ever-memorable  contest  between 
Parliament  and  the  press  began  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1770.  The  House  of 
Commons  followed  up  another  solemn 
thi'eat  by  prompt  action;  and  the  Lord 
Mayor  of  London  and  Alderman  Oliver 
were  sent  to  the  Tower  for  refusing  to 
arrest  some  printers  of  reports  on  the 
warrant  of  the  Speaker,  John  Wilkes 
taking  an  active  share  in  the  contro- 
versy. The  city  of  London  loudly  pro- 
tested against  the  arbitrary  proceedings 
of  the  House,  and  the  whole  country 
responded  to  the  appeal.  The  power 
of  Parliament  to  imprison  ceased  at  the 
end  of  the  current  session,  and  on  the 
day  of  prorogation,  July  23,  the  Lord 
Mayor  and  Alderman  Oliver  marched 
aut  of  the  Tower  in  triumph,  and  at 
night  the  city  was  illuminated.  In  the 
next  session  the  House  of  Commons 
tacitly  acknowledged  itself  beaten.  The 
printers  defied  the  House,  continued  to 
publish  their  proceedings,  and  slept,  not- 
withstanding, secure  in  their  beds.  In  a 
short  time  the  House  of  Lords  also  con- 
ceded the  point,  and  the  victory  was  com- 
plete; though  it  is  still  in  the  power  of 
any  member,  who  may  call  the  Speaker's 
attention  to  the  fact  that  "strangers  are 
present,"  to  exclude  the  public  and  re- 
porters from  the  House. 

The  old  machinery  of  newspaper  re- 
porting was  susceptible  of  immense  im- 
provement. One  of  the  Woodfalls  (a 
brother  of  the  Woodfall  of  Junius)  had 
so  retentive  a  memory  that  when  editor 
of  the  ''Morning  Chronicle,"  he  used  to 
listen  to  a  debate  in  the  gallery,  and 
write  it  out  next  day,  the  taking  of  notes 
being  at  that  time  forbidden.  His  succes- 
sor established  a  corps  of  parliamentarj' 
reporters  to  attend  the  debates  of  both 


Houses  every  night  in  succession.  He 
thus  brought  out  the  night's  debate  on 
the  following  morning,  anticipating  his 
rivals  by  10  or  12  hours.  The  improve- 
ment in  the  reports  of  the  debates  from 
the  period  of  the  American  Revolution 
till  the  year  1815  was  but  gradual.  At 
the  close  of  the  French  war,  however, 
the  publication  of  parliamentary  debates 
became  an  object  of  national  importance, 
and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  as- 
sumed its  present  full,  detailed,  and  ac- 
curate character.  Increased  facilities 
for  the  discharge  of  their  important  and 
arduous  duties  were  from  time  to  time 
given  to  the  reporters,  who  till  then  had 
no  means  of  entering  the  Stranger's  Gal- 
lery except  those  which  were  common  to 
the  public  generally.  Among  the  profes- 
sional parliamentary  reporters  of  this 
period  Charles  Dickens  was  conspicu- 
ous. He  was  at  work  for  the  "Morning 
Chronicle"  in  1834,  and  was  one  of  the 
best  reporters  of  his  time. 

The  system  of  parliamentary  report- 
ing underwent  a  change  of  great  impor- 
tance about  1847,  when  the  electric  tele- 
gn^aph  was  brought  into  general  use  by 
companies  formed  to  work  it.  They  pro- 
posed to  supply  papers  out  of  London 
with  London  news,  and  a  report  of  par- 
liamentary debates  was  part  of  the  news 
thus  supplied.  In  order  to  get  this  re- 
port the  telegraph  company  obtained  ad- 
mission to  the  gallery  for  its  reporters, 
and  thus  broke  the  monopoly  which  the 
London  daily  newspapers  had  up  to  that 
time  enjoyed. 

The  methods  of  newspaper  reporting 
in  the  United  States  have  been  developed 
to  a  degree  of  the  greatest  efficiency. 
It  is  usual  for  the  reporter  to  be  a 
proficient  in  the  art  of  stenogi-aphy  as 
well  as  in  that  of  mere  literary  composi- 
tion. Further  than  this,  in  some  of  the 
large  cities  the  reporter  must  also  be 
an  operator  on  a  typewrriting  machine,  in 
order  that  his  "copy"  may  go  to  the 
compositor  in  its  most  legible  shape.  The 
rapidity  with  which  reports  of  speeches, 
meetings,  notable  incidents,  etc.,  are 
furnished  to  the  press  is  something 
almost  incredible  to  the  uninitiated. 
The  various  press  associations  of  the 
country  are  the  principal  factors  in  the 
work  of  disseminating  the  results  of  re- 
portorial  work,  and  greatly  facilitate 
the  interchange  of  intelligence  between 
distant  points. 

REPOUSSE,  a  term  applied  to  a  ki .id 

of  ornamental  metal  work,  formed  in  re- 
lief by  striking  on  the  metal  from  behind 
with  a  punch  or  hammer  till  the  required 
forms  are  roughly  produced  in  relief  on 
the  surface;  the  work  is  then  finished  by 
the   process    of   chasing.     The   work    o£ 


BEFOTTSSfi 


500 


REPPLIEB 


Benvenuto  Cellini  (1500-1570),  in  this 
branch  of  art,  is  the  most  cekbrated. 
Common  work  of  this  kind,  as  for  tea  or 
coffee  pots,  is  executed  in  pewter  and 
Britannia  metal,  and  then  electrotyped. 

This  art,  as  practiced  by  the  silver- 
smith and  artist,  is  almost  entirely  de- 
pendent on  the  manual  dexterity  of  the 
operator.  The  kind  of  repousse  here 
suggested  depends  more  on  appliances 
than  skill.  It  is  not,  however,  assumed 
that  any  set  of  devices  can  be  made  to 
serve  in  lieu  of  taste  and  judgment. 

To  carry  out  this  method,  a  piece  of 
heavy  cotton  lace,  or  heavy  openwork 
fabric,  or  a  piece  of  a  basket  may  be 
glued  to  a  block  of  hard  wood  to  serve 
as  a  sort  of  die  for  producing  the  im- 
pression in  the  metal.  The  fabric  or 
basket  work  is  not  only  attached  to  the 
block  by  means  of  glue,  but  its  finer  inter- 
stices are  filled  with  glue,  so  as  to  present 
a  surface  resembling  the  original  fabric 
only  in  the  most  general  way.  When  the 
glue  is  perfectly  dry  and  hard,  the  die 
is  laid  on  a  solid  foundation,  and  a 
piece  of  very  thin,  soft  copper  or  brass 
is  secured  to  the  block  so  as  to  cover  the 
lace.  A  piece  of  cork  about  one-quarter 
inch  thick  and  about  three  inches  wide 
and  six  or  eight  inches  long  is  laid  over 
the  metal,  and  struck  with  a  mallet.  The 
cork  yields  sufiiciently  to  push  the 
metal  down  on  the  die,  and  cause  it  to 
take  the  pattern  of  the  lace  or  whatever 
is  used  in  forming  the  die.  A  piece  of 
rather  hard  rubber  packing  will  answer 
this  purpose  in  nearly  all  respects  as 
well  as  the  cork. 

Designs  may  be  cut  from  strong  paper 
or  pasteboard  and  glued  to  the  block,  or 
a  stencil  design  may  be  sawed  from  hard 
wood.  The  lines  and  scrolls  are  discon- 
tinued in  places,  so  as  to  cause  the  wood 
to  hold  together.  If  it  is  desired  to  ren- 
der the  lines  continuous  at  these  points, 
they  may  be  run  through  with  a  V-tool. 
Dots  are  picked  out  with  a  small  gouge 
or  with  the  point  of  a  revolving  drill.  In 
all  these  cases  the  metal  is  attached  to 
the  block  and  treated  as  above. 

Either  panels  or  continuous  strips  may 
be  embossed  in  the  manner  described,  and 
these  are  to  be_  used  in  making  frames, 
vases,  and  various  ornamental  objects. 
If  the  metal  is  too  thin  for  a  certain 
case,  it  may  be  strengthened  by  flowing 
soft  solder  over  the  back  of  the  plate  by 
means  of  a  soldering  iron.  As  to  finish, 
any  of  the  several  well  known  methods 
of  oxidizing  or  lacquering  may  be  em- 
ployed. 

Bas-reliefs  may  easily  be  made  by  a 
method  which  is  a  modification  of  the 
one  described. 

To  a  wooden  frame  is  fitted  a  board. 


on  which  is  drawn  in  outline  the  sign 
which  is  to  be  produced  in  relief.  The 
board  may  be  of  pine  or  any  close- 
grained,  soft  wood  for  lead  work;  but 
for  brass  or  copper,  the  v/ood  should  be 
hard.  To  the  frame  is  attached  the  plate 
of  metal  by  means  of  screws.  The  board  is 
removed  from  the  frame,  and  the  portion 
of  the  design  which  is  to  form  the  most 
prominent  feature  of  the  relief  is  sawed 
out  of  the  board,  when  the  latter  is  re- 
placed in  the  frame,  and  the  metal  is 
forced  into  the  opening  of  the  board  by 
pressing  on  the  surface  of  the  lead  oppo- 
site the  hole  in  the  board,  or  by  pound- 
ing it  by  means  of  the  mallet.  As  soon 
as  this  feature  is  complete,  the  next  in 
order  is  sawed  out  of  the  board,  and  the 
operation  is  repeated  till  all  of  the  gen- 
eral features  are  developed.  The  prog- 
ress of  the  work  can  be  observed  at  any 
time  by  removing  the  board. 

The  features  may  be  corrected  or 
modified  by  working  from  either  side  of 
the  plate  by  means  of  the  convex  mallet 
and  the  wooden  punches  and  chisels.  If 
a  support  is  desired  for  any  part  while 
the  work  is  progressing,  a  stout  bag 
filled  with  sand  may  be  placed  under  the 
part.  A  few  very  small  bags,  say  1 
inch  or  1*/^  inches  in  diameter,  will  be 
found  convenient.  If  desired,  the  dra- 
pery of  the  background  may  be  chased  by 
means  of  hard  wood  or  metal  punches, 
bearing  the  desired  figures. 

The  relief,  if  of  lead,  looks  well  with 
an  antique  finish.  This  may  be  secured 
by  rubbing  the  prominent  portions  of  the 
relief  with  fine  emery  cloth,  then  going 
over  the  entire  surface  with  a  swab 
formed  of  a  small  roll  of  cotton  cloth 
encircled  by  a  coil  of  copper  wire,  the 
swab  being  dipped  in  dilute  nitric  acid 
before  application  to  the  relief. 

The  copper  is  dissolved  and  deposited 
on  the  bright  prominent  portions,  while 
a  dark  deposit  is  made  in  the  hollows, 
which  when  dry  has  a  green  tinge. 

To  give  the  work  the  appearance  of 
antique  iron  the  surface  may  be  black- 
ened by  the  application  of  a  solution  of 
sulphuret  of  potassium  and  the  prom- 
inent portions  may  be  semi-polished 
by  briskly  rubbing  the  entire  surface 
with  a  piece  of  canvas  or  Brussels 
carpet. 

REPPLIER,  AGNES,  an  American  es- 
sayist; born  in  Philadelphia  in  1859. 
Her  published  works  include:  "Books 
and  Men";  "Points  of  View";  "In  the 
Dozy  Hours";  "Essays  in  Idleness"; 
"Essays  in  Miniature";  "Varia";  and 
"Philadelphia:  the  Place  and  the  Peo- 
ple." She  also  compiled  a  "Book  of 
Famous  Verse,"  "Americans  and  Others" 
and  "The  Cat"  (1912). 


BEPRESENTATIVE    GOV'T 


501 


REPRODUCTION 


REPRESENTATIVE         GOVERN- 

MENT,  that  form  of  government  in 
which  either  the  whole  of  a  nation,  or 
that  portion  of  it  whose  superior  intelli- 
gence affords  a  sufficient  guarantee  for 
the  proper  exercise  of  the  privilege,  is 
called  on  to  elect  representatives  or  depu- 
ties charged  with  the  power  of  control- 
ling the  public  expenditure,  imposing 
taxes,  and  assisting  the  executive  in  the 
framing  of  laws.     See  Constitution. 

REPRESENTATIVES,  HOUSE  OF, 
one  of  the  branches  of  the  Congress,  also 
known  as  the  Lower  House  and  the  Pop- 
ular House.  The  members  of  this 
branch  are  elected  directly  by  popular 
vote.  In  it  is  vested  by  the  National 
Constitution  the  sole  right  to  originate 
laws  concerning  the  finances  of  the  coun- 
try. The  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means 
of  the  House  is  the  original  source  of  all 
tariff  legislation,  and  all  bills  providing 
for  the  raising  or  expenditure  of  public 
moneys  have  their  origin  in  the  House. 
In  each  of  these  two  forms  of  legislation 
the  House  has  the  limited  co-operation  of 
the  Senate,  viz.,  the  Senate  may  amend 
a  tariff  bill  or  resolution  appropriating 
public  moneys  in  the  line  either  of  in- 
creasing or  decreasing  specific  amounts. 
The  House  has  the  pri\alege  of  passing 
on  these  Senate  amendments,  and  if  it 
declines  to  accept  any  part  of  such 
changes,  it  is  customary  to  appoint  a 
Conference  Committee  consisting  of  an 
equal  number  of  members  from  the  House 
and  Senate,  to  whom  the  disputed  sub- 
ject is  referred,  and  the  report  of  this 
committee  is  generally  accepted  in  the 
light  of  a  compromise  by  both  houses. 
The  membership  of  the  House  is  based  on 
the  population  of  the  country  as  ascer- 
tained decennially  by  the  census,  and 
therefore  changes  every  10  years. 

REPRIEVE,  the  suspension  or  delay 
of  the  carrying  out  of  a  sentence  (gen- 
erally of  death)  on  a  prisoner.  It  is 
popularly  but  erroneously  supposed  to 
signify  a  permanent  remission,  or  com- 
mutation of  a  capital  sentence. 

REPRISE,  in  maritime  law,  a  ship 
recaptured  from  an  enemy  or  pirate.  If 
recaptured  within  24  hours  of  her  cap- 
ture she  must  be  restored  to  her  owners 
in  whole;  if  after  that  period,  she  is  the 
lawful  prize  of  her  recaptors. 

REPRODUCTION,  the  term  applied  to 
the  whole  process  whereby  life  is  con- 
tinued from  generation  to  generation. 
One  of  the  characteristics  of  life  is  its 
continuity;  the  races  of  animals  and  the 
orders  of  plants  live  on  without  marked 
change  for  centuries;  by  slow  modifica- 
tions they  may  be  enriched  or  impover- 
ished, increased  or  thinned,  but  there  is 


no  breach  of  continuity.  All  the  forms 
of  life  seem  to  evolutionists  like  twigs  on 
one  many-branched  tree;  they  are  gen- 
etically related  by  near  or  distant  bonds 
of  kinship,  and  in  a  very  real  sense  each 
generation  is  continuous  with  those 
which  come  before  and  after  it. 

Modes  of  Reproduction. — Separated 
fragments  of  a  sponge  or  cuttings  from 
the  rose,  the  buds  of  a  hydra,  or  the  bulb- 
ils of  a  lily,  the  eggs  of  a  bird,  and  the 
seeds  of  plants  are  alike  able  to  grow 
into  new  organisms;  and  thus  we  see 
that  the  common  fact  about  all  kinds  of 
reproduction  is  that  parts  of  one  organ- 
ism are  separated  to  form  or  to  help  to 
form  new  lives.  In  many  cases  what  is 
separated  from  the  parent  life  is  simply 
part  of  its  body,  an  overgrowth  or  a 
definite  bud,  which,  being  set  free,  is  able 
to  I'eproduce  the  whole  of  which  it  is  a 
representative  sample.  This  is  called 
asexual  reproduction.  In  most  cases, 
however,  the  parents  give  origin  to  spe- 
cial reproductive  elements — egg  cells  and 
male  cells — which  combine  and  are  to- 
gether able  to  grow  into  a  new  life. 
This  is  called  sexual  reproduction. 

The  simplest  forms  of  reproduction 
are  found  among  the  single-celled  plants 
and  animals.  There  we  may  find  an  or- 
ganism like  Schizogenes,  multiplying  by 
breakage,  reproducing  by  rupture,  pre- 
sumably when  the  cell  has  overgrown 
its  normal  size;  in  others  numerous  buds 
are  liberated  at  once,  as  in  Arcella  and 
Pelomyxa;  in  many,  familiarly  in  the 
yeast  plant,  one  bud  is  formed  at  a  time; 
in  most  the  cell  divides  into  two  or  many 
daughter  cells.  The  cast-off  ^  arm  of  a 
starfish  may  regrow  the  entire  animal 
with  a  readiness  that  suggests  a  habit; 
some  kinds  of  worms  (e.  g.,  Nemerteans) 
break  into  pieces,  each  of  which  is  able 
to  regrow  the  whole;  large  pieces  of  a 
sea  anemone  or  of  a  sponge  are  some- 
times separated  off  and  form  new  organ- 
isms. 

But  the  usual  mode  of  asexual  repro- 
duction is  by  the  formation  of  definite 
buds.  When  these  buds  remain  continu- 
ous, colonial  organisms  result,  like  many 
sponges,  most  hydroids,  Siphonophora 
like  the  Portuguese  man-of-war,  many 
corals,  almost  all  the  Polyzoa,  and  many 
Tunicates.  The  runners  of  a  strawberry 
and  the  suckers  which  grow  around  a 
rose  bush  illustrate  the  same  state.  But 
in  a  few  plants,  like  the  liverwort  and 
the  tiger  lily,  a  kind  of  bud  may  be  de- 
tached, and  thus  begin  a  new  life.  It  is 
among  animals,  however,  that  the  libera- 
tion of  buds  is  best  illustrated,  for  this 
mode  of  reproduction  occurs  in  hydra  and 
many  hydroids,  in  some  "worms,"  and  in 
Polyzoa,  and  even  in  animals  as  highly 
organized     as     Tunicates.     Budding     is 


KEPRODUCTION 


502 


REPRODXTCTION 


usually  exhibited  by  comparatively 
simple  and  by  sedentary  animals,  and 
seems  indeed  to  be  natural  to  vegetative 
organisms.  Budding  is  only  possible 
when  the  organism  is  not  very  highly  dif- 
ferentiated, or  when  part  of  the  body  re- 
tains many  indifferent  units;  moreover, 
it  is  an  expensive  way  of  securing  the 
continuance  of  generation,  and  is  without 
the  advantage  to  the  species  which  un- 
doubtedly results  from  the  mingling  of 
two  life-currents  in  sexual  reproducton. 

Sexual  reproduction  in  its  fully  dif- 
ferentiated form  involves  (a)  the  dis- 
tinctness of  two  parent  organisms,  (b) 
the  formation  of  two  different  kinds  of 
i-eproductive  elements  —  e.  g.  spermato- 
zoa produced  by  the  male  and  ova  by  the 
female,  and  (c)  the  fertilization  of  the 
egg  cell  by  a  male  element.  Moreover 
the  process  of  sexual  reproduction  also 
includes  the  sexual  union  of  the  two 
parents,  or  other  ways  in  which  fertili- 
zation is  secured,  while  in  some  cases  the 
fertilized  ovum  develops  in  organic  re- 
lation with  the  mother  organism,  from 
which  it  is  eventually  separated  as  an 
embryo. 

Physiology  of  Reproduction.  —  All 
growth  is,  in  a  certain  sense,  of  the  na- 
ture of  reproduction.  It  is  an  increase 
in  the  amount  of  protoplasm  and  its  at- 
tendant train  of  substances.  Abundance 
of  food  material  and  conditions  favorable 
to  rapid  assimilation  are  necessarily  ac- 
companied by  rapidity  of  growth;  but  in 
the  most  favoring  circumstances  there  is 
an  inevitable  limit  to  the  growth  in  size 
of  a  single  cell.  It  occurs  when  the  rate 
of  assimilation  of  the  constantly  increas- 
ing mass  of  protoplasm  becomes  equal  to 
the  highest  possible  rate  of  absorption. 
Since  absorption  can  only  take  place 
through  the  surfaces,  and  since,  with  any 
given  figure  of  cell,  the  ratio  of  volume 
to  surface  is  a  perfectly  definite  rate  as 
the  cell  grows,  there  must  be  for  any 
given  figure  of  cell  a  perfectly  definite 
limit  of  size.  For  any  mass  of  cells  ar- 
ranged in  any  manner  there  must  be, 
for  similar  reasons  (though  other  factors, 
such  as  weight,  etc.,  may  be  operative 
and  varyingly  important),  a  definite 
limit  of  size.  When  in  the  single-celled 
animals  this  limit  is  reached,  or  is 
nearly  reached  so  that  starvation  begins 
—and  in  any  case  the  greater  the  size  of 
;he  cell  the  less  rapid,  in  proportion  to 
volume,  must  be  the  absorption,  unless  at 
a  certain  point  other  factors  at  present 
unknown  occur — then  division  of  the  cell 
takes  place,  by  which  means,  the  volume 
remaining  the  same,  the  surface  is 
doubled,  so  that  the  ratio  of  volume  to 
surface  and  therefore  of  assimilation  to 
absorption  is  lowered,  and  growth  is  once 
more   possible.     This   law    (first   clearly 


stated  by  Spencer  and  by  Leuckart)  is 
evidently  the  expression  of  a  factor  con- 
cerned in  the  initiation  of  cell  division 
and  therefore  of  the  Metazoa,  or  many- 
celled  animals.  In  the  Protozoa,  then, 
reproduction  is  related  to,  and  in  a  cer- 
tain sense  caused  by,  a  diminution  in  the 
possible  rate  of  assimilation,  which,  to 
the  protoplasm  concerned,  bears  the  as- 
pect of  an  impaired  nutrition.  In  the 
Metazoa,  though  reproduction  is  not  so 
entirely  a  mere  process  of  cell  division 
as  in  the  Protozoa,  a  connection  between 
nutrition  and  reproduction  is  observable. 
The  common  hydra,  with  an  abundant 
food  supply  and  favoring  circumstance, 
grows  rapidly,  the  growth  becoming  a 
process  of  asexual  reproduction  and  tak- 
ing the  form  of  the  production  of  numer- 
ous buds,  which  may  themselves  produce 
a  crop  of  secondary  buds.  But  if  the 
conditions  become  less  favorable  to  nu- 
trition through  the  lessening  of  the  sup- 
ply of  food  material,  then  this  rapid 
growth  ceases  and  reproductive  organs 
are  formed  and  sexual  reproduction  takes 
place. 

Fruit  trees  are  root-pruned  in  order 
that  the  crop  of  fruit  may  be  abundant; 
the  reason  being  that,  as  nutrition  is 
lessened  by  such  pruning,  there  follows 
an  increase  of  reproductive  activity 
which  takes  the  form  of  fruit.  If  the 
vegetative  activity  of  the  plant  be  what 
one  desires,  then  the  flower  buds  are 
nipped  off  and  sexual  activity  prevented. 
A  similar  result  follows  from  the  cas- 
tration of  animals.  Other  factors 
than  the  supply  of  food  matter  in- 
fluence assimilation  and  reproduction. 
As  in  the  case  of  all  molecular 
movements,  variations  O'f  temperature  « 
are  an  obvious  cause  of  change  of  state. 

Reproductive  maturity — the  blossom- 
ing of  the  individual  life — occurs,  as  has 
been  shown,  about  the  time  when 
growth  ceases.  In  the  lower  animals 
sexual  maturity  is  attained  relatively 
sooner  than  in  the  higher  forms;  but 
there  are  many  strange  cases  of  preco- 
cious and  retarded  reproduction.  Thus 
we  may  contrast  our  common  annuals 
and  the  "century  plant"  or  American 
aloe,  or  some  midges,  worms,  and  even  a 
couple  of  amphibians,  which  are  repro- 
ductive during  larval  life,  with  highly 
evolved  animals,  such  as  the  elephants. 

But,  while  reproduction  is  a  blossom- 
ing of  the  individual  life,  it  is  also  in  a 
sense  the  beginning  of  death.  The  flower 
and  fruit  often  end  the  life  of  the  plant. 
It  may  be  that  the  processes  of  rupture 
by  which  some  of  the  simplest  organ- 
isms reduce  their  bulk  and  multiply  their 
kind  are  but  a  few  steps  from  the  more 
diffuse  dissolution  of  death.  It  is  a  fact 
that  in  somie  simple  animals — e.  g.  some 


REPBODUCTION 


503 


REPRODUCTION 


"worms" — the  parent,  and  especially  the 
mother,  ruptures  and  dies  in  liberating 
the  reproductive  elements.  So,  among 
higher  forms,  not  a  few  insects — may- 
flies, locusts,  butterflies — die  a  few  hours 
after  reproduction.  The  exhaustion  is 
fatal,  and  the  males  are  sometimes  vic- 
tims as  well  as  their  mates.  In  higher 
organisms  the  fatality  of  the  reproduc- 
tive sacrifice  has  been  greatly  lessened, 
yet  death  may  tragically  occur,  even  in 
human  life,  as  the  direct  nemesis  of  re- 
production. In  short,  the  process  by 
which  new  lives  begin,  by  which  the  con- 
tinued life  of  the  species  is  secured,  tends 
to  be  antagonistic  to  the  life  of  the 
parent  individuals.  The  old  leaves  fall 
off  the  tree,  and  their  places  are  filled  by 
others. 

Rate  of  Reprodruction  and  Increase. — 
The  rate  of  reproduction  depends  on  the 
constitution  of  the  individual  organism 
and  on  its  immediate  environment  and 
nutrition.  The  rate  of  increase,  which 
is  much  more  difficult  to  estimate,  de- 
pends on  the  wide  and  complex  conditions 
of  life  which  are  often  included  in  the 
phrase  "the  struggle  for  existence." 
While  it  is  true  that  organisms  some- 
times exhibit  an  extraordinary  increase 
in  numbers  in  favorable  areas  and  sea- 
sons, and  while  we  know  of  many  forms 
and  even  of  whole  races  which  have 
dwindled  away  and  become  extinct,  the 
fluctuations  in  the  numbers  of  plants  and 
animals  seem  for  the  most  part  to  be  im- 
perceptibly gradual.  Their  rate  of  re- 
production is  adjusted  to  the  conditions 
of  their  life ;  the  rise  or  fall  of  the  popu- 
lation is  seldom  emphatic.  The  essay  of 
Malthus  (1798),  in  which  he  showed  that 
the  increase  of  human  population  tended 
to  outrun  the  means  of  subsistence,  but 
was  met  by  various  checks,  afforded  sug- 
gestions to  Darwin  and  Wallace,  who  ex- 
tended the  induction  of  Malthus  to 
plants  and  animals,  recognizing  in  their 
increase  the  fundamental  condition  of 
the  struggle  for  existence,  and  analyzing 
the  checks  as  various  forms  of  natural 
selection.  But  Herbert  Spencer's  analy- 
sis of  the  laws  of  multiplication  was 
even  more  penetrating.  Including  under 
the  term  individuation  all  those  race- 
preservative  processes  by  which  individ- 
ual life  is  completed  and  maintained, 
and  under  the  term  genesis  all  those 
processes  aiding  the  formation  and  per- 
fecting of  new  individuals,  he  showed 
both  inductively  and  deductively  that  in- 
dividuation and  genesis  vary  inversely. 
Genesis  decreases  as  individuation  in- 
creases, but  not  quite  so  fast;  in 
other  words,  progressive  evolution  in 
the  direction  of  individuation  is  asso- 
ciated with  a  diminishing  rate  of  re- 
production. 


Importance  of  Reproduction  in  Evo- 
lution.—-As  almost  every  individual  life 
begins  in  the  intimate  union  of  two  liv- 
ing units — the  male  cell  and  the  ei^g  cell 
— there  is  in  the  nature  of  the  organisms 
beginning  an  evident  possibility  of  varia- 
tion. The  two  cells,  and  more  especially, 
the  nuclei  of  the  two  cells,  are  inter- 
mingled; and  in  the  vital  combination 
which  results  new  characteristics  may  be 
evolved,  old  features  may  be  strength- 
ened, peculiarities  may  be  averaged  off. 
On  fertilization  as  a  source  of  variation, 
emphasis  has  been  laid  by  Treviranus, 
Galton,  Brooks,  and  others,  while  Hat- 
schek  regards  the  intermingling  as  an  im- 
portant counteractive  of  disadvantageous 
individual  peculiarities,  and  V/eismann 
finds  in  it  the  sole  source  of  transmissi- 
ble variations  in  many-celled  animals. 

In  the  individual  life  the  antithesis  be- 
tween the  reproductive  and  the  nutri- 
tive functions  has  many  expressions,  and 
in  terms  of  this  antithesis  not  a  few 
lines  of  variations  can  be  rationalized. 
Thus,  the  shortening  of  the  axis  of  the 
flower  seems  to  be  the  result  of  a  check 
imposed  on  the  vegetative  system  by  the 
reproduction  function;  thus,  the  develop- 
ment of  gymnosperm  into  augiosperm 
suggests  a  continuous  subordination  of 
the  reproductive  carpellary  leaf;  thus,  in 
almost  every  natural  alliance  of  phanero- 
gams may  be  read  a  contrast  between 
more  and  less  vegetative  types,  such  as  is 
seen  within  the  limits  of  a  single  species 
in  the  transitions  between  the  leafy  kale 
and  the  cauliflower.  Among  animals  the 
antithesis  is  expressed  in  different  ways 
— as  in  the  varied  degree  in  which  the 
reproductive  individuals  of  a  hydroid 
colony  are  differentiated  from  the  nutri- 
tive members. 

In  considering  the  evolution  of  ani- 
mals great  importance  is  always — and 
rightly — attached  to  the  self-preserving 
struggles  and  endeavors  which  secure  the 
satisfaction  of  nutritive  needs;  but  the 
species  maintaining  activities  of  repro- 
duction have  been  not  less  important. 
Thus,  Darwin  insisted  on  the  importance 
of  sexual  selection  as  a  factor  in  evolu- 
tion, and,  though  the  criticisms  of  WaU 
lace  and  others  have  lessened  the  co- 
gency of  Darwin's  argument,  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  courtship  has  aided 
in  the  evolution  of  the  psychical  life  of 
animals.  Romanes,  too,  in  his  insistence 
on  the  importance  of  isolation,  recognizes 
"the  reproductive  factor  in  evolution." 
For  by  variations  in  the  reproductive 
system  a  species  may  be  divided  into 
mutually  sterile  sets,  which,  prevented 
from  intercrossing  by  this  physiological 
barrier,  are  free  to  develop  along  di- 
vergent paths. 

The  increase  of  reproductive  sacrifice 


REPTILIA 


504 


REPUBLICAN    PARTY 


which  is  observed  in  the  evolution  of 
mammals  and  in  the  progress  through 
oviparous  monotremes,  prematurely- 
bearing  marsupials,  and  various  grades 
of  placentals;  the  growth  of  parental 
care,  and  the  frequent  subordination  of 
self-preserving  to  species-maintaining 
ends;  and  finally,  the  rise  of  sociality 
from  foundations  based  in  organic  kin- 
ship, are  well-known  facts  of  animal  life 
which  suggest  the  importance  of  the  re- 
productive factor  in  evolution. 

REPTILIA,  reptiles ;  cold-blooded, 
oviparous,  or  ovoviviparous,  vertebrate 
animals  having  the  skin  covered  with 
scales  or  scutes;  heart  with  two  auricles, 
ventricular  chamber  incompletely  di- 
vided. Respiration  takes  place  by  lungs, 
respiratory  movements  being  slow  and 
irregular.  Intestinal  tract  and  urogen- 
ital organs  open  into  a  common  cloaca. 
Aristotle  was  the  first  naturalist  who 
wrote  on  reptiles.  Some  progress  in 
classification  was  made  by  Ray  (1628- 
1705)  and  Linn^us  (1707-1778). 
Brongniart,  in  1799,  first  recognized  the 
characteristics  by  which  the  Batrachia 
differ  from  other  reptiles  and  form 
a  natural  passage  to  the  fishes.  In  1863 
in  his  Hunterian  Lectures,  Huxley 
adopted  the  term  Sauroids  for  that  di- 
vision of  the  vertebrates  which  he  after- 
ward called  Sauropsida.  He  divides  the 
Reptilia  into  the  following  orders:  Che- 
Ionia,  Plesiosauria,  Lacertilia,  Ophidia, 
Ichthyosauria,  Crocodilia,  Dicynodontia, 
Omithoscelida,  and  Pterosaiiria.  Owen 
makes  reptiles  proper  the  highest  of  the 
five  sub-classes  into  which  he  finally  di- 
vided his  Hasmatocrya  with  orders: 

Ichthyopteryr/ia  (extinct),  Saurojitein/gia  (ex- 
tinct), Anomodontia-  (extinct),  Chelonia,  Lacer- 
tilia (with  the  extinct  Mlosasauriis),  Ophidia,  Croco- 
dilia (with  the  extinct  Teleoscnirus  and  Strepsos- 
fondylu^),  Dinosavria  (extinct),  and  Pterosauria 
(extinct). 

Professor  Mivart  divides  the  Reptilia 
into  the  following  orders : 

Ichthyopterygia  (extinct),  Anomodontia  (ex- 
tinct), Dinosauria  (extinct),  Omithoaauria  (ex- 
tinct), Crocodilia;  RhynchocephaHa,  Sauroptcry- 
gia,  Lacertilia,  Ophidia,.  and  Chelonia. 

The  first  appearance  of  reptiles  is  be- 
lieved to  be  indicated  by  remains  of  a 
marine  Saurian  {Eosaurus  acadianus) 
of  Carboniferous  age.  Proterosaurus  is 
found  in  the  Permian.  In  Mesozoic  times 
the  reptilian  type  appears  in  such  variety 
and  in  such  a  high  state  of  development 
that  this  era  has  been  distinguished  as 
the  Reptilian  Age.  In  the  Trias  large 
marine  Saurians  and  Dinosaurs  are  met 
with ;  more  gigantic  forms  were  developed 
in  the  Jurassic  period;  and  the  class  at- 
tained its  highest  culmination  in  the 
Chalk. 

REPTON,  a  village  of  Derbyshire, 
England.     Here    was    founded    the    first 


Christian  church  in  Mercia,  of  which 
Repton  for  a  while  was  the  royal  and 
episcopal  capital.  It  was  the  seat  from 
before  660  till  its  destruction  by  the 
Danes  in  874  of  a  celebrated  nunnery,  as 
afterward  of  an  Austin  priory  from  1 1 72 
till  the  Dissolution.  Remains  of  this 
priory  are  incorporated  in  the  buildings 
of  the  free  grammar  school,  which, 
founded  in  1556  by  Sir  John  Porte,  has 
risen  to  be  one  of  the  great  English 
public  schools. 

REPUBLIC,  a  commonwealth;  a  form 
of  political  constitution  in  which  the  su- 
preme power  is  vested,  not  in  a  heredi- 
tary ruler,  but  in  the  hands  either  of 
certain  privileged  members  of  the  com- 
munity or  of  the  whole  community. 

REPUBLICAN  PARTY,  one  of  the 
two  great  political  parties  in  the  United 
States.  The  term  Republican  has  had  at 
different  times  different  significations. 
In  1792  a  faction  of  the  Anti-Federalists, 
advocating  more  direct  control  of  the 
government  by  the  people,  further  re- 
striction of  supreme  authority,  and  a 
stronger  emphasis  of  States  Rights,  be- 
gan to  be  known  as  the  Republican  party. 
This  party  was  increased  by  numbers  of 
voters  who  called  themselves  Democrats 
on  account  of  their  sympathy  with  the 
French  Jacobins.  The  combination  was 
known  officially  as  the  Democratic-Re- 
publican party.  Those  members  having 
centralizing  tendencies  having  seceded, 
the  term  Democratic  was  alone  retained. 
This  name,  as  the  title  of  a  National 
party  was  first  used  in  1825,  the  election 
of  1828  being  the  first  in  which  it  ap- 
peared, at  that  time  opposing  the  orij?- 
inal  holders  of  the  name.  The  name  Re- 
publican, as  the  title  of  a  party  went  out 
of  use  after  the  election  of  1824,  but  was 
resumed  in  1856,  during  the  administra- 
tion of  Mr.  Pierce  (1853-1857).  Its 
platform  rested  mainly  on  the  prohibi- 
tion of  slavery  in  the  Territories,  declar- 
ing that  freedom  was  the  public  law  of 
the  national  domain;  the  prohibition  of 
polygamy,  which  it  classed  with  slavery 
as  "the  twin  relic  of  barbarism";  and 
the  admission  of  Kansas  as  a  free  State. 
In  1856  the  party  fairly  divided  the  coun- 
try with  its  Democratic  competitor.  In 
June  of  that  year  its  convention  met  at 
Philadelphia  and  nominated  John  C.  Fre- 
mont for  President.  But  the  American 
party  drew  something  from  its  strength, 
and  though  showing  a  popular  vote  of 
1,341,264,  it  was  defeated,  the  slave 
States,  with  the  exception  of  Maryland, 
which  voted  for  Mr.  Fillmore,  going 
solidly  for  Mr.  Buchanan,  the  Democratic 
candidate,  who  was  elected  with  the  aid 
of  five  free  States,  11  of  the  latter  vot- 
ing for  General  Fremont.     The  decision 


HEPUBLICAN    PABTY 


605 


EEPUDIATION 


in  the  Dred  Scott  Case  and  the  progress 
of  events  in  Kansas  greatly  strengthened 
the  party,  and  after  the  divisions  among 
the  Democrats  over  the  same  question  in 
1860  the  success  of  the  Republicans  was 
assured.  In  1860  the  party  elected 
Abraham  Lincoln  President.  The  sec- 
tional issue  was  still  more  strongly 
marked  and  he  received  the  electoral 
votes  of  the  free  States  except  New  Jer- 
sey, which  gave  three  votes  to  Mr.  Doug- 
las. On  the  announcement  of  his  elec- 
tion the  Southern  States  prepared  to  se- 
cede, South  Carolina  leading,  followed 
by  10  others.  Mr,  Lincoln  was  inaugu- 
rated March  4,  1861,  General  Scott  care- 
fully supervising  the  ceremony.  He  as- 
serted that  there  was  no  right  to  inter- 
fere with  slavery  in  the  States  where  it 
existed,  and  acknowledged  that  of  the 
reclamation  of  fugitive  slaves;  but  he 
expressed  his  determination  to  execute 
the  laws  and  protect  public  property. 
The  conduct  of  the  Civil  War  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Republican  party,  though 
northern  Democrats  formed  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  Union  army. 

In  1864  Mr.  Lincoln  was  unanimously 
nominated  by  the  Republicans,  and  was 
re-elected  by  an  overwhelming  majority. 
The  war  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
surrender  of  General  Lee,  April  9,  1865; 
on  the  14th  Mr.  Lincoln  was  assassinated, 
and  died  the  next  day,  Andrew  John- 
son, the  Vice-President,  immediately 
succeeded  him,  and  continued  his  cabinet. 
Mr.  Johnson  had  been  a  loyal  Union  man 
of  Tennessee  and  was  chosen  in  view  of 
the  reconstruction  of  the  South,  He 
soon  disagreed  with  the  party  and  came 
into  actual  conflict  with  Congress.  He 
was  impeached  March  23,  1868,  but  ac- 
quitted May  16  and  26  for  lack  of  one 
of  two-thirds  for  conviction,  Chief-Jus- 
tice Chase  presided  at  this  trial.  In 
1868  Ulysses  S,  Grant  was  elected  Presi- 
dent. His  election  was  urged  on  the 
ground  that  the  Republican  party,  hav- 
ing successfully  finished  the  war,  main- 
tained public  credit,  abolished  slavery, 
and  secured  liberty,  was  the  proper  one 
to  carry  on  the  government.  In  May, 
1872,  the  Liberal  Republicans  met  in 
Cincinnati,  and  nominated  Horace  Gree- 
ley, which  action  was  indorsed  by  the 
Democratic  convention.  The  Republi- 
cans nominated  General  Grant,  and  re- 
elected him  by  a  larger  vote  than  that  of 
the  former  term.  In  1876  Rutherford 
B.  Hayes,  by  the  decision  of  the  Presi- 
dential Electoral  Commission,  was  de- 
clared elected.  During  this  administra- 
tion the  resumption  of  specie  payments 
took  place,  Jan.  1,  1879,  and  the  recon- 
struction of  the  South  went  forward. 
In  1880  James  A.  Garfield  was  elected 
president,  and  died  Sept.  19,  1881,  from 


wounds  inflicted  July  2,  and  Chester  A. 
Arthur,  the  Vice-President,  took  his 
place.  In  1884  there  arose  a  consider- 
able defection  from  the  party  ranks,  the 
seceders  calling  themselves  Independent 
Republicans,  and  declining  to  vote  for 
James  G,  Blaine,  the  regular  nominee. 
As  a  result  Grover  Cleveland,  the  Demo- 
cratic candidate,  was  chosen.  In  1888 
the  party  again  triumphed  in  the  Na- 
tional election,  Benjamin  Harrison  de- 
feating Grover  Cleveland  on  the  tariff 
issue.  During  this  administration, 
largely  by  the  diplomacy  of  Mr.  Blaine, 
Secretary  of  State,  reciprocity  trade  re- 
lations were  established  with  five  South 
American  States,  with  Austria-Hungary, 
Spain  and  Great  Britain  (as  to  British 
Guiana,  and  some  of  the  British  West 
India  islands),  admitting  certain  articles 
free  of  duty  for  the  mutual  advantage  of 
these  States  and  the  United  States,  A 
new  tariff  bill,  known  as  the  McKinley 
bill,  was  passed  favoring  protection.  A 
brief  protectorate  was  assumed  by  the 
United  States  minister  to  Hawaii  over 
the  islands  (see  Hawaii).  In  1892  the 
party  was  defeated  by  the  second  elec- 
tion of  Grover  Cleveland  and  a  Demo- 
cratic Congress.  In  1894  it  again  came 
into  power  in  Congress  by  signal  majori- 
ties carrying  even  Kentucky  and  other 
Democratic  strongholds;  and  in  1896  re- 
gained all  branches  of  the  Government 
by  the  election  of  William  McKinley  and 
an  increased  majority  of  Congress.  In 
1899  the  Republican  party  held  the  gov- 
ernorship in  26  States,  and  controlled 
the  legislature  in  22,  with  a  plurality  in 
several  others.  In  1900  President  Mc- 
Kinley was  re-elected,  his  first  adminis- 
tration having  been  marked  by  a  general 
business  prosperity,  and  the  successful 
waging  of  the  war  against  Spain,  "in  the 
interest  of  humanity."  On  the  death  of 
President  McKinley,  from  an  assassin's 
bullet,  Sept.  14,  1901,  his  place  was  filled 
by  Theodore  Roosevelt,  Vice-President. 
Elected  President  1904. 

The  Panama  Canal  was  begun  in  his 
administration,  and  completed  in  the 
Taft  administration  that  followed.  In 
1912,  Taft  and  Sherman  ran  for  re-elec- 
tion, Roosevelt  and  Hiram  Johnson  head- 
ing the  Progressives.  Taft  only  carried 
Vermont  and  Utah,  Roosevelt  received 
88  electoral  votes.  Woodrow  Wilson  be- 
came President;  was  re-elected  in  1916, 
running  against  Charles  E.  Hughes,  Re- 

Sublican.  On  March  4,  1919,  the  Repub- 
cans  gained  control  of  the  Senate  and 
House.  The  Republican  victory,  on  Nov. 
4,  1920,  gave  the  entire  control  of  the 
Government  to  the  Republican  party. 

REPUBIATIOir,  an  unprincipled 
method     for     the     extinguishment     of 


REPULSION 


506 


BESERVATION,  PAPAL 


a  debt,  by  simply  refusing  to  acknowl- 
edge the  obligation.  The  11th  amend- 
ment of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  prohibits  citizens  of  another  or  a 
foreign  State  from  bringing  suits  against 
a  State  in  the  federal  courts;  while  the 
individual  States,  not  being  independent 
sovereigns,  could  only  be  called  to  ac- 
count by  a  foreign  power  through  the  Na- 
tional Government.  Reprisals  or  war  are 
thus  as  impossible  as  a  suit  at  law,  and 
there  is  really  no  means  by  which  the 
States  can  be  compelled  to  recognize  and 
meet  their  obligations.  Twice  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  country  have  several  States 
taken  advantage  of  this  condition  of  af- 
fairs— once  after  the  commercial  crisis 
of  1839,  in  which  the  United  States  Bank 
stopped  payment,  and  again  in  the  years 
following  the  Civil  War.  In  the  latter 
period  Virginia,  North  and  South  Caro- 
lina, Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Missis- 
sippi, Louisiana,  and  Arkansas  were 
among  the  defaulters.  Virginia,  indeed, 
refused  payment  chiefly  on  the  ground 
that  no  part  of  its  existing  debt  had  been 
allocated  to  West  Virginia  when  the  lat- 
ter was  separated  as  a  State  in  1863; 
and  later  acts  of  repudiation  found  a 
local  justification  in  the  same  grievance. 

REPULSION,  in  physics,  the  force 
which  compels  certain  bodies  or  their 
particles  to  recede  from  each  other.  No 
repulsion  exists  between  bodies  at  sensi- 
ble distances,  except  when  they  are  in 
certain  electric  or  magnetic  states,  in 
which  case  the  repulsions  between  them 
are  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  square  of 
the  distance.  At  insensible  distances, 
some  influence  keeps  the  particles  of  a 
body  from  being  in  absolute  contact, 
whence  results  the  phenomenon  of  elas- 
ticity. The  motions  produced  by  heat 
are  also  a  cause  of  strong  molecular  re- 
pulsion. The  molecules  of  gases  are  al- 
ways in  a  state  of  mutual  repulsion. 

REPUTED  OWNER,  in  law,  one  who 
has  to  all  appearance  the  actual  posses- 
sion and  ownership  of  property.  When 
a  reputed  owner  becomes  bankrupt,  all 
goods  and  chattels  in  his  possession  may 
in  general,  with  the  consent  of  the  true 
owner,  be^  claimed  by  the  trustee  for  the 
benefit  of  the   creditors. 

REQUIEM,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  a  solemn  musical  mass  for  the 
dead,  which  begins  in  Latin,  "Requiem 
^t&i~nam  dona  eis,"  etc.,  "Give  to  them 
eternal  rest,"  etc.  Mozart,  Jomelli,  and 
Cherubini  composed  famous  requiems. 

REREDOS,  the  screen  at  the  back  of 
an  altar.  Also  the  screen  in  front  of 
the  choir,  on  which  the  rood  was  dis- 
played, and  the  wall  or  screen  at  the  back 
of  a  seat.     An  open  hearth,  upon  which 


fires  were  lighted  immediately  under  the 
louvre. 

RESACA  DE  LA  PALMA,  a  ravine 
in  Cameron  co.,  Tex.,  where  on  May  9, 
1846,  the  United  States  troops  under 
Taylor  defeated  the  Mexicans  under 
General  Arista,  and  opened  the  way  t« 
Matamoros. 

RESCRIPTS,  answers  of  the  Popes 
and  emperors  to  questions  in  jurispru- 
dence officially  propounded  to  them. 
Rescripta  principis  (rescripts  of  the 
prince)  were  one  of  the  authoritative 
sources  of  the  civil  law,  and  consisted  of 
the  answers  of  the  emperor  to  those  who 
consulted  him,  either  as  public  func- 
tionaries or  as  individuals,  on  questions 
of  law.  They  were  often  applied  for  by 
private  persons,  more  especially  women 
and  soldiers,  to  solve  their  doubts  or 
grant  them  privileges.  The  rescripts 
directed  to  corporate  and  municipal 
bodies  were  known  as  pragmaticse  sanc' 
tiones,  a  name  which  has  found  its  way 
into  the  public  law  of  Europe. 

RESCUE,  in  law,  is  the  forcibly  and 
knowingly  freeing  another  from  an  ar- 
rest or  imprisonment;  and  it  is  generally 
the  same  offense  in  the  stranger  so 
rescuing,  as  it  v/ould  have  been  in  a 
jailer  to  have  voluntarily  permitted  an 
escape. 

RESECTIOHr,  in  surgery,  the  opera- 
tion of  cutting  out  the  diseased  parts  of 
a  bone  at  a  joint.  It  frequently  obviates 
the  necessity  of  amputating  the  whole 
limb,  and,  by  the  removal  of  the  dead 
parts,  leaves  the  patient  a  limb  which, 
though  shortened,  is  in  the  majority  of 
cases  better  than  an  artificial  one.  Re- 
section, which  is  one  of  the  triumphs  of 
modern  surgery,  was  performed  as  early 
as  1762. 

RESEDA,  the  mignonette;  the  typi- 
cal genus  of  Resedacex;  from  Europe 
and  western  Asia;  known  species,  26. 
One  species,  R.  phyteivrna,  is  eaten  as  a 
kitchen  plant  in  Greece.  R.  odorata  is 
the  mignonette.  R.  luteola  yields  a  yel- 
low dye. 

RESERVATION,  in  the  United  States, 
a  tract  of  the  public  land  reserved  for 
some  special  use,  such  as  Indian  tribes, 
national  parks,  notable  battlefields,  larga 
military  cemeteries,  etc. 

RESERVATION,  PAPAL,  the  privi- 
lege, introduced  by  John  XXII.  and  con- 
tinued by  Clement  VI.  and  Gregory  XL, 
of  reserving  to  the  Holy  See  the  power 
of  electing  bishops,  formerly  possessed 
by  the  clergy  and  people  of  the  several 
cities.  Reservations  were  abolished  by 
the  Council  of  Constance,  March  €5, 
1436. 


BESEBVE 


507 


BESHT 


RESERVE,  in  military  usage,  a  body 
of  troops  kept  for  any  emergency;  that 
portion  of  an  army  drawn  up  for  battle 
which  is  reserved  to  support  the  other 
lines  as  occasion  requires.  In  Europe 
the  term  includes  those  soldiers  who, 
after  having  enlisted  for  a  certain  period 
of  service,  have  been  a  certain  time  in 
the  army,  and  then  have  been  passed  into 
the  reserve,  in  which  they  are  at  any 
time  liable  to  be  recalled  to  service  till 
their  full  period  of  enlistment  has  ex- 
pired. (See  Army.)  A  magazine  of 
warlike  stores  situated  between  an  army 
and  its   base  of  operations. 

RESERVE  BANKS,  FEDERAL,  a 
system  of  Government  banks  to  act  as  a 
stabilizing  influence  on  private  banking 
institutions  during  periods  of  financial 
disturbances.  The  discussion  of  Govern- 
ment support  of  private  financial  insti- 
tutions came  as  a  result  of  the  financial 
panic  of  1907,  when  through  the  popular 
distrust  of  depositors  hundreds  of  pri- 
vate banks  were  forced  into  the  hands  of 
receivers,  not  through  lack  of  a  sound 
economic  basis,  but  through  inability  to 
liquidate  their  assets  in  time  to  meet  the 
runs  of  depositors,  clamoring  for  their 
funds.  The  idea  behind  the  Federal  Re- 
serve Bank  was  to  give  confidence  to  the 
people  in  the  private  banks  by  placing 
the  financial  strength  of  the  Government 
behind  them,  thus  assuring  the  deposit- 
ors of  the  financial  safety  of  their  sav- 
ings. 

The  Federal  Reserve  bank  was  estab- 
lished by  an  Act  of  Congress,  finally 
passed  on  Dec.  23,  1913.  By  this  law 
the  country  was  divided  into  Reserve 
Bank  districts,  in  each  of  which  was  es- 
tablished a  reserve  bank.  One  was 
placed  in  each  of  the  follovdng  centers: 
Boston,  Mass.,  New  York  City,  Philadel- 
phia, Cleveland,  Richmond,  Va.,  Atlanta, 
Ga.,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Minneapolis, 
Kansas  City,  Dallas,  Tex.,  and  San  Fran- 
cisco. Each  of  these  acts  as  a  depos- 
itory for  the  national  banks  of  its  dis- 
trict, each  of  which  subscribes  stock  to 
the  extent  of  six  per  cent,  of  its  paid-up 
capital  and  surplus.  State  banks  also 
have  the  privilege  of  becoming  partici- 
pants in  the  plan,  provided  that  they  are 
willing  to  submit  to  certain  conditions 
imposed  as  to  the  amount  of  their  re- 
serves, etc. 

Each  Federal  Resei*ve  district  bank  is 
governed  by  nine  directors;  three  repre- 
senting the  national  banks  of  the  dis- 
trict, thiee  representing  agriculture,  in- 
dustry and  commerce  in  general,  and  the 
rest  representing  the  Government,  being 
appointed  by  the  Federal  Reserve  Bank 
Board,  in  Washington,  D.  C.  This  lat- 
ter body  controls  the  whole  system  and 
consists  of  the  Secretary  of  the  United 


States  Treasury,  the  Comptroller  of  Cur- 
rency, ex-officio,  and  five  members  who 
are  appointed  by  the  President,  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  Senate. 

The  functions  of  the  Board  are  to  so 
mobilize  the  finances  of  the  country  as  to 
act  as  a  reserve  in  any  part  of  the  coun- 
try where  private  banks  may  be  threat- 
ened by  a  panic.  The  very  existence  of 
the  system,  however,  acts  as  a  deterrent 
on  any  such  threat.  This  is  done 
through  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
who  has  the  power  to  place  Government 
gold  reserves  at  the  disposal  of  any  of 
the  district  centers,  where  the  national 
banks  may  quickly  realize  on  their  long- 
time securities  or  investments  by  bor- 
rowing from  the  reserve  banks.  Aside 
from  this,  any  individual  bank  in  tem- 
porary difficulties  on  account  of  a  sud- 
den run  of  depositors  is  able  to  utilize 
the  reserves  of  other  banks,  through  the 
district  bank,  and  is  in  no  danger  of  be- 
ing tied  up  with  long-time  notes  or  mort- 
gages, on  which  the  loans  may  be  quickly 
made.  Through  the  reserve  banks,  also, 
the  practice  of  Rediscounting  (q.  v.),  so 
common  a  practice  in  European  coun- 
tries, is  in  this  country  becoming  more 
common,  and  banks  are  able  to  utilize 
the  capital  sunk  in  negotiable  instru- 
ments by  utilizing  them  as  a  form  of 
currency.  National  banks  participating 
in  the  plan  are  also  able  to  issue  notes 
on  their  gold  reserves  to  the  extent  of 
40  per  cent. 

On  Oct.  17,  1919,  a  report  of  the  Board 
m  Washington  showed  the  financial  con- 
dition of  the  Federal  Reserve  Bank  to  be 
as  following: 

Gold  reserves    $2,128,000,000 

Capital  paid  in    85,000,000 

Government  depoeite   133,000,000 

Total   ^oss  deposits    2,958,000.000 

Total    resources    6,161,000,000 

Federal  Reserve  Bank  notes  in  circu- 
lation amounted  to  $2,752,000,000,  and 
notes  issued  by  the  participating  na- 
tional banks  amounted  to  $249,000,000. 

RESERVOIR,  an  artificial  basin  in 
which  a  large  quantity  of  water  is  stored. 
A  vast  system  of  reservoirs,  called 
"tanks,"  exists  in  India,  constructed  for 
purposes  of  irrigation.  The  reservoirs 
on  the  irrigation  canals  of  Spain  are  all 
of  masonry;  they  are  circular  or  polyg- 
onal in  shape,  and  the  interior  face  of  the 
wall,  which  is  constructed  of  large  ash- 
lars, is  vertical.  In  France,  Italy,  and 
particularly  in  England,  the  preference 
is  given  to  earthen  dams.     See  Dam. 

RESHT,  or  RESHD.  a  town  of  Persia; 
capital  of  the  province  of  Ghilan,  stand- 
ing near  the  S.  W.  shore  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  150  miles  N.  W.  of  Teheran.  Silk 
is  grown  and  m-inufactured;  and  rice  and 
tobacco  are  cultivated.     The  port  of  the 


RESIDENCE 


508 


RESORCIN 


place  is  Enzeli,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
bay,  and  16  miles  distant.  Pop.  between 
30,000  and  40,000. 

RESIDENCE,  The  length  of  time 
which  a  person  shall  remain  within  the 
limits  of  a  state  in  order  to  give  him  a 
legal  residence  there,  varies  in  the  differ- 
ent commonwealths,  each  government  be- 
ing the  judge  of  the  qualifications  neces- 
sary to  entitle  a  denizen  to  claim  per- 
manent residence  within  its  boundaries. 
An  alien  who  desires  to  become  a  natural- 
ized citizen  of  the  United  States  must 
prove  a  residence  of  five  years  in  the 
country  previous  to  admittance  to  the 
rights  of  adoption. 

RESIDUARY  LEGATEE,  the  legatee 
to  whom  is  bequeathed  the  residue  of 
goods  and  personal  estate  after  deduct- 
ing all  the  debts  and  specific  legacies. 

RESIN,  OR  ROSIN,  a  widely  dis- 
tributed class  of  vegetable  substances, 
characterized  by  being  insoluble  in  wa- 
ter, soluble  to  different  degrees  in  alco- 
hol, ether,  and  liquid  hydrocarbons,  soft- 
ening or  melting  at  a  moderate  heat,  and 
at  a  higher  temperature  burning  witk 
a  smoky,  luminous  flame. 

RESINA,  a  town  in  Italy,  suburb  of 
Naples,  on  the  Gulf  of  Naples,  close  to 
Vesuvius,  on  the  site  of  ancient  Hercula- 
neumu  Set  in  a  scene  of  great  natural 
beauty,  where  fruits  and  flowers  and 
vineyards  abound.  Industries  include 
silk,  glass,  leather,  oil  and  wire  making. 
From  spring  onward  visitors  flock  from 
all  parts  of  the  world.  Ascent  to  Vesu- 
vius begins  here,  and  Pompeii  is  nearby. 
Pop.  about  20,000. 

RESIST,  in  dyeing,  a  material  applied 
to  cotton  cloth  to  prevent  the  action  of 
a  mordant  or  color  on  those  portions  to 
which  it  is  applied  in  the  form  of  a 
pattern. 

RESISTANCE,  in  electricity,  the  op- 
position offered  by  any  conductor  to  the 
passage  of  an  electric  current.  For 
unit  of  resistance,  see  Ohm.  In  physics, 
a  power  by  which  motion  or  a  tendency 
to  motion  in  any  body  is  impeded  If  a 
weight  be  placed  upon  a  beam  which 
bears  it  up,  the  force  which  does  so  is  the 
resistance  opposed  to  its  further  descent. 
The  resistance  of  the  water,  which  is  of 
greater  specific  gravity  than  a  cork, 
causes  the  latter  to  keep  the  surface  in- 
stead of  sinking  to  bottom.  The  resist- 
ance of  the  air  impedes  fhe  movement 
of  a  projectile.  In  mechanics:  Solid 
of  least  resistance,  solid  of  such  a  form 
as  to  experience,  in  moving  in  a  fluid, 
less  resistance  than  any  other  solid; 
having  the  same  base,  length,  and  vol- 
ume; or,  on  the  other  hand,  being  sta- 
tionary, to  offer  the  least  interruption 


to  the  progress  of  that  fluid.  In  the  for- 
mer case  it  is  the  best  form  for  the  stem 
of  a  ship;  in  the  latter,  for  the  pier  of 
a  bridge. 

RES  JUDICATA,  in  law,  a  term 
meaning  that  the  subject  matter  of  an 
action  has  been  already  decided  by  a 
court  of  competent  jurisdiction.  A  mat- 
ter so  decided  cannot  again  be  made  a 
ground  of  action  between  the  same 
parties. 

RESOLUTION,  in  law,  a  solemn  judg- 
ment or  decision.  In  'mathematics,  the 
operation  of  separating  any  expression 
into  factors;  that  is,  the  operation  of 
finding  two  or  more  expressions  such 
that  their  product  is  equal  to  the  given 
expressions.  Resolution  of  an  equation: 
The  same  as  reduction  of  an  equation. 
In  medicine,  the  passing  away,  without 
suppuration,  of  a  tumor  or  of  inflamma- 
tion. In  music,  the  process  of  relieving 
dissonance   by  succeeding  consonance. 

Resolution  of  a  nebula:  In  astronomy, 
the  demonstration  by  means  of  a  very 
powerful  telescope,  that  the  diffused  light 
of  a  nebula  is  really  that  of  a  multitude 
of  exceedingly  distant  stars. 

RESONANCE,  OR  RESONANCY,  in 
acoustics,  (1)  Sound  reflected  by  a  sur- 
face less  than  112.5  feet  from  the  spot 
whence  it  originally  traveled.  The 
direct  and  the  reflected  sounds  are  con- 
founded, but  the  one  strengthens  the 
other.  Bare  walls  tend  to  be  resonant; 
walls  hung  with  tapestry  are  not  so. 
(2)  The  increase  of  sound  produced  by  a 
sounding  board,  or  by  the  body  of  a 
musical  instrument.  In  medicine,  a 
more  or  less  shrill  sound  heard  by  aus- 
cultation in  the  larynx  or  lungs  of  a  per- 
son speaking,  or  of  one  affected  with 
chest  disease. 

RESONATOR,  an  instrument  invented 
by  Professor  Helmholtz  for  facilitating 
the  analysis  of  compound  sounds.  It 
consists,  in  its  simplest  form,  of  a  taper- 
ing tube  or  a  hollow  bulb,  spherical  or 
nearly  so  in  form,  having  an  opening  at 
one  side  for  the  air,  and  a  tube  adapted 
to  the  ear  at  the  other.  When  the  in- 
strument is  fitted  to  one  ear,  the  other 
being  stopped,  tones  above  or  below  the 
pitch  of  the  resonator  will  be  but  imper- 
fectly heard;  but  if  a  note  be  sounded 
correspondingly  to  its  pitch  the  note  will 
be  intensified. 

RESORCIN,  a  colorless  crystalline 
compound  prepared  on  a  large  sca^e  by 
the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  benzi^ne, 
and  by  the  treatment  of  the  resulting 
compound  with  caustic  soda.  It  yields  a 
fine  purple-red  coloring  matter  and  sev- 
eral other  dyes  used  in  dyeing  and  calico 
printing,  is  a  powerful  disinfectant  and 
deodorizer,  and  is  used  as  a  medical  drug. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
Los  Angeles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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Aim  07 1987 


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C69     encyclopedia 
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