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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

GIFT  OF 


Joseph  P.   Loeb 


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COLLIER'S 

NEW 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

A    LOOSE-LEAF  AND    SELF-REVISING 
REFERENCE  WORK 


IN  TEN  VOLUMES  WITH  515  ILLUSTRATIONS 
AND  NINETY- SIX  MAPS 


VOLUME  EIGHT 


P.  F.  COLLIER  &  SON  COMPANY 
New  York 


Copyright   1921 
By  P.  P.  Colijeb  &  Son  Company 

MANUFACTURED    IN    U.  S.  A. 


GENERAL  EDITORIAL  ADVISORY  BOARD  AND 
CONTRIBUTING   EDITORS 

DR.  WILLIAM  A.  NEILSON,  Chairman 

PRESIDENT    SMITH     COLLEGE,     NORTHAMPTON,     MASS. 

REAR    ADMIRAL    AUSTIN    M.  KNIGHT 

FORMER    PRESIDENT    OF    NAVAL    WAR    COLLEGE,    NEWPORT,    R.    I. 

DR.  JOSEPH    II.  ODELL 

DIRECTOR,    SERVICE    CITIZENS    OF    DELAWARE,    WILMINGTON,    DEL. 

DR.  KENNETH    C.   M.   SILLS 

PRESIDENT    BOWDOIN    COLLEGE,    BRUNSWICK.     ME. 

DR.  HENRY    S.  CANDY 

EDITOR    LITERARY    REVIEW,     NEW    YORK,    N.    Y. 

DR.   \Y.  T.   COUNCILMAN 

DEPARTMENT  OF    PATHOLOGY,   HARVARD    MEDICAL  SCHOOL,  BOSTON,  MASS. 

DR.  CHARLES    F.  THWING 

PRESIDENT    WESTERN    RESERVE    UNIVERSITY,    CLEVELAND,    OHIO 

DR.   EDWIN    GREENLAW 

UNIVERSITY'    OF    NORTH     CAROLINA,    CHAPEL    HILL,    N.    C. 

DR.   T.   H.  KIRKLAND 

CHANCELLOR    VANDERBILT    UNIVERSITY,    NASHVILLE,    TENN. 

PROFESSOR    IRVING    FISHER 

YALE    UNIVERSITY,     NEW     HAVEN,    CONN 


EDITOR  IN  CHIEF 
FRANCIS    J.  REYNOLDS 

FORMER    REFERENCE    LIBRARIAN,    LIBRARY'    OF    CONGRESS 


MANAGING  EDITOR 
ALLEN  L.   CHURCHILL 

ASSOCIATE    EDITOR    THE    NEW    INTERNATIONAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


CONTRIBUTING  EDITORS 
J.  W.   DUFFIELD 

EDITORIAL    STAFF    OF    THE    NEW    YORK    TIMES 

ALBERT    SONNICHSEN 

ECONOMIST,    WAR    CORRESPONDENT 

T.  C.   SHAFFER 

PROFESSOR    OF     HISTORY 

P.   II.  GOLDSMITH 

EDITOR,     ECONOMIST 

BENEDICT    FITZPATRICK 

FORMERLY    LITERARY    EDITOR    OF    THE    LONDON     MAIL 

C.   E.  MELOY    SMITH 

DREXEL    INSTITUTE,     CONSULTING    ENGINEER 

E.  D.  PIERSON 

EDITOR,    CORRESPONDENT    LONDON    TIMES 

J.   B.  GTBSON 

COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

T.  L.  FRENCH 

EDITOR,    AUTHOR 


653199 


List  of  Illustrations 


Rio  de  Janeiro — Colored  Frontispiece 


I. 


Opposite  page  52 
Rice  Fields  in  China 
Transplanting  Rice,  Japan 
Harvesting  Rice,  Louisiana 
Richmond,  Virginia 
Trinity  Church,  Newport,  R. 
City  of  Riga 

Road  Construction,  Detroit 
Riva  on  the  Garda  Sea 

Opposite  page  100 
Roman  Forum 
Coliseum  in  Rome 
Interior  of  Coliseum 
Sistine    Chapel,    the    Vatican, 

Rome 
Hall   of   the   Immaculate   Con- 
ception 
Castle  St.  Angelo,  Rome 
Canal  in  Rotterdam 
Royal  Gorge,  Colorado 

Opposite  page  16U 
Tapped  Rubber  Tree 
Rubber  Tree  in  Ceylon 
Vulcanizing  Rubber  Tires  " 
Carpathian  Mountains,  Rumania 
Nizhni  Novgorod  Fair,  Russia 
Kremlin,  Moscow,  Russia 
St.  Louis,  Missouri 
Air  View  of  San  Francisco 


Opposite  page  276 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

Mormon  Temple  and  Tabernacle 

Santiago  de  Cuba 

St.  John,  New  Brunswick 

Laying  a   Gas   Buoy   in   the   St. 

Lawrence 
Sault  Ste.  Marie 
Lake  Washington  Canal,  Seattle 
Sheep  Ranch,  Colorado 

Opposite  page  388 
Traveling  by.   Elephants,  Siam 
Plowing  with  Water  Buffalo,  Siam 
Interior  of  Shoe  Factory 
Silkworm — Moth,  Cocoon,  and  Eggs 
Silkworms  on  Mulberry  Leaves 
Nests  of  Silkworm  Cocoons 
Reeling  Silk  from  Cocoons 
Removing  the  Cocoons 
Spinning  the  Silk 
Broad  Goods  French  Looms 
Harbor  of  Sitka,  Alaska 

Opposite  page  U8U 
Cecil  Rhodes  Memorial 
Norval's  Bridge,  South  Africa 
Lion's  Head,  Capetown,  South  Africa 
Hall  of  Congress,  Santiago,  Chile 
Cathedral,  Santiago,  Chile 
Iguazu  Waterfalls,  South  America 
Monroe  Palace,  Rio  de  Janeiro 
Cocoanut  Festival,  Solomon  Islands 


List  of  Maps 


Rhode  Island 

Rumania — See  Balkan  States 

Russia 

Saskatchewan 

Scotland 


Siam — See   Burma,   Siam,   French 
Indo-China 

South  America — Northern  Part 

South  America — Southern  Part 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 


ii 


"RESP  —  SOVIET" 


in 


RESPIRATION 


RESPIRATION 


RESPIRATION,  a  part  of  the  life  of 
all  organisms,  animal  and  vegetable.  It 
is  a  series  of  chemical  changes,  the  first 
of  which  is  the  absorption  of  oxygen  into 
the  body,  and  the  last  of  which  is  the 
excretion  of  carbonic  acid.  The  associa- 
tion of  this  intake  of  oxygen  and  excre- 
tion of  carbonic  acid  with  the  same 
organs,  the  lungs,  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
both  the  food  stuff  and  the  waste  stuff 
are  gases,  and  not  to  any  immediate  con- 
nection between  them.  Necessarily  any 
organ  adapted  to  the  diffusion  of  a  gas 
from  the  air  into  the  blood  must  also  be 
adapted  for  the  diffusion  of  a  gas  from 
the  blood  into  the  air;  that  is,  supposing 
that  the  living  membrane,  of  which  the 
lung  essentially  consists,  which  separates 
the  air  from  the  blood,  acts,  so  far  as  the 
diffusion  of  gases  is  concerned,  as  a  dead 
membrane;  even  if  it  has  any  effect  aris- 
ing from  the  fact  of  its  being  a  living 
membrane  it  is  probable  that  it  will  be- 
have in  a  similar  way  to  both  the  ingoing 
and  outgoing  gases.  The  respiration  of 
plants  comes  under  the  head  of  vegetable 
physiology,  and  the  general  relation 
of  the  function  of  respiration  to  the  other 
bodily  functions,  under  physiology. 

In  all  animals  in  which  the  parts  of  the 
body  are  nourished  by  the  circulation  of 
a  stream  of  food  material,  the  blood,  there 
must  always  be  two  distinct  sets  of  proc- 
esses to  consider :  ( 1 )  the  maintenance  of 
the  blood  in  a  normal  state,  by  the  supply 
of  fresh  food  matter  from  time  to  time, 
and  by  the  elimination  of  waste  matter; 
(2)  the  nutrition  of  the  individual  tissues 
and  cells  of  the  body  by  the  blood  stream. 
Applying  this  to  the  function  of  respira- 
tion, we  shall  have  to  consider  (1)  the 
manner  in  which  oxygen  is  supplied  to 
the  blood  and  carbonic  acid  gas  removed 
from  it;  (2)  the  manner  in  which  the  cells 
are  able  to  take  oxygen  out  of  the  blood 
and  cast  into  it  their  useless  carbonic 
acid;  also  the  changes  that  take  place 
within  the  cells  between  the  intake  of  the 
oxygen  and  the  output  of  the  carbonic 
acid.  These  two  sets  of  processes  are 
usually  described  as  the  outer  and  the 
inner,  or  tissue,  respiration.  Some  writers 
include  in  the  term  outer  respiration  the 
absorption  of  oxygen  by  the  cells  from 
the  blood,  and  the  excretion  of  carbonic 
acid  into  the  blood,  and  restrict  the  term 
inner  respiration  to  the  actual  changes 
that  take  place  within  the  cells.  It  is 
evident  that  outer  respiration  corresponds 
to  the  processes  of  digestion  and  absorp- 
tion to  which  food  materials  other  than 
gaseous  are  subjected. 

Structure  of  Respiratory  Mechanism. — 
This  mechanism  consists  of  the  lungs,  a 
series  of  minute  air  chambers  with  a  net- 
work of  capillaries  in  the  wall,  the  air 
passages  from  the   air  chambers   of  the 


lungs  to  the  outer  air,  and  the  chest  walls 
with  their  muscles,  which  act  like  bellows 
and  change  the  air  in  the  lungs.  The 
essentials  of  structure  that  a  lung  must 
possess  have  already  been  emphasized. 
The  simplest  lung  that  we  can  imagine 
would  be  an  elastic  membranous  bag,  well 
supplied  with  blood  vessels,  and  with  a 
pipe  connecting  it  with  the  air ;  the  most 
complicated  that  exist  are  essentially  of 
that  construction,  the  complications  that 
occur  having  for  their  object  merely  the 
enlarging  of  the  surface  exposed  to  the 
air.  Let  us  begin  with  the  air  passages. 
There  are  first  the  nose  and  mouth;  these 
join  the  upper  part  of  the  gullet,  known 
as  the  pharynx.  From  the  pharynx  arises 
the  windpipe  (trachea) ;  this  passes 
through  the  voice  box  (larynx)  into  the 
chest  cavity;  there  it  divides  into  two 
passages  (the  bronchi) ;  the  bronchi  go 
on  dividing  again  and  again,  generally 
into  two;  the  ultimate  divisions  (the 
bronchioles)  open  into  clusters  of  air 
chambers.  _  The  air  chambers  are  about 
%oo  inch  in  diameter.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  there  are  some  725,000,000  of 
them,  and  that  their  total  surface  is  about 
2,000  square  feet.  The  walls  of  the  air 
chambers  are  formed  of  a  thin  membrane 
in  which  the  blood  and  lymph  capillaries 
ramify.  Minute  openings  lead  from  the 
air  chambers  into  the  lymph  spaces  of  the 
membrane.  The  membranous  walls  are 
partly  formed  of  elastic  tissue.  It  is  this 
that  gives  to  the  lungs  their  elasticity. 
The  larger  air  passages  (trachea  and 
bronchi)  are  kept  open  by  horseshoe- 
shaped  plates  of  cartilage;  muscles 
stretch  between  the  poles  of  the  horse- 
shoe, complete  the  ring,  and  permit  the 
size  of  the  passages  to  vary,  at  the  same 
time  resisting  over-distention  when  the 
internal  pressure  rises.  These  larger  air 
passages  are  lined  by  a  mucous  mem- 
brane, containing  mucous  glands;  the  in- 
nermost layer  is  a  ciliated  epithelium ;  the 
cilia  lash  upward,  and  thus  keep  the  pas- 
sages free  from  mucus  and  remove  for- 
eign particles.  As  the  passages  become 
smaller  they  lose  their  cartilages,  and  the 
muscles  form  a  continuous  circular  layer. 
The  lungs  are  invested  by  a  membrane 
(the  visceral  pleura).  At  the  root  of  the 
lungs  this  membrane  is  continuous  with 
a  membrane  which  lines  the  chest  cavity 
(the  parietal  pleura).  The  space  between 
the  two  is  the  pleural  cavity ;  it  is  in  real- 
ity a  large  lymph  space,  and  communi- 
cates with  the  lymphatics  of  the  pleura. 
Owing  to  the  air  pressure  within  the 
lungs  the  two  pleurae  are  closely  pressed 
together,  the  lungs  entirely  filling  the 
chest  cavity. 

The  ordinary  respiratory  movements 
differ  in  the  two  sexes  and  at  different 
periods   of  life.     In  young  children  the 


RESPIRATION 


REST    HARROW 


chest  is  altered  in  size  chiefly  by  the 
movements  of  the  diaphragm,  and  the 
protrusion  of  the  abdominal  wall  during 
inspiration  is  therefore  very  marked.  In 
men  also  it  is  the  diaphragm  which  is 
chiefly  operative,  but  the  ribs  are  also 
moved.  In  women  it  is  the  movement  of 
the  ribs,  especially  the  upper  ones,  which 
is  the  most  extensive.  The  respiratory 
rhythm  is  the  relation  of  the  acts  of  in- 
spiration and  expiration  to  each  other  as 
regards  time.  The  number  of  respira- 
tions in  a  healthy  person  is  about  14  or 
18  per  minute;  it  is  greater  (nearly  dou- 
ble) in  childhood.  It  varies  according  to 
circumstances,  exercise,  rest,  health,  dis- 
ease, etc.;  in  disease  it  may  fall  as  low 
as  seven  or  rise  to  100. 

Though  all  the  muscles  concerned  in 
the  movements  of  breathing  are  voluntary 
muscles — i.  e.,  can  be  made  to  contract 
by  an  act  of  will — yet  respiration  is  nor- 
mally an  entirely  involuntary  act.  This 
is  obvious  from  the  fact  that  during  sleep, 
or  during  absence  of  consciousness  caused 
in  any  way,  respiration  goes  on  as  well 
as  during  wakefulness.  Further,  though 
we  may  at  will  breathe  or  cease  to 
breathe,  yet  we  cannot  by  any  effort  of 
the  will  suspend  the  respiratory  move- 
ments for  longer  than  at  most  a  few 
minutes  at  a  time. 

History. — Aristotle  (384  B.  C.)  thought 
that  the  object  of  respiration  was  to  cool 
the  body.  He  observed  that  the  warmer 
the  animal  the  more  rapid  the  breathing, 
and  transposed  cause  and  effect.  Galen 
(a.  d.  131-203)  experimented  on  the  me- 
chanics of  respiration,  and  knew  some- 
thing of  the  nervous  mechanism.  He 
believed  that  "soot"  and  water  were  ex- 
creted from  the  body  by  the  lungs.  Mal- 
pighi  (1661)  described  the  structure  of 
the  lungs.  Van  Helmont  (1664)  discov- 
ered carbonic  acid;  Black  (1757)  ob- 
served that  carbonic  acid  is  breathed  out 
of  the  body.  Priestley  (1774)  discov- 
ered oxygen.  Lavoisier  (1776)  discov- 
ered nitrogen,  found  the  composition  of 
the  air,  and  taught  that  the  formation 
of  carbonic  acid  and  water  resulted  from 
the  combustion  that  took  place  in  the 
lungs.  Vogel  proved  the  existence  of 
carbonic  acid  in  the  venous  blood;  Hoff- 
man found  oxygen  in  arterial  blood. 
Magnus  extracted  and  analyzed  the  gases 
©f  the  blood  in  both  states. 

Artificial  Respiration. — When  death  is 
imminent  owing  to  a  cessation  of  the  nat- 
ural respiration  movements,  it  may  some- 
times be  averted  by  an  imitation  of  them 
carried  on  regularly  for  some  time.  The 
methods  fall  into  three  divisions:  (1)  in- 
sufflation, or  blowing  of  air  into  the 
lungs,  either  by  the  mouth  or  by  means 
of  bellows;  (2)  manual  methods,  in  which 
external  manipulations  of  the  chest  walls 


are  made  to  effect  the  entrance  and  exit 
of  air;  (3)  electrical  stimulation  of  the 
respiratory  muscles.  In  all  cases  where 
artificial  respiration  is  required  every 
moment  is  of  importance.  In  Silvester's 
method  the  patient  is  laid  on  his  back  on 
a  plane,  inclined  a  little  from  the  feet 
upward,  and  the  shoulders  are  gently 
raised  by  a  firm  cushion  placed  under 
them,  which  also  throws  the  head  back. 
The  operator  then  grasps  the  patient's 
arms  just  above  the  elbows,  and  raises 
them  till  they  nearly  meet  above  the  head. 
This  action  imitates  inspiration.  The  pa- 
tient's arms  are  then  turned  down,  and 
firmly  pressed  for  a  moment  against  the 
sides  of  the  chest.  A  deep  expiration  is 
thus  imitated.  In  Howard's  method  the 
patient  is  laid  on  his  back  with  a  cushion 
below  the  middle.  The  operator  kneels 
astride  his  hips,  places  his  hands  with 
fingers  spread  outward  over  the  lower 
part  of  the  chest  wall,  and  alternately 
bends  forward,  throwing  his  weight  on 
the^  chest  to  imitate  expiration,  and 
springs  back  to  allow  the  elastic  recoil 
of  the  chest  wall  to  imitate  inspiration. 

Whatever  method  be  adopted,  the  move- 
ments must  be  gentle,  regularly,  and 
perseveringly  carried  on,  at  the  rate  of 
from  10  to  15  times  in  the  minute.  In 
all  cases,  but  especially  in  that  of  per- 
sons apparently  drowned,  artificial  res- 
piration should  be  conducted  in  a  warm 
atmosphere,  90°  F.,  or  even  more  if  pos- 
sible, and  should  be  supplemented  by 
warmth  applied  to  the  body  and  by  vig- 
orous friction.  In  other  modes  of  death 
by  suffocation,  such  as  choking  or  stran- 
gulation, the  action  of  the  heart  may 
continue  longer,  and  restoration  to  life 
be  therefore  possible  after  a  longer  de- 
privation  of  air.     See   Drowning. 

RESPIRATOR,  a  device  for  breathing 
through,  worn  over  the  mouth,  or  the 
nose  and  mouth,  and  secured  by  a  ban- 
dage, strap,  or  other  contrivance,  to  ex- 
clude injurious  matters,  such  as  smoke 
or  dust,  from  the  lungs,  or  to  change 
the  condition  of  the  air  by  passing  it 
through  medicaments  or  gauze.  Respir- 
ators are  used  by  cutlers  and  other 
grinders  to  exclude  the  dust  from  the 
lungs,  and  also  by  firemen  to  prevent 
suffocation  by  smoke.  Respirators  for 
persons  having  weak  lungs  have  several 
folds  of  fine  wire  gauze,  which  being 
warmed  by  the  expired  breath,  in  turn 
heats  the  inspired  air. 

RESPONDENT,  in  law,  the  designa- 
tion of  the  party  requiring  to  answer  in 
a  suit,  particularly  in  a  chancery  suit. 

REST  HARROW,  a  common  Euro- 
pean leguminous  plant,  Ononis  arvensit,, 
akin   to  the   brooms.     It   is   plentiful   in 


RESTIGOUCHE  3  RESURRECTION 

stiff   clay   land   in   some   parts,   and   de-  action  set  in,  and  later  sentiment  was  in 

rives  its  name  from  its  long  and  strong  favor   of   merely   keeping   in   repair   all 

matted   roots   arresting  the  progress   of  ancient  structures, 
the  harrow.    The  stems  are  annual,  often        -D-dom/vo  a  m™-vr   m-m*   •     ^     ••  u  *.• 

woody  or  shrubby,  and  hairy;   the  flow-  ,    RESTORATION,  THE   in  English  his- 

ers,   mostly    solitary,    large,    and    hand-  ^  « '*erni  applied  to  the  accessi on  of 

some,  are  of  a  brilliant  rose  color.     Rest  King  Charles  II.,  m  1660,  after  the  civil 

harrow  is  also  called  cammock.  ™r>  to  the  thr°??  of  EnSland,  after  an 

interregnum  of  11  years  and  4  months, 

RESTIGOUCHE,   a   river   of   Canada,  from   Jan.    30,    1649    (when    Charles   I. 

It  rises  in  eastern   Quebec,  flows  S.   E.  was   beheaded),   to    May    29,    1660.      In 

into  New  Brunswick,  then  E.  and  N.  E.  French  history,  the  first  restoration  be- 

into  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs,  forming  part  gins   May   3,    1814,   when    Louis    XVIII. 

of  the  boundary  between  the  two  prov-  made  his  entry  into  Paris  under  the  pro- 

inces.     Its  length  is  about  200  miles.  tection   of  foreign   bayonets,   and   ended 

RESTORATION,  a  term  used  in  art  ™th  ^h|ftre^  ofa£ap°le°n  *rom  FJ>a' 
to  indicate  the  reAewal  or  repairing  of  Marc*  2\  1B13'  ?he  he&nJ}mS  °*  thf 
paintings,  sculptures,  buildings,  etc.,  second  restoration  is  generally  reckoned 
which  have  been  defaced  or  partially  *™™  the,  battle  of  Waterloo,  June  18, 
ruined.  It  includes  the  retouching  of  18.^  and  terminated  on  July  29,  1830, 
faded  and  injured  pictures,  and  the  Wlth  the  abdication  of  Charles  X. 
replacing  of  lost  limbs  or  features  of  RESURRECTION,  an  expression  de- 
antique  statues.  But  in  reference  to  noting  the  revival  of  the  human  body  in 
architecture  its  meaning  is  broader;  it  a  future  state  after  it  has  been  con- 
indicates,  first,  a  representation,  by  pic-  signed  to  the  grave.  Traces  of  this  doc- 
ture  or  model,  of  a  ruined  structure  re-  trine  are  found  in  other  religions,  in 
stored  to  its  original  state;  secondly,  the  Zoroastrianism,  and  especially  in  later 
rebuilding  of  dilapidated  or  fallen  por-  Judaism,  but  the  doctrine  is  peculiarly 
tions  of  an  edifice;  and  thirdly,  taking  Christian.  In  the  earlier  Hebrew  Scrip- 
down  so-called  "debased"  work  in  a  com-  tures  there  is  no  mention  of  it.  It  is 
posite  building,  and  replacing  it  by  ar-  not  to  be  found  in  the  Pentateuch,  in  tho 
chitectural  features  in  harmony  with  the  Psalms,  nor  even  in  the  earlier  proph- 
general  style  of  the  ancient  edifice.  The  ecies.  It  is  supposed  to  be  alluded  to  in 
first  attempts  to  reproduce  Gothic  work  Isaiah  (xxvi:  19),  and  in  Ezekiel 
followed  on  the  decay  of  the  Renaissance  (xxxvii)  in  the  well-known  chapter  as 
style  of  architecture,  and  constituted  the  to  the  revival  of  dry  bones  in  the  valley 
germ  of  the  modern  restoration  move-  of  vision;  and  in  the  last  chapter  of 
ment,  or  Gothic  revival,  as  it  is  gener-  Daniel  (xii:  2)  there  is  the  distinct 
ally  called.  This  movement  began  to  affirmation  that  "many  that  sleep  in  the 
work  actively  about  the  beginning  of  the  dust  of  the  earth  shall  awake,  some  to 
19th  century,  and  was  largely  acceler-  everlasting  life,  and  some  to  shame  and 
ated  by  a  revival  of  activity  in  the  Es-  everlasting  contempt."  There  is  also  a 
tablished  Church  of  England.  An  well-known  passage  in  Job  (xix:  25-27) 
impulse  was  given  to  the  restoration  which  was  long  thought  to  refer  to  the 
movement  by  a  society  called  the  Cam-  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body; 
den  Society,  and  afterward  the  Ecclesi-  but  modern  criticism  denies  the  validity 
ological  Society,  which  was  composed  of  of  this  reference.  It  is  therefore  not  till 
churchmen  and  clergy,  and  started  at  the  later  Judaism  that  the  doctrine  ap- 
Cambridge  in  the  year  1840.  pears,  and  it  is  sometimes  said,  doubt- 

The  movement  produced  specialists,  of  fully,  to  have  been  derived  from  Persia 
whom  Sir  Gilbert  Scott  was  the  most  or  elsewhere.  In  the  time  of  our  Lord 
noted.  In  his  hands  was  placed  nearly  it  had  become  a  formal  doctrine  of  the 
every  cathedral  church  in  England,  as  Pharisees.  The  general  body  of  the  Jew- 
well  as  a  countless  number  of  parish  ish  people  seem  also  to  have  believed  in 
churches.  As  examples  of  "restoration"  it;  the  Sadducees  alone  disputed  it.  It 
works  we  may  give  the  N.  transept  of  appears,  in  fact,  to  have  become  bound 
Westminster  Abbey  and  the  W.  side  of  up  in  the  Jewish  mind  with  the  idea  of 
Westminster  Hall,  nearly  the  whole  of  a  future  life,  so  that  an  argument  which 
St.  Alban's  Abbey,  the  W.  front  of  Salis-  proved  the  one  proved  the  other.  It 
bury  Cathedral  (where  an  attempt  has  should  be  added  that  Mohammedanism 
even  been  made  to  produce  mediaeval  cherishes  gross  beliefs  on  this  head, 
sculpture),  Chester  Cathedral,  Worces-  It  remained  for  Christ  and  His  apos- 
ter  Cathedral;  in  fact,  not  a  cathedral  ties  to  reveal  clearly  the  doctrine  of  the 
remains  in  England  that  does  not  bear  resurrection  of  the  body,  and  to  connect 
marks  of  the  movement.  The  "restora-  it  with  the  fact  of  Christ's  own  resur- 
tion"  movement  spread  to  Scotland,  the  rection  as  its  special  evidence  and  pledge. 
Continent,  and  even  to  India,  but  a  re-  The  following  may  be  stated  as  the  main 


RESURRECTION 


RETROGRADE 


points  involved  in  the  doctrine  as  re- 
vealed in  the  New  Testament:  (1)  The 
resurrection  of  the  dead  is  ascribed  to 
Christ  Himself;  it  will  complete  His 
work  of  redemption  for  the  human  race 
(John  v:  21;  I  Cor.  xv:  22  sq.;  I  Thess. 
iv:14;  Rev.  1:18).  (2)  All  the  dead 
will  be  raised  indiscriminately  to  receive 
judgment  according  to  their  works, "they 
that  have  done  good,  unto  the  resurrec- 
tion of  life;  and  they  that  have  done 
evil,  unto  the  resurrection  of  damnation" 
(John  1:21-29;  I  Cor.  xv:22;  Rev.  xx: 
12-15).  (3)  The  resurrection  will  take 
place  at  "the  last  day,"  by  which  seems 
to  be  meant  the  close  of  the  present 
world  (John  vi:39,  40,  xi:24;  I  Thess. 
iv:  15). 

The  Gnostics  denied  the  resurrection 
of  the  body,  and  made  the  change  a 
purely  spiritual  one.  The  Catholic  be- 
lief was  greatly  developed  by  Tertullian, 
Jerome,  and  Augustine,  who,  however, 
insisted  that  the  resurrection  body, 
though  identical  with  the  original  one, 
is  a  glorified  body.  A  third  view,  rep- 
resented in  ancient  times  by  Origen,  and 
recently  by  Rothe,  affirms  that  the  spirit 
must  always  have  a  bodily  organism, 
and  that  the  perfected  personality  nec- 
essarily assumes  a  spiritualized  embodi- 
ment; in  this  view  resurrection  is  lim- 
ited to  perfected  spirits. 

RESURRECTION,  CONGREGATION 
OF  THE,  a  society  of  Roman  Catholic 
priests  founded  in  Rome  in  1836. 


RESZKE,    EDOUARD    DE. 
Reszke,  Edouard. 


See    De 


RESZKE,  JEAN  DE. 

Jean. 


See  De  Rbszke, 


RETAINER,  a  preliminary  fee  paid 
to  a  counsel  to  secure  his  services,  or 
rather  to  prevent  the  other  side  from 
securing  them.  A  special  retainer  is  a 
fee  paid  to  secure  the  services  of  counsel 
for  a  particular  case.  A  general  re- 
tainer is  a  fee  paid  to  secure  a  priority 
of  claim  on  a  counsel's  services  for  any 
cause  which  the  party  paying  the  fee 
may  have  for  trial. 

RETAINING  WALL,  a  wall  erected 
to  maintain  a  bank  of  earth  in  position, 
as  in  sunk  fences,  faces  of  earthworks, 
railway  cuttings,  sea-walls,  etc.;  strictly 
speaking,  a  wall  erected  to  hold  an  arti- 
ficial bank  in  upright  or  nearly  upright 
position. 

RETENTION,  in  law,  a  lien;  the 
right  of  withholding  a  debt  or  of  retain- 
ing property  till  a  debt  due  to  the  person 
claiming  this  right  be  duly  paid. 

RBTIARIUS,  in  Roman  antiquities  a 
gladiator  wearing  only  a  short  tunic  and 


carrying  a  trident  and  net,  with  which 
he  endeavored  to  entangle  and  dispatch 
his  adversary,  who  was  armed  with  hel- 
met, shield,  and  sword. 

RETINA,  the  net-like  expansion  of 
the  optic  nerve,  lying  between  the  black 
pigment  and  the  vitreous  humor  of  the 
eye.  It  is  the  only  part  immediately 
concerned  in  the  act  of  sensation. 

RETORT,  a  vessel  in  whose  chamber 
an  object  is  subjected  to  distillation  or 
decomposition  by  heat,  a  neck  conduct- 
ing off  the  volatile  products.  The  retort 
of  the  chemical  laboratory  is  a  vessel  of 


RETORT 
A— Adapter.    F— Flask.    R— Retort. 

glass,  platinum,  porcelain,  or  other  mate- 
rial. It  is  bottle-shaped,  having  a  long 
neck  attached,  in  which  the  products  of 
the  distillation  are  condensed,  and  from 
which  they  pass  into  the  receiver.  The 
retort  of  the  gas  works  is  a  cylinder  or 
segment  of  a  cylinder,  formed  of  clay  or 
iron. 

RETREAT,  a  military  operation,  in 
which  an  army  retires  before  an  enemy; 
properly,  an  orderly  march,  in  which 
circumstance  it  differs  from  a  flight. 
Also  a  military  signal  given  in  the  army 
by  beat  of  drum  or  sound  of  trumpet  at 
sunset,  or  for  retiring  from  exercise  or 
from  action.  In  Church  usage,  a  period 
of  retirement  to  a  religious  house,  for 
self-examination,  meditation,  and  prayer. 
Retreats  commonly  last  either  three  or 
seven  days,  and  are  conducted  by  a 
cleric,  who  delivers  addresses  daily.  They 
are  in  use  both  in  the  Roman  and  among 
the  High  Church  party,  in  the  Anglican 
Church. 

RETRIEVER,  a  breed  of  dog,  trained, 
as  the  name  implies,  to  find  out  and 
bring  back  any  killed  or  wounded  game. 
The  two  varieties  of  retriever  differ  only 
in  coat;  the  curly  coat  should  curl 
closely  and  firmly  all  over  the  body, 
the  wavy  coat  should  fall  straight  and 
thick. 

RETROGRADE,  in  botany,  a  term 
used  of  hairs  on  a  plant,  and  meaning 
bent  back  or  down. 


RETURNING    BOARDS 


REUSS 


RETURNING  BOARDS,  boards 
formed  to  canvass  votes  cast  in  an  elec- 
tion. They  were  created  in  some  of  the 
reconstructed  States  a  few  years  after 
the  close  of  the  Civil  War,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  rectifying  fraud  or  violence 
that  might  be  practiced  on  the  negroes 
at  the  polls.  In  1868  Arkansas  estab- 
lished the  first  returning  board.  South 
Carolina,  Louisiana  and  Florida  had 
similar  boards.  The  result  of  the  pres- 
idential election  of  1876  depended  on  the 
action  of  these  State  boards.  In  Louis- 
iana and  in  Florida,  the  boards  declared 
the  election  of  Republican  electors.  The 
Circuit  Court  of  Florida,  rejecting  the 
report  of  the  board,  decided  in  favor  of 
the  Democratic  electors,  and  the  Legis- 
latures also  authorized  the  governor  to 
grant  them  certificates,  the  result  being 
that  three  sets  of  certificates  were  made 
out  and  sent  to  Washington.  The  Elec- 
toral Commission  accepted  the  Republi- 
can returns  as  the  only  ones  regular  in 
form.  In  South  Carolina,  Nov.  22,  1876, 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State  ordered 
the  board  not  to  carry  its  judicial  au- 
thority into  effect  in  counting  the  votes. 
The  board,  however,  declared  in  favor 
of  the  Republican  electors.  The  various 
returning  boards  were  successively  abol- 
ished by  the  respective  State  legisla- 
tures. 

RETZ,  RAIS,  or  RAIZ,  GILLES  DE, 
a  French  military  officer,  infamous  for 
his  crimes;  was  a  Breton  of  high  rank, 
who  distinguished  himself  under  Charles 
VII.  in  the  struggle  with  the  English, 
fighting  by  the  side  of  the  Maid  of  Or- 
leans. He  was  made  Marshal  of  France 
in  1420,  and  soon  after  retired  to  his 
estates,  where  for  over  10  years  he  is 
alleged  to  have  indulged  in  the  most  in- 
famous orgies,  having  kidnapped  or  en- 
ticed to  his  castle  as  many  as  150  chil- 
dren, who  were  sacrificed  as  victims  to 
his  abnormal  cruelty.  He  was  executed 
at  Nantes,  Oct.  26,  1440,  after  trial  and 
confession. 

RETZ,  JEAN  FRANCOIS  PAUL  DE 
GONDI,  a  French  prelate;  born  in  Mont- 
mirail-en-Brie,  France,  in  October,  1614. 
He  became  coadjutor  to  his  uncle,  the 
Archbishop  of  Paris;  and,  after  many 
intrigues,  and  fighting  several  duels,  he 
was  made  Archbishop  of  Corinth,  and 
cardinal.  He  conspired  against  the  life 
of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  opposing  Mazarin  during 
the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  At  length 
Mazarin,  who  both  hated  and  feared 
him,  imprisoned  him  in  the  castle  of 
Vincennes,  then  at  Nantes,  whence  he 
escaped,  and  traveled  through  Holland, 
Flanders,  and  England.  In  1675  he 
wished   to   give    up    his    cardinal's    hat, 


and  retire  from  the  world,  but  the  Pope 
would  not  receive  it.  He  was  daring, 
turbulent,  and  intriguing;  and  in  his 
"Memoirs"  he  has  drawn  his  own  por- 
trait with  considerable  skill  and  impar- 
tiality.    He  died  in  Paris,  Aug.  24,  1679. 

REUCHLIN,  JOHANN,  a  German 
scholar;  born  in  Pforzheim,  Baden,  Feb. 
22,  1455.  He  studied  at  Freiburg,  the 
University  of  Paris,  Basel,  and  else- 
where, and  became  familiar  with  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew.  He  was  patronized 
by  several  of  the  German  princes,  and 
was  engaged  on  various  political  mis- 
sions. From  1502  to  1513  he  was  pres- 
ident of  the  Suabian  federal  court.  His 
opposition  to  the  proposal  to  burn  all 
Hebrew  books  except  the  Bible  raised  a 
host  of  fanatical  enemies  against  him, 
but  did  him  no  harm.  In  1519  he  was 
appointed  professor  at  Ingolstadt;  in 
1521  the  plague  drove  him  to  Stuttgart. 
During  a  great  part  of  his  life  Reuch- 
lin  was  the  real  center  of  all  Greek  and 
Hebrew  teaching  in  Germany.  Several 
of  his  works  had  considerable  popularity 
in  their  time.  He  sympathized  deeply 
with  Luther  and  the  Reformation,  but 
maintained  his  connection  with  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  to  the  last.  He 
died  near  Hirschau,  Bavaria,  June  30, 
1522. 

REUNION,  formerly  BOURBON,  an 
island  in  the  Indian  ocean,  between  Mau- 
ritius and  Madagascar,  115  miles  from 
the  first;  area,  970  square  miles.  Pop. 
about  174,000.  Capital,  St.  Denis  (pop. 
about  25,000).  It  was  annexed  by 
France  in  1649,  and  is  an  important 
French  colony,  now  represented  in  the 
French  Parliament  by  one  senator  and 
two  deputies.  It  is  very  mountainous, 
the  Piton  des  Neiges  reaching  a  height 
of  10,069  feet,  and  the  Piton  de  la  Four- 
naise,  an  active  volcano,  of  8,713  feet. 
The  soil  produces  tropical  products, 
sugar  being  the  principal  crop.  Coffee, 
cloves  and  vanilla  are  also  grown.  De- 
structive hurricanes  are  frequent.  There 
are  no  natural  harbors,  but  an  artificial 
harbor  has  been  constructed  at  Pointe 
des  Galets,  at  the  N.  W.  side  of  the 
island. 

REUS,  a  town  of  Spain;  88  miles 
S.  W.  of  Barcelona  and  4  N.  of  its  sea- 
port, Salou.  The  prosperity  of  the  place 
dates  from  about  1750,  when  a  number 
of  English  merchants  settled  there.  It 
is  a  busy  center  of  the  cotton,  silk,  and 
silk  ribbon  industries,  prepares  wine, 
and  manufactures  soap,  brandy,  and 
leather.      Pop.   about   26,000. 

REUSS,  a  tributary  of  the  Aar  in 
Switzerland,    rising    on    the    N.    face   of 


REUSS 


G 


REVEILLE 


the  St.  Gothard,  flowing  N.  past  Ander- 
matt  and  Amsteg,  between  which  places 
its  bed  lies  at  the  bottom  of  a  wild  and 
narrow  gorge,  spanned  by  the  Devil's 
Bridge  and  other  wonders  of  Swiss  road- 
making,  and  entering  the  S.  end  of  the 
Lake  of  Lucerne.  This  it  leaves  again 
at  its  N.  end,  at  the  town  of  Lucerne, 
and,  still  going  nearly  due  N.,  reaches 
the  Aar  near  Windisch  (Aargau).  Its 
length  is  90  miles;  its  basin,  1,317 
square  miles. 

RETJSS,  the  name  of  two  former  sov- 
ereign principalities  of  Germany;  be- 
tween the  kingdom  of  Saxony  on  the  E., 
the  Prussian  duchy  of  that  name  on  the 
N.,  and  Bavaria  on  the  S.  From  1666 
the  possessions  of  the  House  of  Reuss 
were  divided  between  the  Elder  and  the 
Younger  lines. 

The  principality  of  Reuss-Greiz  (the 
Elder  line)  was  122  square  miles  in  ex- 
tent, and  had  about  75,000  inhabitants. 
The  chief  town  is  Greiz.  The  principal- 
ity of  the  Younger  Line  was  Reuss- 
Schleiz-Gera.  Area,  319  square  miles; 
pop.  about  150,000.     Capital,  Schleiz. 

Of  both  portions  the  surface  is  hilly, 
being  traversed  by  the  Frankenwald 
(Thuringer  Wald),  whose  summits  reach 
upward  of  2,000  feet  in  height.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Saale  and  the  White 
Elster,  the  valleys  of  which  are  well 
cultivated.  More  than  a  third  of  each 
state  is  covered  with  forests;  cattle  are 
fattened  on  the  extensive  meadows;  and 
woolen,  cotton  and  silk  goods  are  woven. 

The  reigning  prince  of  each  state  was 
a  hereditary  sovereign,  and  in  each  state 
always  bore  the  name  of  Heinrich.  He 
was  the  executive.  Reuss-Greiz  had  a 
legislative  assembly  of  12  members,  of 
whom  nine  were  chosen  by  the  people 
for  six  years;  Reuss-Schleiz-Gera  had  an 
assembly  of  16  members,  of  whom  12 
were  chosen  for  three  years  by  the  peo- 
ple. The  two  principalities  became  re- 
publics in  1918,  and  on  Apr.  4,  1919, 
were  merged  into  the  People's  State  of 
iteuss.  In  December,  1919,  the  new  state 
joined  with  six  other  smaller  states  to 
form  the  Federated  State  of  Thuringia. 

RETJTERDAHL,  HENRY,  an  Amer- 
ican naval  artist,  born  in  Sweden  in 
1871.  He  saw  the  intimate  incidents 
of  the  Spanish-American  War  as  a  cor- 
respondent, in  which  capacity  he  also 
served  during  the  World  War.  The 
variety  of  his  experience  has  added  no- 
tably to  his  equipment  as  a  marine  ar- 
tist. In  1913  he  was  attached  to  the 
battleship  "Minnesota"  on  the  South 
American  cruise  and  he  has  had  ten 
paintings  hung  in  the  permanent  collec- 
tion at  the  United   States  Naval  Acad- 


emy. He  was  the  author  of  "Needs  of 
the  Navy"  (1908),  which  precipitated  a 
Senate  investigation  on  account  of  its 
revelation  of  weakness  present  in  the 
bureaucratic  administration  then  in 
vogue  in  the  service.  He  has  been  an 
instructor  at  the  Art  Students'  League 
of  New  York  and  was  the  creator  of 
many  marine  murals  upon  the  better 
known  private  American  yachts.  He 
contributed  many  articles  on  naval  top- 
ics, mostly  illustrated  by  himself,  to 
magazines,  notably  to  "Collier's  Week- 
ly," etc. 

RETTTLINGEN,  a  town  of  Wiirttem- 
berg;  8  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Tubingen  and 
20  S.  of  Stuttgart.  Many  of  its  houses 
are  old  and  picturesque.  The  Church 
of  St.  Mary  (1247-1343),  with  a  tower 
243  feet  high,  is  a  noble  Gothic  edifice. 
Prior  to  the  World  War  woolen  and  cot- 
ton yarns  were  spun,  and  cloth,  leather, 
cutlery,  hosiery,  paper,  etc.,  were  man- 
ufactured. Reutlingen  was  formerly  a 
free  imperial  town  and  a  member  of  the 
Suabian  League;  it  came  to  Wiirttem- 
berg  in  1802.     Pop.  about  30,000. 

REVAL,  or  REVEL,  a  Russian  sea- 
port; capital  of  the  Republic  of  Estho- 
nia  (q.  v.) ;  on  a  small  bay  on  the  S. 
side  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  opposite 
Helsingfors  (52  miles  distant),  and  232 
miles  W.  S.  W.  of  St.  Petersburg.  It 
is  divided  into  the  (old)  upper  and 
(new)  lower  towns.  The  former  con- 
tains the  cathedral,  the  castle,  governor's 
residence,  and  the  houses  of  the  (Ger- 
man) nobility.  The  new  town  extends 
outside  the  city  wall.  There  are  several 
mediaeval  guild  houses,  in  some  of  which 
are  preserved  valuable  archives,  and  an 
important  museum  of  antiquities.  Prior 
to  the  World  War,  Reval  exported  cereals 
(chiefly  oats),  spirits,  flax,  and  other 
commodities.  There  was  little  industry, 
brandy,  vinegar,  and  wool  being  manu- 
factured to  a  small  extent.  Pop.  (1910) 
98,995.  More  than  one-half  were  Es- 
thonians,  and  nearly  one-fourth  of  Ger- 
man descent.  Reval  was  founded  by 
Waldemar  II.  of  Denmark  in  1219,  and 
became  a  flourishing  Hanse  town.  It 
was  long  held  (from  1346)  by  the  Li- 
vonian  Knights,  was  made  over  to  Swe- 
den in  1561,  and  was  besieged  by  Peter 
the  Great  and  annexed  to  the  Russian 
empire  in  1710.  In  1713  a  naval  harbor 
was  founded.  In  the  course  of  the  World 
War  Reval  was  bombarded  by  the  Ger- 
mans on  different  occasions. 

REVEILLE,  the  signal  given  in  gar- 
risons at  break  of  day,  by  beat  of  drum 
or  sound  of  bugle,  for  the  soldiers  to 
rise  and   the   sentinels   to  forbear  chal- 


REVELATION 

lenging  until  the  retreat  is  sounded  in 
the  evening. 

REVELATION,  the  act  of  revealing, 
disclosing,  or  making  known  that  which 
is  secret,  private,  or  unknown;  disclo- 
sure. Specifically,  the  act  of  revealing 
or  communicating  divine  truth.  Also 
that  which  is  revealed,  disclosed,  or 
made  known;  specifically,  the  Bible. 

REVELATION  OF  ST.  JOHN,  the 
last  book  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
the  only  distinctively  prophetic  one  given 
to  fling  back  the  veil  which  hides  futu- 
rity from  the  view.  Its  writer  was  John 
(i.  4,  xxii:  8),  the  servant  of  God  (i:  1), 
the  "brother"  and  "companion  in  tribu- 
lation" of  the  then  persecuted  Christians, 
himself  an  exile  in  Patmos,  "for  the 
word  of  God  and  for  the  testimony  of 
Jesus  Christ"  (i:  9).  It  was  there  he 
saw  the  prophetic  visions,  narrating 
them  after  he  left  the  island.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  Fathers  and  the  Church  of 
the  Middle  Ages  considered,  as  do  most 
modern  Christians,  that  the  author  was 
John  the  Apostle;  though  Dionysius  of 
Alexandria,  and  some  others  among  the 
ancients,  believed  him  to  have  been  a 
certain  John  the  Presbyter  (mentioned 
by  Papias,  Dionysius,  Eusebius,  and  Jer- 
ome), whose  tomb,  like  that  of  the  apos- 
tle, was  said  to  be  at  Ephesus.  Among 
those  who  accept  the  apostolic  author- 
ship of  the  work,  two  views  are  current 
as  to  its  date.  The  prevailing  one  is, 
that  the  visions  in  Patmos  were  seen 
in  A.  D.  96,  and  the  work  penned  in  that 
year  or  in  97,  the  reigning  emperor 
being  Domitian.  The  other  view  is,  that 
it  was  penned  about  A.  D.  68  or  69.  Ch. 
xvii:  10  is  interpreted  to  mean  that  five 
Roman  emperors  had  reigned  and  died, 
viz.,  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Caligula,  Clau- 
dius, Nero,  "one  is,"  i.  e.,  Galba  or  if 
Julius  Caesar  be  considered  the  1st  em- 
peror, then  the  "one"  is  Nero.  Respect- 
ing the  canonicity  of  this  book,  it  was 
alluded  to  or  quoted  in  Hermas,  Papias, 
Melito,  Justin  Martyr,  the  fragment  pub- 
lished by  Muratori,  Theophilus,  of  An- 
tioch,  Apollonius  of  Ephesus,  Irenaeus, 
Hippolytus,  Tertullian,  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, Origen,  Jerome,  etc.  It  was  not 
in  the  Old  Syrian  version,  though  some 
Greeks  accepted  it.  The  Corinthians, 
Caius  of  Rome,  and  others  rejected  it. 
Luther,  Carlstadt,  and  Zwingli  spoke 
of  it  disparagingly,  but  it  is  accepted 
by  the  Churches  of  the  Reformation  as 
well  as  by  the  Roman  Church.  Three 
schemes  of  interpretation  exist:  The 
Preterist,  which  makes  the  events  pre- 
dicted now  wholly  passed;  the  Futurist, 
which  regards  them  as  future,  and  that 
of  a  third  and  numerous  school,  who 
regard  the  visions  as  an  historical  or  con- 


REVENUE    CUTTER    SERVICE 

tinuous  prediction  of  the  whole  history 
of  the  Church  from  apostolic  times  to 
the  consummation  of  all  things. 

REVELS,  MASTER  OF  THE,  an  Eng- 
lish officer  in  former  times  appointed  to 
superintend  the  revels  or  amusements, 
consisting  of  dancing,  masking,  etc.,  in 
the  courts  of  princes,  the  inns  of  court, 
and  noblemen's  houses,  during  the  12 
Christmas  holidays.  He  was  a  court 
official  from  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  to 
that  of  George  III. 

REVENUE,  the  income  of  a  nation 
derived  from  taxes,  duties,  and  other 
sources,  for  public  uses.  See  articles 
on  the  different  countries. 

REVENUE  CUTTER,  a  small  armed 
steam  vessel,  designed  for  the  prevention 
of  smuggling;  so  called  from  the  fact 
that  originally  the  vessel  was  of  the 
cutter-yacht  type. 

REVENUE  CUTTER  SERVICE, 
UNITED  STATES,  a  military  service 
organized  in  1790  by  Congress  to  en- 
force the  navigation  and  customs  laws. 
The  United  States  navy  had  not  at  that 
date  been  established  and  the  service 
was  made  a  branch  of  the  Treasury  as 
it  is  today.  The  service,  consisting  at 
first  of  ten  small  vessels,  was  gradually 
added  to  and  became  the  nucleus  of  a 
navy.  Congress  in  1799  authorized  the 
President  to  employ  it  to  defend  the 
seacoast  and  repel  hostility  to  vessels 
and  commerce  within  their  jurisdiction. 
The  development  was  necessary,  for 
American  foreign  commerce  meant  in 
those  days  a  corresponding  growth  in 
shipping  with  a  corresponding  liability 
to  collision  with  foreign  interest.  From 
1843  onward  vessels  driven  by  steam 
gradually  replaced  the  old  sailing  ves- 
sels. 

The  necessity  for  the  service  was 
shown  almost  from  the  year  of  its  or- 
ganization. The  War  of  the  Revolution 
had  been  fought  almost  wholly  on  land 
and  its  success  had  turned  American 
eyes  away  from  the  requirements  of  a 
naval  arm.  Very  speedily,  however,  the 
cutters  justified  their  existence.  They 
had  repeated  clashes  with  the  British 
and  French  forces  and  upheld  the  dig- 
nity of  the  United  States.  In  1812  it 
made  foreign  invasion  impossible  and 
helped  in  transporting  troops  in  the 
Nullification  troubles  of  1832-33  and  the 
Seminole  War  of  1836.  In  the  Civil  War 
the  cutters  pursued  blockade  runners, 
carried  dispatches,  and  joined  in  at- 
tacks on  Southern  forts.  During  the 
Spanish  War  the  service  showed  itself 
a  most  efficient  arm  of  the  navy,  con- 
tributing 20  vessels  and  nearly  a  hun- 
dred   guns    to   the   forces.      During   the 


REVERBERATORY    FURNACE 


8 


REVIVAL 


World  War  the  service  beginning  with 
44  vessels  had  them  added  to  and 
acted  as  a  complement  to  the  navy  in 
so  far  as  its  coastwise  duties  enabled 
it  so  to  do.  The  captain  commandant 
of  the  service  is  under  the  direction  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  un- 
der him  are  the  five  divisions  of  the 
service,  each  with  a  senior  captain.  The 
vessels  have  done  duty  on  the  Alaskan 
coast  and  occasionally  make  prolonged 
voyages,  and  have  often  done  good  work 
in  cases  of  disasters  at  sea.  In  1915  the 
Life  Saving  and  Revenue  Cutter  services 
were  merged  into  the  Coast  Guard. 

REVERBERATORY      FURNACE,     a 

furnace  in  which  ore,  metal,  or  other 
material  is  exposed  to  the  action  of 
flame,  but  not  to  the  contact  of  burning 
fuel. 

REVERE,  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  in 
Suffolk  co.,  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
railroad.  It  forms  a  suburb  of  Boston, 
which  it  joins  on  the  northeast.  An  ex- 
cellent beach  makes  it  a  favorite  bath- 
ing resort,  and  the  State  has  constructed 
a  magnificent  public  bath  house.  Among 
its  notable  buildings  are  a  city  hall  and 
a  public  library.  Pop.  (1910)  18,219; 
(1920)    28,823. 

REVERE,  PAUL,  an  American  pa- 
triot, famous  for  his  midnight  ride  from 
Boston  to  Lexington;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Jan.  1,  1735.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  goldsmith  from  Guernsey,  whose  trade 
he  followed  after  servin  *  as  a  lieutenant 
of  artillery  in  the  expedition  against 
Crown  Point  (1756).  He  also  engaged 
in  copperplate  printing,  and  before  the 
Revolution  constructed  a  gunpowder  mill. 
A  keen  patriot,  he  was  one  of  the  party 
that  destroyed  the  tea  in  Boston  harbor, 
and  he  was  at  the  head  of  a  volunteer 
committee,  consisting  of  30  young  me- 
chanics, who  formed  a  secret  society  to 
watch  the  British.  When  it  was  known 
that  the  latter  intended  to  move,  Revere 
crossed  over  to  Charlestown,  and  April 
18,  1775,  the  night  before  Lexington  and 
Concord,  at  a  signal  rode  on  to  Lexing- 
ton and  to  Lincoln,  rousing  the  minute- 
men  as  he  went;  at  Lincoln  he  was 
stopped,  but  a  companion  succeeded  in 
reaching  Concord.  His  ride  is  the  sub- 
ject of  a  well-known  poem  by  Longfel- 
low. During  the  war  he  rose  to  lieu- 
tenant-colonel of  artillery;  afterward  he 
returned  to  his  goldsmith's  work,  and 
in  1801  founded  the  Revere  Copper  Com- 
pany at  Canton,  Mass.  He  died  in  Bos- 
ton, May  10,  1818. 

REVERSION,  a  right  or  hope  to  fu- 
ture possession  or  enjoyment;  right  of 
succession;  succession.  Also  a  rever- 
sionary or  deferred  annuity,  i.  e.,  an  an- 


nuity which  does  not  begin  to  be  paid 
at  once,  but  at  a  certain  future  day. 
In  biology,  the  tendency  of  an  animal  or 
a  plant  to  revert  to  long-lost  characters. 
Darwin  contends  that  it  is  by  no  means 
so  potent  as  is  generally  believed.  It 
is  easy  to  breed  cart  or  race-horses,  long 
and  short-horned  cattle,  and  esculent 
vegetables  without  their  reverting  to 
the  characters  of  the  aboriginal  stock. 
He  also  believes  that  reversionary  and 
analogous  characters  can  be  easily  con- 
founded. 

In  law,  the  returning  of  an  estate  to 
the  grantor  or  his  heirs  after  a  partic- 
ular estate  is  ended.  An  estate  in  re- 
version is  the  residue  of  an  estate  left 
in  the  grantor,  to  commence  in  posses- 
sion after  the  determination  of  some  par- 
ticular estate  granted  out  by  him.  The 
term  is  sometimes  improperly  extended 
to  any  future  estate  in  reversion  or  re- 
mainder. Reversion  of  series,  in  mathe- 
matics, when  one  quantity  is  expressed 
in  terms  of  another,  by  means  of  a 
series,  the  operation  of  finding  the  value 
of  the  second  in  terms  of  the  first,  by 
means  of  a  series,  is  called  the  reversion 
of  the  series. 

REVETMENT,  in  fortification,  a 
facing  to  a  wall  or  bank,  as  of  a  scarp 
or  parapet.  The  material  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  work.  In  perma- 
nent works  it  is  usually  of  masonry;  in 
field  works  it  may  be  of  sods,  gabions, 
timber,  hurdles,  rails,  or  stones.  In  civil 
engineering,  a  retaining  or  breast  wall 
at  the  foot  or  on  the  face  of  a  slope. 

REVISED  VERSION,  a  revised  edi- 
tion of  the  Authorized  Version  of  the 
Bible.  The  resolution  to  undertake  it 
was  come  to  by  the  Convocation  of  Can- 
terbury in  February  and  May,  1870,  and 
various  members  were  nominated  to 
carry  out  the  work.  Co-operation  was 
sought  from  scholars  in  the  other 
churches  and  from  an  American  com- 
mittee. A  better  text  was  constructed, 
manuscripts  being  used  which  had  been 
discovered  since  the  Authorized  Version 
had  been  made.  Revision,  not  retrans- 
lation,  was  aimed  at,  as  few  alterations 
rs  possible  being  introduced,  and  these 
only  if  adopted  by  the  votes  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  translators.  Poetry  was 
printed  in  lines,  showing  the  rhythm. 
The  New  Testament  was  published  in 
May,  1881,  the  Old  in  May,  1885. 

REVIVAL,  the  act  of  reviving;  the 
state  of  being  revived;  most  commonly 
used  in  a  religious  sense.  Revivals  oc- 
cur in  all  religions.  When  one  takes 
place  a  large  number  of  persons  who 
have  been  comparatively  dead  or  indif- 
ferent to  spiritual  considerations,  simul- 


REVIVAL  OF  LETTERS 


9 


REVOLUTION 


taneously  or  in  quick  succession  become 
alive  to  their  importance,  alter  spirit- 
ually and  morally,  and  act  with  exceed- 
ing zeal  in  converting  others  to  their 
views.  A  Mohammedan  revival  takes  the 
form  of  a  return  to  the  strict  doctrines 
of  the  Koran,  and  a  desire  to  propagate 
them  by  the  sword.  A  Christian  minor- 
ity living  in  the  place  is  in  danger  of 
being  massacred  by  the  revivalists. 

Christian  Revivals. — Pentecostal  effu- 
sion of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  ii)  pro- 
duced a  revival  within  the  infant 
Church,  followed  by  numerous  conver- 
sions from  outside.  Revivals,  though 
not  called  by  that  name,  occurred  at 
intervals  from  apostolic  times  till  the 
Reformation,  the  revivalists  being  some- 
times so  unsympathetically  treated  that 
they  left  the  Church  and  formed  sects, 
while  in  other  cases,  and  notably  in 
those  of  the  founders  of  the  monastic 
orders,  they  were  retained  and  acted  on 
the  Church  as  a  whole.  The  spiritual 
impulse  which  led  to  the  Reformation, 
and  the  antagonistic  one  which  produced 
or  attended  the  rise  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  were  both  revivalist.  It  is,  how- 
ever, to  sudden  increase  of  spiritual  ac- 
tivity within  the  Protestant  churches  of 
the  English-speaking  peoples  that  the 
term  revival  is  chiefly  confined.  The 
enterprise  of  the  Wesleys  and  of  White- 
field  in  this  country  and  England  from 
1738  onward  was  thoroughly  revivalist. 
There  were  revivals  at  Northampton,  in 
Massachusetts,  in  1734,  and  throughout 
New  England  in  1740-1741,  the  Rev. 
Jonathan  Edwards  being  the  chief  in- 
strument in  their  production.  A  great 
one  arose  in  America  in  1857,  after  the 
financial  crisis  of  that  year.  It  spread 
in  1859  to  Ireland,  and  in  1864  to  Scot- 
land and  to  parts  of  England.  Since 
then  various  revivals  have  from  time  to 
time  occurred,  and  nearly  all  denomina- 
tions aim  at  their  production.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  movements  of  mod- 
ern times,  properly  coming  under  the 
head  of  a  revival,  is  that  of  the  Salva- 
tion Army  (q.  v!),  founded  by  the  Rev. 
William  Booth,  a  Methodist  minister  of 
Nottingham,  England.  This  movement 
has  been  recognized  since  1880  as  a  dis- 
tinct sect,  and  with  its  essential  military 
organization  has  become  an  immense 
power  among  the  poorer  classes  both  in 
this  country  and  in  Europe.  In  the 
United  States  the  commander,  Balling- 
ton  Booth,  withdrew  from  the  Salvation 
Army  and  organized  the  Volunteers  of 
America.  Modern  revivalists  include 
J.  Wilbur  Chapman,  "Gypsy"  Smith  and 
William  A.  Sunday.    See  also  Moody. 

REVIVAL  OP  LETTERS,  the  revival 
©f  literature  after  the  apparent   death- 


blow which  it  received  when  the  barbar- 
ous nations  of  the  North  destroyed  the 
civilized  Roman  empire.  It  commenced 
in  England  feebly  at  the  beginning  of 
the  11th  century,  and  became  more  po- 
tent in  the  14th,  15th  and  subsequent 
centuries. 

REVOCATION,  in  law,  the  destroying 
or  annulling  of  a  deed  or  will  which  had 
existence  till  the  act  of  revocation  made 
it  void.  The  revocation  of  a  deed  can 
only  be  effected  when  an  express  stipu- 
lation has  been  made  in  the  deed  itself 
reserving  this  power.  The  revocation  of 
a  will  can  be  made  in  four  different 
v/ays:  (1)  by  another  will;  (2)  by  in- 
tentional burning,  or  the  like;  (3)  by 
the  disposition  of  the  property  by  the 
testator  in  his  lifetime;  (4)  by  mar- 
riage. 

REVOCATION    OF    THE    EDICT    OF 

NANTES.    See  Edict  of  Nantes. 

REVOLUTION,  a  fundamental  change 
in  government,  or  in  the  political  con- 
stitution of  a  country,  effected  suddenly 
and  violently,  and  mainly  brought  about 
by  internal  causes;  a  revolt  against  the 
constituted  authority  successfully  and 
completely  accomplished.  In  most  revo- 
lutions there  are  three  turns  of  the 
wheel.  First  there  is  a  moderate  move- 
ment forward,  then,  after  a  time,  a 
second  forward  movement.  The  extreme 
party  who  now  come  into  power  create 
a  reaction  against  the  revolution,  and 
the  wheel  moves  backward.  In  the  great 
French  Revolution  first  there  were  the 
Girondists,  then  the  Jacobins,  then  the 
reaction  to  monarchy  under  the  first 
Napoleon,  and  in  due  time  again  to  the 
Bourbons.  In  the  United  States  the 
term  Revolution  is  applied  specifically 
to  the  American  War  for  Independence, 
which  began  in  1775  with  the  irregular 
running  fight  popularly  known  as  the 
battle  of  Lexington,  and  practically 
ended  with  the  surrender  of  Lord  Corn- 
wallis,  at  Yorktown,  Va.,  to  the  com- 
bined forces  of  the  French  and  Ameri- 
cans, in  the  year  1781.  The  English 
Revolution  was  that  revolution  in  Eng- 
land by  which  James  II.  was  driven 
from  the  throne  in  1688.  The  Russian 
Revolution  was  that  of  1917  which  led 
to  the  triumph  of  the  Bolsheviki  over  the 
moderates,  and  the  development  of  So- 
viet power.  The  German  Revolution  was 
that  of  1918,  by  which  the  German  Em- 
peror and  the  kings  and  other  reigning 
princes  of  the  various  sovereign  Ger- 
man states  were  driven  from  their 
thrones. 

In  astronomy:  (1)  The  motion  of  a 
planet  around  the  sun,  or  of  a  satellit  • 
around  a  planet.     The  point  to  which  it 


Rl-VOLUTIONARY    CALENDAR        10 


REWARD 


returns  is  called  annual,  anomalistic, 
nodical,  sidereal,  or  tropical,  according  as 
it  has  a  relation  to  the  year,  the  anom- 
aly, the  nodes,  the  stars,  or  the  tropics. 
(2)  See  Rotation.  In  geometry,  when 
one  line  moves  about  a  straight  line, 
called  the  axis,  in  such  a  manner  that 
every  point  of  the  moving  line  generates 
a  circumference  of  a  circle,  whose  plane 
is  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  that  moflon 
is  called  revolution,  and  the  surface  is 
called  the  surface  of  revolution.  Every 
plane  through  the  axis  is  called  a  merid- 
ian plane,  and  the  section  which  this 
plane  cuts  from  the  surface  is  called 
a  meridian  curve.  Every  surface  of 
revolution  can  be  generated  by  revolv- 
ing one  of  its  meridian  curves  about 
the  axis.  The  revolution  of  an  ellipse 
round  its  axis  generates  an  ellipsoid; 
the  revolution  of  a  semicircle  round  the 
diameter  generates  a  sphere;  such  solids 
are  called  solids  of  revolution. 

REVOLUTIONARY  CALENDAR,  a 
calendar  designed  to  be  philosophic,  de- 
creed on  Nov.  24,  1793,  to  commence 
from  the  foundation  of  the  French  re- 
public, Sept.  22,  1792.  The  12  months 
were  Vendemiaire,  Brumaire,  Frimaire, 
Nivose,  Pluviose,  Ventose,  Germinal,  Flo- 
real,  Prairial,  Messidor,  Fervidor  or 
Thermidor,  and  Fructidor.  The  first 
three  constituted  Autumn,  the  second 
three  Winter,  the  third  Spring,  and  the 
fourth  three   Summer. 

REVOLUTIONARY    TRIBUNAL,    in 

French  history,  the  name  given  on  Oct. 
30,  1793,  to  what  had  before  been  called 
the  Extraordinary  Tribunal.  It  sent 
many  victims  to  the  guillotine. 

REVOLVER,  a  description  of  firearm 
in  which  a  number  of  charges  contained 
in  a  revolving  cylinder  are,  by  pulling 
the  trigger,  brought  successively  into 
position  and  fired  through  a  single  bar- 
rel. For  the  introduction  of  the  revol- 
ver in  its  present  form  we  are  indebted 
to  Col.  Samuel  Colt,  of  Hartford,  Conn., 
though  repeating  pistols  had  long  been 
known  in  other  countries.  In  the  Smith 
and  Wesson  revolver  (adopted  by  Aus- 
tria and  Russia),  facility  in  loading  is 
a  feature,  the  cylinder  and  barrel  to- 
gether being  pivoted  to  the  front  of  the 
stock,  so  that  by  setting  the  hammer  at 
half-cock,  raising  a  spring-catch,  and 
lowering  the  muzzle,  the  bottom  of  the 
cylinder  is  turned  up  to  receive  fresh 
metallic  cartridges.  When  this  is  done 
the  muzzle  is  pressed  back  till  the  snap- 
catch  fastens  it  to  the  back  plate,  and 
the  revolver  is  again  ready  to  be  fired. 
In  the  latest  form  of  this  revolver  the 
spent  cartridges  are  thrown  out  of  the 
cylinder  by  means  of  an  automatic  dis- 


charger. The  British  regulation  army 
revolver  is  Webley  and  Scott's,  Mark 
IV.  .445.  The  weapon  can  also  be  easily 
and  instantly  unloaded,  and  some  are 
made  with  covered  hammers,  safety 
bolts,  etc.  The  revolver  principle  has 
also  been  applied  to  rifles,  and  to  guns 
for  throwing  small  projectiles,  as  in  the 
Gatling  and  other  machine  guns. 

REWA,  a  state  of  India,  called  also 
Baghelkhand.  Area,  13,000  square  miles. 
Pop.  about  1,500,000.  Rewa  Kantha  is 
the  name  of  a  political  agency  under 
the  government  of  Bombay,  containing 
61  small  states,  of  which  five  are  tribu- 
tary to  the  British  Government,  and 
most  of  the  remainder  to  Baroda.  The 
territory  included,  covering  an  area  of 
about  5,000  square  miles,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  about  700,000,  lies  mainly  along 
the  S.  bank  of  the  lower  Nerbudda  with 
patches  N.  of  it,  and  on  the  W.  borders 
on  Broach,  Baroda,  and  Ahmadabad. 

REWARD,  in  a  legal  sense,  some  en- 
couragement which  the  law  holds  out  for 
exertions  in  bringing  certain  classes  of 
criminals  to  justice.  The  courts  of  as- 
size may  order  the  sheriff  of  the  county, 
in  which  certain  offenses  have  been  com- 
mitted, to  pay  to  persons  who  have  been 
active  in  securing  the  apprehension  of 
offenders  charged  with  crimes,  or  with 
being  accessory  before  the  fact  to  any 
of  such  offenses,  or  to  receiving  any 
stolen  property,  a  reasonable  sum  to 
compensate  them  for  expense,  exertion, 
and  loss  of  time.  So  by  a  later  statute 
courts  of  quarter  sessions  are  author- 
ized, in  the  case  of  any  of  the  above 
offenses  which  they  have  jurisdiction  to 
try,  to  order  such  compensation;  but  the 
payment  to  one  person  must  not  exceed 
$25.  If  any  one  is  killed  in  endeavoring 
to  apprehend  a  person  charged  with  one 
of  these  offenses,  the  court  may  order 
compensation  to  be  made  to  the  family. 
The  amount  to  be  paid  in  all  such  cases 
is  subject  to  regulations  which  may  be 
made  from  time  to  time  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  State.  By  another  statute  it  is 
a  felony,  punishable  by  penal  servitude 
to  the  extent  of  seven  years,  to  cor- 
ruptly take  any  reward  for  helping  a 
person  to  property  stolen  or  embezzled, 
unless  all  due  diligence  to  bring  the  of- 
fenders to  trial  has  been  used.  In 
Great  Britain  an  advertisement  offering 
a  reward  for  the  return  of  stolen  or  lost 
property,  using  words  purporting  that 
no  questions  will  be  asked  or  inquiry 
made  after  the  person  producing  the 
property,  renders  the  advertiser,  printer, 
and  publisher  liable  to  forfeit  $250.  The 
offering  of  rewards  by  the  government 
has  in  England  been  discontinued  on 
grounds  of  public  policy.     In  the  World 


REWARI 


11 


BEYNOLDS 


War,  however,  the  British  Government 
offered  rewards  for  the  apprehension  of 
dangerous  enemy  spies  and  others. 

BEWABI,  a  town  of  the  district  of 
Gurgaon,  in  the  extreme  S.  of  the  Pun- 
jab, 50  miles  S.  W.  of  Delhi,  an  impor- 
tant center  for  trade  between  the  Punjab 
and  Rajputana.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

BEXFOBD,  EBEN  EUGENE,  an 
American  poet ;  born  in  Johnsburg,  N.  Y., 
July  16,  1848.  He  began  to  write  when 
a  mere  child,  contributing  to  periodicals 
and  magazines.  He  published  in  book 
form  the  poems  "Brother  and  Lover" 
and  "Grandmother's  Garden"  (1887) ; 
and  a  story,  "John  Fielding  and  His 
Enemy"  (1888).  "The  Swamp  Secret" 
(1897);  "Into  the  Light"  (1899),  etc. 
He  wrote  the  popular  songs  "Silver 
Threads  Among  the  Gold"  and  "Only  a 
Pansy-Blossom."     He   died  in   1916. 

REYES,  BERNARDO,  a  Mexican  sol- 
dier, born  in  the  Province  of  Nuevo 
Leon.  He  studied  in  France.  Return- 
ing to  Mexico,  he  joined  the  army,  where 
he  rapidly  rose  in  rank,  became  one  of 
the  principal  generals  in  the  later  Diaz 
regime,  was  appointed  Governor  of  the 
State  of  Nuevo  Leon,  and  served  also  as 
Minister  of  War  and  Marine.  He  in- 
curred the  suspicion  of  Diaz  and  in 
1909,  after  having  headed  a  revolt,  he 
was  banished.  He  joined  the  Madero 
movement  in  1911  and  was  a  candidate 
for  the  presidency,  but  withdrew  before 
the  election.  He  was  arrested  in  San 
Antonio,  Tex.,  for  violation  of  the  neu- 
trality laws,  but  was  released.  When 
he  returned  to  Mexico,  he  endeavored  to 
start  a  revolt,  but  failed  and  surren- 
dered himself  to  Madero  in  December, 
1911.  He  was  kept  in  prison  for  two 
years  and  was  released  during  the  up- 
rising against  Madero  in  1913.  In  the 
fighting  which  followed  this,  he  was 
killed. 

REYES,  RAFAEL,  a  Colombian  sol- 
dier and  politician,  born  at  Santa  Rose 
de  Viterbo,  in  1852.  During  his  earlier 
life  he  conducted  important  explorations 
in  South  America.  Becoming  engaged 
in  politics,  he  took  a  large  part  in  the 
internal  struggles  of  Colombia.  He  com- 
manded the  government  forces  dur- 
ing the  uprising  of  1885,  was  Minister 
of  the  Interior  under  President  Nunez, 
and  served  also  as  Minister  to  France 
and  Switzerland.  He  represented  Co- 
lombia in  several  foreign  negotiations, 
including  those  for  the  Panama  Canal. 
In  1904  he  was  elected  President  of 
Colombia.  His  administration  was  on 
the  whole  excellent,  but  objection  was 
made  to  his  imperious  policies,  and  he 
resigned    in    1910.       He    wrote    several 


books,  including  "The  Two  Americas" 
(1914). 

REYNARD  THE  FOX,  the  title  of  a 
well-known  popular  epic,  the  characters 
of  which  are  animals  instead  of  men.  It 
belongs  to  the  series  of  beast  fables 
which  have  delighted  the  popular  imagi- 
nation from  early  ages  and  in  all  lands, 
from  India  to  the  Bushmen's  country  in 
South  Africa. 

REYNOLDS,  JAMES  BURTON,  an 
American  public  official,  born  in  Sara- 
toga, N.  Y.,  in  1870.  He  was  educated 
at  Dartmouth  College,  and  after  some 
years  of  journalistic  work  with  Boston 
and  New  York  newspapers,  he  became 
secretary  of  the  Republican  State  Com- 
mittee of  Massachusetts  in  1896,  serving 
until  1905.  From  1905  to  1909  he  was 
an  assistant  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
spending    some    time    during    1907    and 

1908  in  various  European  countries  as 
chairman  of  the  government  commission 
to  consider  trade  relations  between  these 
countries  and  the  United  States.     From 

1909  to  1912  he  was  a  member  of  the 
United  States  Tariff  Board.  In  July, 
1912,  he  became  secretary  of  the  Repub- 
lican National  Committee,  resigning  in 
January,  1920,  to  take  charge  of  the 
campaign  for  the  presidential  nomina- 
tion of  Governor  Coolidge  of  Massachu- 
setts. 

REYNOLDS,  JOHN  FULTON,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in  Lan- 
caster, Pa.,  Sept.  20,  1820 ;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1841;  as  1st  lieutenant  served  in  the 
MexicanWar  in  1846-1847;  was  promoted 
captain  in  1855;  and  was  appointed  com- 
mandant at  West  Point  in  1859.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  lieutenant-colonel  of  volunteers ; 
led  a  brigade  in  the  Seven  Days'  battles, 
in  June,  1862,  near  Richmond,  when  he 
so  distinguished  himself  for-  skill  and 
bravery  that  he  was  given  the  brevets  of 
colonel  and  brigadier-general,  U.  S.  A. 
In  1863  he  succeeded  Hooker  in  command 
of  the  1st  Army  Corps;  in  1863  was  pro- 
moted Major-General  of  volunteers.  His 
corps  was  the  vanguard  at  Gettysburg, 
where  he  was  killed,  July  1,  1863. 

REYNOLDS,  JOSEPH  JONES,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in  Flem- 
ingsburg,  Ky.,  Jan.  4,  1822;  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  from  Indiana  in  1839;  on  grad- 
uation was  appointed  2d  lieutenant,  4th 
Artillery,  and  after  service  at  Fort  Mon- 
roe and  in  Texas  was,  in  1846,  assigned 
to  the  3d  Artillery  and  was  on  frontier 
duty  at  Fort  Washita,  I.  T.,  in  1855- 
1856;  then  became  Professor  of  Me- 
chanics and  Engineering  at  Washington 


REYNOLDS 


12 


REYNOLDS 


University,  St.  Louis,  and  was  also  sta- 
tioned at  other  colleges.  After  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Civil  War  he  rapidly  rose 
in  rank  from  colonel  of  the  10th  Indiana 
Volunteers  to  Major-General  of  volun- 
teers; during  that  time  he  was  in  com- 
mand of  Camp  Morton,  Indianapolis,  and 
Cheat  Mountain  district,  W.  Va.  In 
Tennessee  he  was  engaged  in  the  actions 
at  Hoover's  Gap,  battle  of  Chickamauga, 
and  battle  of  Chattanooga;  later  was 
in  command  of  the  defenses  of  New  Or- 
leans from  Jan.  6  to  June  16,  1864;  was 
in  command  of  the  19th  Army  Corps, 
and  assisted  in  organizing  the  forces  for 
the  capture  of  Mobile  and  Forts  Gaines 
and  Morgan,  Mobile  harbor,  in  the  same 
year.  He  was  in  command  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi river  from  its  mouth  to  Mem- 
phis, Tenn.,  from  October  to  December, 
1864;  was  mustered  out  of  the  volunteer 
service  in  1866,  and  was  promoted 
colonel  in  the  regular  army  in  the  same 
year;  was  brevetted  Brigadier-General 
in  1867  for  gallant  and  meritorious  ser- 
vice at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  and 
was  in  the  same  year  brevetted  Major- 
General  for  similar  service  at  the  battle 
of  Missionary  Ridge;  after  service  in  the 
25th  Infantry  he  was  transferred  to  the 
23d  Cavalry  in  1870,  and  after  that  time 
served  at  Fort  McPherson  and  other 
military  stations  and  on  various  boards 
till  retired  from  active  service  June  25, 
1877,  for  disability  contracted  in  the  line 
of  duty.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
Feb.  25,  1899. 

REYNOLDS,  SIR  JOSHUA,  an  Eng- 
lish portrait  and  subject  painter;  bora 
in  Plympton  Earls,  near  Plymouth,  July 
16,  1723.  His  father,  a  clergyman  and 
master  of  Plympton  grammar  school,  in- 
tended him  for  the  medical  profession; 
but  he  developed  a  strong  aptitude  for 
painting,  was  continually  studying  the 
plates  in  Cat's  "Book  of  Emblems,"  Dry- 
den's  "Plutarch,"  and  the  other  volumes 
that  came  in  his  way,  and  at  the  age  of 
eight  had  mastered  the  "Jesuit's  Perspec- 
tive," and  applied  its  principles  to  draw- 
ings executed  by  himself.  In  October, 
1740,  accordingly,  he  was  sent  to  Lon- 
don to  study  art,  and  placed  in  the 
studio  of  Thomas  Hudson,  a  portrait 
painter.  In  1743  he  returned  to  Devon- 
shire, and  some  of  the  portraits  of  local 
worthies  which  he  then  produced  still 
exist.  In  the  following  year  he  was 
again  in  London  pursuing  his  art;  but 
in  the  beginning  of  1747,  after  the  death 
of  his  father,  he  settled  in  Plymouth 
Dock,  now  Devonport,  where  he  learned 
much  from  a  study  of  the  works  of 
William  Gandy  of  Exeter.  In  1749  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Commodore, 
afterward    Lord,    Keppel,    who    invited 

A — I 


him  to  accompany  him  on  a  cruise  in 
the  Mediterranean;  and,  after  painting 
many  of  the  British  officers  in  Minorca, 
he  made  his  way  to  Rome,  where  he 
studied  Raphael  and  Michelangelo 
and  in  the  Vatican  caught  a  chill  which 
permanently  affected  his  hearing.  He 
also  visited  Bologna,  Genoa,  Florence, 
Parma,  and  Venice.  Returning  to  Eng- 
land in  October,  1752,  he  soon  afterward 
established  himself  in  a  studio  in  St. 
Martin's  Lane,  London,  and  attracted 
notice  by  his  portraits  of  the  second 
Duke  of  Devonshire  and  Commodore  Kep- 


SIR   JOSHUA  REYNOLDS 

pel.  Before  long  he  was  in  excellent 
practice,  and  in  the  year  1755  he  had 
no  fewer  than  120  sitters.  In  1760,  he 
purchased  a  mansion  on  the  W.  side  of 
Leicester  Square,  to  which  he  added  a 
studio  and  reception   room. 

In  1764  he  founded  the  famous  liter- 
ary club  of  which  Dr.  Johnson,  Garrick, 
Burke,  Goldsmith,  Boswell,  and  Sheridan 
were  members;  all  of  whom  were  por- 
trayed by  his  brush.  He  was  one  of 
the  earliest  members  of  the  Incorporated 
Society  of  Artists,  and  contributed  to 
its  exhibitions  till  1768,  when,  on  the 
establishment  of  the  Royal  Academy,  he 
was  elected  its  first  president;  and  in 
the  following  year  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood  from  the  king.  In  1769  he 
delivered  the  first  of  his  "Discourses" 
to  the  students  of  the  Academy,  15  of 
which  have  been  published.  They  are 
Cyc  Vol  8 


REYNOLDS 


13 


RHAMNACEJE 


full  of  valuable  and  well-considered  in- 
struction, and,  along  with  his  papers  on 
art  in  the  "Idler,"  his  annotations  to 
Du  Fresnoy's  "Art  of  Painting,"  and  his 
"Notes  on  the  Art  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries," show  a  correct  and  cultivated 
literary  style.  He  contributed  his  pic- 
ture of  Miss  Morris  as  "Hope  nursing 
Love"  to  the  first  exhibition  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  along  with  his  portraits  of  the 
Duchess  of  Manchester,  Mrs.  Blake,  Mrs. 
Crewe,  and  Mrs.  Bouverie;  and  in  1771 
completed  his  subject  of  "Count  Ugolino 
and  his  Children  in  the  Dungeon," 
usually  regarded  as  his  most  successful 
effort  in  the  direction  of  historical  art. 
In  1784  he  succeeded  Allan  Ramsay  as 
painter  to  the  king;  in  the  same  year 
he  finished  and  exhibited  his  portrait 
of  Mrs.  Siddons  as  the  "Tragic  Muse," 
undoubtedly  his  greatest  portrait,  and  in 
1787  he  undertook  three  subjects  for 
Boydell's  Shakespeare  Gallery,  executing 
"Puck,"  "The  Witch  Scene  from  Mac- 
beth," and  "The  Death  of  Cardinal  Beau- 
fort." 

He  suffered  a  slight  attack  of  paraly- 
sis in  1782,  and  in  1789  his  sight  became 
affected.  The  following  year  was  em- 
bittered by  an  unfortunate  dispute  with 
the  Academy  which  led  to  his  resigna- 
tion of  the  presidentship,  a  resolution 
which  he  afterward  considered  and  re- 
scinded; and  on  Dec.  10,  1790,  he  de- 
livered his  last  "Discourse"  to  the  stu- 
dents.    He  died  Feb.  23,   1792. 

It  is  in  virtue  of  his  portraits  that 
Reynolds  ranks  as  the  head  of  the  Eng- 
lish school  of  art.  In  the  dignity  of 
their  style,  the  power  and  expressiveness 
of  their  handling,  the  variety  and  ap- 
propriateness of  their  attitudes,  in  the 
beauty  of  their  coloring  and  the  delicacy 
of  their  flesh-painting,  his  portraits  have 
never  been  surpassed.  His  efforts  in  the 
higher  departments  of  historical  and  im- 
aginative art  were  less  successful.  In 
his  technical  methods  Reynolds  was  un- 
fortunately most  careless  and  uncertain. 
He  was  continually  experimenting  in 
new  processes  and  untried  combinations 
of  pigments,  with  the  result  that  even 
in  his  own  lifetime  his  works  deterio- 
rated, especially  in  their  flesh-tints. 

Personally  Reynolds  was  a  man  of  fine 
and  varied  culture,  and  he  was  distin- 
guished by  an  exquisite  urbanity,  the 
expression  of  a  most  amiable  and  equa- 
ble disposition,  which  was  exceptionally 
fitted  to  win  and  retain  friendship. 

The  first  great  collection  of  the  works 
of  Reynolds  was  brought  together  by 
the  British  Institution  in  1813,  and  num- 
bered 142  pictures.  His  authentic  works 
have  been  estimated  by  Taylor  to  num- 
ber between  2,000  and  3,000;  and  from 
these    some    700    engravings    have    been 

B— 


executed,  some  of  them — such  as  the 
mezzotints  of  J.  R.  Smith,  John  Dixon, 
William  Dickinson,  and  James  M'Ardell 
— ranking  among  the  finest  examples  of 
the  art. 

REYNOLDS,  ROBERT  M.,  lawyer  and 
diplomat,  was  born  in  Muskingum  co., 
Ohio,  Aug.  30,  1826.  He  received  a 
classical  education,  removed  to  Illinois 
in  1847,  and  to  Iowa  in  1851.  There  he 
was  principal  of  an  academy  and  a 
teacher  of  mathematics  for  ten  years  and 
also  studied  law.  Married  in  1850  Orpha 
W.  Richardson,  of  La  Harpe,  Illinois. 
Had  six  children,  four  sons,  two  daugh- 
ters. He  enlisted  in  the  1st  Iowa  Cav- 
alry in  1861  and  became  a  veteran  by 
re-enlistment  in  1864.  He  was  three 
times  wounded  in  action  and  was  mus- 
tered out  of  service  as  a  brigadier  gen- 
eral by  brevet  in  1865.  In  that  year 
he  settled  in  Alabama.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  state  constitutional  conven- 
tion of  1867  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  at  Montgomery,  Ala.  In  1868  he 
was  elected  auditor  of  the  state,  and 
served  for  more  than  four  years.  He 
was  minister  resident  of  the  United 
States  to  Bolivia  during  1874-77,  and  in 
1878  was  appointed  first  auditor  of  the 
U.  S.  treasury  at  Washington.  Served 
as  First  Auditor  in  the  Treasury  until 
March,  1885.  Died  in  St.  Louis,  June 
2,  1885. 

RH.33TIA,  a  province  of  the  Roman 
empire,  which  included  great  part  of  the 
Alpine  regions  between  the  valleys  of 
the  Danube  and  the  Po,  and  corre- 
sponded with  the  districts  occupied  in 
modern  times  by  the  Austrian  province 
of  Tyrol  and  the  Swiss  canton  of  Gri- 
sons.  The  Rhaetians,  who  are  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  of  Etruscan  ori- 
gin, were  subdued  by  Drusus  and  Tibe- 
rius, 15  B.  c;  and  shortly  afterward 
Rhsetia  was  incorporated  as  a  province 
in  the  Roman  empire.  During  the  last 
days  of  the  Roman  empire,  when  the 
barbarians  devastated  the  provinces, 
Rhaetia  was  nearly  depopulated;  and 
after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  it 
was  occupied  by  the  Alemanni  and  Suevi. 

RHAMNACE.33,  an  order  of  plants, 
classed  by  Lindley  under  his  44th  or 
Rhamnal  alliance.  The  calyx,  which  is 
four  or  five  cleft,  is  valvate.  The  petals 
are  as  many  and  inserted  into  the  ori- 
fice of  the  calyx;  sometimes  they  are 
wanting.  The  stamens  are  four  or  five, 
and  opposite  to  the  petals;  fruit  berried 
or  dry.  The  flowers  are  small  and  gen- 
erally green.  The  order  consists  of  trees 
and  shrubs,  often  spiny.  There  are  spe- 
cies in  nearly  all  countries,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Arctic  zone.  Known 
Cyc  Vol  8 


BHAPSODIST 


14 


RHEA 


genera  42,  species  250  (Lindley) ;  gen- 
era 37,  species  430  (Sir  Joseph  Hooker). 
Berries  belonging  to  various  plants  of 
the  order  have  been  used  for  dyeing  yel- 
low, green,  or  intermediate  tints,  others 
are  eatable.  One  plant  is  used  by  the 
poorer  classes  in  China  for  tea.  Others 
have  been  employed  as  astringents,  pur- 
gatives, tonics,  sedatives,  etc. 

BHAPSODIST,  strictly,  one  who 
strings  songs  together,  but  usually  ap- 
plied to  a  class  of  persons  in  ancient 
Greece,  who  earned  their  living  by  re- 
citing the  poems  of  Homer.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  to  these  persons  we  are  chiefly 
indebted  for  the  preservation  of  the 
Homeric  poems.  In  the  present  day,  a 
rhapsodist  is  one  who  composes  rhapso- 
dies or  collections  of  poetical  effusions, 
descriptions,  etc.,  strung  together  with- 
out any  natural  connection  or  necessary 
dependence. 

RHATANY,  or  RATTANY,  a  half 
shrubby  plant,  of  the  natural  order  Poly- 
galeae,  a  native  of  the  cold  sterile  table- 
lands of  the  Andes  in  Peru  and  Bolivia. 
It  is  called  ratanhia  in  Peru.  It  is 
valued  for  the  medicinal  properties  of 
the  root,  which  are  shared  more  or  less 
by  other  species  of  the  same  genus,  also 
natives  of  South  America.  In  the  Brit- 
ish Pharmacopaeia  the  dried  roots  of  two 
species  (Krameria  triandra,  Peruvian 
rhatany,  and  K.  ixina,  Savanilla  rhat- 
any) are  officinal  under  the  name  Kra- 
merias  Radix.  The  roots  vary  a  good 
deal  in  size  and  thickness,  but  are  always 
rough-looking,  and  reddish  in  color.  The 
bark  has  a  strongly  astringent  taste, 
and  when  chewed  tinges  the  saliva  red; 
the  wood  is  nearly  tasteless.  The  dried 
root  is  a  powerful  astringent,  and  is 
employed  in  diarrhaea,  mucous  discharges, 
passive  haemorrhages,  and  cases  where 
an  astringent  or  styptic  action  is  in- 
dicated. The  finely-powdered  root  is 
also  a  frequent  constituent  of  tooth- 
powders.  Rhatany  root  is  imported  from 
various  parts  of  South  America,  but 
chiefly  from  Lima.  It  is  extensively  im- 
ported into  Portugal  in  order  to  com- 
municate a  rich  red  color  to  wines.  Its 
peculiar  properties  are  due  to  rhatany- 
tannic  acid,  found  in  the  root-bark  to 
the  extent  of  20  per  cent.;  it  also  con- 
tains a  red  coloring  matter. 

RHEA,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  of 
Struthionidae,  or,  if  that  family  is  di- 
vided, of  Strxithioninse.  Three  toes  are 
present,  the  neck_  is  covered  with 
feathers,  and  the  tail  is  almost  obsolete. 
They  are  sometimes  called  South  Ameri- 
can ostriches,  but  are  smaller  than  the 
true  ostrich,  and  the  whole  plumage  is 
somber.     There  are  two  well-established 


species,  R.  americana,  the  common,  and 
R.  darwini,  Darwin's  rhea,  the  former 
ranging  from  Bolivia,  Paraguay,  and  the 
S.  of  Brazil  down  to  Magellan's  Straits, 
the  latter  inhabiting  eastern  Patagonia. 
R.  macrorhyncha  was  given  specific  dis- 
tinction by  Dr.  Sclater  in  1860,  but  sub- 
sequent investigations  led  him  to  believe 
that  the  individuals  belonged  to  a  lo- 
cally isolated  race  of  R.  americana,  prob- 
ably existing  somewhere  in  the  campos 
of  the  interior  of  northeastern  Brazil. 

RHEA,  a  variety  of  the  nettle  family, 
which  grows  luxuriantly  in  India.  From 
the  delicate  fibers  in  its  bark  the  finest 
and  strongest  textile  fabrics  can  be  pro- 
duced, and  in  the  manufacture  of  such 
fabrics  it  is  unrivalled.  The  hindrance 
to  its  use  has  hitherto  lain  in  the  dif- 
ficulty and  cost  of  separating  the  fibers 


RHEA 

from  the  gums  and  cortex  of  the  bark 
in  which  they  are  embedded.  However, 
an  Anglo-Indian  chemist,  Mr.  Gomess, 
has  succeeded  in  elaborating  a  chemical 
process  which  frees  the  fiber  from  the 
resins  in  which  it  is  imbedded,  by  the 
use  of  zincate  of  soda;  and  this  process, 
after  numerous  trials,  the  Indian  Govern- 
ment pronounced  a  complete  success.  A 
large  demand  consequently  developed  for 
the  "ribbons"  or  strips  of  dried  bark. 
Rhea  fibers  can  be  worked  into  every 
variety  of  fabric,  from  velvets  to  laces. 
It  is  specially  suitable,  from  its  lightness 
and  toughness,  for  tents  and  ship  can- 
vas, and  it  is  found  to  be  far  more  dura- 
ble than  linen. 

RHEA,  MADEMOISELLE  (MLLE. 
Hortense  Barbe-Loret),  a  Belgian  ac- 
tress; born  in  Brussels,  Belgium,  Sept. 
4,  1844.     Educated  at  the  Ursuline  Con- 


RHEAD 


15 


RHEIMS 


vent,  Paris,  France;  she  began  to  study 
for  the  stage  soon  after  leaving  school; 
made  her  debut  at  the  Theatre  de  la 
Monnaie,  Brussels,  in  "Fairy  Fingers"; 
was  engaged  at  Rouen  and  at  the  Vaude- 
ville, Paris;  made  a  tour  of  France; 
was  leading  actress  at  the  Imperial 
Theater,  St.  Petersburg,  1876-1881; 
played,  in  English,  Beatrice  in  "Much 
Ado  About  Nothing,"  at  the  Gaiety 
Theater,  London,  in  1881;  acted  in  the 
United  States  in  1881  and  1882.  Her 
repertory  contained  "Adrienne  Lecouv- 
reur";  "Camille";  "Pygmalion  and  Gala- 
tea"; "School  for  Scandal";  "Frou- 
Frou";  "The  New  Magdalen";  "Lady  of 
Lyons";  "Nell  Gwynn";  etc.  She  died 
in  Montmorency,  France,  May  5,  1899. 

RHEAD,  LOUIS  JOHN,  an  Anglo- 
American  artist,  born  in  Etruria,  Eng- 
land, in  1857.  Having  studied  art  at  the 
Art  Training  School,  South  Kensington, 
London,  he  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1883,  as  art  manager  for  a  large 
publishing  house.  He  painted  in  oil  and 
water  colors.  Besides  exhibiting  in  many 
American  and  European  galleries,  he 
also  illustrated  numerous  books,  espe- 
cially the  Louis  Rhead  series  of  juvenile 
classics.  He  also  contributed  to  news- 
papers and  magazines  frequent  articles 
on  fly  fishing.  Gold  medals  were  awarded 
to  him  at  Boston,  in  1895  and  at  St. 
Louis,  in  1904.  He  published  "Bait 
Angling"  (1907) ;  "Book  of  Fish  and 
Fishing"  (1908)  ;  and  "American  Trout 
Stream  Insects"   (1916). 

RHEES,  BENJAMIN  RUSH,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  Chicago,  111., 
Feb.  8,  1860;  was  graduated  at  Amherst 
College  in  1883,  and  at  the  Hartford 
Theological  Seminary.  In  1889  he  ac- 
cepted a  pastorate  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
where  he  remained  till  1892  when  he 
went  to  the  Newton  Theological  Insti- 
tution, Newton  Center,  Mass.,  and  in  1894 
became  Professor  of  Biblical  Interpreta- 
tion of  the  New  Testament.  There  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Bib- 
lical Literature  and  Exegesis;  and  was 
author  of  "The  Life  of  Jesus  of  Naza- 
reth, a  Study";  "History  of  Theology"; 
etc.  He  was  elected  president  of  the 
University  of  Rochester,  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  and  Burbank  professor  of  Bibli- 
cal Literature,  July  1,  1900. 

RHEIMS,  or  REIMS,  a  city  in  the 
French  department  of  Marne;  on  the 
Vesle;  98  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Paris. 
Strongly  fortified  with  detached  forts 
since  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  when 
it  was  for  a  time  the  German  headquar- 
ters; it  is  well  built,  and  from  the 
material   employed   in  building,  which  is 


the  chalkstone  of  the  district,  and  from 
the  prevalence  of  the  older  style  of  do- 
mestic architecture,  has  a  picturesque 
appearance.  It  is  built  on  the  site  of 
Durocortorum,  which  is  mentioned  by 
Caesar  as  the  capital  of  the  Remi,  from 
which  people  it  subsequently  took  its 
present  name.  Christianity  may  have 
found  an  entrance  into  Rheims  at  an 
earlier  period,  but  it  was  not  till  about 
360  that  it  became  a  bishop's  see.  Under 
the  Frank  rule  it  was  a  place  of  much 
importance,  and  it  acquired  a  deeply 
religious  interest  from  its  having  been 
the  scene  in  496  of  the  baptism  of  Clo- 
vis  and  his  chief  officers  by  the  bishop, 
St.  Remy  (438-533).  In  the  8th  cen- 
tury it  became  an  archbishopric,  and 
from  1179,  when  Philip  Augustus  was 
solemnly  crowned  here,  it  became  the 
place  for  the  coronation  of  the  kings  of 
France,  who  were  anointed  from  a  ves- 
sel of  sacred  oil,  called  "sainte  ampoule," 
which  a  dove  was  said  to  have  carried 
to  St.  Remy  from  heaven.  Joan  of  Arc 
brought  the  dauphin  hither,  and  the  only 
sovereigns  in  the  long  series,  down  to 
1825,  not  crowned  at  Rheims  were  Henry 
IV.,  Napoleon  I.,  and  Louis  XVIII.  In 
1793  the  cathedral  was  attacked  by  the 
populace,  and  the  sainte  ampoule 
smashed  by  a  sansculotte;  and  in  1830 
the  ceremony  of  coronation  at  Rheims 
was  abolished.  The  cathedral,  though 
the  towers  of  the  original  design  are 
still  unfinished,  is  one  of  the  finest  ex- 
tant specimens  of  Gothic  architecture. 
It  was  built  between  1212  and  1430,  and 
in  1877  the  government  voted  $400,000 
toward  restoration.  Its  nave  is  466 
feet  long  by  99  in  breadth,  with  a  tran- 
sept of  160  feet,  and  the  height  is  144 
feet.  Its  grandest  features  are  the  W. 
facade,  which  is  almost  unrivaled,  with 
its  magnificent  doorway,  and  the  so- 
called  Angel  Tower,  which  rises  59  feet 
above  the  lofty  roof.  The  stained  glass 
is  remarkable  for  its  beauty;  the  organ 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  France;  and  two 
survive  out  of  six  magnificent  tapestries. 
The  Romanesque  church  of  St.  Remy 
(mainly  1160-1180),  with  the  saint's 
shrine,  is  nearly  of  equal  size,  but  of 
less  architectural  pretension.  Also  note- 
worthy are  the  town  hall  (1627-1880) ; 
the  ancient  "Maison  des  Musiciens"  (Mu- 
sicians' House),  and  archiepiscopal  pa- 
lace; the  Porta  Martis,  a  Roman  trium- 
phal arch;  the  Lycee,  representing  a 
former  university  (1547-1793) ;  and 
statues  of  Louis  XV.  and  two  natives, 
Colbert  and  Marshal  Drouet.  Rheims, 
prior  to  the  World  War,  was  one  of  the 
principal  entrepots  for  the  wines  of 
Champagne,  and  the  hills  which  surround 
the  town  were  planted  with  vineyards, 
and  many  workmen  were  employed.     It 


RHENISH    PRUSSIA 


16 


RHETORIC 


was  one  of  the  great  centers  of  the 
woolen  manufacture  in  France,  and  its 
manufactures,  embracing  woolen  goods 
(especially  merinoes),  mixed  fabrics  in 
silk  and  wool,  etc.,  known  in  commerce 
as  "Articles  de  Rheims."  During  the 
World  War  the  Germans  repeatedly 
bombarded  the  town  and  practically  de- 
stroyed it.  The  famous  cathedral  was 
the  special  mark  of  their  long-range 
guns  and  was  badly  shattered.  Rheims 
was  never  entered  by  the  Germans.  Pop. 
(in  normal  times)   about  118,000. 

RHENISH  PRUSSIA  ( German, 
Rheinland),  the  extreme  W.  province  of 
Prussia,  touching  W.  and  N.  Luxemburg, 
Belgium,  and  Holland;  area,  10,423 
square  miles;  greatest  length  from  N.  to 
S.  about  200  miles;  greatest  breadth 
about  90;  pop.  about  7,120,000.  In  the 
S.  it  is  hilly,  being  traversed  by  the 
ranges  of  the  Eiffel,  Hochwald,  etc.  It 
is  watered  by  the  Rhine,  the  Moselle,  and 
some  affluents  of  the  Meuse.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  surface  is  in  forest. 
Besides  the  usual  cereal  crops,  tobacco, 
hops,  flax,  rape,  hemp,  and  beet-root 
are  raised;  fruit  culture  and  the  vine 
culture  are  also  carefully  attended  to. 
Cattle  are  extensively  reared.  It  is  the 
most  important  mineral  district  in  Ger- 
many, abounding  in  coal,  iron,  lead,  zinc, 
etc.  It  is  likewise  an  active  manufactur- 
ing district,  there  being  numerous  iron 
works  and  machine  shops,  textile  fac- 
tories, breweries,  distilleries,  etc.  It  is 
divided  into  five  governments  or  districts 
of  Coblentz,  Treves,  Cologne,  Aachen 
(Aix-la-Chapelle),  and  Dusseldorf.  The 
city  of  Coblentz  is  the  official  capital  of 
the  province,  but  Cologne  is  the  town  of 
most  importance.  A  portion  of  Rhenish 
Prussia  was  included  in  the  occupied 
area  following  the  armistice  of  Nov.  11, 
1918.  Coblentz  was  the  chief  depot  for 
the  American  Army  of  Occupation,  while 
Cologne  was  the  headquarters  for  the 
British  forces.  See  Ruhr  District; 
Sarre  Basin. 

RHESUS,  a  king  of  Thrace,  whose 
horses  were  carried  off  and  himself  killed 
by  Ulysses  and  Diomede,  in  the  night 
on  which  he  came  to  assist  Priam,  be- 
fore they  could  drink  of  the  water  of 
the  Xanthus,  as  the  oracle  had  declared 
that  otherwise  Troy  could  not  be  taken. 

RHESUS,  a  genus  of  monkeys,  sepa- 
rated by  Lesson  from  Macacus.  Also 
Macacus  rhesus,  the  Rhesus  monkey, 
from  India,  in  some  parts  of  which  it  is 
considered  sacred.  Length,  from  18 
inches  to  2  feet;  tail  from  6  to  8  inches. 
Prevailing  color  olive-green,  brown  on 
back,  face  pale  flesh-color,  callosities  and 
insides  of  legs  often  very  red. 


RHETORIC,  in  its  broadest  sense,  the 
theory  and  practice  of  eloquence,  whether 
spoken  or  written.  It  aims  at  expound- 
ing the  rules  which  should  govern  all 
prose  composition  or  speech  designed  to 
influence  the  judgments  or  the  feelings 
of  men,  and  therefore  treats  of  every- 
thing that  relates  to  beauty  or  force  of 
style,  such  as  accuracy  of  expression, 
the  structure  of  periods,  and  figures  of 
speech.  But  in  a  narrower  sense  rhe- 
toric concerns  itself  with  a  consideration 
of  the  fundamental  principles  according 
to  which  particular  discourses  of  an 
oratorical  kind  are  composed.  The  first 
to  reduce  oratory  to  a  system  were  the 
Sicilian  Greeks;  its  actual  founder  is 
said  to  have  been  Corax  of  Syracuse 
(466  B.  a).  He  divided  the  speech  into 
five  parts,  proem,  narrative,  arguments, 
subsidiary  remarks,  and  peroration;  and 
he  laid  great  stress  on  the  rhetorical 
capabilities  of  general  probability.  Later 
masters  of  rhetoric  were  Tisias;  Gorgias 
of  Leontini,  whose  style  was  burdened 
with  two  much  ornament  and  antithesis; 
Antiphon,  the  earliest  of  the  so-called 
"Ten  Attic  Orators,"  and  the  first  writer 
of  speeches  for  others  to  deliver  in  court. 
The  speeches  given  by  his  great  pupil 
Thucydides  throughout  his  history,  and 
the  orations  of  Andocides,  second  of  the 
Ten,  are  severely  free  from  the  florid 
ornament  of  later  days.  Lysias  was  an 
orator  rather  than  a  rhetorician;  Isocra- 
tes  first  thoroughly  taught  rhetoric,  which 
he  defined  as  the  "science  of  persuasion," 
as  a  technical  method  and  discipline.  His 
most  celebrated  pupils  were  Hyperides, 
Speusippus,  and  Isaeus.  The  great  De- 
mosthenes was  a  pupil  of  the  last.  His 
opponent,  iEschines,  and  his  contempo- 
raries, Hyperides,  Lycurgus,  and  Di- 
narchus  complete  the  Ten.  Anaximenes 
of  Lampsacus  composed  the  oldest  extant 
manual  of  rhetoric,  but  the  great  classi- 
cal work  on  this  subject  is  the  analyti- 
cal masterpiece  of  Aristotle.  According 
to  him  its  function  is  not  to  persuade, 
but  to  discover  the  available  means  of 
persuasion  in  any  subject.  He  regards 
it  as  the  counterpart   of   logic. 

He  divides  the  three  provinces  of  rhe- 
toric thus:  (1)  Deliberative  rhetoric,  con- 
cerned with  exhortation  or  dissuasion, 
and  future  time,  its  ends  expediency  and 
inexpediency;  (2)  forensic  rhetoric,  con- 
cerned with  accusation  or  defense,  and 
with  time  past,  its  ends  justice  and  in- 
justice; (3)  epideictic  rhetoric,  concerned 
with  eulogy  or  censure,  and  usually  with 
time  present,  its  ends  being  honor  and 
disgrace,  or  nobleness  and  shamefulness. 

Aristotle's  method  dominated  the  Peri- 
patetic school,  but  later  began  to  be 
modified  by  the  florid  influence  of  Asia, 
the  originator  of  which  was  Hegesias  of 


RHEUM 


17 


RHEUMATISM 


Magnesia.  The  school  of  Rhodes  fol- 
lowed more  closely  Attic  models,  and 
gained  great  fame  through  its  conspicu- 
ous leaders  Apollonius  and  Molon  (100- 
50  B.  a).  Hermagoras  of  Temnos  (120 
B.  c.)  composed  an  elaborate  system 
which  long  retained  its  influence.  Later 
rhetoricians  were  Dionysius  of  Halicar- 
nassus,  Longinus,  Hermogenes,  Apsines, 
Menander,  Theon,  and  Aphthonius. 
Among  the  earliest  Roman  orators  were 
Appius  Claudius  Caecus  (300  B.  a),  Cato 
the  Censor,  Ser.  Sulpicius  Galba,  Caius 
Gracchus,  Marcus  Antonius,  and  Lucius 
Licinius  Crassus.  The  instructors  in 
formal  rhetoric  were  Greek,  and  the 
great  masters  of  theoretical  and  practi- 
cal rhetoric  alike,  Cicero  and  Quintilian, 
were  both  formed  by  Greek  models. 
Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  rhetoric 
formed  one  of  the  subjects  of  the  tri- 
vium;  its  leading  authorities  were  Mar- 
tianus  Capella,  Cassiodorus,  and  Isidorus. 
The  subject  reawoke  with  the  revival  of 
learning,  and  was  taught  regularly  in 
the  universities,  the  prescribed  public 
exercises  and  disputations  keeping  it  long 
alive;  but  in  later  generations  it  has 
constantly  languished.  In  the  United 
States,  however,  considerable  attention  is 
paid  to  it  as  a  branch  of  general  educa- 
tion. 

RHEUM,  rhubarb;  a  genus  of  Poly- 
gonese.  Calyx  inferior,  petaloid,  six- 
partite;  stamens  about  nine;  ovary 
superior;  ovule  one,  erect;  styles  three, 
reflexed ;  stigma,  peltate,  entire ;  achenium 
three-angled,  winged,  with  the  withered 
calyx  at  the  base.  R.  rhaponticum  is  the 
common,  or  garden  rhubarb.  It  is  used 
in  the  United  States  in  the  making  of 
pies,  and  is  often  called  pie  plant.  R. 
officinale,  or  R.  palmatum,  is  the  officinal 
rhubarb.  R.  emodi,  in  the  Punjab  Hima- 
laya, from  6,200  to  14,000  feet,  with  R. 
moorcroftianum  and  R.  specif orme,  are 
the  chief  sources  of  the  Himalayan  or 
Indian  officinal  rhubarb.  It  is  less  ac- 
tive than  the  common  kind.  The  stalks 
of  R.  emodi  are  eaten  by  the  Hindus. 
Other  Indian  species  are  R.  xvebbianum, 
R.  nobile,  R.  arboreum,  which  yields  so 
much  honey  that  the  ground  under  the 
plants  is  wet  with  it,  and  R.  cinaba- 
rinum,  said  to  poison  goats  in  Sikkim. 
R.  undulatum  grows  in  China  and  Si- 
beria. The  roots  of  R.  ribes  are  used 
by  the  Arabs  as  an  acidulous  medicine, 
and  its  leaf -stalks  in  the  preparation  of 
sherbet. 

In  pharmacy,  three  leading  kinds  of 
rhubarb  are  recognized:  (1)  The  Turkey 
or  Russian  rhubarb,  which  is  wild  neither 
in  the  one  country  nor  the  other,  but 
used  to  be  brought  from  China  via  Tur- 
key, and  then  from  China   via    Russia; 


(2)  the  East  Indian,  and  (3)  the  Bata- 
vian  rhubarb.  An  extract,  an  infusion, 
a  syrup,  a  tincture,  and  a  wine  of  rhu- 
barb, with  a  compound  rhubarb  pill,  are 
used  in  pharmacy.  In  small  doses  rhu- 
barb is  stomachic  and  slighty  astringent; 
in  large  doses,  a  purgative,  but  its  ac- 
tion is  followed  by  constipation. 

RHEUMATISM,  a  term  which  has 
been  and  still  is,  rather  vaguely  and  ex- 
tensively used  in  the  nomenclature  of 
disease.  But  there  is  one  very  definite 
affection  to  which  it  is  always  applied; 
after  this  has  been  discussed  the  other 
senses  in  which  it  is  used  will  be  con- 
sidered. 

Acute  rheumatism  or  rheumatic  fever 
is  indicated  by  general  febrile  symptoms, 
with  redness,  heat,  swelling,  and  usually 
very  intense  pain,  in  and  around  one 
or  more  (generally  several,  either  simul- 
taneously or  in  succession)  of  the  larger 
joints,  and  the  disease  shows  a  tendency 
to  shift  from  joint  to  joint  or  to  certain 
internal  serous  membranes,  especially 
the  pericardium  and  the  endocardium; 
rheumatism  being  the  most  common  ori- 
gin of  pericarditis,  as  has  been  already 
shown  in  the  article  on  that  disease. 

The  usual  exciting  cause  of  acute  rheu- 
matism is  exposure  to  cold,  and  espe- 
cially to  cold  combined  with  moisture, 
and  hence  the  greater  prevalence  of  this 
disease  among  the  poor  and  ill-clad. 
Rheumatism  is  not,  however,  a  universal 
sequence  of  exposure  to  the  cold.  It  only 
occurs  when  there  is  a  special  predis- 
position, or,  as  it  is  termed,  a  rheu- 
matic diathesis  or  constitution,  and  the 
diathesis  may  be  so  strongly  developed 
as  to  occasion  an  attack  of  acute  rheu- 
matism, independently  of  exposure  to  any 
apparent  exciting  cause.  Men  are  more 
subject  to  the  disease  than  women,  but 
this  probably  arises  from  their  greater 
exposure  to  atmospheric  changes  on  ac- 
count of  the  nature  of  their  occupati'ons. 
The  predisposition  is  certainly  affected 
by  age;  children  under  10  years  being 
comparatively  seldom  attacked,  while  the 
disease  is  most  prevalent  between  the 
ages  of  15  and  40.  Above  this  age  a  first 
attack  is  rare,  and  even  recurrences  are 
less  frequent  than  earlier  in  life.  Per- 
sons once  affected  become  more  liable  to 
the  complaint  than  they  previously  were. 
The  disease  is  hereditary  in  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  cases.  The  exact 
nature  of  the  disease  poison  is  unknown. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  acute 
rheumatism  ends  in  recovery;  and  per- 
manent damage  to  the  affected  joints 
is  rare.  It  is,  however,  extremely  apt  to 
recur,  either  in  the  early  stages  of  con- 
valescence, or  after  an  interval  of 
months    or    years.      The    chief    danger 


RHEUMATISM 


18 


RHINE 


arises  from  implication  of  the  heart, 
which  frequently  occurs.  The  younger 
the  patient  the  greater  the  liability  to 
these  complications,  which  usually  re- 
sult in  more  or  less  permanent  impair- 
ment of  the  heart's  action.  Another  con- 
dition, much  less  common,  but  extremely 
fatal,  is  known  as  rheumatic  hyperpy- 
rexia, and  is  characterized  by  a  very 
rapid  rise  of  temperature  to  108°  or 
110°,  with  head  symptoms  in  the  form 
either  of  drowsiness  or  of  violent  de- 
lirium. 

The  patient  should  be  strictly  confined 
to  bed  between  blankets  (i.  e.,  without 
sheets),  and  be  clothed  in  flannel;  he 
must  be  carefully  protected  from 
draughts,  and  from  undue  pressure  of 
the  bed  clothes,  and  supplied  with  light 
nourishment  and  diluent  drinks.  Under 
such  conditions,  without  other  treatment, 
most  cases  recover  in  the  course  of  time. 
Till  the  last  quarter  of  the  19th  century 
there  was  no  general  agreement  as  to 
what  more  should  be  done.  In  1876 
Strieker  in  Berlin  and  Maclagan  in  Eng- 
land called  attention  to  a  new  method 
of  treatment.  This  method  consists  in 
the  administration  of  salicin,  or  of 
one  of  its  derivatives  (salicylic  acid, 
salicylate  of  soda,  etc.).  In  rheumatic 
hyperpyrexia  the  only  treatment  that 
has  been  found  effectual  is  immersion 
in  a  tepid  bath  as  often  as  the  tempera- 
ture rises  to  a  dangerous  point.  Con- 
valescence is  usually  very  slow,  and  it 
is  necessary  to  keep  the  patient  in  bed 
and  on  low  diet  for  some  time  after  the 
fever  has  disappeared  to  diminish  the 
tendency  to  relapse.  At  this  stage  tonics, 
especially  quinine  and  iron,  are  generally 
useful. 

Chronic  Rheumatism. — Chronic  painful 
affections  of  the  joints  sometimes  fol- 
low rheumatic  fever  and  are  clearly  a 
consequence  of  it.  The  name  is  often 
erroneously  applied  to  chronic  and  in- 
sidious forms  of  gout.  There  is  another 
form  of  disease  to  which  most  of  the 
cases  of  so-called  "chronic  rheumatism" 
belong,  probably  distinct  from  both  rheu- 
matism and  gout,  popularly  so  called, 
though  it  is  often  called  "rheumatic 
gout,"  which  deserves  separate  mention. 

Osteo-arthritis  (chronic  rheumatic  ar- 
thritis and  rheumatic  arthritis  are 
among  its  many  other  names)  is  char- 
acterized in  most  cases  by  a  very  chronic 
course,  by  pain  and  stiffness  in  one  or 
more  of  the  joints,  with  creaking  on 
movement,  and  by  destructive  changes  of 
the  cartilages  of  the  affected  joints,  with 
enlargement  of  the  ends  of  the  bones  in 
their  neighborhood.  It  is  more  common 
in  women  than  in  men;  most  often  be- 
gins at  or  after  middle  life,  though  oc- 
casionally even  in  childhood. 


Muscular  rheumatism  is  the  name 
usually  given  to  painful  affections  of  the 
muscles  for  which  no  clear  cause  is  dis- 
coverable. 

RHINE  (German,  Rhein;  Dutch, 
Rijn),  the  finest  river  of  Germany,  and 
one  of  the  most  important  rivers  of  Eu- 
rope, its  direct  course  being  460  miles 
and  its  indirect  course  800  miles  (about 
250  miles  of  its  course  being  in  Switzer- 
land, 450  in  Germany,  and  100  in  Hol- 
land) ;  while  the  area  of  its  basin  is 
75,000  square  miles.  It  is  formed  in  the 
Swiss  canton  Grisons  by  two  main 
streams  called  the  Vorder  and  Hinter 
Rhein.  The  Vorder  Rhein  rises  in  the 
Lake  of  Toma,  on  the  S.  E.  slope  of  the 
St.  Gothard,  at  a  height  of  7,690  feet 
above  the  sea,  near  the  source  of  the 
Rhone,  and  at  Reichenau  unites  with 
the  Hinter  Rhein,  which  issues  from  the 
Rheinwald  Glacier,  7,270  feet  above  sea - 
level.  Beyond  Reichenau,  which  is  7 
miles  W.  of  Coire,  the  united  streams 
take  the  common  name  of  Rhine.  From 
Coire  the  Rhine  flows  N.  through  the 
Lake  of  Constance  to  the  town  of  that 
name,  between  which  and  Basel  it  flows 
W.,  forming  the  boundary  between  Swit- 
zerland and  Germany.  At  Basel  it  turns 
once  more  to  the  N.  and  enters  Ger- 
many; and,  generally  speaking,  it  pur- 
sues a  N.  course  till  it  enters  Holland, 
below  Emmerich,  when  it  divides  into  a 
number  of  separate  branches,  forming 
a  great  delta,  and  falling  into  the  sea 
by  many  mouths.  The  chief  of  these 
branches  are  the  Waal  and  Lek,  which 
unite  with  the  Maas;  the  Yssel  and 
Vecht,  which  diverge  to  the  Zuyder  Zee; 
and  that  which  retains  the  name  of 
Rhine,  a  small  stream  that  passes  Ley- 
den  and  enters  the  North  Sea.  In  the 
German  part  of  its  course  the  chief  trib- 
utaries it  receives  on  the  left  are  the 
111,  Nahe,  Moselle  (with  the  Saar),  Ahr, 
and  Erft;  and  on  the  right  the  Neckar, 
Main,  Lahn,  Sieg,  Ruhr,  and  Lippe.  In 
Switzerland  its  tributaries  are  short  and 
unimportant,  and  this  part  of  its  course 
is  marked  by  the  Falls  of  the  Rhine  at 
Schaffhausen,  where  the  river  is  pre- 
cipitated in  three  leaps  over  a  ledge  of 
rocks  48  to  60  feet  in  height,  and  by 
the  cataracts  of  Lauterberg  and  the 
rapids  of  Rheinfelden.  The  chief  towns 
on  its  banks  are  Constance  and  Basel 
in  Switzerland;  Spires,  Mannheim, 
Mainz,  Coblentz,  Bonn,  Cologne,  and  Diis- 
seldorf,  with  Worms  and  Strasburg  not 
far  distant,  in  Germany;  Arnheim, 
Utrecht,  and  Leyden,  in  Holland.  Its 
breadth  at  Basel  is  750  feet;  between 
Strasburg  and  Spires  from  1,000  to  1,- 
200  feet;  at  Mainz,  1,500  to  1,700  feet; 
and   at   Emmerich,  where   it   enters   the 


RHINELANDER 


19 


RHINOCEROS 


Netherlands,  2,150  feet.  Its  depth  va- 
ries from  5  to  28  feet,  and  at  Diissel- 
dorf  amounts  even  to  50  feet.  It  abounds 
with  fish,  especially  pike,  carp,  and  other 
white  fish,  but  the  produce  of  its  salmon 
fisheries  has  been  seriously  interfered 
with  since  the  introduction  of  steam  ves- 
sels. It  is  navigable  without  interrup- 
tion from  Basel  to  its  mouth,  a  distance 
of  550  miles. 

The  Rhine  anciently  formed  the  boun- 
dary between  the  Roman  empire  and  the 
Teutonic  hordes.  After  the  partition  of 
the  domains  of  Charlemagne  in  843  it 
lay  within  the  German  empire  for  nearly 
800  years.  France  long  cast  covetous 
eyes  on  the  Rhine,  and  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia  in  1648  gave  her  a  footing 
on  the  left  bank.  In  1801  the  whole 
of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  was  for- 
mally ceded  to  France.  The  Congress 
of  Vienna  in  1815  restored  part  of  the 
Rhenish  valley  to  Germany,  and  the  ces- 
sion by  France  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine 
after  the  war  of  1870-1871  made  the 
Rhine  once  more  German,  until  the 
Peace  Treaty  of  Versailles  (1919)  gave 
these  provinces  once  more  to  France. 
(See  World  War.)  The  Rhine  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  beauty  of  its  scenery, 
which  attracts  many  tourists.  For  a 
large  part  of  its  course  it  has  hills  on 
both  sides  at  less  or  greater  distances. 
Pleasant  towns  and  villages  lie  nestled 
at  the  foot;  above  them  rise  rocky  steeps 
and  slopes  clothed  at  one  time  with  vines, 
at  others  with  natural  wood,  and  every 
now  and  then  the  castles  and  fastnesses 
of  feudal  times  are  seen  frowning  from 
precipices  apparently  inaccessible.  The 
finest  part  for  scenery  is  between  Bin- 
gen  and  Bonn;  after  entering  Holland 
the  views  are  generally  tame  and  unin- 
teresting. 

RHINELANDER,  a  city  of  Wisconsin, 
the  county-seat  of  Oneida  co.  It  is  on  the 
Wisconsin  river,  and  on  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern  and  the  Minneapolis,  St. 
Paul,  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  railroads.  The 
city  is  the  center  of  an  important  lumber- 
ing region  and  its  industries  include  saw 
mills,  paper  mills,  iron  works,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)  5,637;  (1920)  6,654. 

RHINELANDER,  PHILIP  MERCER, 
an  American  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop, 
born  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  in  1869.  He  was 
educated  at  Harvard  and  Oxford  uni- 
versities and  became  a  deacon  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  in  1896,  and  a 
priest  in  1897.  After  some  years  of 
active  parish  work  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
he  became  professor  of  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory, homiletics,  and  Christian  evidences 
at  Berkeley  Divinity  School,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  in  1903,  and  professor  of  history 
of  religion  and  missions  at  the  Episcopal 


Theological  School,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in 
1907.  In  1911,  he  was  consecrated  co- 
adjutor bishop  of  Pennsylvania,  becoming 
bishop  of  the  same  diocese  in  November 


PHILIP   MERCER   RHINELANDER 

of  that  year.  He  received  honorary  de- 
grees from  the  Episcopal  Theological 
School  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Philadelphia 
Divinity  School,  Columbia  University,  and 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

RHINE  WINES,  the  general  designa- 
tion of  the  wines  produced  in  the  region 
watered  by  the  Rhine,  and  specifically  for 
those  of  the  Rheingau,  the  white  wine3 
of  which  are  the  finest  in  the  world.  The 
red  wines  are  not  so  much  esteemed,  being 
considered  inferior  to  those  of  Bordeaux. 
Good  wines  are  also  produced  in  the  val- 
leys of  the  Neckar,  Moselle,  and  other 
tributaries  of  the  Rhine.  The  vineyards 
are  mainly  between  Mannheim  and  Bonn, 
and  the  most  valuable  brands  of  wines 
are  those  of  Johannisberg,  Steinberg, 
Hochheim,  Rudesheim,  Rauenthal,  Mar- 
kobrunn,  and  Assmannshausen,  the  last 
being  a  red  wine. 

RHINITIS,  nasal  catarrh.  In  an 
acute  form  it  is  commonly  known  as  a 
"cold  in  the  head,"  and  it  is  caused  by 
bacilli  attacking  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  nose  when  the  resistance  is  lowered 
by  cold  or  by  mechanical  irritants.  Some 
chronic  cases  are  caused  by  reflex  irri- 
tation, resulting  from  over-stimulated 
sexual  organs.  Rhinitis  is  also  a  symp- 
tom of  measles  and  occasionally  accom- 
panies other  infectious  diseases  such  as 
diphtheria  or  scarlet  fever. 

RHINOCEROS,  (1)  the  sole  recent 
genus  of  the  family  Rhinocerotidse.  It 
falls  naturally  into  three  sections,  which 
some  zoologists  raise  to  the  rank  of 
genera. 


RHINOCEROS 


20 


RHIO 


(a)  Rhinoceros. — Adults  with  a  single 
large  compressed  incisor  above  on  each 
side,  occasionally  a  small  lateral  one,  be- 
low a  very  small  median,  and  a  very  large 
procumbent,  pointed,  lateral  incisor;  nasal 
bone  pointed  in  front;  single  nasal  horn; 
skin  very  thick,  and  raised  into  strong, 
definitely  arranged  folds.    There  are  two 


INDIAN    RHINOCEROS 

well-marked  species:  (1)  Rhinoceros  uni- 
cornis (Linnaeus;  indicus,  Cuvier),  now 
found  wild  only  in  the  terai  regions  of 
Nepal  and  Bhotan  and  in  Assam,  though 
it  had  formerly  a  much  wider  geographi- 
cal range;  (2)  R.  sondaicus  (or  javanus, 
Cuvier),  the  Javan  rhinoceros,  is  smaller 
and  distinguished  by  the  different  ar- 
rangement of  the  folds  of  the  skin,  and 
by  the  small  size  or  absence  of  the  horn 
in  the  female.  Found  near  Calcutta,  in 
Burma,  Malay  Peninsula,  Java,  Sumatra, 
and  probably  Borneo.  R.  unicornis  was 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  was  seen  prob- 
ably for  the  first  time  by  modern  Euro- 
peans when  one  was  sent  to  the  King  of 
Portugal  from  India  in  1513. 

(b)  Ceratorhinus. — The  folds  are  not 
so  strongly  marked  as  in  the  first  section. 
There  is  a  well-developed  nasal,  and  a 
small  frontal  horn,  separated  by  an  in- 
terval. The  name,  R.  sumatrensis,  has 
possibly  been  applied  to  more  than  one 
species,  and  two  animals  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  London,  pre- 
sented considerable  differences  of  form 
and  color.  Sclater  named  one  of  them  R. 
lasiotis,  the  hairy-eared  rhinoceros.  Geo- 
graphical range  nearly  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Javan  rhinoceros,  but  it  does  extend 
into  Bengal. 

(c)  Atelodus,  with  two  well-marked  spe- 
cies, peculiar  to  Africa.  Incisors  rudi- 
mentary or  wanting,  well-developed  an- 
terior and  posterior  horns  in  close  contact ; 
skin  without  definite  permanent  folds.  R. 
bicornis,  the  common  two^iorned  rhino- 
ceros, is  the  smaller,  and  has  a  pointed 
prehensile  lip.  It  ranges  from  Abyssinia 
to  Cape  Colony,  but  the  progress  of  civi- 
lization and  the  attacks  of  sportsmen  are 
rapidly  reducing  its  numbers.  Two  va- 
rieties are  said  to  exist,  R.  bicornis  major 
and    R.    bicornis    minor.      Specimens    in 


which  the  posterior  horn  has  attained  a 
length  as  great  as  or  greater  than  the 
anterior  have  also  been  separated  under 
the  specific  name  of  R.  keitloa,  but  with 
scarcely  sufficient  reason.  R.  simus,  Bur- 
chell's,  the  square-mouthed,or  white  rhino- 
ceros, has  a  square  truncated  lip,  browses 
on  grasses  and  frequents  open  country. 
It  is  the  largest  of  the  family,  an  adult 
male  standing  over  six  feet  at  the  shoul- 
der. The  epithet  white  is  a  misnomer,  for 
the  animal  is  a  dingy  slate-color.  A  local 
variety  in  which  the  horn  has  a  forward 
rake  is  sometimes  described  as  R.  oswellii. 
(2)  Any  individual  of  the  genus  rhino- 
ceros. The  rhinoceros  is  the  largest  and 
most  powerful  terrestrial  mammal,  ex- 
cept the  elephant,  to  which,  as  well  as 
to  the  hippopotamus  and  tapir,  it  is  al- 
lied. They  are  of  low  intelligence,  and 
usually  harmless,  but  when  provoked  they 
display  considerable  ferocity,  and,  though 
apparently  so  clumsily  formed,  can  run 
with  great  speed.  Only  one  is  produced 
at  a  birth.  The  flesh  is  sometimes  used 
for  food;  in  the  East  Indies,  the  skin, 
which  is  said  to  be  bullet-proof  at  short 


AFRICAN   RHINOCEROS 

distances,  is  used  for  shields,  and  in 
South  Africa  it  is  made  into  whips.  R. 
pachygnathus,  from  the  Miocene  of 
Greece,  was  apparently  intermediate  be- 
tween R.  bicornis  and  R.  simus.  Four 
species,  all  bicorn,  formerly  inhabited 
Britain:  2?.  tichorhinus,  the  woolly  rhi- 
noceros, from  the  brick-earths  of  the 
Thames  valley;  R.  hemitzechus  (Falc,  lep- 
torhinus,  Owen),  R.  megarhinus  (lepto- 
rhinus,  Cuvier  and  Falc.) ,  and  R.  Wuscus, 
of  Pliocene  age.  The  one-horned  Indian 
type  was  well  represented  (R.  sivalensis, 
R.  palseindicus)  in  the  Pleistocene  of  the 
sub-Himalayan  region.  R.  schleirma- 
cheri,  of  the  late  European  Miocenes,  pos- 
sessed incisors  and  was  bicorn. 

RHINOPLASTIC  OPERATIONS, 

When  a  portion  or  the  whole  of  the  nose 
has  been  destroyed  by  accident  or  disease, 
the  deficiency  may  be  restored  by  a  trans- 
plantation of  skin  from  an  adjoining 
healthy   part. 

RHIO,  or  RIOTTW,  a  seaport  belong- 
ing to  the  Dutch,  in  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago,  on   an   islet   50   miles    S.    E.    of 


Dickens  Pt.< 


8tate  Capital®         County  Seats  0 
Steam  Railroads 


West        71  3C     fi 


QCieenwicS 


7J  TJ 


Copyright,  L,.  Jj.  tvatea  Kng.  Co.,  192J 


RHIZOPODA 


21 


RHODE    ISLAND 


Singapore.  It  consists  of  a  European 
town,  and  a  Chinese  or  native  town,  and 
having  a  capacious  haven  where  large 
vessels  find  anchorage,  carries  on  a  con- 
siderable trade.  It  is  the  capital  of  a 
Dutch  residency,  comprising  the  islands 
of  the  Rhio  Archipelago  and  other  groups 
as  well  as  districts  on  the  E.  coast  of 
Sumatra.  The  population  of  the  residency 
is  about  108,000.  The  Rhio  Archipelago 
is  a  group  of  small  islands  lying  chiefly 
S.  and  E.  of  Singapore.  Chief  island, 
Bintang. 

RHIZOPODA,  a  name  introduced  by 
Dujardin  for  an  order  of  infusoria,  which 
were  defined  as  animalcules  in  mutable 
form,  moving  by  means  of  multiform  ex- 
sertile  processes,  without  vibratile  cilia 
or  other  external  organs.  When  the  sub- 
kingdom  Protozoa  was  formed,  the  name 
Rhizopoda  was  retained  for  the  class  con- 
taining individuals  with  the  power  of 
emitting  pseudopodia,  and  the  class  was 
divided  into  five  orders:  Monera,  Amcebea, 
Foraminifera,  Radiolario,  and  Spongida. 
The  rhizopoda  are  the  Myxopodia  of  Hux- 
ley, and  this  latter  name  has  _  been  re- 
tained by  Professor  Lankester  in  his  re- 
classification of  the  Protozoa. 

RHODE  ISLAND,  a  State  in  the 
North  Atlantic  Division  of  the  North 
American  Union;  bounded  by  Massachu- 
setts, Connecticut,  Narragansett  Bay, 
Block  Island  Sound,  and  the  Atlantic 
ocean;  one  of  the  original  13  States;  capi- 
tal, Providence;  number  of  counties,  5; 
area,  1,248  square  miles;  pop.  (1910) 
542,610;  (1920)  604,397. 

Topography. — The  State  is  divided  into 
two  unequal  parts  by  Narragansett  Bay, 
which  extends  inland  about  30  miles.  The 
surface  of  the  W.  portion  or  mainland 
is  hilly,  but  the  hills  are  all  low;  the 
greatest  height,  Durfee  Hill,  having 
an  altitude  of  805  feet.  There  are  numer- 
ous salt  marshes  along  the  ocean.  The 
E.  part  consists  mainly  of  islands.  Of 
these  the  largest  and  most  important  is 
Rhode  Island  from  which  the  State  de- 
rives its  name.  Others  are  Conanicut, 
Hope,  Patience,  Starved  Goat,  Prudence, 
Perry,  Dyer's,  and  Dutch  Islands.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Pawtucket,  navi- 
gable as  far  as  Pawtucket,  where  it 
changes  its  name  to  Blackstone,  the  Paw- 
catuck,  forming  part  of  the  boundary 
between  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut, 
and  the  Pawtuxet,  flowing  across  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  State,  and  emptying  into 
the  Providence  river,  an  arm  of  the  Nar- 
ragansett Bay.  There  are  numerous  coves 
and  bays  branching  off  from  Narragan- 
sett; among  them  being  Greenwich  bay, 
Sexonnet  river,  Mount  Hope  bay,  and 
Providence  river.  Block  Island,  10  miles 
from  the  coast,  belongs  to  the  State. 


Geology. — The  islands  of  Narragansett 
bay  are  of  Carboniferous  origin  and  con- 
tain the  most  extreme  bed  of  anthracite  in 
the  United  States.  The  W.  part  of  the 
State  and  the  E.  shore  of  the  bay  are  of 
Azoic  formation,  while  Block  Island  be- 
longs to  the  Tertiary  era.  The  mineral 
resources  of  the  State  are  not  very  exten- 
sive, though  considerable  anthracite  coal, 
excellent  for  smelting  purposes,  and  much 
magnetic  iron  have  been  mined  at  times. 
There  are  about  20  large  granite  quarries 
in  the  State;  those  at  Westerly  being 
noted  for  their  value  in  monumental  work. 
The  value  of  the  mineral  product  is  about 
$1,000,000  annually. 

Manufactures. — In  common  with  New 
England  States,  Rhode  Island  is  noted 
for  its  manufacturing  interests.  In  1914 
there  were  2,190  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, employing  113,425  wage-earn- 
ers. The  capital  invested  was  $308,444,- 
563.  The  value  of  the  materials  used 
amounted  to  $162,425,219,  and  the  value 
of  the  output  was  $279,545,873.  Rhode 
Island  is  among  the  first  of  the  States 
in  the  dyeing  industry.  It  is  also  among 
the  leading  States  in  the  production  of 
cotton,  woolen,  worsted,  and  silk  goods. 
The  manufacture  of  rubber  and  elastic 
goods  is  also  an  important  industry. 

Agriculture. — The  acreage,  production, 
and  value  of  the  principal  crops  in  1919 
was  as  follows:  corn,  11,000  acres,  pro- 
duction 495,000  bushels,  value  $921,000; 
hay,  57,000  acres,  production  86,000  tons, 
value  $2,752,000;  potatoes,  5,000  acres, 
production  425,000  bushels,  value  $765,- 
000. 

Banking. — On  Sept.  12,  1919,  there  were 
17  National  banks  in  operation,  having 
$5,570,000  in  capital,  $4,442,000  in  out- 
standing circulation,  and  $9,929,000  in 
United  States  bonds.  There  were  also 
3  State  banks,  with  $520,000  capital  and 
$6,066,000  resources;  14  loan  and  trust 
companies,  with  $8,528,000  capital,  and 
$10,562,000  surplus;  and  15  mutual  sav- 
ings banks,  with  $101,259,647  in  deposits. 
The  exchanges  at  the  United  States  clear- 
ing house  at  Providence  for  the  year 
ending  Sept.  30,  1919,  amounted  to  $555,- 
301,000. 

Education. — There  were  in  1919  2,093 
public  elementary  schools,  2,585  teachers, 
and  82,300  enrolled  pupils.  There  were 
163  high  schools,  with  8,756  pupils.  The 
total  expenditure  for  educational  pur- 
poses is  about  $4,000,000  annually.  Under 
the  control  of  the  Department  of  Edu- 
cation are  the  School  of  Design,  Provi- 
dence, and  the  Institute  for  the  Deaf, 
Providence.  The  Rhode  Island  Normal 
School,  and  Brown  University,  at  Prov- 
idence, are  the  principal  educational 
institutions  in  the  State. 

Church  es. — The  strongest  denominations 


RHODE    ISLAND 


22 


RHODES 


in  the  State  are  the  Roman  Catholic; 
Regular  Baptist;  Protestant  Episcopal; 
Congregational;  Methodist  Episcopal; 
Free  Will  Baptist;  Unitarian,  and  Afri- 
can   Methodist. 

Railroads. — The  railway  mileage  in 
1919  was  550.  Practically  all  of  this 
was  included  in  the  lines  of  the  New 
York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford  rail- 
roads. There  was  no  new  construction 
during  the  year. 

Finances.- — The  receipts  for  the  fiscal 
year  1919  amounted  to  $5,321,722.  There 
was  on  hand  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  $496,240.  The  total  disbursements 
amounted  to  $5,142,533,  leaving  a  balance 
on  hand  on  January  1,  1920,  of  $675,429. 
The  net  bonded  debt  of  the  State  in  1920 
was  $6,410,140.  The  total  assessed  value 
of   the   property   was   $850,000,000.  _ 

Charities  and  Corrections. — The  insti- 
tutions under  the  control  of  the  State 
include  a  hospital  for  mental  diseases, 
an  infirmary,  a  workhouse,  houses  of  cor- 
rection, State  Prison,  and  a  reform  school, 
all  at  Cranston.  The  Exeter  School  for 
the  Care  of  Feeble  Minded  Children  is 
under  the  control  of  the  Penal  and  Chari- 
table Commission.  There  is  also  under 
control  of  this  board,  a  State  Home  and 
School  for   Children,  at   Providence. 

State  Government. — The  governor  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  one  year.  Legisla- 
tive sessions  are  annually,  beginning  on 
the  first  Tuesday  in  January  and  are 
limited  to  60  session  days.  The  Legisla- 
ture has  39  members  in  the  Senate,  and 
100  members  in  the  House.  There  are 
3  Representatives  in  Congress. 

History. — It  is  claimed  that  the  North- 
men visited  this  region  about  A.  D.  1000, 
and  certain  antiquities  have  been  ascribed 
to  them,  but  the  question  of  the  location 
of  Vinland  seems  never  likely  to  be  defi- 
nitely settled.  The  first  English  settle- 
ment was  made  at  Providence  in  1636 
by  Roger  Williams,  whose  religious  opin- 
ions had  caused  his  expulsion  from  Mas- 
sachusetts. He  and  other  settlers  bought 
lands  from  the  Indians,  and  an  unwonted 
degree  of  religious  toleration  was  estab- 
lished. The  charter  granted  by  Charles 
II.  to  the  colony  was  so  liberal  in  its  pro- 
vision that  it  remained  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  State  till  1842.  Rhode  Island 
was  firm  in  opposition  to  the  King  Philip 
War,  yet  that  State  suffered  more  severely 
therefrom  than  any  of  her  sister  colonies. 
King  Philip  himself  was  killed  in  what 
is  now  the  town  of  Bristol.  The  great 
"swamp  fight"  occurred  in  1675,  in  the 
Narragansett  country,  where  more  than 
1,000  Indians  were  killed.  The  charter 
was  temporarily  suspended  from  1686  to 
1687  by  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  who,  how- 
ever, was  never  able  to  gain  possession 
of   the   original   document.      Andros   was 


deposed  in  1690,  and  a  new  government 
was  immediately  organized  under  the  old 
form.  This  continued  till,  in  1841,  a  le- 
gally unauthorized  people's  convention 
met  and  framed  a  new  constitution  which 
action  precipitated  a  crisis,  culminating 
in  the  "Dorr  rebellion,"  and  the  adoption 
of  a  new  constitution  in  1842,  this  going 
into  effect  in  1843.  Under  this  charter 
suffrage  was  limited,  about  9,500  men 
composing  the  electorate  in  1840,  out  of 
a  population  of  109,000.  The  present  suf- 
frage laws  were  adopted  in  1888.  Rhode 
Island  was  the  last  of  the  States  to  ratify 
the  Federal  Constitution  in  1790.  It  took 
an  active  part  in  the  Revolutionary  War, 
being  long  held  by  the  English. 

RHODE,  PAUL  PETER,  an  American 
Roman  Catholic  bishop,  born  in  Prussian 
Poland  in  1871.  Having  come  to  America 
with  his  parents  in  his  early  childhood, 
he  was  educated  at  St.  Mary's,  St.  Igna- 
tius, and  St.  Francis  colleges,  Chicago, 
and  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1894.  From 
1896  to  1909  he  was  in  charge  of  various 
churches  in  Chicago.  In  1908  he  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Barca,  and  in  the  same 
year  auxiliary  bishop  of  the  Archdiocese 
of  Chicago.  From  1909  to  1915  he  also 
served  as  vicar-general  of  the  Archdio- 
cese. In  1915  he  was  appointed  bishop 
of  the  Green  Bay  (Wis.)  diocese. 

RHODES,  an  island  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, formerly  appertaining  to  Asiatic 
Turkey,  near  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor; 
is   40   miles   long,  with  a  breadth  of   21 


COIN   OF  RHODES 

miles  at  its  widest  point ;  area?  570  square 
miles;  pop.  about  50,000.  It  is  traversed 
by  a  range  of  mountains,  on  which  grow 
forests  of  pine,  in  great  request  for  ship- 
building. Beneath  this  range  rises  a  tract 
of  lower  hills,  on  which  a  species  of  the 
vine  is  largely  cultivated,  which  produces 
the  perfumed  wine  so  much  praised  by 
the  ancients.  The  tract  beneath  forms  the 
greatest  portion  of  the  island,  and,  slop- 
ing gradually  down  to  the  sea,  is  watered 
by  numerous  streams,  which  renders  it 
capable  of  producing  the  most  luxuriant 
crops.  A  great  part  of  the  island  is  un- 
cultivated, but  it  yields  corn,  olives, 
pomegranates,  lemons,  wine,  wax,  honey 
and    figs.      The   manufactures     are    silk, 


RHODES  23 

shoes,  red  leather,  and  umber.  Its  ex- 
ports are  wax,  honey,  figs,  and  other 
fruits.  Imports — colonial  produce,  wool- 
ens, iron,  nails,  shot,  soap,  cordage,  hard- 
ware, coal,  horses,  cattle,  carpets,  and 
corn.  By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of 
Peace  with  Turkey,  Rhodes  was  assigned 
to  Italy. 

RHODES,  the  capital  of  the  island  of 
Rhodes,  situated  at  its  N.  E.  extremity. 
It  is  defended  by  towers  about  800  feet 
distant  from  each  other,  while  in  the 
center  of  the  mole  there  is  a  square  bas- 
tion 120  feet  high.  Rhodes  presents  at 
present  very  few  vestiges  of  its  ancient 
grandeur;  its  streets  are  narrow  and 
winding,  and  devoid  of  elegance  or  regu- 
larity. It  has  two  good  harbors,  sepa- 
rated only  by  a  mole  running  obliquely 
out  into  the  sea.  The  principal  manu- 
factures are  red  leather  and  shoes.  It 
was  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  of  this 
city  that  stood  the  celebrated  Colossus 
op  Rhodes  (q.  v.).  Pop.  about  3,000. 
About  half  are  Greeks;  the  rest  Turks 
and  Jews.  The  ancient  Rhodes  was  taken 
possession  of  by  a  branch  of  the  Doric 
race,  who  held  it  at  the  time  of  the  Tro- 
jan War,  1184  B.  C.  It  was  of  small  po- 
litical importance  among  the  states  of 
Greece  till  the  city  of  Rhodes  was  built 
and  made  the  capital  of  the  island,  408 
B.  c.  In  the  war  between  Cassar  and  Pom- 
pey,  the  Rhodians,  who  had  long  held 
supremacy  at  sea,  took  part  with  the 
former  50  B.  C. ;  and  continuing  their  aid 
to  Cassius,  were  defeated  by  the  Romans 
and  completely  subjugated,  42  B.  c.  They 
then  held  their  liberties  by  the  caprice 
of  the  emperors,  and  their  city  was  made, 
by  Constantine  I.,  the  metropolis  of  the 
Provincia  Insularum  in  330.  It  was  taken 
by  Chosroes  II.,  King  of  Persia,  in  316; 
by  the  Saracens  in  651 ;  and  by  the 
Knights  of  St.  John,  Aug.  15,  1309.  Mo- 
hammed II.  besieged  it  ineffectually  in 
1480,  and  the  Sultan  Solyman  I.  compelled 
it  to  capitulate  after  a  vigorous  siege 
and  brave  defense  that  lasted  from  June 
to  December,  1522.  An  earthquake  which 
occurred  in  Rhodes,  April  22,  1863,  de- 
stroyed 2,000  houses,  and  swallowed  up 
or  otherwise  killed  and  wounded  thousands 
of  the  inhabitants. 

RHODES,  CECIL  JOHN,  a  South 
African  statesman;  born  July  5,  1853.  He 
was  the  fifth  son  of  the  vicar  of  Bishop 
Stortford,  Hertfordshire,  England,  and 
after  attending  the  local  grammar  school 
was  sent  for  his  health  to  Natal,  where 
his  brother  was  a  planter.  He  subse- 
quently went  to  the  Kimberley  diamond 
diggings;  there  he  soon  became  conspicu- 
ous and  amassed  a  fortune.  He  came 
back  to  England  and  entered  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  and  though  his  residence 


RHODES 


was  cut  short  by  ill-health,  he  ultimately 
took  his  degree.  He  entered  the  Cape 
House  of  Assembly  as  member  for  Barkly. 
In  1884  General  Gordon  asked  him  to  go 
with  him  to  Khartum  as  secretary;  but 
Rhodes  had  just  taken  office  in  the  Cape 
ministry,  and  decided  to  remain  in  South 
Africa.    He  sent  $50,000  to  Mr.  Parnell  to 


CECIL  JOHN   RHODES 

forward  the  cause  of  Irish  Home  Rule.  In 
1890  he  became  prime  minister  of  Cape 
Colony;  but  even  before  this  he  had  be- 
come a  ruling  spirit  in  the  extension  of 
British  territory,  and  in  securing  the 
charter  for  the  British  South  African 
Company.  His  policy  may  be  described 
as  the  ultimate  establishment  of  a  federal 
South  African  dominion  under  the  British 
flag,  and,  as  one  of  the  first  steps  toward 
the  accomplishment  of  this  scheme,  he 
was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  construc- 
tion of  a  railroad  "from  Cairo  to  the 
Cape."  He  died  in  Cape  Town,  South 
Africa,  March  26,  1902.  In  his  will  Mr. 
Rhodes  left  about  $10,000,000  to  found  a 
number  of  three-year  scholarships  ten- 
able at  Oxford,  England.  The  income 
for  each  scholarship  was  $1,500  a  year, 
and  two  were  offered  to  every  State  and 
Territory  in  the  American  Union,  to  every 
English-speaking  colony;  while  five  were 
set  apart  for  students  of  German  descent. 
See  Rhodesia. 


RHODES 


24 


RHODES     SCHOLARSHIPS 


RHODES,  CHARLES  DUDLEY,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  at  Dela- 
ware>  Ohio,  in  1865.  He  was  educated 
at  the  George  Washington  University, 
and  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy, from  which  he  graduated  in  1889. 
After  having  been  appointed  in  the  same 
year  2nd  lieutenant  in  the  7th  Cavalry, 
he  successively  rose  through  the  various 
ranks,  to  major-general  in  1918.  He 
served  in  the  Sioux  Indian  Campaign  of 
1890-1,  in  the  Spanish-American  War, 
in  the  Boxer  (China)  Relief  Expedition, 
in  the  Philippine  Islands  (1900-1903), 
and  in  the  World  War,  in  which  he  com- 
manded the  157th  Field  Artillery  Bri- 
gade during  the  Aisne-Marne,  the  St. 
Mihiel,  and  the  Meuse-Argonne  offen- 
sives. Later  he  commanded  the  42nd 
and  34th  Divisions,  served  as  chief  of 
the  American  section  of  the  Permanent 
Interallied  Armistice  Commission  (1918- 
19),  and  as  commanding  general  of 
Base  Section  2  at  Bordeaux,  France.  In 
1919-20  he  was  in  command  of  the  Gen- 
eral Staff  College.  From  1903  to  1906, 
and  again  from  1909  to  1912,  he  was 
assigned  to  duty  with  the  General  Staff 
Corps,  and  from  1914  to  1917  com- 
manded the  Mounted  Service  Schools. 
He  was  awarded  the  D.  S.  M.  and  was 
made  a  Knight  Commander  of  the  Bath, 
and  a  Commander  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  He  wrote  and  lectured  exten- 
sively on  military  subjects. 

RHODES,  HARRISON  (GARFIELD), 

an  American  author,  born  in  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  in  1871.  He  was  educated  at  Har- 
vard, and  for  a  number  of  years  was 
actively  engaged  in  the  publishing  busi- 
ness, both  in  this  country  and  in  Eng- 
land. Besides  many  stories  and  articles 
in  magazines,  he  also  wrote  "The  Lady 
and  the  Ladder"  (1906)  ;  "Charles  Ed- 
ward" (1907)  ;  "The  Flight  to  Eden" 
(1907);  "In  Vacation  America"  (1915). 
Among  his  plays  were  "Modern  Mar- 
riage," "The  Whirl  of  Society,"  "Rug- 
gles  of  Red  Gap,"  "The  Willow  Tree" 
(with  Benrimo),  "A  Gentleman  from 
Mississippi,"  "An  Old  New  Yorker,"  and 
"Mr.  Barnum,"  the  last  three  with 
Thomas  A.  Wise. 

RHODES,  JAMES  FORD,  an  Ameri- 
can historian;  born  in  Cleveland,  O., 
May  1,  1848.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Universities  of  New  York  and  Chicago; 
spent  some  years  in  study  abroad,  and 
engaged  in  business  till  1891.  He  wrote 
"History  of  the  United  States  from  the 
Compromise  of  1850"  (new  ed.  1906) ; 
"Historical  Essays"  (1909)  ;  "History  of 
the  Civil  War"  (1917)  ;  "History  of  the 
United  States,  1877-1896"  (1919),  etc. 
He  was  awarded  the  Loubat  Prize  from 
Berlin   Academy  of   Science,   1901;    gold 


medal  National  Institute  of  Arts  and 
Letters,  1910;  Pulitzer  Prize,  Columbia 
University,  1918;  and  many  honorary 
degrees  from  American  and  foreign  uni- 
versities. He  was  an  ex-president  of 
the  American  Historical  Society  and  a 
member  of  many  domestic  and  foreign 
societies. 

RHODES  SCHOLARSHIPS,  THE,  fel- 
lowships for  general  study  at  Oxford 
University,  England,  established,  to  the 
number  of  189,  under  the  will  of  Cecil 
John  Rhodes  (q.  v.)  for  the  purpose  of 
perpetuating,  in  so  far  as  possible,  the 
idea  of  dominant  Anglo-Saxon  leader- 
ship, by  educating  Anglo-Saxon  youths 
of  proper  attainment.  For  this  purpose 
the  founder  divided  the  allotment  of  stu- 
dents between  South  Africa,  Austral- 
asia, Canada,  the  Atlantic  Islands,  the 
West  Indies,  the  United  States,  and  Ger- 
many. The  United  States  received  96 
scholarships.  The  arrangement  for  the 
election  of  the  American  scholars  has 
been  so  settled  as  to  provide  for  the 
election  of  scholars  in  32  States  each 
year  and,  in  several  of  the  States,  the 
matter  of  designating  the  students  has 
become  established  by  rotation  among 
the  institutions  of  higher  learning.  ^  The 
candidates  are  required  to  qualify  in  ex- 
aminations covering  Latin,  Greek,  and 
elementary  mathematics.  They  must  be 
men  20  to  25  years  of  age  and  must 
have  attended  a  recognized  institution  of 
advanced  educational  standard  for  at 
least  two  years.  In  addition,  a  Rhodes 
scholar  must  be  unmarried  and  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States  to  qualify  for  an 
appointment  from  the  United  States. 
The  effect  of  these  requirements  has 
been  to  secure  as  incumbents  of  these 
scholarships  men  who  have  passed  be- 
yond the  general  age  at  which  the  Eng- 
lish schoolboy  enters  his  university.  This 
has  insured  a  more  serious  and  mature 
type  of  man  and  when  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  the  rigorous  personal  qualifi- 
cations demanded  in  the  selection  of  can- 
didates, it  has  been  productive  of  a  very 
high  grade  of  scholarship  and  character 
among  the  students  which  may  be  ex- 
pected to  react  in  the  form  of  social 
influence,  somewhat  approximating  the 
desire  which  the  donor  expressed  in  his 
will  when  he  said  that  it  remained  his 
belief  that  "a  good  understanding  be- 
tween England,  Germany  and  the  United 
States  will  secure  the  peace  of  the  world, 
and  that  educational  relations  form  the 
strongest  tie."  Awarded  on  a  basis  of 
points  and  taken  from  a  unit  of  ten, 
the  founder  suggested  the  following  sig- 
nificant standard:  three-tenths  for  pro- 
ficiency in  literary  and  scholastic  attain- 
ments; two-tenths  for  success  in  outdoor 


RHODESIA 


25 


RHODODENDRON 


sports;  three-tenths  for  distinguishing 
qualities  of  manhood;  two-tenths  for 
qualities  of  leadership;  and  provided 
further  with  discriminating  wisdom  that 
the  candidate's  qualifications  in  literary 
and  kindred  lines  and  his  qualities  of 
leadership  should  be  judged  by  his  mas- 
ters, but  that  the  other  characteristics 
of  excellence  in  sport,  with  all  that  was 
thereby  implied,  and  manliness,  should 
be  determined  by  the  vote  of  his  fellow- 
students.  This  system  of  selection  has 
been  followed. 

RHODESIA,  the  name  given  to  a 
region  in  South  Africa  extending  from 
the  Transvaal  province  north  to  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Congo  State  and  former  Ger- 
man East  Africa;  bounded  on  the  E.  by 
Portuguese  East  Africa,  Nyasaland  and 
German  East  Africa,  and  on  the  W.  by 
Congo  State,  Portuguese  West  Africa 
and  Bechuanaland.  The  territory  was 
chartered  by  the  British  South  African 
Company  in  1889,  founded  by  Cecil  John 
Rhodes.  The  region  S.  of  the  Zambesi 
river  is  known  as  southern  Rhodesia 
and  N.  of  the  river  northern  Rhodesia. 
Total  area,  440,000  square  miles.  Pop- 
ulation in  1919  estimated  from  877,000 
to  884,000.  The  company's  administra- 
tion of  southern  Rhodesia  consists  of  3 
members  appointed  by  the  company  and 
approved  by  the  Secretary  of  State,  and 
a  Legislative  Council  of  6  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  company  and  12  elected 
by  the  voters.  A  Resident  Commission 
is  appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  State. 
In  1919,  500,000  acres  of  land  were  re- 
served for  ex-service  men  who  had  fought 
in  the  World  War. 

Southern  Rhodesia  has  an  area  of 
149,000  square  miles.  Pop.  (1919)  :  Na- 
tives 770,000,  Europeans  38,000.  Capi- 
tal, Bulowayo.  Imports  (1918)  £355,- 
712;  exports,  £343,338.  Gold  output  in 
1919,  £2,500,000;  silver  (1917) ,  £211,989; 
copper,  £414,448;  chrome  ore,  £327,347. 
There  are  about  2,500  miles  of  railroads. 
In  1911  the  two  provinces  of  Northeast 
Rhodesia  and  Northwest  Rhodesia  were 
amalgamated  under  the  name  of  North- 
ern Rhodesia.  Area,  291,000  square 
miles.  Pop.,  Europeans  2,945,  natives 
928,000.  Capital,  Livingston.  Principal 
crops,  maize,  cotton,  and  wheat.  Coal 
has  been  discovered.  Rubber  is  pro- 
duced. The  chief  minerals  are  gold, 
copper  and  lead;  The  administration 
consists  of  a  Resident  Commissioner  ap- 
pointed by  the  government  and  an  Ad- 
ministrator appointed  by  the  British 
South  African  Company,  assisted  by  an 
Advisory  Council  of  5  members.  The 
exports  consist  chiefly  of  live-stock,  cop- 
per, pig-lead,  grain,  flour,  hides,  horns, 
etc.     Throughout  the  country  the  condi- 


tions of  soil  and  climate  are  suitable  foi 
all  kinds  of  European  cereals  and  vege- 
tables; and,  in  addition,  many  trees, 
shrubs,  and  plants  peculiar  to  subtropi- 
cal regions,  can  be  successfully  culti- 
vated. Good  results  have  already  been 
obtained  from  the  introduction  of  fruit 
and  other  trees.  Tobacco  occurs  in  a 
wild  state,  is  grown  universally  by  the 
natives,  and  has  been  produced  of  ex- 
cellent quality  by  white  farmers  in  sev- 
eral districts.  India-rubber,  indigo,  and 
cotton  are  similarly  indigenous.  The 
Rhodesian  forests  produce  abundance  of 
hard  timber  of  fine  quality.  The  vast 
territory  adjacent  to  the  headwaters  of 
the  Zambesi  and  its  tributaries  forms 
the  Mississippi  valley  of  Africa.  It  has 
a  great  future. 

RHODINOL,  Cio  H20  O,  the  odorous 
constituent  of  oil  of  roses.  It  is  also 
said  to  occur  in  oil  of  ginger  grass, 
lemon  oil  and  some  others.  It  is  a  color- 
less, oily  liquid,  boiling  at  110°  C,  speci- 
fic gravity  0.88.  Its  chief  use  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  perfumes. 

RHODIUM,  one  of  the  rare  metals 
found  in  platinum  ores.  It  is  very  hard, 
white,  and  brittle,  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  iridium,  one  of  the  most  infusible 
of  _ metals.  When  pure,  it  is  insoluble  in 
acids,  but  when  alloyed  with  platinum, 
bismuth,  or  copper,  it  is  dissolved  with 
them  in  aqua  regia.  Heated  in  contact 
with  chloride  of  sodium  in  a  current  of 
chlorine,  the  double  chloride  of  rhodium 
and  sodium  is  formed.  The  only  use  to 
which  rhodium  has  been  applied,  is  to 
form  the  nibs  of  metallic  pens.  Rhodium 
was  discovered  by  Wollaston  in  1803, 
associated  in  small  quantity  with  native 
platinum. 

RHODODENDRON,  a  genus  of  trees 
and  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Eri- 
caceae, having  10  stamens,  a  very  small 
calyx,  and  a  bell-shaped  or  somewhat 
funnel-shaped  corolla.  The  buds  in  this 
and  nearly  allied  genera,  as  azalea,  are 
scaly  and  conical.  The  species  are  nu- 
merous; they  have  evergreen  leaves,  and 
many  of  them  are  of  great  beauty,  both 
in  foliage  and  in  flowers.  A  few  small 
species  are  natives  of  continental  Eu- 
rope and  of  Siberia;  but  the  greater 
number  belong  to  the  temperate  parts  of 
North  America,  and  to  the  mountains 
of  India.  R.  maximum,  so  designated 
when  the  far  larger  Indian  specieswere 
unknown,  is  common  in  North  America  as 
an  ornamental  shrub.  It  is  a  large 
shrub  or  small  tree,  which  forms  im- 
penetrable thickets  on  many  parts  of  the 
Allegheny  mountains.  The  leaves  are 
large,  leathery,  dark  green  and  shining 
above,  rusty  brown  beneath.     The  flow- 


RHODODENDRON 


26 


RHONDDA 


ers  are  large,  varying  in  color  from  pale 
carmine  to  lilac.  This  species  is  quite 
hardy  in  Great  Britain;  as  is  also  R. 
ponticum,  a  very  similar  species,  with 
narrower  and  more  pointed  leaves,  which 
are  of  the  same  color  on  both  sides,  a 
native  of  western  Asia,  and  apparently 
also  of  the  S.  of  Spain.  R.  catawbiense, 
a  native  of  the  S.  parts  of  the  Alle- 
ghenies,  with  large  purple  flowers;  R. 
Caucasicum,  the  name  of  which  indi- 
cates its  origin;  and  R.  arboreum,  a 
native  of  Nepal,  with  very  dense  heads 
of   large   scarlet   flowers.     Most   of   the 


RHODODENDRON 

extremely  numerous  varieties  now  com- 
mon in  our  gardens  and  shrubberies 
have  been  produced  from  them  by  hy- 
bridizing or  otherwise. 

Many  splendid  species  of  rhododen- 
drons were  discovered  in  the  Himalayas, 
the  Khasia  hills,  and  other  mountainous 
parts  of  India,  and  have  been  introduced 
into  cultivation  in  Europe.  R.  Falconeri 
is  described  as  in  foliage  the  most  su- 
perb of  all,  the  leaves  being  18  or  19 
inches  long.  It  is  a  tree  30  to  50  feet 
high,  with  leaves  only  at  the  extremities 
of  the  branches.  It  grows  in  eastern 
Nepal  at  an  altitude  of  10,000  feet.  R. 
argenteum  has  flowers  4%  inches  long, 
and  equally  broad,  clustered,  and  very 
beautiful.  R.  Maddeni,  R.  Aucklandii, 
R.  Edgeworthii,  and  others  have  white 
flowers.  R.  Dalhousise  is  remarkable  as 
an  epiphyte,  growing  on  magnolias,  lau- 
rels, and  oaks.  It  is  a^  slender  shrub, 
bearing  from  three  to  six  white  lemon- 
scented  bells,  4%  inches  long,  at  the  end 
of  each  branch.  R.  Nuttali  has  fragrant 
white  flowers,  said  to  be  larger  than 
those  of  any   other  rhododendron.     All 


these  belong  to  the  Himalayas.  In  more 
southern  latitudes,  as  on  the  Neilgherry 
Hills  and  on  the  mountains  of  Ceylon, 
R.  no  bile  prevails,  a  timber  tree  50  to 
70  feet  high,  every  branch  covered  with 
a  blaze  of  crimson  flowers.  R.  Keysii 
and  R.  Thibaudiense,  also  natives  of  the 
N.  of  India,  have  flowers  with  nearly 
tubular  corolla.  R.  ferrugineum  and  R. 
hirsutum  are  small  species,  natives  of 
the  Alps.  They  are  called  Alpenrose 
(Alpine  rose)  by  the  Germans.  They 
have  small  carmine-colored  flowers.  The 
flora  of  the  Himalayas  contains  a  num- 
ber of  similar  small  species.  R.  antho- 
pogon  and  R.  setosum,  dwarf  shrubs 
with  strongly  scented  leaves,  clothe  the 
mountains  in  eastern  Nepal.  R.  nivale 
is  the  most  alpine  of  woody  plants, 
spreading  its  small  woody  branches  close 
to  the  ground  at  an  elevation  of  1,700 
feet  in  Sikkim.  R.  lapponicum,  a  pro- 
cumbent shrub,  with  small  flowers,  grows 
as  far  N.  as  human  settlements  have 
reached  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  the  United 
States.  An  oil  obtained  from  the  buds 
of  R.  ferrugineum  and  R.  hirsutum  is 
used  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Alps, 
under  the  name  Olio  di  Marmotta,  as  a 
remedy  for  pains  in  the  joints,  gout,  and 
stone.  R.  chrysanthum,  a  low  shrub, 
with  golden  yellow  flowers,  a  native  of 
Siberia,  is  also  used  in  gout  and  rheu- 
matism. R.  cinnabarinum,  a  Himalayan 
species,  poisons  goats  which  feed  on  it. 
But  the  flowers  of  R.  arboreum  are  eaten 
in  India,  and  Europeans  make  a  palat- 
able jelly  of  them. 

RHOMB,  or  RHOMBUS,  in  geometry, 
an  oblique  parallelogram  whose  sides  are 
all  equal.  The  diagonals  of  a  rhombus 
bisect  each  other  at  right  angles.  The 
area  of  a  rhombus  is  equal  to  half  the 
product  of  its  diagonals. 

Fresnel's  rhomb,  in  optics,  is  an  ap- 
paratus for  converting  plane  into  circu- 
larly polarized  light.  It  is  a  parallelo- 
piped  of  glass,  of  such  length  and  angles 
that  a  ray  of  light  entering  one  small 
end  at  right  angles,  twice  suffers  total 
reflection  within  the  rhomb  at  an  angle 
of  about  54°  (depending  on  the  polariz- 
ing angle  of  the  glass),  and  finally 
emerges  at  right  angles  from  the  oppo- 
site small  end.  When  the  beam  of  light 
is  plane  polarized,  and  the  rhomb  is  so 
arranged  that  its  reflecting  faces  are 
inclined  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the  plane 
of  polarization,  the  beam  emerges  circu- 
larly polarized. 

RHONDDA,  MARGARET  HAIG 
MACKWORTH,  VISCOUNTESS,  a  wo- 
man prominent  in  British  enterprises, 
born  in  1883.  The  daughter  of  G.  A. 
Haig  of  Penithon,  Radnorshire,  she  mar- 
ried in  1908  Sir  Humphrey  Mackworth. 


RHONE 


27 


RHYME 


She  is  chairman  of  the  Sanatogen  Com- 
pany and  director  of  the  Anglo-Argen- 
tine Coal  Co.,  Ltd.,  Cambrian  Collieries, 
Ltd.,  Globe  Shipping  Co.,  Ltd.,  Solutaris 
Water  Co.,  Ltd.,  S.  Wales  Printing  and 
Publishing  Co.,  Ltd.,  and  is  connected 
with  many  other  industrial  undertakings. 

* 

RHONE,  a  department  of  France,  part 
of  the  former  Lyonnais;  area  1,104 
square  miles.  Pop.  about  915,500.  It 
lies  almost  wholly  in  the  basin  of  the 
Rhone  and  the  Saone,  its  E.  boundary 
being  formed  by  these  rivers.  The  sur- 
face is  almost  entirely  hilly,  being  brok- 
en up  in  all  directions  by  low  spurs  of 
the  Cevennes.  Corn,  potatoes,  wine,  and 
fruits  are  the  principal  products.  Near- 
ly one-half  the  area  is  cultivated,  one- 
eighth  in  vineyards,  one-ninth  under 
forest,  and  nearly  one-sixth  meadows. 
About  13,000,000  gallons  of  wine  were 
made  annually  before  the  World  War. 
The  department  is  industrially  one  of 
the  most  important  in  France;  all  the 
branches  are  carried  on  at  Lyons  (q. v.), 
the  capital  of  the  department. 

RHONE  (Latin,  Rhodanus),  a  river 
in  Europe  which  rises  in  Switzerland, 
near  the  E.  frontiers  of  the  canton  of 
Valais,  about  18  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  the 
source  of  the  Vorder-Rhein.  Its  precise 
origin  is  the  Rhone  Glacier,  5,581  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  passes 
through  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  and  enters 
France,  flowing  first  S.  and  then  W.  to 
the  city  of  Lyons,  where  it  turns  almost 
due  S.,  and  so  continues  till  (after  pass- 
ing Avignon  and  Aries)  it  falls  into  the 
Gulf  of  Lyons  by  a  greater  and  smaller 
mouth,  forming  here  an  extensive  delta. 
Its  principal  affluent  is  the  Saone,  which 
enters  it  at  the  city  of  Lyons;  other 
large  tributaries  are  the  Isere  and  Du- 
rance. Its  whole  course  is  about  500 
miles;  its  drainage  area  is  38,000  miles; 
and  it  is  navigable  for  360  miles.  The 
great  obstacles  to  its  navigation  are  the 
rapidity  of  its  current,  the  shifting  char- 
acter of  its  channel,  and  the  variations 
that  take  place  in  the  volume  of  its 
water;  but  these  obstacles  have  to  a 
great  extent  been  removed  by  a  scheme 
of  regularization  and  canalization,  in- 
tended to  secure  everywhere  a  depth  of 
over  five  feet.  By  means  of  a  series  of 
magnificent  canals  the  navigation  of  the 
Rhone  has  been  continued,  without  in- 
terruption, to  the  Rhine  (through  the 
Saone),  Seine,  and  Loire,  and  to  the 
Meuse  and  the  Belgian  system. 

RHUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  Ana- 
cardiacese.  Leaves  simple  or  compound. 
Flowers  in  axillary  or  terminal  pani- 
cles, bisexual  or  polygamous.  Calyx 
small,  persistent,  five-partite ;  petals  five ; 


stamens  five;  ovary  one-celled,  sessile; 
fruit  a  dry  drupe,  with  one  exalbumi- 
nous  seed.  Nearly  100  species  are  known. 
Most  are  shrubs,  from  6  to  10  feet  high. 
They  exist  in  all  the  continents.  The 
leaves  of  R.  coriaria,  the  hide  or  elm- 
leaved  sumach  of  the  S.  of  Europe,  are 
used  for  tanning  morocco  leather.  In 
the  Himalayas  those  of  R.  cotinus  are 
similarly  employed.  The  fruit  of  the 
former  was  given  in  dysentery.  In  In- 
dia, R.  parviflora,  R.  semialata,  R.  suc- 
cedanea,  are  used  medicinally.  Exuda- 
tions from  incisions  in  the  bark  of  R. 
succedanea  and  R.  vernicifera  yield  the 
varnish  used  in  Japanese  and  Chinese 
wickerwork.  The  former  produces  astrin- 
gent galls,  and  its  seeds  yield  a  kind  of 
wax;  as  do  also  those  of  R.  wallichii  and 
the  Japanese  R.  vernix.  The  juice  of 
the  latter  species  blisters  the  skin.  The 
Turks  used  the  acid  fruits  of  R.  coriaria 
to  sharpen  their  vinegar.  The  plant 
yields  sumach.  The  bark  of  R.  glabrum 
is  a  febrifuge,  and  is  employed  as  a 
mordant  for  red  colors.  R.  metopium,  a 
Jamaica  plant,  yields  a  medicinal  gum. 
R.  toxicodendron  (used  in  pharmacy  as 
a  topical  irritant)  and^  R.  venenata, 
American  species,  are  poisonous,  nor  is 
any  of  the  genus  very  safe.  These  two 
species  are  called  indifferently  poison 
oak,  poison  ivy,  poison  sumac,  and  more 
rarely  mercury.  The  wood  of  R.  collinus 
is  employed  for  inlaid  and  cabinet  work. 

RHYME,  more  correctly  Rime,  in 
poetry,  a  correspondence  in  sound  of  the 
terminating  word  or  syllable  of  one  line 
of  poetry  with  the  terminating  word  or 
syllable  of  another.  To  constitute  this 
correspondence  in  single  words  or  in  syl- 
lables it  is  necessary  that  the  vowel  and 
the  final  consonantal  sound  (if  any) 
should  be  the  same,  or  have  nearly  the 
same  sound,  the  initial  consonants  being 
different.  If  the  rhyme  is  only  in  the 
last  syllables,  as  in  forgave  and  behave, 
it  is  called  a  single  rhyme;  if  in  the  two 
last  syllables,  as  bitter  and  glitter,  it  is 
called  a  double  rhyme;  if  in  the  last 
three  syllables,  as  callosity  and  reciproc- 
ity, it  is  called  a  triple  rhyme.  Rhymes 
which  extend  to  more  than  three  syl- 
lables are  almost  confined  to  the  Ara- 
bians and  Persians  in  their  short  odes 
(gazelles),  in  which  the  same  rhyme, 
carried  through  the  whole  poem,  extends 
sometimes  to  four  and  more  syllables. 
The  modern  use  of  rhymes  was  not 
known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans; 
though  some  rhymed  verses  occur  in 
Ovid.  It  has  been  used,  on  the  other 
hand,  from  time  immemorial  among  the 
Chinese,  Hindus,  Arabs,  and  other  Ori- 
ental nations.  Rhyme  began  to  be  de- 
veloped among  the  western  nations  in  the 


RHYMER 


28 


RIBBON  FISH 


Latin  poetry  of  the  Christian  Church. 
It  is  found  used  as  early  as  the  4th 
century.  The  early  English,  German,  and 
Scandinavian  poems  are  distinguished  by 
alliteration  instead  of  rhymes. 

RHYMER,  THOMAS,  of  Erceldoune, 
or  Earlston,  Berwickshire,  England,  oth- 
erwise called  Thomas  the  Rhymer;  a 
half-legendary  Scotch  poet  or  romancer 
of  the  13th  century.  He  is  mentioned 
by  Barbour,  Blind  Harry,  and  Wyntoun, 
was  credited  with  prophetical  powers, 
and  his  "Prophecies,"  a  collection  of 
oracular  rhymes,  were  long  popular  in 
Scotch  folk  lore.  The  old  metrical  ro- 
mance of  "Sir  Tristram"  is  doubtfully 
ascribed   to   him. 

RHYNCHONELLA,  in  zoology,  the 
typical  genus  of  Rhynchonellidse.  Shell 
trigonal,  acutely  beaked,  usually  plaited; 
dorsal  valve  elevated  in  front;  ventral 
flattened,  or  hollowed  along  the  center. 
Known  recent  species  four,  from  the 
North  Polar  regions  and  New  Zealand. 
Known  species  332,  from  the  Lower  Si- 
lurian onward.  Found  in  Europe,  Asia, 
and  North  and  South  America. 

RHYOLITE,  also  known  as  Liparite 
and  Nevadite,  a  group  of  volcanic  rocks, 
containing  a  high  percentage  of  silica, 
and  possessing  in  many  cases  a  vitreous 
character.  The  name  Liparite  is  de- 
rived from  the  Lipari  Islands,  where 
quantities  of  Rhyolites  are  found. 

RHYS,  ERNEST,  an  English  editor 
and  writer,  born  in  London,  in  1859. 
He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools 
in  Wales  and  England,  and  became 
a  mining  engineer  in  1877.  He  aban- 
doned this  career  in  1885  to  engage  in 
writing  and  lecturing  on  literary  sub- 
jects. He  several  times  visited  the 
United  States,  delivering  lectures.  He 
was  the  editor  of  the  "Camelot  Series" 
of  reprints  and  translations,  and  also 
edited  several  of  the  Elizabethan  dra- 
matists. He  was  also  editor  of  the 
"Everyman's  Library"  series.  His  writ- 
ings include  "Welsh  Ballads  and  Other 
Poems"  (1898) ;  "The  Fiddler  of  Carne" 
(1896);  "The  Whistling  Maid"  (1900); 
"Lvric  Poetry"  (1913) ;  and  "Rabindra- 
nath  Tagore"    (1915). 

RHYS,  JOHN  (ris),  a  Celtic  philol- 
ogist; born  in  Abercaero,  Cardiganshire, 
Wales,  June  21,  1840.  He  was  Profes- 
sor of  Celtic  in  Oxford  from  1877  and 
principal  of  Jesus  College  from  1895. 
He  published  "Lectures  on  Welsh  Phi- 
lology" (1877) ;  "Celtic  Britain"  (1882) ; 
"Studies  in  the  Arthurian  Legends" 
(1891);  "The  Welsh  People"  (1901). 
He  died  in  1915. 


RHYTHM,  in  general  a  measured 
succession  of  divisions  or  intervals  in 
written  composition,  music,  or  dancing. 
The  rhythm  of  poetry  is  the  regular 
succession  of  accent,  emphasis,  or  voice 
stress;  or  a  certain  succession  of  long 
and  short  (heavy  and  light)  syllables 
in  a  verse.  Prose  also  has  its  rhythm, 
and  the  only  difference  (so  far  as  sound 
is  concerned)  between  verse  and  prose 
is,  that  the  former  consists  of  a  regular 
succession  of  similar  cadences,  divided 
by  grammatical  pauses  and  emphases 
into  proportional  clauses,  so  as  to  pre- 
sent sensible  responses  to  the  ear  at  reg- 
ular proportioned  distances.  In  music, 
rhythm  is  the  disposition  of  the  notes 
of  a  composition  in  respect  of  time  and 
measure ;  the  measured  beat  which  marks 
the  character  and  expression  of  the 
music. 

RIAZAN,  or  RYAZAN,  Russia,  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  120 
miles  S.  E.  of  Moscow,  situated  on  the 
Trubezh  river.  It  was  noted  before  the 
World  War  for  the  excellent  cutlery 
produced  in  its  factories  and  was  also 
an  important  center  of  the  textile  in- 
dustry. The  population  is  about  48,000. 
The  province  of  Riazan  is  drained  by 
the  Oka  river,  has  an  area  of  16,254 
square  miles  and  a  population  of  about 
2,700,000. 

RIB,  in  anatomy,  one  of  the  long 
curved  bones  which  form  the  walls  of  the 
chest.  They  extend  in  an  oblique  direc- 
tion from  the  vertebrae  of  the  back  to 
the  sternum  in  front.     There  are  usually 

12  on  each  side;  but  in  some  rare  cases 

13  have  been  found,  in  others  only  11. 
They  are  distinguished  into  "true"  and 
"false";  the  former  being  the  seven  up- 
per ribs,  which  are  articulated  to  the 
sternum;  the  latter  the  five  lower  ones, 
which  are  not  immediately  attached  to 
that  bone.  The  use  of  the  ribs  is  to 
cover  and  defend  the  lungs  and  heart; 
and  their  articulations  with  the  verte- 
bra? and  sternum  admitting  of  a  slight 
motion,  they  assist  in  respiration.  See 
Anatomy:  Thorax.  In  shipbuilding,  one 
of  the  timbers  of  a  ship,  which  have 
their  base  in  the  keel  as  a  backbone, 
and  serve  to  maintain  generally  the  cav- 
ity of  the  vessel.  In  architecture,  one 
of  the  curvilinear  timbers  to  which,  in 
an  arched  or  covered  plaster  ceiling,  the 
laths  are  nailed.  In  botany,  the  princi- 
pal vein  or  nervure  which  proceeds  from 
the  petiole  into  the  blade  of  a  leaf.  In 
mining,  a  pillar  of  coal  left  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  roof  of  a  mine. 

RIBBON  FISH,  the  Regalecus  banksii, 
known  also  as  the  oar-fish.  Its  length  is 
about  12  feet;  color,  silvery,  with  irreg- 


RIBBON     GRASS 


29 


RICASOLI 


ular  dark  lines  and  spots  on  the  anterior 
part  of  the  body ;  dorsal  red ;  snout  trun- 
cated, mouth  edentate,  stomach  pro- 
longed as  a  pouch.  Ribbon  fishes,  the 
acanthopterygian  division  Taeniiformes. 

RIBBON  GRASS,  Phalaris  arundina- 
cea,  a  species  of  canary  grass  with 
variegated  leaves. 

RIBBONISM,  the  name  assumed  by  a 
group  of  secret  associations  among  the 
lower  classes  in  Ireland  throughout  the 
half  century  extending  from  1820-1870, 
at  its  greatest  height  from  about  1835 
to  1855.  Its  origin  and  organization  are 
alike  wrapped  in  obscurity,  but  it  ap- 
pears in  the  beginning  at  least  to  have 
been  political  in  its  aims,  and  it  seems 
probable  that  it  grew  out  of  the  north- 
ern Defenders  who  banded  themselves  to 
oppose  the  Orange  organization.  Earlier 
associations  with  somewhat  similar  aims 
were  the  Whiteboys  and  the  Threshers, 
and,  in  particular  corners  of  the  island, 
the  Carders,  Shanavests,  and  Caravats. 

RIBOT,  ALEXANDRE  FELIX 
JOSEPH,  a  French  statesman.  He  was 
born  at  St.  Omer  in  1842  and  was  edu- 


1o5  W 


ALEXANDRE  F.  J.  RIBOT 

cated  at  the  Lycee  of  St.  Omer.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1864  and  in  1870 
became  substitut  du  tribunal  de  la  Seine. 
In  1878  he  was  appointed  by  M.  Dufaure 
secretary-general  of  the  ministry  of  jus- 


C— Cyc 


tice  and  in  the  same  year  was  elected 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  In  1890  he 
became  minister  for  foreign  affairs  in 
M.  de  Freycinet's  cabinet  and  continued 
in  that  position  for  three  years.  Dur- 
ing his  tenure  of  office  the  alliance  be- 
tween France  and  Russia  was  concluded. 
He  was  president  of  the  cabinet  during 
the  stormy  period  of  the  Panama  case 
and  became  for  the  second  time  Prime 
Minister  after  the  resignation  of  M. 
Casimir-Perier,  and  so  continued  till 
1914.  He  was  Minister  of  Finance  dur- 
ing the  greater  period  of  the  war,  1914- 
1917,  and  became  premier  again  in  the 
latter  year.  He  has  opposed  the  policy 
of  retaliation  against  the  religious  or- 
ders and  his  most  important  speeches 
have  been  delivered  on  finance,  foreign 
affairs,  and  the  question  of  freedom  in 
teaching.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emie  Francaise  et  Academie  des  Sci- 
ences Morales  et  Politiques.  His  works 
include:  "Life  of  Lord  Erskine,"  "Re- 
forme  de  l'enseignement  secondaire," 
"Discours  politiques." 

RICARDO,  DAVID,  an  English  politi- 
cal economist;  born  in  London,  England, 
April  19,  1772.  He  stands  next  to  Adam 
Smith  (whose  ideas  he  developed  and 
systematized)  in  the  British  free-trade 
school  of  political  science,  and  his  writ- 
ings have  exerted  a  vast  influence  on  all 
theories  of  political  economy.  After  mak- 
ing his  fortune  in  the  Stock  Exchange 
in  London,  he  retired  to  devote  himself 
to  the  study  of  mathematics,  chemistry, 
etc.  The  first  result  of  his  studies  was 
a  tract  entitled  "The  High  Price  of  Bul- 
lion a  Proof  of  the  Depreciation  of 
Bank  Notes"  (1809).  In  1817  appeared 
his  most  important  work,  "The  Princi- 
ples of  Political  Economy  and  Taxation." 
Its  leading  feature  was  the  theory  of 
rent,  now  universally  accepted — that  it 
represents  the  surplus  earning  power  of 
better  or  more  favorably  situated  land 
over  that  just  good  enough  to  be  worth 
utilizing.  He  published  in  addition  a 
number  of  essays  on  economics.  His 
"Works"  were  edited  by  MacCulloch 
(1846).  His  "Letters  to  Malthus"  were 
published  in  1887.  He  died  in  Gatcomb 
Park,  Gloucestershire,  Sept.  11,  1823. 

RICASOLI,  BARON  BETTINO,  an 
Italian  statesman;  born  in  Florence, 
March  9,  1809;  studied  at  Pisa  and  Flor- 
ence; was  one  of  the  best  agriculturists 
in  Italy;  wrote  books  on  the  cultivation 
of  the  vine,  the  olive,  and  the  mulberry, 
and  for  10  years  worked  successfully  at 
the  drainage  of  the  Tuscan  Maremma. 
In  1859  he  took  a  prominent  part  in 
opposing  the  government  of  the  grand 
duke  and  when  the  latter  fled  Ricasoli 
was  made  dictator  of  Tuscany.     He  la- 


Vol  6 


RICE 


30 


RICE 


bored  with  great  energy  for  the  unity  of 
Italy,  and  when  that  end  was  accom- 
plished was  by  Victor  Emmanuel  ap- 
pointed governor-general  of  Tuscany.  On 
the  death  of  Cavour  (1861)  he  was 
called  to  the  head  of  the  ministry;  but 
his  government  was  undermined  by  Rat- 
tazzi,  and  he  resigned  in  March,  1862. 
Ricasoli  returned  to  power  in  June,  1866, 
but  was  again  obliged  to  retire  in  April 
of  the  following  year.  At  the  same  time 
ae  withdrew  altogether  from  public  life. 
He  died  in  Rome,  Oct.  23,  1880.  Five 
volumes  of  his  "Letters  and  Papers" 
were  published  by  Tabarrini  and  Gotti 
at  Florence  in  1886-1895. 

RICE  (Oryza),  a  genus  of  grasses. 
The  only  important  species  is  the  com- 
mon rice  (0.  sativa),  one  of  the  most 
useful  and  extensively  cultivated  of  all 
grains,  supplying  the  principal  food  of 
nearly  one-third  of  the  human  race.  It 
seems  to  be  originally  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies,  but  is  now  cultivated  in  all 
quarters  of  the  globe,  and  almost  wher- 
ever the  conditions  of  warmth  and  moist- 
ure are  suitable.  Rice  is  an  annual, 
varying  from  one  to  six  feet  in  height. 
There  are  many  other  distinguishing 
characters  of  the  varieties  in  cultivation, 
some  having  long  awns  and  some  being 
awnless,  some  having  the  chaff  (pale as) , 
when  ripe,  yellow,  white,  red,  black,  etc. 
The  seed  or  grain  of  rice  grows  on  little 
separate  stalks  springing  from  the  main 
stalk;  and  the  whole  appearance  of  the 
plant,  when  the  grain  is  ripe,  may  be 
said  to  be  intermediate  between  that  of 
barley  and  of  oats.  Rice  requires  a 
moist  soil,  sometimes  flooded.  In  South 
Carolina  rice  is  sown  in  rows  in  the 
bottom  of  trenches,  which  are  about  18 
inches  apart;  the  trenches  are  filled  with 
water  to  the  depth  of  several  inches,  till 
the  seeds  germinate;  then  the  water  is 
drawn  off,  and  afterward  the  fields  are 
again  flooded  for  rather  more  than  a 
fortnight  to  kill  weeds.  They  are  flooded 
again  when  the  grain  is  near  ripening. 
In  Europe  the  cultivation  of  rice  is  most 
extensively  carried  on  in  the  plains  of 
Lombardy  and  in  Valencia  in  Spain.  The 
introduction  of  rice  into  the  United 
States  took  place  only  about  the  middle 
or  close  of  the  17th  century;  but  the 
date  has  been  disputed,  1694  being  the 
earliest  year  in  which  it  is  known  to 
have  been   grown. 

The  wild  rice,  plentiful  in  the  marshy 
tropical  countries  of  southern  Asia  _  as 
well  as  in  northern  Australia,  is  with- 
out doubt  the  plant  from  which  all  our 
forms  of  cultivated  rice  have  been  de- 
rived. Most  modern  authorities  regard 
India  as  the  first  home  of  rice,  though 
some  say  it  was  originally  derived  from 


China.  It  has  been  cultivated  in  India 
from  time  immemorial.  Four  thousand 
apparently  distinct  forms  of  Bengal  rice 
have  been  exhibited.  There  are  1,400 
different  specimens  of  rice  in  the  Calcutta 
Museum.  There  are  as  many  as  1,300 
names  of  rice.  The  obvious  differences 
in  the  grain  itself  are  indeed  very  re- 
markable. In  color  the  specimens  range 
from  a  bright  golden  hue  through  almost 
every  gradation  of  tint  to  black;  and  in 
regard  to  size  also  they  vary  greatly. 
But  all  these  forms  of  rice  are  referable 
to  a  very  few  well-marked  and  constant 
varieties  of  O.  sativa,  the  result  of  semi- 
nal variation  commonly  observed  in 
plants  that  have  been  long  brought  under 
cultivation.  The  rice  exported  from  India 
is  divided  broadly  into  three  qualities: 
(1)  table  rice;  (2)  ballam,  named  after 
the  boats  in  which  it  is  carried;  and  (3) 
moonghy,  common  or  inferior  rice.  Cargo 
rice  is  that  in  which  only  one  part  in 
five  is  husked.  In  1919  the  East  suf- 
fered from  a  shortage  in  the  rice  crop. 
British  India  prohibited  export.  The 
Japanese  rice  crop  was  about  426,000,000 
bushels,  Korean  about  a  fifth,  the  United 
States  produced  41,059,000  bushels;  the 
price  to  farmers,  $2.67  a  bushel.  The 
principal  rice-growing  States  are  Louisi- 
ana, California,  Texas  and  Arkansas. 

In  China  rice  is  generally  sown  pretty 
thickly  on  very  wet  land,  and  afterward 
transplanted  to  the  land  which  it  is 
finally  to  occupy.  In  many  parts  of 
China  and  in  other  warm  countries  it  is 
common  to  obtain  two  crops  of  rice  in 
a  year. 

Rice  is  husked  and  quickly  dried  be- 
fore being  brought  to  market.  Special 
milling  machinery  is  required  for  re- 
moving the  inner  skin  of  the  rice  grain, 
and  a  large  quantity  of  the  grain  is 
badly  broken  in  the  process,  being  sala- 
ble only  as  broken  rice  or  rice  flour. 
Good  Indian  rice  has  the  following  com- 
position: Moisture,  13.50  per  cent.;  ni- 
trogenous matter,  7.41;  starch,  78.10; 
fatty  or  oily  matter,  0.40;  ash,  0.59. 
Rice  contains  a  smaller  amount  of  ni- 
trogenous elements  than  any  other  grain 
(wheat  having  as  much  as  22  per  cent.)  ; 
it  is  also  deficient  in  fatty  matter,  and 
if  taken  by  itself  is  less  nutritious  than 
other  grain  food;  but  combined  with 
fatty  nitrogenous  substances  it  is  a  val- 
uable foodstuff.  The  beer  made  from 
rice  by  the  Japanese  is  called  Saki,  and 
is  in  general  use  among  them.  Several 
kinds  of  wine  are  made  by  the  Chinese 
and  Japanese  from  rice,  some  of  them 
highly  esteemed  and  very  intoxicating; 
spirit  is  distilled  from  the  lees.  Some 
of  the  common  arrack  of  the  East  is 
made  from  rice;  and  rice  is  also  largely 
employed  by  distillers  in  Great  Britain. 


RICE 


31 


RICE 


Rice  starch  is  made  in  considerable 
quantity  and  is  used  in  laundries  and 
muslin  manufactories.  It  has  one-fourth 
more  starch  in  its  composition  than 
wheat.  The  straw  of  rice  is  used  to 
make  straw  plait  for  bonnets  and  the 
straw  shoes  of  Japan.  The  refuse  of 
rice  is  valuable  as  food  for  cattle.  It 
is  known  as  rice  meal  and  rice  dust. 

Canada  rice '  (Zizania  aquatica) ,  the 
wild  rice  or  Indian  rice  of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  a  species  of  grass  quite  different 
from  the  true  rice,  and  of  a  different 
genus.  It  is  common  in  North  America, 
and  particularly  abundant  in  the  N.  W. 
parts,  growing  in  miry  places  or  shal- 
low water,  often  on  the  margins  of  lakes. 
It  has  a  culm  seven  or  eight  feet  high, 
with  broad  diffuse  leaves,  and  a  large 
terminal  panicle  of  male  flowers,  with  a 
spike  of  female  flowers  at  the  summit. 
The  flowers  have  six  stamens.  The  seeds 
are  about  half  an  inch  long,  slender, 
farinaceous,  and  are  much  used  by  the 
Indians  where  the  plant  abounds. 

RICE,  ALEXANDER  HAMILTON, 
an  American  explorer  and  geographer, 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1875.  He  was 
educated  at  Harvard,  and  although  re- 
ceiving a  degree  of  M.D.  in  1902,  he 
later  became  interested  in  geography 
and  exploration,  studying  from  1908  to 
1910  at  the  School  of  Geographical  Sur- 
vey and  Astronomy  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society,  in  London.  He  organ- 
ized and  conducted  several  expeditions  to 
tropical  South  American  countries.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  he  served  as  surgeon 
at  a  military  hospital  in  Paris,  and  at 
die  American  Ambulance  at  Neuilly.  He 
was  a  member  of  several  geographical 
societies  in  this  country  and  abroad  and 
was  awarded  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society  in  1914.  The  re- 
sults of  some  of  his  explorations  and 
scientific  investigations  were  published 
in  the  form  of  articles  in  the  "Geograph- 
ical Journal." 

RICE,  ALICE  (CALDWELL) 
HEGAN,  an  American  author,  born  in 
Shelbyyille,Ky.,  in  1870.  She  was  edu- 
cated in  private  schools  and  gave  much 
time  and  thought  to  philanthropic  work, 
being  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Cab- 
bage Patch  Settlement  House,  of  Louis- 
ville, Ky.  In  1902  she  was  married  to 
Cale  Young  Rice  (q.  v.).  Her  books, 
some  of  which  have  met  with  very  great 
success,  include  "Mrs.  Wiggs  of  the  Cab- 
bage Patch"  (1901)  ;  "Lovey  Mary" 
(1903);  "Sandy"  (1905);  "Captain 
June"  (1907)  ;  "Mr.  Opp"  (1909)  ;  "A 
Romance  of  Billy  Goat  Hill"  (1912)  ; 
"The  Honorable  Percival"  (1914)  ;  and 
"Calvary  Alley"  (1918).  She  also  wrote 
numerous    short    stories.      Some    of    her 


books  have  been  translated  into  several 
languages,  while  others  have  been  dra- 
matized. 

RICE,  CALE  YOUNG,  an  American 
poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Dixon.  Ky., 
in  1872.  He  was  educated  at  Cumber- 
land University  and  at  Harvard.  In 
1902  he  married  Alice  Caldwell  Hegan. 
He  was  a  frequent  contributor  of  poems 
to  many  magazines.  His  poems  pub- 
lished in  book  form  include  "From  Dusk 
to  Dusk"  (1898)  ;  "With  Omar"  (1900)  ; 
"Song-Surf"  (1900)  ;  "Nirvana  Days" 
(1908) ;  "Many  Gods"  (1910) ;  "Far 
Quests"  (1912)  ;  "At  the  World's  Heart" 
(1914);  "Earth  and  New  Earth"  (1916); 
"Trails  Sunward"  (1917)  ;  "Wraiths  and 
Realities"  (1918)  ;  "Songs  to  A.  H.  R." 
(1918);  and  "Shadowy  Thresholds" 
(1919).  He  also  wrote  several  poetic 
dramas,  including  "David"  (1904)  ;  "A 
Night  in  Avignon"  (1907),  etc.  A  col- 
lection of  his  plays  and  poems  was  pub- 
lished in  1915.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  National  Institute  of  Social  Sci- 
ences, the  Poetry  Society  of  America, 
and  the  Society  of  American  Drama- 
tists and  Composers. 

RICE,  JAMES,  an  English  novelist; 
born  in  Northampton,  England,  Sept.  26, 
1843.  His  reputation  was  well  assured 
by  the  publication  of  "Ready-Money  Mor- 
tiboy"  (1872),  the  first  of  the  series 
written  in  conjunction  with  Walter  Be- 
sant.  It  was  subsequently  dramatized. 
This  remarkable  partnership  continued 
with  "The  Golden  Butterfly"  (1876), 
"The  Chaplain  of  the  Fleet"  (1881), 
"The  Seamy  Side"  (1880),  and  several 
others.  Previous  to  the  partnership  he 
had  published  "History  of  the  British 
Turf"  (1879).  He  died  at  Redhill,  April 
26,  1882. 

RICE,  W(ILLIAM)  NORTH,  an 
American  geologist  and  educator,  born 
at  Marblehead,  Mass.,  in  1845.  He  was 
educated  at  Wesleyan  University  and  at 
the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale 
University.  From  1867  to  1884  he  was 
professor  of  geology  and  natural  history 
at  Wesleyan  University,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  and  from  1884  to  1918,  professor 
of  geology,  retiring  in  the  latter  year 
as  professor  emeritus.  From  1907  to 
1909  he  served  as  acting  president  of 
this  institution.  From  1903  to  1916  he 
was  superintendent  of  the  Connecticut 
State  Geological  and  Natural  History 
Survey.  He  was  a  member  and,  at 
times,  an  officer  of  various  scientific 
societies,  and  was  also  chairman  of  the 
Board  of  Examiners  of  the  New  York 
East  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  as  well  as  president,  and 
later    secretary    of    the    Council    of    the 


RICE  INSTITUTE 


32 


RICHARD    I. 


Connecticut  Federation  of  Churches.  He 
edited  the  5th  edition  of  Dana's  "Text- 
book of  Geology"  (1897),  and  published 
"Geology  of  Bermuda"  (1884)  ;  "Science 
Teaching  in  the  Schools"  (1889) ;  "Chris- 
tian Faith  in  an  Age  of  Science"  (1903) ; 
"Through  Darkness  to  Dawn"  (1917),  etc. 

RICE  INSTITUTE,  an  institution  for 
higher  education,  founded  in  1912,  at 
Houston,  Tex.,  from  bequests  left  by 
William  Marsh  Rice,  who,  on  his  death, 
provided  that  his  entire  fortune  of  about 
$10,000,000  was  to  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. A  campus  of  300  acres  was  se- 
cured in  1909  at  Houston,  and  the  cor- 
ner-stone of  the  first  building  was  laid 
in  1911.  This,  with  several  other  build- 
ings, were  ready  for  occupancy  in  1912. 
Courses  are  offered  in  chemical,  electri- 
cal, and  mechanical  engineering.  There 
is  also  a  course  in  architecture.  The 
college  is  co-educational.  In  1919  there 
were  678  students  and  50  members  of 
the  faculty.  President,  E.  O.  Lovett, 
Ph.D. 

RICH,  EDMUND,  an  English  ecclesi- 
astic; born  in  Abingdon,  England,  about 
1195.  He  studied  theology  at  Paris,  af- 
terward taught  the  Aristotelian  logic 
and  scholastic  philosophy  in  Oxford,  and 
was  prebendary  and  treasurer  of  Salis- 
bury Cathedral  1219-1222.  He  preached 
the  Sixth  Crusade  in  1227,  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  1233,  and  exhib- 
ited great  energy  as  a  reformer.  His 
authority  was  superseded  by  that  of  the 
legate,  Cardinal  Otho,  and  being  unable 
to  obtain  redress  at  Rome,  he  retired  to 
France  in  1240  and  died  in  1242.  He 
was  canonized  in  1249. 

RICHARD  I.,  King  of  England,  sur- 
named  Cceur  de  Lion;  third  son  of  King 
Henry  II.  and  his  wife,  Eleanor  of  Aqui- 
taine;  born  either  at  Oxford  or  at  Wood- 
stock, Sept.  8,  1157,  but  was  brought  up 
among  the  knights  and  troubadours  of 
Poitou,  in  Aquitaine,  with  which  duchy, 
his  mother's  patrimony,  he  was  while 
still  a  child  invested  by  his  father.  In 
England  Richard  did  not  spend  in  all 
his  life  a  full  year;  after  he  became  king 
he  spent  only  26  weeks  in  his  kingdom. 
It  may  indeed  reasonably  be  doubted 
whether  he  could  speak  English.  A  fa- 
vorite of  his  unprincipled  mother,  he  was 
induced  by  her  to  join  his  brothers 
Henry  and  Geoffrey  in  their  rebellion 
(1173)  against  their  father  (see  Henry 
II.).  Henry  II.  had  his  eldest  son, 
Prince  Henry,  crowned  king  as  his  suc- 
cessor during  his  own  lifetime;  and  in 
1183  he  ordered  that  his  younger  broth- 
ers should  do  homage  to  him.  Richard 
obeyed  with  the  greatest  reluctance; 
thereupon  the  ungrateful   Prince  Henry 


at  once  picked  a  quarrel  with  him,  and 
marched  an  army  into  his  duchy  of 
Aquitaine.  King  Henry  hastened  to  the 
assistance  of  the  young  duke,  while  the 
other  brother,  Geoffrey,  sided  with  the 
prince.  But  the  sudden  sickness  and 
death  of  the  ingrate  put  an  end  to  the 
quarrel.  In  the  spring  of  1189  Richard 
was  in  his  turn  in  arms  against  his 
father.  Philip  of  France,  the  pertina- 
cious foeman  of  King  Henry,  mingled  in 
the  strife;  and  eventually  Richard  joined 
forces  with  his  father's  enemy,  did  hom- 
age to  him,  and  took  the  field  against 
the  old  king.  A  reconciliation  was  ren- 
dered more  difficult  because  of  Richard's 
jealousy  of  John,  his  father's  favorite. 

Richard  became  King  of  England,  Duke 
of  Normandy,   and   Count   of   Anjou   on 


RICHARD    I. 

July  5,  1189,  and  was  crowned  King  of 
England  on  Sept.  3,  following.  But  he 
had  already  taken  the  vows  of  the  cru- 
sader; and  besides  his  coronation,  he  had 
another  object  in  coming  to  England;  he 
wanted  to  raise  funds  for  his  crusade. 
He  effected  this  latter  purpose  in  a  brief 
space  of  time  by  selling  whatever  he 
could  get  a  purchaser  for.  About  mid- 
summer 1190  he  met  Philip  of  France 
at  the  rendezvous,  Vezelai  in  France; 
but  from  Lyons  he  made  his  way  by  a 
different  route  from  Philip  to  Messina  in 
Sicily.  Both  kings  spent  the  winter  in 
that  city,  and  their  mutual  jealousy 
came  within  a  hair's-breadth  of  a  rup- 
ture. The  throne  of  Sicily  had  just 
been  seized  by  the  Norman  Tancred,  an 
illegitimate  son  of  King  Roger,  though 
the  lawful  heir  was  Henry  of  Hohenstau- 
fen,  son  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and 
afterward  the  Emperor  Henry  VI.  More- 
over, Tancred  detained  in  custody  Jo- 
hanna, widow  of  the  late  king  (William 
the  Good)  and  sister  of  Richard  I.,  to- 
gether with  her  very  large  dowry.     But 


RICHARD    I. 


RICHARD   II. 


he  made  his  peace  with  Richard  by  giv- 
ing up  to  him  his  sister  and  her  posses- 
sions, and  by  betrothing  his  little  daugh- 
ter to  the  boy  Arthur  (son  of  Richard's 
dead  brother  Geoffrey),  whom  Richard 
now  declared  to  be  his  heir. 

On  his  way  to  Palestine  in  the  spring 
of  1191,  part  of  the  fleet  of  the  English 
king  was  driven  on  to  the  island  of  Cy- 
prus, and  the  crews  were  most  inhospit- 
ably treated  by  the  reigning  sovereign, 
Isaac  Comnenus,  a  nephew  of  the  Em- 
peror of  Byzantium,  who  had  revolted 
from  his  liege  lord.  Richard  sailed  back 
from  Rhodes,  routed  Isaac  in  battle,  de- 
posed him,  and  gave  his  crown  to  Guy 
of  Lusignan.  In  Cyprus,  too,  he  married 
Berengaria  of  Navarre,  whom  his  mother 
had  brought  to  him  at  Messina.  At  last, 
on  June  8,  the  English  king  landed  near 
Acre,  and  shortly  afterward  that  strong- 
hold surrendered,  the  siege  having  lasted 
two  years.  Richard  took  his  full  share 
of  the  jealousies,  animosities,  and  dis- 
agreements, though  not  of  the  treacher- 
ies, that  made  the  Christian  crusading 
host  a  hotbed  of  commotion.  The  glori- 
ous exploits  of  Richard  the  Lion-hearted 
— his  march  to  Joppa  along  the  seashore, 
his  approach  on  Jerusalem  at  Christmas, 
his  capture  of  the  fortresses  in  the  S. 
of  Palestine,  his  second  advance  in  the 
summer  of  1192  on  Jerusalem  (the  city 
he  never  beheld),  and  his  relief  of  Joppa 
— made  his  name  ring  throughout  the 
East  and  excited  the  wonder  and  admi- 
ration of  Christendom,  but  brought  no 
real  advantage  to  the  crusading  cause. 

Richard,  in  September,  concluded  a 
peace  with  Saladin  for  three  years,  three 
months,  and  three  days,  and  in  his  im- 
pulsive, impatient  way  started  off  home 
alone,  without  waiting  for  his  army  and 
fleet.  A  storm  shipwrecked  him  near 
the  N.  end  of  the  Adriatic.  In  disguise 
he  began  to  make  his  way  through  the 
dominions  of  his  bitter  enemy,  the  Arch- 
duke of  Austria.  He  was  recognized, 
seized,  and  handed  over  to  the  Emperor 
Henry  VI.  (March,  1193).  The  emperor 
demanded  a  heavy  ransom  for  his  re- 
lease, but  promised  to  give  him  the  king- 
dom of  Aries  in  addition  to  his  liberty. 
Richard's  loyal  subjects  raised  the 
money;  and  greatly  to  the  chagrin  of 
Philip  of  France  and  Richard's  brother 
John,  the  captive  king  returned  home 
(March   13,   1194). 

In  England  in  the  meantime  Long- 
champ  had  made  himself  so  unpopular 
that  Richard  had  been  obliged  to  super- 
sede him,  appointing  in  his  place  Walter 
of  Coutances,  Archbishop  of  Rouen.  It 
was  John,  however,  who  exercised  the 
greatest  power  in  the  realm.  And  though 
he  used  his  utmost  endeavors  to  prevent 
Richard's  return  from  his  captivity,  yet 


Richard  generously  forgave  him.  After 
distributing  judicious  rewards  and  pun- 
ishments, raising  what  money  he  could, 
making  arrangements  for  the  governance 
of  the  kingdom,  and  being  crowned  again 
— the  emperor  is  said  to  have  forced  his 
captive  to  resign  his  crown  and  take  it 
back  as  a  fief  of  the  empire — Richard 
proceeded  to  France,  and  spent  the  rest 
of  his  life  there,  warring  against  Philip. 
England  was  governed  in  his  absence  by 
Hubert  Walter,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, who  by  the  measures  he  took  to 
raise  the  vast  sums  demanded  by  his 
master  trained  the  English  people  in 
habits  of  self-government.  The  most  im- 
portant constitutional  advances  made 
under  Hubert's  rule  were  the  formula- 
tion of  the  methods  for  electing  the 
county  grand  juries  and  an  arrangement 
for  keeping  the  pleas  of  the  crown  by 
officers  who  may  be  regarded  as  the 
forerunners  of  the  modern  coroner.  Rich- 
ard was  shot,  on  April  7,  1199,  by  an 
archer  of  the  Viscount  of  Limoges,  while 
besieging  that  nobleman's  castle  of  Cha- 
lus-Chabrol,  and  was  buried  in  the  abbey 
church  of  Fontevraud. 

Richard  cannot  be  called  a  good  king; 
his  only  thought  of  his  subjects  was  how 
to  get  money  from  them.  He  was  not 
a  faithful  husband;  he  was  an  undutiful 
son.  Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  he  treated 
his  perfidious  brother  John  in  the  most 
forgiving  spirit,  and  was  not  incapable 
of  noble  and  generous  acts.  His  im- 
pulsive, hot-headed  temperament  made 
him  at  times  cruel,  but  never  vindictive. 
He  was  an  adventurer,  with  a  passion- 
ate love  for  contention  and  strife;  he 
fought  for  warlike  glory,  not  for  victory 
or  real  advantage;  he  had  all  the  per- 
sonal courage  and  self-confidence  of  the 
born  warrior.  A  fair  scholar,  he  also 
had  the  knack  of  writing  verses,  and  has 
been  called  a  poet. 

RICHARD  II.,  King  of  England;  son 
of  the  Black  Prince  and  Joanna  of  Kent; 
born  in  Bordeaux,  Jan.  6,  1367;  was  ac- 
knowledged by  Parliament  heir  to  the 
crown  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1376, 
and  succeeded  his  grandfather,  Edward 
III.,  on  June  21,  1377.  The  government 
was  entrusted  to  a  council  of  12,  from 
which  the  king's  uncles,  John  of  Gaunt, 
Duke  of  Lancaster,  Edmund,  Earl  of 
Cambridge,  and  Thomas,  Earl  of  Buck- 
ingham (afterward  Duke  of  Gloucester), 
were  excluded.  Nevertheless  the  central 
figure  during  the  early  years  of  this 
reign,  as  he  had  been  during  the  last 
years  of  the  preceding  reign,  was  John 
of  Gaunt,  whose  overreaching  ambition 
and  inability  were  a  fruitful  source  of 
disquietude.  He  was  on  bad  terms  with 
the  clergy  and  with  the  Londoners,  and 


RICHARD    II. 


34 


RICHARD   II. 


was  viewed  with  great  suspicion  by  the 
king  and  the  commons;  yet  he  was  the 
most  powerful  man  in  the  kingdom,  hav- 
ing at  his  back  the  nobles  and  to  some 
extent  the  Lollards.  War  was  going  on 
with  France,  but  in  a  very  weak  and 
desultory  fashion;  the  French  ravaged 
the  S.  coast  at  the  time  of  Edward  III.'s 
death,  and  truces  were  constantly  being 
made  for  short  durations.  But  this  war 
cost  money;  so  too  did  the  extravagance 
of  the  court;  and  more  was  absorbed  or 
wasted  by  the  government,  for  which 
John  of  Gaunt  was  held  by  the  nation 
at  large  to  be  mainly  responsible.  Con- 
sequently taxation  was  heavy. 

The  imposition  of  a  graduated  poll- 
tax  in  1380  provoked  popular  risings, 
directed  principally  against  the  gentry 
and  land-holders,  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  kingdom,  at  Whitsuntide  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  The  insurgents  destroyed 
the  parks,  attacked  the  manor  houses, 
burned  the  court-rolls,  and  massacred  the 
lawyers  who  had  charge  of  them.  The 
men  of  Essex  and  Kent,  to  the  number 
of  100,000,  marched  on  London.  The 
former  body,  whom  the  king  met  at  Mile 
End  on  June  14,  consented  to  return 
home  when  the  young  monarch  assured 
them  he  would  grant  their  requests,  and 
take  measures  to  liberate  the  villeins 
from  bondage  and  to  commute  their  per- 
sonal services  into  fixed  money  rents. 
The  men  of  Kent,  after  destroying  the 
Savoy  (the  Duke  of  Lancaster's  palace), 
burning  Temple  Bar,  opening  the  pris- 
ons, and  breaking  into  the  Tower  and 
slaying  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
met  the  king  at  Smithfield  (15th).  Dur- 
ing the  negotiations,  William  Walworth, 
the  mayor  of  London,  struck  down  Wat 
Tyler,  the  leader  of  the  insurgents.  The 
king  immediately  rode  among  them,  ex- 
claiming he  would  be  their  leader,  and 
granted  them  the  concessions  they  asked, 
and  the  risings  collapsed. 

The  causes  of  this  wide-spread  and 
simultaneous  uprising  on  the  part  of  the 
mass  of  the  rural  population  may  be 
summarized  as  follows:  There  had  been 
long  continuance  of  heavy  taxation;  the 
villeins  resented  the  re-imposition  since 
the  black  death  of  personal  services,  and 
were  anxious  to  become  tenants  of  their 
little  farms  at  a  fixed  rental;  the  free 
tillers  of  the  soil  had  formed  themselves 
into  associations  to  defeat  the  Statute  of 
Laborers  (1349),  which  fixed  the  maxi- 
mum and  minimum  of  wages;  the  Lol- 
lard or  Wyclifite  preachers  were  de- 
nouncing the  idleness  and  vices  of  the 
regular  clergy,  and  they  and  others  (as 
John  Ball)  were  promulgating  social 
doctrines  calculated  to  make  the  _  com- 
mon people  discontented  with  their  lot 
and    hostile    to    the    landholders.      From 


the  fact  that  the  insurgents  directed 
their  enmity  against  himself  and  the 
advisers  of  the  king,  John  of  Gaunt  saw 
that  he  could  never  hope  to  succeed  in 
his  ambitious  schemes  in  England;  and 
from  this  time  he  kept  very  much  in  the 
background,  till,  in  1386,  he  carried  him- 
self and  his  restless  plottings  to  Spain 
and  Gascony.  Richard,  in  1390,  made 
him  Duke  of  Aquitaine  for  life.  In  1385 
Richard  invaded  Scotland,  and  took  Ed- 
inburgh and  burned  it;  but,  not  encoun- 
tering the  Scotch,  returned  home. 

About  the  same  year  another  coalition 
of  the  baronial  party,  headed  by  Thomas 
of  Woodstock,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  began 
to  oppose  the  king  and  his  chosen  friends. 
They  impeached  several  of  them  before 
the  Merciless  Parliament  (1388),  and 
secured  convictions  and  executions.  But 
on  May  3,  1389,  Richard  suddenly  de- 
clared himself  of  age,  and  proceeded  to 
govern  on  his  own  responsibility.  For 
eight  years  he  ruled  as  a  moderate  con- 
stitutional monarch,  and  the  country  en- 
joyed peace — hostilities  with  France  were 
not  renewed  after  1388 — and  was  fairly 
prosperous.  But  in  1394  Richard's  first 
wife,  Anne  of  Bohemia,  whom  he  had 
wedded  in  1382,  died,  and  two  years 
later  he  married  Isabella,  daughter  of 
Charles  VI.  of  France,  a  girl  of  eight. 
From  that  time  he  seems  to  have  adopt- 
ed very  largely  French  tastes,  manners, 
and  ideas.  At  all  events,  in  the  Parlia- 
ment of  1397  he  began  to  assert  the  pre- 
tensions of  an  absolute  monarch.  On 
July  8  he  had  Gloucester,  Arundel,  and 
Warwick  arrested  on  the  charge  of  con- 
spiring against  the  crown.  Arundel  was 
beheaded;  Gloucester  was  sent  a  pris- 
oner to  Calais,  and  died  there  in  prison, 
probably  murdered,  a  fortnight  after  his 
arrest;  and  Warwick  was  banished  to 
the  Isle  of  Man.  Thomas  Arundel,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  was  also  banished. 
In  the  following  year  an  obsequious  Par- 
liament granted  to  the  king  the  subsidy 
on  wool  for  life,  and  delegated  all  its 
authority  and  power  to  a  commission  of 
18  members,  all  supporters  of  the  king. 

Richard  soon  aroused  the  slumbering 
discontent  of  his  subjects  by  his  unjust 
methods  of  raising  money,  principally  by 
means  of  forced  loans,  and  by  his  arbi- 
trary and  despotic  rule.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  1398  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  and 
the  Duke  of  Hereford  (Henry,  son  of 
John  of  Gaunt)  were  accused  to  the  king 
of  having  spoken  treason  against  him. 
Richard  banished  them — Norfolk  for  life 
and  Hereford  for  10  years.  In  January, 
1399,  John  of  Gaunt  died,  and  Hereford 
succeeded  him  as  Duke  of  Lancaster; 
but  the  king  refused  to  give  up  to  the 
exile  the  lands  of  his  dead  father.  Rich- 
ard in  May  went  over  to  Ireland,  which 


RICHARD    III. 


35 


RICHARx)    III. 


he  had  previously  visited  at  the  head 
of  a  military  expedition  in  1394-1395. 
Henry  of  Lancaster  seized  on  the  op- 
portunity afforded  by  the  king's  absence, 
and  landed  on  July  4  (see  Henry  IV.). 
Richard  at  once  hurried  back,  but  had 
neither  heart  nor  power  to  withstand  his 
cousin.  He  submitted  to  Lancaster  at 
Flint,  Aug.  19,  was  carried  to  London, 
and  placed  in  the  Tower.  On  Sept.  29 
he  resigned  the  crown,  and  on  the  fol- 
lowing day  was  likewise  deposed  by  the 
Parliament,  which  chose  Henry  of  Lan- 
caster as  his  successor. 

A  month  after  his  resignation  Richard 
was  condemned  to  perpetual  imprison- 
ment by  Parliament.  His  fate  is  wrapped 
in  obscurity,  beyond  the  almost  certaia 
fact  that  he  met  a  violent  death,  for 
which  it  is  not  altogether  clear  that 
Henry  IV.  was  responsible.  A  month 
after  Henry's  accession  some  noblemen 
of  Richard's  party  formed  a  conspiracy 
to  restore  Richard  to  the  throne,  but 
their  purpose  was  discovered.  No  doubt 
this  decided  the  fate  of  Richard;  at  all 
events,  authentic  history  knows  nothing 
more  about  him  from  this  time. 

RICHARD  III.,  King  of  England;  son 
of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  a  descendant 
of  Edmund,  Duke  of  York,  fifth  son  of 
Edward  III.;  born  in  Fotheringay  Cas- 
tle, Oct.  2,  1452.  After  the  defeat  and 
death  of  his  father  in  1460  he  was  sent, 
along  with  his  brother  George,  to 
Utrecht  for  safety,  but  returned  to 
England  after  his  eldest  brother  Ed- 
ward won  the  crown  (1461).  Two  years 
later  he  was  created  Duke  of  Glouces- 
ter, his  brother  George  being  made  Duke 
of  Clarence.  In  the  final  struggle  be- 
tween the  York  and  Lancaster  factions 
he  took  an  active  share;  he  led  the  van 
at  the  battle  of  Barnet,  rendered  val- 
uable aid  in  winning  the  fight  of  Tewkes- 
bury, and  is  believed,  on  fairly  good 
evidence,  to  have  had  a  hand  in  the  mur- 
der of  Prince  Edward,  son  of  Henry 
VI.,  who  was  slain  after  that  battle. 
All  through  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  he 
gave  valuable  and  faithful  support  to 
his  brother,  and  was  rewarded  by  him 
with  every  confidence,  and  with  numer- 
ous high  offices.  He  was  believed  to 
have  been  concerned  in  the  murder  of 
Henry  VI.  in  the  Tower  on  May  21, 
1471 ;  but  the  evidence,  though  strongly 
pointing  in  that  direction,  is  not  con- 
clusive. 

In  the  following  year  he  married 
Anne,  the  younger  daughter  of  War- 
wick the  Kingmaker,  who  had  been  be- 
trothed to  the  murdered  Prince  Edward. 
This  alliance  was  greatly  resented  by 
Clarence,  who  had  married  the  elder 
sister,  and  wished  to  keep  all  of  War- 


wick's vast  possessions  in  his  own  hands. 
Clarence  quarreled,  too,  with  King  Ed- 
ward, who  in  1478  procured  his  impeach- 
ment by  Parliament.  The  refractory 
duke  was  put  to  death  privately  in  the 
Tower  on  Feb.  18.  Of  this  judicial  mur- 
der Gloucester  is  likewise  accused;  but 
the  evidence  for  his  complicity  is  very 
slight.  In  1482  he  was  put  in  command 
of  the  army  that  invaded  Scotland. 
Along  with  the  Duke  of  Albany  he  en- 
tered Edinburgh;  but  his  one  warlike 
achievement  was  the  capture  of  Berwick 
town  and  castle.  In  the  following  year, 
while  still  in  Yorkshire,  he  heard  of 
King    Edward's     death    (April    9),   and 


RICHARD    III. 

learned  that  he  himself  had  been  named 
guardian  and  protector  of  his  son  and 
heir,  Edward  V.,  then  aged  13.  On  his 
way  S.  the  Protector  arrested  Earl  Riv- 
ers and  Lord  Richard  Grey,  the  uncle 
and  step-brother  of  the  young  king,  and 
confined  them  in  his  castles.  All  who 
were  of  the  old  nobility,  and  resented 
the  rise  of  the  Woodvilles,  rallied  round 
Richard.  From  this  time  Richard  of 
Gloucester  schemed  for  the  crown,  and 
by  craft,  boldness,  and  utter  unscrupu- 
lousness  carried  his  project  into  execu- 
tion. 

The  arrest  of  Rivers  and  Grey  had 
put  the  king  entirely  into  his  hands,  for 
the  queen-mother  had  hastened  to  take 
sanctuary  at  Westminster.  On  June  13 
Gloucester  suddenly  accused  Lord  Hast- 
ings, an  influential  member  of  the  coun- 
cil, of  treason,  arrested  him  there  and 
then,  and  had  him  instantly  beheaded. 
The  "crime"  for  which  Hastings  died 
was  changing  sides  from  Richard  to  the 
Woodville  party.  On  June  16  the  queen- 
dowager  was  induced  to  give   'ip,  at  the 


RICHARD    III. 


36 


RICHARD    OF    CORNWALL 


demand  of  Richard  and  the  council,  her 
other  son,  the  little  Duke  of  York.  He 
was  put  into  the  Tower  to  keep  his 
brother,  the  king,  company.  On  the 
Sunday  following  (22d)  a  certain  Dr. 
Shaw  preached  at  St.  Paul's  cross  that 
the  children  of  Edward  IV.  were  ille- 
gitimate, nay,  that  Edward  IV.  himself 
and  his  brother  Clarence  were  both  born 
out  of  lawful  wedlock.  Three  days  later 
the  Parliament  desired  Richard  to  as- 
sume the  crown;  on  the  next  day  (June 
26,  1483)  he  declared  himself  king,  and 
on  July  6  was  crowned  in  state  by  Car- 
dinal Bourchier.  Rivers  and  Grey  were 
executed  at  Pontefract  on  June  25.  In 
point  of  form  Richard  was  a  duly  elected 
king,  and  Edward  V.  had  not  yet  been 
crowned;  all  the  same,  his  accession  was 
de  facto  a  usurpation.  Richard's  prin- 
cipal supporter  all  through,  from  the 
date  of  Edward  IV. 's  death,  had  been 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  a  descendant 
of  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  who  was  priv- 
ily slain  at  Calais  when  Richard  II.  was 
king. 

Shortly  after  his  coronation  Richard 
set  out  on  a  tour  through  the  kingdom, 
and  during  the  course  of  it  he  was  sur- 
prised by  the  intelligence  that  Bucking- 
ham was  plotting  with  the  friends  of 
Henry  Tudor,  Earl  of  Richmond  (after- 
ward Henry  VII.),  the  chief  representa- 
tive of  the  House  of  Lancaster,  to  effect 
his  overthrow  and  proclaim  Henry  king. 
But  the  pttempted  rising  soon  collapsed, 
and  Buckingham  was  taken  and  (Nov.  2, 
1484)  executed.  It  seems  to  have  been 
shortly  before  this  that  Richard  con- 
trived the  murder  of  his  nephews  in  the 
Tower.  The  deed  was  done  so  secretly 
by  Sir  James  Tyrrell,  one  of  Richard's 
devoted  followers,  and  a  couple  of  hire- 
lings, that  the  nation  did  not  know  of  it 
till  some  time  after   (see  Edward  V.). 

During  the  remainder  of  his  short 
reign  Richard  directed  all  his  energies 
to  baffling  the  plans  of  Richmond,  and 
to  making  preparations  to  meet  the  inva- 
sion which  he  saw  to  be  imminent.  But 
he  was  rapidly  losing  his  hold  on  the 
nation,  alarming  and  horrifying  it  by 
his  crimes  and  tyrannous  acts.  Henry 
of  Richmond  at  length  landed  at  Milford 
Haven  on  Aug.  7,  1485.  Richard  met 
him  at  Bosworth  in  Leicestershire  on  the 
22d,  and  there  lost  his  kingdom  and  his 
life,  fighting  bravely  like  a  king,  crown 
on  head,  in  the  midst  of  his  foes  (see 
Henry  VII.).  The  body  of  the  slain 
king  was  subjected  to  great  indignities, 
carried  to  Leicester,  and  there,  after  be- 
ing exposed  for  two  days,  was  buried  in 
the  Grey  Friars  churchyard. 

Richard's  was  a  strangely  mixed  char- 
acter. Its  ruling  passion  was  an  inor- 
dinate   craving    for    power,    to    gratify 


which  he  stopped  at  no  crime,  however 
heinous.  He  possessed  many  of  the  typi- 
cal qualities  of  the  best  of  the  Plantag- 
enets — a  skilful  soldier,  of  great  ability 
and  energy,  brave,  bold,  reckless  of  con- 
sequences, fond  of  display,  yet  not  in- 
capable of  nobler  impulses. 

He  unquestionably  had  great  charm  of 
manner,  and  knew  how  to  inspire  confi- 
dence even  in  those  who  had  the  best 
reasons  for  distrusting  him.  He  was 
liberal,  too,  and,  where  his  own  personal 
ambition  was  not  directly  concerned,  just 
and  generous.  He  was  also  swayed  by  a 
lively  sense  of  divine  justice,  and  more 
than  one  religious  institution  owed  its 
foundation  to  his  bitter  remorse  for  the 
murder  of  his  nephews.  In  person 
Richard  was  short  of  stature  and  slight 
of  build,  with  one  shoulder  slightly  higher 
than  the  other;  but  there  is  no  evidence 
that  he  was  a  hunchback. 

RICHARD  OF  CIRENCESTER,  or 
RICARDUS  CORINENSIS,  a  monkish 
chronicler  of  the  14th  century,  sometimes 
called  the  Monk  of  Westminster.  He 
entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  St. 
Peter's,  Westminster,  England,  residing 
there  during  the  remainder  of  his  life; 
in  1391  he  visited  Rome.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  Latin  history  of  England  to 
the  year  1348.  The  so-called  Itinerary 
of  Richard  "On  the  Situation  of  Britain" 
(1758),  formerly  much  referred  to  as 
an  authority  on  Roman  Britain,  was  a 
forgery  perpetrated  by  Dr.  C.  J.  Ber- 
tram, of  Copenhagen.  Richard  died  in 
his  monastery  about  1401. 

RICHARD  OF  CORNWALL,  Em- 
peror of  Germany;  second  son  of  John, 
King  of  England;  born  Jan.  5,  1209. 
In  1225-1226  he  and  his  uncle,  William 
of  Salisbury,  commanded  an  expedition 
which  recovered  Gascony,  and  the  next 
year  he  received  Cornwall  as  the  result 
of  a  rising  of  the  earls  to  compel  the 
king,  Henry  III.,  to  make  provision  for 
him.  He  managed  his  money  matters 
well,  and  his  wealth,  as  well  as  his  pru- 
dence^ saved  Henry  in  many  an  impend- 
ing crisis.  For  some  years  he  acted  with 
the  English  barons,  to  many  of  whom  he 
was  closely  related  by  his  marriage  with 
Isabel,  Countess  of  Gloucester,  daughter 
of  the  Earl  of  Pembroke.  In  1232  he 
was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  opposition 
to  Hubert  de  Burgh;  and  in  1238  he 
headed  an  armed  rising  provoked  by  the 
king's  secret  marriage  of  his  sister  to 
Simon  de  Montfort.  But  Richard  was 
still  heir  to  the  throne,  and  the  articles 
which  Henry  was  prepared  to  sign,  and 
which  dismissed  his  foreign  advisers, 
appeared  to  the  earl  to  bind  the  king's 
hands  too  closely,  and  he  drew  back.  In 
1240-1241  Richard  was  away  on  a  cru- 


RICHARDS 


37 


RICHARDS 


sade,  and  the  next  year  he  was  with  his 
brother  in  Gascony;  and  in  1243  he 
married  Sancha  of  Provence,  sister  of 
Queen  Eleanor,  and  this  second  marriage 
drew  him  away  from  the  baronage.  In 
1252  he  refused  the  Pope's  offer  to  sell 
him  the  crown  of  Sicily;  but  in  1257 
he  was  elected  by  a  majority  titular 
king  of  the  Romans,  and  was  soon  after- 
ward crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle ;  and 
he  was  skilful  enough  to  maintain  a  cer- 
tain hold  on  Germany,  lavishing  his 
wealth  to  maintain  his  own  position  and 
the  dignity  of  the  empire.  In  the  great 
struggle  which  took  place  between  Henry 
III.  and  his  nobles  Richard  at  first  acted 
as  a  peacemaker.  Subsequently,  how- 
ever, he  sided  with  his  brother  against 
Simon  de  Montfort;  and  he  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Lewes,  and  imprisoned  for  a 
year,  till  the  battle  of  Evesham  (1265) 
set  him  free.  In  1267  he  was  a  third 
time  married,  to  Beatrice,  niece  of  the 
Elector  of  Cologne.  Richard  died  at 
Kirkham,  April  2,  1272,  broken-hearted 
at  the  loss  of  his  eldest  son,  Henry,  who 
was  murdered  at  Viterbo  by  the  Mont- 
forts,  and  immortalized  by  Dante.  Two 
other  sons  died  also  without  issue. 

RICHARDS,  BRINLEY,  a  British 
pianist  and  composer;  born  in  Carmar- 
then, Wales,  in  1819;  began  to  study 
music  at  the  Royal  Academy  in  London 
about  1835;  and  on  the  completion  of 
his  studies  soon  won  a  good  position  in 
London  as  a  pianist  and  teacher  of  mu- 
sic. He  was  for  many  years  a  profes- 
sor of  the  Royal  Academy.  His  compo- 
sitions for  sacred  and  part  songs  and 
for  the  pianoforte  won  great  popularity, 
especially  his  "God  Bless  the  Prince  of 
Wales."  Richards  bestowed  much  atten- 
tion on  the  study  and  encouragement  of 
Welsh  music.     He  died  May  1,  1865. 

RICHARDS,  JOSEPH  WILLIAM,  an 
American  metallurgist,  born  in  Oldbury, 
England,  in  1864.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Central  High  School  of  Philadelphia, 
the  Lehigh  University,  University  of 
Heidelberg,  and  the  Mining  Academy  of 
Freiberg.  Beginning  with  1887  he  was 
successively  instructor,  assistant  profes- 
sor, acting  professor,  and  professor  of 
metallurgy  at  Lehigh  University.  From 
1907  to  1910  he  was  also  professor  of 
electro-chemistry  at  the  Franklin  Insti- 
tute of  Philadelphia.  He  frequently 
acted  as  legal  expert  in  chemical  and 
metallurgical  cases.  During  the  World 
War  he  was  a  member  of  the  United 
States  Navy  Consulting  Board.  He  was 
a  member,  and  at  times  an  officer,  of 
many  domestic  and  foreign  scientific  so- 
cieties. Among  his  publications  are 
"Aluminium"       (1887) ;      "Metallurgical 


Calculations"      (1906-7) ;      "Non-ferrous 
Metals"   (1908),  etc. 

RICHARDS,     LAURA     ELIZABETH, 

an  American  writer  of  juvenile  books, 
daughter  of  Julia  Ward  Howe;  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  in  1850.  She  published 
a  great  number  of  children's  books, 
among  them:  "Five  Mice"  (1880);  "Our 
Baby's  Favorite"  (1881);  "Tell-Tale 
from  Hill  and  Dale"  (1886);  and  "To- 
to's  Merry  Winter"  (1887) ;  "Captain 
January"  (1890)  ;  "Nautilus"  (1895)  ; 
"Love  and  Rocks"  (1898);  "Snow  White" 
(1900)  ;  "Letters  and  Journals  of  Sam- 
uel Bridley  Howe"  (1906-1909);  "Two 
Noble  Lives"  (1911);  "Julia  Ward 
Howe"  (1915)  (with  her  sister  Maude 
Howe  Elliott).  "Daughter  of  Jehu" 
(1918);   "Joan  of  Arc"    (1919). 

RICHARDS,  THEODORE  WILLIAM, 
an  American  chemist,  born  at  German- 
town,  Pa.,  in  1868.  He  was  educated  at 
Haverford  College,  and  the  universities 
of  Gottingen  and  Leipzig,  and  received 
many  honorary  degrees  from  many  Amer- 
ican and  foreign  universities.  From  1894 
to  1901  he  was  assistant  professor  and 
after  that,  professor  of  chemistry,  at 
Harvard  University.  From  1903  to  1911 
he  was  chairman  of  the  chemical  depart- 
ment of  this  institution  and  in  1912  be- 
came director  of  the  Gibbs  Memorial 
Laboratory.  In  1907  he  served  as  ex- 
change professor  from  Harvard  at  the 
University  of  Berlin,  in  1908  he  was 
Lowell  lecturer,  and  in  1902  became  re- 
search associate  of  the  Carnegie  Institu- 
tion. During  the  World  War  he  was  a 
member  of  the  National  Research  Council 
and  consulting  chemist  of  the  Bureau  of 
Mines.  With  the  help  of  his  assistants 
he  revised  the  atomic  weights  of  many 
elements.  His  investigations  covered  im- 
portant branches  of  physical  and  inor- 
ganic chemistry,  on  which  subjects  he 
has  published  many  important  papers. 
He  was  a  member  and  at  times  an  officer 
of  numerous  American  and  foreign  sci- 
entific societies.  Besides  the  Davy  medal 
of  the  Royal  Society  (1910),  the  Faraday 
medal  of  the  Chemical  Society  (1911),  the 
Willard  Gibbs  medal  of  the  American 
Chemical  Society  (1912),  and  the  Frank- 
lin medal  of  the  Franklin  Institute  of 
Philadelphia  (1915),  he  was  also  awarded 
the  Nobel  prize  in  chemistry  in  1915. 

RICHARDS,  WILLIAM  TROST,  an 
American  landscape  and  marine  painter; 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Nov.  14,  1833. 
He  was  a  student  of  Paul  Weber  and 
later  studied  in  Europe,  at  Florence, 
Rome,  and  Paris.  From  1878  till  1880, 
he  had  a  studio  in  London,  England.  He 
was  an  honorary  member  of  the  National 
Academy.    At  the  Metropolitan  Museum, 


RICHARDSON 


RICHARDSON 


in  New  York  City,  is  a  series  of  47  water- 
color  marines  and  landscapes,  painted  by 
him  in  1871-1876.  His  "Wissahickon" 
was  on  exhibition  at  the  Centennial  Ex- 
position in  1876.  In  the  Corcoran  Art 
Gallery,  Washington,  D.  C,  is  hung  his 
"On  the  Coast  of  New  Jersey."  Among 
his  best-known  paintings  in  oil  are:  "Mid- 
summer" (1862)  ;  "Woods  in  June" 
(1864);  "Land's  End"  (1880);  "Old 
Ocean's  Gray  and  Melancholy  Waste" 
(1885).  He  died  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  Nov. 
8,  1905. 

RICHARDSON,      ABBY      SAGE,      an 

American  lecturer  and  writer  on  literary 
topics;  wife  of  Albert  Deane  Richardson; 
born  in  Massachusetts,  in  1837.  She  first 
essayed  the  stage.  Her  publications  in- 
clude: "Stories  from  Old  English  Poetry" 
(1871)  ;  "The  History  of  Our  Country  to 
1876"  (1876)  ;  "Familiar  Talks  on  Eng- 
lish Literature"  (1881)  ;  "Old  Love  Let- 
ters" (1883);  "Abelard  and  Heloise"; 
and  a  number  of  adaptations  for  the 
stage,  principally  from  the  French.  She 
died  in  Rome,  Italy,  Dec.  5,  1900. 

RICHARDSON,  BENJAMIN  WARD, 
an  English  physician;  born  in  Somerby, 
Leicestershire,  England,  in  1828;  was 
graduated  in  medicine  at  St.  Andrews 
University  in  1854.  In  1855  he  edited 
the  "Journal  of  Health";  and  he  gained 
the  Astley  Cooper  prize  by  his  treatise 
on  "The  Cause  of  the  Coagulation  of  the 
Blood,"  and  the  Fothergillian  gold  medal 
by  a  disquisition  on  the  "Diseases  of  the 
Foetus,"  in  1856.  He  originated  the  use 
of  ether  spray  for  the  local  abolition  of 
pain  in  surgical  operations,  and  intro- 
duced methylene  bichloride  as  a  general 
anaesthetic.  He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians  and  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  president  of  the  Medical 
Society  of  London.  He  published  several 
works  on  medicine  and  hygiene,  and  was 
an  earnest  sanitary  reformer.  In  1893  he 
was  knighted  and  died  in  1896. 

RICHARDSON,  HENRY  HOBSON, 
an  American  architect;  born  in  New  Or- 
leans, La.,  in  1838;  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1859;  entered  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux  Arts  in  Paris  in  1860,  where  he 
speedily  gained  a  reputation  as  a  most 
promising  pupil.  In  1865  he  returned 
to  the  United  States,  and  entered  on  a 
remarkably  successful  professional  ca- 
reer. He  designed  some  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful buildings  in  this  country,  notably 
Trinity  Church,  Boston;  the  building  of 
the  Boston  and  Albany  railroad,  at 
Springfield,  the  Albany  city  hall,  the  Buf- 
falo Lunatic  Asylum,  the  Cambridge  Law 
Schools,  and  the  new  capitol  in  Albany. 
He  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  April  28,  1886. 


RICHARDSON,  HODDEN  CHESTER, 
an  American  naval  officer,  born  at  Shamo- 
kin.  Pa.,  in  1878.  He  graduated  from  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1901 
and  from  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  in  1907.  In  1904  he  became 
assistant  naval  constructor,  and  in  1912, 
naval  constructor.  From  1915  to  1917 
he  was  a  member  and  secretary  of  the 
National  Advisory  Commission  for  Aero- 
nautics. During  the  World  War  he  ren- 
dered valuable  services  in  connection  with 
aeroplane  construction  and  in  May,  1919, 
served  as  the  pilot  of  the  NC-3  on  the 
trans-Atlantic  flight.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Society  of  Naval  Architects  and 
Marine  Engineers. 

RICHARDSON,  SIR  JOHN,  a  British 
naturalist  and  Arctic  traveler;  born  in 
Dumfries,  Scotland,  Nov.  5,  1787.  After 
studying  medicine  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  he  entered  the  royal  navy,  in 
1807,  as  assistant-surgeon.  He  served 
on  various  stations  till  1819,  and  was 
surgeon  and  naturalist  to  the  Arctic  ex- 
peditions of  1819-1822  and  1825-1827, 
under  Sir  John  Franklin,  exploring  on 
the  latter  occasion  the  shores  of  the  Arc- 
tic Ocean  between  the  Mackenzie  and  Cop- 
permine rivers.  He  wrote  "Geognostical 
Observations"  as  an  appendix  to  the 
"Narrative"  published  by  Franklin  (1829, 
London),  and  edited,  along  with  Kirby 
and  Swainson,  the  "Fauna  Boreali-Ameri- 
cana"  (4  vols.  1829-1837).  In  1838  he 
was  appointed  physician  to  the  fleet,  and 
in  1846  was  knighted.  In  March,  1848, 
he  took  charge  of  an  expedition  to  search 
for  Franklin,  and  on  his  return  pub- 
lished "The  Arctic  Searching  Expedition" 
(1851)  and  "The  Polar  Regions"  (1861). 
He  died  near  Grasmere,  England,  June 
5,  1865. 

RICHARDSON,  SAMUEL,  an  Eng- 
lish novelist;  born  in  Derbyshire,  in  1689. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  joiner.  The  man 
who  was  afterward  the  moralist  of  Salis- 
bury Court  was  as  a  boy  the  "Gravity" 
and  "Serious"  of  his  school-fellows;  the 
novelist  who  penned  the  interminable 
epistles  of  Clarissa  and  Harriet  Byron 
was  as  a  youth  the  favored  and  inde- 
fatigable amanuensis  of  half  the  girls  in 
the  neighborhood,  acquiring  in  this  artless 
office  something  of  that  strange  knowl- 
edge of  the  minuter  mechanism  of  the 
feminine  mind  which  is  so  conspicuous 
a  feature  of  his  genius.  He  says  of  him- 
self that  he  had  only  "Common  school- 
learning";  but  he  appears  to  have  been 
at  Christ's  Hospital.  In  1706,  at  the  age 
of  16,  he  was  bound  by  his  own  wish  to 
John  Wilde  of  Stationers'  Hall,  a  printer, 
with  whom  he  served  the  usual  period, 
ultimately  completing  the  orthodox  pro- 
gram   of    exemplary    apprenticeship    by 


.RICHARDSON 


39 


RICHARDSON 


marrying  his  master's  daughter.  From 
1713  to  1719  he  worked  as  a  journeyman 
printer.  In  the  latter  year  he  opened  an 
establishment  of  his  own  in  the  center, 
and  later  in  the  N.  W.  corner  (No.  11) 
of  Salisbury  Square,  then  Salisbury 
Court.  His  printing  office  and  ware- 
houses were  in  Blue  Ball  Court,  on  the 
E.  side  of  the  square. 

He  printed  more  than  one  newspaper, 
and  by  the  favor  of  Speaker  Onslow  ob- 
tained the  printing  of  the  journals  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  26  volumes  of  which 
passed  through  his  establishment.  He 
was  over  50  when  two  bookselling  friends 
invited  him  to  prepare  a  volume  of  fa- 
miliar letters  "in  a  common  style,  on  such 
subjects  as  might  be  of  use  to  those  coun- 
try readers  who  were  unable  to  indite  for 
themselves."  Hence  sprung  "Pamela," 
published  in  November,  1740.  It  consisted 
of  "a  series  of  familiar  letters  from  a 
beautiful  young  damsel  to  her  parents. 
Published  in  order  to  cultivate  the  prin- 
ciples of  virtue  and  religion  in  the  mind 
of  the  youth  of  both  sexes." 

Its  vogue,  in  a  coarser  and  robuster 
age  than  ours,  was  extraordinary.  Di- 
vines extolled  her  from  their  pulpits; 
fine  ladies  triumphantly  exhibited  her 
popular  chronicles  at  places  of  amuse- 
ment; and  in  remote  country  villages, 
when  at  last  she  was  happily  married, 
her  rustic  admirers  set  the  bells  a-ringing. 
In  February  followed  a  second  edition; 
a  third  succeeded  in  March,  and  a  fourth 
in  May.  Grub  street  fastening  promptly 
on  this  unexampled  popularity,  hastily 
put  together  for  sequel  a  "Pamela  in 
High  Life,"  which  had  the  unfortunate 
effect  of  seducing  Richardson  into  two 
supplementary  volumes,  now  forgotten; 
and  then  Henry  Fielding  produced  what 
Richardson  and  his  coterie  regarded  as 
the  "lewd  and  ungenerous  engraftment" 
of  "Joseph  Andrews." 

Eight  years  elapsed  before  Richardson 
published  another  novel — his  masterpiece : 
"Clarissa;  or  the  Adventures  of  a  Young 
Lady,"  known  generally  as  "Clarissa  Har- 
lowe."  Virtue,  in  this  performance,  was 
not  "rewarded,"  but  ruined.  The  heroine 
is  nevertheless  drawn  with  a  tenacity  of 
insight  to  which  "Pamela"  could  scarcely 
pretend;  and  the  chief  male  character, 
that  of  Lovelace,  though  more  of  an  ab- 
straction, is  scarcely  inferior. 

Haying  drawn  the  ideal  woman  in 
"Clarissa,"  Richardson  proceeded,  some 
five  years  later,  to  portray,  in  "Sir 
Charles  Grandison,"  the  perfect  man — 
"the  man  of  true  honor."  This  is  a  work 
of  much  greater  ability  than  "Pamela," 
but  still  far  below  "Clarissa."  It  has, 
moreover,  no  central  story  strong  enough 
to  reconcile  the  reader  to  the  prolix  im- 
peccability of  its  superfine  hero.    Besides 


a  solitary  essay  in  Johnson's  "Rambler" 
(No.  97),  and  the  voluminous  but  not 
very  interesting  correspondence  pub- 
lished (with  an  excellent  memoir)  by 
Mrs.  Barbauld  in  1804,  Richardson  left 
no  other  literary  remains  of  any  impor- 
tance.   In  later  life  a  nervous  habit  grew 


SAMUEL   RICHARDSON 

upon  him,  which  terminated  in  1761  by 
a  fit  of  apoplexy,  of  which  he  died.  He 
has  left  his  own  portrait  in  his  letters 
to  Lady  Bradshaigh;  but  it  might  also 
have  been  deduced  from  his  letters.  He 
was  a  sentimental,  purring,  methodical, 
well-meaning  little  man,  domesticated  and 
affectionate,  whose  fitting  environment 
was  feminine  society  of  the  sympathetic 
sort;  and  he  has  repaid  the  gentle  ca- 
resses with  which  his  worshipers  tem- 
pered the  wind  of  adverse  criticism  to  his 
sensitive  soul  by  depicting  their  sex  in 
return  with  a  patience,  a  discrimination, 
a  sustained  analysis  of  secret  spring  and 
motive  which  it  has  been  given  to  no  other 
male  author,  living  or  dead,  to  achieve. 

RICHARDSON,  WILLIAM  CUM- 
MINGS,  an  American  architect,  born  at 
Concord,  N.  H.,  in  1854.  After  studying 
architecture  at  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology  from  1873  to  1875,  he 
worked  as  an  assistant  in  various  archi- 
tectural offices  and  made  several  trips 
abroad  for  further  study.  In  1881  he  be- 
came a  member  of  a  firm  of  architects 
in  Boston,  which  soon  became  one  of  the 
leading  architectural  firms  in  the  United 
States.      He   designed  many   public   and 


RICHEBOURG 


40 


RICHELIEU 


private  structures,  most  of  them  in  New 
England,  and  including  many  of  the  most 
notable  modern  educational  buildings  of 
hat  section. 

RICHEBOURG,     JULES     EMILE,     a 

French  dramatist;  born  in  1833,  in  Meuvy, 
Haute  Marne.  In  1850  he  made  his  first 
appearance  in  Paris  and  after  a  short 
experience  in  a  commercial  house,  ob- 
tained a  place  on  the  staff  of  "Figaro." 
He  produced,  in  1862,  a  five-act  drama, 
"Nights  in  the  Place  Royale."  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  was  yet  more  successful, 
with  a  comedy  vaudeville  called  "A  Mod- 
ern Household."  His  first  successful 
novel,  "Lucienne,"  appeared  in  1858,  and 
from  that  time  he  turned  out  many  melo- 
dramatic tales.  He  became  literary  and 
dramatic  critic  of  "Le  Petit  Journal,"  a 
member  of  the  Directory  of  the  Societe 
des  Gens  de  Lettres,  and  a  knight  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.  He  died  in  Bougival, 
France,  Jan.  26,  1898. 

RICHELIEU,  ARMAND  JEAN  DU- 
PLESSIS,  CARDINAL,  DUC  DE,  a 
French  statesman;  born  of  a  noble  but 
impoverished  family  in  Paris,  Sept.  5, 1585. 


CARDINAL   RICHELIEU 

Richelieu  was  educated  for  the  army,  but 
abandoned  a  military  career  for  the 
Church,  in  order  to  keep  in  the  family 
the  bishopric  of  Lugon,  to  which  he  was 
consecrated  at  22.  Representative  of  the 
Poitou  clergy  at  the  States-general  in 
1614,  he  attracted  the  notice  of  the  queen- 


mother,  and  rose  in  1616  to  be  secretary 
at  war  and  foreign  affairs ;  but  the  down- 
fall of  Marshal  d'Ancre,  the  queen-re- 
gent's favorite,  in  April,  1617,  sent  him 
back  to  his  diocese.  At  length  in  August, 
1620,  the  queen-mother  and  the  young 
king  were  reconciled,  mainly  through  the 
agency  of  the  celebrated  Capuchin  Father 
Joseph — "l'eminenee  grise"  of  later  days, 
till  his  death  in  1638,  the  intimate  friend 
of  Richelieu.  The  latter  showed  much 
tact  and  patient  forbearance  in  his 
measures;  he  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
powerful  Due  de  Luynes,  and  in  1622  was 
named  cardinal,  in  1624  Minister  of  State. 
This  position  he  retained  to  the  end  of 
his  life,  in  spite  of  countless  court  in- 
trigues, and  ere  long  the  most  powerful 
open  and  secret  opposition  from  the  queen, 
Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  a  host  of 
minor  intriguers,  first  among  whom  was 
the  too  famous  Duchesse  de  Chevreuse. 

His  first  important  measure  was  the 
blow  to  Spain  of  an  alliance  with  Eng- 
land, cemented  by  the  betrothal  (1625) 
of  the  king's  sister,  Henrietta,  with 
Charles,  then  Prince  of  Wales.  In  the 
Valtelline  War  he  cleared  the  country  of 
the  Spanish  and  papal  troops,  but  was 
unable  to  pursue  his  advantage,  and  had 
to  submit  to  the  terms  of  the  peace  of 
Monzon  (1626).  His  next  task  was  to 
destroy  the  political  power  of  the  Hugue- 
not party.  After  a  15  months'  siege, 
which  he  conducted  in  person,  concentrat- 
ing all  his  energy  on  the  task,  the  great 
stronghold  of  La  Rochelle  was  starved 
into  submission,  Oct.  30,  1628.  He  next 
turned  to  crush  Rohan  and  the  Langue- 
doc  rebels,  and  destroyed  the  proud  walls 
of  Montauban,  last  refuge  of  Huguenot 
independence.  Early  in  1630  he  entered 
Italy  with  a  splendid  army,  himself  in 
command,  and  soon  reduced  Savoy  to  sub- 
mission. Meanwhile  he  plunged  into  dark 
and  tortuous  intrigues  with  the  Italian 
princes,  the  Pope,  and  with  the  Protes- 
tants in  the  N.  against  the  House  of 
Austria.  He  promised  a  large  subsidy  to 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  and,  through  the 
masterly  diplomacy  of  Father  Joseph  at 
the  Ratisbon  Diet  in  June,  1630,  succeeded 
in  persuading  Ferdinand  to  dismiss  Wal- 
lenstein.  The  first  treaty  of  Cherasco 
(April,  1631),  ended  the  Italian  war,  the 
second  gave  France  the  important  stra- 
tegic position  of  Pinerolo. 

Just  before  this  final  triumph  Riche- 
lieu had  successfully  surmounted  the 
greatest  danger  of  his  life — a  great  com- 
bination formed  for  his  downfall  by  the 
queen-mother,  Gaston  of  Orleans,  the 
House  of  Guise,  Bassompierre,  Crequi, 
and  the  Marillacs.  She  tried  to  bully  the 
king  by  her  violence,  but  Richelieu  fol- 
lowed his  master  to  Versailles,  and  again 
had  the  whole  power  of  the  realm  placed 


RICHELIEU 


41 


RICHELIEU 


entirely  in  his  hands.  So  ended  "the  Day 
of  Dupes"  (Nov.  11,  1630).  The  queen- 
mother  fled  to  Brussels,  Bassompierre 
went  to  the  Bastille,  Gaston  fled  to  Lor- 
raine. The  cardinal  was  now  made  duke 
and  peer,  and  Governor  of  Brittany.  Fur- 
ther intrigues  and  attempted  rebellions 
by  the  emigrant  nobles  and  governors  of 
provinces  were  crushed  with  merciless 
severity — Marillac  and  Montmorency  and 
other  nobles  were  sent  to  the  block.  Mean- 
time Gustavus  Adolphus  had  run  his  brief 
and  brilliant  course;  and  his  death  at 
Liitzen  removed  an  ally  with  whom  it 
might  have  become  difficult  to  reckon.  In 
July,  1632,  Richelieu  had  seized  the  duchy 
of  Lorraine.  He  continued  his  intrigues 
with  the  Protestants  against  Ferdinand, 
subsidizing  them  with  his  gold,  but  till 
1635  he  took  no  open  part  in  the  war. 
In  May  of  that  year,  after  completing  his 
preparations  and  concluding  a  close  alli- 
ance with  Victor  Amadeus  of  Savoy, 
Bernhard  of  Saxe-Weimar,  and  the  Dutch, 
he  declared  war  on  Spain,  and  at  once 
placed  in  the  field  an  army  of  132,000 
men.  But  his  first  efforts  were  singularly 
unsuccessful,  and  in  1636  Piccolomini  and 
the  Cardinal-Infante,  Governor  of  the 
Netherlands,  entered  Picardy,  crossed  the 
Somme,  and  threatened  Paris  itself. 

In  this  hour  of  peril  Richelieu  rose  to 
the  height  of  his  genius,  and  awoke  a  new 
and  irresistible  force  as  he  threw  him- 
self on  tbe  patriotism  of  France.  With 
30,000  foot  and  12,000  horse  he  swept 
the  enemy  out  of  Picardy,  while  his  ally 
Bernhard  drove  them  across  the  Rhine, 
and  in  1638  destroyed  the  imperial  army 
in  the  decisive  battle  of  Rheinfelden,  a 
victory  which  opened  to  him  the  gates  of 
the  key-fortress  of  Breisach.  The  unex- 
pected death  of  Bernhard  threw  the  fruit 
of  his  victories  into  the  hands  of  Riche- 
lieu, whose  policy  soon  bore  further  fruit 
in  the  disorganization  of  the  power  of 
Spain — revolts  in  Catalonia,  and  the  loss 
of  Portugal;  the  victories  of  Wolfen- 
biittel  (1642)  and  Kemp  ten  (1642)  over 
the  Imperialists  in  Germany;  and  at 
length  in  1641  in  Savoy  also  in  the  ascen- 
dency of  the  French  party.  Another  tri- 
umph that  same  year  was  the  speedy  col- 
lapse of  the  Imperialist  invasion  in  the 
N.  by  the  Count  of  Soissons,  who  perished 
in  the  first  battle. 

The  hatred  of  the  great  French  nobles 
to  his  rule  had  never  slumbered,  however, 
and  Richelieu  found  safety  alone  in  the 
king's  sense  of  his  own  helplessness  with- 
out him.  The  last  conspiracy  against  him 
was  that  of  the  grand-equerry,  the  young 
Cinq-Mars,  whose  intrigues  with  Gaston, 
the  Duke  of  Bouillon,  and  the  Spanish 
court  were  soon  revealed  to  the  cardinal, 
the  center  of  a  network  of  espionage 
which  covered  the  whole  of  France.   When 


the  hour  was  ripe  he  placed  in  the  king's 
hands  at  Tarascon  proofs  of  the  traitor- 
ous plot  with  Spain,  and  was  given  full 
powers  as  lieutenant-general  of  the  realm. 
Cinq-Mars  and  De  Thou  were  at  once  ar- 
rested, and  the  wretched  coward,  Gaston 
of  Orleans,  hastened  after  his  kind  to  buy 
his  own  security  by  betraying  his  accom- 
plices. Cinq-Mars  and  De  Thou  were  exe- 
cuted at  Lyons  in  the  autumn  of  1642. 
But  the  great  minister  was  himself  dying 
in  the  hour  of  his  greatest  triumphs. 
He  faced  the  inevitable  at  last  with  calm 
tranquillity — when  the  priest  bade  him 
forgive  his  enemies,  he  made  answer,  "I 
have  never  had  any  other  enemies  than 
the  State's."  He  died  Dec.  4,  1642,  be- 
queathing Mazarin  to  the  king  as  his 
successor. 

Richelieu  built  up  the  power  of  the 
French  crown,  he  achieved  for  France  a 
preponderance  in  Europe,  and  throughout 
life  he  moved  onward  to  his  goal  with  the 
strongest  tenacity  of  purpose,  unmoved 
either  by  fear  or  pity.  He  destroyed  the 
local  liberties  of  France,  and  crushed 
every  element  of  constitutional  govern- 
ment, and  his  policy  overwhelmed  the  citi- 
zens with  taxation  and  made  waste  places 
some  of  her  fairest  provinces  and  most 
thriving  towns.  Our  judgment  of  him 
will  always  differ  according  as  we  ex- 
amine his  end  or  his  means — the  public 
or  the  private  man.  He  never  sacrificed 
to  personal  ambition  the  interests  of  his 
country  as  these  seemed  to  himself,  but 
he  often  forgot  in  his  methods  the  laws 
of  morality  and  humanity. 

The  weakest  point  in  Richelieu's  char- 
acter was  his  literary  ambition  and  the 
extraordinary  pains  he  took  to  construct 
a  literary  reputation.  His  own  plays,  for 
the  fate  of  which  he  trembled  with  anx- 
iety, sleep  in  safe  oblivion,  but  his  "Mem- 
oirs" are  still  read  with  interest.  He 
founded  the  French  Academy.  His  Cor- 
respondence and  State  Papers,  edited  by 
d'Avenel,  fill  eight  volumes  of  the  "Col- 
lection de  Documents  inedits  sur  l'Histoire 
de  France"  (1853-1877). 

RICHELIEU,  LOUIS  FRANCOIS  AR- 
MAND  DU  PLESSIS,  DUC'  DE,  a 
Marshal  of  France,  descended  from  the 
same  family  as  the  Cardinal;  born  in 
1696.  After  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.,  he 
was  admitted  into  the  court  of  the  Re- 
gent; the  Due  d'Orleans  and  he  largely 
participated  in  its  profligacy.  He  was 
sent  to  the  Bastille  in  1716,  for  fighting 
a  duel  with  the  Comte  de  Gace,  and  again 
in  1719,  as  an  accomplice  with  the  Span- 
ish ambassador  in  a  conspiracy  against 
the  Regent.  He  distinguished  himself 
under  Villars,  and  afterward  at  Kehl, 
Philipsburg,  Dettingen,  and  Fontenoy; 
conquered   Minorca,  forced   the   Duke   of 


RICHEPIN 


42 


RICHMOND 


Cumberland  to  submit  to  the  capitulation 
of  Klosterseven,  and  devastated  the  elec- 
torate of  Hanover.  In  1781,  he  obtained 
the  rank  of  dean  of  the  French  marshals ; 
and  he  concluded  his  long  career,  varied 
with  acts  of  heroism  and  villainy,  in 
1788. 

RICHEPIN,  JEAN,  a  French  poet  and 
novelist;  born  in  Medeah,  Algiers,  Feb. 
4,  1849.  He  first  attracted  attention  by 
his  volume  of  poems  "The  Song  of  the 
Beggar"  (1876),  which  sent  him  to  prison 
where  he  wrote  "Curious  Deaths"  (1887). 
A  most  audacious  writer,  he  was  faithful 
to  his  principles,  or  the  lack  of  them. 
They  include:  "Caresses"  (1877);  "Blas- 
phemies" (1884);  and  "The  Sea"  (1886), 
in  verse;  "Mme.  Andre"  (1878);  "Brave 
Men"  (1888)  ;  "The  Cadet"  (1890)  ;  "La 
route  d'emeraude"  (1909)  ;  the  dramas 
"Monsieur  Scapin"  (1886);  "The  Fili- 
buster" (1888)  ;  and  "By  the  Sword" 
(1892).  He  was  elected  to  the  French 
Academy  in  1908. 

RICHMOND,  a  city  of  California,  in 
Contra  Costa  co.  It  is  on  the  Atchison, 
Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  and  the  Southern 
Pacific  railroads.  Its  situation  on  the 
west  side  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  with  a 
frontage  of  6  miles  of  deep  water,  make 
it  an  excellent  shipping  point.  It  is  the 
center  of  the  oil  region  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  is  the  terminus  of  the  Standard 
Oil  pipe  lines.  It  contains  large  oil  re- 
fineries. Its  other  industries  include  rail- 
way repair  shops,  pipe  and  steel  works, 
porcelain  factories,  brick  works,  foun- 
dries, stone  quarries,  etc.  The  city  has  a 
park,  a  library,  excellent  school  buildings, 
and  a  city  hall.  Pop.  (1910)  6,802; 
(1920)    16,843. 

RICHMOND,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Wayne  co.,  Ind. ;  on  the  Whitewater 
river,  and  on  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
of  Indiana,  the  Grand  Rapids  and  In- 
diana, the  Ohio  Electric,  and  the  Pitts- 
burgh, Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis 
railroads;  69  miles  E.  of  Indianapolis. 
The  Friends  have  the  institutions,  Earl- 
ham  College  and  Friends'  Academy.  The 
city  is  also  the  place  of  the  Yearly  Meet- 
ing of  the  Orthodox  Friends  of  Indiana. 
It  has  electric  street  railroads,  gas  and 
electric  lights,  waterworks,  State  Hospi- 
tal for  the  Insane,  Reid  Memorial  Hos- 
pital, a  high  school,  National  and  private 
banks,  and  a  number  of  daily,  weekly, 
and  monthly  periodicals.  Richmond  has 
many  industries,  including  flour  and  lum- 
ber mills,  and  manufactories  of  clothing, 
paper  bags,  paper,  pianos,  tile,  automo- 
biles, office  furniture,  desks,  church  furni- 
ture, boilers,  traction  engines,  steam 
engines,  carriages  and  wagons,  bicycles, 
lawn  mowers,  plows,  threshing  machines, 


grain  drills,  etc.  The  city  was  founded 
by  a  colony  of  Friends  in  1815.  Pop. 
(1910)    22,324;    (1920)  26,765. 

RICHMOND,  county-seat  of  Madison 
co.,  Ky.;  25  miles  S.  E.  of  Lexington. 
It  is  famous  as  the  scene  of  one  of  the 
fiercest  battles  of  the  Civil  War.  The 
Confederate  general,  E.  Kirby  Smith,  in 
command  of  18,000  troops,  attacked  a 
much  larger  Union  army  under  command 
of  Gens.  M.  D.  Manson  and  William 
Nelson,  and  after  a  three  hours'  battle 
utterly  defeated  the  Union  forces,  whose 
loss,  including  killed,  wounded  and  prison- 
ers, was  5,000.  The  town  contains  the 
Central  University  and  the  Madison 
Female  Institute.  Pop.  (1910)  5,340; 
(1920)   5,622. 

RICHMOND,  a  city,  port  of  entry, 
capital  of  the  State  of  Virginia,  and 
county-seat  of  Henrico  co. ;  on  the  James 
river,  and  on  the  Southern,  the  Richmond, 
Fredericksburg,  and  Potomac,  the  At- 
lantic Coast  Line,  and  the  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio  and  Seaboard  Air  Line,  and 
other  railroads;  116  miles  S.  W.  of  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  The  city  is  about  127  miles 
from  the  ocean.  The  James  river  is  navi- 
gable for  large  vessels  and  there  is  steam- 
boat communication  with  Philadelphia, 
New  York,  Portsmouth,  Norfolk  and  other 
Atlantic  ports.  The  city  is  built  on  seven 
hills,  and  is  surrounded  by  beautiful 
scenery. 

Business  Interests. — There  are  over  600 
manufacturing  establishments.  In  1919 
over  $93,000,000  was  invested  in  manu- 
facturing establishments,  which  yielded 
sales  of  over  $155,000,000.  The  chief 
industries  are  tobacco,  iron,  paper  manu- 
facturing, printing  and  publishing,  and 
flour.  The  leading  commercial  institu- 
tions are  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Corn 
and  Flour  Exchange,  the  Tobacco  Ex- 
change, and  the  Stock  Exchange.  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  Federal  Reserve  Bank  and 
other  National  banks.  The  total  banking 
resources  in  1919  were  nearly  $185,000,- 
000.  There  are  many  daily,  weekly, 
monthly,  and  other  periodicals.  The  as- 
sessed property  valuation  exceeds  $230,- 
000,000,  and  the  total  bonded  debt  is 
about  $14,250,000. 

Public  Interests. — The  city  covers  an 
area  of  26  square  miles.  The  streets  are 
lighted  by  gas  and  electricity.  There  is 
a  public  school  enrollment  of  over  35,000. 
There  are  42  public  schools,  and  many 
private  and  parochial  schools.  In  the 
city  are  a  medical  college,  a  theologi- 
cal seminary,  a  municipal  mechanical 
training  school,  a  women's  college,  Rich- 
mond College,  and  two  colleges  for  colored 
students.  The  capitol,  which  stands  on 
Shockoe  Hill,  and  is  surrounded  by  most 
of  the  other  public  buildings,  is  an  im- 


RICHMOND 


43 


RICHMOND     COLLEGE 


posing  structure,  dating  from  1785.  In 
the  Central  Hall,  surmounted  by  a  dome, 
are  a  statue  of  Washington  and  bust 
of  Lafayette,  Gen.  Fitzhugh  Lee,  and 
others.  The  Senate  Chamber,  to  the 
right,  was  used  as  the  Confederate  House 
of  Representatives  during  the  Civil  War. 
The  House  of  Delegates,  to  the  left,  eon- 
tains  portraits  of  Chatham  and  Jeffer- 
son, and  was  the  scene  of  Aaron  Burr's 
trial  for  high  treason  in  1807  and  of  the 
State  Secession  Convention  in  1861.  The 
executive  mansion  of  the  Confederate 
States,  formerly  the  residence  of  Jeffer- 
son Davis,  has  been  converted  into  a  mu- 
seum which  contains  many  relics  of  the 
Civil  War.  The  other  notable  public 
buildings  include  the  City  Hall,  State 
Library,  State  Penitentiary,  almshouse, 
custom  house,  etc.  The  prominent  edu- 
cational institutions  are  Richmond  Col- 
lege (Bapt.),  St.  Joseph  Female  Acad- 
emy (R.  C),  the  Medical  College  of 
Virginia,  University  College  of  Medicine, 
Women's  College,  and  Mechanic's  Insti- 
tute. 

History. — Richmond  is  said  to  have 
first  been  settled  in  1609.  Fort  Charles 
was  built  as  a  defense  against  the  Indians 
in  1644-1645.  The  city  was  incorporated 
in  1742,  and  became  the  capital  of  the 
State  in  1779.  In  1811  the  burning  of  a 
theater  destroyed  the  lives  of  70  persons, 
including  the  governor  of  the  State.  In 
June,  1861,  it  was  selected  as  the  Con- 
federate capital,  and  from  that  period 
was  the  objective  point  of  a  series  of 
formidable  military  expeditions  for  its 
capture,  under  Generals  McDowell,  Mc- 
Clellan,  Burnside,  Hooker,  Meade,  and 
Grant,  and  defended  by  Gen.  Robert  E. 
Lee,  with  a  large  army  and  formidable 
lines  of  fortifications.  Pop.  (1910) 
127,628;    (1920)    171,667. 

Battles  around  Richmond. — During  the 
last  three  years  of  the  Civil  War  (1862- 
1865)  battles  raged  all  round  Richmond, 
and  remains  of  the  fortified  lines  con- 
structed to  protect  the  city  are  visible 
in  various  parts  of  the  environs.  Both 
the  inner  and  outer  fortifications  may  be 
seen  from  the  Brook  Road,  which  leads 
to  the  Lakeside  Club  House,  with  its 
golf  links,  bowling  alleys  and  boating 
lake.  The  chief  direct  attack  on  Rich- 
mond was  made  on  May  15,  1862,  when 
the  Union  fleet  attempted,  without  suc- 
cess, to  force  its  way  past  the  batteries 
at  Drewry  Bluff,  on  the  James  river,  7 
miles  below  the  city.  Simultaneously 
General  McClellan  advanced  with  the  land 
forces  up  the  peninsula  between  the  York 
and  James  rivers  and  invested  Richmond 
on  the  E.  and  N.  This  led  to  the  hardly 
contested  but  indecisive  battle  of  Seven 
Pines  or  Fair  Oaks  (May  31,  1862),  in 
which  the  Confederates  under  Gen.  Joseph 


E.  Johnson  attacked  McClellan's  left  wing, 
to  the  S.  of  the  Chickahominy.  Large 
cemeteries  and  a  park  now  mark  the 
spot,  7  miles  to  the  E.,  reached  by  the 
West  Point  railroad.  The  district  is 
swampy,  and  McClellan  lost  more  men  by 
pestilence  than  in  fighting.  Gen.  Robert 
E.  Lee  now  assumed  command  of  the 
Confederate  forces  and  made  an  attempt, 
in  combination  with  Gen.  "Stonewall" 
Jackson,  to  overwhelm  McClellan's  right 
wing,  which  was  posted  at  Mechanics- 
ville,  on  the  Chickahominy,  5%  miles  to 
the  N.  of  Richmond,  and  thus  began  the 
famous  Seven  Days'  Battle  (June  28- 
July  2,  1862).  Mechanicsville  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  battles  of  Gaines's  Mill,  Cold 
Harbor,  Savage's  Station,  Frazier's  Farm, 
and  Malvern  Hill.  The  upshot  of  this 
series  of  contests,  in  which  40,000  men 
fell,  was  the  relief  of  Richmond,  as  the 
Union  troops  were  compelled  to  retreat 
to  Malvern  Hill,  15  miles  to  the  S.  E., 
where  they  repelled  the  Confederates  in 
their  last  attack  but  soon  after  withdrew 
to  Harrison's  Landing,  on  the  James 
River.  During  1863  there  were  no  direct 
attacks  on  Richmond.  In  May,  1864,  Gen- 
eral Grant  marched  down  through  the 
"Wilderness"  and  attacked  Lee  in  his 
entrenched  position  at  Cold  Harbor  (June 
3,  1864),  and  lost  15,000  men  without 
making  much  impression  on  the  enemy. 
He  then  transferred  his  army  to  the  S. 
side  of  the  James;  and  the  later  stages 
of  the  war  were  rather  a  siege  of  Peters- 
burg  (q.  v.)   than  of  Richmond. 

RICHMOND,  a  city  in  Victoria,  Aus- 
tralia, constituting  a  suburb  of  the  city 
of  Melbourne.  It  is  situated  in  Bourke 
co.,  and  is  one  of  the  pleasantest  of  the 
metropolitan  suburbs,  having  numerous 
parks  and  public  gardens.  There  are  a 
number  of  prosperous  industries  in  the 
city.     Pop.  about  40,000. 

RICHMOND,  CHARLES  ALEXAN- 
DER, an  American  educator,  born  in 
New  York  City  in  1862.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York,  Princeton  University,  and  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary,  and  received 
honorary  degrees  from  a  number  of 
American  universities.  In  1888  he  was 
ordained  Presbyterian  minister.  After 
serving  as  pastor  of  churches  in  East 
Aurora,  N.  Y.,  and  Albany,  N.  Y.,  he  be- 
came, in  1909,  president  of  Union  Col- 
lege and  chancellor  of  Union  University, 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.  In  1916  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  New  York  State  College  Presi- 
dents' Association. 

RICHMOND  COLLEGE,  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  in  Richmond,  Va.; 
founded  in  1832,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Baptist  Church ;  reported  at  the  close 


RICHMOND 


44 


RICHTER 


of  1919:  Professors  and  instructors,  20; 
students,  300;  president,  F.  W.  Boat- 
wright,  LL.  D. 

RICHMOND,  GRACE  S.,  an  Ameri- 
can author,  born  at  Pawtucket,  R.  I.  She 
was  educated  at  the  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  High 
School,  and  by  private  tutors.  Besides 
many  short  stories  contributed  to  maga- 
zines, she  wrote  "The  Indifference  of  Ju- 
liet" (1905);  "The  Second  Violin" 
(1906);  "With  Juliet  in  England" 
(1907)  ;  "Around  the  Corner  in  Gay 
Street"  (1908)  ;  "On  Christmas  Day  in 
the  Morning"  (1908)  ;  "A  Court  of  In- 
quiry" (1909)  ;  "Red  Pepper  Burns" 
(1910);  "Strawberry  Acres"  (1911); 
"Mrs.  Red  Pepper"  (1913)  ;  "The  Twenty- 
Fourth  of  June"  (1914)  ;  "Under  the 
Country  Sky"  (1916)  ;  "Red  Pepper's 
Patients"  (1917)  ;  "The  Brown  Study" 
(1917);  and  "Red  and  Black"   (1919). 

RICHTER,  JOHANN  PAUL  FRIED- 
RICH,  known  by  his  pen-name  of  Jean 
Paul,  a  German  humorist;  born  in  Wun- 
siedel,  North  Bavaria,  March  21,  1763. 
He  was  brought  up  in  the  mountain  vil- 
lages  in   which   his    father   was    pastor, 


JOHANN   PAUL   F.   RICHTER 

went  to  school  at  the  town  of  Hof,  and 
in  1781  was  sent  to  Leipsic  University  to 
study  theology.  But  Rousseau  and  Vol- 
taire, Swift  and  Sterne,  Pope  and  Young, 
had  much  stronger  attractions  for  him, 
and  he  too  resolved  to  write  books  He 
asserted  his  independence  of  custom  by 
discarding    the    periwig,    wore    his    hair 


long  and  his  shirt  and  vest  open  at  the 
throat.  Being  poor,  he  got  into  debt  all 
round,  and  in  November,  1784,  fled  se- 
cretly from  Leipsic  to  the  poverty-stricken 
home  of  his  mother  at  Hof.  His  first 
writings  were  satires;  but  he  could  get 
no  publisher  to  introduce  them  to  the 
world,  till  in  1783  Voss  of  Berlin  gave 
him  40  louis  d'or  for  "The  Greenland 
Lawsuits."     The  book  was  a  failure. 

For  three  years  Jean  Paul  struggled 
on  at  home,  his  mother  spinning  hard 
for  bread.  He  read  enormously  and  made 
excerpts  from  the  books  he  devoured — 
a  practice  he  kept  up  to  old  age.  These 
many  folios  of  closely-written  pages  were 
the  storehouses  on  which  he  drew  for 
materials  when  he  came  to  write  his  ro- 
mances. He  took  long  rambles  among 
the  hills  and  forests.  In  the  beginning 
of  1787  he  began  to  teach  the  children 
of  different  families  in  the  district.  Dur- 
ing his  nine  years  of  tutorship,  he  pro- 
duced among  other  things,  the  satirical 
"Extracts  from  the  Devil's  Papers" 
(1789),  "Falbel's  Journey"  (1796),  and 
"Freudel's  Complaint"  (1796),  the  last 
two  among  the  best  examples  of  his  sa- 
tirico-humorous  writings;  the  beautiful 
idylls  "Dominie  Wuz"  (1793),  "Quintus 
Fixlein"  (1796;  Eng.  trans,  by  Carlyle, 
1827),  the  "Parson's  Jubilee"  (1797),  the 
first  two  perhaps  the  most  finished  things 
Jean  Paul  ever  wrote ;  the  grand  romances 
"The  Invisible  Lodge"  (1793),  "Hesperus" 
(1795;  Eng.  trans.  1865),  and  "Flower, 
Fruit,  and  Thorn  Pieces,"  or  "Siebenkas" 
(1796-1797;  Eng.  trans,  by  Noel  1844  and 
1871,  by  Ewing,  1877)  ;  "Companerthal" 
(1798;  Eng.  trans.  1857),  a  series  of  re- 
flections on  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
and  the  prose  lyrical  idyll,  "My  Pros- 
pective Autobiography"  (1799).  "The 
Invisible  Lodge"  was  his  first  literary 
success;  "Hesperus"  made  him  famous. 
In  1796  Charlotte  von  Kalb,  perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  woman  of  her  age  in 
Germany,  wrote  to  express  her  admira- 
tion of  the  book;  and  at  her  invitation, 
Jean  Paul  visited  Weimar.  There  Goethe 
received  him  politely,  but  with  cool  re- 
serve; that,  too,  was  Schiller's  attitude, 
when  Jean  Paul  went  on  to  Jena  to  see 
him.  The  antagonism  between  them  was 
deep  and  fundamental,  and  lasted  till 
death.  Herder  and  his  wife,  on  the  other 
hand,  greeted  the  young  romance-writer 
with  overflowing  admiration,  and  gave 
him  their  friendship,  which  also  endured 
till  death.  As  for  Charlotte  von  Kalb; 
in  spite  of  having  a  husband  already,  she 
exercised  her  sex's  fabled  privilege  of 
leap-year  and  gave  him  unasked  the  love 
of  her  vehement  heart. 

From  this  time  for  a,  few  years  Jean 
Paul's  life  was  rich  in  incident  and  full  of 
excitement.      He   was   the    object   of   ex- 


RICHTHOFEN 


45 


RICKENBACKER 


travagant  idolatry  on  the  part  of  the 
women  of  Germany,  especially  of  those 
who  dabbled  in  literature.  He  found  all 
women  charming,  he  was  a  delightful 
talker  and  a  good  listener,  and  had  a 
sweet  and  sympathetic  smile — qualities 
that  explain  a  good  deal.  In  1801  he 
married  a  Berlin  lady,  and  three  years 
later  settled  down  at  Bayreuth.  There 
he  spent  the  rest  of  his  days,  leading  a 
simple,  busy  life,  writing  his  books,  play- 
ing with  his  children,  tending  his  pet 
animals,  and  taking  short  summer  jour- 
neys to  different  towns  of  Germany.  His 
last  years  were  clouded  by  the  death  of 
his  only  son,  a  promising  student,  in  1821, 
and  by  his  own  blindness.  From  1799 
he  enjoyed  a  pension  from  the  Prince- 
primate  Dalberg,  and  then  from  the  King 
of  Bavaria.     He  died  Nov.  14,  1825. 

The  principal  works  of  his  married  life 
were  the  two  grand  romances,  "Titan" 
(1800-1803;  Eng.  trans.  1862)  and  "Wild 
Oats"  (1804-1805;  Eng.  trans,  as  "Walt 
and  Vult,"  1849),  the  former  accounted 
by  himself  and  by  most  German  critics 
his  masterpiece,  though  Englishmen 
would  generally  prefer  the  latter,  as  they 
would  certainly  prefer  "Siebenkas"  to 
"Hesperus";  "Schmeltzle's  Journey  to 
Flatz"  (1809;  Eng.  trans,  by  Carlyle, 
1827)  and  "Dr.  Katzenberger's  Trip  to 
the  Spa"  (1809),  the  best  two  of  his 
satirico-humorous  writings;  the  idyll 
"Fibel's  Life"  (1811);  the  fragment  of 
another  grand  romance,  "Nicholas  Mark- 
graf,  or  The  Comet"  (1820-1822)  ;  a  se- 
ries of  reflections  on  "Literature"  ("Vors- 
schule  der  iEsthetik";  improved  ed.  1812), 
containing  many  excellent  things  about 
poetry,  humor,  wit,  style;  another  series 
on  "Education"  ("Levana,"  1807;  Eng. 
trans.  1848,  1876,  and  1887),  a  book  that 
ranks  with  Rousseau's  "Emile"  as  a  stand- 
ard work  on  training  the  young,  and  is 
full  of  evergreen  wisdom;  various  patri- 
otic writings  (1808-1812)  ;  and  an  unfin- 
ished "Autobiography"  (1826),  the  finest 
of  all  his  idylls. 

Jean  Paul  stands  apart  entirely  by 
himself  in  German  literature,  a  humorist 
of  the  first  water,  a  Titan.  As  a  master 
of  pathos  he  is  put  by  De  Quincey  above 
Sterne. 

RICHTHOFEN,  FERDINAND 
BARON  VON,  a  German  geographer; 
born  in  Karlsruhe,  Silesia,  May  5,  1833; 
was  educated  at  Breslau  and  Berlin  uni- 
versities, and  at  the  Geological  Institute 
of  Vienna  (1856)  ;  and  in  1860  accom- 
panied a  Prussian  expedition  to  eastern 
Asia.  The  next  12  years  he  spent  in 
traveling  through  Java,  Siam,  Burma, 
California,  Sierra  Nevada,  and  China  and 
Japan  (1868-1872).  He  was  appointed 
president  of  the  Berlin  Geographical  So- 


ciety (1873-1878),  Professor  of  Geology  at 
Bonn  (1875),  and  of  Geography  at  Leip- 
sic  (1883)  and  at  Berlin  (1886).  His 
reputation  as  a  geographer  is  built  prin- 
cipally upon  his  great  work  on  "China" 

(Berlin,  4  vols.  1877-1883),  and  upon 
"The  Metallic  Production  of  California" 

(1865),  "The  Natural  System  of  Vol- 
canic Rocks"  (San  Francisco,  1867),  "Ex- 
ercises and  Methods  of  Modern  Geogra- 
phy"  (1883).     He  died  Oct.  6,    1905. 

RICIMER,  a  general  of  barbarian  de- 
scent who  ruled  the  W.  Roman  empire 
by  emperors  whom  he  set  up  and  put 
down  at  will.  He  dethroned  Avitus  in 
456,  and  appointed  Majorianus  emperor, 
whom  he  caused  to  be  assassinated  in  461. 
He  then  placed  Libius  Severus  on  the 
throne,  and  on  his  death  in  465  he  car- 
ried on  the  government  for  some  time 
alone.  In  467  Anthemius  was  put  on 
the  throne,  and  gave  his  daughter  in  mar- 
riage to  Ricimer.  The  latter  soon  took 
up  arms  against  his  father-in-law,  who 
was  assassinated  in  472.  Ricimer  died 
soon  after. 

RICKENBACKER,  EDWARD  VER- 
NON ("EDDIE"),  an  American  aviator, 
born  in  Columbus,  Ohio,  in  1890.     Early 


D— Cyc 


EDWARD  VERNON  RICKENBACKER 

in  his  life  he  acquired  a  wide  reputation 
as  an  automobile  racer,  winning  many 
championships  at  national  and  interna- 
tional   meetings.      On    the    entrance    of 


Vol  8 


RICINTJS 


46 


RIDDLES 


America  in  the  World  War,  he  accom- 
panied General  Pershing  to  France  as 
a  member  of  the  Motor  Car  Staff,  and  in 
August,  1917,  was  transferred  at  his  own 
request  to  the  Air  Service.  He  became 
commanding  officer  of  the  94th  Aero  Pur- 
suit Squadron,  the  first  American  aero 
unit  to  participate  actively  on  the  western 
front.  As  a  member  of  this  unit  he  was 
credited  with  26  victories.  At  the  end 
of  the  war  he  retired  with  the  rank  of 
major,  having  received  the  Distinguished 
Service  Cross  with  9  palms,  the  Legion 
of  Honor,  and  the  Croix  de  Guerre.  He 
wrote  "Fighting  the  Flying  Circus" 
(1919). 

RICINTJS,  a  genus  of  plants,  order 
Euphorbiacese.  R.  communis  is  the  palma 
christi,  or  castor-oil  plant,  a  native  of 
the  East  and  West  Indies  and  Florida. 
Castor  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds, 
either  by  expression  with  or  without  the 
aid  of  heat,  or  by  decoction,  or  sometimes 
by  the  aid  of  alcohol.  Castor  seeds,  when 
taken  whole,  are  extremely  acrid,  and 
have  produced  death;  but  the  expressed 
oil  is  a  mild  and  most  efficient  non-irri- 
tating laxative.  The  palma  christi  has 
been  cultivated  in  Algeria  for  the  pur- 
pose of  feeding  silk  worms  on  the  leaves. 

RICKETS,  a  disease  peculiar  to  in- 
fancy, chiefly  characterized  by  changes 
in  the  texture,  chemical  composition,  and 
outward  form  of  the  bony  skeleton,  and 
by  altered  functions  of  the  other  organs. 
The  chief  external  features  are  the  legs 
bent  outward,  chest  unduly  projecting, 
head  large  and  forehead  projecting,  spine 
often  curved,  joints  large  and  prominent, 
general  form  stunted,  etc.  Rickets  is 
chiefly  a  disease  of  large  cities,  and  its 
development  is  favored  by  want  of  nour- 
ishing food,  overcrowding,  and  neglect 
of  sanitary  and  hygienic  precautions  gen- 
erally. 

RICKETTS,  JAMES  BREWERTON, 
an  American  military  officer;  born  in 
New  York  City,  June  21,  1817;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  military  acad- 
emy, in  1839 ;  was  a  captain  in  the  regular 
army  in  1852;  and  gained  a  record  for 
excellent  service  during  the  Mexican  War. 
In  1861  he  was  appointed  a  Brigadier- 
General  of  volunteers,  and  commanded  a 
division  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  in 
September,  1862.  He  was  in  the  thick 
of  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5 
and  6,  1864 ;  was  severely  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Cedar  Creek,  Oct.  19,  1864;  and 
was  brevetted  Major-General,  U.  S.  A.,  in 
1865.  He  served  in  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  from  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run 
till  Petersburg  was  besieged  in  1864.  He 
died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Sept.  22,  1887. 


RIDDER,  HERMAN,  an  American 
newspaper  publisher  and  editor,  born  in 
New  York  City  in  1851,  of  German  par- 
ents. His  boyhood  was  spent  in  various 
lines  of  industry,  including  life  insurance, 
and  in  1878  he  established  the  "Katho- 
lisches  Volksblatt."  He  founded  the 
"Catholic  News"  in  1886.  In  1890  he 
became  trustee  and  manager,  and  in  1907 
president  of  the  New  York  "Staats-Zei- 
tung,"  the  largest  and  most  influential 
daily  paper,  printed  in  the  German  lan- 
guage, in  the  United  States.  He  came 
into  conflict  with  the  Federal  authorities 
following  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War 
for  an  alleged  pro-German  campaign 
which  he  was  charged  with  having  car- 
ried on  in  his  papers.  In  1908  he  was 
treasurer  of  the  Democratic  National 
Committee.  He  was  an  official  of  several 
important  financial  institutions.  He  died 
in  1915. 

RIDDLES,   or    QUESTION   PUZZLES. 

They  were  widely  popular  in  dim  an- 
tiquity, as  today  they  are  popular  among 
many  half-civilized  races — not  absolute 
savages,  for  to  perceive  an  analogy  de- 
mands some  measure  of  culture.  They 
may  be  broadly  divided  into  two  classes 
— riddles  admitting  of  more  or  less  easy 
solution,  and  riddles  whose  solution  is 
beyond  any  wit  of  man,  unless  indeed,  as 
is  very  often  the.  case,  the  answer  is 
known  already.  To  the  former  class  be- 
long the  enigma  propounded  by  the  Sphinx 
to  CEdipus,  and  that  which,  according  to 
Plutarch,  Homer  died  of  chagrin  at  not 
being  able  to  answer.  It  seems  to  us 
easy  now,  for  it  was  the  one  about  the 
two  boys  who  went  hunting:  all  they 
caught  they  flung  away,  and  all  they  could 
not  catch  they  carried  home.  Propound- 
ing of  riddles  for  wagers  meets  us  fre- 
quently. Josephus  relates  how  Solomon 
and  Hiram,  King  of  Tyre,  once  had  a 
contest,  in  which  Solomon  first  won  a 
large  sum  of  money  from  Hiram,  but 
presently  lost  it  all  back  to  Hiram's  sub- 
ject Abdemon. 

The  riddle  is  found  in  the  Koran,  and 
several  collections  of  riddles  exist  in  Ara- 
bic and  Persian.  They  were,  it  seems, 
also  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
while  among  the  Greeks  they  were  allied 
in  the  earliest  times  with  the  oracular 
responses.  But  in  Greece  they  first  came 
into  vogue  about  the  time  of  the  "Seven 
Sages,"  one  of  whom,  Cleobulus,  was  cele- 
brated for  the  composition  of  metrical 
griphoi.  Apuleius  wrote  a  "Bock  of  Jokes 
and  Riddles,"  but  it  is  lost. 

The  riddle  was  much  cultivated  during 
the  Middle  Ages.  Many  French,  Eng- 
lish, and  German  riddle-books  exist  in 
MS.,  and  some  were  printed  at  an  early 
period.      Wynkyn     de     Worde's    "Joyous 


RIDEAU 


47 


RIDGEWAY 


Questions"  (1511)  contains  several  riddles 
that  are  simply  coarse  jests;  but  others, 
again,  well  illustrate  the  simple  faith  of 
mediaeval  Christendom — e.  g.,  "Demand: 
What  bare  the  best  burden  that  ever  was 
borne?  Response:  The  ass  that  carried 
our  Lady  when  she  fled  with  our  Lord 
into  Egypt."  The  Reformation  checked, 
if  it  did  not  wholly  stop,  the  merry  pas- 
time of  riddle-making;  but  in  France,  in 
the  17th  century,  it  began  to  creep  back 
into  favor,  till  at  last  riddles  rivaled  in 
popularity  the  madrigals  and  sonnets  of 
the  period.  Le  Pere  Menestrier,  in  1694, 
wrote  a  grave  treatise  on  the  subject. 
The  taste  for  riddle-making  grew  and 
grew,  and  many  brilliant  French  writers, 
such  as  Boileau,  Voltaire,  Madame  du 
Deffand,  and  Rousseau,  did  a  little  in  this 
line.  In  Germany  we  have  Schiller's  de- 
lightful extravaganza  "Turandot,"  and  in 
England  Cowper,  Fox,  Canning,  and 
Praed  are  a  few  of  the  makers  of  poetical 
riddles  or  charades.  Today  with  us  the 
riddle  is  a  mere  jeu  d'esprit,  a  conundrum 
or  pun  couched  question-wise;  but  among 
the  Irish,  German,  and  Russian  peasantry, 
the  gipsies,  the  Zulus,  the  Samoans,  and 
many  more  races,  the  old-fashioned  sense- 
riddles,  often  enshrining  a  mythological 
germ,  still  hold  their  own. 

RIDEATT,  a  waterway,  partly  natural 
and  partly  artificial,  formed  by  lake, 
river  and  canal  in  the  province  of  On- 
tario, Canada.  The  lake  lies  roughly  50 
miles  S.  W.  of  Ottawa  and  the  river 
Rideau  flows  out  of  it  to  become  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Ottawa  river  at  the  city  of 
Ottawa.  The  canal,  dating  from  1834, 
connects  Ottawa  with  Kingston  on  Lake 
Ontario,  forming  with  the  river  and  lake 
a  waterway  126  miles  long  with  47  locks 
and  a  navigable  depth  of  4%  feet.  The 
navigable  portion  with  connections  to  the 
Cataraqui  river  and  Mud  Lake  bore  much 
commerce  in  the  years  following  its  link- 
ing up,  but  in  later  years  the  develop- 
ment of  the  railroad  system  took  away 
from  its  navigation. 

RIDEING,  WILLIAM  HENRY,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Liverpool, 
England,  Feb.  17,  1853.  His  books  in- 
clude: "Pacific  Railways  Illustrated" 
(1878) ;  "A-Saddle  in  the  Wild  West" 
(1879)  ;  "Stray  Moments  with  Thack- 
eray" (1880)  ;  "Boys  in  the  Mountains" 
(1882)  ;  "A  Little  Upstart"  (1885)  ;  "The 
Boyhood  of  Living  Authors"  (1887)  ;  "In 
the  Land  of  Lorna  Doone";  "The  Cap- 
tured Cunarder";  "At  Hawarden  with 
Mr.  Gladstone";  "How  Tyson  Came 
Home"  (1905)  ;  "Boyhood  of  Famous 
Authors"  (1908);  "Many  Celebrities  and 
a  Few  Others"  (1911).  He  died  in  1919. 
In  1881  he  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"Youths'   Companion." 


RIDEOXJT,  HENRY  MILNER,  an 
American  author,  born  at  Calais,  Me.,  in 
1877.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity where  he  served  as  an  instructor 
of  English  from  1899  to  1904.  Besides 
many  short  stories  contributed  to  many 
magazines,  he  published  "Letters  of 
Thomas  Gray"  (1899)  ;  Tennyson's  "The 
Princess"  (edited  with  C.  T.  Copeland), 
(1899)  ;  "Freshman  English  and  Theme- 
Correcting  at  Harvard  College"  (with 
C.  T.  Copeland)  (1901)  ;  "Beached  Keels" 
(1906)  ;  "The  Siamese  Cat"  (1907) ;  "Ad- 
miral's Light"  (1907) ;  "Dragon's  Blood" 
(1909) ;  "Selections  from  Wordsworth, 
Byron,  etc."  (with  C.  T.  Copeland), 
(1909)  ;  "The  Twisted  Foot"  (1910)  ; 
"William  Jones,  a  Memoir"  (1912) ; 
"White  Tiger"  (1915);  "The  Far  Cry" 
(1916)  ;  "The  Key  of  the  Fields"  (1917)  ; 
and  "Tin  Cowrie  Dass"   (1918). 

RIDERS,  additional  provisions  of  a 
bill  under  the  consideration  of  a  legisla- 
tive assembly,  having  little  connection 
with  the  subject-matter  of  the  bill.  They 
are  usually  without  enough  specific  merit 
in  themselves  to  insure  their  adoption  in 
any  other  way.  Sometimes  riders  are 
attached  to  important  bills,  in  order  to 
gain  the  chance  of  passage,  since  by  them- 
selves they  are  likely  to  incur  an  execu- 
tive veto,  but  as  a  part  or  proviso  of  an 
important  bill  they  are  absorbed  in  the 
main  subject,  and  so  dodge  the  "veto" 
and  the  "table."  Appropriation  bills  are 
more  than  others  "saddled  with  riders." 
The  consequence  of  this  custom  is,  prac- 
tically, a  limitation  of  the  veto  power  of 
the  executive.  It  has  been  proposed  fre- 
quently that  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  be  so  amended  that  the 
President  could  veto  single  objectionable 
items,  without  affecting  the  main  purpose 
of  bills. 

RIDGE,  WILLIAM  PETT,  an  Eng- 
lish writer,  born  in  Chatham,  about  1860. 
He  was  educated  in  the  private  schools 
and  began  writing  at  an  early  age.  His 
humorous  stories  of  low-class  life  attained 
wide  popularity.  They  include  "A  Breaker 
of  the  Laws"  (1900)  ;  "Lost  Property" 
(1902);  "The  Remington  Sentence" 
(1913)  ;  "The  Happy  Recruit"  (1914)  ; 
"The  Kennedy  People"  (1915)  ;  "Amaz- 
ing Years"  (1917) ;  and  "Top  Speed" 
(1918). 

RIDGEWAY,  SIR  WILLIAM,  a  Brit- 
ish archaeologist.  He  was  born  at  Bally- 
dermot,  Ireland,  in  1853,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Portarlington  School  and  Trinity 
College,  Dublin.  He  took  up  classical 
scholarship  and  archaeology  as  his  spe- 
cial line  and  has  been  professor  of  archae- 
ology at  Cambridge  since  1892.  He  is 
a  member  of  Greek,  French,  Italian,  Ger- 


RIDGEWOOD 


48 


KIEL 


man  and  other  societies  and  took  a  lead- 
ing part  in  founding  the  Cambridge 
Departments  of  Anthropology  and  Archi- 
tecture and  in  reforming  classical  tripos. 
His  works  include:  "The  Early  Age  of 
Greece";  "Origin  and  Influence  of  the 
Thoroughbred  Horse";  "Homeric  Lord 
System";  "Who  Were  the  Romans?"; 
"The  Oldest  Irish  Epic";  "First  Shaping 
of  the  Cuchulain  Saga";  "Origin  of 
Tragedy." 

RIDGEWOOD,  a  village  of  New  Jer- 
sey, in  Bergen  co.  It  is  on  the  Erie 
railroad,  and  is  almost  entirely  a  resi- 
dential place.  It  has  excellent  schools 
and  many  handsome  public  and  private 
buildings.  Pop.  (1910)  5,416;  (1920) 
7,580. 

RIDGWAY,  a  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  county-seat  of  Elk  co.  It  is 
on  the  Clarion  river  and  on  the  Penn- 
sylvania and  the  Buffalo,  Rochester,  and 
Pittsburgh  railroads.  Its  notable  build- 
ings include  a  courthouse,  a  high  school, 
a  hospital  and  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building. 
It  is  the  center  of  an  important  lumber- 
ing region  and  has  manufactures  of 
leather,  iron,  clay,  lumber  products,  silk 
goods,  dynamos,  machine  tools,  etc.  In 
the  neighborhood  are  valuable  deposits  of 
coal  and  natural  gas.  Pop.  (1910)  5,408; 
(1920)  6,037. 

RIDGWAY,  ROBERT,  an  American 
ornithologist,  born  in  Mt.  Carmel,  111., 
in  1850.  He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  and  at  Indiana  University.  From 
1867  to  1869  he  served  as  zoologist  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Exploration  of 
the  40th  Parallel.  In  1880  he  became 
curator  of  the  division  of  birds  in  the 
United  States  National  Museum.  He  was 
a  founder  and  twice  the  president  of  the 
American  Ornithologists'  Union,  and  was 
also  a  member  of  many  American  and 
foreign  ornithological  societies  and  con- 
ferences. He  published,  besides  over  500 
papers,  the  following  books:  "A  History 
of  North  American  Birds"  (5  volumes, 
with  Prof.  Spencer  F.  Baird  and  Dr. 
Thomas  M.  Brewer)  ;  "A  Manual  of 
North  American  Birds";  "A  Nomencla- 
ture of  Colors  for  Naturalists  and  Com- 
pendium of  Useful  Information  for  Orni- 
thologists"; "Color  Standards  and  Color 
Nomenclature";  "The  Ornithology  of  Il- 
linois" (2  volumes) ;  and  "The  Birds  of 
North  and  Middle  America"  (8  volumes 
published). 

RIDING,  the  art  of  sitting  on  horse- 
back with  firmness,  ease,  and  graceful- 
ness, and  of  guiding  the  horse  and  keep- 
ing him  under  perfect  command.  The  art 
of  riding  may  be  divided  into  (1)  ordi- 
nary riding,  (2)  school  riding,  (3)  circus 
riding,  and    (4)    side-saddle  riding.     The 


two  objects  aimed  at  in  ordinary  riding 
(which  includes  riding  on  the  road,  hunt- 
ing, pig-sticking,  stock-driving,  breaking 
in  young  and  freshly  handled  horses, 
playing  polo,  race  and  steeplechase  rid- 
ing) are  to  remain  in  the  saddle  and  to 
make  the  animal  carry  its  rider  with  the 
greatest  possible  ease  to  itself. 

RIDLEY,  NICHOLAS,  an  English 
clergyman,  Bishop  of  London  in  the 
reigns  of  Edward  VI.  and  his  successor 
Mary;  born  about  the  commencement  of 
the  16th  century,  and  was  educated  at 
Cambridge.  He  afterward  traveled  on 
the  Continent  for  three  years,  and  on 
his  return  filled  the  office  of  proctor  to 
Cambridge  University.  In  1547  he  was 
chosen  to  the  see  of  Rochester,  and  in 
1550  superseded  Bonner  as  Bishop  of 
London.  On  the  death  of  Edward  he 
was  involved  in  an  attempt  to  secure  the 
Protestant  ascendency  by  placing  the 
Lady  Jane  Grey  on  the  throne.  This, 
together  with  his  connection  with  Cran- 
mer,  led  to  his  being  tried  for  heresy, 
and  condemned  to  the  stake.  This  sen- 
tence he  underwent  with  the  greatest 
fortitude,  in  company  with  his  friend  and 
fellow-sufferer  Latimer,  Oct.  16,  1555,  in 
Oxford. 

RIDPATH,  JOHN  CLARK,  an  Ameri- 
can educator;  born  in  Putnam  co.,  Ind., 
April  26,  1840;  was  graduated  at  Indiana 
Asbury  University  in  1863 ;  and  later  held 
a  professorship  in  Baker  University, 
Kansas.  In  1869  he  became  Professor 
of  English  Literature  at  Asbury  Univer- 
sity, Indiana,  and  was  elected  its  vice- 
president  in  1879.  Through  his  influence 
the  endowment  of  nearly  $2,000,000  was 
bestowed  on  the  university  by  Mr.  De- 
Pauw,  whose  name  it  now  bears.  In 
1874-1875  he  published  a  "History  of  the 
United  States"  which  he  supplemented 
with  another  in  1877.  In  1876  he  issued 
a  "School  History,"  and  in  1879  an  "Eng- 
lish Grammar."  Desiring  to  devote  his 
whole  time  to  literature,  he  resigned  his 
university  offices.  In  1881,  he  published 
the  "Life  of  Garfield,"  a  "Life  of  J.  G. 
Blaine"  in  1848,  a  "Cyclopaedia  of  His- 
tory" in  1880-1884,  a  "History  of  Texas" 
in  1884,  "Great  Races  of  Mankind"  in 
1894,  "Life  and  Times  of  Gladstone" 
(1898),  and  "A  History  of  the  United 
States"  (8  vols.  1900).  He  died  in  New 
York  City,  Aug.  1,  1900. 

RIEL,  LOUIS,  a  Canadian  insurgent, 
son  of  the  half-breed  leader  of  the  Metis 
Indians  who  rebelled  against  Canadian 
rule;  born  in  St.  Boniface,  Oct.  23,  1844. 
He  was  secretary  of  the  Metis  national 
organization,  and  later  the  president  of 
their  provisional  government  at  Fort 
Garry  in  the  Northwestern  Territory.   He 


RIENZI 


49 


RIFLE 


led  the  Metis'  Red  River  rebellion  in  1869, 
which  was  subdued  by  a  Canadian  force 
under  General  Wolseley.  He  fled  from 
the  territory  to  escape  arrest,  and  re- 
turned after  peace  terms  had  been  ar- 
ranged. He  was  elected  to  the  Dominion 
Parliament  in  1873,  but  was  not  allowed 
to  take  his  seat.  Again  he  incited  rebel- 
lion, but  it  assumed  only  small  propor- 
tions and  was  subdued  by  the  Canadian 
Government.  His  attempt  to  create  re- 
sistance in  1885  was  more  successful,  but 
the  rebellion  was  overthrown  by  General 
Middleton's  forces.  Riel  was  captured, 
tried  for  treason,  and  was  sentenced  to 
death.  It  was  generally  believed  by 
French  Canadians  that  Riel  was  insane. 
He  was  executed,  Nov.  16,  1885,  at  Re- 
gina  in  the  Northwestern  Territory. 

RIENZI  (re-ain'dza),  NICOLA  GA- 
BRINI,  a  Roman  patriot;  born  about 
1310.  He  was  of  obscure  birth;  but  hav- 
ing received  an  excellent  education,  which 
he  improved  by  a  strong  will  and  vigorous 
understanding,  he  was  sent  by  his  fellow 
citizens  to  Clement  VI.,  at  Avignon,  in 


NICOLA    GABRINI    RIENZI 

order  to  prevail  on  that  pontiff  to  return 
to  Rome.  His  eloquence  pleased  the  Pope, 
though  it  did  not  persuade  him;  and 
Rienzi  on  his  return  formed  the  design 
of  making  himself  master  of  Rome,  with 
the  title  of  tribune.  Having  gained  a 
considerable  number  of  partisans,  he  en- 
tered the  capitol,  harangued  the  people, 
and  elevated  the  standard  of  liberty.  He 
designed  to  unite  the  whole  of  Italy  into 
one   great   republic,   with    Rome   for    its 


capital.  For  some  time  he  was  success- 
ful, his  government  was  popular,  and 
even  Petrarch  wrote  in  his  favor,  com- 
paring him  to  Brutus.  But  at  length  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  against  him;  and 
having  lost  the  popular  favor  by  his  arro- 
gance and  tyranny,  he  was  compelled  to 
seek  safety  in  flight,  but  was  taken  and 
cruelly  put  to  death  in  1354. 

RIESA,  Germany,  a  town  situated 
on  the  Elbe,  in  Saxony,  33  miles  north- 
west of  Dresden  by  rail.  It  is  an  im- 
portant railway  junction.  One  of  the 
finest  steel  and  stone  bridges  in  Ger- 
many spans  the  river  at  this  point.  The 
harbor  accommodates  a  great  volume  of 
shipping,  and  considerable  shipbuilding 
is  carried  on  here.  Iron  foundries  and 
machine  shops  add  to  the  industries  of 
the  town.     Pop.  about  20,000. 

RIESENGEBIRGE,  or  Giants'  Moun- 
tains, a  mountain  range  of  Europe,  sepa- 
rating Silesia  from  Bohemia  and  Moravia, 
till  it  joins  the  Carpathians;  but  the 
name  is  properly  applied  to  that  part  of 
this  range  which  lies  between  the  sources 
of  the  Neisse  and  the  Bober.  It  contains 
the  loftiest  mountains  of  the  N.  or  cen- 
tral parts  of  Germany,  the  Schneekoppe 
being  5,257  feet  high.  The  geological 
structure  of  the  range  consists  of  granite, 
gneiss  and  mica  slate,  and  in  the  valleys 
there  are  coal  and  basaltic  strata. 

RIFF,  a  name  given  to  the  coast  dis- 
tricts of  northern  Morocco  extending 
from  Ceuta  to  the  W.  frontier  of  Algiers, 
and  forming  a  line  of  steep  cliffs  with 
few  harbors.  Its  Berber  inhabitants  were 
formerly  much  addicted  to  savage  piracy. 

RIFLE,  a  gun  of  high  power,  long 
shooting  range,  and  finding  its  classifica- 
tion among  weapons,  chiefly  in  respect  to 
the  construction  of  its  barrel.  The  term 
rifle  means  a  gun  with  a  grooved  barrel. 
Originally,  this  grooving  was  developed 
for  the  two-fold  purpose  of  accommodat- 
ing the  excess  carbonization  from  the  dis- 
charge of  the  black  powder  cartridge  and 
to  impart  greater  definition  to  the  bullet 
by  contracting  the  internal  area  of  the 
barrel.  It  was  discovered,  after  long 
experimentation,  that  the  most  effective 
combination  of  these  two  qualities  was 
attained  by  boring  the  barrel  with  a  spiral 
grooving  which  induced  the  twisting  or 
spinning  motion  in  the  discharging  bul- 
let, thereby  greatly  increasing  its  direc- 
tional accuracy  and  diminishing  or  flat- 
tening the  curve  of  its  trajectory  with 
corresponding  increase  in  the  effective- 
ness of  the  weapon  for  hunting,  target 
and  military  practice.  The  progress  of 
development  in  the  perfection  of  the  rifle 
both  as  a  weapon  for  sport  and  an  instru- 
ment   of    military     accomplishment     has 


RIFLE 


50 


RIFLE 


known  three  stages.  The  first  stage 
might  be  said  to  have  continued  from  the 
discovery  of  the  principle  of  rifling  up 
to  the  period  of  the  successful  production 
of  the  breech-loading  rifle.  In  this  stage, 
the  muzzle-loading  type  of  rifle  reached 


was  discovered  and  the  area  of  modem 
rifle  construction  was  issued  in  with  the 
two  great  contributory  aids  of  high  ten- 
sion steel  and  smokeless  powder.  The 
superior  quality  and  dependability  of 
steel  which  offered  varieties  to  every  me- 


German  Mauser 


RIFLES 


its  highest  perfection  and  led  to  the  ad- 
vance from  the  ball  form  of  cartridge  to 
the  sugar-loaf  or  elongated  ball  cartridge. 
In  America  this  period  extended  to  the 
time  of  the  American  Civil  War.  The 
Civil  War  and  the  impetus  of  western 
settlement  and  colonization  pushed  the 
rifle  into  high  development  and  produced 


chanical  requirement  of  the  delicately 
adjusted  machinery  of  the  modern  lever- 
action,  bolt-action,  and  auto-action  weap- 
ons, combined  with  the  powerful  advan- 
tages of  smokeless  powder  which  made 
possible  the  lightening  of  the  barrel  to- 
gether with  more  accurate  and  careful 
rifling,  led  to  the  production  of  our  mod- 


colking  * 

PIECE      \ 


STRIKER    5  PR  I  NO 


BACKSIGHT 
I 


BRITISH    LEE-ENFIELD    RIFLE 


the  Henry,  Sharp,  and  Spencer  rifles,  all 
breech-loading  weapons,  and  one,  the 
Henry  type,  a  lever-action  gun,  the  an- 
cestor of  the  modern  repeating  rifle.  The 
problem  of  the  breech-loading  rifle  was 
the  development  of  a  mechanism  suf- 
ficiently strong  and  relatively  small  to 
withstand  the  terrific  concussion  of  black- 
powder  cartridges.  The  third  stage  in 
rifle  development  was  reached  when  the 
solution  of  the  breech-loading  weakness 


.era  hunting  and  military  weapons.  Two 
aspects  of  importance  have  appeared  in 
this  third  and  present  state  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  rifle;  the  emphasis  upon 
the  mechanics  of  repeating  shots  which 
has  resulted  in  several  types  of  magazine 
rifles  and  culminated  in  the  automatic 
weapons  which  have  combined  speed  of 
action  with  high  shell  capacity;  and  the 
several  spheres  of  shell  development  which 
have  produced  the  high-power,  leng  range 


RIFLE-BIRD 


51 


RIGGS 


hunting  rifle  of  exceptional  ballistic  at- 
tainment and  the  similar  military  rifle 
possessing  the  same  characteristics.  Be- 
tween these  types  of  rifle  and  the  rifle  of 
shorter  range  or  greater  shocking  power, 


of  the  order ;  and  several  old  guild  houses 
and  Hanseatic  halls.  It  is  the  seat  of  an 
archbishop  of  the  Greek  Church.  Prior 
to  the  World  War  its  industries  were 
rapidly  growing;  they  turned  out  cottons, 


FIRING  PIN 
COCKING 

Piece 


5AFsrr 
loch 


BARREL    //a/VD  GUARD 
STRIKER  \       / 


SPRINGFIELD    MAGAZINE    RIFLE 


the  variation  in  mechanism  and  rifling, 
with  all  the  consequent  alterations  in 
weight,  balance,  form  of  stock  and  sight 
construction,  have  been  made  to  depend 
upon  the  type  of  shell  used  and  upon 
whether  the  weapon  has  been  designed 
to  employ  the  steel,  soft-nosed  or  pure 
lead  bullet  in  its  shooting. 

RIFLE-BIRD,  the  Ptilorhis  paradisa, 
often  spoken  of  as  one  of  the  "Birds  of 
Paradise";  is  perhaps  the  best-known 
species  of  a  genus  which,  according  to 
Elliot,  comprises  four  species  confined  to 
Australia  and  to  New  Guinea.  P.  para- 
diseus  inhabits  the  S.  E.  districts  of  Aus- 
tralia, and  is  found  only  in  very  thick 
"bush."  The  male  is  regarded  as  more 
splendid  in  plumage  than  any  other  Aus- 
tralian bird.  The  upper  parts  are  vel- 
vety black,  tinged  with  purple;  the  under 
parts  velvety  black,  diversified  with  olive- 
green.  The  crown  of  the  head  and  the 
throat  are  covered  with  innumerable  little 
specks  of  emerald  green  of  most  brilliant 
luster.  The  tail  is  black,  the  two  central 
feathers  rich  metallic  green.  The  female, 
as  is  often  the  case,  is  much  duller  col- 
ored than  her  mate. 

RIGA,  a  city  and  capital  of  the  re- 
public of  Latvia  on  the  Dwina  river 
(crossed  here  by  a  bridge  of  boats  and  a 
railway  bridge),  7  miles  from  the  mouth 
of  the  river,  and  350  S.  W.  of  Petrograd, 
via  Pskoff .  The  old  town  has  narrow 
streets  and  mediaeval  houses  and  stores; 
but  the  suburbs  are  laid  out  in  broad 
streets  with  handsome  buildings.  The 
chief  edifices  are  the  cathedral,  built  in 
1204,  burned  down  in  1547,  but  rebuilt; 
St.  Peter's  Church  (1406),  with  a  steeple 
460  feet  high;  the  castle  of  the  old 
Knights  of  the  Sword,  built  1494-1515, 
the  former  residence  of  the  grand-master 


machines,  tobacco,  corks,  spirits,  oils, 
metal  wares,  glass,  paper,  flax,  jute,  and 
oilcloth,  and  employed  nearly  12,000 
people.  Riga  was  founded  in  1201  by 
Albert,  Bishop  of  Livonia,  and  soon  be- 
came a  first-rate  commercial  town,  and 
member  of  the  Hanseatic  League.  It  be- 
longed to  Poland  from  1561,  and  in  1621 
was  taken  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  in 
1710  was  finally  annexed  to  Russia.  Riga 
suffered  damage  from  attacks  during  the 
World  War  (1914-1918)  and  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Germans.  See  World  War. 
On  the  establishment  of  the  Republic  of 
Latvia  (q.  v.)  in  1919,  Riga  became  its 
capital.     Pop.  about  335,000. 

RIGA,  GULF  OF,  an  inlet  on  the  E. 
side  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  It  is  105  miles 
in  length  from  N.  to  S.  and  about  60  in 
breadth.  The  islands  of  Oesel,  Dago, 
Mohn,  and  Worms,  lie  across  the  entrance. 
The  chief  river  which  falls  into  the  gulf 
is  the  Dwina.  Sandbanks  render  naviga- 
tion in  some  parts  dangerous. 

RIGGING,  ropes,  chains,  etc.,  used  to 
support  or  operate  a  ship's  masts  or  spara 
and  set  or  trim  the  sails.  Standing  rig- 
ging (usually  wire  or  hempen  rope)  is  per- 
manent and  supports  the  masts  and  some 
of  the  spars.  Running  rigging  (manila, 
hemp,  cotton,  flexible  wire,  or  chain),  gen- 
erally run  through  blocks,  is  used  in  han- 
dling sails  and  spars.  (See  Sail.)  Tackle 
used  in  logging  is  also  called  rigging. 

RIGGS,  ELIAS,  an  American  mission- 
ary and  linguist,  born  Nov.  19,  1810,  at 
New  Providence,  N.  J.  He  published 
Armenian  and  Bulgarian  translations  of 
the  Bible.     He  died  Jan.  17,  1901. 

RIGGS.    KATE    DOUGLAS    WIGGIN. 

See  Wiggin,  Kate  Douglas. 


RIGHT    OF    WAY 


52 


RIGHTS   OF   MAN 


RIGHT  OF  WAY,  the  right  which  the 
public  has  to  the  free  passage  over  roads 
or  tracks.  The  expression  is  more  gen- 
erally applied  to  those  public  routes  which 
are  not  statutory  roads,  such  as  hill  or 
field  paths,  drove  roads,  bridle  and  other 
paths,  and  cart  or  driving  roads  in  the 
common  use  of  the  public,  which  are  not 
kept  up  by  the  county  authorities.  In 
many  instances  these  roads  are  the  only 
means  of  communication  between  impor- 
tant districts;  and  generally  they  are  the 
shorter,  and  often  the  more  picturesque, 
ways  from  one  point  to  another.  Right 
of  way  also  exists  along  the  seashore 
and  on  the  banks  of  tidal  rivers.  The 
law  of  rights  of  way  is  judicial  and  not 
statutory.  In  Scotland,  where  of  late 
the  chief  causes  celebres  have  originated, 
40  years'  continuous  use  by  the  public 
of  such  roads  or  paths  is  the  prescriptive 
period  for  constituting  a  right  of  way; 
while  in  England  the  public  acquire  a 
right  of  way  under  dedication  to  them 
by  the  owner  of  the  soil,  and  user  sig- 
nifying their  acceptance  of  the  same,  or 
when  dedication  can  fairly  be  assumed 
from  notorious  user,  which  needs  gener- 
ally to  be  proved  for  a  lengthened  period, 
but  which  may  yet,  according  to  circum- 
stances, be  presumed  from  a  period  of 
user  of  only  a  few  years. 

In  Scotland  there  is  no  public  authority 
for  the  protection  of  the  interests  of  the 
public  in  rights  of  way,  or  for  their 
maintenance.  They  are  in  the  position 
of  being  left  to  chance;  and  "what  is 
everybody's  business  is  nobody's  business" 
has  resulted  in  many  valuable  rights  be- 
ing lost.  The  public,  or  individual  mem- 
bers of  the  public,  have  to  incur  the  coats 
and  risks  of  litigation  in  the  courts  under 
an  action  of  declarator  to  recover  a  road 
which  a  proprietor  has  closed,  and  it  is 
difficult  for  them  to  do  this.  In  Eng- 
land, though  there  is  also  no  direct  pub- 
lic authority  for  the  guardianship  of 
rights  of  way,  yet  their  maintenance  is 
so  far  provided  for  under  section  10  of 
the  Local  Government  (England)  Act, 
1888,  which  enacts  that  county  councils 
"may,  if  they  think  fit,  contribute  toward 
the  costs  of  the  maintenance,  repair, 
enlargement,  and  improvement  of  any 
highway  or  public  footpath  in  the 
county,  though  the  same  is  not  a  main 
road." 

Both  in  Scotland  and  England  influen- 
tial societies  exist  for  the  purpose  of  as- 
sisting in  the  protection  of  public  rights 
of  way — viz.,  the  Scottish  Rights  of  Way 
and  Recreation  Society,  Edinburgh, 
founded  in  1844  and  reconstituted  in 
1884,  and  the  National  Footpath  Preser- 
vation Society,  London,  founded  in  1884. 
There  are  also  several  societies  for  spe- 
cial districts.    See  Roads. 


RIGHTS,  DECLARATION  AND  BILL 
OF.  The  Convention  Parliament  which 
called  the  Prince  and  Princess  of  Orange 
to  the  throne  of  England  set  forth,  in 
a  solemn  instrument  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Declaration  of  Rights,  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  the  constitution 
which  were  to  be  imposed  on  William 
and  Mary  on  their  acceptance  of  the 
crown.  This  declaration  (February, 
1689),  drawn  up  by  a  committee  of  the 
Commons,  and  assented  to  by  the  lords, 
began  by  declaring  that  King  James  II. 
had  committed  certain  acts  contrary  to 
the  laws  of  the  realm,  and,  having  abdi- 
cated, had  left  the  throne  vacant.  The 
main  provisions  of  the  Declaration,  and 
of  the  Bill  of  Rights  (October,  1689), 
based  on  it,  were  to  the  effect  that  the 
power  of  suspending  and  of  dispensing 
with  laws  by  regal  authority  is  illegal; 
that  the  commission  for  creating  the  late 
Court  of  Commissioners  for  Ecclesiastical 
Causes,  and  all  commissions  and  courts 
of  the  like  nature,  are  illegal;  that  the 
levying  of  money  for  the  use  of  the  crown 
by  prerogative,  without  grant  of  Parlia- 
ment, is  illegal;  that  it  is  the  right  of 
the  subjects  to  petition  the  king,  and  all 
prosecutions  for  such  petitioning  are  ille- 
gal; that  the  raising  or  keeping  of  a 
standing  army  in  time  of  peace,  except 
with  consent  of  Parliament,  is  illegal; 
that  Protestant  subjects  may  have  arms 
for  their  defense;  that  the  election  of 
members  of  Parliament  should  be  free; 
that  freedom  of  speech  in  Parliament 
should  not  be  questioned  in  any  place  out 
of  Parliament;  that  excessive  bail  ought 
not  to  be  required,  or  excessive  fines  im- 
posed, or  cruel  or  unusual  punishments 
inflicted;  that  jurors  should  be  duly  im- 

Eaneled,  and  that  jurors  in  trials  for 
igh  treason  should  be  freeholders;  that 
grants  and  promises  of  fines  and  forfei- 
tures before  conviction  are  illegal;  and 
that  for  redress  of  all  grievances,  and 
the  amendment,  strengthening,  and  pre- 
serving of  the  laws,  Parliaments  ought 
to  be  held  frequently.  The  remaining 
clauses  treat  of  the  succession  to  the 
crown. 

RIGHTS  OF  MAN,  DECLARATION 
OF  THE,  a  famous  statement  of  the  con- 
stitution and  principles  of  civil  society 
and  government  adopted  by  the  French 
National  Assembly  in  August,  1789.  In 
historical  importance  it  may  fairly  be 
ranked  with  the  English  Bill  of  Rights 
and  the  American  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. It  suggested  the  title  for 
Paine's  defense  of  the  French  Revolution 
against  Burke  (1791-1792) ;  which  was 
followed  by  Mary  Wollstonecraft  God- 
win's "Vindication  of  the  Rights  of 
Women." 


i  Underwood  &  Underwood 

RICE    FIELDS    IN    THE    INTERIOR    OF    CHINA  Enc.  Vol.  8- p.  52 


i  Underwood  &  Underwood 

JAPANESE   LABORERS   TRANSPLANTING    RICE 


Underwood  &  Underwood 

HARVESTING    RICE    ON    A    PLANTATION    IN    LOUISIANA 


RIGI 


53 


RIMINI 


RIGI,  an  isolated  rocky  mountain  of 
Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Schwyz,  be- 
tween Lakes  Zug  and  Lucerne,  5,905  feet 
high.  It  affords  one  of  the  finest  views 
in  Switzerland,  and  is  annually  visited 
by  numerous  travelers.  Two  railways 
have  been  constructed  to  reach  its  sum- 
mit (Rigi-Kulm)  from  opposite  sides. 
They  are  on  the  "rack-and-pinion"  prin- 
ciple, there  being  a  central  toothed  rail 
into  which  works  a  toothed  wheel  under 
the  locomotive.  There  is  also  a  short  line 
on  the  mountain  worked  on  the  ordinary 
principle.  Hotels  and  similar  establish- 
ments are  numerous  on  the  Rigi. 

RIGOR  MORTIS,  the  cadaveric  rigid- 
ity or  stiffness  of  the  body  which  arises 
within  seven  hours  after  death.  It  begins 
with  the  muscles  of  the  lower  jaw  and 
neck,  then  those  of  the  trunk,  next  those 
of  the  arms,  and,  finally  those  of  the  legs. 
It  ultimately  passes  off  in  the  same  order 
as  it  came.  It  is  believed  to  be  due  to 
coagulation  of  fluid  substance  in  the 
muscle. 

RIG  VEDA,  in  Sanskrit  literature, 
the  oldest  and  most  original  of  the  four 
Vedas,  and  probably  the  oldest  literary 
composition  in  the  world.  In  all  likeli- 
hood it  was  in  course  of  composition  about 
1,400  years  B.  c,  but  was  not  committed 
to  writing  at  that  time.  It  contains  no 
allusion  to  writing  or  writing  materials, 
and  Max  Muller  believes  that  for  a  long 
period  it  was  transmitted  orally  from 
generation  to  generation.  It  consists  of 
1,017  short  lyrical  poems,  with  10,580 
verses.  The  religion  was  nature  worship, 
Indra,  the  Cloud-compeller,  being  the 
chief  object  of  adoration,  and,  after  him, 
Agni,  the  God  of  fire.  The  Hindu  Triad 
had  not  yet  arisen.  The  Rig  Veda  does 
not  recognize  the  institution  of  caste. 
Beef  was  eaten.  Women  held  a  high  po- 
sition, and  some  of  the  hymns  were  com- 
posed by  them.  The  rite  of  suttee  was 
unknown;  the  conquest  of  India  had  only 
begun,  and  the  Ganges,  incidentally  men- 
tioned, had  not  become  a  sacred  stream. 

RIIS,  JACOB  AUGUST,  an  American 
author;  born  in  Ribe,  Denmark,  May  3, 
1849,  came  to  the  United  States  in  1870, 
and  was  for  many  years  a  reporter  on 
the  New  York  "Sun."  He  was  identified 
with  many  charitable  and  social  move- 
ments in  conjunction  with  Theodore 
Roosevelt.  He  wrote  "How  the  Other 
Half  Lives";  "The  Children  of  the  Poor"; 
"Nibsy's  Christmas";  "Out  of  Mulberry 
Street";  "A  Ten  Years'  War";  "The  Mak- 
ing of  an  American";  "Theodore  Roose- 
velt" (1904) ;  "The  Old  Town"  (1909)  ; 
"Hero  Tales  of  the  Far  North"  (1910) ; 
"Neighbors"  (1914).    He  died  in  1914. 


RILEY,  JAMES  WHITCOMB,  an 
American  poet;  born  in  Greenfield,  Ind., 
on  October  7, 1849.  Contributions  to  news- 
papers and  magazines,  appearing  under 
the  pseudonym  "B.  F.  Johnson  of  Boone," 
first  attracted  public  attention  about  1875. 
His  writings  soon  became  so  popular  that 


JAMES   WHITCOMB   RILEY 

he  devoted  himself  to  literature  and  pub- 
lic reading  of  his  work  with  great  suc- 
cess. His  poems  are  characterized  by 
both  humor  and  pathos  and  by  their  sym- 
pathy with  the  simplest  phases  of  life. 
Those  of  the  Hoosier  type  are  especially 
popular.  He  published,  "Old  Swimmin' 
Hole"  (1887) ;  "After  Whiles"  (1887) ; 
"Poems  Here  at  Home"  (1893)  ;  "Green 
Fields  and  Runnin'  Brooks"  (1893)  ;  "An 
Old  Sweetheart  of  Mine";  "Rhymes  of 
Childhood";  "Flying  Islands  of  the 
Night";  "While  the  Heart  Beats  Young" 
(1906);  "The  Girl  I  Loved"  (1910); 
"Old  Times"    (1915).      He  died  in   1916. 

RIMINI,  a  city  of  Italy,  stands  on  the 
shore  of  the  Adriatic,  69  miles  by  rail 
S.  E.  of  Bologna;  it  is  still  surrounded 
with  walls  and  contains  many  mediaeval 
buildings.  The  cathedral,  the  temple  al- 
tered and  built  to  commemorate  the  un- 
hallowed love  of  Sigismundo  Malatesta 
and  Isotta  degli  Atti,  a  beautiful  Renais- 
sance structure,  dates  from  1446-1450; 
the  Church  of  St.  Giuliano  is  adorned 
with  pictures  by  Veronese,  and  St.  Giro- 


RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF 


54 


RINEHART 


lamo  with  a  picture  of  that  saint  by  Guer- 
cino.  The  ancient  castle  of  the  Malatesta 
is  now  used  as  a  prison.  The  little  river 
on  which  the  city  stands  is  spanned  by 
a  white  marble  Roman  bridge,  236  feet 
long,  with  five  arches.  Beside  one  of 
the  gates  stands  the  triumphal  arch,  46 
feet  high,  erected  in  honor  of  Augustus. 
The  spot  where  Csesar  stood  to  address 
his  soldiers  after  crossing  the  Rubicon 
(about  10  miles  N.  W.  of  Rimini)  is 
marked  in  one  of  the  squares  by  a  monu- 
mental pillar.  The  city  manufactures 
silks  and  sail  cloth.  Pop.  about  50,000. 
One  of  its  suburbs,  half  a  mile  distant 
on  the  seashore,  is  much  visited  for  sea- 
bathing. Originally  an  Umbrian,  and 
then  for  several  centuries  an  Etruscan 
city,  Rimini  (Ariminum)  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Romans  in  269  B.  c.  They 
made  it  the  N.  terminus  of  the  Flamin- 
ian  Way  from  Rome,  and  the  S.  termi- 
nus of  the  ./Emilian  Way  to  Piacenza 
and  of  the  Popilian  Way  to  Venice,  and 
utilized  the  advantages  of  its  position 
as  a  seaport  for  communicating  with  the 
E.  side  of  the  Adriatic.  After  being 
battled  for  by  Goths  and  Byzantines, 
and  held  by  the  latter,  the  Lombards, 
and  the  Franks,  it  became  a  shuttlecock 
between  the  emperor  and  the  Pope.  At 
last,  weary  of  this  alternation  of  mas- 
ters, neither  of  whom  profited  her,  Ri- 
mini put  herself  under  the  protection  of 
the  House  of  Malatesta  (1237),  whose 
chiefs  soon  made  themselves  absolute 
masters  of  her  fortunes.  Among  the 
tragic  episodes  that  marked  the  family 
history  of  these  rulers  may  be  mentioned 
the  killing  of  Francesca  da  Rimini  and 
her  lover  by  his  brother,  and  the  story 
of  Parisina,  the  subject  of  Byron's  poem. 
The  most  famous  or  rather  infamous 
member  of  the  family  was  Sigismund© 
(1417-1468),  a  brave  and  skilful  soldier, 
a  scholar,  a  patron  of  the  fine  arts,  but 
a  man  of  brutal  animal  passions  and 
with  no  sense  of  right  and  wrong.  The 
head  of  the  house  sold  his  rights  over 
Rimini  to  the  Venetians  in  1503,  but  the 
Pope  wrested  them  to  himself  in  1528 
and  kept  them  till  1860. 

RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF,  NICHOLAS 
ANDREIEVICH,  a  Russian  composer; 
born  at  Tikhvin,  Government  of  Novgo- 
rod, March  18,  1844.  In  1856  he  entered 
the  Naval  College  in  St.  Petersburg,  re- 
maining until  1862,  when  he  was  sent  on 
a  three  years'  cruise.  Thereafter  re- 
suming his  musical  studies,  he  became 
one  of  the  foremost  of  Russian  compos- 
ers. Among  the  most  important  of  his 
many  operas  are:  "A  Night  in  May" 
(1878);  "The  Snow  Maiden"  (1882); 
"Mlada"  (1893)  ;  "Christmas  Eve" 
(1895)  ;     "The     Czar's     Bride"     (1898)  ; 


"The  Tale  of  Czar  Saltana"  (1900). 
His  operas,  which  are  based  on  national 
subjects,  are  little  known  outside  of 
Russia.  He  died  at  St.  Petersburg, 
June  20,   1908. 

RIMTJ,  a  New  Zealand  tree  (Dacry- 
dium  cupressinum)  of  the  yew  family. 
It  grows  to  a  height  of  80  to  100  feet, 
and  from  two  to  six  feet  in  diameter. 
Its  wood  i3  valued  for  general  building 
purposes. 

RINDERPEST.     See    Cattle  -  PLAGUE. 

RINEHART,    MARY    ROBERTS,    an 

American  author  and  playwright;  born 
at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.;  educated  to  be  a 
trained  nurse  and  married  Dr.  Stanley 
Rinehart  in  1896.  Her  literary  efforts 
were  first  noticed  in  1908  when  she  came 
before    the    public    with    "The    Circular 


MARY    ROBERTS    RINEHART 

Staircase."  She  was  recognized  at  once 
as  an  author  of  great  power  and  her 
success  since  then  has  been  unabated. 
"Bab  — a  Sub-Deb,"  and  "Dangerous 
Days"  might  be  cited  as  representative 
of  her  more  recent  work,  and  in  the 
dramatic  field  "Seven  Days,"  produced 
at  the  Astor  Theater  in  New  York  in 
1909,  and  "The  Bat"  (1920)  have  ex- 
emplified  her   skill   and   charm,   and   her 


RINEHART 


55 


RING 


power  to  put  the  human  interest  element 
prominently  into  the  difficult  medium  of 
the  modern  American  play. 

RINEHART,  WILLIAM  HENRY,  an 
American  sculptor;  born  in  Carroll  co., 
Md.,  Sept.  13,  1825;  went  to  Baltimore 
in  1846;  and  found  employment  at  his 
trade  of  stone  cutter.  He  attended  night 
school  at  the  Maryland  Institute  and 
studied  art;  went  to  Italy  in  1855  and 
studied  under  the  best  masters  in  sculp- 
ture; and  while  in  that  city  executed 
two  bas-reliefs,  "Night"  and  "Morning," 
which  attracted  wide  attention.  He 
opened  a  studio  on  his  return  to  Bal- 
timore, but  in  1858  established  himself 
in  Rome.  His  "Clytie,"  and  "Love  Rec- 
onciled with  Death,"  in  marble,  at  Bal- 
timore, are  noted  for  artistic  feeling  in 
prose.  He  completed  Crawford's  bronze 
doors  for  the  National  Capitol  at  Wash- 
ington.    He  died  in  Rome,  Oct.  28,  1874. 

RING,  any  circle  or  section  of  a  cylin- 
der. Rings  of  gold,  silver,  and  of  other 
metals  and  materials  have  been  worn  in 
all  times  and  countries,  and  while  they 
have  been  used  to  decorate  the  ears, 
neck,  nose,  lips,  arms,  legs,  and  toes, 
finger  rings  have  always  occupied  the 
most  important  and  significant  place 
among  such  ornaments.  From  the  ear- 
liest period  of  civilized  relationships  the 
finger  ring  was  a  convenient  means  for 
carrying  the  signet  of  its  wearer.  He- 
rodotus mentions  the  wearing  of  finger 
rings  by  the  Babylonians;  and  from 
Asia  the  habit  probably  passed  into 
Greece,  though  the  Homeric  poems  men- 
tion earrings  alone.  In  the  later  Greek 
legends  the  ancient  heroes  are  described 
as  wearing  rings,  and  every  freeman 
throughout  Greece  seems  afterward  to 
have  possessed  one.  The  Lacedaemonians 
wore  iron  rings.  The  Romans  are  said 
to  have  derived  the  use  of  rings  from 
the  Sabines;  their  rings  were  at  first,  as 
those  of  the  Greeks,  signet  rings,  but 
made  of  iron.  Ambassadors,  in  the  early 
age  of  the  Roman  republic,  wore  gold  rings 
as  a  part  of  their  official  dress — a  custom 
afterward  extended  to  senators,  chief 
magistrates,  and  in  later  times  to  the 
equites,  who  were  said  to  enjoy  the  jus 
annuli  aurei,  from  which  other  persons 
were  excluded.  It  became  customary  for 
the  emperors  to  confer  the  jus  annuli 
aurei  on  whom  they  pleased  and  the 
privilege  grew  gradually  more  and  more 
extensive  till  Justinian  embraced  within 
it  all  citizens  of  the  empire  whether  in- 
genui  or  libertini.  Rings  entered  into 
the  groundwork  of  many  Oriental  su- 
perstitions, as  in  the  legend  of  Solo- 
mon's ring,  which,  among  its  many  mag- 
ical virtues,  enabled  the  monarch  to 
triumph   over    all    opponents    and    daily 


to  transport  himself  to  the  celestial 
spheres,  where  he  learned  the  secrets 
of  the  universe.  The  Greeks  mention 
various  rings  endowed  with  magic  pow- 
er, as  that  of  Gyges,  which  rendered 
him  invisible  when  its  stone  was  turned 
inward;  and  in  old  Saxon  romances  a 
similar  ring  legend  is  incorporated.  The 
ring  of  Polycrates  (q.  v.),  which  was 
flung  into  the  sea  to  propitiate  Nemesis, 
was  found  by  its  owner  inside  a  fish; 
and  there  were  persons  who  made  a  lu- 
crative traffic  of  selling  charmed  rings, 
worn  for  the  most  part  by  the  lower 
classes.  By  many  Mussulmans  at  the 
present  day  a  ring  having  enclosed  in 
it  a  verse  from  the  Koran  is  worn  as 
an  amulet. 

Various  explanations  have  been  given 
of  the  connection  of  the  ring  with  mar- 
riage. It  would  appear  that  wedding 
rings  were  worn  by  the  Jews  prior  to 
Christian  times.  It  has  been  said  that 
as  the  delivery  of  the  signet  ring  to  any 
one  was  a  sign  of  deputing  or  sharing 
of  authority,  so  the  delivery  of  a  ring 
by  husband  to  wife  indicated  her  admit- 
tance to  share  his  rights  and  privileges. 
In  pagan  times  in  Europe  the  ring  seems 
to  have  been  connected  with  fidelity  or 
with  espousals.  By  an  ancient  Norse 
custom,  described  in  the  "Eyrbrygia 
Saga,"  when  an  oath  was  imposed,  he 
by  whom  it  was  pledged  passed  his  hand 
through  a  silver  ring  sacred  to  that 
ceremony;  and  in  Iceland  the  ceremony 
of  betrothal  used  to  be  accompanied  by 
the  bridegroom  passing  his  four  fingers 
and  thumbs  through  a  large  ring,  and 
in  this  manner  receiving  the  hand  of  the 
bride,  as  is  represented  in  a  woodcut  in 
an  old  edition  of  "Olaus  Mangus."  For 
betrothal,  as  well  as  for  marriage,  a 
ring  is  commonly  bestowed;  and  in  many 
countries  both  spouses  wear  wedding 
rings.  Though  the  third  finger  of  the 
left  hand  is  the  official  finger,  rings  are 
worn  on  all  fingers,  and  in  mediaeval 
times  even  the  thumbs  were  frequently 
decorated  with  large  and  massive  rings. 
During  the  16th,  17th,  and  18th  cen- 
turies it  was  a  very  common  practice 
to  have  mottoes  inscribed  on  rings,  in- 
cluding wedding  rings,  and  the  motto 
was  called  the  posy  or  chanson.  The 
ring  was  the  symbol  of  the  dominion  of 
Venice  over  the  Adriatic;  and  yearly,  on 
Ascension  Day,  a  ring  was  thrown  by 
the  Doge  from  the  ship  "Bucentaur"  into 
the  sea,  to  denote  that  as  the  wife  is 
subject  to  her  husband,  so  is  the  Adri- 
atic sea  to  the  republic  of  Venice.  The 
reception  of  a  ring  forms  an  essential 
feature  in  the  investiture  of  many  Cath- 
olic dignitaries,  and  even  in  the  Angli- 
can communion.  The  "fisherman's  ring," 
containing    an    engraved    representation 


RING-DOVE  56 

of  St.  Peter  in  an  ancient  fishing  boat, 
is  the  official  ring  of  investiture  of  the 
Pope.  It  is  broken  and  another  made  on 
the  death  of  each  Pontiff. 

RING-DOVE,  or  CUSHAT,  the  largest 
of  the  pigeons  inhabiting  Great  Britain, 
a  bird  which  occurs  very  generally 
throughout  the  wooded  parts  of  Europe. 
It  is  migratory  in  countries  in  which 
the  severe  winters  preclude  the  possibil- 
ity of  its  obtaining  a  due  supply  of  food, 
and  even  in  Great  Britain,  in  which  it 
permanently  resides,  it  appears  on  the 
approach  of  winter  to  assemble  in  flocks, 
and  to  perform  a  limited  migration, 
probably  in  search  of  food.  A  bluish- 
gray  color  prevails  generally  over  the 
head,  cheeks,  neck,  back,  and  rump,  while 
the  breast  and  under  parts  of  the  neck 
are  of  a  purplish  red,  the  belly  and 
thighs  dull  white.  A  patch  of  white  on 
either  side  of  the  neck  forms  a  sort  of 
ring  or  collar. 

RINGED  SNAKE,  a  harmless  colu- 
brine  snake  (Tropidonotus  or  Coluber 
natrix),  with  teeth  so  small  as  to  be 
incapable  of  piercing  the  skin.  It  is 
common  in  England.  It  feeds  on  frogs, 
mice,  young  birds,  etc.,  which  it  swal- 
lows alive.     It  is  torpid  during  winter. 

RING  MONEY,  a  form  of  currency 
consisting  of  rings  which  seems  to  have 
originated  with  the  Egyptians.  It  is  still 
used  in  parts  of  Africa,  and  is  manu- 
factured in  Birmingham  for  the  use  of 
African  traders.  A  similar  form  of 
money  was  found  by  Caesar  among  the 
Celts  of  Gaul,  and  appears  also  to  have 
prevailed  in  Great  Britain,  as  well  as 
among  the  Scandinavian  nations  of 
northern   Europe. 

RING  OUZEL  (Turdus  torquatus,  or 
Merula  torquata),  a  species  of  thrush, 
rather  larger  than  a  blackbird.  It  is  a 
native  chiefly  of  the  W.  parts  of  Eu- 
rope; it  spends  the  winter  in  the  S.  of 
Europe,  northern  Africa,  Syria,  and  Per- 
sia, and  visits  more  northern  regions  in 
summer.  It  occurs  frequently  in  many 
parts  of  the  British  Islands,  where  it 
breeds  even  in  the  Orkneys.  It  is  sel- 
dom seen  in  the  more  cultivated  and 
thickly  peopled  districts,  preferring  moun- 
tain slopes,  heaths,  and  their  vicinity. 
The  nest  is  made  of  coarse  grass,  within 
which  is  a  thin  shell  of  clay,  and  an 
inner  lining  of  fine  dry  grass.  The  eggs 
are  usually  four;  greenish  blue  in  color, 
flecked  and  spotted  with  reddish  brown; 
and  not  infrequently  there  is  a  second 
brood  in  July.  The  food  consists  of 
worms,  slugs,  insects,  and  moorland  ber- 
ries, and  the  bird  often  makes  raids  on 
fruit  gardens,  while  in  vine  countries  it 
feeds  largely  on  grapes.     In  some  parts 


RIO  DE  JANEIRO 

of  Scotland  it  is  known  as  the  moor 
blackbird.  It  is  of  a  dark-brown,  almost 
black,  color;  the  feathers  are  edged  with 
blackish  gray,  the  wing  feathers  more 
conspicuously  with  gray,  and  there  is  a 
broad  crescentic  white  gorget — whence 
the  name.  The  legs  and  feet  are  brown- 
ish black.  The  female  is  lighter  and 
browner,  with  a  narrower  and  duller 
gorget.  The  song  consists  of  a  few  loud, 
clear,  and  plaintive  notes,  but  is  some- 
what monotonous.    See  Ouzel. 

RINGWORM,  an  eruptive  disease  of 
the  skin,  more  particularly  on  the  head, 
and  of  which  there  are  several  kinds. 
The  most  common  kind  commences  with 
clusters  of  small  light  yellow  pustules, 
which  soon  break  and  form  thin  scabs, 
which,  if  neglected,  become  thick  and 
hard  by  accumulation.  When  removed, 
they  appear  again  in  a  few  days;  and 
by  these  repetitions  the  incrustations  be- 
come thicker  and  the  area  of  the  patches 
extends,  so  as,  if  unchecked,  to  affect 
the  whole  head,  and  extend  also  to  the 
forehead  and  neck.  The  patches  are  of 
an  irregular  circular  form.  This  dis- 
ease occurs  generally  in  children  of  three 
or  four  years  and  upward.  It  is  said  to 
occur  spontaneously  in  children  ill-fed 
and  uncleanly.  The  principal  local  treat- 
ment,  when  the  patches  are  in  an  in- 
flamed and  irritable  condition,  consists 
in  regular  washing  or  sponging  with 
warm  water  or  some  emollient  fomenta- 
tion. 

RIO  DE  JANEIRO,  the  metropolitan 
province  of  Brazil,  taking  its  name  from 
the  river  Janeiro,  which  runs  through 
it.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  province  of 
Espiritu  Santo,  E.  and  S.  by  the  Atlan- 
tic ocean,  and  W.  by  the  extensive  re- 
gion of  Minas-Geraes;  area,  26,634 
square  mlies;  pop.  (1917)  1,605,274.  It 
is  extremely  fertile,  producing  sugar  in 
great  abundance,  which  is  accordingly 
one  of  its  chief  exports.  The  other 
products  are  coffee,  cotton,  maize,  rice, 
indigo,  cacao,  and  fine  woods.  The  coun- 
try is  mountainous,  and  is  well  wooded 
and  watered. 

RIO  DE  JANEIRO,  or  simply  RIO,  a 
city  and  seaport,  capital  of  Brazil  and 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  and 
the  largest  and  most  important  commer- 
cial city  of  South  America;  on  the  W. 
side  of  one  of  the  finest  bays  in  the 
world,  80  miles  W.  of  Cape  Frio.  The 
city  stands  on  a  tongue  of  land  close 
to  the  shore,  on  the  W.  side  of  the  bay, 
at  the  foot  of  several  high  mountains 
which  rise  behind  it.  The  houses  are 
generally  built  of  stone  or  brick.  The 
streets  are  straight,  well  paved,  and 
have  excellent  footpaths.     The  convents 


RIO   DE   ORO 


57 


RIOJA 


and  churches  are  numerous,  but  none  of 
them  can  be  called  fine  buildings.  The 
cathedral  is  of  a  superior  style  of  archi- 
tecture. Parallel  with  the  beach  runs 
the  main  street,  Primeiro  de  Marco, 
from  which  the  minor  streets  branch  off 
at  right  angles  and  are  intersected  by 
others  at  regular  distances.  The  former 
imperial  palace,  now  the  National  Mu- 
seum, skirts  the  beach,  and  is  seen  to 
great  advantage  from  the  landing-place, 
which  is  within  60  yards  of  its  entrance. 
The  other  public  buildings  are  the  naval 
and  military  arsenal,  a  public  hospital, 
a  national  library  containing  about  300,- 
000  volumes,  colleges,  and  other  educa- 
tional and  charitable  establishments.  (  It 
has,  besides,  several  scientific  institu- 
tions, a  museum  of  natural  history,  a 
botanic  garden,  and  a  theater.  The  har- 
bor is  one  of  the  finest  known,  and 
indeed  can  scarcely  be  excelled  for  ca- 
paciousness and  the  security  which  it 
affords  to  vessels  of  every  description. 
The  entrance  into  it  from  the  sea  does 
not  exceed  a  mile  from  point  to  point; 
it  afterward  widens  to  about  three  or 
four  miles,  and  is  commanded  in  every 
direction  with  heavy  batteries — all  the 
numerous  little  islands  with  which  it  is 
interspersed  being  crowned  with  artil- 
lery. This  city  is  the  chief  mart  of 
Brazil,  and  especially  of  the  provinces  of 
Minas-Geraes,  Sao  Paulo,  Goyaz,  and 
Matto-Grosso.  The  manufacturing  inter- 
ests are  comparatively  unimportant.  The 
imports  in  1918  were  valued  at  $119,- 
419,000,  the  exports  at  $65,427,000.  Pop. 
about  1,200,000.  The  first  settlement  at 
Rio,  made  by  the  French,  dates  back  to 
1555.  The  Portuguese  founded  the  city 
proper  in  1567,  and  it  became  the  capital 
of  Brazil  in  1762.  The  court  of  Portu- 
gal was  in  residence  at  Rio  from  1808 
to  1821. 

RIO  DE  ORO,  a  strip  of  coast  with  its 
hinterland  belonging  to  Spain  on  the 
W.  of  the  Sahara  desert,  Africa,  stretch- 
ing from  Cape  Blanco  to  Morocco  and 
bounded  on  the  E.  and  S.  by  the  Ter- 
ritory of  Mauritania  belonging  to  France. 
Its  area  is  about  121,400  square  miles, 
the  French  boundary  being  settled  and 
confirmed  in  1900  and  1912.  The  region 
is  an  arid  plateau,  with  a  growth  of  es- 
parto grass  near  the  sea,  and  some  oases 
inland.  There  is  some  cattle  and  camel 
raising  and  the  inhabitants,  chiefly  ne- 
groes, number  about  30,000. 

RIO  GRANDE,  a  river  of  western 
Africa,  which  enters  the  Atlantic  by  an 
estuary  opposite  the  Bissagos  Islands; 
upper  course  not  well  known. 

RIO  GRANDE  DE  CAGAYAN,  the 
largest    river    in    Luzon,    Philippine    Is- 


lands. It  has  its  rise  in  the  mountain- 
ous regions  of  the  central  part  of  the 
island,  flows  north  two  hundred  miles 
and  empties  into  the  China  Sea  near  the 
northern  extremity  of  Luzon.  The  river 
is  navigable  for  a  distance  of  13  miles 
from  its  mouth,  to  the  town  of  Lallo, 
for  river  steamboats  with  a  draught  not 
exceeding  12  feet.  The  best  quality  of 
tobacco  raised  in  the  Philippines  is  pro- 
duced along  the  banks  of  the  river. 

RIO  GRANDE,  RIO  GRANDE  DEL 
NORTE,  or  RIO  BRAVO  DEL  NORTE, 

a  large  river  of  North  America,  rises  in 
the  San  Juan  mountains  in  southwest- 
ern Colorado,  and  flows  generally  S.  E. 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  forming  on  its 
way  the  entire  boundary  between  Texas 
and  Mexico.  Its  length  is  about  1,800 
miles;  it  is  for  the  most  part  a  shallow 
stream,  but  small  steamboats  can  ascend 
for  nearly  500  miles.  Its  chief  affluent 
is  the  Rio  Pecos. 

RIO  GRANDE  DO  NORTE,  a  mari- 
time state  of  northeastern  Brazil.  Area, 
22,190  square  miles.  The  surface  is 
mountainous  in  the  interior  and  poorly 
drained,  the  chief  river  being  the  Pi- 
ranhas. The  region  is  near  the  equator. 
Among  the  industries  are  fishing,  salt 
production,  vegetable  wax  preparation, 
horse  and  cattle  raising,  while  rubber, 
sugar-cane,  cotton,  millet,  and  mandioca 
are  cultivated.  The  capital  is  Natal. 
Pop.  about  430,000. 

RIO-GRANDE-DO-SUL,  the  extreme 
S.  province  of  Brazil;  bounded  partly  by 
the  Atlantic,  and  bordering  on  Uruguay 
and  the  Argentine  Republic;  area,  91,- 
336  square  miles.  Pop.  about  900,000. 
It  is  well  watered,  contains  much  fertile 
land,  and  has  a  healthy  climate.  On  the 
coast  is  the  large  lake  or  lagoon  of  Pa- 
tos,  besides  others.  The  chief  occupations 
of  the  inhabitants  are  cattle  rearing 
and  agriculture.  Among  the  popula- 
tion are  over  200,000  Germans,  there  be- 
ing a  number  of  flourishing  German  set- 
tlements. There  are  some  600  miles  of 
railway.  Hides,  tallow,  horse-hair,  bones, 
etc.,  are  exported.  Capital,  Porto  Ale- 
gre. 

~  RIOJA,  FRANCISCO  DE  (re-5'Ha), 
a  Spanish  poet;  born  in  Seville  about 
1585.  He  was  a  great  scholar,  librarian 
of  the  royal  library  and  Chronicler  of 
Castile.  He  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
best  poets  of  his  time.  His  best  known 
work  is  "Epistola  Moral  a  Fabio,"  full 
of  sound  advice  regarding  the  superior- 
ity of  a  quiet  and  unassuming  life.  He 
wrote  many  sonnets  under  the  titles  of 
"To  Riches,"  "To  Poverty,"  "To  the 
Spring,"  "To  the  Rose,"  and  "Silvas." 
His  "Poems,"  with  extensive  biography, 


RIO    NEGRO 


58 


RIPLEY 


were  published  in  1867,  and  additions  in 
1872.     He  died  in  Madrid,  Aug.  8,  1659. 

RIO  NEGRO  ("black  river"),  the 
name  of  numerous  streams,  of  which  two 
are  important:  (1)  A  river  of  South 
America,  and  principal  tributary  of  the 
Amazon.  It  rises  in  Colombia,  and  joins 
the  Amazon  after  a  course  of  about 
1,000  miles  at  Manaos,  Brazil.  Through 
its  affluent,  the  Cassiquiari,  there  is  di- 
rect communication  between  the  Amazon 
and  Orinoco.  (2)  A  river  of  South 
America  forming  the  boundary  between 
the  Argentine  Republic  and  Patagonia. 
It  rises  in  the  Andes  in  Chile,  and  is 
about  700  miles  long.  Its  current  is 
very  rapid,  and  its  bed  obstructed  with 
shoals  and  sand-banks. 

RIOT,  a  disturbance  of  the  public 
peace,  attended  with  circumstances  of 
tumults  and  commotion,  as  where  an 
assembly  destroys,  or  in  any  manner 
damages,  seizes,  or  invades  private  or 
public  property,  or  does  any  injury  what- 
ever by  actual  or  threatened  violence  to 
the  persons  of  individuals.  By  the  com- 
mon law  a  riot  is  an  unlawful  assembly 
of  three  or  more  persons  which  has  act- 
ually begun  to  execute  the  common  pur- 
pose for  which  it  assembled  by  a  breach 
of  the  peace,  and  to  the  terror  of  the 
public.  A  lawful  assembly  may  become 
a  riot  if  the  persons  assembled  form  and 
proceed  to  execute  an  unlawful  purpose 
to  the  terror  of  the  people,  though  they 
had  not  that  purpose  when  they  assem- 
bled. In  England,  every  person  con- 
victed of  riot  is  liable  to  be  sentenced 
to  hard  labor.  In  Scotch  law  rioting  is 
termed  mobbing.  A  person  may  be  guilty 
of  mobbing  who  directs  or  excites  a 
mob  though  he  is  not  actually  present  in 
it.  Mere  presence  without  participation 
may  constitute  mobbing.  By  an  act  of 
George  I.,  called  the  Riot  Act,  whenever 
12  or  more  persons  are  unlawfully  as- 
sembled to  the  disturbance  of  the  peace, 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  justices  of  the 
peace,  and  the  sheriff  and  under-sheriff 
of  the  county,  or  of  the  mayor  or  other 
head  officers  of  a  city  or  town  corporate, 
to  command  them  by  proclamation  to 
disperse.  And  all  persons  who  continue 
unlawfully  together  for  one  hour  after 
the  proclamation  was  made,  commit  a 
felony  and  are  liable  to  penal  servitude 
or  imprisonment. 

Most,  if  not  all,  of  the  States  of  the 
American  Union  have  riot  acts  some- 
what similar  to  those  of  England,  and 
the  common  law  governs  where  no  stat- 
utes have  been  enacted. 

RIO  TEODORO,  or  RIO  THEODORO, 

also  known  as  Rio  Duvida,  or  River  of 
Doubt,  a  river  in  Brazil,  in  the  state  of 


Matto  Grosso,  and  rising  in  the  Corde 
Leira  dos  Parecis.  It  is  a  tributary  of 
the  Rio  Madeira,  flowing  northward  be- 
tween long.  59°  and  61°  W.  and  nearly 
a  thousand  miles  in  length.  Theodore 
Roosevelt  partly  explored  it  in  1914  and 
its  name  was  changed  in  his  honor. 

RIO  TINTO,  a  river  in  southern  Spain 
in  the  Province  of  Huelva,  near  whose 
sources  are  rich  copper  mines;  the 
annual  output  (copper  and  sulphur) 
reaches  1,400,000  tons;  these  minerals 
are  exported  from  the  port  of  Huelva 
(q.  v.),  45  miles  distant,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  river.  These  mines  were  worked 
by  the  Romans — their  Tharsis.  During 
the  years  of  Moorish  supremacy  they 
were  unused,  but  they  have  been  worked 
again  since  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. They  were  bought  in  1872  by  the 
Rio  Tinto  (London-Bremen)  Syndicate 
for  $20,000,000. 

RIPLEY,  GEORGE,  an  American 
author;  born  in  Greenfield,  Mass.,  Oct. 
3,  1802;  educated  at  Harvard  University 
and  Cambridge  Divinity  School;  became 
a  Unitarian  minister  in  Boston;  lived 
some  years  in  Europe;  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Transcendental  maga- 
zine, the  "Dial"  (on  which  he  had  Em- 
erson and  Margaret  Fuller  as  coadju- 
tors) ;  and  the  originator  and  conductor 
of  the  communistic  experiment  at  Brook 
Farm.  He  became  literary  editor  of  the 
New  York  "Tribune"  in  1849,  and  was 
joint-editor  with  Charles  A.  Dana  of 
the  "American  Cyclopaedia"  (1858-1863, 
16  vols.,  also  of  the  second  edition).  He 
died  in  New  York  City,  July  4,  1880. 

RIPLEY,  WILLIAM  ZEBINA,  an 
American  economist,  born  at  Medford, 
Mass.,  in  1867.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
and  at  Columbia  University.  From  1895 
to  1901  he  was  a  professor  of  economics 
at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, and  in  1901  he  became  professor 
of  political  economy  at  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. He  lectured  on  sociology  at  Colum- 
bia University  from  1893  to  1901 ;  served 
as  expert  agent  on  transportation  with 
the  United  States  Industrial  Commission, 
in  1900-1 ;  and  was  the  Huxley  memorial 
lecturer  at  the  Royal  Anthropological  In- 
stitute, London,  England,  in  1908.  He 
was  a  member  of  numerous  American 
and  foreign  scientific  societies  and  twice 
vice-president  of  the  American  Economic 
Association.  During  the  World  War  he 
served  in  the  War  Department  as  ad- 
ministrator of  labor  standards  for  army 
clothing,  and  in  1919  was  chairman  of 
the  National  Adjustment  Commission  of 
the  United  States  Shipping  Board.  He 
published,  besides  many  articles  in  peri- 


RIPON 


59 


BITSCHL 


odicals,  the  following  books:  "Financial 
History  of  Virginia"  (1890) ;  "The  Races 
of  Europe"  (1900);  "Trusts,  Pools  and 
Corporations"  (1905) ;  "Railway  Prob- 
lems" (1907);  "Railroads:  Rates  and 
Regulation"  (1912);  "Railroads  —  Fi- 
nance and  Organization"  (1914) ;  "Spe- 
cial Report  U.  S.  Eight-Hour  Commission 
on  Trainmen's  Schedules  and  Agree- 
ments" (1917).  He  also  edited  "Selec- 
tions and  Documents  in  Economics,"  in 
10  volumes. 

RIPON,  a  city  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  England,  22  miles  N.  W.  of 
York.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  with 
notable  cathedral  and  other  ecclesiastical 
buildings.  The  market-place  has  a  high 
obelisk  and  there  is  an  Hiberno-Saxon 
crypt  dating  from  the  missionary  period 
of  the  7th  century.  The  industries  in- 
clude iron  founding,  machine  making 
and  malting.  The  Irish  missionaries  in 
Northumbria  established  there  one  of  the 
earliest  monastic  establishments  in  Eng- 
land, organized  in  678  into  a  see.  Pop. 
about   8,500. 

RIPON,  GEORGE  FREDERICK 
SAMUEL  ROBINSON,  FIRST  MAR- 
QUIS OF,  a  British  statesman  and  ad- 
ministrator, born  in  1827.  He  was  the 
son  of  the  first  Earl  of  Ripon.  He  served 
in  several  diplomatic  missions,  but  later 
became  actively  interested  in  the  Chris- 
tian Socialist  movement.  From  1853  to 
1867  he  was  a  Liberal  member  of  the 
House  of  Commons  for  Huddersfield,  and 
from  1857  to  1859,  from  West  York- 
shire. In  the  latter  year  he  entered  the 
House  of  Lords,  becoming  Undersecre- 
tary for  War.  He  was  also  successively 
Secretary  for  India,  Secretary  for  War 
and  Privy  Councilor,  and  Secretary  of 
State  for  India.  He  served  as  chairman 
of  the  joint  high  commission  on  the  Al- 
abama Claims  in  1871.  In  1873  he  re- 
signed his  position  in  the  cabinet  and  in 
the  following  year  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  For  the  six  years  fol- 
lowing he  was  engaged  chiefly  in  relig- 
ious work.  In  1880  he  was  appointed 
by  Gladstone  Governor-General  of  India. 
In  his  administration  he  introduced  many 
reforms,  chiefly  relating  to  added  politi- 
cal freedom  of  the  governed  peoples.  He 
was  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  1886, 
Colonial  Secretary  in  1892,  and  Lord 
Privy  Seal  from  1905  to  1908.  He  died 
in  1909.  He  was  made  a  Marquis  in 
1871. 

RIPON  COLLEGE,  a  co-educational 
institution  for  higher  education,  founded 
in  1851,  at  Ripon,  Wis.  It  was  origi- 
nally called  Brockway  College  and  its 
present  name  was  assumed  in  1863.  In 
1919  there  were  250  students  and  21  in- 


structors.    President,  H.   C.   Culbertson, 
LL.D. 

RISTORI,  ADELAIDE,  an  Italian 
actress;  born  in  Cividale,  Italy,  Jan.  29, 
1822.  At  a  very  early  age  she  played 
in  comedy,  but  afterward  appeared  in 
tragedy.  She  married  the  Marquis  Ca- 
pranica  del  Grillo  in  1846,  and  afterward 
played  in  all  the  chief  European  capitals 
and  in  the  United  States.  She  took  her 
farewell  of  the  English  stage  in  Man- 
chester, Nov.  8,  1873.  Among  her  chief 
characters  were  Medea,  Francesca  da 
Rimini,  Marie  Antoinette,  Mary  Stuart, 
and  Lady  Macbeth.  In  1884  she  visited 
the  United  States  for  the  last  time.  She 
died  Oct.  9,  1906. 

RITA  (MRS.  W.  DESMOND 
HUMPHREYS),  a  British  novelist.  She 
was  born  at  Gollanfield,  Scotland,  edu- 
cated at  Sydney,  N.  S.  W.,  and  was 
twice  married.  She  went  to  Australia 
as  a  child  with  her  parents,  later  re- 
turned to  Britain  and  has  traveled  much. 
She  commenced  to  write  at  a  very  early 
age,  her  works  including:  "Dame  Dur- 
den,"  "Darby  and  Joan,"  "Corinna,"  "My 
Lord  Conceit,"  "Asenath  of  the  Ford," 
"Two  Bad  Blue  Eyes,"  "Gretchen,"  "A 
Husband  of  No  Importance,"  "A  Gender 
in  Satin,"  "Sheba,"  "Joan  and  Mrs. 
Carr,"  "The  Ending  of  My  Day,"  "Faus- 
tine,"  "A  Woman  in  It,"  "Vignettes," 
"Peg  the  Rake,"  "Kitty  the  Rag,"  "Good 
Mrs.  Hypocrite,"  "The  Sinner,"  "An  Old 
Rogue's  Tragedy,"  "A  Woman  of  Sama- 
ria," "Vanity,"  "The  Sin  of  Jasper  Stan- 
dish,"  "Prince  Charming,"  "A  Jilt's 
Journal,"  "Souls,"  "The  Rubbish  Heap," 
"The  Philanthropic  Burglar." 

RITCHIE,  ANNE  ISABELLA 
(THACKERAY),  LADY,  an  English  au- 
thor, daughter  of  William  Makepeace 
Thackeray;  born  in  London  in  1838. 
Among  her  writings  are:  "Old  Kensing- 
ton" (1873):  "Toilers  and  Spinsters" 
(1873)  ;  "Bluebeard's  Keys"  (1874) ; 
"Miss  Angel"  (1875)  ;  "Mme.  de  Sevig- 
ne"  (1881);  "Records  of  Tennyson,  Rus- 
kin,  and  Browning"  (1892)  ;  "Lord  Ten- 
nyson and  His  Friends"  (1893)  ;  (with 
R.  Evans)  "Lord  Amherst  and  the  Brit- 
ish Advance  Eastward  to  Burma" 
(1894) ;  "Chapters  on  Unwritten  Me- 
moirs" (1895) ;  "Blackstick  Papers" 
(1908);  "From  the  Porch"  (1912).  She 
died  in  1912. 

RITSCHL,  ALBRECHT,  a  German 
theologian;  born  in  Berlin,  Germany, 
March  25,  1822.  His  university  studies 
were  carried  on  at  Bonn,  Halle,  Heidel- 
berg, and  Tubingen.  In  1846  he  "habil- 
itated" at  Bonn,  the  subject  of  his  thesis 
being  the  relation  between  the  gospel  of 
Marcion    and    the    canonical    gospel    of 


RITTENHOUSE 


60 


RITUALISM 


Luke.  Ritschl,  who  had  become  Profes- 
sor extraordinarius  of  Theology  at  Bonn 
in  1853,  was  promoted  to  an  ordinary 
professorship  in  1859,  and  in  1864  was 
transferred  to  Gottingen,  where  the  rest 
of  his  life  was  spent.  His  lectures,  es- 
pecially those  on  Christian  ethics,  soon 
became  famous  for  their  originality  and 
vigor.  Ritschl  is  usually  classified  as  an 
"eclectic  mediating  theologian";  perhaps 
'intermediate"  would  be  a  better  word, 
for  his  theology  is  uncompromisingly 
opposed  alike  by  the  "rationalists"  and 
by  the  "orthodox"  parties.  The  Ritschl- 
ians  now  form  a  large  and  important 
school  in  Germany,  the  most  prominent 
among  them  being  Kaftan,  Herrmann, 
and  Bender.  His  principal  work,  on  the 
Christian  doctrine  of  justification  and 
reconciliation,  was  published  in  three 
volumes  (1870-1874) ;  the  first  of  which 
traces  the  history  of  the  doctrine,  the 
second  discusses  its  Biblical  premises, 
and  the  third  its  theological  meaning. 
An  English  translation  of  the  first  vol- 
ume appeared  in  1871.  The  distinguish- 
ing feature  of  the  Ritschlian  theology  is 
perhaps  the  prominence  it  gives  to  the 
practical,  ethical,  social  side  of  Chris- 
tianity. Among  his  works  are  "A  Treat- 
ise on  Christian  Perfection,"  "A  Tract 
on  Conscience,"  "A  Tract  on  Theology 
and  Metaphysics,"  etc.  He  died  in  Got- 
tingen, March  20,  1889. 

RITTENHOUSE,  DAVID,  an  Ameri- 
can astronomer;  born  near  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  April  8,  1732.  Originally  a  clock 
and  mathematical  instrument  maker,  he 
became  master  of  the  United  States 
mint,  and  succeeded  Franklin  as  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Philosophical  So- 
ciety. He  was  the  first  to  use  spider 
lines  in  the  focus  of  a  transit  instru- 
ment. He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
June  26,  1796. 

RITTER,  KARL,  a  German  geogra- 
pher; born  in  Quedlinburg,  Prussia, 
August  7,  1779;  studied  at  Halle,  became 
a  private  tutor  in  1798,  and  in  1819  suc- 
ceeded Schlosser  as  Professor  of  History 
at  the  Frankfort  Gymnasium.  He  then 
published  an  "Introduction  to  the  His- 
tory of  European  Nations  Before  Herod- 
otus," 1820;  and  in  the  same  year  be- 
came Professor  extraordinary  of  Geog- 
raphy at  the  University  of  Berlin,  where 
he  remained  till  his  death.  His  great 
work  is  "Geography  in  Its  Relations  to 
Nature  and  History,"  the  two  first  vol- 
umes of  which  appeared  in  1817-1818, 
but  it  ultimately  comprised  upward  of 
20  volumes.  He  wrote  several  other 
geographical  works,  and  contributed  ex- 
tensively to  the  journals  of  the  Berlin 
Geographical  Society.  He  died  in  Berlin, 
Sept.  28,  1859. 


RITUAL,  the  name  of  one  of  the  serv- 
ice books  of  the  Roman  Church,  in  which 
are  contained  the  prayers  and  order  of 
ceremonial  employed  in  the  administra- 
tion of  certain  of  the  sacraments  (com- 
munion out  of  Mass,  baptism,  penance, 
marriage,  extreme  unction)  and  other 
priestly  offices  of  the  Church,  forms  of 
churchings,  burials,  and  blessing.  In  its 
present  form  it  dates  from  the  Council 
of  Trent,  which  directed  a  revision  of 
all  the  different  rituals  then  in  existence 
(also  known  as  manuale,  sacerdotale, 
etc.),  which  were  numerous,  and  exhib- 
ited considerable  variety  of  detail.  Paul 
V.,  in  1614,  published  an  authoritative 
edition,  which  has  frequently  been  re- 
printed, and  of  which  a  further  revision 
was  issued  by  Benedict  XIV.  Besides 
the  Roman  ritual  there  are  many  dio- 
cesan rituals,  some  of  which  are  of  much 
historical  interest.  In  the  Greek  Church, 
as  in  the  other  Eastern  communions, 
the  ritual  forms  part  of  the  general  col- 
lection (which  contains  also  the  Euchar- 
istic  service)  entitled  "Euchologion."  In 
the  Anglican  Church  the  "Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer"  may  be  said  to  contain  the 
ritual.  The  most  approved  commentary 
on  the  Roman  ritual  is  that  of  Barru- 
faldo. 

RITUALISM,  a  strict  adherence  to 
rites  and  ceremonies  in  public  worship. 
The  term  is  more  especially  applied  to 
a  tendency  recently  manifested  in  the 
Church  of  England,  resulting  in  a  series 
of  changes  introduced  by  various  clergy- 
men of  the  High  Church  party  into  the 
services  of  the  Church.  These  changes 
may  be  described  externally  as  generally 
in  the  direction  of  a  more  ornate  wor- 
ship, and  as  to  their  spirit  or  animating 
principle,  as  the  infusion  into  outward 
forms  of  a  larger  measure  of  the  sym- 
bolic element.  They  are  defended  on  the 
grounds  of  law,  ancient  custom,  inherent 
propriety,  and  divine  sanction  or  author- 
ity. The  Ritualists  hold,  with  most  oth- 
ers, that  all  authoritative  and  obligatory 
regulation  on  ritual  is  not  laid  down  in 
the  New  Testament,  but  they,  or  many 
of  them,  maintain  that  a  knowledge  of 
what  is  obligatory  in  ritual  is  derived 
from  apostolical  tradition,  going  back  to 
apostolical  times.  They  argue  that  the 
design  of  the  institution  of  Christianity 
was  not  to  abrogate  the  external  cere- 
monials by  which  the  patriarchal  and 
Mosaic  dispensations  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment were  distinguished;  but  to  replace 
them  by  a  higher  ceremonial,  and  they 
explain  the  comparative  simplicity  of 
primitive  worship  by  the  secrecy  and 
restraint  to  which  the  early  Church  was 
subjected.  The  points  of  ritual  about 
which   there   has   been   the   most   violent 


RIVAS 


61 


RIVER 


contention  are  those  which  involve  the 
adoration  of  Christ  as  present  on  the 
altar  under  the  forms  of  bread  and  wine. 
Other  points  are:  The  E.  position  of  the 
priest  at  consecration;  lights  on  the  holy 
table;  the  use  of  various  vestments;  the 
use  of  incense;  mixing  water  with  wine 
for  communion;  fasting  before  commu- 
nion from  previous  midnight;  regular 
confession  to  a  priest,  with  absolution 
and  penance,  etc.  The  legal  position  of 
the  Ritualists  is  that  the  first  Book  of 
Common  Prayer,  issued  in  the  second 
year  of  Edward  VI.  (1549,  with  altera- 
tions made  in  1552,  1604,  and  1662),  is 
still  the  guide  of  the  Church  in  all  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  ritual,  the  present 
prayer-book  not  being  in  itself  complete, 
but  referring  to  this  first  prayer-book  in 
its  opening  rubric.  Various  judgments 
have  been  given  in  ecclesiastical  courts 
against  extreme  Ritualists,  and  some  of 
their  proceedings  have  been  pronounced 
illegal.  Ritualistic  practices  have  been 
generally  condemned  by  the  bishops,  and 
an  act  of  Parliament  giving  them  power 
to  restrain  innovations  of  this  kind  came 
into  force  on  Aug.  7,  1874.  The  ritual- 
istic movement  in  the  Church  of  England 
arose  out  of  the  High  Church  movement 
inaugurated  by  the  Tractarians. 

RIVAS,  capital  of  the  department  of 
Rivas,  Nicaragua,  49  miles  S.  E.  of 
Managua.  The  town  is  picturesque  and 
is  a  development  of  the  older  Indian 
town  of  Nicarao,  which  was  of  impor- 
tance as  a  stronghold  and  center  of  traf- 
fic. The  surrounding  region  is  agricul- 
tural, the  chief  produce  being  cacao,  the 
production  of  which  gives  employment  to 
many.     Pop.  about  15,000. 

RIVER.  Water  falling  on  the  land 
in  the  form  of  rain,  or  resulting  from 
melting  snow,  or  rising  to  the  surface  in 
springs,  flows  over  the  surface  to  a 
lower  level.  Where  two  slopes  of  land 
dip  together  the  surface  drainage  col- 
lects to  form  a  stream,  and  when  evap- 
oration is  not  very  rapid  several  such 
streams  ultimately  unite  and  the  volume 
of  water  they  carry  flows  to  the  sea  or 
to  a  salt  lake.  Small  streams  are  termed 
runnels,  rivulets,  rills,  brooks,  becks,  or 
burns;  large  streams  are  termed  rivers, 
but  the  word  has  no  precise  reference  to 
the  magnitude  of  the  stream  to  which  it 
is  applied. 

The  beginning  of  a  stream — whether 
brook  or  river — is  called  its  source,  and 
may  be  a  spring  issuing  from  under- 
ground, a  lake  or  marsh  in  which  rain- 
fall accumulates,  melting  snow,  or  sim- 
ply the  gathering  tricklings  from  falling 
rain.  The  path  of  a  stream  is  its  course, 
and  is  the  line  of  lowest  level  from  the 

E— < 


source  to  the  end,  which  if  occurring  in 
a  lake  or  the  sea  is  termed  its  mouth. 
The  connected  streams  which  unite  in 
one  river  form  a  river  system.  The 
series  of  convergent  slopes  down  which 
a  river  system  flows — the  land  which  it 
drains — forming  its  basin  or  catchment 
area,  and  the  name  watershed  is  also 
sometimes  erroneously  applied  to  it.  The 
names  watershed,  waterparting,  and  di- 
vide are  used  to  designate  the  boundary 
line  separating  adjacent  basins.  A  wa- 
tershed is  always  the  meeting-place  of 
the  highest  part  of  divergent  slopes,  and 
from  the  characteristic  form  of  conti- 
nents the  main  watershed  of  a  continent 
is  almost  always  the  crest  of  a  range  of 
mountains.  In  many  cases,  however,  the 
diverging  slopes  meet  in  a  low  plain  the 
summit  of  which  may  be  occupied  by  a 
great  marsh  whence  rivers  creep  away 
in  opposite  directions.  The  basins  of  all 
the  rivers  draining  into  the  same  ocean 
are  called  collectively  the  drainage  area 
of  that  ocean.  The  main  river  to  which 
the  others  are  said  to  be  tributary  gives 
its  name  to  the  whole  river  system.  It 
is  often  difficult  to  decide  which  of  sev- 
eral converging  streams  is  entitled  to 
carry  the  name  of  the  main  river  to  its 
source.  Some  geographers  give  this  dis- 
tinction to  the  longest,  others  to  that 
with  the  highest  source,  and  others  to 
that  with  the  most  direct  course.  The 
course  of  a  typical  river  has  been  di- 
vided into  three  parts,  though  these  are 
not  represented  in  all  cases.  The  tor- 
rential or  mountain  track  is  the  steepest, 
its  gradient  usually  exceeding  50  feet  in 
a  mile,  and  the  velocity  of  its  current 
being  very  great.  The  valley  or  middle 
track  has  a  gradient  which  is  rarely 
greater  than  10  feet  and  often  less  than 
2  feet  in  a  mile.  The  plain  track  near- 
est the  mouth  of  a  river  has  a  gradient 
of  only  a  few  inches  in  a  mile.  Rivers 
such  as  the  Amazon,  Mississippi,  Gan- 
ges, Volga,  and  the  long  rivers  of  Si- 
beria, in  which  the  plain  track  is  of  very 
great  length,  are  the  most  valuable  for 
navigation,  the  limit  of  easy  navigabil- 
ity being  a  gradient  of  about  1  foot  in 
a  mile. 

The  velocity  of  a  river  is  proportional 
to  the  slope  of  the  bed,  but  it  also  bears 
a  relation  to  the  depth  of  the  channel 
and  the  volume  of  water  flowing  in  it. 
On  account  of  friction  on  the  bottom 
and  sides  of  the  channel  retarding  the 
stream,  the  water  flows  fastest  on  the 
surface  and  in  the  middle.  The  carry- 
ing power  of  a  river  for  suspended  solid 
particles  and  for  stones  and  gravel 
pushed  along  the  bed  depends  on  the 
velocity  alone.  The  following  table  shows 
how  rapidly  the  carrying  power  falls  off 
as  the  velocity  diminishes. 
Cyc  Vol  8 


RIVER 


62 


BIVER 


0.170  mile  per  hour  will  just  begin  to 
work  on  fine  clay. 

0.340       "  "         "         lift   fine    sand. 

0.454       "  "         "         lift   sand   as   coarse 

as    linseed. 

0.682       "  "         "         sweep      along      fine 

gravel. 

1.364  miles  "  "  roll  along  rounded 
pebbles  one  inch 
in    diameter. 

2.045       "  "         "         sweep     along     slip- 

pery angular 
stones  as  large 
as   an   egg. 

Rivers  in  flood,  even  in  the  plain  track, 
sometimes  attain  a  velocity  of  over  5 
miles  an  hour,  and  torrents  may  even 
flow  as  fast  as  20  miles  an  hour.  The 
course  of  a  river  is  gradually  carved 
out  and  shaped  by  the  flow  of  the  water. 
The  sediment  and  stones  carried  along 
are  powerful  erosive  agents  in  the  tor- 
rential and  valley  tracks,  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  valleys  or  gorges  produced 
depends  largely  on  the  geological  struc- 
ture of  the  region.  The  course  of  a  river 
is  frequently  determined  by  lines  of 
faults,  but  perhaps  more  often  it  ap- 
pears to  be  independent  of  the  nature 
of  the  strata.  Some  great  rivers,  nota- 
bly the  Volga,  press  against  the  right 
bank,  cutting  it  into  a  steep  cliff,  while 
the  left  bank  is  left  as  a  very  gentle 
slope.  This  is  explained  by  the  directive 
influence  of  the  earth's  rotation. 

Rivers  are  of  very  great  importance 
as  agents  of  change  in  dynamic  geology, 
the  form  of  valley  they  excavate  being 
determined  partly  by  the  nature  of  the 
rocks,  partly  by  the  climate.  In  rainless 
or  arid  regions  steep-walled  canons  are 
cut  to  a  great  depth  across  high  pla- 
teaus; in  rainy  regions  subaerial  de- 
nudation leads  to  the  formation  of  wide 
valleys  of  much  gentler  slopes.  Bars  of 
more  durable  rock  crossing  the  course  of 
a  stream  lead  to  the  formation  of  water- 
falls or  rapids  from  the  rapid  erosion 
of  the  softer  strata  below.  The  river 
above  the  obstruction  is  reduced  to  what 
is  termed  the  base  level  of  erosion;  the 
velocity  of  the  current  is  checked,  and 
wide  alluvial  deposits  are  laid  down  on 
either  side.  In  course  of  time  the  bar 
of  hard  rock  is  completely  cut  through 
by  a  gorge,  and  the  gradient  of  the 
stream  is  ultimately  rendered  uniform. 
In  this  way  the  common  features  of 
gorge  and  meadow  are  produced  again 
and  again  along  the  course  of  a  stream. 
The  deposits  of  alluvium  form  terraces 
along  the  valley  track  of  a  river,  and 
as  the  stream  cuts  its  channel  deeper 
they  are  left  at  various  heights  as  mon- 
uments of  its  erosive  power.  When  a 
river  is  fairly  established  in  its  valley 
it  is,  geologically  speaking,  a  more  per- 
manent feature  than  lakes  or  mountains. 
Upheaval,  which  acts  very  slowly,  may 
even  elevate  a  range  of  mountains  across 


its  course,  yet  all  the  while  the  river, 
cutting  its  way  downward,  remains  at 
the  same  absolute  level.  The  Uintah 
mountains,  as  they  were  upheaved,  were 
divided  in  this  way  by  the  Green  river, 
the  chief  tributary  of  the  Colorado.  In 
limestone  regions  the  solvent  power  of 
river  water  on  carbonate  of  lime  leads 
to  the  formation  of  caves  and  under- 
ground rivers,  which,  as  a  rule,  emerge 
from  their  subterranean  channels  on  low- 
er ground.  Sometimes  they  do  not  re- 
appear on  land,  but  discharge  their  fresh 
water  through  openings  in  the  bed  of  the 
sea.  Such  submarine  river  entrances  are 
not  uncommon  along  the  shores  of  the 
Adriatic,  off  the  coast  of  Florida,  and  in 
other  calcareous  regions.  When  a  river 
advances  along  a  nearly  level  plain  to- 
ward the  sea  its  carrying  power  falls 
off;  gravel,  sand,  and  finally  mud  are 
deposited  on  its  margin,  and  the  stream 
pursues  a  peculiar  winding  course.  Dur- 
ing a  flood  the  swift  and  muddy  stream 
rises,  overflows  its  banks,  and  widens 
out  on  the  level  land.  The  current  is  at 
once  checked  and  a  long  bar  of  deposit 
forms  along  each  margin.  These  are 
increased  in  height  by  each  successive 
flood,  and,  the  river-bed  being  simulta- 
neously silted  up,  broad  muddy  rivers 
like  the  Mississippi,  Po,  and  Hoang-ho 
come  in  time  to  flow  along  the  top  of  a 
gently  sloping  natural  embankment,  the 
sides  of  which  are  termed  levees  in  Lou- 
isiana. The  entrances  of  rivers  into 
lakes  or  the  sea  are  usually  marked  by 
great  banks  of  deposit,  or  by  bars  of 
gravel  or  sand.  In  some  cases,  however, 
such  as  the  River  Plate,  the  Thames,  and 
Tay,  the  mixture  of  river  and  sea  water 
is  gradual,  and  the  sandbanks  are  spread 
over  a  very  large  area,  but  not  built  up 
into  a  delta  at  any  one  place.  In  a  few 
instances,  such  as  the  Forth,  rivers  enter 
deep  arms  of  the  sea  in  which  neither 
banks  nor  bars  are  formed.  The  Congo 
sweeps  directly  into  the  ocean,  throwing 
down  great  banks  of  deposit  along  the 
continental  slope  to  right  and  left,  but 
leaving  a  deep  canon-like  gully  for  the 
bed  of  the  stream  itself;  a  similar  con- 
dition occurs  where  the  Rhone  enters  the 
Lake  of  Geneva. 

The  ultimate  source  of  all  rivers  is 
the  condensation  of  water  vapor  from 
the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of  rain,  snow, 
and  even  dew.  If  the  land  were  com- 
posed of  impermeable  rocks  all  the  rain- 
water not  lost  by  evaporation  would  run 
off  directly  over  the  surface,  and  rivers 
would  only  flow  during  and  immediately 
after  showers.  A  large  part  of  the  rain- 
fall, however,  soaks  into  the  soil,  which 
retains  it  as  in  a  sponge,  especially  if 
the  land  be  marshy,  and  allows  it  to 
flow  off  gradually  as  superficial  springs 


RIVER 


63 


RIVER 


Some  also  percolates  deeply  into  the 
rocks,  ultimately  emerging  as  deep-seat- 
ed springs  at  a  great  distance.  When 
a  river  flows  toward  a  region  of  great 
evaporation  and  small  rainfall,  such  as 
exists  in  the  interior  of  each  of  the  great 
continents,  evaporation  removes  more 
water  than  is  supplied  by  the  remote 
tributaries,  and  the  stream  may  fail  to 
fill  the  hollow  it  enters,  and  therefore 
cannot  overflow  into  the  sea.  This  is  the 
case  with  the  Oxus  entering  the  Aral 
sea,  and  the  Volga  entering  the  Caspian. 
It  may  be  that  evaporation  is  so  far  in 
excess  of  contributions  from  distant  rain- 
fall or  snow-melting  that  the  river  dries 
up  as  it  flows,  and  its  last  remnant  is 
absorbed  in  the  desert  sand.  This  is  the 
fate  of  the  Murghab,  the  Heri-rud,  the 
Zerafshan,  and  many  other  rivers  of 
central  Asia. 

The  annual  inundations  of  the  Nile  are 
due  to  the  monsoon  rainfall  on  the 
great  mountains  of  Abyssinia.  The  Ori- 
noco is  another  instance  of  seasonal 
rains  producing  tremendous  inundations, 
over  40,000  square  miles  of  Llanos  be- 
ing said  to  be  laid  under  water  by  the 
summer  rains.  The  Amazon  is  an  in- 
stance of  a  river  which  is  always  more 
or  less  in  flood  as  the  various  tribu- 
taries attain  their  greatest  height  at 
different  seasons.  The  Ganges  overflows 
its  banks  in  summer  when  the  monsoon 
rainfall  is  reinforced  by  the  melting  of 
snow  on  the  Himalayas.  Where  the  sea- 
sons of  maximum  rainfall  and  of  snow- 
melting  are  different,  as  in  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  Tigris,  and  Euphrates,  there 
are  two  regular  floods  in  the  year. 

The  danger  of  flooded  rivers  arises 
from  the  suddenness  with  which  the  wa- 
ter rises  and  overflows  narrow  valleys  or 
even  plains.  Frightful  devastation  fol- 
lows the  bursting  of  glacier  obstruction 
lakes  in  mountain  valleys.  The  most  se- 
rious floods  in  the  Danube  and  Theiss 
have  resulted  from  the  constriction  of 
the  channel  at  the  Iron  Gates,  which 
prevents  the  flood  water  from  passing 
away  as  rapidly  as  it  comes  down;  the 
current  of  the  Theiss  is  sometimes  re- 
versed for  many  miles.  Great  rivers 
which  have  embanked  their  course  above 
the  level  of  the  plain  are  the  most  dan- 
gerous of  all  when  flooded.  The  damage 
caused  by  the  bursting  of  the  levees  on 
the  lower  Mississippi  necessitates  a  great 
expenditure  in  strengthening  the  em- 
bankments, and  the  most  disastrous  in- 
undations recorded  in  history  have  fol- 
lowed the  bursting  of  the  banks  of  the 
Hoang-ho  and  its  consequent  changes  of 
course. 

River  water  is  spoken  of  as  fresh,  but 
it  always  contains  a  certain  amount  of 
solid   matter   in    solution,    varying   from 


two  grains  in  the  gallon  or  less  in  rivers 
draining  hard  crystalline  rocks  to  50 
grains  in  the  gallon  or  more  in  lime- 
stone districts. 

The  temperature  of  rivers,  as  a  rule, 
follows  that  of  the  air,  but  is  subject  to 
variations  on  account  of  the  effect  of 
rain. 

The  great  rivers  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
such  as  the  Rhine,  Danube,  Volga,  In- 
dus, Ganges,  Brahmaputra,  Yang-tse- 
kiang,  afford  access  to  the  sea  to  enor- 
mous populations.  The  Amazon,  with 
its  plain  track  extending  for  nearly  3,000 
miles,  is  in  many  ways  less  like  a  river 
than  a  fresh  inland  sea ;  but  the  Missis- 
sippi and  St.  Lawrence,  though  less  ex- 
tensive, are  of  greater  value  for  carry- 
ing sea  traffic  to  inland  places.  In  their 
torrential -and  upper  valley  tracks  rivers 
are  of  use  chiefly  for  transporting  tim- 
ber and  driving  machinery.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  in  Switzerland,  Nor- 
way, and  Sweden,  where  there  is  no  coal, 
there  exist  exceptional  facilities  for  the 
use  of  water  power  on  account  of  nu- 
merous mountain  torrents.  In  hot  coun- 
tries rivers  are  of  the  utmost  service  in 
irrigating  agricultural  land;  the  Zeraf- 
shan and  Murghab  are  entirely  consumed 
in  that  service,  and  since  the  completion 
in  1890  of  the  barrage  on  the  Nile  no 
water  escapes  to  the  Mediterranean  in 
the  low  Nile  months  except  along  irri- 
gation canals. 

The  largest  rivers  of  the  world,  with 
their  length  in  miles,  are:  Amazon, 
4,000;  Nile,  3,766;  Yangtse,  3,400; 
Yenisei,  3,300;  Mississippi,  3,lG0;  Missouri, 
3,000;  Congo,  3,000;  Lena,  2,800;  Niger, 
2,900;  Ob,  2,300;  Hoang-ho,  2,600; 
Amur,  2,500;  Volga,  2,300;  Mackenzie, 
2,525;  La  Plata,  2,300;  Yukon,  2,300;  St. 
Lawrence,  2,150;  Rio  del  Norte,  1,800; 
Sao  Francisco,  1,200;  Danube,  1,725; 
Euphrates,  1,700;  Indus,  1,700;  Brahma- 
putra, 1,680;  Zambesi,  1,600;  Ganges, 
1,500;  Mekong,  2,500;  Amu  Daria,  1,500; 
Ohio,  950. 

The  pollution  of  rivers  has  of  late 
years,  in  consequence  of  the  extension 
of  manufactures,  caused  serious  concern. 
No  person  has  a  right  to  poison  or  pol- 
lute a  stream,  and  if  he  do  so  any  of 
the  persons  whose  lands  abut  on  the 
stream  lower  down  may  bring  an  action 
to  recover  damages.  At  common  law, 
indeed,  in  every  question  of  river  pollu- 
tion, the  real  question  of  fact  is  whether 
there  has  been  any  material  increase  of 
pollution  beyond  that  which  is  natural 
to  the  particular  stream,  or  beyond  that 
which  has  existed  there  for  the  prescrip- 
tive period.  Questions  of  river  pollution 
are  eminently  fitted  for  submission  to  a 
jury,  and  are  generally  disposed  of  in 
that  way. 


RIVER    CRAB 


64 


RIVET 


In  the  United  States  the  common  law 
of  England  was  at  first  followed;  but  in 
some  of  the  States  it  is  expressly  de- 
clared that  the  common  law  is  inapplic- 
able. Mining  rights  have  been  specially 
determined  in  some  districts;  and  the 
laws  as  to  irrigation  rights  have  been 
elaborately  defined  in  Colorado  and  else- 
where. 

RIVER  CRAB,  a  name  given  to  a 
genus  of  crabs  (Thelphusa),  inhabiting 
fresh  water,  and  having  the  carapace 
quadrilateral  and  the  antennae  very  short. 
One  species  (T.  depressa)  inhabits  mud- 
dy lakes  and  slow  rivers  in  the  S.  of 
Europe. 

RIVER  HOG,  the  name  occasionally 
given  to  the  capybara. 

RIVER  HORSE,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  the  Hippopotamus  (q.  v.). 

RIVER  ROUGE,  a  village  of  Michi- 
gan, in  Wayne  co.  It  is  on  the  Detroit 
and  Toledo  Shore  and  the  Michigan  Cen- 
tral railroads.  It  has  important  indus- 
tries, including  shipyard  and  bridge  and 
steel  works.  Pop.  (1910)  4,163;  (1920) 
9,822. 

RIVERSIDE,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Riverside  co.,  Cal. ;  on  the  Santa  Ana 
river,  and  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe,  Riverside,  Rialto  and  Pacific, 
and  other  railroads;  118  miles  N.  W.  of 
San  Diego.  Here  are  a  high  school,  Fed- 
eral Indian  School,  libraries,  several  Na- 
tional and  State  banks,  and  a  number 
of  daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  The 
city  is  in  a  fruit-growing  section  noted 
for  its  oranges,  lemons  and  raisins,  and 
has  extensive  irrigating  canals.  Pop. 
(1910)    15,212;   (1920)   19,341. 

RIVES,    ALFRED     LANDON,     an 

American  engineer;  born  in  Paris, 
France,  March  25,  1830;  studied  at  the 
University  of  Virginia;  was  graduated 
at  the  Ecole  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees, 
Paris,  in  1854;  was  assistant  engineer 
on  the  completion  of  the  National  Capi- 
tol, Washington;  engineer  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  aqueduct  in  Washing- 
ton; and  was  in  charge  of  the  United 
States  survey  for  improving  the  Potomac 
river.  During  the  Civil  War  he  was 
colonel  of  engineers  in  the  Confederate 
army.  After  the  war  he  was  at  differ- 
ent times  an  engineer  on  several  rail- 
roads; and  general  manager  and  super- 
intendent of  many  engineering  works; 
also  chief  engineer  of  the  Cape  Cod 
Canal.     He  died  in  1903. 

RIVES,  AMELIE,  an  American  novel- 
ist, born  in  Richmond,  Va.,  Aug.  23, 
1863.     At  an   early  age   she   contributed 


short  stories  to  magazines  and  newspa- 
pers. A  series  of  stories  composed  her 
first  book,  "A  Brother  to  Dragons." 
"The  Quick  or  the  Dead,"  a  unique 
type  of  fiction  first  published  serially  in 
"Lippincott's  Magazine,"  in  1890,  was 
her  first  success.  It  was  afterward  pub- 
lished in  book  form.  "According  to  St. 
John"  first  appeared  in  the  "Cosmopoli- 
tan" magazine,  and  then  in  book  form, 
in  1891.  Other  books  by  this  author  are 
"Virginia  of  Virginia,"  and  "Athelwold." 
She  became  the  wife  of  John  A.  Chanler 
in  1888.  They  were  divorced  on  account 
of  incompatibility.  In  1896  she  married 
the  son  of  a  Russian  Prince,  Pierre 
Troubetskoi,  an  artist.  She  also  wrote, 
"Herod  and  Mariamne,"  "Witness  of  the 
Sun,"  "Barbara  Dering,"  "Tanis,"  etc., 
and  several  plays,  including  "The  Prince 
and  the  Pauper,"  based  on  Mark  Twain's 
romance   (1920). 

RIVES,     GEORGE     LOCKHART,     an 

American  lawyer  and  historical  writer, 
born  in  New  York  City  in  1849.  He 
graduated  from  Columbia  University  in 
1868  and  studied  law  at  that  university 
and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  In 
1874  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and 
practiced  in  New  York  City  for  many 
years.  From  1896  to  1902  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Rapid  Transit  Railroad 
Commission,  and  was  corporation  coun- 
sel from  1902  to  1904.  From  1887  to 
1889  he  served  as  Assistant  Secretary 
of  State  of  the  United  States.  He  was 
a  student  of  the  relations  between  the 
United  States  and  Mexico,  and  published 
in  1913  "The  United  States  and  Mexi- 
co, 1821-1848."  He  was  a  member  of 
the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Let- 
ters and  was  president  of  the  Board  of 
Trustees  of  the  New  York  Public  Li- 
brary.    He  died  in  1917. 

RIVET,  a  short  bolt  with  a  flat  or 
rose  head,  employed  for  uniting  two 
plates  or  thin  pieces  of  material.  The 
stub  end  is  swaged  to  prevent  its  with- 
drawal. When  used  for  joining  pieces 
of  leather,  as  in  making  belting,  an  an- 
nular disk,  termed  a  burr,  is  placed  over 
this  end  previous  to  swaging,  in  order 
to  give  a  greater  bearing.  Rivets  are 
cut  from  round  metal  rods  and  formed 
by  special  machinery.  In  riveting  iron 
plates  together,  as  in  boilers,  tanks,  etc., 
the  rivet  is  made  red-hot,  and  while  a 
sledge  is  held  against  the  head,  the  end 
is  swaged  down  by  striking  directly  with 
a  riveting  hammer,  or  a  species  of  die 
called  a  snaphead  is  interposed.  Rivet- 
ing machines  are  stationary  and  porta- 
ble. The  first  does  heavy  work  by  press- 
ure of  steam  and  hydraulic  power;  the 
portable  by  steam  or  compressed  air,  pro- 
ducing blows  like  a  hammer.     They  drive 


BlVOlil 

and  head  hot  rivets  in  boiler  work  and 
structures  better  and  more  rapidly  than 
hand  work. 


RIVOLI,  a  town  of  northern  Italy,  8 
miles  W.  of  Turin,  with  two  royal  cas- 
tles and  some  industry.  Another  town, 
known  by  the  name  of  Rivoli  Veronese,  12 
miles  N.  W.  of  Verona,  was  where  Napoleon 
won  on  Jan.  14  and  15,  1797,  one  of  his 
most  decisive  victories  over  the  Aus- 
trians. 

RIZAL,  JOSE,  a  Filipino  patriot;  born 
in  Calamba,  Luzon,  in  1861.  He  was 
the  son  of  unmixed  Tagal  parents,  who 
destined  him  for  the  Church.  He  re- 
ceived his  early  education  in  his  native 
town  under  a  Tagal  priest.  Later  he 
was  sent  to  Manila,  where  he  entered  a 
Jesuit  school,  the  Ateneo  Municipal.  At 
this  time  Jose  assumed  the  name  of  Ri- 
zal,  as  his  brother's  friendship  for  a 
revolutionist  priest  had  brought  the  fam- 
ily name,  Mercado,  into  great  disfavor 
with  the  Spaniards.  In  Manila  Jose 
soon  learned  of  the  reproach  attached 
to  his  Tagal  origin.  He  was  denied  the 
honors  due  him  as  head  of  his  class,  and 
met  with  derision  and  hatred  from  the 
Spanish  students.  In  many  ways  his 
prejudices  against  the  Spanish  were 
roused.  Though  he  had  been  destined 
for  the  Church,  he  studied  for  and  took 
his  medical  degree  at  Manila.  Then  he 
went  to  Paris,  Heidelberg,  Leipsic,  and 
in  all  these  cities  he  continued  his  medi- 
cal studies.  At  the  same  time  he  devel- 
oped his  interest  in  social  and  political 
problems.  He  learned  that  Europe  was 
almost  ignorant  of  the  Philippines,  so 
he  wrote  a  novel,  portraying  his  birth- 
land,  which  was  published  in  Berlin  in 
1887.  This  book  was  forbidden  by  the 
Church.  He  wrote  a  sequel  to  it  which 
was  published  at  Ghent  in  1891.  His 
portrait-bust  of  the  Filipino-Creole,  Dr. 
T.  H.  Pardo,  was  exhibited  in  the  Salon. 
In  1887  Rizal  went  to  Hong  Kong  where 
he  organized  the  famous  Liga  Filipino, 
or  Philippine  league,  which  was  the 
source  of  the  "Revolutionary  Society  of 
the  Sons  of  the  Nation."  During  sev- 
eral years  of  travel  he  constantly  agi- 
tated Filipino  revolt,  and  then  in  May, 
1892,  returned  to  Manila.  He  was  ar- 
rested and_  exiled  to  Dapitan.  In  1895  he 
was  permitted  to  return  to"  Luzon.  He 
was,  however,  arrested  at  Barcelona  and 
transshipped  to  Manila,  tried  and  con- 
demned to  death.  His  last  wishes,  that 
he  might  be  united  by  civil  marriage  with 
Miss  Josephine  Bracken,  whom  he  first 
met  in  Hong  Kong,  and  the  other,  that 
he  should  be  shot  through  the  breast, 
were  granted.  He  was  shot  by  a  picket 
of  native  soldiers,  Dec.  30,  1896,  and  his 
last  words  were,  "Consummatum  est!" 


65    ROAD  AND  STREET  MACHINERY 

RIZZIO,  DAVID,  a  native  of  Turin, 
came  to  Scotland  in  1561  in  the  train  of 
the  ambassador  from  Savoy,  and  soon 
became  so  great  a  favorite  with  the 
queen  that  he  was  appointed  her  secre- 
tary for  foreign  languages.  The  dis- 
tinction with  which  he  was  treated  by 
his  mistress  soon  excited  the  envy  of  the 
nobles  and  the  jealousy  of  Darnley.  A 
conspiracy,  with  the  king  at  the  head, 
was  formed  for  his  destruction,  and  be- 
fore he  had  enjoyed  two  years  of  court 
favor  the  Lord  Ruthven  and  others  of 
his  party  were  introduced  by  Darnley 
into  the  queen's  apartment,  where  they 
dispatched  the  object  of  their  revenge, 
March  9,  1566. 


ROACH,  a  fish  of  the  family  Cyprin- 
idse,  abundant  in  England,  the  S.  of 
Scotland,  and  many  countries  of  Europe. 
It  measures  from  10  to  15  inches;  the 
body  generally  has  a  silvery  appear- 
ance, the  back  is  a  dull  green,  the  lower 
fins  are  red,  and  there  are  no  barbels. 

ROAD  AND  STREET  MACHINERY, 
appliances  used  in  the  preparation  and 
preservation  of  roads  are  of  various 
types  and  may  be  classified  as  under: 

Plows  and  Scrapers. — Plow.;  used  in 
this  work  are  of  the  ordinary  pattern 
and  call  for  no  detailed  description. 
Scrapers  usually  consist  of  a  steel  blade, 
mounted  between  two  wheels,  and  so 
contrived  that  its  cutting  depth  and  in- 
clination are  capable  of  adjustment.  A 
special  type_  of  plow  is  known  as  a 
grader.  This  machine  cuts  into  the 
earth  and  loosens  it,  and  then  lifts  it 
on  to  a  moving  belt  which  conveys  it 
to  the  roadway. 

Stone  Crushers  are  described  in  detail 
under  "Grinding,  Crushing  and  Pulver- 
izing Machinery."  They  are  used  in  re- 
ducing large  stones  to  a  size  suitable 
either  for  surfacing  macadam  roads,  or 
for  mixing  with  cement  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  concrete. 

Rollers,  although  now  very  familiar, 
are  of  comparatively^  recent  origin,  the 
first  road  roller  being  constructed  in 
1787  in  France.  Their  obvious  use  is 
to  compress  the  road-bed  and  upper  lay- 
ers, in  order  to  produce  a  hard,  durable 
and  smooth  surface.  Steam  rollers  are 
commonly  seen  in  the  United  States,  but 
motor  driven  and  horse  drawn  rollers  are 
also  used.  Steam  rollers  may  weigh  as 
much  as  20  tons,  but  the  lighter  horse- 
drawn  machines  sometimes  do  not  exceed 
2  tons. 

Spreaders  consist  of  a  container,  in 
which  the  load  of  stones  is  carried,  and 
which  can  be  tilted  to  any  desired  angle. 
In  this  way  the  quantity  of  stone 
dumped  on  to  the  road  may  be  ad- 
justed.    Behind  the  container  is  a  drag 


ROADS                                 66  ROANOKE 

with   a   movable   scraper,   by   means    of  dation  is  obtained  the  laying  of  a  base, 

which  the  depth  of  stones  may  be  reg-  the  best  material  being  concrete  of  grav- 

ulated.  el  and  lime,  gives  durability  to  the  road. 

Sprinklers  are  used  for  spreading  wa-  On  this  base  the  actual  roadway  is  laid 
ter,  oils  and  various  tarry  preparations  with  a  slight  inclination  from  the  center 
on  the  surface  of  roads,  in  order  to  lay  to  the  sides  for  the  purpose  of  drainage, 
dust  and  produce  a  more  even  and  less  Before  the  time  of  Macadam  it  was  cus- 
easily  pulverized  surface.  They  consist  tomary  to  use  broken  stones  of  different 
of  a  tank,  mounted  on  wheels,  carrying  sizes  to  form  the  roadway,  the  conse- 
a  perforated  pipe  behind.  Modern  sprin-  quence  being  that  in  course  of  time  the 
klers  are  sometimes  fitted  with  steam  smaller  stones  sank,  making  the  road 
boilers  for  heating  the  liquid,  and  with  rough  and  dangerous.  Macadam  early 
air  compressors,  by  means  of  which  the  in  the  19th  century  (see  Macadam)  in- 
material  may  be  forced  through  nozzles  troduced  the  principle  of  using  stones 
fn  a  spray.  of  uniform  size  from  top  to  bottom.    The 

Sweepers  and  Scrapers,  used  in  clean-  general  superintendence  of  roadways  is 
Ing  streets,  are  of  various  types.  The  usually  exercised  by  the  government  of  a 
sweepers  usually  consist  of  a  cylindrical  country,  but  it  intrusts  the  execution 
brush,  which  revolves  as  the  framework  of  its  enactments  to  local  authorities, 
on  which  it  is  mounted  is  hauled  along.  Highways  are  public  roads  which  every 
More  elaborate  machines  pick  up  the  citizen  has  a  right  to  use.  They  are 
dirt  as  it  is  swept  by  the  brush,  some  constituted  by  prescription,  by  act  of  leg- 
by  means  of  a  conveyor,  others  by  means  islature,  or  by  dedication  to  the  public 
of  a  suction  device,  similar  to  the  well-  use.  What  is  known  as  the  rule  of  the 
known  vacuum  cleaner.  Most  of  these  road  is  that  in  passing  other  horsemen 
machines  are  horse  drawn,  but  motor  or  carriages,  whether  going  in  the  same 
vehicles  are  also  in  use.  Scrapers  may  or  the  opposite  direction,  the  rider  or 
consist  of  a  row  of  curved  blades  at-  driver  must  pass  on  the  right  hand  of 
tached  to  movable  rods  which  enable  the  the  other  rider  or  driver.  Automobiles 
blades  to  yield  to  irregularities  in  the  and  bicycles  are  subject  to  the  same  re- 
surface of  the  road.  Small,  manual  strictions  and  are  entitled  to  the  same 
types  are  familiar,  as  well  as  larger  privileges  as  ordinary  vehicles, 
horse-drawn  machines.  _, _,  .  ______    _,                            .     x,      , 

Scarifiers  are  used  in  loosening  the  ROANNE  France,  a  town  m  the  de- 
surface  of  macadam  roads,  when  under  partment  of  the  Loire,  important  as  a 
repair.  They  are  of  various  patterns,  railroad  junction,  situated  on  the  left 
but  consist  essentially  of  metal  spikes  bank  of  the  Loire,  42  miles  N.  W.  of 
which  scrape  or  drill  into  the  road  to  a  Lyons.  In  connection  with  the  railroads 
depth  sufficient  to  loosen  the  surface.  lar£e  machine  shops  and  engineering 
The  spikes  are  sometimes  fixed  to  the  works . are  located  here.  Other  impor- 
f ront  of  steam  rollers.  *ant  .  industries    are    copper    and    iron 

foundries,  dye  works,  and  textile  mills. 

ROADS,  artificial  pathways  formed  Pop.  about  37,000. 
through  a  country  for  the  accommoda-  BOANOKE,  a  city  in  Roanoke  co., 
tion  of  travelers  and  the  carriage  of  Va-.  on  the  Roanoke  river,  and  on  the 
commodities.  Though  the  Romans  set  Norfoik  and  Western  and  Virginian  rail- 
an  example  as  road-builders,  some  of  roads;  56  miles  W-  of  Lynchburg.  It 
their  public  highways  being  yet  service-  is  in  a  section  rich  in  iron  mining  and 
able,  the  roads  throughout  most  of  Eu-  farmmg  interests.  Here  are  a  high 
rope  were  m  a  wretched  condition  till  school>  the  Virginia  College  (women) 
toward  the  >  end  of  the  18th  century.  Rebekah  Sanitarium  and  six  hospitals- 
France  was  in  advance  of  other  countries  improVed  sewer  system,  waterworks, 
in  road  making;  m  England  a  decided  street  rai]road  and  electric  light  plants, 
improvement  of  the  highways  only  began  Nati0nal  and  State  banks,  several  ho- 
rn the  19th  century.  When  diversities  tels?  and  dailv>  weekly,  and  monthly 
of  level  are  necessary,  road  engineers  fix  periodicals.  It  has  large  machine  shops, 
the  degree  of  inclination  at  the  lowest  ro]iing  minS)  Dottle  works,  tobacco  fac- 
possible  point.  Telford  estimated  the  tories?  locomotive  and  car  works,  iron 
maximum  inclination  of  a  road  to  be  1  and  steel  works,  canning  factories,  spoke 
m  24  but,  except  in  extreme  cases,  it  vs  factories,  saw  and  planing  mills,  coffee 
considered  better  that  it  should  not  ex-  and  snice  mills>  and  many  smaner  in- 
ceedl  m  50.  The  angle  of  repose,  or  dustries.  Potj.  (1910)  34,874;  (1920) 
maximum  slope  on  which  a  carriage  will  qq  g^. 
stand,  has   been   estimated   at   1   in   40. 

A   properly   constructed   road,  besides  a  ROANOKE,    a    river    of    the    United 

foundation,    consists    of   two   layers,    an  States,  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina, 

upper  and  an  under.    After  a  good  foun-  It  flows  chiefly  S.  E.,  and  after  a  course 


ROANOKE    COLLEGE 


67 


ROBECK 


of  about  450  miles  falls  into  Albemarle 
sound.  It  is  tidal  for  75  miles  and  is 
navigable  for  double  that  distance  for 
small  vessels. 

ROANOKE  COLLEGE,  an  educational 
institution  in  Salem,  Va.;  founded  in 
1853,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Luther- 
an Church;  reported  at  the  close  of 
1919:  Professors  and  instructors,  19; 
students,  220;  president,  J.  A.  Morehead, 
D.D. 

ROARING,  in  horses,  a  disease  of  the 
nerves  and  muscles  of  the  larynx  which 
causes  an  obstruction  to  the  passage  of 
air,  giving  rise,  when  the  horse  is  briskly 
exercised,  to  the  peculiar  sound  from 
Which  the  disease  derives  its  name.  The 
cause  of  the  disease  is  in  most  cases 
attributed  to  fatty  degeneration  and 
atrophy  of  the  laryngeal  nerve,  which 
brings  about  an  atrophy  of  the  muscles 
of  the  larynx  on  the  side  affected,  and 
thus  causes  the  arytenoid  cartilage  to 
obstruct  the  passage.  The  disease  gener- 
ally affects  the  left  side,  and  is  not,  as  a 
rule,  amenable  to  treatment.  Cases  have 
been  cured  by  excision  of  a  portion  of  the 
affected  arytenoid  cartilage. 

ROASTING,  the  cooking  of  meat  by 
the  direct  action  of  fire — that  is,  by  dry 
heat,  either  before  the  fire  or  in  an  oven. 
Roasting  before  an  open  fire  is  considered 
preferable  to  roasting  in  an  oven  (which 
is  analogous  to  baking),  on  account  of 
the  free  ventilation  to  which  it  exposes 
the  meat  during  the  process.  The  appara- 
tus in  most  kitchens  for  open  roasting 
are  a  fire,  a  spit,  a  contrivance  for  turn- 
ing the  meat  to  present  all  sides  of  it 
alternately  to  the  fire,  a  screen  to  econo- 
mize the  heat,  and  a  saucepan  to  catch 
the  dripping. 

ROBBERY,  the  unlawful  taking  away 
of  money  or  goods  of  any  value  from  the 
person  of  another,  or  in  his  presence, 
either  by  violence  or  by  putting  him  in 
fear.  Hence,  in  order  to  constitute  rob- 
bery, there  must  be:  (1)  An  unlawful 
taking.  (2)  The  thing  must  be  of  some 
value,  but  it  is  immaterial,  as  constituting 
the  offense,  whether  it  be  a  cent  or  a 
dollar.  (3)  The  taking  must  be  by  force, 
or  a  previous  putting  in  fear.  It  is  this 
last  which  distinguishes  robbery  from 
other  larcenies,  and  makes  the  violation 
of  the  person  more  atrocious  than  private 
stealing.  The  taking  must  also  be  either 
directly  from  the  person  or  in  his  pres- 
ence, or  it  is  not  robbery.  The  thing 
taken  must  have  been  in  the  possession 
of  the  thief,  and  if  he  once  has  it  in  his 
possession,  even  though  he  immediately 
restore  it,  he  is  still  guilty  of  robbery. 
In  the  United  States  robbery  is  punish- 


able according  to  the  laws  of  the  various 
States. 

ROBBIA,  LUCA  DELLA,  an  Italian 
sculptor;  born  in  Florence  in  1399  or 
1400.  He  designed  and  executed  between 
1431  and  1440  10  panels  of  "Angels  and 
Dancing  Boys"  for  the  cathedral.  An- 
other great  work  by  him  was  a  bronze 
door,  with  10  panels  of  figures  in  relief 
for  the  sacristy  of  the  cathedral,  made 
between  1448  and  1467.  In  marble  he 
sculptured,  in  1457-1458,  the  tomb  of 
Federighi,  Bishop  of  Fiesole  (now  in  the 
church  of  San  Francesco  outside  the  city). 
His  name  is  closely  associated  with  the 
production  of  figures  in  glazed  or  enam- 
eled terra  cotta,  by  a  process  he  per- 
fected. Among  the  works  of  this  kind 
are  many  medallions,  some  white,  some 
polychrome,  and  reliefs.  He  died  in 
Florence,  Feb.  20,  1482.  His  principal 
pupil  was  his  nephew  Andrea  (1435- 
1525),  who  worked  chiefly  at  the  produc- 
tion of  enameled  reliefs,  retables,  and 
medallions,  these  last  for  the  most  part 
productions  of  the  "Madonna  and  Child." 
Nearly  all  his  works  were  of  religious 
subjects;  they  were  made  chiefly  for 
Florence,  Arezzo,  and  Prato.  His  son 
Giovanni  (1469-1529?)  continued  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  family  in  this  style  of  work; 
his  best  productions  are  the  frieze,  rep- 
resenting the  "Seven  Works  of  Mercy," 
outside  a  hospital  at  Pistoja,  and  a  foun- 
tain in  the  sacristy  of  St.  Maria  Novella 
in  Florence. 

BOBBINS,  HOWARD  CHANDLER, 
an  American  Protestant  Episcopal  clergy- 
man, born  at  Philadelphia,  in  1876.  He 
was  educated  at  Yale  University,  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary,  and  the  Epis- 
copal Theological  School,  Cambridge, 
Mass.  He  became  a  deacon  in  1903  and 
a  priest  in  1904.  From  1903  to  1905 
he  was  curate  at  St.  Peter's  Church,  Mor- 
ristown,  N.  J.;  from  1905  to  1911,  rector 
of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Englewood,  N.  J.; 
and  from  1911  to  1917  rector  of  the 
Church  of  the  Incarnation,  New  York. 
In  1917  he  became  dean  of  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  John  the  Divine,  New  York  City. 

R  O  B  E  C  K  ,  VICE  -  ADMIRAL,  SIR 
JOHN  MUCHAEL  DE,  a  British  naval 
officer.  He  was  born  in  1862  and  was 
educated  on  the  training  ship,  Britannia. 
In  1875  he  entered  the  Royal  Navy  as 
cadet  and  became  lieutenant  in  1885.  In 
1897  he  was  made  commander,  in  1902 
captain,  and  in  1911  rear-admiral.  He 
was  Admiral  of  Patrols  in  1912-14.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  he  commanded  the 
Naval  Force  in  the  Dardanelles  at  the 
time  the  Expeditionary  Force  was  landed 
in  1915  and  was  mentioned  in  despatches. 
In  1917  he  was  made  vice-admiral.     He 


ROBERT 


68 


ROBERT 


was  for  a  time  Inspector  of  Boys'  Train- 
ing Establishments.  During  1919  he  was 
Commander-in-Chief  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean. 

ROBERT,    DUKE    OF    NORMANDY, 

surnamed  the  Devil;  the  younger  son  of 
Duke  Richard  II.  by  his  marriage  with 
Judith,  a  daughter  of  Count  Godfrey  of 
Brittany.  In  1028  he  succeeded  his  elder 
brother,  Richard  III.,  whom  he  is  charged 
with  having  poisoned.  The  first  years  of 
his  government  were  employed  in  bring- 
ing his  rebellious  vassals  into  subjection, 
and  he  then  restored  Count  Baldwin  of 
Flanders  to  his  states,  assisted  Henry 
I.,  King  of  France,  against  his  mother 
Constantia,  and  humbled  Count  Otho 
of  Champagne.  In  1034  his  fleet  was 
wrecked  off  Jersey  while  on  its  way  to 
England  to  support  his  nephews  Alfred 
and  Edward  against  Canute,  who  had 
excluded  them  from  the  succession  to  the 
English  throne.  Hereupon  he  concluded 
a  truce  with  Canute,  by  which  the  two 
princes  were  promised  half  of  England. 
In  1033  he  set  out  to  visit  the  holy  places, 
and  subsequently  made  the  pilgrimage 
to  Jerusalem  on  foot.  While  returning 
he  died  suddenly  in  Nicsea  in  Asia  Minor 
(1035),  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
poisoned  by  his  servants.  William  the 
Conqueror  was  his  son. 

ROBERT  I.     See  Bruce,  Robert. 

ROBERT  II.,  King  of  Scotland;  born 
in  Scotland,  March  2,  1316;  the  son  of 
Marjory,  daughter  of  Robert  Bruce,  and 
of  Walter,  steward  of  Scotland,  and  was 
thus  the  first  of  the  Stewart  or  Stuart 
kings.  He  was  recognized  by  Parliament 
in  1318  as  heir  to  the  crown.  On  the 
death  of  David  II.  he  was  crowned  at 
Scone,  March  26,  1371.  He  had  long 
acted  as  regent,  and  had  done  good  ser- 
vice in  the  English  wars.  An  act  of 
Parliament  in  1375  settled  the  crown  on 
his  sons  by  his  first  wife  Elizabeth  Mure 
of  Rowallan,  illegitimate  by  ecclesiastical 
law.  His  reign  was  comparatively  a 
peaceful  one,  one  of  the  chief  events  being 
the  battle  of  Otterburn.  He  died  in  Dun- 
donald  Castle,  May  13,  1390. 

ROBERT  III.,  King  of  Scotland,  eld- 
est son  of  the  preceding;  born  in  1340 
and  was  originally  called  John,  but 
changed  his  name  on  his  coronation  in 
1390.  Having  been  lamed  by  accident,  he 
was  unable  to  engage  in  military  pursuits, 
and  he  trusted  the  management  of  affairs 
almost  entirely  to  his  brother,  whom  he 
created  Duke  of  Albany.  In  1398  Albany 
was  compelled  to  resign  his  office  by  a 
party  who  wished  to  confer  it  on  the 
king's  eldest  son,  David,  Duke  of  Rothe- 
say. War  was  renewed  with  England, 
and  the  battle   of   Homildon   Hill,   Sept. 


14,  1402,  resulted  in  a  disastrous  defeat 
of  the  Scotch.  In  this  year  the  Duke 
of  Rothesay  died  in  Falkland  Castle, 
where  he  had  been  imprisoned ;  and  it  was 
commonly  believed  that  he  was  starved 
to  death  at  the  instigation  of  Albany. 
Dread  of  Albany,  who  had  recovered  the 
regency,  induced  the  king  to  send  his  sec- 
ond son,  James,  to  France  in  1406;  but 
the  vessel  which  carried  him  was  cap- 
tured by  the  English,  and  Henry  IV.  long 
detained  him  as  a  prisoner.  Soon  after 
this  event  Robert  died  in  Rothesay,  Bute, 
in  1406. 

ROBERT  COLLEGE,  a  Christian  in- 
stitution of  learning  in  Hissur,  a  suburb 
of  Constantinople,  founded  in  1863  by 
Christopher  R.  Robert,  a  wealthy  resident 
of  New  York.  The  Rev.  Cyrus  Hamlin, 
D.  D.,  was  its  first  president.  Mr.  Robert 
supported  the  institution  till  his  death 
in  1878,  and  then  bequeathed  to  it  one- 
fifth  of  his  estate.  His  gifts  to  the  insti- 
tution amounted  in  all  to  about  $450,000. 
The  college  was  incorporated  as  a  branch 
of  the  University  of  New  York  in  1864. 
The  permission  to  erect  suitable  buildings 
was  given  by  the  Sultan  in  1869.  The 
two  main  buildings  were  erected  respec- 
tively in  1871  and  1893.  The  course  of 
study  is  similar  to  that  of  an  American 
college,  with  special  stress  laid  on  the 
teaching  of  English.  There  is  a  prepara- 
tory course  of  five  years.  During  the 
World  War  the  buildings  of  the  college 
were  used  as  a  hospital.  Over  3,500  stu- 
dents have  graduated  since  the  founda- 
tion of  the  institution.  President,  Caleb 
F.  Gates,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

ROBERT,  HENRY  MARTYN,  an 
American  army  officer,  born  at  Robert- 
ville,  S.  C,  in  1837.  He  graduated  from 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1857  and  in  the  same  year  was  made 
2nd  lieutenant  of  engineers.  Rising 
through  the  successive  ranks  of  the  ser- 
vice, he  became  chief  of  engineers  of 
the  United  States  Army,  with  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general,  on  April  30,  1901, 
but  was  retired  on  May  2  of  the  same 
year,  after  having^  reached  the  legal  age 
limit.  The  most  important  assignments 
of  his  military  career  included  service 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy, 
in  1856-7,  and  again  in  1865  to  1867; 
the  command  of  the  exploration  party 
of  a  military  route  from  Vancouver  to 
Puget  Sound,  in  1860;  engineer  in  charge 
of  defenses  of  Philadelphia,  in  1861-2, 
and  of  New  Bedford,  from  1862  to  1865 ; 
chief  engineer  of  the  Military  Division 
of  the  Pacific,  from  1867  to  1871;  engi- 
neer in  charge  of  various  light  house  dis- 
tricts and  river  and  harbor  improvements, 
from  1871  to  1895;  president  of  the 
United   States   Board   of   Engineers   for 


ROBERT     OF     GLOUCESTER 


69 


ROBERTS 


Fortifications,  from  1895  to  1901.  In 
1901-2,  and  again  in  1915,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  commission  to  design  a 
sea-wall  for  Galveston.  He  published 
"Robert's  Rules  of  Order"  (1876,  1893, 
1915)  ;  and  "Index  to  Reports  of  Chief  of 
Engineers  U.  S.  A.,  on  River  and  Harbor 
Improvements,  from  1866  to  1887"  (2 
volumes,  1881,  1889). 

ROBERT  OF  GLOUCESTER,  an  Eng- 
lish chronicler,  living  at  the  time  of  the 
battle  of  Evesham  (1265).  He  is  re- 
markable for  a  metrical  chronicle  of 
England,  from  the  time  of  the  fabulous 
Brut  to  his  own,  based  chiefly  upon 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth's  book.  It  extends 
to  10,000  lines,  and  is  one  of  the  earliest 
epics  of  the  English  language.  It  was 
printed  by  Thomas  Hearne  in  1724. 

ROBERTS,  ELLIS  HENRY,  an  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  financier,  born  in 
Utica,  N.  Y.,  in  1827.  He  graduated  from 
Yale  University  in  1850,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  became  editor  and  proprietor 
of  the  Utica  Morning  Herald.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  State  Legislature  in  1866, 
and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1871,  serv- 
ing until  1875.  From  1889  to  1893  he 
was  Assistant  Treasurer  of  the  United 
States,  and  Treasurer  of  the  United 
States  from  1897  to  1905.  „  He  wrote 
"Government  Revenue"  (1888);  "New 
York,  the  Planting  and  Growth  of  the 
Empire  State"  (1887;  1904).  He  died 
in  1918. 

ROBERTS,  FRANK  HUNT  HURD, 
an  American  educator,  born  at  Mt.  Ver- 
non, Ohio,  in  1869.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Ohio  University,  Kenyon  College, 
and  the  University  of  Denver.  From 
1889  to  1893  he  devoted  himself  to  news- 
paper work  in  Ohio,  from  1889  to  1899 
he  acted  as  superintendent  and  principal 
of  schools  for  various  schools,  from  1903 
to  1914  he  was  professor  of  history  at  the 
University  of  Denver,  and  in  1914  be- 
came extra-mural  professor  at  this  in- 
stitution. In  September,  1910,  he  was 
made  president  of  the  New  Mexico  Nor- 
mal University,  Las  Vegas,  N.  M.  He 
was  public  lecturer  on  historical  and 
pedagogical  subjects,  investigated  munici- 
pal ownership  in  Europe  on  behalf  of  the 
University  of  Denver,  in  1905,  and  was 
the  director  of  the  Wyoming  educational 
exhibit  at  the  Paris  and  St.  Louis  ex- 
positions. From  1911  to  1917  he  was  a 
member  of  the  New  Mexico  State  Board 
of  Education.  In  1916-17  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  New  Mexico  Educational  As- 
sociation. During  the  World  War  he  was 
the  State  chairman  of  the  "Four-Minute 
Men,"  and  of  the  National  Security 
League.  He  was  State  president  of  the 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  from  1917  to  1919,  and  was 


also  a  member  of  the  executive  commit- 
tee of  the  Interchurch  World  Movement. 
He  was  a  member  of  several  historical 
and  educational  societies,  and  published 
"A  Comparative  Study  of  the  State  and 
Nation"  (1900)  ;  "Civil  Government" 
(1902) ;  "Civil  Government  cf  Wyoming" 
(1902);  "History  and  Civics  of  New 
Mexico"  (1918)  ;  and  numerous  articles 
to  educational  and  political  journals. 

ROBERTS,   FREDERICK,    EARL,   an 

English  military  officer;  the  son  of  an 
Indian  officer,  Gen.  Sir  Abraham  Roberts ; 
born  in  Cawnpur,  India,  Sept.  30,  1832. 
He  was  brought  to  England  when  two 
years  old,  educated  at  Clifton,  Eton,  Sand- 
hurst, and  Addiscombe,  and  entered  the 


FIELD-MARSHAL  ROBERTS 

Bengal  Artillery  in  1851.  His  first  taste 
of  actual  warfare  was  got  in  the  hot 
time  of  the  siege  of  Delhi,  during  the 
Mutiny,  and  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
subsequent  operations  down  to  the  relief 
of  Lucknow,  acting  on  the  staff,  in  the 
quartermaster-general's  department,  and 
he  won  the  V.  C.  He  discharged  the  du- 
ties of  assistant  quartermaster-general  in 
the  Abyssinian  expedition  of  1868,  and 
in  the  Lushai  expedition  of  1871-1872. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Afghan  War  in 
1878,  Roberts,  now  Major-General,  was 
appointed  to  command  the  Kurram  divi- 
sion of  the  army.  He  forced  in  brilliant 
fashion  the  Afghan  position  on  the  peak 
of  Peiwar  Kotul  (8,500  feet  above  sea- 
level),  and  was  rewarded  with  a  knight- 
commandership  of  the  Bath  (1879).  Af- 
ter the  murder  of  Sir  Louis  Cavagnari 
and  the  escort  of  the  British  mission  at 
Kabul,   he   was   given    command    of   the 


ROBERTS 


70 


ROBERTSON 


force  sent  to  avenge  them.  He  defeated 
the  Afghans  at  Charasia  on  Oct.  6,  took 
possession  of  Kabul  on  the  12th,  and  as- 
sumed the  government  of  the  country, 
Yakub  Khan  having  abdicated.  Events 
followed  quickly :  the  fortified  cantonment 
of  Sherpur  was  occupied  by  the  British 
army,  the  fortress  of  Bala  Hissar  in  Ka- 
bul was  dismantled,  Yakub  Khan  was 
sent  a  prisoner  to  India,  the  Afghans 
began  to  concentrate  on  Kabul,  General 
Roberts  sought  to  check  them,  and  there 
was  much  sharp  fighting  round  the  city, 
Abdurrahman  was  proclaimed  Ameer,  and 
General  Burrows  was  crushingly  defeated 
at  Maiwand,  and  the  British  garrison  of 
Kandahar  besieged  by  the  followers  of 
Ayub  Khan.  On  Aug.  9  Sir  F.  Roberts 
set  out  with  10,148  troops,  8,143  native 
followers,  and  11,224  baggage  animals 
on  his  memorable  march  through  the 
heart  of  Afghanistan  to  the  relief  of 
Kandahar,  which  he  reached  three  weeks 
later.  He  immediately  gave  battle  to 
Ayub  Khan  and  routed  him  completely, 
capturing  all  his  artillery  and  his  camp. 
When  he  visited  England  toward  the  close 
of  the  year  he  was  honored  with  a  bar- 
onetcy, and  on  his  return  to  India  was 
appointed  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
Madras  army  (1881),  and  held  the  rank 
of  Commander-in-Chief  in  India  1885- 
1893.  He  was  appointed  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  forces  in  Ireland  in  1895;  and 
in  1899  took  command  of  the  English 
forces  in  South  Africa ;  capturing  Cronje, 
relieving  Kimberley,  and  annexing  the  two 
republics.  He  returned  to  England  and 
was  created  Earl,  and  made  Commander- 
in-Chief,  which  position  he  held  until  it 
was  abolished  in  1904.  During  the  suc- 
ceeding 10  years  Lord  Roberts  urged 
upon  his  countrymen  the  need  of  more 
adequate  military  preparation,  but  he 
was  little  heeded.  He  died  Nov.  14,  1914, 
while  visiting  the  British  lines  in  France. 

ROBERTS,  KENNETH  LEWIS,  an 
American  author,  born  at  Kennebunk, 
Me.,  in  1885.  He  was  educated  at  Cor- 
nell University.  Having  served  as  edi- 
tor-in-chief of  the  "Cornell  Widow"  dur- 
ing his  under-graduate  days;  he  became 
a  contributor  of  fiction,  special  articles, 
light  verse,  etc.,  to  "Life,"  "Puck,"  and 
many  other  periodicals.  In  1916-17  he 
was  on  the  editorial  staff  of  "Puck."  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  he  served  first  as  a 
captain  of  the  Military  Intelligence  Di- 
vision and  later  with  the  American  Ex- 
peditionary Force  in  Siberia. 

ROBERTS,  MORLEY,  an  English 
novelist  and  journalist,  born  in  London 
in  1857.  He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  and  at  Owens  College,  Manches- 
ter. In  1874  he  removed  to  Australia 
and  was  engaged  in  various  employments. 


He  traveled  also  in  the  United  States 
and  in  the  South  Seas,  Samoa,  South 
Africa,  and  other  parts  of  the  world.  He 
was  a  prolific  writer  and  his  stories  of 
adventure  attained  wide  popularity.  They 
include  "Red  Earth"  (1894) ;  "The  Co- 
lossus" (1899) ;  "The  Way  of  a  Man" 
(1902) ;  "The  Private  Life  of  Henry 
Maitland"  (1912)  ;  "Gloomy  Fanny" 
(1913) ;  and  "Sweet  Herbs  and  Bitter" 
(1914). 

ROBERTS,  WILLIAM  HENRY,  an 
American  Presbyterian  clergyman,  born 
at  Holyhead,  Wales,  in  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York  and  at  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  receiving  honorary  degrees 
from  several  American  universities.  From 
1863  to  1865  he  was  statistician  of  the 
Treasury  Department,  and  from  1866  to 
1871,  assistant  librarian  of  Congress.  In 
1873  he  was  ordained  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  and  after  some  years  as  pas- 
tor of  a  church  at  Cranford,  N.  J.,  he 
was  librarian  of  the  Princeton  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  from  1878  to  1886,  and  pro- 
fessor of  practical  theology  at  the  Lane 
Theological  Seminary,  from  1886  to  1893. 
In  1884,  he  became  stated  clerk  of  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States;  in  1888, 
American  secretary  of  the  Alliance  of 
the  Reformed  Churches  Throughout  the 
World;  and  in  1907,  secretary  of  the 
Council  of  Reformed  Churches  in  the 
United  States.  He  also  served  as  treas- 
urer of  the  Centenary  Fund  for  Minis- 
terial Relief  (1888  to  1890),  for  the 
Anniversary  Reunion  Fund  (1895  to 
1897),  and  of  the  Twentieth  Century 
Fund  (1900  to  1902).  In  1896,  he  was 
president  of  the  Glasgow,  Scotland,  Pan- 
Presbyterian  Council;  from  1903  to  1909, 
secretary  of  the  Interchurch  Conference 
on  Marriage  and  Divorce;  in  1905,  presi- 
dent of  the  Interchurch  Conference  on 
Federation,  N.  Y.;  in  1907,  moderator 
of  the  Presbyterian  General  Assembly; 
and  in  1918-19,  chairman  of  the  Confer- 
ence on  Organic  Union.  He  published 
"History  of  the  Presbyterian  Church" 
(1888) ;  "The  Presbyterian  System" 
(1895);  etc.,  and  edited  "Minutes  of  the 
General  Assembly"  (34  volumes)  (1884 
to  1919),  etc.     He  died  in  1920. 

ROBERTSON,  ARCHIBALD  THOS., 
an  American  Baptist  theologian,  born 
near  Chatham,  Va.,  in  1863.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Wake  Forest  (N.  C.)  College,  and 
at  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological  Sem- 
inary, Louisville,  Ky.  In  1888  he  was 
assistant  instructor  of  New  Testament 
interpretation;  in  1892  professor  of  Bib- 
lical Introduction;  and  since  1895  pro- 
fessor of  New  Testament  interpretation 
at  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological  Senv 


ROBERTSON 


71 


ROBERTSON 


inary,  Louisville,  Ky.  In  1904  he  became 
business  manager  of  the  "Review  and 
Expositor."  He  wrote  "Life  and  Letters 
of  John  A.  Broadus"  (1900)  ;  "Syllabus 
for  New  Testament  Study"  (1903) ;  "The 
Students'  Chronological  New  Testament" 
(1904) ;  "Keywords  in  the  Teaching  of 
Jesus"  (1905)  ;  "Epochs  in  the  Life  of 
Jesus"  (1908) ;  "Commentary  on  Mat- 
thew" (1910) ;  "John  the  Loyal"  (1911) ; 
"The  Glory  of  the  Ministry"  (1911); 
"Grammar  of  the  Greek  New  Testament 
in  the  Light  of  Historical  Research" 
(1914);  "Studies  in  New  Testament" 
(1915)  ;  "Training  for  Citizenship" 
(1918).  His  "Short  Grammar  of  Greek 
New  Testament"  (1908)  was  translated 
into  the  Italian,  German,  French,  and 
Dutch  languages.  He  also  contributed  to 
many  biblical  dictionaries  and  encyclo- 
pedias. 

ROBERTSON,  FREDERICK  WILL- 
IAM, an  English  preacher;  born  in  Lon- 
don, Feb.  3,  1816.  He  attended  the  gram- 
mar school  of  Beverley,  and  in  1830 
became  a  pupil  of  the  Edinburgh  Acad- 
emy, and  afterward  attended  the  univer- 
sity of  that  city.  Failing  to  obtain  a  com- 
mission in  the  army,  he  matriculated  at 
Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  in  1837,  with 
a  view  to  enter  the  Church.  He  was  or- 
dained in  1840,  and  took  priest's  orders 
a  year  later.  He  then  went  abroad,  and 
at  Geneva  married  the  daughter  of  Sir 
George  William  Denys.  From  1842  to 
1846  he  was  curate  at  Christ  Church, 
Cheltenham.  He  became  incumbent  of 
Trinity  Chapel,  Brighton,  in  1847;  and 
continued  in  this  charge  with  increasing 
fame  as  a  preacher  till  his  death.  His 
views  on  the  Sabbath,  tbe  atonement,  bap- 
tism, and  inspiration  were  assailed  as 
unorthodox,  and  he  was  accused  of  preach- 
ing democracy  and  socialism.  His  pub- 
lished works  embrace  "Lectures  and  Ad- 
dresses on  Literary  and  Social  Topics" 
(8vo,  London,  1858),  "Analysis  of  Tenny- 
son's In  Memoriam"  (1862),  and  sermons 
and  lectures.  He  died  in  Brighton, 
August  15,  1853. 

ROBERTSON,    JAMES    BURTON,    an 

English  historian;  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, Nov.  15,  1800;  studied  literature, 
philosophy,  and  the  elements  of  dogmatic 
theology,  in  France;  and  after  various 
preliminary  essays  published  a  transla- 
tion of  Frederick  Schlegel's  "Philosophy 
of  History"  (1835)  which  passed  through 
many  editions.  His  second  translation, 
"Symbolism,  or  Exposition  of  Doctrinal 
Differences  between  Catholics  and  Pro- 
testants" (1843),  was  also  widely  read 
in  both  England  and  America  and  cre- 
ated^ profound  impression.  His  original 
writings  include:  "Public  Lectures  on 
Some   Subjects   of   Ancient   and   Modern 


History"  (1859) ;  "Lectures  on  Some 
Subjects  of  Modern  History  and  Biog- 
raphy" (1864)  ;  and  many  others.  He 
died  in  Dublin,  Feb.  14,  1877. 

ROBERTSON,  JOSEPH,  a  Scottish 
antiquary;  born  in  Aberdeen,  May  17, 
1810,  was  educated  at  Udny  Academy, 
and  the  grammar  school  and  Marischai 
College  of  his  native  city.  An  Episco- 
palian and  Conservative,  he  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  lawyer,  but  took  early  to  writ- 
ing, and,  after  six  years  of  literary  work 
at  Edinburgh  was  a  newspaper  editor 
at  Aberdeen,  Glasgow,  and  Edinburgh 
from  1839  to  1853.  He  was  in  that  year 
appointed  curator  of  the  historical  de- 
partment of  the  Edinburgh  Register 
House.  He  was  an  originator  of  the 
Aberdeen  Spalding  Club  (1839-1870)  for 
which  he  edited  eight  works.  Of  his  other 
works  may  be  noticed  "The  Book  of  Bon- 
Accord,  or  a  Guide  to  the  City  of  Aber- 
deen" (1839),  "Catalogues  of  the  Jewels, 
Dresses,  Books,  and  Paintings  of  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots"  (Bannatyne  Club,  1863), 
the  invaluable  "Concilia  Scotise:  Ec- 
clesiae  Scoticanae  Statuta,  1225-1559" 
(1866),  and  an  admirable  article  in  the 
"Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1849,  on 
"Scottish  Abbeys  and  Cathedrals."  He 
died  Dec.  13,  1866. 

ROBERTSON,  THOMAS  M.,  an 
American  economist,  born  in  Alamance 
Co.,  N.  C,  in  1857.  Until  1887  he  taught 
school.  From  1893  to  1895  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  N.  C.  house  of  representatives; 
from  1895  to  1897  he  was  connected  with 
the  United  States  Treasury  Department, 
and  from  1897  to  1903  with  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labor.  From  1904  to  1915  he  was 
special  examiner  in  the  Bureau  of  Cor- 
porations, in  charge  of  investigations  of 
water  power,  cotton  and  lumber.  From 
1915  to  1917  he  was  assistant  chief  econo- 
mist and  a  member  of  the  Joint  Board  of 
Review  of  the  Federal  Trade  Commission, 
becoming  in  1917  chief  economist. 

ROBERTSON,  SIR  WILLIAM  (ROB- 
ERT), a  British  military  officer.  He 
was  born  at  Welbourne,  Lincolnshire, 
England,  in  1860  and  was  educated  pri- 
vately. In  1888  he  became  a  lieutenant  in 
the  3rd  Dragoon  Guards,  and  in  1891  was 
railway  transport  officer  in  the  Miranzai 
and  Black  Mountain  Expeditions.  In 
1892-96  he  was  Staff  Captain  and  D.  A. 
Q.  M.  G.,  Intelligence  Branch,  Simla,  and 
in  1895,  Intelligence  Officer,  Headquarters, 
Chitral  Relief  Force,  where  he  was  se- 
verely wounded.  He  was  in  the  South 
African  War  in  1900  and  was  Assistant 
Director  of  Military  Operations  in  the 
War  Office,  1901-7.  In  1907  he  was  A.  Q. 
M.  G.  at  Aldershot  and  in  1910-13,  Com- 


ROBESPIERRE 


72 


ROBESPIERRE 


mandant,  Staff  College.  In  1913-14  he 
was  Director  of  Military  Training  at  the 
War  Office.     In  the  World  War  he  com- 


GENERAL   SIR   WILLIAM    ROBERTSON 

manded  the  1st  Infantry  Division  and 
Chief  of  General  Staff  1915-18,  General 
Officer,  Commander-in-Chief  Eastern 
Command,  1918,  Great  Britain,  1918-19. 

ROBESPIERRE,  MAXIMILIEN  MA- 
RIE ISIDORE,  a  French  revolutionist; 
born  of  a  family  of  Irish  origin,  in  Arras, 
May  6,  1758.  His  mother  died  in  1767, 
his  broken  -hearted  father  two  years  later, 
and  the  four  children  were  brought  up 
by  their  maternal  grandfather,  an  Arras 
brewer.  Maximilien,  the  eldest,  early 
showed  unusual  promise,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Arras  and  at  the  College  Louis- 
le-Grand  at  Paris.  He  was  admitted  avo- 
cat  in  1781,  and  next  year  was  named 
criminal  judge  by  the  Bishop  of  Arras, 
:jut  resigned  his  place  soon  after  to  avoid 
passing  a  sentence  of  death.  All  through 
life  a  fanatical  devotee  of  the  Gospel  ac- 
cording to  Rousseau,  his  sentimentality 
and  taste  for  verses  made  him  popular 
among  the  Rosati  at  Arras.  He  drew 
up  the  cahier  or  list  of  grievances  for  the 
guild  of  cobblers,  and  was  elected  to  the 
States-General  in  1789  as  one  of  the  depu- 
ties for  the  tiers  etat  of  Artois.    He  soon 


attached  himself  to  the  extreme  Left— 
the  "thirty  voices,"  and  though  his  first 
speeches  excited  ridicule,  it  was  not  long 
before  his  earnestness  and  his  high  sound- 
ing phrases  commanded  attention.  In- 
deed his  influence  grew  daily,  both  in  the 
Jacobin  Club  and  in  the  Assembly. 

Three  days  after  the  death  of  Mira- 
beau  he  called  on  the  Assembly  to  pre- 
vent any  deputy  from  taking  office  as 
minister  for  four  years,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing month  (May,  1791)  carried  the 
motion  that  no  member  of  the  present 
Assembly  should  be  eligible  for  the  next. 
Next  followed  Robespierre's  appointment 
as  public  accuser,  the  king's  flight  to 
Varennes  (June  21),  Lafayette's  last  ef- 
fort to  control  the  sacred  right  of  In- 
surrection on  the  Champ-de-Mars  (July 
17),  the  abject  terror  of  Robespierre,  his 
sheltering  himself  in  the  house  of  Duplay, 
a  carpenter,  his  hysterical  appeal  to  the 
club,  the  theatrical  oath  taken  by  every 
member  to  defend  his  life,  and  his  being 
crowned  with  chaplets,  along  with  Petion, 
and  carried  home  in  triumph  by  the  mob 
at  the  close  of  the  Constituent  Assembly, 
Sept.  30. 

He  went  to  Arras,  where  he  sold  his 
small  patrimony  and  returned  to  Paris, 
to  the  house  of  Duplay,  where  he  re- 
mained till  the  last  day  of  his  life.  He 
was  much  beloved  in  the  family,  and  a 
passion  quickly  sprung  up  betwixt  him- 
self and  his  host's  eldest  daughter,  Ele- 
nore,  a  romantic  girl  of  25.  Alone  among 
the  patriots  he  was  noted  for  the  care- 
fulness of  his  dress — powdered  hair,  a 
bright  blue  coat,  white  waistcoat,  short 
yellow  breeches,  with  white  stockings  and 
shoes  with  silver  buc  lies. 

Meantime  the  Girondist  party  had  been 
formed  in  the  new  Legislative  Assembly, 
its  leaders — the  loudest,  Brissot — eager 
for  war.  Robespierre,  who  ever  feared 
and  disliked  war,  offered  a  strenuous  op- 
position in  the  debates  of  the  Jacobin 
Club.  Fundamentally  an  empty  pedant, 
inflated  with  words  which  he  mistook  for 
ideas,  in  his  orations  he  is  ever  riding  in 
the  air  on  theories,  his  foot  never  on  the 
solid  ground  of  the  practical.  In  April, 
1792,  he  resigned  his  post  of  public  prose- 
cutor. He  was  invisible  during  the  crisis 
of  August  10,  but  joined  the  H6tel-de-Ville 
faction,  and  on  August  16  he  presented  to 
the  Legislative  Assembly  its  petition  for 
a  Revolutionary  Tribunal  and  a  new  Con- 
vention. He  was  elected  first  deputy  for 
Paris  to  the  National  Convention,  which 
opened  on  Sept.  21. 

The  bitter  attacks  on  him  by  the  Giron- 
dists were  renewed  only  to  throw  Robes- 
pierre into  a  closer  union  with  Danton 
and  his  party,  but  the  final  struggle  was 
interrupted  for  a  little  by  the  momentous 
question  of  the  king's  trial.    Robespierre 


ROBESPIERRE 


73 


ROBESPIERRE 


opposed  vigorously  the  Girondist  idea  of 
a  special  appeal  to  the  people  on  the 
king's  death,  and  his  execution  (Jan.  21, 
1793)  opened  up  the  final  stage  of  the 
struggle,  which  ended  in  a  complete  tri- 
umph of  the  Jacobins  on  June  2  of  the 
same  year.  The  first  Committee  of 
Public  Safety — a  permanent  Cabinet  of 
Revolution — was  decreed  in  April,  1793, 
but  Robespierre  was  not  elected  till 
July  27. 

He  was  now  for  the  first  time  one  of 
the  actual  rulers  of  France,  but  it  is 
open  to  question  whether  for  the  whole 
12  months  from  this  time  to  the  end  he 
was  not  merely  the  stalking  horse  for 
the  more  resolute  party  within  the  Twelve. 
His  vaunted  respectability,  his  great  popu- 
larity with  the  mob,  and  his  gift  of 
fluent,  if  vague  and  windy,  oratory,  made 
an  admirable  cover  for  the  truculent  de- 
signs of  strong  and  completely  unscrupu- 
lous men  like  Billaud-Varennes  and  Collot 
d'Herbois  and  at  least  it  is  certainly  the 
case  that  Couthon  and  Saint-Just  were 
the  only  members  whose  political  and 
social  ideals  coincided  with  his  own. 

The  next  scenes  in  the  dark  drama  of 
Revolution  were  the  intrigues  and  des- 
perate struggles  that  sent  Hebert  and 
his  friends  to  the  scaffold  on  March  24, 
1794,  and  Danton  and  Robespierre's 
school-fellow,  Camille  Desmoulins,  on 
April  5.  Danton  he  at  once  hated  and 
feared  with  that  fierce  and  spiteful  hat- 
red he  ever  felt  instinctively  for  men  with 
natural  gifts  beyond  his  own.  The  next 
three  months  he  reigned  supreme,  but  his 
supremacy  prepared  the  way  for  his  in- 
evitable fall.  He  nominated  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  government  committee,  placed 
his  creatures  in  all  places  of  influence  in 
the  commune  of  Paris,  sent  his  hench- 
man Saint-Just  on  a  mission  to  the  armies 
on  the  frontier,  assumed  supreme  con- 
trol of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  and 
completely  revolutionized  its  method  of 
operation  by  the  atrocious  measure  intro- 
duced by  his  creature  Couthon  on  the 
22d  Prairial  (June  10),  to  the  effect  that 
neither  counsel  nor  witnesses  need  be 
heard  if  the  jury  had  come  otherwise  to 
a  conclusion. 

But,  in  accordance  with  the  law  that 
governs  all  human  things,  as  Robes- 
pierre's power  increased  his  popularity 
decreased.  His  declaration  on  May  7  of 
a  new  religion  for  the  State — the  founda- 
tion of  a  new  regime  of  public  morality 
' — awakened  in  the  mind  of  Paris  the 
slumbering  sense  of  humor.  The  Con- 
vention at  Robespierre's  instance  agreed 
to  compliment  the  Supreme  Being  with 
an  acknowledgment  of  His  existence  and 
themselves  with  the  Consolatory  Principle 
of  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  to  be 
celebrated  in   36  annual  festivals.     The 


first  of  these  was  held  on  June  8,  when 
Robespierre,  glorious  in  a  new  light-blue 
coat,  walked  in  front  of  the  procession 
and  delivered  his  soul  of  a  vapid  harangue, 
and  set  fire  to  pasteboard  figures  repre- 
senting Atheism,  Selfishness,  Annihila- 
tion, Crime,  and  Vice. 

Meantime  the  pace  of  the  guillotine 
grew  faster,  though  apparently  Robes- 
pierre hoped  to  bring  it  to  a  close  as  soon 
as  all  his  more  dangerous  enemies,  like 
Tallien,  Fouche,  and  Vadier,  were  cut  off. 
At  the  same  time  the  public  finance  and 
the  work  of  government  generally  drifted 
to  ruin,  and  Saint-Just  openly  demanded 
the  creation  of  a  dictatorship  in  the  per- 


MAXIMILIEN  M.  I.  ROBESPIERRE 

son  of  Robespierre  as  alone  possessing 
intellect,  energy,  patriotism,  and  revolu- 
tionary experience  enough.  On  July  26 
(8th  Thermidor),  after  about  a  month's 
absence,  the  dictator  delivered  a  long 
harangue  complaining  that  he  was  being 
accused  of  crimes  unjustly.  He  was  lis- 
tened to  in  deep  unsympathetic  silence, 
and  the  Convention,  after  at  first  obe- 
diently passing  his  decrees,  next  rescinded 
them  and  referred  his  proposals  to  that 
committee,  and  the  sitting  ended  without 
anything  being  concluded.  That  night  at 
the  Jacobin  Club  his  party  again  tri- 
umphed, and  the  Tallien  party  in  despair 
hurried  to  the  members  of  the  Right, 
the  Girondist  remnant,  and  implored  their 
help  against  the  common  enemy  at  this 
desperate  juncture.  Next  day  at  the  Con- 
vention Saint-Just  could  not  obtain  a 
hearing.  Tallien,  Billaud-Varennes,  and 
Vadier  vehemently  attacked  Robespierre, 
and  the  voice  of  the  dictator  himself  was 
drowned  with  cries  of  "Down  with  the 
tyrant."    Turning  to  the  Right,  "I  appeal 


ROBIN 


74 


ROBINS 


to  you  whose  hands  are  clean,"  he  cried, 
but  the  Right  sat  in  stony  silence.  "Pres- 
ident of  Assassins,  I  demand  to  be  heard," 
he  cried,  but  his  voice  died  down  in  his 
throat.  "The  blood  of  Danton  chokes 
him,"  cried  Gamier.  An  unknown  deputy 
named  Louchet  proposed  that  Robes- 
pierre should  be  arrested,  and  at  the  fatal 
words  his  power  crumbled  into  ruins.  His 
younger  brother  and  Lebas  demanded  to 
be  included  in  the  honorable  sentence. 
Vain  attempts  were  made  by  the  Jacobin 
Club  and  the  Commune  to  save  their  hero, 
but  Paris  refused  to  move,  and  even  Hen- 
riot's  artillerymen  to  obey.  Robespierre 
broke  his  arrest  and  flew  to  the  City 
Hall,  whereupon  the  Convention  at  once 
declared  him  out  of  the  law.  The  Na- 
tional Guard  under  Barras  turned  out  to 
protect  the  Convention,  and  Robespierre 
had  his  lower  jaw  broken  by  a  shot  fired 
by  a  gendarme  named  Meda.  Next  day 
(July  28;  10th  Thermidor,  1794)  he  died, 
with  Saint-Just,  Couthon,  and  19  others 
by  the  guillotine. 

ROBIN,  AMERICAN,  or  MIGRAT- 
ING THRUSH,  the  Tardus  migratorius; 
specific  character  dark-ash  color ;  beneath, 
brownish-red ;  head  and  tail  black;  the 
two  exterior  feathers  of  the  latter  white 
at  the  inner  tip.  The  robin  is  found  in 
summer  throughout  North  America  from 
Alaska  to  Mexico.  They  retire  from 
higher  latitudes  only  as  their  food  begins 
to  fail,  or  till  driven  S.  by  inundating 
snows.  During  the  winter  months  they 
are  numerous  in  the  Southern  States. 
Even  as  far  N.  as  Boston  robins  are  some- 
times seen  in  the  depth  of  winter.  Toward 
the  close  of  January  the  robin  is  still  in 
South  Carolina,  and  about  the  second 
week  of  March  begins  to  appear  in  the 
Middle  States.  By  the  10th  of  March 
they  may  also  be  heard  in  New  England. 
The  eggs,  about  five,  are  of  a  bluish-green, 
and  without  spots.  They  raise  several 
broods  in  a  season. 

ROBIN  GOODFELLOW,  the  same  as 
Puck. 

ROBIN  HOOD,  the  hero  of  a  group  of 
old  English  ballads,  represented  as  an 
outlaw  and  a  robber,  but  of  a  gallant 
and  generous  nature,  whose  familiar 
haunts  are  the  forests  of  Sherwood  and 
Barnsdale,  where  he  fleets  the  time  care- 
lessly in  the  merry  greenwood.  He  is  ever 
genial  and  good-natured,  religious,  re- 
spectful to  the  Virgin  and  to  all  women 
for  her  sake,  with  a  kind  of  gracious  and 
noble  dignity  in  his  bearing.  He  lives 
by  the  king's  deer,  though  personally  most 
loyal,  and  wages  ceaseless  warfare  on 
all  proud  bishops,  abbots,  and  knights, 
taking  of   their   superfluity,   and   giving 


liberally  to  the  poor  and  to  all  honest 
men  in  distress,  of  whatever  degree.  Hft 
is  unrivalled  with  the  bow  and  quarter- 
staff;  but  in  as  many  as  eight  of  th 
extant  ballads  comes  off  the  worse  in  tlu 
combat  with  some  stout  fellow,  whom  he 
thereupon  induces  to  join  his  company. 
His  chief  comrades  are  Little  John,  Scath- 
lok  (Scarlet),  and  Much;  to  these  the 
"Gest"  adds  Gilbert  of  the  White  Hand 
and  Reynold.  A  stalwart  curtal  friar, 
called  Friar  Tuck  in  the  title  though  not 
in  the  ballad,  fights  with  Robin  Hood,  and 
apparently  accepts  the  invitation  to  join 
his  company,  as  he  appears  later  in  two 
broadsides  which  also  mention  Maid  Ma- 
rion. Such  is  the  romantic  figure  of  the 
greatest  of  English  popular  heroes — a 
kind  of  yeoman  counterpart  to  the 
knightly  Arthur. 

The  earliest  notice  of  Robin  Hood  yet 
found  is  that  pointed  out  by  Percy  in 
"Piers  Plowman,"  which,  according  to 
Skeat,  cannot  be  older  than  about  1377. 
In  the  next  century  we  find  him  men- 
tioned in  Wyntoun's  "Chronicle  of  Scot- 
land" (1420).  Bower,  in  his  "Scotichro- 
nicon"  (1441-1447),  describes  the  lower 
orders  of  his  time  as  entertaining  them- 
selves with  ballads  both  merry  and  serious 
about  Robin  Hood,  Little  John,  and  their 
mates,  and  preferring  them  to  all  others ; 
and  Major  or  Mair  (1470-1550)  says  in 
his  "Historia  Maioris  Britannia?"  that 
Robin  Hood  ballads  were  sung  all  over 
Britain.  The  last  passage  gives  appar- 
ently the  earliest  mention  of  those  more 
romantic  and  redeeming  features  of  Robin 
Hood  which  earned  him  a  place  in  Fuller's 
"Worthies  of  England." 

Fragments  of  two  Robin  Hood  plays 
exist,  one  dating  from  1475,  the  other 
printed  by  Copland  with  the  "Gest"  about 
1550.  The  latter  is  described  in  the  title 
as  "very  proper  to  be  played  in  May- 
games."  Robin  Hood  was  a  popular  figure 
in  these  during  the  16th  century,  as  we 
find  from  Stow,  Hall,  and  other  writers, 
and  there  is  evidence  that  in  this  con- 
nection he  was  known  as  far  N.  as  Aber- 
deen. 

ROBINS,  ELIZABETH  (MRS. 
GEORGE  RICHMOND  PARKES),  an 
American  actress  and  writer,  born  in 
Louisville,  Ky.  She  was  educated  in 
Zanesville,  Ohio,  but  the  larger  part  of 
her  life  was  spent  in  England.  She  at- 
tained success  on  the  stage  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  Ibsen's  plays.  She  was  best 
known,  however,  as  a  novelist.  Her  books 
include  "Below  the  Salt"  (1896);  "The 
Open  Question"  (1898) ;  "The  Magnetic 
North"  (1904) ;  "The  Convert"  (1907) ; 
"My  Little  Sister"  1912;  "Way  Stations" 
(1913).  She  lectured  widely  on  the 
woman  suffrage  movement. 


ROBINS 


75 


ROBINSON 


ROBINS.,  RAYMOND,  an  American 
economist  and  writer,  born  on  Staten 
Island,  N.  Y.,  in  1873.  He  was  educated 
privately  and  studied  law  at  George 
Washington  University.  He  was  engaged 
for  several  years  in  social  work  in  Chi- 
cago and  was  a  member  of  the  Chicago 
Board  of  Education,  from  1906  to  1909. 
He  served  also  as  social  service  expert 
for  the  Men  and  Religion  Forward  Move- 
ment, in  1911-12.  He  became  identified 
with  the  Progressive  party  and  served 
as  chairman  of  the  State  Central  Com- 
mittee. In  1914  he  was  candidate  for  that 
party,  and  was  temporary  and  permanent 
chairman  of  the  Progressive  National 
Convention  in  1916.  During  the  World 
War  he  was  engaged  in  Y.  M.  C.  A.  work 
and  Red  Cross  work  in  France.  In  1917 
he  headed  the  expedition  for  the  American 
Red  Cross  to  Russia.  On  his  return  to 
the  United  States  he  presented  an  elabo- 
rate report  on  conditions  in  Russia,  which 
occasioned  much  discussion  on  account  of 
its  alleged  leaning  toward  the  Soviet 
movement. 

ROBINSON,  EDWARD,  an  American 
writer  and  authority  on  art,  born  in  Bos- 
ton in  1858.  He  graduated  from  Harvard 
in  1879,  and  spent  the  following  five  years 
in  study,  especially  in  Greece  and  in  Ber- 
lin, devoting  his  attention  chiefly  to  archae- 
ology. From  1895  to  1902  he  was  curator 
of  classical  antiquities  in  the  Boston  Mu- 
seum of  Fine  Arts,  and  was  for  three 
years  following  the  latter  date  director 
of  the  museum.  He  became  assistant 
director  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art  in  New  York,  succeeding  Sir  Caspar 
Purdon  Clarke  as  director  in  1910.  He 
prepared  catalogues  and  contributed 
many  articles  on  art  and  archaeological 
subjects  for  magazines.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  many  learned  societies. 

ROBINSON,  EDWIN  ARLINGTON, 
an  American  author  and  poet,  born  at 
Head  Tide,  Me.,  in  1869.  He  studied  at 
Harvard  University  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Institute  of  Arts  and 
Letters  through  the  general  recognition 
of  intellectual  sincerity  and  positive 
American  spirit  and  theme  that  appeared 
alike  in  his  plays  and  published  poems. 
His  first  publication  was  "The  Torrent 
of  the  Night  Before,"  brought  out  in  1896. 
Since  then  he  has  published  "The  Chil- 
dren of  the  Night";  "Captain  Craig"; 
"Van  Zorn,"  a  play,  and  "The  Man 
against  the  Sky,"  and  "Merlin,"  both 
poems. 

ROBINSON,  JAMES  HARVEY,  an 
American  writer  and  lecturer,  born  in 
Bloomington,  111.,  in  1863.  He  graduated 
from  Harvard  University  in  1887  and 
took  post-graduate  studies  in   Germany. 


He  was  lecturer  on  European  history  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1891, 
and  from  1892  to  1919  he  was  associate 
professor  and  professor  of  history  at  Co- 
lumbia University.  From  1919  he  acted 
as  organizer  and  lecturer  of  the  New 
School  for  Social  Research.  He  was  the 
editor  of  the  Annals  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science, 
and  an  associate  editor  of  the  "American 
Historical  Review."  His  historical  writ- 
ings include  "Readings  in  European  His- 
tory" (1904-5);  "The  Development  of 
Modern  Europe"  (1907)  ;  "The  New  His- 
tory" (1911);  and  "Mediaeval  and  Mod- 
ern Times"   (1915). 

ROBINSON,    JOSEPH    TAYLOR,    an 

American  lawyer  and  legislator.  He  was 
born  at  Lonoke,  Ark.,  in  1872,  and  was 
educated  in  the  public  schools  and  the 
University  of  Arkansas.  He  studied  law 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1895, 
beginning  to  practice  at  Lonoke.  In  1895 
he  became  a  member  of  the  General  As- 


JOSEPH  TAYLOR  ROBINSON 

sembly  and  in  1896  was  nominated  pres- 
idential elector  on  the  Democratic  ticket, 
but  retired  at  the  request  of  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Committee  in  the  interest 
of  fusion  to  make  room  for  Populists. 
He  was  presidential  elector  in  1900  and 
electoral  messenger  in  1901.  He  repre- 
sented the  sixth  Arkansas  district  in  Con- 
gress 1903-13,  resigning  in  the  last  year, 
to  be  inaugurated  as  Governor  of  Arkan- 


ROBINSON 


76 


ROCAMBOLE 


sas,  to  which  he  had  been  elected  in  1912. 
He  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Sen- 
ate in  1913  to  succeed  the  Hon.  Jeff  Davis 
and  was  re-elected  in  1918. 

ROBINSON,  WILLIAM  JOSEPHTJS, 
an  American  physician  and  writer,  born 
at  Mount  Morris,  New  York,  in  1869.  He 
graduated  from  the  Columbia  University 
College  of  Pharmacy  and  from  the  medi- 
cal college  of  New  York  University,  doing 
post-graduate  work  at  the  University  of 
Berlin  and  Vienna.  He  was  a  lecturer 
on  chemistry,  pharmacology  and  materia 
medica  of  the  Board  of  Pharmacy  Insti- 
tute, New  York,  and  president  of  the  med- 
ical board  and  chief  of  the  Genito-Uri- 
nary  and  Dermatological  departments  of 
the  Bronx  Hospital  and  Dispensary.  He 
was  also  a  Fellow  of  the  New  York  Acad- 
emy of  Medicine,  and  a  member  of  vari- 
ous domestic  and  foreign  medical  socie- 
ties. Besides  being  a  founder  and  editor 
of  the  "Critic  and  Guide,"  and  an  editor 
of  the  "American  Journal  of  Urology," 
he  wrote:  "Never  Told  Tales"  (1908); 
"Sexual  Problems  of  To-day"  (1912)  ; 
"Practical  Eugenics"  (1912);  "Sex  Mo- 
rality" (1912)  ;  "Eugenics  and  Marriage" 
(1917). 

ROBINSON  CRUSOE.  Alexander  Sel- 
kirk was  found  in  the  desert  island  of 
Juan  Fernandez  (1709),  where  he  had 
been  left  by  Captain  Stradling.  He  had 
been  on  the  island  four  years  and  four 
months,  when  he  was  rescued  by  Captain 
Rogers.     See  Selkirk. 

ROB  ROY  (Gaelic,  "Red  Robert"), 
the  Scotch  Robin  Hood;  born  in  1671;  sec- 
ond son  of  Lieut.-Col.  Donald  Macgregor 
of  Glengyle.  Till  1661  the  "wicked  clan 
Gregor"  had  for  more  than  a  century 
been  constantly  pursued  with  fire  and 
sword;  the  very  name  was  proscribed. 
But  from  that  year  till  the  Revolution 
the  severe  laws  against  them  were  some- 
what relaxed;  and  Rob  Roy,  who  married 
a  kinswoman,  Mary  Macgregor,  lived 
quietly  enough  as  a  grazier  on  the  Braes 
of  Balquhidder.  His  herds  were  so  often 
plundered  by  "broken  men"  from  the  N. 
that  he  had  to  maintain  a  band  of  armed 
followers  to  protect  both  himself  and 
such  of  his  neighbors  as  paid  him  black- 
mail. And  so  with  those  followers,  es- 
pousing in  1691  the  Jacobite  cause,  he 
did  a  little  plundering  for  himself,  and, 
two  or  three  years  later  having  purchased 
from  his  nephew  the  lands  of  Craigroy- 
ston  and  Inversnaid,  laid  claim  thence- 
forth to  the  chief  of  the  clan. 

In  consequence  of  losses  incurred  about 
1712  in  unsucoessful  speculations  in  cattle, 
for  which  he  had  borrowed  money  from 
the  Duke  of  Montrose,  his  lands  were 
seized,  his  houses  plundered,  and  his  wife 


shamefully  used,  turned  adrift  with  his 
children  in  midwinter.  Maddened  by 
these  misfortunes,  Rob  Roy  gathered  his 
clansmen  and  made  open  war  on  the  duke, 
sweeping  away  the  whole  cattle  of  a  dis- 
trict, and  kidnaping  his  factor  with 
rents  to  the  value  of  more  than  $15,000. 
This  was  in  1716,  the  year  after  the 
Jacobite  rebellion,  in  which  at  Sheriff- 
muir  Rob  Roy  had  "stood  watch"  for  the 
booty,  and  had  been  sent  by  the  Earl  of 
Mar  to  raise  some  of  the  clan  Gregor  at 
Aberdeen.  Marvelous  stories  are  current 
round  Lock  Katrine  and  Loch  Lomond 
of  his  hair-breadth  escapes  from  capture, 
of  his  evasions  when  captured,  and  of 
his  generosity  to  the  poor,  whose  wants 
he  supplied  at  the  expense  of  the  rich. 
Rob  Roy  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the 
Duke  of  Argyll,  having  assumed  the 
name  Campbell,  his  mother's.  Late  in 
life  he  is  said  to  have  turned  Catholic, 
but  he  remained  a  Protestant.  He  died 
in  his  own  house  at  Balquhidder  Dec. 
28,  1734.  He  left  five  sons,  two  of  whom 
died  in  1734 — James,  an  outlaw,  in  Paris; 
and  Robin,  the  youngest,  on  the  gallows 
at  Edinburgh  for  abduction. 

ROBSON,  MAY,  an  American  actress, 
born  in  Australia.  She  was  educated  at 
Brussels  and  at  Paris,  and  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1879.  Her  first  appear- 
ance on  the  stage  was  as  "Tilly,"  in 
"The  Hoop  of  Gold,"  at  Brooklyn  in  1884. 
From  1886  to  1893  she  played  under  the 
management  of  Daniel  Frohman  at  the 
Madison  Square  and  Lyceum  Theaters, 
New  York,  and  from  1893  to  1906  under 
the  management  of  Charles  Frohman. 
Her  first  appearance  as  a  "star"  oc- 
curred in  1907  at  Scranton,  Pa.,  in  "The 
Rejuvenation  of  Aunt  Mary,"  in  which 
play  she  appeared  in  London  in  1910. 
Since  then  she  has  appeared  in  many 
stellar  roles  with  great  success,  both  in 
this  country  and  in  England.  She  wrote, 
together  with  C.  T.  Dazey,  "A  Night 
Out"   (1911). 

ROC,  or  RTJKH,  a  fabulous  bird  of  im- 
mense size,  able  to  carry  off  an  elephant 
in  rts  talons.  The  idea  is  familiar  in 
the  East,  and  every  reader  will  remem- 
ber it  in  the  "Arabian  Nights'  Enter- 
tainments." Mythical  birds  of  similar 
size  and  strength  were  the  Arabian  anka 
and  the  Persian  simurgh.  The  amru  or 
sinamru  was  an  older  Persian  supernat- 
ural bird ;  the  Indian  garuda,  which  bears 
Vishnu,  is  the  king  of  birds. 

ROCAMBOLE,  in  botany,  (1)  Allium 
scorodoprasum,  a  plant  with  bulbs  like 
garlic,  but  with  the  cloves  smaller.  It 
is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the 
shallot,  garlic,  etc.  A  native  of  Den- 
mark.     (2)    Allium  ophioscorodon,  from 


ROCHAMBEAU 


77 


ROCHEFORT 


Greece.     Sometimes  the  two  are  consid- 
ered to  be  identical. 

ROCHAMBEATT  (ro-shanp-bo)  JEAN 
BAPTISTE  DONATIEN  DE  VIMETJR, 
COUNT  DE,  a  Marshal  of  France;  born 
in  Vendome,  France,  July  1,  1725,  en- 
tered the  French  army  in  1742,  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Seven  Years'  War, 


COUNT  DE  ROCHAMBEAU 

and  became  Marshal  in  1791.  In  1780- 
1782  he  commanded  the  French  forces 
sent  to  aid  the  revolted  British  colonists 
in  America.  He  became  governor  of 
Artois  and  Picardy,  and  subsequently 
of  Alsace,  and  commanded  the  Army  of 
the  North  in  1792.  During  the  Reign  of 
Terror  he  narrowly  escaped  the  guillo- 
tine.   He  died  in  Thore,  May  10,  1807. 

ROCHDALE,  a  borough  of  England; 
in  Lancashire,  10  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Man- 
chester. It  is  a  place  of  considerable 
antiquity,  and  was  early  noted  for  its 
woolen  manufactures,  which  have  re- 
mained a  chief  staple  till  the  present 
day.  Cotton  is  extensively  manufac- 
tured, and  there  are  also  foundries, 
machine  shops,  etc.;  while  in  the  neigh- 
borhood are  quarries  of  freestone  and 
extensive  collieries.  The  parish  church 
(St.  Chad),  of  the  12th  century,  situated 
on  an  eminence,  is  approached  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  town  by  a  flight  of 
122  steps.  The  town  hall  is  a  fine  mod- 
ern building,  and   there   is   a   handsome 

F— i 


free  library.  Rochdale  is  the  center  of 
the  co-operative  movement,  which  origi- 
nated there  in  1844.  By  means  of  canals 
it  has  a  water  communication  with  all 
the  industrial  centers  of  the  N.  of  Eng- 
land.    Pop.   (1919)  93.806. 

ROCHE,  ARTHUR  SOMERS,  an 
American  author,  born  in  Somerville, 
Mass.,  in  1883.  He  was  educated  at 
Holy  Cross  College  and  at  Boston  Uni- 
versity. After  practicing  law  he  entered 
newspaper  work  in  1906.  Beginning  with 
1910,  he  contributed  short  stories  to 
many  of  the  leading  magazines.  He 
also  wrote  "Loot"  (1916)  ;  "Plunder*' 
(1917);  "The  Sport  of  Kings"   (1917). 

ROCHE,  JAMES  JEFFREY,  an  Amer- 
ican author; born  in  Queen's  co.,  Ireland, 
May  31,  1847.  He  went  to  Boston  in 
1866  and  became  in  1890  an  editor  of 
the  "Pilot,"  and  published:  "Songs  and 
Satires"  (1886);  "Ballads  of  Blue  Wa- 
ter," "Life  of  John  Boyle  O'Reilly,"  "Her 
Majesty  the  King,"  etc.    He  died  in  1908. 

ROCHE,  REGINA  MARIA,  an  Irish 
novelist;  born  about  1764  in  the  S.  of 
Ireland.  She  sprang  into  fame  on  the 
appearance  of  the  novel  "The  Children 
of  the  Abbey"  (1798).  From  that  time 
till  her  death  she  produced  many  books 
of  the  same  character,  including:  "The 
Nocturnal  Visit"  (1800) ;  "The  Tradition 
of  the  Castle"  (1824) ;  "The  Castle 
Chapel"  (1825) ;  "The  Nun's  Picture" 
(1834),  and  many  others.  She  died  in 
Waterford,  May  17,  1845. 

ROCHE-SUR-YON,  LA,  France,  for- 
merly Napoleon  Vendee,  and  Bourbon 
Vendee,  capital  of  the  Department  of  La 
Vendee,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Yon,  40  miles  S.  of  Nantes.  The 
town  was  founded  during  the  Napoleonic 
regime,  near  the  old  castle  of  Roche-sur- 
Yon,  from  which  it  derived  its  name 
after  the  downfall  of  Napoleon.  It  is 
noted  for  its  woolen  mills  and  its  pro- 
duction of  hardware.     Pop.  about  15,000. 

ROCHEFORT,  VICTOR  HENRI,  a 
French  journalist;  born  in  Paris,  France, 
Jan.  30,  1830.  He  was  removed  from 
the  editorship  of  "Figaro"  because  of 
his  satires  on  the  imperial  government; 
and  the  papers  which  he  himself  founded 
—"The  Lanterne,"  "The  Marseillaise," 
"The  Password" — were  filled  with  the 
same  violent  attacks.  Condemned  to  ex- 
ile in  New  Caledonia  for  his  share  in  the 
Paris  Commune,  he  escaped  and  after- 
ward resided  in  England  until  amnestied. 
In  England  and  later  in  Paris  he  edited 
a  daily  paper,  "The  Irreconcilable,"  noted 
for  his  vitriolic  articles  against  the 
French  Government.  He  wrote  farces, 
vaudeville,  comic  romances,  and  political 
Cyc  Vol  8 


ROCHEFORT-SUR-MER  78 


ROCHESTER 


works.  Among  them:  "The  Depraved 
Ones"  (1882)  ;  "Return  from  Nova  Sco- 
tia" (1877);  "Mile.  Bismarck"  (1880); 
"Bitter  Farces"  (1886);  "The  [political] 
Lanterns  of  the  Empire"  (1884) ;  "Fan- 
tasia" (1888) ;  "Adventures  of  My  Life" 
(1896).     He  died  July  1,  1913. 

ROCHEFORT-SUR-MER,  a  French 
seaport,  naval  arsenal,  and  fortress  of 
the  first  class,  in  the  department  of 
Charente-Inf erieure ;  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Charente,  9  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  18  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Rochelle,  89  S. 
W.  of  Poitiers.  It  was  founded  in  1665 
as  a  naval  station  by  Colbert,  Louis 
XIV.'s  minister,  and  fortified  by  Vau- 
ban,  being  covered  now  on  the  sea  side 
by  strong  forts;  and  it  is  a  modern, 
clean,  well-built  place.  It  contains  im- 
portant public  works.  The  most  cele- 
brated of  these  is  the  naval  hospital 
(1783-1788).  There  are  both  a  naval 
harbor,  and,  higher  up  the  river,  a  com- 
mercial harbor  with  three  basins;  Roche- 
fort  besides  possesses  rope  walks,  can- 
non foundries,  and  other  establishments 
for  the  manufacture  and  preservation  of 
naval  stores  and  marine  apparatus  of 
every  kind.  From  1777  till  1852  it  was 
the  seat  of  a  great  convict  prison.  Na- 
poleon meant  to  take  ship  for  the  United 
States  at  Rochefort,  but  instead  had  to 
surrender  to  Captain  Maitland  of  the 
"Bellerophon,"  July  15,  1815.  During 
the  World  War  Rochefort  became  an 
important  military  center.  Pop.  (1911) 
35,019. 

ROCHEFOUCAULD,  FRANCOIS,  DUC 

DE  LA,  Prince  de  Marcillac,  a  French 
author;  born  in  Paris,  France,  Sept.  15, 
1613.  His  celebrity  is  due  to  his  small 
volume  of  "Reflections,  or  Moral  Sen- 
tences and  Maxims,"  commonly  known 
as  the  "Maxims"  (first  ed.  1665;  final 
edition  of  the  author,  1678,  comprising 
504  maxims).  The  dominant  note  of  the 
"Maxims"  is  egoism.  His  "Memoirs" 
(1662)  are  equal  to  the  most  celebrated 
memoirs  of  the  time.  He  died  in  Paris, 
March  17,  1680. 

ROCHELLE  (ro-shell'),  LA,  a  forti- 
fied town  and  seaport  in  France,  capital 
of  the  department  of  Charente-Inferieure, 
on  the  Atlantic,  120  miles  N.  by  W.  of 
Bordeaux.  The  chief  buildings  are  the 
cathedral,  town  hall,  exchange,  courts 
of  justice,  hospital,  arsenal,  and  a  public 
library.  The  harbor  is  easily  accessible 
and  commodious.  The  roadstead  is  pro- 
tected by  the  islands  of  Re  and  Oleron. 
La  Rochelle  has  an  extensive  trade  in 
wines,  brandies,  and  colonial  produce.  In 
the  religious  wars  it  was  long  a  Prot- 
estant stronghold.  It  stood  an  eight 
months'  siege   in   1572,   but  was   forced 


to  surrender  by  famine  after  a  year's  siege 
in  1628.    Pop.  about  36,000. 

ROCHELLE  SALT,  the  popular  name 
of  the  bitartrate  of  soda  and  potash 
(KNaC4H4OG  +  4H20),  this  salt  having 
been  discovered  in  1672  by  a  Rochelle 
apothecary  named  Seignette.  It  occurs, 
when  pure,  in  colorless  transparent 
prisms,  generally  eight-sided;  and  in 
taste  it  resembles  common  salt.  It  is 
prepared  by  neutralizing  cream  of  tartar 
(bitartrate  of  potash)  with  carbonate 
of  soda.  After  a  neutral  solution  has 
been  obtained,  it  is  boiled  and  filtered, 
and  the  resulting  fluid  is  concentrated 
till  a  pellicle  forms  on  the  surface,  when 
it  is  set  aside  to  crystallize.  This  salt 
is  a  mild  and  efficient  laxative,  and  is 
less  disagreeable  to  the  taste  than  most 
of  the  saline  purgatives. 

ROCHES  MOUTONNEES,  smooth, 
rounded  hummocky  bosses  and  undulat- 
ing surfaces  of  rock,  of  common  oc- 
currence in  regions  which  have  been 
overflowed  by  glacier  ice.  The  name  is 
that  used  by  the  Swiss  peasants — the 
bare  rounded  rocks  of  a  valley  bottom 
when  seen  from  above  having  a  fanciful 
resemblance  to  a  flock  of  sheep  lying 
down. 

ROCHESTER,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Olmsted  co.,  Minn.;  on  the  Zumbro 
river,  and  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western and  the  Chicago  Great  Western 
railroads;  90  miles  S.  E.  of  St.  Paul. 
Here  are  a  public  high  school,  Stafe  Hos- 
pital for  the  Insane,  St.  Mary's  Hospital, 
a  Roman  Catholic  Seminary,  National 
banks,  and  several  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers.  The  city  was  the  home  of 
the  Mayo  brothers  (q.  v.),  surgeons,  who 
conducted  and  endowed  St.  Mary's  Hos- 
pital. It  has  a  number  of  foundries, 
and  manufactories  of  wagons,  furniture, 
and  agricultural  implements.  The  city 
was  incorporated  in  1858.  Pop.  (1910) 
7,844;    (1920)    13,722. 

ROCHESTER,  a  city  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, in  Strafford  co.  It  is  on  the  Co- 
checo  river  and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
railroad.  It  has  important  industries 
including  the  manufacture  of  shoes,  wool- 
en goods,  brick,  leather  goods,  and  lum- 
ber. It  has  excellent  schools  and  a  pub- 
lic library.  Pop.  (1910)  8,868;  (1920) 
9,673. 

ROCHESTER,  a  city  of  New  York,  the 
county-seat  of  Monroe  co.  It  is  on  Lake 
Ontario,  the  Barge  canal,  and  on  the 
New  York  Central,  the  Erie,  the  Lehigh 
Valley,  the  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Buf- 
falo, Rochester  and  Pittsburgh  railroads. 


ROCHESTER 


79 


ROCHESTER 


There  are  five  electric  lines  carrying 
passengers,  express  and  freight  into  the 
city.  The  recently  completed  barge  canal 
is  an  outlet  for  heavy  freight,  and  has 
a  harbor  in  the  center  of  the  city. 

The  city  school  system  includes  47 
buildings.  In  1919  there  were  approxi- 
mately 1,400  teachers  with  42,876  regis- 
tered pupils.  The  expenditures  of  the 
Board  for  1919  were  $2,927,933.43.  There 
are  5  high  schools,  32  parochial  schools 
and  many  private  institutions,  including 
4  academies,  two  for  girls  and  two  for 
boys,  and  one  large  institution  for  in- 
struction of  deaf  mutes.  The  University 
of  Rochester  was  founded  in  1850  and 
has  beautiful  grounds  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  city.  There  are  also  the 
Rochester  Theological  Seminary,  Baptist, 
and  St.  Bernard's  Theological  Seminary, 
Catholic. 

There  are  16  banks  in  Rochester  with 
a  capital  of  $6,500,000,  a  total  surplus 
of  $15,916,000,  and  total  deposits  of 
$227,726,044. 

The  city  owns  its  own  waterworks 
system,  bringing  its  supply  from  Hem- 
lock and  Canadice  lakes,  30  miles  S.  of 
Rochester,  through  three  large  conduits. 
There  are  5  daily  newspapers,  and  a 
large  number  appearing  less  frequently. 

The  city  maintains  a  large  park  sys- 
tem. The  Park  Commission  was  created 
in  1888  and  the  park  system  has  been 
enlarged  year  by  year  through  pur- 
chases and  gifts  so  that  now  the  total 
area  of  park  territory  is  16,049  acres. 
The  five  largest  parks  in  their  order  are 
Durand-Eastman,  located  on  the  lake 
shore  and  the  northern  edge  of  the  city; 
Genesee  Valley  Park,  located  on  the  S. 
of  the  city  on  both  sides  of  the  Genesee 
river;  Seneca  Park,  to  the  N.  of  the  city 
and  E.  of  the  river;  Maplewood  Park, 
to  the  N.  of  the  city  and  W.  of  the 
river;  Highland  Park,  in  which  is  lo- 
cated one  of  the  large  reservoirs;  also 
one  of  the  finest  arboretums  in  the  coun- 
try. 

Rochester  has  a  public  library  with 
6  branches  circulating  75,000  volumes. 
The  city  also  has  the  Reynolds  Library 
with  78,000  volumes.  These  are  in  addi- 
tion to  the  libraries  maintained  by  the 
school  system  and  universities. 

The  manufacturing  interests  of  Roch- 
ester are  large.  There  are  1,760  fac- 
tories turning  out  350  commodities.  The 
city  leads  the  world  in  the  production 
of  a  large  number  of  articles,  including 
cameras,  camera  supplies,  optical  goods, 
check  protectors,  thermometers,  filing  de- 
vices and  office  systems,  enameled  steel 
tanks,  soda  fountain  fruits  and  syrups. 
The  city  leads  in  the  country  in  the  pro- 
duction of  high-class  ivory  buttons  and 
is  the  headquarters  for  all  nursery  busi- 


ness in  the  United  States.  It  producer. 
60%  of  the  typewriter  and  carbon  rib- 
bon made  in  the  country.  It  ranks  fourth 
in  the  United  States  in  the  production 
of  shoes  and  men's  clothing.  The  annual 
output  of  shoes  in  1919  was  $55,000,000 
in  the  56  factories  of  Rochester.  The 
annual  output  of  high-grade  men's  cloth- 
ing in  1919  was  $60,000,000  in  40  fac- 
tories. The  value  of  the  annual  wood- 
working output  is  $14,000,000.  It  is  a 
large  machinery  center,  having  several 
large  plants  devoted  to  the  manufacture 
of  machines  and  tools.  There  are  also 
several  automobile  factories. 

History. — The  site  of  the  city  was 
occupied  by  a  few  colonists  as  early 
as  1788,  but  the  first  permanent  settle- 
ment was  made  by  Nathaniel  Rochester 
in  1810.  The  first  frame  house  was  built 
in  1812,  and  the  place  was  incorporated 
under  the  name  of  Rochesterville  in  1817. 
It  received  its  city  charter  in  1834.  Pop. 
(1890)  133,896;  (1900)  162,608;  (1910) 
218,159;    (1920)   295,750. 

ROCHESTER,  a  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Beaver  co.  It  is  on  the  Ohio 
river  and  on  the  railroads  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania system.  It  is  the  center  of  an 
important  industrial  region  and  in  the 
vicinity  are  deposits  of  gas,  oil,  clay  and 
building  stone.  Its  manufactures  in- 
clude glass,  structural  steel,  pottery, 
stoves,  lumber  products,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
5,903;    (1920)   6,957. 

ROCHESTER,  a  city  of  Kent,  Eng- 
land, 33  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  London; 
chiefly  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Medway, 
contiguous  to  Chatham,  and  joined  to 
Strood  by  an  iron  swing  bridge  con- 
structed in  1850-1856  at  a  cost  of  $850,- 
000.  The  castle  or  keep,  which  crowns 
a  steep  eminence  near  the  bridge,  was 
the  work  of  Archbishop  William  de  Cor- 
beuil  (1126) ;  but  the  wall  overlooking 
the  river  contains  Norman  masonry  of 
earlier  date,  built  upon  Roman  founda- 
tions. It  is  104  feet  high  and  70  feet 
square,  with  walls  12  feet  thick,  and  is 
a  very  fine  specimen  of  Norman  archi- 
tecture; it  was  taken  by  John  (1215, 
the  S.  E.  corner  being  rebuilt  shortly 
afterward),  vainly  attacked  by  De  Mont- 
fort  (1264),  and  taken  again  by  Tyler 
(1381).  Both  castle  and  grounds  were 
purchased  in  1883  by  the  corporation 
from  the  Earl  of  Jersey.  The  Episcopal 
see  was  founded  in  604  by  St.  Augustine, 
and  the  foundations  of  the  cathedral  then 
built  have  been  discovered.  Bishop  Gun- 
dulf  (1077-1107)  built  a  new  cathedral, 
of  which  part  of  the  crypt  remains.  This 
cathedral  was  rebuilt  by  Ernulf  and 
John  of  Canterbury  (1115-1137),  whose 
nave  remains;   and  the  choir  was  again 


ROCHESTER  80 

rebuilt  and  enlarged  in  the  13th  century 
in  part  out  of  offerings  of  pilgrims  at 
the  shrine  of  St.  William  of  Perth,  a 
Scotch  baker,  who,  on  a  pilgrimage  to 
the  Holy  Land,  was  murdered  near 
Rochester  by  his  companion  and  adopted 
son;  the  tower  rebuilt  by  Cottingham 
(1825-1827),  the  choir  and  transepts 
restored  by  Scott  (1871-1877),  and  the 
W.  front  being  restored  by  Pearson  in 
1891.  It  measures  306  feet  in  length, 
and  has  double  transepts;  and  special 
features  of  interest  are  the  Norman  west 
doorway  and  nave,  the  Early  English 
choir,  of  singular  plan  and  early  char- 
acter, the  spacious  crypt,  and  a  fine  dec- 
orated doorway  leading  to  the  modern 
library.  The  ruins  of  an  early  Norman 
keep  or  residence  built  by  Gundulf,  the 
architect  of  the  Tower  of  London,  stand 
on  the  N.  side  of  the  choir.  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's Hospital,  founded  by  Gundulf 
in  1078  for  lepers,  was  refounded  in 
1863;  the  Norman  chapel  remains. 
Watts'  Charity  House,  founded  in  1579 
to  lodge  "six  poor  travelers,  not  being 
rogues  or  proctors,"  has  been  immortal- 
ized by  Dickens,  whose  home,  Gadshill, 
is  3  miles  distant,  and  who  introduces 
Rochester  into  "Pickwick,"  "Edwin 
Drood,"  and  others  of  his  novels.  Three 
schools  are  the  cathedral  grammar  school 
(Henry  VIII.),  Williamson's  mathemati- 
cal school  (1704;  reopened  under  a  new 
scheme,  1880),  and  a  grammar  school 
for  girls  (1888) ;  and  other  buildings 
are  Satis  House,  Restoration  House 
(Charles  II.  slept  here  in  1660),  the 
guild  hall  (1687),  and  the  corn  exchange 
(1871).  Rochester — the  Roman  station 
Durobrivse  and  Anglo-Saxon  Hrofe-ceas- 
tre — was  made  a  municipal  borough  by 
Henry  II.  James  II.  embarked  here  in 
his  flight   (1688).     Pop.  about  32,000. 

ROCHESTER,  JOHN  WILMOT, 
EARL  OF,  a  witty  English  nobleman  of 
the  court  of  Charles  II.;  born  in  Ditch- 
ley,  Oxfordshire,  April  10,  1647,  and  was 
educated  at  Wadham  College.  He  suc- 
ceeded to  the  title  and  estates  in  1659. 
He  served  in  the  fleet  under  Lord  Sand- 
wich, and  distinguished  himself  at  the 
attack  on  Bergen.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  became  the  personal  friend 
and  favorite  of  the  king.  His  constitu- 
tion gave  way  under  his  habits  of  drunk- 
enness and  debauchery.  His  poetical 
works  consist  of  satires,  love  songs,  and 
drinking  songs,  many  of  them  gems  of 
wit  and  fancy,  and  many  of  them  dar- 
ingly immoral.    He  died  July  26,  1680. 

ROCHESTER,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a 
co-educational  institution  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y. ;  founded  in  1850  under  the  aus- 
pices  of   the    Baptist    Church;    reported 


ROCKEFELLER 

at  the  close  of  1919:  Professors  and  in- 
structors, 51;  students,  677;  president, 
Rush  Rhees,  LL.D. 

ROCK,  any  portion  of  the  earth's  crust, 
coherent  or  incoherent,  any  sedimentary 
stratum  or  any  dyke  or  overlying  mass 
of  volcanic  or  plutonic  mineral  matter. 
The  older  writers  drew  a  distinction  be- 
tween rocks  and  soils.  Both  are  now  re- 
garded as  rocks.  Most  rocks,  originally 
soft,  have  become  hard  and  compact  by 
losing  their  moisture  and  being  subjected 
to  pressure.  As  a  rule,  a  rock  is  not  a 
bed  of  some  simple  mineral.  In  most 
cases  there  are  crystals  cemented  to- 
gether by  imperfectly  crystalline  or 
amorphous  matter,  or  there  is  a  mixture 
of  angular  and  rounded  grains,  also 
bound  together  by  mineral  matter.  See 
Mineralogy.  Viewed  as  to  composition, 
there  are  three  leading  classes  of  rock: 
Siliceous  or  arenaceous,  some  formed  of 
loose  sand,  others  of  hard  sandstone, 
with  all  intermediate  grades;  argillace- 
ous rocks,  i.  e.,  rocks  of  clay,  or  more 
specifically  having  one-fourth  alumina 
to  three-fourths  silica;  and  calcareous 
rocks  composed  chiefly  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  some  of  them  proved  and  most  of 
the  others  suspected,  to  be  originally 
composed  of  various  organisms.  Viewed 
as  to  their  origin,  Lyell  long  recognized 
four  kinds  of  rocks.  Aqueous  or  sedi- 
mentary, volcanic,  metamorphic,  and  plu- 
tonic. A  fifth  category  has  now  been 
superadded,  viz.,  aerial  or  aeolian,  formed 
by  the  action  of  wind.  Aqueous,  aeolian, 
and  metamorphic  rocks  are,  as  a  rule, 
stratified;  volcanic  and  plutonic  rocks 
generally  unstratified;  the  last  two  are 
called  igneous.  Some  stratified  rocks 
are  unfossiliferous,  others  fossiliferous. 
For  the  stratigraphical  or  chronological 
order  of  the  latter,  see  Fossils.  See 
Geology. 

ROCK  COD,  a  cod  caught  on  a  rocky 
sea  bottom.  They  are  considered  to  be 
of  better  flavor  than  fish  from  a  sandy 
bottom. 

ROCK  CRYSTAL.     See  Quartz. 

ROCKEFELLER,  JOHN  DAVISON, 
an  American  capitalist;  born  in  Rich- 
ford,  Tioga  co.,  N.  Y.,  July  8,  1839.  He 
engaged  in  business  when  he  was  16, 
and  soon  showed  ability  in  detail  and 
discretion  in  management.  When  dis- 
coveries of  petroleum  roused  speculative 
interest  in  1860,  he  owned  a  refinery 
in  Cleveland,  O.  In  1870  he  became 
president  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company, 
a  monopolistic  corporation,  and  through 
which  he  accumulated  immense  wealth. 
He  made  large  donations  to  educational 


ROCKEFELLER 


81        ROCKEFELLER    FOtTNDATION 


institutions,  notably  to  the  University  of    tute  for   Medical   Research,   the   Bureau 
Chicago,  to  which  he  has   given   in   all    of  Social  Hygiene,  and  the  International 

Health  Commission.  During  the  war  he 
made  large  donations  for  the  relief  of 
suffering. 

ROCKEFELLER,        WILLIAM,        an 

American  capitalist,  brother  of  John  D. 
Rockefeller,  born  at  Richford,  N.  Y.,  in 
1841.  He  joined  his  brother  in  the  oil 
refining  business  in  Cleveland  and  from 
1865  to  1911  was  in  charge  of  the  New 
York  business  of  the  Standard  Oil  Com- 
pany of  New  Jersey,  and  was  at  the 
same  time  president  of  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  of  New  York.  He  was  a  di- 
rector of  many  important  banks,  rail- 
roads, mining  corporations,  etc, 

ROCKEFELLER   FOUNDATION,   a 

trust,  incorporated  by  the  Act  of  the 
New  York  Legislature  of  May  14,  1913, 
"to  promote  the  well-being  of  mankind 
throughout  the  world."  The  Foundation 
has  devoted  its  resources  primarily  to 
the  improvement  of  public  health  and 
medical  education  throughout  the  world. 
This  purpose  is  accomplished  by  three 
subsidiary  departments,  the  Internation- 
al Health  Board,  the  China  Medical 
Board,  and  the  Division  of  Medical  Edu- 
cation. The  Foundation  also  uses  other 
organizations  already  existing  and  not 
affiliated  with  the  Foundation,  to  which 
appropriations  are  made  by  the  Foun- 
dation. The  management  of  the  Foun- 
dation, under  the  terms  of  the  charter, 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  self-perpetuating 
body  of  trustees.  The  executive  officers 
of  the  Foundation  in  1920  were  George 
E.  Vincent,  president,  and  Edwin  R.  Em- 
bree,  secretary.  John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr., 
was  chairman  of  the  Board  of  Trustees. 
At  the  end  of  1919  the  total  resources 
in  securities  were  reported  as  $170,000,- 
000,  both  the  income  and  principal  of 
which  are  available  for  appropriations. 
In  June,  1920,  the  trustees  of  the  Foun- 
dation, in  conjunction  with  the  General 
Education  Board  (q.  v.),  announced  their 
appropriation  of  over  $20,000,000  for  the 
development  of  medical  schools  and  for 
the  purpose  of  general  education.  Among 
the  most  important  work  undertaken  by 
the  Foundation  was  a  world-wide  cam- 
paign against  the  hookworm  disease;  the 
work  of  the  China  Medical  Board  for 
the  promotion  of  public  health  and  med- 
ical education  in  China;  the  creation  of 
an  Industrial  Relations  Investigation  Di- 
vision; and  extensive  appropriations  for 
war  relief  work  in  co-operation  with  the 
Commission  for  Relief  in  Belgium,  and 
with  the  Red  Cross  Society.  Appropria- 
tions have  also  been  made  from  time  to 
time  to  the  American  Academy  at  Rome, 
to  various  philanthropic  societies  in  New 


JOHN   D.   ROCKEFELLER,    SR. 

about  $23,000,000.  In  1902  he  founded 
the  General  Education  Board  (q.  v.)  to 
promote  higher  education,  and  later  es- 
tablished the  Rockefeller  Foundation 
(q.  v.)  and  the  Rockefeller  Institute  for 
Medical  Research  (q.  v.)  In  November, 
1920,  he  founded  the  Laura  Spellman 
Foundation,  in  memory  of  his  wife,  with 
an  endowment  of  $65,000,000. 

ROCKEFELLER,  JOHN  DAVISON, 
JR.,  an  American  capitalist.  He  was 
born  in  Cleveland,  O.,  in  1874,  the  son 
of  a  father  generally  recognized  later 
as  the  richest  man  in  the  world.  He 
studied  privately  and  at  Brown  Univer- 
sity, from  which  he  graduated  in  1897. 
He  then  became  associated  with  his 
father  in  his  business  enterprises  and 
took  particular  charge  of  the  philan- 
thropic activities  associated  with  his 
name.  He  became  a  director  of  the 
Colorado  Fuel  &  Iron  Co.,  American 
Linseed  Co.,  and  Merchants  Fire  Insur- 
ance Corporation.  He  is  a  member  of 
the  Rockefeller  Foundation,  the  General 
Education   Board,  the  Rockefeller   Insti- 


ROCKEFELLER   INSTITUTE 


82 


ROCKET 


York  City  and  New  York  State,  to  the  home  for  the  care  of  animals,  with  a  farm 
National  Organization  for  Public  Health  and  laboratory  near  Princeton,  N.  J.  The 
Nursing,  to  the  National  Committee  for  Institute  publishes  "The  Journal  of  Ex- 
Mental  Hygiene,  and  to  many  other  in-     perimental    Medicine,"   "The   Journal   of 

General  Physiology,"  "The  Journal  of 
Biological  Chemistry,"  "Studies  from  the 
Rockefeller  Institute  of  Medical  Re- 
search," and  a  series  of  monographs. 
The  total  endowment  at  the  end  of  1919 
was  $27,000,000.  During  the  World  War 
the  entire  staff  and  equipment  were  de- 
voted to  war  service,  especially  for  the 
treatment  of  wounds  and  diseases  most 
frequent  among  soldiers.  With  the  end 
of  the  war,  the  Institute  returned  to 
its  original  field  of  research.  The  scien- 
tific staff  includes  members  of  the  In- 
stitute, associate  members,  associates, 
assistants,  fellows,  and  research  schol- 
ars. Dr.  Simon  Flexner  was  director 
of  the  Institute  and  of  its  laboratories. 


ROCKET,  a  cylindrical  case  of  paste- 
board or  metal,  attached  to  one  extremity 
of  a  light  wooden  rod,  and  containing  a 
composition  which,  being  fired,  shoots  the 
whole  of  the  arrangement  through  the 
air,  by  that  principle  that  an  unbalanced 
reaction  from  the  heated  gases  which  is- 
sue from  openings  in  fireworks  gives  them 
motion  in  the  opposite  direction.  As  sig- 
nals between  persons  who  were  unable 
to  communicate  with  each  other  on  ac- 
count of  darkness  or  some  other  cause, 
rockets  have  long  been  employed.  They 
were  also  used  for  the  important  service 
of  determining  the  difference  of  longitude 
between  two  places. 

The  force  by  which  a  rocket  ascends  is 
similar  to  that  by  which  a  gun  recoils 
when  it  is  fired.  The  rod  serves  to  guide 
the  rocket  in  its  flight,  the  common  cen- 
ter of  gravity  of  the  rocket  and  rod 
being  a  little  below  the  top  of  the  latter. 
The  distance  at  which  signal  rockets  can 
be  seen  varies  between  35  and  40  miles; 
and  the  times  of  ascent  from  7  to  10  sec- 
onds. At  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury Sir  William  Congreve  converted  the 
rocket  into  a  terrible  projectile  of  war, 
with  ranges  which  no  ordnance  of  that 
day  could  attain.  Discarding  the  small 
sizes,  he  made  12,  18  and  32-pound  roc- 
kets which  he  charged  with  canister-shot, 
bullets,  and  other  missiles.  The  stick 
for  a  32-pound  rocket  is  18  feet  in  length, 
and  the  maximum  range  3,500  yards.  The 
range  can  be  also  increased  by  discharg- 
ing the  rocket  from  a  cannon,  with  a  time 
fuse  to  ignite  it  at  the  cannon's  utmost 
range,  when  the  rocket  commences  its 
own  course.  The  Congreve  rockets  were 
first  tried  in  actual  service,  and  with 
fatal  effect,  at  the  attack  on  Copenhagen 
in  1807.  A  rocket  is  also  a  piece  of  wood 
employed  to  blunt  the  end  of  a  lance  in 
a  tourney,  to  prevent  it  from  doing  hurt. 


JOHN   D.   ROCKEFELLER,   JR. 

stitutions  and  societies.  In  1920  the 
Rockefeller  Foundation  gave  $6,000,000 
to  the  London  (England)  University  Col- 
lege and  Medical  School,  for  teaching 
and  research. 

ROCKEFELLER  INSTITUTE  FOR 
MEDICAL  RESEARCH,  an  institution 
founded  by  John  D.  Rockefeller  in  1901 
and  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the 
State  of  New  York  for  the  purpose  of 
encouraging  "medical  research  with  spe- 
cial reference  to  prevention  and  treat- 
ment of  disease."  The  original  charter 
was  amended  in  1908,  and  the  scope  of 
the  work  was  enlarged.  The  headquar- 
ters of  the  Institute  are  located  at  Sixty- 
sixth  street  and  the  East  river,  New 
York  City.  The  three  principal  depart- 
ments are  laboratories  for  pathology, 
bacteriology,  chemistry,  pharmacology, 
physiology,  experimental  surgery,  and 
experimental  biology;  a  hospital  for  the 
study  of  special  problems;  and  a  special 


ROCKFORD  83 

In  the  World  War  rockets  were  used  by 
the  different  combatants  as  signals,  but 
more  often  bombs  discharging  colored 
lights. 

ROCKFORD,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Winnebago  co.,  111.;  on  the  Rock  river, 
and  on  the  Illinois  Central,  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul,  the  Burlington 
Route,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Gary, 
and  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  rail- 
roads; 85  miles  W.  of  Chicago.  Here  are 
a  United  States  Government  building, 
Rockford  College,  high  school,  business 
college,  waterworks,  electric  lights,  hos- 
pitals, sanitariums,  public  library,  several 
National  banks,  and  a  number  of  daily 
and  weekly  periodicals.  The  city  has  ex- 
tensive manufacturing  interests,  includ- 
ing large  reaper  factories,  paper  mills, 
flour  mills,  cotton  and  furniture  factories, 
woolen  mills,  a  large  watch  factory,  and 
over  200  smaller  factories.  Pop.  (1910) 
45,401;    (1920)   65,651. 

ROCKFORD  COLLEGE,  an  institution 
for  the  higher  education  of  women, 
founded  at  Rockford,  111.,  in  1849.  In  1919 
there  were  194  students  and  30  instruc- 
tors.    President,  W.  A.  Maddox,  Ph.D. 

ROCKHAMPTON,  a  city  of  Queens- 
land, Australia,  situated  on  the  Fitzroy 
river,  397  miles  N.  W.  of  Brisbane.  It 
is  centrally  situated  and  is  the  commer- 
cial center  of  the  province,  forming  the 
port  to  the  Mount  Morgan  gold  workings. 
It  has  several  notable  buildings  and  open 
places,  with  botanical  gardens  and  a 
bridge  1,160  feet  long  spanning  the  river. 
The  industries  are  varied,  the  chief  hav- 
ing relation  to  the  frozen  meat  trade. 
Pop.    (1919)  20,915. 

ROCK  HILL,  a  city  of  South  Carolina, 
in  York  co.  It  is  on  the  Southern  rail- 
road. It  is  the  center  of  an  important 
cotton  growing  and  agricultural  region 
and  its  industries  include  cotton  mills, 
wagon  factories,  a  fertilizer  factory,  brick 
works,  foundry  and  machine  shops.  It 
has  power  developed  from  the  power  plant 
on  the  Catawba  and  Broad  rivers.  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  Winthrop  Normal  and 
Industrial  College  of  South  Carolina,  and 
has  a  public  library  and  a  hospital.  Pop. 
(1910)  7,216;   (1920)  8,809. 

ROCKHILL,  WILLIAM  WOOD- 
VILLE,  an  American  diplomatist;  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  1854;  entered  the 
diplomatic  service  in  1884  as  second  sec- 
retary of  legation  at  Peking,  China;  was 
charge  d'affaires  at  Seoul,  Korea,  in  1886- 
1887;  was  appointed  chief  clerk  of  the 
State  Department  in  1893;  was  made 
third  assistant  secretary  of  State  a  year 
later;  and  first  assistant  in  1896.  He 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Bureau  of 


ROCKLAND 


American  Republics  in  May,  1899.  After 
the  rescue  of  the  foreign  diplomats  in 
Peking  in  1900,  and  United  States  Min- 
ister Conger  was  panted  leave  of  ab- 
sence, Mr.  Rockhill  was  appointed  a  spe- 
cial ambassador  to  conclude  peace  nego- 
tiations. He  was  minister  to  China  until 
1905.  Minister  to  Russia  1909,  and  to 
Turkey  1911-1913.  He  wrote  "A  Journey 
to  the  Eastern  Parts  of  the  World" 
(1903);  "Treaties  and  Conquest;  China 
and  Korea"  (1904) ;  "Chau  Ju-Kua" 
(1911).    He  died  in  1914. 

ROCKING     STONES,      or      LOGANS, 

large  masses  of  rock  so  finely  poised  as 
to  move  backward  and  forward  with  the 
slightest  impulse.  They  occur  in  nearly 
every  country.  Some  of  them  appear  to 
be  natural,  others  artificial;  the  latter 
seem  to  have  been  formed  by  cutting 
away  a  mass  of  rock  round  the  center- 
point  of  its  base. 

ROCK  ISLAND,  a  city  in  Rock  Island 
co.,  111.;  on  the  Mississippi  river,  and  on 
the  Burlington  Route,  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee and  St.  Paul,  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton and  Quincy,  the  Davenport,  Rock 
Island  and  Northwestern,  the  Rock  Island 
Southern,  and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
and  Pacific  railroads;  80  miles  N.  W.  of 
Peoria.  Here  the  Mississippi  is  spanned 
by  a  railroad  bridge  which  cost  $1,300,000. 
The  city  derives  its  name  from  a  beautiful 
island  in  the  river,  which  belongs  to 
the  United  States,  and  is  used  by  the 
Federal  government  for  a  great  central 
arsenal,  a  large  armory  and  foundry.  A 
dam  across  the  river  furnishes  abundant 
water  power.  Before  and  during  the 
Black  Hawk  War  there  were  block-house 
forts  on  this  island,  and  during  the  Civil 
War  the  prison  here  was  the  place  of 
detention  of  many  Confederate  prisoners. 
The  city  contains  waterworks,  street  rail- 
road and  electric  light  plants,  Augus- 
tana  College  and  Theological  Seminary 
(Luth.),  National  and  State  banks,  and 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  It  has 
lumber  mills,  foundries,  machine  shops, 
manufactories  of  farming  implements, 
soap,  glass,  stoves,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
24,335;    (1920)    35,177. 

ROCKLAND,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Knox  co.,  Me.;  on  the  W.  shore  of 
Penobscot  Bay,  10  miles  from  the  Atlan- 
tic ocean,  and  on  the  Maine  Central  rail- 
road; 40  miles  S.  E.  of  Augusta.  The 
harbor  here  is  large  and  has  been  greatly 
improved  by  the  construction  of  a  granite 
breakwater.  There  is  regular  steamboat 
connection  with  Boston  and  other  ports. 
The  city  contains  a  United  States  govern- 
ment building,  public  library,  street  rail- 
road and  electric  light  plants,  waterworks 
on  the  ajravity  SyStem.  National  and  State 


ROCKLAND 


84 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


banks,  and  several  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers. The  manufacture  of  lime  is  the 
principal  industry.  Near  by  are  exten- 
sive quarries  of  fine  granite  of  which  the 
post-offices  of  New  York  and  Cincinnati 
and  the  custom-house  in  St.  Louis  are 
built.  Besides  an  immense  lime  industry 
Rockland  has  machine  shops,  foundries, 
iron  and  brass  works,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
8,174;    (1920)   8,109. 

ROCKLAND,  a  town  of  Massachusetts, 
in  Plymouth  co.  It  is  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven,  and  Hartford  railroad.  Its 
industries  include  the  manufacture  of 
shoes,  nails,  etc.  There  is  a  public  library 
and  other  buildings.  Pop.  (1910)  6,928; 
(1920)   7,544. 

ROCK  OF  CHICKAMATJGA,  a  name 
applied  to  Gen.  George  H.  Thomas,  U.  S. 
A.,  on  account  of  his  heroic  stubbornness 
in  holding  his  position  at  Chickamauga 
during  the  Civil  War,  in  September,  1863. 
See  Thomas,  George  H. 

ROCK  PIGEON,  a  pigeon  that  builds 
its  nest  in  hollows  or  crevices  of  rocks 
and  cliffs,  especially  the  Columba  livia. 

ROCK  RIVER,  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  which  rises  in  Wisconsin,  50  miles 
W.  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  falls  into  the 
Mississippi  2  miles  below  Rock  Island 
city;  length,  330  miles,  about  225  of 
which  have  been  ascended  by  small  steam- 
boats. 

ROCK  SALT,  common  salt,  or  chloride 
of  sodium,  occurring  as  a  mineral  and  in 
a  solid  form.  It  is  always  mixed  with 
various  impurities.  It  is  found  massive 
or  crystallized,  its  crystals  generally 
cubes,  its  masses  very  often  either  granu- 
lar or  fibrous.  It  is  white,  gray,  or,  ow- 
ing to  the  presence  of  impurities,  more 
rarely  red,  violet,  blue,  or  striped.  For 
its  chemical  and  other  qualities,  see  Salt. 
It  is  a  very  extensively-diffused  mineral, 
and  in  some  places  forms  great  rock  and 
even  mountain  masses.  A  hill  of  rock- 
salt  near  Montserrat,  in  Spain,  is  500  feet 
high.  The  island  of  Ormus,  in  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  is  formed  of  rock  salt.  The 
Indus,  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course, 
forces  its  way  through  hills  of  rock  salt. 

ROCK  SCORPION  (Buthus  or  Scorpio 
afer),  a  species  of  scorpion  found  in  Af- 
rica, averaging  about  six  inches  in  length. 
The  bite  of  this  animal,  though  not  ab- 
solutely fatal,  is  yet  considered  to  be 
dangerous. 

ROCK  SNAKE,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  any  individual  of  the  genus  Py- 
thon. Rock  snakes  are  among  the  largest 
of  living  reptiles;  specimens  of  18  and 
20  feet  long  have  been  brought  to  the 
United  States.     They  kill  their  prey  by 


constriction,  and  swallow  it  whole,  com- 
mencing with  the  head. 

ROCK  SPRINGS,  a  city  of  Wyoming, 
in  Sweetwater  co.  It  is  on  the  Union 
Pacific  railroad.  In  the  neighborhood  are 
important  coal  mines  and  it  is  also  the 
center  of  an  important  farming  and  cattle 
raising  region.  The  notable  buildings  in- 
clude a  State  hospital,  government  build- 
ing, public  library,  city  hall,  Elks'  build- 
ing and  a  Masonic  Temple.  Pop.  (1910) 
5,778;   (1920)  6,456. 

ROCKVILLE,  a  city  of  Connecticut, 
in  Tolland  co.  It  is  on  the  Hockanum 
river,  and  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
and  Hartford  railroad.  Excellent  water 
power  is  furnished  by  the  river  and  the 
industrial  establishments  include  woolen 
mills,  silk  mills,  an  envelope  factory,  etc. 
The  city  has  an  excellent  school  system 
and  a  public  library.  Pop.  (1910)  7,977; 
(1920)  7,726. 

ROCKVILLE  CENTRE,  a  village  of 
New  York  in  Nassau  co.  It  is  on  the 
Long  Island  railroad.  It  is  chiefly  a  resi- 
dential place  but  has  important  oyster 
fishing  interests,  and  a  lace  and  handker- 
chief factory.  Its  public  institutions  in- 
clude a  public  library  and  a  Catholic 
parochial  school.  Pop.  (1910)  3,667; 
(1920)    6,262. 

ROCKY  MOUNT,  a  city  of  North 
Carolina,  in  Edgecomb  and  Nash  counties, 
on  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line  railroad.  It 
is  the  center  of  an  important  cotton  and 
tobacco  growing  region.  Its  industries 
include  railroad  repair  shops,  and  manu- 
factures of  tobacco,  wood  products,  and 
hosiery.  Pop.  (1910)  8,051;  (1920) 
12,742. 

ROCKY  MOUNTAINS,  THE,  a  chain 
of  mountains  in  the  central  and  W.  por- 
tions of  the  North  American  continent, 
are  a  prolongation  of  the  great  Mexican 
Cordillera,  extending  from  the  N.  fron- 
tier of  Mexico  N.  in  several  ranges,  one 
of  which,  the  E.,  passing  through  British 
North  America,  reaches  the  Arctic  ocean 
in  about  lat.  70  N.;  while  the  W.,  pass- 
ing near  the  Pacific  coast,  terminates 
near  Prince  William's  Sound,  in  about  lat. 
60°  N.  The  territory  occupied  extends 
from  the  Californian  shores  of  the  Pa- 
cific to  about  Ion.  105°  W.,  or  it  may  be 
considered  as  extending  125  miles  further 
E.,  including  the  Black  Hills  of  South 
Dakota  and  Wyoming.  The  whole  area 
properly  included  by  the  mountains  and 
their  intervening  valleys  and  desert  lands 
in  the  country  belonging  to  the  United 
States  is  estimated  at  about  980,000 
square  miles.  The  mountainous  belt  of 
eastern    New   Mexico   and   of   the   State 


E,OCKY  MOUNTAINS 


85 


ROCOCO 


of  Colorado,  first  met  with  in  crossing 
the  great  plains  that  lie  along  the  head- 
waters of  the  rivers  which  flow  S.  E. 
into  the  Mexican  Gulf,  and  E.  toward 
the  Mississippi,  has  a  general  N.  and  S. 
direction.  Santa  Fe,  N.  M.,  is  situated 
on  this  belt,  and  further  N.  it  includes 
territorially  the  Spanish  peaks.  On  its  E. 
margin  stands  Pike's  Peak,  while  in  Colo- 
rado and  Nebraska  are  those  portions  of 
the  chain  known  as  the  Three  Parks,  and 
the  Medicine  Bow  Mountains.  From 
Long's  Peak,  in  about  lat.  40°,  the  range 
trends  N.  W.,  connecting  with  the  Wind 
River  Mountains,  which  latter  includes 
Fremont's  Peak,  13,870  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Beyond  that  peak  to  the  N.  boun- 
dary of  the  United  States  the  range  sepa- 
rates the  Dakotas  and  Washington,  and 
the  pass  known  as  Lewis  and  Clark's,  in 
lat.  47°,  is  the  most  northern  pass  of  its 
system  in  the  Union,  and  is  the  one  fol- 
lowed by  the  Northern  Pacific  railroad.  In 
British  North  America  the  "Rockies"  di- 
vide the  waters  of  the  Pacific  from  those 
which  flow  into  Hudson  Bay,  as  the  Sas- 
katchewan, Athabaska,  etc.,  and  also  from 
the  Mackenzie  river,  whose  outlet  is  the 
Arctic  ocean.  The  next  great  range  of  this 
mountain  system  toward  the  W.  is  that 
called  the  Wahsatch  Mountains,  lying  S. 
from  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  toward  the 
N.  W.  this  region  is  traced  along  the  W. 
bank  of  the  Colorado  toward  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  which  forms  the  E.  boundary  of 
California,  and  the  watershed  of  the  Col- 
orado, and  Lewis'  Fork  of  the  Columbia 
river,  in  lat.  37°  and  46°  respectively. 
Nearly  the  whole  area  between  these 
points,  and  for  a  breadth  of  about  10 
degrees  of  longitude,  _  stretching  E.  from 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  is  a  vast  and  par- 
tially explored  territory,  from  4,000  to 
5,000  feet  above  sea-level,  which  receives 
the  streams  that  fall  on  the  W.  slope  of 
the  Wahsatch  range  and  on  the  E.  slope 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  In  British  America 
this  section  of  the  chain  interlocks  with 
the  main  trunk  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  W.  portion  of  the  chain  commences 
at  the  S.  extremity  of  the  Lower  Cali- 
fornian  peninsula,  then  passing  through 
California  it  bifurcates  into  two  ranges, 
known,  respectively,  as  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
at  a  distance  of  about  160  miles  from  the 
coast,  and  the  Coast  Range,  skirting  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific  from  10  to  50  miles 
inland,  till  it  reconnects  with  the  Sierra 
Nevada  in  northern  California,  in  which 
section  Mount  Shasta  attains  an  altitude 
of  about  14,000  feet  above  tide  water. 
Throughout  all  of  Oregon  and  Washing- 
ton, the  distinction  is  still  maintained  be- 
tween the  main  range  (Sierra  Nevada), 
here  called  the  Cascade  Mountains,  and 
the  Coast  Range.  The  latter  traverses 
the  central  portion  of  Vancouver  Island 


for  its  whole  length,  and  on  the  mainland 
in  British  Columbia  the  Sierra  Nevada 
proceeds  N.  and  is  crossed  by  the  Fraser 
river.  Though  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  its 
range  between  California  and  Nevada  is 
intersected  by  no  rivers,  several  of  the 
streams  which  flow  down  its  E.  slopes 
have  their  sources  high  on  the  summits 
in  the  vicinity  of  those  which  feed  the 
W.  watershed.  Several  depressions  are 
met  with  at  these  points,  which  serve  as 
passes  for  the  routes  from  Sonora,  Sacra- 
mento, and  Marysville  to  the  E.  By  the 
canon  of  Carson  river,  the  range  is 
crossed  at  an  elevation  of  about  7,250 
feet;  and  by  the  Truckee  Pass  the  eleva- 
tion is  about  6,000  feet.  From  these 
passes  the  route  is  N.  E.  to  the  main  road 
which  crosses  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  the 
N.  portion  of  California,  and  which  E. 
passes  by  the  Humboldt  Mountains  to 
Salt  Lake  City.  To  the  E.  of  Salt  Lake 
this  route  continues  across  the  Wahsatch 
range  to  the  great  South  Pass  of  the  Wind 
River  Mountains,  immediately  S.  of  Fre- 
mont's Peak,  and  thence  down  the  Sweet- 
water to  the  N.  fork  of  the  Platte.  A 
more  S.  route  connects  Pike's  Peak  with 
the  Utah  basin,  and  thence  turning  S.  W. 
crosses  the  Sierra  Nevada  near  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Coast  Range  in  northern 
California,  meeting  at  this  point  the  route 
from  Santa  Fe  through  New  Mexico,  and 
the  still  more  S.  one  from  Texas,  which 
follows  the  valley  of  the  Gila,  and  crosses 
that  river  and  the  Colorado  at  their  junc- 
tion. Mount  St.  Elias,  in  Alaska,  is  one 
of  the  highest  peaks  of  this  extensively 
ramified  mountain  system,  though  claimed 
to  be  surpassed  in  height  by  the  neighbor- 
ing Mount  Logan.  For  relative  mountain 
heights,  see  Mountain.  The  mineralogi- 
cal,  geological,  and  botanical  character- 
istics of  the  various  ranges  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains'  chain  are  treated  in  this  work 
under  the  names  of  the  several  States, 
Territories,  and  regions  with  which  it  has 
connection.  The  Rocky  Mountains  were 
first  partially  explored  by  Lewis  and 
Clark's  expedition  in  1804.  Subsequently 
explorations  were  made  by  Harman,  Long, 
Schoolcraft,  Nicollet,  Bonneville,  Fre- 
mont, and  by  many  others. 

ROCOCO,  or  ROCAILLE,  a  name  given 
to  the  very  debased  style  of  architecture 
and  decoration  which  succeeded  the  first 
revival  of  Italian  architecture.  It  is  orna- 
mental design  run  mad,  without  principle 
or  taste.  The  ornament  consists  of  panels 
with  their  moldings  broken  or  curved  at 
the  angles,  and  filled  with  leafage,  shell- 
work,  musical  instruments,  marks,  etc. 
This  style  prevailed  in  Germany  and  Bel- 
gium during  the  18th  century,  and  in 
France  from  the  time  of  Henry  IV.  to 
the  Revolution. 


ROCROI 


86 


RODGERS 


ROCROI,  or  ROCROY,  a  small  forti- 
fied town  of  France,  department  of  Ar- 
dennes, near  the  Belgian  frontier;  cele- 
brated for  the  victory  gained  (1643)  by 
the  Duke  d'Enghien  (afterward  the  great 
Conde)  over  the  Spaniards. 

ROD,  called  also  a  pole,  or  perch,  a 
measure  of  length,  equivalent  to  5% 
yards,  or  16  %  feet.  The  square  rod, 
called  generally  a  rood,  is  employed  in 
estimating  masonry  work,  and  contains 
16^X16%,  or  272%  square  feet. 

ROD,  EDOUARD  (rod),  a  French 
novelist  and  critic;  born  in  Nyon,  in 
1857.  He  published  many  works  of  criti- 
cism and  erudition,  among  them  being: 
"A  propos  de  'L'Assommoir' "  (1879); 
"The  Germans  at  Paris"  (1880)  ;  and 
"Wagner  and  the  German  Esthetic" 
(1886).  But  he  is  better  known  as  a 
novelist,  and  has  published:  "The  Fall  of 
Miss  Topsy"  (1882)  ;  "The  Deathward 
Career"  (1885)  ;  "The  Meaning  of  Life" 
(1889);  "Stendhal"  (1891);  "The  Sacri- 
ficed One"  (1892)  ;  "In  the  Middle  of  the 
Road"  (1900)  ;  etc.  He  lectured  in 
New  York  before  the  French  Society. 
He  died  Jan.  29,  1910. 

RODENTIA,  or  RODENTS,  an  order 
of  mammiferous  quadrupeds  occupying  in 
many  respects  an  intermediate  place  be- 
tween the  purely  carnivorous  and  purely 
herbivorous  mammalia,  and  so  forming 
the  connecting  link  between  them.  The  or- 
der embraces  rats  and  mice,  hares,  rabbits, 
guinea  pigs,  and  other  well-known  ani- 
mals. These  animals  have  two  great  in- 
cisor teeth  in  each  jaw,  separated  from 
the  molar  by  a  wide  space,  with  which 
they  could  hardly  seize  a  living  prey  or 
rend  flesh,  but  could  reduce  them  by 
gnawing,  whence  the  term  rodents,  or 
gnawers,  applied  to  this  order.  The  char- 
acteristic of  this  order  is  that  the  lower 
jaw  has  no  horizontal  movement  except 
from  behind  forward,  and  vice  versa,  con- 
venient for  the  action  of  gnawing;  the 
molars  of  the  Rodentia,  consequently, 
have  flat  crowns,  the  enameled  eminences 
of  which  are  always  transversal,  so  as 
to  be  in  opposition  to  the  horizontal  move- 
ments of  the  jaw,  and  to  be  better  adapted 
for  trituration.  The  hinder  parts  of  the 
body  of  the  rodents  in  general  exceed  their 
anterior. 

Some  of  them  enjoy  a  certain  dex- 
terity, using  their  forefeet  for  carrying 
their  food  to  their  mouth;  while  others 
again  (the  squirrels)  climb  trees  with 
facility.  Rodents  are  most  abundant  in 
temperate  regions.  In  North  America 
there  are  371  species,  19  genera;  81  spe- 
cies, 16  genera  in  Europe  and  the  N.  of 
Asia;  in  Africa,  53  species,  16  genera; 
in   India   and  its  islands,   58   species,   10 


genera;  in  South  America  and  West  In- 
dia Islands,  89  species,  25  genera. 

RODERIC,  "the  last  of  the  Goths," 
whose  tragic  death,  coincident  with  the 
downfall  of  the  Visigothic  monarchy  in 
Spain,  has  inspired  poets  and  romancers 
(Scott,  Southey,  Geibel,  Dahn)  to  throw 
round  him  a  halo  of  glory.  According 
to  the  commonly  accepted  legend  he  was 
the  son  of  a  noble  who  was  blinded  by 
King  Witiza.  A  conspiracy  having  been 
formed  against  the  hated  Witiza  by  the 
clergy  and  the  nobles  of  Roman  blood, 
Roderic  was  elevated  to  the  throne  (710). 
The  sons  of  Witiza,  however,  bided  their 
time,  meanwhile  submitting  to  the  usur- 
per. At  length  certain  malcontent  nobles 
were  engaged  in  a  plot  to  dethrone 
Roderic  by  Count  Julian,  the  governor  of 
Ceuta  (in  north  Africa),  whose  daughter 
had  been  outraged  by  the  Visigothic  king. 
Julian  brought  over  with  him  a  Moorish 
chief  named  Tarik  at  the  head  of  12,000 
men.  Roderic  met  the  invading  army  on 
the  banks  of  the  Guadalete,  near  Xeres 
de  la  Frontera,  on  July  26,  711.  The 
battle  raged  six  days;  but  the  sons  of 
Witiza,  who  commanded  the  wings  of  the 
Christian  army,  deserted  during  the  con- 
test, and  the  rout  of  the  Visigoths  was 
complete.  Roderic  either  died  on  the  field 
or  was  drowned  in  the  Guadalete  while 
attempting  to  swim  his  horse  across.  A 
third  version,  however,  relates  that  he 
escaped  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life 
as  a  pious  hermit.  By  this  victory  the 
Arabs  became  masters  of  southern  Spain. 

RODGERS,  CHRISTOPHER  RAY- 
MOND PERRY,  an  American  naval  offi- 
cer; born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  14, 
1819.  In  1833  he  entered  the  United 
States  navy  as  a  midshipman;  was  in 
active  service  during  the  Seminole  and 
Mexican  Wars;  and  in  1861  became  com- 
mander. In  that  year,  in  the  "Wabash" 
of  Admiral  Dupont's  squadron,  he  was 
fleet-captain  at  the  battle  of  Port  Royal. 
He  commanded,  in  1862,  an  expedition  to 
St.  Augustine  and  up  the  St.  Mary's 
river.  In  the  attack  on  the  defenses  of 
Charleston,  April  7,  1863,  he  was  fleet- 
captain  on  the  "New  Ironsides."  He  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  United 
States  Naval  Academy  1874-78,  and 
1881,  and  in  the  year  1874  was  promoted 
rear-admiral.  He  was  retired  in  1881; 
and  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  8, 
1892. 

RODGERS,  JOHN,  an  American  naval 
officer;  born  in  Harford  co.,  Md.,  July 
11,  1771;  son  of  a  Scotch  colonel  of 
militia.  He  was  a  captain  in  the  mer- 
chant service  by  1789,  and  in  1798  entered 
the  navy  as  lieutenant,  becoming  captain 
the  year  after.    In  1805  he  extorted  from 


RODGERS 


87 


RODMAN 


Tripoli  and  from  Tunis  treaties  abolish- 
ing the  former  tribute  and  forbidding  the 
slavery  of  Christian  captives.  On  June 
23,  1812,  he  fired  with  his  own  hand  the 
first  shot  in  the  war  with  Great  Britain, 
and  during  the  war  he  took  23  prizes. 
He  died  Aug.  1,  1838. 

RODGERS,  JOHN,  an  American  naval 
officer;  born  in  Maryland,  Aug.  8,  1812. 
He  entered  the  naval  service  in  1828  and 
soon  showed  that  he  had  inherited  the 
bravery  of  his  father,  Commodore  John 
Rodgers.  He  was  in  the  war  against  the 
Seminole  Indians  and  rendered  excellent 
service  during  the  Civil  War.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1861,  he  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Port  Royal,  and  in  November,  1862,  he 
led  an  attack  on  Drury's  Bluff,  on  the 
James  river,  in  which  he  was  repulsed. 
He  commanded  the  "Weehawken"  in  the 
attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  in  April,  1863, 
and  in  the  same  year  he  captured  the 
Confederate  ironclad  "Atlanta,"  near 
Savannah.  He  was  promoted  rear-ad- 
miral in  1869,  and  in  1877-1882  was  super- 
intendent of  the  United  States  Naval 
Observatory.  He  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  May  5,  1882. 

RODGERS,  JOHN  AUGUSTUS,  an 
American  naval  officer,  born  at  Havre  de 
Grace,  Maryland,  in  1848.  He  graduated 
from  the  United  States  Naval  Academy 
in  1868,  and  was  appointed  ensign  in 
1869,  rising  successively  to  the  rank  of 
rear-admiral  in  1908.  He  saw  active  ser- 
vice during  the  Civil  War  and  took  part 
in  the  battle  of  Santiago,  Cuba,  in  July, 
1898.  His  various  other  assignments  in- 
cluded service  with  the  torpedo  service, 
at  the  Washington  Navy  Yard,  the  Naval 
War  College,  the  light-house  service,  etc. 
From  1904  to  1906  he  was  in  command 
of  the  "Illinois,"  and  from  1908  to  1910 
he  was  in  command  of  the  Navy  Yard, 
Puget  Sound,  Washington,  retiring  in 
July,  1910. 

RODGERS,  RAYMOND  PERRY,  an 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  in  1849.  He  graduated  from 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
1868  and  was  appointed  ensign  in  1869, 
rising  successively  to  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral  in  1908.  He  served  from  1893 
to  1897  as  naval  attache  in  France  and 
Russia,  from  1897  to  1899  as  executive 
officer  of  the  "Iowa,"  taking  part  in  the 
battle  of  Santiago,  Cuba.  From  1899  to 
1901  he  was  in  command  of  the  "Nash- 
ville," seeing  service  in  the  Philippines, 
and  in  China  during  the  Boxer  troubles. 
From  1904  to  1906  he  was  in  command 
of  the  "Kearsarge,"  from  1906  to  1909 
chief  intelligence  officer  of  the  Navy  De- 
partment, and  from  1907  to  1911  presi- 
dent   of    the    Naval    War    College    and 


commandant  of  the  naval  station  in  Nar- ' 
ragansett,  Bay,  retiring  in  December, 
1911. 

RODIN,  AUGUSTE,  a  French  sculp- 
tor; born  in  Paris,  France,  in  1840, 
studied  under  Barye,  and  began  to  ex- 
hibit in  the  Salon  in  1875.  He  has  pro- 
duced great  scriptural  and  symbolical 
groups,  but  is  best  known  by  his  portrait 


AUGUSTE  RODIN 

busts  and  statues,  notably  the  busts  of 
Victor  Hugo  and  Balzac;  though  his 
"Apollo,"  "Young  Girl,"  "The  Kiss,"  and 
his  panels  are  equally  great.  He  is  re- 
presented in  the  Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York,  by  "The  Hand  of  God,"  "The 
Bather,"  a  bust  of  St.  John  and  18  other 
pieces.  In  1904  he  succeeded  Whistler 
as  President  of  the  International  Society 
of  Sculptors,  Painters  and  Engravers. 
He  died  Nov.  17,  1917. 

RODMAN,  HUGH,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  at  Frankfort,  Ky.,  in  1859. 
He  graduated  from  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  in  1880  and  from  the 
Naval  War  College  in  1907.  Having  been 
promoted  ensign,  junior  grade,  in  1883, 
he  gradually  rose  to  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral  in  1917.  In  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can War  he  served  on  the  "Raleigh."  Be- 
sides service  on  various  United  States 
vessels  his  assignments  included  service 
with  the  light-house  department,  at  the 
Navy  Yard,  Mare  Island,  Cal.,  etc. 
From  1914  to  1915  he  was  superintendent 
of  transportation,  Panama  Canal.    From 


RODNEY 


88 


HOE 


1915  to  1916  he  was  in  command  of  the 
"New  York,"  and  from  1916  to  1917  he 
was  a  member  of  the  general  board  of  the 
Navy  Department.  During  the  World 
War  he  was  successively  in  command  of 
division  3,  Atlantic  Fleet;  squadron  1, 
Battleship  force,  Atlantic  Fleet;  division 


REAR-ADMIRAL   HUGH   RODMAN 

3,  Battleship  force  1,  Atlantic  Fleet; 
division  9,  Battleship  force,  on  duty  with 
British  Grand  Fleet;  and  of  United 
States  battleships.  He  was  a  director  of 
the  Panama  Railroad  Co.  He  received 
the  Battle  of  Manila  Bay  and  Spanish- 
American  War  medals,  the  D.  S.  medal, 
and  from  Great  Britain,  the  K.  C.  B.,  for 
services  in  the  World  War. 

RODNEY,  C2ESAR,  an  American  pa- 
triot; born  in  Dover,  Del.,  Oct.  7,  1728. 
In  1755  he  was  made  sheriff  of  Kent  co., 
Del.,  and  at  the  expiration  of  his  term 
became  justice  of  the  peace  and  judge  of 
all  the  lower  courts.  In  1765  he  was  a 
delegate  to  the  Stamp  Act  Congress  in 
New  York.  In  1767,  when  the  tea  act 
was  proposed  in  the  British  Parliament, 
the  Delaware  Assembly  appointed  him 
to  aid  in  the  formulation  of  an  address 
of  remonstrance  to  the  king.  In  1775 
he  was  elected  for  a  second  time  to  the 
Continental  Congress,  and  in  May  of  that 
year  became  Brigadier-General  of  the 
Delaware  militia.     He  served  with   dis- 


tinction during  the  Revolutionary  War 
under  Washington,  becoming,  in  1777,  a 
Major-General.  He  was  elected  president 
of  Delaware,  in  which  office  he  served 
till  1782,  when  he  was  re-elected  to  Con- 
gress, but  did  not  take  his  seat  because 
of  illness.  As  a  public  man  he  displayed 
great  integrity  and  elevation  of  char- 
acter. He  died  in  Dover,  Del.,  June  29, 
1784. 

RODNEY,  GEORGE  BRYDGES, 
LORD,  an  English  naval  officer;  born  in 
Walton-upon-Thames,  England,  Feb.  19, 
1718.  He  was  created  rear-admiral  in 
1759,  and  distinguished  himself  in  several 
expeditions.  In  1780  he  defeated  the 
Spanish  fleet  and  took  several  ships.  This 
was  followed  soon  after  by  a  more  splen- 
did victory,  and  the  capture  of  the  Span- 
ish admiral,  Don  Juan  de  Langara.  But 
the  most  important  achievement  of  this 
brave  admiral  was  the  defeat  of  the 
French  fleet  under  Count  de  Grasse  in  the 
West  Indies  in  1782,  when  the  French 
admiral  and  a  number  of  his  ships  were 
taken.    He  died  in  London,  May  24,  1792. 

RODRIGUEZ,      or     RODRIGTJES,      a 

hilly  volcanic  island  (1,760  feet),  13  miles 
long  by  7  broad,  370  miles  E.  by  N.  of 
Mauritius,  of  which  it  is  a  dependency. 
Rodriguez  is  a  cable  station.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  and  agriculture  is  the  chief 
occupation.  Hurricanes  often  cause  great 
damage  to  the  island,  which  is  encircled 
by  a  coral  reef.  It  was  discovered  by 
the  Portuguese  in  1645,  and  has  been  a 
British  colony  since  1810.  The  chief  port 
is  Port  Mathurin.  Owing  to  its  isolation 
this  island  is  particularly  interesting  to 
the  botanist  and  the  zoologist.  Till  near 
the  close  of  the  17th  century  it  was  the 
home  of  the  solitaire,  now  an  extinct  bird. 

ROE  (Capreolus  caprea),  a  small 
species  of  deer  inhabiting  Europe  and 
some  parts  of  western  Asia,  chiefly  in 
hilly  or  mountainous  regions.  It  is  sel- 
dom found  in  the  higher  and  more  naked 
mountain  tracts,  the  haunt  of  the  stag 
or  red  deer.  It  was  once  plentiful  in 
Wales  and  in  the  hilly  parts  of  England, 
as  well  as  in  the  S.  of  Scotland,  but  is 
now  very  rare  S.  of  Perthshire.  The  roe 
is  about  2  feet  3  inches  in  height  at  the 
shoulder.  Its  weight  is  about  50  or  60 
pounds.  Its  color  is  a  shining  tawny- 
brown  in  summer,  more  dull  and  grizzled 
in  winter.  The  tail  is  very  short,  con- 
cealed among  the  hair.  The  antlers, 
which  are  peculiar  to  the  male  or  roe- 
buck, are  eight  or  nine  inches  long,  erect, 
round,  very  rough,  longitudinally  fur- 
rowed; having,  in  mature  animals,  two 
or  three  tines  or  branches,  which,  as  well 
as  the  tip  of  the  horn,  are  sharp-pointed, 
so  that  the  antlers  form  very  dangerous 


ROE 


89 


ROEBLING 


weapons.    The  habits  of  the'  roe  are  some- 
what like  those  of  the  goat,  or  even  of 


ROE  BUCK 

the  chamois.    Contrary  to  what  is  usual 
among  deer,  the  male  and  female  remain 


HEAD   OF  ROE   BUCK 


attached  during  life.     The  voice  of  the 
roe-deer,  resembling  that  of  a  sheep,  but 


shorter  and  more  barking,  is  often  heard 
through  the  night.  The  venison  is  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  stag,  but  not  equal 
to  that  of  the  fallow  deer.  The  horns 
are  used  for  handles  of  carving  knives 
and  similar  articles. 

ROE,  CHARLES  FRANCIS,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer;  born  in  New  York 
City,  May  1,  1848;  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1868, 
and  was  assigned  to  the  2d  Cavalry,  then 
on  the  Pacific  slope.  In  1898  he  was 
appointed  a  Brigadier-General  of  volun- 
teers.    He  died  in  1900. 

ROE,  EDWARD  PAYSON,  an  Amer- 
ican novelist;  born  in  Orange  co.,  N.  Y., 
March  7,  1838.  He  wrote  a  great  num- 
ber of  very  popular  novels.  His  first 
novel,  "Barriers  Burned  Away"  (1872), 
met  with  immediate  success,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  "What  Can  She  Do?"  (1873)  ; 
"The  Opening  of  a  Chestnut  Burr" 
(1874) ;  "From  Jest  to  Earnest"  (1875) ; 
"Near  to  Nature's  Heart"  (1876) ;  "A 
Knight  of  the  Nineteenth  Century" 
(1877) ;  "A  Face  Illumined"  (1878) ;  "A 
Day  of  Fate"  (1880) ;  "Without  a  Home" 
(1881);  "His  London  Rivals"  (1883); 
"Nature's  Serial  Story"  (1884) ;  "Driven 
Back  to  Eden"  (1885) ;  "He  Fell  in  Love 
With  His  Wife"  (1886);  "The  Earth 
Trembled"  (1887);  "A  Hornet's  Nest" 
(1887) ;  "Found,  Yet  Lost"  (1888) ;  "Miss 
Lou"  (1888);  and  "Taken  Alive,  and 
Other  Stories."  He  died  in  Cornwall, 
N.  Y.,  July  19,  1888. 

ROEBLING,    JOHN    AUGUSTUS,    an 

American  engineer;  born  in  Muhlhausen, 
Prussia,  June  6,  1806;  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1831,  and  settled  in  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.  His  first  work  was  as  assis- 
tant engineer  on  the  dock  navigation  of 
Beaver  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Ohio. 
He  soon  found  employment  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania State  service,  and  for  three 
years  was  engaged  in  surveying  and  lo- 
cating three  railroads  from  Harrisburg 
to  Pittsburgh  across  the  Allegheny  Moun- 
tains. These  roads  were  in  due  course 
built  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Com- 
pany. In  1844  he  secured  the  contract 
to  remove  the  wooden  aqueduct  of  the 
Pennsylvania  canal  across  the  Allegheny 
river,  which  had  become  unsafe  and  to 
replace  it  with  a  new  structure.  His  next 
piece  of  construction  was  the  Mononga- 
hela  suspension  bridge  at  Pittsburgh.  He 
then,  within  two  years,  built  a  series  of 
four  suspension  aqueducts  on  the  line  of 
the  Delaware  and  Hudson  canal,  connect- 
ing the  Hudson  river  with  the  anthracite 
coal  regions  of  Pennsylvania.  He  re- 
moved from  Pennsylvania  about  this 
time,  to  Trenton,  N.  J.,  where  he  estab-, 
lished  his  wire  works.     He  next  built  a 


ROEBLING 


90 


ROENTGEN 


suspension  bridge  across  the  chasm  of 
the  Niagara  river  to  unite  the  New  York 
Central  and  Great  Western  (Canada) 
railroads.  He  began  the  Cincinnati  sus- 
pension bridge  in  1856  and  completed  it 
in  1867.  His  greatest  work  was  the  first 
bridge  over  the  East  river,  connecting 
New  York  and  Brooklyn.  He  died  while 
the  construction  was  in  progress,  in 
Brooklyn,  July  22,  1869,  and  the  bridge 
was  completed  by  his  son. 

ROEBLING,  WASHINGTON  AUGUS- 
TUS, an  American  civil  engineer;  born 
in  Saxonburg,  Pa.,  May  26,  1837;  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute, 
Troy,  N.  Y.,  in  1857;  was  an  engineer 
officer  during  the  Civil  War  and  attained 
the  rank  of  colonel  of  volunteers.  In 
1865  he  resigned  from  military  service 
to  become  assistant  to  his  father  in  con- 
structing the  suspension  bridges  at  Cin- 
cinnati and  Pittsburgh.  In  1869  he  was 
assistant  engineer  under  his  father  in  the 
construction  of  the  first  suspension  bridge 
over  the  East  River  between  New  York 
and  Brooklyn;  and  on  his  father's  death 
became  chief  engineer,  which  post  he  held 
till  the  completion  of  the  bridge  in  1883. 
He  then  became  president  of  the 
large  wire  manufactory  at  Trenton,  N.  J. 
He  published  many  valuable  engineering 
reports,  notably  several  relating  to  the 
construction  of  the  East  river  bridge. 

ROENTGEN,  WILLIAM  CONRAD, 
VON,  a  German  scientist;  born  in  Prus- 


WILLIAM   CONRAD  VON   ROENTGEN 

sia  in  1845;  was  graduated  in  medicine 
at  the  University  of  Zurich  in  1869,  and 


accompanied  Professor  Kundt,  his  teacher, 
to  Wiirzburg,  where  he  engaged  in  prac- 
tice. He  went  to  Strasburg,  in  1873,  as 
assistant  professor,  and  for  20  years  was 
conspicuous  as  Professor  of  Mathematics 
and  Physics,  and  also  as  a  scientist.  In 
November,  1895,  Roentgen  made  the  dis- 
covery of  what  has  since  been  known  as 
the  Roentgen,  or  X-rays.  The  German 
emperor  bestowed  the  Order  of  the  Royal 
Crown  on  the  discoverer,  who  afterward 
also  was  ennobled.  He  received  the  Nobel 
Prize  for  physics  in  1901. 

ROENTGEN,  or  RONTGEN,  RAYS, 

certain  invisible  non-refractable  rays 
emanating  from  the  surface  of  an  elec- 
trically excited  vacuum  tube  opposite  the 
cathode  electrode,  having  power  (1)  of 
permeating  objects  impervious  to  light 
or  heat  rays,  (2)  of  discharging  electri- 
fied bodies  or  surfaces  exposed  to  them, 
(3)  of  exciting  fluorescence  in  fluorescent 
salts,  and  (4)  of  affecting  sensitized  pho- 
tographic plates  in  a  manner  similar  to 
light  rays.  They  were  discovered  by 
William  Conrad  Roentgen,  Professor  of 
Physics  at  the  Royal  University  of  Wiirz- 
burg, in  Germany,  toward  the  close  of 
the  year  1895.  Not  being  certain  as  to 
the  nature  of  the  rays,  Professor  Roent- 
gen provisionally  termed  them  the  X-rays, 
and  they  are  still  commonly  known  by 
that  name,  though  the  name  Roentgen 
rays  is  also  common.  At  the  beginning 
of  1894,  Prof.  P.  E.  A.  Lenard,  at  Bonn, 
announced  the  discovery  that  by  using  a 
Crookes  tube  in  which  the  cathode  rays 
were  made  to  impinge  on  a  thin  sheet 
of  aluminum  a  screen  covered  with  a 
phosphorescent  substance  outside  the  tube 
could  be  made  to  phosphoresce  by  their 
action.  That,  further,  it  was  possible 
by  means  of  these  cathode  rays,  as  he 
supposed,  to  obtain  "shadows"  of  objects 
through  optically  opaque  substances  and 
to  produce  an  impress  of  these  "shadows" 
on  photographic  plates,  which  could  after- 
ward be  developed  and  fixed  by  ordinary 
photographic  processes.  Working  on  this 
line  of  investigation  Professor  Roentgen 
inclosed  an  excited  vacuum  tube  in  black- 
ened cardboard  treated  with  barium 
platino-cyanide,  and  discovered  that  the 
cathode  beam  is  accompanied  by  certain 
rays  not  before  known,  which,  though  of 
phosphorescent  and  photographic  quality, 
differ  from  any  known  form  of  light  in 
not  being  susceptible  of  refraction. 

These  were  the  wonderful  X-rays> 
which  have  opened  up  to  the  world  a  new 
region  of  scientific  exploration.  Besides 
obtaining  radiographs  of  the  bones  in 
the  living  human  hand,  Professor  Roent- 
gen radiographed  a  compass  card  com- 
pletely inclosed  in  a  metallic  box.  From 
these  and  similar  experiments  he  inferred 


ROGATION    DAYS 


91 


ROGERS 


that  these  newly  discovered  rays  gen- 
erated in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Crookes 
tube  by  the  electric  disturbance  set  up 
by  the  passage  of  a  current  possessed  the 
property  of  passing  through  all  bodies 
in  their  path,  and  that  some  bodies,  being 
less  permeable  than  others,  cast  a  shadow. 
Subsequent  experiments  have  established 
the  fact  that  the  transparency  of  a  body 
to  the  X-rays  is  proportional  to  its  den- 
sity. As  to  the  real  nature  of  the  X-rays 
eminent  physicists  differ,  but  all  agree 
that  they  must  be  regarded  as  of  a  na- 
ture essentially  different  from  ordinary 
light.  They  cast  an  invisible  life-size 
shadow  of  the  objects  that  obstruct  their 
passage,  which  invisible  shadow  if  re- 
ceived on  a  surface  which  phosphoresces 
or  glows  under  their  action  becomes  a 
visible  shadow,  which  makes  the  wonder- 
ful revelations  of  the  fluoroscope  possible. 
If  this  invisible  shadow  is  received  on  a 
sensitive  plate,  the  plate  is  impressed,  and 
on  subsequent  development  the  represen- 
tation of  the  obstructing  object  is  per- 
petuated on  the  photographic  plate. 

The  Roentgen  rays  pass  very  freely 
through  the  various  tissues  and  fluids 
of  the  body,  but  are  obstructed  by  the 
bones;  hence  it  is  possible  to  take  a  per- 
fect shadow-picture,  or  radiograph,  as  it 
is  now  generally  called,  of  the  bones  of 
a  living  person  or  animal.  By  far  the 
most  important  result  of  the  discovery 
has  been  the  application  of  the  new  rays 
to  surgery.  Needles,  bullets  and  other 
foreign  objects  in  various  parts  of  the 
body  have  been  successfully  located,  and 
the  invention  of  the  Fluoroscope  (q.  v.) 
has  made  it  possible  to  use  the  Roentgen 
rays,  not  only  in  surgical  cases,  in  search- 
ing for  fractures,  etc.,  but  to  undertake 
anatomical  studies  and  make  the  diag- 
nosis of  internal  diseases.  The  full 
physiological  effects  of  the  X-rays  are 
not  yet  clearly  understood.  Experiments 
show  that  long  exposure  to  the  rays 
causes  acute  maladies  of  the  skin  and 
also  baldness. 

ROGATION  DAYS,  the  Monday,  Tues- 
day, and  Wednesday  before  Holy  Thurs- 
day or  Ascension  Day,  so  called  from  the 
supplications  or  litanies  which  are  ap- 
pointed in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
to  be  sung  or  recited  in  public  procession 
by  the  clergy  and  people.  In  England, 
after  the  Reformation,  this  practice  was 
discontinued,  but  it  survives  in  the  cus- 
tom (observed  in  some  places)  of  per- 
ambulating the  parish  boundaries. 

ROGER  I.,  Count  of  Sicily,  the  young- 
est of  the  12  sons  of  Tancred  de  Haute- 
yille  of  Normandy;  born  in  that  duchy 
in  1031.  When  27  years  of  age  he  joined 
his   famous   brother   Robert   Guiscard   in 


south  Italy;  but  at  first  he  seems  to  have 
fought  against  Robert  more  than  he 
helped  him.  At  length  they  became  re- 
conciled, and  Roger  helped  Robert  to  com- 
plete the  conquest  of  Calabria.  In  1060 
Roger  was  invited  to  Sicily  to  fight 
against  the  Saracens:  he  took  Messina 
and  settled  a  garrison  there.  Every- 
where the  Normans  were  welcomed  by 
the  Christians  of  Sicily  as  their  deliverers 
from  the  Moslem  yoke,  and  they  won 
town  after  town,  till  in  1072  the  Saracen 
capital,  Palermo,  was  captured.  Robert 
then  invested  Roger  with  the  countship 
of  Sicily.  Count  Roger  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life,  apart  from  his  numerous  expe- 
ditions undertaken  for  the  support  of  his 
brother,  in  completing  the  conquest  of 
Sicily,  which  was  finally  effected  in  1090. 
Already  as  early  as  1060  Duke  Robert 
had  given  his  brother  the  half  of  Cala- 
bria, with  the  title  of  count.  After 
Robert's  death  (1085)  Roger  succeeded  to 
his  Italian  possessions,  and  became  the 
head  of  the  Norman  power  in  southern 
Europe.  Pope  Urban  II.  granted  him 
special  ecclesiastical  privileges,  such  as 
the  power  to  appoint  the  bishops,  and 
made  him  papal  legate  of  Sicily  (1098). 
Roger  died  in  Mileto,  Calabria,  in  June, 
1101. 

ROGER  II.,  King  of  Sicily,  second  son 
of  the  preceding;  born  in  1093.  When 
he  came  of  age  he  executed  his  task  of 
governing  Sicily  with  great  ability  and 
courage,  and  his  sway  was  gradually  ex- 
tended over  a  great  part  of  southern 
Italy.  By  the  Anti-Pope  Anacletus  in 
1130  he  was  honored  with  the  title  of 
king.  In  spite  of  repeated  revolts  of  the 
barons,  and  though  the  German  Emperor 
Lothair  and  the  Greek  Emperor  Em- 
manuel were  leagued  against  him,  and 
Innocent  II.  excommunicated  him,  he  de- 
fended himself  with  success  and  defeated 
the  Pope's  forces  at  Galluzzo,  taking 
Innocent  prisoner.  Peace  was  made, 
the  Pope  annulled  all  excommunication 
against  Roger,  and  recognized  his  title 
of  king.  Roger  afterward  fought  with 
success  against  the  Greeks,  took  Corfu, 
and  gained  part  of  the  N.  coast  of  Africa. 
He  died  in  1154,  and  was  succeeded  by 
a  son  and  a  grandson. 

ROGERS,  HENRY  HTJDDLESTONE, 
an  American  capitalist,  born  at  Fair- 
haven,  Mass.,  in  1840.  He  was  educated 
in  the  Fairhaven  High  School,  and  after 
being  newspaper  seller,  clerk,  and  rail- 
road worker,  went  to  Pennsylvania  and 
settled  at  McClintock's  Wells.  Here  he 
entered  the  oil  business  and  had  great 
success  in  the  kerosene  industry.  In  1870 
he  settled  in  New  York  and  in  1874  co- 
operated   in    the    establishment    of    the 


ROGERS 


92 


ROGERS 


Standard  Oil  Company.  Eventually  he  be- 
came vice-president  and  was  regarded  as 
executive  head.  The  money  he  made  in 
oil  he  invested  in  other  business,  so  that 
he  became  connected  with  the  Amalga- 
mated Copper  Company,  United  States 
Steel  Corporation,  the  National  Transit 
Company,  and  other  mining,  railroad,  and 
industrial  undertakings.  He  built  the 
Tidewater  railroad,  442  miles  in  length, 
exclusively  with  his  own  capital.  He  left 
over  $100,000,000.     Died  1909. 

ROGERS,  HENRY  WADE,  an  Amer- 
ican jurist  and  economist,  born  in  Hol- 
land Patent,  N.  Y.,  in  1853.  He  gradu- 
ated from  the  University  of  Michigan  in 
1874.  After  studying  law  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1877.  He  was  con- 
nected with  the  law  department  of  the 
University  of  Michigan  from  1883  to 
1891.  From  1890  to  1900  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Northwestern  University.  In 
1913  he  was  appointed  United  States  Cir- 
cuit Judge.  He  was  chairman  of  the 
World's  Congress  on  Jurisprudence  and 
Law  Reform,  in  1893,  and  general  chair- 
man of  the  Saratoga  Conference  on  the 
Foreign  Policy  of  the  United  States,  in 
1898.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
activities  of  the.  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  and  acted  as  an  official  of  many 
important  committees.  In  1908  he  was 
chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Interna- 
tional Relations  in  the  Federal  Council 
of  the  Churches.  He  was  delegate  to 
many  international  conferences  on  prison 
reform  and  other  subjects.  He  wrote 
"Expert  Testimony"  (1883)  ;  "Introduc- 
tion to  Constitutional  History  as  Seen 
in  American  Law"  (1889).  He  contrib- 
uted many  articles  to  encyclopedias  and 
reviews. 

ROGERS,  JAMES  EDWIN  THO- 
ROLD,  an  English  economist;  born  in 
Hampshire,  England,  in  1823;  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Political  Economy  at  Oxford, 
and  will  be  remembered  as  a  historian  of 
economics.  His  principal  work  is  "The 
History  of  Agriculture  and  Prices  in 
England"  (1866-1888),  of  which  "Six 
Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages"  (1885) 
is  an  abridgment.  Among  his  other  writ- 
ings are:  "Cobden  and  Modern  Political 
Opinion"  (1873);  "The  First  Nine  Years 
of  the  Bank  of  England"  (1887)  ;  "The 
Economic  Interpretation  of  History" 
(1888);  and  "The  Industrial  and  Com- 
mercial History  of  England"  (1892).  He 
died  in  Oxford,  Oct.  12,  1890. 

ROGERS,  JOHN,  an  American  sculp- 
tor; born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  Oct.  30,  1829; 
was  a  machinist  in  early  life;  developed 
u  talent  in  clay  modeling;  and  in  1858 
went  to   Europe  to  study  plastic  art  in 


Paris  and  Rome.  He  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1859,  and  afterward 
produced  a  large  number  of  statuettes 
in  clay  of  a  new  composition.  His  first 
group,  "The  Checker  Players,"  attracted 
popular  attention.  He  became  noted  for 
statuette  groups.  He  also  executed  the 
equestrian  statue  of  General  Reynolds, 
now  at  the  city  hall  in  Philadelphia.  He 
died  July  27,  1904. 

ROGERS.  RANDOLPH,  an  American 
sculptor;  born  in  Waterloo,  N.  Y.,  July 
6,  1825;  studied  art  in  Europe  in  1848- 
1850,  spending  most  of  the  time  in  Rome. 
He  then  returned  to  the  United  States; 
for  five  years  had  a  studio  in  New  York, 
and  established  himself  in  Rome  in  1855. 
He  executed  the  bronze  doors  of  the  Na- 
tional Capitol  at  Washington,  D.  C,  and 
also  several  portrait  statues  and  mem- 
orial monuments  in  Providence,  Richmond, 
Detroit,  and  other  cities.  He  produced 
busts  that  became  famous,  "Nydia," 
"Isaac,"  "Ruth,"  etc.  His  work  was 
classed  as  "ideal."    He  died  Jan.  15,  1892. 

ROGERS,  ROBERT  WILLIAM,  an 

American  orientalist,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, 1864.  He  was  educated  at  the  Cen- 
tral High  School,  Philadelphia,  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  Haverford  College,  and  the 
University  of  Leipzig,  receiving  the  de- 
gree of  Ph.D.  from  the  latter  two  insti- 
tutions, and  honorary  degrees  from 
several  American  universities  as  well  as 
from  the  University  of  Dublin.  From 
1887  to  1888  he  was  instructor  of  Greek 
and  Hebrew  at  Haverford  College;  from 
1890  to  1892  professor  of  English  bible 
and  Semitic  history  at  Dickinson  College, 
and  from  1893  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
Old  Testament  Exegesis,  Drew  Theologi- 
cal Seminary.  He  was  a  member  of 
numerous  domestic  and  foreign  oriental 
and  archaeological  societies  as  well  as  a 
member  of  various  congresses  of  ori- 
entalists. He  wrote:  "Two  Texts  of 
Esarhaddon"  (1889)  ;  "Catalogue  of  Man- 
uscripts" (1890)  ;  "Inscriptions  of  Senna- 
cherib" (1893)  ;  "Outlines  of  the  History 
of  Early  Babylonia"  (1895);  "History 
of  Babylonia  and  Assyria"  (1900),  6th 
edition  rewritten  (1915)  ;  "The  Religion 
of  Babylonia  and  Assyria"  (1909) ; 
"Cuneiform  Parallels  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment" (1912)  ;  "The  Recovery  of  the 
Ancient  Orient"   (1912). 

ROGERS,  SAMUEL,  an  English  poet; 
born  in  Newington  Green,  London,  July 
30,  1763.  His  wealth,  liberality,  and 
social  qualities  gave  his  productions  a 
great  vogue.  His  best  poem  is  the  "Pleas- 
ures of  Memory"  (1792).  He  wrote  also: 
"The  Voyage  of  Columbus"  (1812) ;  "Jac- 


ROGERS 


93 


ROHAN 


queline"   (1813);  "Human  Life"   (1819);      (1834),  and  the  more  famous  "Thesaurus 
and  "Italy"  (1822).    He  was  the  intimate     of  English  Words  and  Phrases"    (1852). 

He  died  in  Malvern,  Sept.  17,  1869. 

ROGGEVELD  MOUNTAINS,  a  range 
in  the  S.  W.  division  of  Cape  Colony, 
running  N.  W.  to  S.  E.  with  an  average 
height  of  5,000  feet. 

ROGUE,  an  idle,  slothful,  inactive  per- 
son: in  the  legal  sense,  a  vagrant;  a 
vagabond;  a  sturdy  beggar.  A  knave; 
a  rascal;  a  wilfully  dishonest  person;  a 
cheat;  a  trickster.  A  name  of  slight  ten- 
derness or  endearment  for  one  who  is 
mischievous  or  frolicsome;  as,  a  wicked 
rogue    (in  irony). 

ROHAN,  HENRI  DE,  a  French  Prot- 
estant leader;  born  in  Brittany,  France, 
Aug.  25  (or  21),  1579.  He  is  less  re- 
markable for  military  achievements  than 
for  his  four  books  of  memoirs:  the  first 
three  published  under  the  title  "Memoirs 
on  Events  in  France  from  the  Death  of 
Henry  the  Great  to  June,  1629"  (1644), 
covering  the  civil  wars;  and  the  fourth 
as  "Memoirs  and  Letters  on  the  War  of 
the  Valtelline"  (1758),  whither  Richelieu 
had  sent  him  to  keep  off  the  Imperialists 
and  the  Spanish.  They  rank  among  the 
finest  of  the  memoirs  written  by  the  aris- 
tocracy of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries. 
He  also  wrote  "The  Perfect  Captain" 
(1636),  a  political  tract;  and  others.  He 
died  April  13,  1638. 

ROHAN,  LOUIS  RENE  EDOUARD, 
PRINCE  DE,  Cardinal-Archbishop  of 
Strasburg;  born  in  1734.  He  became  co- 
adjutor to  his  uncle  in  the  see  of  Stras- 
burg, and  afterward  his  successor;  was 
sent  in  1772  as  ambassador  to  Vienna, 
where  he  displayed  the  most  ridiculous 
luxury,  but  vainly  sought  to  obtain  the 
favor  of  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa.  As 
coadjutor  he  had  ceremonially  received 
the  Princess  Marie  Antoinette  on  her  en- 
trance into  France.  On  the  death  of 
Louis  XV.  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  for 
10  years  bent  all  his  energies  and  efforts 
to  winning  the  favor  of  the  queen,  but 
all  in  vain.  Nevertheless  he  had  mean- 
while become,  in  spite  of  his  known  pro- 
fligacy, Archbishop,  Grand-Almoner,  Car- 
dinal and  Commendator  of  St.  Vaast  of 
Acres,  one  of  the  richest  benefices  in 
France.  Associate  of  the  quack  Cag- 
liostro,  and  of  the  infamous  Madame  La- 
motte,  he  was  duped  by  a  forged  letter 
with  the  signature  of  the  queen,  and  in- 
duced to  buy  of  Boehmer,  the  court 
jeweler,  the  now  too  celebrated  diamond 
necklace,  in  the  name  of  the  queen.  The 
necklace  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
Madame  Lamotte,  forged  autograph  mes- 
sages from  the  queen  followed,  and  an 
interview  in  the  park  of  Versailles  be- 
Cyc  Vol  8 


SAMUEL  ROGERS 

friend  of  nearly  all  the  literary  men  of 
his  time  in  Great  Britain.  He  died  in 
London,   Dec.   18,   1855. 

ROGERS,  SAMUEL  LYLE,  an  Amer- 
ican director  of  census,  born  in  Frank- 
lin, N.  C,  in  1859.  He  was  educated  in 
Franklin  High  School.  After  some  years 
in  the  retail  merchandise  business  he  was 
clerk  of  the  Superior  Court,  Macon  co., 
N.  C,  from  1882  to  1893,  collector  of  in- 
ternal revenue  for  the  western  district 
of  N.  C.  from  1895  to  1897;  a  member 
of  the  N.  C.  State  Corporation  Commis- 
sion from  1899  to  1911.  In  March,  1915, 
he  was  appointed  director  of  census  by 
President  Wilson.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  American  Statistical  Association. 

ROGET,  PETER  MARK,  an  English 
physician;  born  in  London,  England,  Jan. 
18,  1779;  was  educated  at  Edinburgh; 
became  physician  to  the  Manchester  In- 
firmary in  1804;  and  in  1808  settled  in 
London,  where  he  became  physician  to 
the  Northern  Dispensary;  F.  R.  S.  (1815), 
and  afterward  for  over  20  years  its 
secretary;  Fullerian  Professor  of  Physi- 
ology at  the  Royal  Institution;  and  an 
original^  member  of  tke  senate  of  the 
University  of  London.  He  wrote  one  of 
the  "Bridgewater  Treatises" — "On  Ani- 
mal and  Vegetable  Physiology  Considered 
with    Reference    to    Natural    Theology" 

G- 


ROHILKHAND 


94 


ROLAND 


tween  the  cardinal  and  a  fair  adventuress 
personating  the  queen.  On  the  discovery 
of  the  fraud,  Rohan  was  summoned  be- 
fore the  king,  answered  vaguely  and  un- 
satisfactorily, and  was  arrested  and  im- 
prisoned in  the  Bastile,  Aug.  15,  1785. 
After  a  year's  proceedings  he  was  ac- 
quitted and  released,  but  at  the  same  time 
exiled  from  the  court,  and  deprived  of  his 
grand-almonership.  He  was  deputy  to 
the  States-General  in  1789;  was  after- 
ward accused  of  various  disloyal  intrigues 
and  maladministration;  gave  up  his  see 
in  1801,  and  died  in  1803. 

ROHILKHAND,    or   ROHILCTJND,    a 

division  of  the  provinces  of  Agra  and 
Oude  in  British  India;  area,  10,885  square 
miles;  pop.  about  5,345,000.  The  surface 
is  a  plain,  with  a  gradual  slope  S.,  in 
which  direction  its  principal  streams, 
Ramganga,  Deoha,  and  others,  flow  to  the 
Ganges.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  Ro- 
hillas,  an  Afghan  tribe,  who  gained  pos- 
session of  it  early  in  the  18th  century. 

ROHLFS,  MRS.  See  Green,  Anna 
Katherine. 

ROLAND  (Italian,  Orlando;  Spanish, 
Roldan),  the  name  of  the  most  prominent 
hero  in  the  Charlemagne  legend.  Unlike 
most  legendary  heroes,  Roland  is  a  figure 
in  history  as  well  as  in  poetry  and  fable. 
All  that  we  know  of  him  is  contained  in 
one  line  of  Eginhard's  "Vita  Karoli," 
chap,  ix.,  and  that  simply  records  his 
name,  Hruodlandus,  his  rank  of  prefect 
or  warden  of  the  march  of  Brittany,  and 
his  death  at  the  hands  of  the  Gascons  in 
a  valley  of  the  Pyrenees. 

The  oldest  form  in  which  we  have  the 
'/Chanson  de  Roland"  is  that  of  the  MS. 
in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford,  written 
presumably  toward  the  end  of  the  12th 
century;  but  this  is  evidently  by  no  means 
its  oldest  form  as  a  consecutive  poem. 

Besides  the  Oxford  MS.  there  are  half 
a  dozen  others  ranging  from  the  13th  to 
the  16th  century.  The  differences  be- 
tween the  earlier  and  later  are  significant. 
In  the  Oxford  MS.,  which  is  one  of  the 
little  pocket  copies  carried  by  the  jon- 
gleurs, the  assonant  rhyme  (that  which 
disregards  the  consonants  and  depends 
on  the  accented  vowel)  is  maintained 
throughout,  the  same  assonance  being 
kept  up  to  the  end  of  each  break  or  para- 
graph. In  the  later  MSS.  the  assonant 
is  turned  into  the  full  consonant  rhyme, 
and  the  poem  expanded  to  twice  or  thrice 
its  former  length.  The  first  shape  is  the 
poem  as  sung;  the  second  as  adapted  for 
readers  when  the  minstrel  was  no  longer 
the  sole  vehicle,  for  poetry  and  reading 
was  becoming  a  common  accomplishment. 
A  very  close  German  version,  thf  "Ruo- 


landes  Liet,"  shows  that  early  in  the  12th 
century  the  chanson  had  passed  out  of 
its  native  country  and  language;  and  it 
is  almost  as  closely  followed  in  the  Ice- 
landic "Karlamagnus  Saga"  of  the  13th. 
The  "Chanson  de  Roland"  is  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Charlemagne  legend.  Charles's 
wars  and  quarrels  with  his  vassals  would 
no  doubt  of  themselves  have  furnished 
themes  for  the  jongleurs,  but  the  legend, 
culminating  in  the  Morgante  of  Pulci  and 
the  Orlandos  of  Boiardo  and  Ariosto,  is 
the  outcome  of  the  story  of  Roland  and 
Roncesvalles.  ■ 

ROLAND,  MANON  JEANNE  PHILI- 
PON,  MADAME,  wife  of  Jean  Marie 
and  herself  the  spirit  of  the  Girondin 
party;  the  daughter  of  a  Paris  engraver; 
born  in  that  city,  March  17,  1754.  She 
was  the  only   child  of  nine,   left  to   the 


MADAME  ROLAND 

care  of  her  father,  who  provided  her  with 
masters  regardless  of  expense  and  gave 
her  a  brilliant  education;  the  best  grounds 
for  which  existed  in  her  native  talents, 
her  firm  spirit,  her  personal  beauty,  and 
her  undoubted  virtues.  "  Antiquities,  her- 
aldry, philosophy,  and,  among  other  books, 
the  Bible,  made  up  her  earliest  studies; 
her  favorite  authors,  however,  were  Plu- 
tarch, Tacitus,  Montaigne,  and  Rousseau. 
She  became  the  wife  of  Roland  in  1781. 
She  became  the  sharer  in  all  his  studies, 


ROLAND   DE   LA   PLATIERE 


95 


ROLLAND 


aided  him  in  editing  his  works,  and  dur- 
ing his  two  ministries  acted  as  his  secre- 
tary and  entered  into  all  the  intrigues 
of  his  party  without  debasing  herself  by 
their  meanness.  After  the  flight  of  her 
husband,  Madame  Roland  was  arrested 
by  order  of  the  Paris  Commune  under  the 
dictation  of  Marat  and  Robespierre,  and 
consigned  to  the  Abbaye  prison,  from 
which,  on  Oct.  31,  she  was  removed  to  a 
more  wretched  abode  in  the  Conciergerie. 
When  sentenced  at  the  bar  of  Fouquier 
Tinville  she  was  eager  to  embrace  her 
fate.  She  declared  her  conviction  that 
her  husband  would  not  survive  her.  (He 
committed  suicide.)  On  the  scaffold  she 
apostrophized  the  statue  of  liberty  near- 
by— "Ah,  Liberty!  what  crimes  are  com- 
mitted in  thy  name!"  Besides  her 
miscellaneous  works,  Madame  Roland  left 
"Memoirs"  composed  during  her  captivity, 
and  a  last  affecting  composition  in  the 
"Counsels  of  a  Letter,"  addressed  to  her 
little  girl.  She  was  executed  Nov.  8, 
1793. 

ROLAND  DE  LA  PLATIERE,  JEAN 
MARIE,  a  French  statesman;  born  in 
Villefranche,  France,  Feb.  18,  1734;  was 
inspector-general  of  manufactures  and 
commerce  in  that  city  when  the  French 
Revolution  commenced,  and  having  em- 
braced popular  principles  became,  in  1790, 
member  of  the  Lyons  municipality.  In 
February,  1791,  he  was  sent  to  Paris  as 
deputy  extraordinary  to  defend  the  com- 
mercial interests  of  Lyons  in  the  com- 
mittees of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and 
remained  there  seven  months,  accom- 
panied by  his  gifted  wife.  The  practical 
philosophy,  commercial  knowledge,  and 
strict  simplicity  of  Roland,  recommended 
him  to  men  of  all  parties,  and  when  the 
patriot  ministry  was  formed  in  March, 
1792,  he  was  made  minister  of  the  in- 
terior. He  kept  his  position  till  June 
13,  when  the  royal  veto  on  the  proposal 
to  form  a  patriot  camp  around  Paris,  and 
on  the  decree  against  the  priests,  pro- 
voked his  celebrated  letter  to  the  king, 
written,  however,  by  Madame  Roland,  and 
as  a  consequence,  his  almost  instant  dis- 
missal. This  event  was  followed  by  the 
arrival  of  the  Marseillais  in  Paris,  and 
the  conflict  at  the  Tuileries,  on  Aug.  10, 
when  Roland  was  recalled,  and  Danton 
became  minister  of  justice.  The  struggle 
between  the  Girondists  and  the  munici- 
pality under  the  guidance  of  Robespierre 
filled  up  the  period  till  May  31;  the  for- 
mer party  were  then  vanquished,  and  Ro- 
land was  among  the  number  who  saved 
their  lives  by  flight.  He  found  an  asy- 
lum with  his  friends  at  Rouen,  but  de- 
liberately killed  himself  with  his  cane 
sword  on  hearing  of  the  execution  of  his 
wife,  Nov.  15,  1793. 


ROLFE,  JOHN  CAREW,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  in  Lawrence,  Mass., 
in  1859,  the  son  of  William  J.  Rolfe. 
He  graduated  from  Harvard  University 
in  1881  and  took  post-graduate  studies 
in  Cornell  and  in  Athens.  From  1882 
to  1885  he  was  instructor  of  Latin  in 
Cornell,  and  he  occupied  the  same  post 
at  Harvard  in  1889-90.  From  1890  tc 
1902  he  was  on  the  faculty  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  and  from  1902  was 
professor  of  the  Latin  language  and 
literature  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. He  edited  various  text-books 
and  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  scien- 
tific magazines. 

ROLFE,  WILLIAM  JAMES,  an 
American  editor;  born  in  Newburyportf 
Mass.,  Dec.  10,  1827.  He  was  a  distin- 
guished Shakespearian  scholar,  and  pub- 
lished many  editions  of  Shakespeare, 
annotated;  among  them  "The  Friendly 
Edition,"  in  20  volumes  (1870-1883), 
and  a  "School  Edition,"  in  40  volumes. 
He  also  published:  "Shakespeare,  the 
Boy,"  annotated  editions  of  selections 
from  Tennyson,  Scott,  Browning,  Words- 
worth, Gray,  Goldsmith  and  other  Eng- 
lish poets,  and  "Tales  from  English 
History."     He  died  July  7,  1910. 

ROLLAND,  ROMAIN,  a  French  au- 
thor; born  at  Clamecy,  in  1866.     He  re» 


ROMAIN  ROLLAND 

ceived  his  education  at  the   Ecole   Nor- 
male  Superieure,  became  a  professor  of 


HOLLER 


96 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE 


the  history  of  art  at  that  school  and 
taught  there  until  the  Sorbonne  offered 
him  a  chair  in  his  subject.  He  was 
recognized  by  the  Academy  in  1895  for 
his  doctor's  thesis.  Later  he  wrote  sev- 
eral plays,  remarkable  more  for  their 
style,  vigor,  and  presentation  of  psycho- 
logical analysis  than  for  conformity  to 
good  dramatic  construction.  Beginning 
in  1903,  he  published  noteworthy  bio- 
graphical and  critical  studies  of  musi- 
cians, artists,  authors  and  upon  aspects 
of  the  theater.  He  founded  the  "Revue 
Musicale"  in  1901.  As  the  author  of 
"Jean-Christophe"  he  received  one-quar- 
ter of  the  Nobel  Prize  in  literature  for 
1915.  This  work,  comprising  three  vol- 
umes has  been  translated  into  English 
and  German. 

ROLLER  (Coraciidx),  a  family  of 
Picarian  birds  characteristic  of  the  Ethi- 
opian and  Oriental  regions,  though  the 
common  roller  is  extensively  distributed 
in  the  Palsearctic  region  and  a  few  spe- 
cies enter  the  Australian  region.  None 
are  found  in  the  New  World.  Madagas- 
car possesses  three  species  peculiar  to 
itself,  and  so  different  from  one  another 
that  they  are  regarded  as  types  of  dif- 
ferent genera,  and  so  different  from 
other  rollers  that  they  are  grouped  into 
a  separate  sub-family  Brachypteracianae; 
they  are  named  ground  rollers,  and  are 
nocturnal  in  habit.  An  Indian  species, 
Eurystomus  orientalis,  is  also  nocturnal. 
The  common  roller  (Coracias  garrula)  is 
an  autumn  or  more  rarely  a  spring  vis- 
itor to  the  British  Isles;  and  about  100 
have  been  recorded  since  the  first  one 
was  noticed  by  Sir  Thomas  Browne  in 
1644.  Some  have  visited  the  Orkneys 
and  Shetlands,  one  has  been  found  as 
far  W.  as  St.  Kilda,  and  about  half  a 
dozen  have  been  recorded  from  Ireland. 
It  is  a  straggler  to  northern  Europe;  in 
central  Europe  it  is  common;  in  coun- 
tries bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  it 
is  very  abundant.  It  ranges  through 
Asia  to  Omsk  in  Siberia  and  to  north- 
west India.  In  winter  it  extends  its 
migrations  to  Natal  and  Capo  Colony. 
In  size  it  is  about  a  foot  long.  The 
general  color  is  light  bluish  green;  the 
mantle  is  chestnut-brown;  the  wings  and 
rump  are  adorned  with  beautiful  azure 
blue.  The  female  resembles  the  male  in 
plumage.  Nesting  takes  place  in  the 
woody  haunts  in  May.  The  nest,  which 
is  made  in  a  hollow  tree  or  wall,  is  built 
of  a  few  chips,  or  of  roots,  grass,  feath- 
ers, and  hair,  according  to  circumstances. 
The  eggs  are  five  or  six  in  number  and 
are  of  a  glossy  white  color.  The  food 
consists  of  beetles  and  other  insects  cap- 
tured on  the  ground.  The  name  "roller" 
is  given   to  the  bird   on   account   of  its 


varied  and  unsteady  flight  and  the  habit 
the  male  has,  during  the  breeding  season, 
of  indulging  in  extraordinary  tumbling 
antics,  and  turning  somersaults  in  the 
air. 

ROLLING  MILL,  a  combination  of 
machinery  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
malleable  iron  and  other  metals  of  the 
same  nature.  By  it  the  iron  which  is 
heated  and  balled  in  the  puddling  fur- 
nace is  made  into  bars  or  sheets.  It 
consists  of  rollers,  journaled  in  pairs  in 
metallic  boxes  in  the  iron  standards  or 
cheeks,  and  capable  of  being  set  toward 
or  from  each  other  by  means  of  set- 
screws.  The  grooves  in  the  rolls  are  so 
made  as  to  be  co-active  in  giving  the 
required  form  to  the  heated  iron  pass- 
ing between  them.  The  face  of  each 
roller  has  a  series  of  grooves  gradually 
decreasing  in  size  toward  one  end.  The 
iron  is  passed  through  each  in  succes- 
sion, being  thus  gradually  reduced  in 
size  and  increased  in  length.  By  this 
operation  two  objects  are  effected:  (1) 
The  scoriae  and  other  impurities  are  ex- 
pelled, and  (2)  the  required  form  wheth- 
er of  plate,  bolt,  or  bar,  is  given  to  the 
metal. 

ROLLINS,  WALTER  HUNTINGTON, 

an  American  educator,  born  in  Newton, 
Mass.,  in  1869.  He  was  educated  at 
Dartmouth  and  at  the  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary.  Ordained  a  congre- 
gational minister  in  1898,  he  served  as 
pastor  in  various  churches,  at  Black- 
stone,  Mass.,  and  at  Wilmington  and 
Waterloo,  la.,  until  1914,  in  which  year 
he  became  president  of  Fairmount  Col- 
lege, Wichita,  Kan. 

ROLPH,  JAMES,  JR.,  an  American 
merchant  and  public  official,  born  in  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  in  1869.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  public  schools  and  at  Trin- 
ity Academy,  San  Francisco,  beginning 
his  mercantile  career  in  1888.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  the  firm  of  Hind, 
Rolph  &  Co.,  in  1898.  He  was  an  officer 
and  director  of  various  banks  and  ship- 
building concerns,  as  well  as  a  vice- 
president  of  the  Panama  Pacific  Inter- 
national Exposition.  He  was  also  a 
member  and  officer  of  the  San  Francisco 
merchant's  exchange  and  of  the  ship 
owner's  association  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 
He  was  mayor  of  San  Francisco  for 
three  terms,  beginning  1911. 

ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE.  It  can 
hardly  be  said  that  the  early  Romans 
had  any  style  of  architecture  of  their 
own,  since  they  borrowed  their  ideas  of 
building  first  from  the  Etruscans  and 
afterward  from  the  Greeks.  In  the  time 
of  Romulus  their  dwellings  were  of  the 
rudest    description,    being    chiefly    com- 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE  97       ROMAN    CATHOLIC    CHURCH 

posed  of  straw;  and  at  a  later  period,  ilar  buildings.  The  requirements  of  such 
their  temples  were  only  small  square  edifices  as  these  naturally  led  to  the 
buildings,  scarcely  large  enough  to  con-  practice  of  composition  and  grouping,  as 
tain  the  statues  of  their  deities.  The  one  uniform  plan  of  building  would  not 
first  king  who  constructed  works  of  a  have  been  suitable  for  such  a  variety  of 
large  class  requiring  architectural  skill  purposes.  Another  cause  of  variety  lay 
was  Ancus  Martius.  His  first  attempt  in  the  employment  of  the  arch,  which 
was  the  building  of  the  city  and  port  of  allowed  much  greater  latitude  in  com- 
Ostia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.  Dur-  positions  than  the  entablature  of  the 
ing  the  time  of  Tarquin  the  Elder  the  Greeks.  The  semi-circular  form  of  the 
city  was  much  improved  by  the  skill  arch  next  led  to  quite  a  new  feature  in 
and  enterprise  of  the  Etruscans  the  architectural  design — namely,  the  dome 
great  Circus  was  built,  and  the  walls  of  — a  feature  which  gave  a  totally  distinct 
the  city  constructed  of  large  hewn  stones,  character  to  buildings  in  which  it  was 
The  great  Cloaca,  or  public  sewer,  was  employed.  The  Pantheon  is  the  most  re- 
also  commenced,  together  with  the  tern-  markable  example  of  this  arrangement, 
pie  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  The  decora-  The  circular  plan  of  building  became 
tion  and  improvement  of  the  city  was  also  a  favorite  one  for  tombs  and  mau- 
greatly  increased  during  the  reign  of  solea.  Among  the  most  noted  of  these 
Tarquinius  Superbus;  but  the  Capitol  was  the  mausoleum  of  Hadrian,  remains 
was  not  finished  till  after  the  expulsion  of  which  now  form  the  well-known  castle 
of  the  kings.  During  the  first  two  of  St.  Angelo;  and  the  tomb  of  Caecilia 
Punic  Wars  many  temples  were  erected;  Metella.  A  characteristic  feature  in 
but  they  do  not  appear  to  have  been  of  Roman  architecture,  and  one  that  en- 
great  magnificence.  Altogether,  very  lit-  tered  largely  in  the  system,  is  the  em- 
tle  taste  had  been  shown  in  the  Roman  ployment  of  order  above  order  in  the 
buildings  till  their  conquests  extended  same  building.  The  style  of  architec- 
and  they  became  intimate  with  the  more  ture  called  the  Roman  order  was  in- 
costly  buildings  of  their  enemies.  Metel-  vented  by  the  Romans  from  the  Ionic 
lus  Macedonicus,  the  contemporary  of  and  Corinthian  orders;  and  hence  it  is 
Mummius,  the  victor  of  Corinth,  was  the  sometimes  called  the  Composite  order, 
first   who  built   a   temple   of   marble    at 

Rome;  but  from  that  time  most  of  the  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH,  the 
larger  edifices  were  built  of  that  mate-  name  of  that  community  of  Christians 
rial.  <  Grecian  art  and  architects  were  who  profess  the  same  faith,  partake  of 
also  introduced  about  the  same  period,  the  same  sacraments  and  sacrifice,  and 
Under  Julius  _  Csesar,  many  new  and  are  united  under  one  head,  the  Pope  or 
magnificent  buildings  were  erected;  and  Bishop  of  Rome  and  successor  of  St. 
during  the  Golden  Age,  under  Augustus,  Peter,  and  under  the  bishops  subject  to 
most  of  the  finest  edifices  were  built;  him.  Its  essential  parts  are  the  Pope, 
architects  flocked  from  all  quarters,  and  bishops,  pastors — so  far  as  they  are 
especially  from  Greece,  to  beautify  the  priests — and  laity.  The  distinctive  char- 
city.  It  was  said  of  Augustus  "that  he  acteristic  of  the  Roman  Church  is  the 
found  Rome  built  of  brick  and  left  it  of  supremacy  of  the  papacy.  Its  doctrines, 
marble."  Under  Vespasian  and  the  An-  like  those  of  the  rest  of  Christendom, 
tonines  architecture  flourished,  as  the  are  chiefly  found  in  the  articles  of  the 
remains  of  the  Coliseum  and  the  temples  Nicene  Creed.  After  the  Council  of 
of  Antoninus  and  Faustina  testify.  Af-  Trent  Pope  Pius  IV.  added  to  the  formal 
ter  this  period,  however,  architecture  profession  of  faith  the  articles  on  tran- 
declined  till  Constantine  transferred  the  substantiation,  invocation  of  saints,  and 
seat  of  government  to  Byzantium,  when  others  which  chiefly  distinguish  the  Ro- 
a  new  style  was  introduced.  man  from  other  Christian  communities. 
In  comparing  Greek  and  Roman  archi-  The  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Vir- 
tecture  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  gin  Mary  and  papal  infallibility  were 
former  greatly  excels  in  the  matter  of  defined  as  articles  of  faith  in  1854  and 
taste.  Among  the  Greeks,  moreover,  re-  1870  respectively.  One  great  and  cen- 
ligion  was  almost  the  sole  purpose  for  tral  object  of  faith  and  worship  is  the 
which  architecture  seemed  to  exist;  while  Mass,  which  is  the  mystical  sacrifice  of 
among  the  Romans  their  temples  were  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  instituted 
neither  so  extensive  nor  so  numerous  as  by  Himself  at  the  Last  Supper,  and  is 
their  buildings  of  public  utility  or  con-  essentially  the  same  as  the  Sacrifice  of 
venience.  Besides  a  large  number  of  the  Cross.  Scripture  and  tradition  are 
engineering  works,  there  are  still  the  appealed  to  in  support  of  this  and  other 
remains  in  Rome  of  fora,  baths,  palaces,  doctrines,  as  the  Seven  Sacraments,  the 
circi,  theaters,  amphitheaters,  libraries,  honor  due  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  Purgat 
halls  of  justice,  triumphal  arches,  com-  tory,  Invocation  of  Angels  and  Saints, 
memorative  columns,  mausolea,  and  sim-  etc.      There    is    a    great    distinction    be- 


ROMANCE 


98 


ROMANCE  LANGUAGES 


tween  what  is  of  doctrine  and  what  of 
discipline;  the  former  belonging  to  the 
deposit  of  faith  taught  by  Christ  and 
the  Apostles,  which  is  invariable,  while 
the  latter,  founded  on  the  decisions  and 
canons  of  councils  and  the  decrees  of 
Popes,  is  the  Church's  external  policy 
as  to  government,  and  may  vary  accord- 
ing to  times  and  circumstances. 

The  Sacred  College  of  Cardinal. — The 
College  of  Cardinals — 70  in  number,  af- 
ter the  70  disciples — is  the  supreme 
council  or  senate  of  the  Church  and  the 
adviser  of  the  sovereign  pontiff,  and  at 
the  death  of  a  Pope  its  members  elect 
his  successor  (see  Pope).  They  are  also 
the  chief  members  of  the  Sacred  Congre- 
gations, or  permanent  ecclesiastical  com- 
missions (about  20  in  number),  to  which 
much  of  the  business  of  the  Holy  See  is 
intrusted.  Among  the  best  known  of 
these  congregations  are  the  Propaganda, 
the  Index,  the  Inquisition  or  Holy  Of- 
fice, and  the  Congregation  of  Rites.  The 
number  of  cardinals  is  hardly  ever  com- 
plete. In  1919  there  were  14  patriarchal 
sees;  8  belonging  to  the  Latin  Rite  and 
6  Oriental.  Archbishops,  Latin  Rite, 
178;  Oriental,  19.  Bishops,  874,  Latin 
Rite,  49  Oriental.  There  were  300  titu- 
lar Bishops  as  coadjutors  or  engaged  in 
mission  work.  Sacred  congregations  pre- 
sided over  by  the  Pope  or  cardinals  for 
adjusting  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
affairs  of  the  world,  13. 

The  leading  prelate  in  the  hierarchy, 
apostolic  delegate  and  personal  represen- 
tative of  the  Pope  at  Washington  in 
1920,  was  his  Excellency  Archbishop 
John  Bonzano.  There  were  14  archbish- 
ops (among  them  two  cardinals  at  Bal- 
timore and  Boston)  ;  96  bishops  and  21,- 
019  priests.  There  were  10,608  churches 
with  resident  priests  and  5,573  mission 
churches.  The  Catholic  population  of 
the  United  States  was  17,735,553,  and 
including  Alaska  and  insular  possessions 
over  26,000,000.  In  the  World  War  762 
secular  and  264  priests  of  all  orders 
were  engaged  in  religious  work. 

ROMANCE.  Romance  has  long  since 
lost  its  original  signification  in  every 
country  except  Spain,  where  it  is  still 
occasionally  used  in  speaking  of  the 
vernacular,  as  it  was  in  the  Middle 
Ages  when  Latin  was  the  language  of 
the  lettered  classes  and  of  documents 
and  writings  of  all  kinds.  <  But  even 
there  its  commoner  application  is,  as 
elsewhere,  not  to  a  language,  but  to  a 
form  of  composition.  In  English  it  has 
been  almost  invariably  applied  to  a  cer- 
tain sort  of  prose  fiction,  and,  in  a  sec- 
ondary sense,  to  the  style  and  tone  pre- 
vailing therein.  By  "the  romances," 
using  the  term  specifically,  e^ally 


mean  the  prose  fictions  which,  as  read- 
ing became  a  more  common  accomplish- 
ment, took  the  place  of  the  lays  and 
"chansons  de  geste"  of  the  minstrels  and 
trouveres,  and  were  in  their  turn  re- 
placed by  the  novel.  Of  these  the  most 
important  in  every  way  are  the  so-called 
romances  of  chivalry,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered the  legitimate  descendants  of  the 
"chansons  de  geste."  The  chivalry  ro- 
mances divide  naturally  into  three  fam- 
ilies or  groups;  the  British  (which, 
perhaps,  would  be  more  scientifically 
described  as  the  Armorican  or  the  An- 
glo-Norman), the  French,  and  the  Span- 
ish; the  first  having  for  its  center  the 
legend  of  Arthur  and  the  Round  Table; 
the  second  formed  round  the  legend  of 
Charlemagne  and  the  Twelve  Peers;  and 
the  third  consisting  mainly  of  Amadis 
of  Gaul  followed  by  a  long  series  of 
sequels  and  imitations  of  one  kind  or 
another. 

ROMANCE  LANGUAGES,  a  general 
name  for  those  modern  languages  that 
are  the  immediate  descendants  of  the 
language  of  ancient  Rome.  In  those 
parts  of  the  empire  in  which  the  Roman 
dominion  and  civil  institutions  had  been 
most  completely  established  the  native 
languages  were  speedily  and  completely 
supplanted  by  that  of  the  conquerors — 
the  Latin.  This  was  the  case  in  Italy 
itself,  in  the  Spanish  peninsula,  in  Gaul 
or  France,  including  parts  of  Switzer- 
land, and  in  Dacia.  When  the  Roman 
empire  was  broken  up  by  the  irruptions 
of  the  Northern  nations  (in  the  5th  and 
6th  centuries)  the  intruding  tribes  stood 
to  the  Romanized  inhabitants  in  the  re- 
lation of  a  ruling  caste  to  a  subject 
population.  The  dominant  Germans  con- 
tinued, where  established,  for  several 
centuries  to  use  their  native  tongue 
among  themselves;  but  from  the  first 
they  seem  to  have  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  the  Latin  for  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  purposes,  and  at  last  the 
language  of  the  rulers  was  merged  in 
that  of  their  subjects;  not,  however, 
without  leaving  decided  traces  of  the 
struggle — traces  chiefly  visible  in  the  in- 
trusion of  numerous  German  words,  and 
in  the  mutilation  of  the  grammatical 
forms  or  inflections  of  the  ancient  Latin, 
and  the  substitution  therefor  of  prepo- 
sitions and  auxiliary  verbs. 

It  is  also  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
language  which  underwent  this  change 
was  not  the  classical  Latin  of  literature, 
but  a  popular  Roman  language  (lingna 
Romania  rustica)  which  had  been  used 
by  the  side  of  the  classical,  and  differed 
from  it — not  to  the  extent  of  being  rad- 
ically and  grammatically  another  tongue 
— but  chiefly  by   slovenly   pronunciation, 


ROMAN    CEMENT 


99 


ROMANTICISM 


the  neglect  or  misuse  of  grammatical 
forms,  and  the  use  of  "low"  and  unu- 
sual words  and  idioms.  As  distinguished 
from  the  old  lingua  Latina,  the  language 
of  the  Church,  the  school,  and  the  law, 
this  newly  formed  language  of  ordinary 
intercourse,  in  its  various  dialects,  was 
known  from  about  the  8th  century  as  the 
lingua  Romana;  and  from  this  name, 
through  the  adverb  Romanice,  came  the 
term  romance,  applied  both  to  the  lan- 
guage and  to  the  popular  poetry  written 
in  it,  more  especially  to  the  dialect  and 
poems  of  the  troubadours.  The  Ro- 
mance languages  recognized  by  Diez  are 
six — Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Pro- 
vencal, French,  and  Rumanian.  Ascoli 
and  newer  investigators  treat  the  Ro- 
ma nsch  of  the  Grisons  as  a  seventh 
sister-tongue;  and  each  of  these  have 
more  or  less  numerous  dialects. 

The  original  Latin  spoken  in  the  sev- 
eral provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  must 
have  had  very  different  degrees  of  pu- 
rity, and  the  corruption  in  one  region 
must  have  differed  from  those  in  an- 
other according  to  the  nature  of  the 
superseded  tongues.  To  these  differ- 
ences in  the  fundamental  Latin  must  be 
added  those  of  the  superadded  German 
element,  consisting  chiefly  in  the  variety 
of  dialects  spoken  by  the  invading  na- 
tions and  the  different  proportions  of 
the  conquering  population  to  the  con- 
quered. French,  as  was  to  be  expected, 
is  richer  in  German  words  than  any 
other  member  of  the  family,  having  450 
not  found  in  the  others.  Italian  is  next 
to  French  in  this  respect,  but  on  the 
whole  is  nearest  to  the  mother  Latin. 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  have  consider- 
able Arabic  elements;  and  Rumanian 
was  much  modified  by  Slavic.  The  Ro- 
mance tongues  further  differ  from  the 
common  parent  in  other  details.  The 
six  great  Romance  tongues  and  their 
literatures  are  treated  in  the  articles 
on  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  Provencal, 
France,  and  Rumania,  to  which  may  be 
added  the  Romansch. 

ROMAN  CEMENT,  a  dark-colored  hy- 
draulic cement,  which  hardens  very 
quickly  and  is  very  durable.  The  true 
Roman  cement  is  a  compound  of  pozzuo- 
lana  and  lime  ground  to  an  impalpable 
powder  and  mixed  with  water  when 
used.  Other  cements  bearing  the  same 
name  are  made  of  different  ingredients. 

ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE,  a 
general  term  applied  to  the  styles  of 
architecture  which  prevailed  from  the 
5th  to  the  12th  centuries.  Of  these  there 
are  two  divisions:  (1)  The  debased  Ro- 
man, prevalent  from  the  5th  to  the  11th 
centuries,  and  including  the  Byzantine 
modifications    of    the    Romans,    and     (2) 


the  late  or  Gothic  Romanesque  of  the  11th 
and  12th  centuries,  comprising  the  later 
Byzantine,  the  Lombard,  and  the  Rhen- 
ish, Saxon,  and  Norman  styles.  The 
former  is  a  pretty  close  imitation  of  the 
Roman,  with  modifications  in  the  appli- 
cation and  distribution  of  the  peculiar 
features;  the  latter  is  Gothic  in  spirit, 
having  a  predominance  of  vertical  lines, 
and  various  other  new  features. 

ROMAN  ROADS,  certain  ancient  roads 
in  Great  Britain  which  the  Romans  left 
behind  them.  They  were  uniformly 
raised  above  the  surface  of  the  neigh- 
boring land  and  ran  in  a  straight  line 
from  station  to  station.  The  four  great 
Roman  roads  were  Watling  street,  the 
Fossway,  Icknield  street,  and  Ermine 
street.  Watling  street  probably  ran 
from  London  to  Wroxeter.  The  Fosse 
ran  from  Seaton  in  Devonshire  to  Lin- 
coln. The  Icknield  Way  ran  from  Ic- 
lingham,  near  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  to 
Cirencester  and  Gloucester.  The  Ermine 
street  ran  through  the  Fenland  from 
London  to  Lincoln.  Besides  these  four 
great  lines,  which  were  long  of  great 
importance  for  traffic,  there  were  many 
others. 

ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE,  one  of 

the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  written 
by  the  Apostle  Paul,  and  addressed  to 
the  Christian  Church  at  Rome.  It  is 
the  5th  in  order  of  time,  though  placed 
first  among  the  epistles,  either  from  the 
predominance  of  Rome,  or  because  it  is 
the  longest  and  most  comprehensive  of 
the  apostle's  epistles.  It  is  generally 
agreed  to  have  been  written  about  A.  D. 
58.  That  it  is  the  genuine  and  authentic 
production  is  supported  by  the  strongest 
evidence.  It  was  written  from  Corinth, 
and  sent  to  Rome  by  one  Phoebe,  a  serv- 
ant or  deaconess  of  the  Church  at  Cor- 
inth. The  occasion  of  it  was,  doubtless, 
the  disputes  that  began  to  prevail  among 
the  Christians  at  Rome.  The  Church 
there  was  composed  of  both  converted 
Jews  and  Gentiles.  The  Jews  wished  to 
impose  on  their  Gentile  fellow-worship- 
ers many  of  the  Mosaic  rites  and  cere- 
monies. The  Gentiles,  on  the  other  hand, 
despised  the  prejudices  of  the  Jews; 
hence  trouble  arose. 

ROMANSCH,  ROMANSH,  or  ROU- 
MANSCH,  a  dialect  spoken  in  the  Gri- 
sons of  Switzerland.  It  is  based  on  or 
corrupted  from   the   Latin. 

ROMANTICISM,  a  movement  in  feel- 
ing and  thought  that  has  transformed 
the  literature  and  art  of  most  nations, 
has  been  defined  by  Theodore  Watts  as 
"the  renascence  of  the  spirit  of  wonder 
in    poetry    and    art."      It    was    a    revolt 


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100 


ROME 


against  pseudo-classicism;  a  return  from 
the  monotonous  commonplace  of  every- 
day life  to  the  quaint  and  unfamiliar 
world  of  old  romance;  a  craving  for  the 
novel,  original,  and  adventurous;  an  em- 
phasizing of  the  interesting,  the  pictur- 
esque, the  "romantic,"  at  the  expense,  if 
need  be,  of  correctness  and  elegance  and 
the  current  canons  of  "good  taste."  Deep 
humor,  strong  pathos,  profound  pity  are 
among  its  notes.  Romanticism  is  not 
necessarily  limited  to  any  one  period; 
there  are  romantic  elements  in  Homer, 
iEschylus,  Sophocles.  The  poetry  of 
Dante  is  eminently  romantic  when  con- 
trasted with  ancient  classical  poetry  as 
a  whole.  There  are  certain  epochs  that 
are  specially  romantic,  and  certain  writ- 
ers in  those  epochs  more  romantic  than 
their  fellows.  The  18th  century  was 
notoriously  classic  in  ideal,  or  pseudo- 
classic — conventional,  pedantic,  academ- 
ic; and  the  revolt  against  spiritual  ennui 
which  followed  is  the  romantic  move- 
ment par  excellence.  In  England,  the 
fountain-head  of  the  movement  which  cul- 
minated in  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century,  it  may  be  traced  from  the  Percy 
Ballads  and  Chatterton,  from  Cowper 
and  Blake  and  Burns,  to  Scott  and  By- 
ron, Wordsworth  and  Coleridge,  Keats 
and  Rossetti.  In  Germany  there  were 
tendencies  in  that  direction  in  Lessing, 
in  Schiller,  in  Goethe,  as  well  as  in  the 
philosophy  of  Schelling,  and  the  "Sturm 
und  Drang"  period  was  largely  romantic 
in  its  temper;  but  it  was  Novalis  who 
was  the  prophet  of  "romanticism,"  and 
among  the  other  representatives  of  the 
school  were  the  Schlegels,  Tieck,  Kleist, 
Fouque,  and  Hoffmann.  In  France  be- 
ginnings are  found  in  Rousseau,  in  Cha- 
teaubriand, and  others;  but  the  great 
chief  of  French  romanticism  is  Victor 
Hugo.  Other  French  romantics  are  La- 
martine,  Dumas,  Gautier,  George  Sand, 
Flaubert,  and  Murger.  In  music  Weber 
has  been  called  the  "creator  of  romantic 
opera."  Berlioz  is  regarded  as  the  type  of 
French  romanticism  in  music. 

ROME,  a  city  and  county-seat  of  Floyd 
co.,  Ga. ;  on  the  Coosa  river,  and  on  the 
Southern,  the  Central  of  Georgia,  the 
Nashville,  Chattanooga  and  St.  Louis, 
the  Rome  and  Northern  and  the  West- 
ern and  Atlantic  railroads;  72  miles 
N.  W.  of  Atlanta.  Here  are  a  high 
school,  Shorter  College  for  Women 
(Bapt.) ;  hospitals,  parks,  waterworks, 
electric  lights,  street  railroads,  National 
and  State  banks,  and  daily  and  weekly 
periodicals.  There  is  a  large  trade  in 
cotton  and  general  merchandise.  The 
city  has  plow  works,  sewer  pipe  works, 
foundries,  a  rolling  mill,  stove  works, 
furniture   factory,   planing   mills,   cotton 


mills,  hosiery  works,  etc.     Pop.    (1910) 
12,099;    (1920)    13,252. 

ROME,  a  city  in  Oneida  co.,  N.  Y.;  on 
the  Mohawk  river,  the  Erie  and  Black 
River  canals,  and  the  New  York,  On- 
tario and  Western,  and  the  New  York 
Central  and  Hudson  River  railroads;  15 
miles  N.  W.  of  Utica.  Here  are  St.  Peter's 
Academy  for  Young  Ladies,  the  State 
Custodial  Asylum,  the  Central  New  York 
Institute  for  Deaf  Mutes,  County  Court 
House,  County  Home,  city  hospital, 
street  railroad  and  electric  light  plants, 
waterworks,  the  Jervis  Library,  National 
and  savings  banks,  and  several  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers.  The  city  has  loco- 
motive and  farming  implement  works, 
machine  shops,  and  cigar  factories,  and 
manufactures  of  brass  and  copper  prod- 
ucts, canned  goods,  wire,  bedsteads,  etc. 
Pop.    (1910)    20,497;    (1920)    26,341. 

ROME,  the  most  powerful  state  of  an- 
tiquity; founded  about  753  B.  c.  by  a 
settlement  from  Alba  Longa  led  by 
Romulus  (q.  v.).  At  first  the  new  city 
was  ruled  by  kings,  but  in  509  B.  C.  the 
people  established  a  republic  which  last- 
ed for  500  years.  Its  most  important 
feature  was  the  struggle  between  the  ple- 
beians and  the  patricians,  settled  finally 
in  286  B.  c,  by  admission  of  the  plebeians 
to  a  share  in  the  government.  Mean- 
while Rome  had  been  gradually  spreading 
out,  and  by  275  B.  c.  was  mistress  of  all 
Italy. 

The  next  30  years  were  crucial  in  the 
history  of  Rome.  Her  aggressive  policy 
in  the  Mediterranean  brought  her  face 
to  face  with  Carthage  (q.  v.),  and  un- 
der their  military  genius  Hannibal, 
(q.  v.)  the  Carthaginians  threatened  the 
very  existence  of  Rome  itself  (see  Pu- 
nic Wars).  Carthage  was  finally  burned 
to  the  ground  in  146  B.  c.  By  133  B.  c. 
Rome  had  conquered  Macedonia  and 
Asia   Minor. 

At  this  point  begins  the  decline  of 
Rome  as  a  republic.  A  series  of  bitter 
civil  wars  centralized  the  governing  pow- 
er in  the  hands  of  a  few  leaders  (see 
Sulla:  Marius:  Pompey:  Cesar:  Tri- 
umvirate) ;  and  in  48  B.  C.  Julius  Cse- 
sar  was  created  Imperator.  With  Cassar 
the  republic  and  Rome's  greatest  period 
came  to  an  end.  Under  the  republic  the 
power  of  Rome  had  been  extended  from 
Arabia  to  Great  Britain,  and  from  Spain 
to  Armenia.     See  Mithridates. 

In  27  B.  c.  Octavian  became  first  em- 
peror of  Rome  under  the  title  of  Au- 
gustus (q.  v.).  His  immediate  succes- 
sors added  slightly  to  Roman  territory, 
but  under  Marcus  Aurelius  (q.  v.)  the 
decline  began.  From  A.  D.  180  to  284 
(see  Trajan)  Rome  grew  gradually 
weaker.     In  284  Diocletian    (q.  v.)   re- 


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organized  the  empire,  and  for  nearly 
200  years  these  reforms  delayed  the  in- 
evitable disruption;  but  in  395  the  em- 
pire separated  into  two  divisions;  the 
Eastern,  or  Byzantine  (q.  v.)  and  the 
Western;  and  in  476  the  Western,  or 
Roman  empire  was  finally  overthrown, 
and  Odoacer,  a  German,  became  King  of 
Italy.    See  Italy:  Romance  Languages. 

HOME,  the  capital  of  Italy,  as  for- 
merly of  the  Roman  empire,  republic, 
and  kingdom,  and  long  the  religious 
center  of  Western  Christendom,  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  and  interesting  cities 
of  the  world.  It  stands  on  both  sides 
of  the  Tiber,  about  15  miles  from  the 
sea,  the  river  here  having  a  general 
direction  from  N.  to  S.,  but  making  two 
nearly  equal  bends,  the  upper  of  which 
incloses  a  large  alluvial  flat,  little  raised 
above  the  level  of  the  stream,  and  well 
known  by  the  ancient  name  of  Campus 
Martius.  A  large  part  of  the  modern 
city  stands  on  this  flat,  but  the  ancient 
city  lay  mostly  to  the  E.  and  S.  E.  of 
this,  occupying  a  series  of  eminences  of 
small  elevation  known  as  the  seven  hills 
of  Rome  (the  Capitoline,  the  Palatine, 
the  Aventine,  the  Quirinal,  the  Viminal, 
the  Esquiline,  and  the  Caelian  Hill), 
while  a  small  portion  stood  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river,  embracing  an  eighth 
hill  (Janiculum).  The  city  is  tolerably 
healthy  during  most  of  the  year. 

Ancient  Rome,  Topography,  etc. — The 
streets  of  ancient  Rome  were  crooked 
and  narrow,  the  city  having  been  rebuilt, 
after  its  destruction  by  the  Gauls  in  390 
B.  c,  with  great  haste  and  without  re- 
gard to  regularity.  The  dwelling-houses 
were  often  very  high,  those  of  the  poorer 
classes  being  in  flats,  as  in  modern  con- 
tinental towns.  It  was  greatly  improved 
by  Augustus,  who  extended  the  limits  of 
the  city  and  embellished  it  with  works 
of  splendor.  The  Campus  Martius  dur- 
ing his  reign  was  gradually  covered  with 
public  buildings,  temples,  porticoes,  the- 
aters, etc.  The  general  character  of  the 
city,  however,  remained  much  the  same 
till  after  the  fire  that  took  place  in 
Nero's  reign,  when  the  new  streets  were 
made  both  wide  and  straight.  In  the 
reign  of  Augustus  the  population  is  be- 
lieved to  have  amounted  to  about  1,300,- 
000,  and  in  that  of  Trajan  was  not  far 
short  of  2,000,000.  Rome  is  said  to  have 
been  surrounded  by  walls  at  three  dif- 
ferent times.  The  first  of  these  was 
ascribed  to  Romulus,  and  inclosed  only 
the  original  city  on  the  Palatine.  The 
second  wall,  attributed  to  Servius  Tul- 
lius,  was  7  miles  in  circuit,  and  em- 
braced all  the  hills  that  gave  to  Rome 
the  name  of  the  City  of  Seven  Hills. 
The  third  wall  is  known  as  that  of  Au- 


relian,  because  it  was  begun  and  in 
great  part  finished  by  the  emperor  of 
that  name.  It  is  mostly  the  same  with 
the  wall  that  still  bounds  the  city  on  the 
left  or  E.  bank  of  the  Tiber;  but  on  the 
right  or  W.  bank,  the  wall  of  Aurelian 
only  embraced  the  summit  of  the  Janic- 
ulum and  a  district  between  it  and  the 
river,  whereas  the  more  modern  wall  on 
that  side  (that  of  Urban  VIII.)  em- 
braces also  the  Vatican  Hill.  The  wall 
of  Aurelian  was  about  11  miles  in 
length,  that  of  modern  Rome  14  miles. 
Ancient  Rome  had  eight  or  nine  bridges 
across  the  Tiber,  of  which  several  still 
stand.  The  open  spaces  in  ancient  Rome, 
of  which  there  were  a  great  number, 
were  distinguished  into  campi,  areas  cov- 
ered with  grass;  fora,  which  were  paved; 
and  arese,  a  term  applied  to  open  spaces 


ROMULUS  AND  REMUS 

generally,  and  hence  to  all  those  which 
were  neither  campi  nor  fora,  such  as  the 
squares  in  front  of  palaces  and  temples. 
Of  the  campi  the  most  celebrated  was 
the  Campus  Martius  already  mentioned, 
and  after  it  the  Campus  Esquilinus  on 
the  E.  of  the  city.  Among  the  latter 
the  Forum  Romanum,  which  lay  N.  W. 
and  S.  E.  between  the  Capitoline  and 
Palatine  Hills;  and  the  Forum  of  Tra- 
jan, between  the  Capitoline  and  Quiri- 
nal, are  the  most  worthy  of  mention. 
The  first  was  the  most  famous  and  the 
second  the  most  splendid  of  them  all. 
The  great  central  street  of  the  city  was 
the  Via  Sacra  (Sacred  Way),  which 
began  in  the  space  between  the  Esqui- 
line and  Caelian  Hills,  proceeded  thence 
first  S.  W.,  then  W.,  and  then  N.  W., 
skirting  the  N.  E.  slope  of  the  Palatine, 
and  passing  along  the  N.  side  of  the 
Forum,  and  terminated  at  the  base  of 
the  Capitoline.  The  two  principal  roads 
leading  out  of  Rome  were  the  Via  Fla- 
minia  (Flaminian  Way)  or  great  N. 
road,  and  the  Via  Appia  (Appian  Way) 
or  great  S.  road. 

Ancient  Buildings. — Ancient  Rome  was 


ROME  102  ROME 

adorned  with  a  vast  number  of  splendid  ica  Julia,  commenced  by  Caesar  and  corn- 
buildings,  including  temples,  palaces,  pleted  by  Augustus;  and  the  Basilica 
public  halls,  theaters,  amphitheaters,  Porcia,  which  was  built  by  Cato  the 
baths,     porticoes,     monuments,     etc.,     of  censor. 

many  of  which  we  can  now  form  only        The  public  baths  or  thermal  in  Rome 
a  very  imperfect  idea.     The   oldest   and  were   also  very   numerous.     The   largest 
most  sacred  temple  was  that  of  Jupiter  were  the  Thermas  of  Titus,  part  of  the 
Capitolinus,  on  the  Capitoline  Hill.    The  substructure  of  which  may  still  be  seen 
Pantheon,  a  temple  of  various  gods  (now  on   the    Esquiline    Hill;    the   Thermae   of 
Church   of    S.    Maria    Rotonda),    is    still  Caracalla,  even  larger,  extensive  remains 
in  excellent  preservation.     It  is  a  great  of  which  still  exist  in  the   S.   E.   of  the 
circular    building   with    a    dome    roof    of  city;  and  the  Thermae  of  Diocletian,  the 
stone   140  feet  wide   and   140  feet  high,  largest  and  most  magnificent  of  all,  part 
Other  temples  were  the  Temple  of  Apollo,  of  which  is  converted  into  a  church.     Of 
which  Augustus   built   of   white   marble,  the  triumphal  arches  the  most  celebrated 
on    the    Palatine,    containing   a    splendid  are   those   of   Titus    (a.   d.   81),   Severus 
library,  which  served  as  a   place  of  re-  (a.    d.    203),    and    that    of    Constantine 
sort  to  the  poets;   the  Temple   of  Min-  (a.  d.  311),  all  in  or  near  the  Forum  and 
erva,  which  Pompey  built  in  the  Campus  all    well    preserved    structures;    that    of 
Martius,    and    which    Augustus    covered  Drusus    (b.   c.   8),  in   the   Appian   Way, 
with  bronze;  the  Temple  of  Peace,  once  much  mutilated;  that  of  Gallienus   (a.  d. 
the  richest  and  most  beautiful  temple  in  262)     on    the    Esquiline    Hill,    in    a    de- 
Rome,    built   by    Vespasian,    in    the    Via  graded    style    of    architecture.       Among 
Sacra,  which  contained  the  treasures  of  the  columns  the  most  beautiful  was  Tra- 
the  temple   of  Jerusalem,   a   splendid   li-  jan's  Pillar  in  the  Forum  of  Trajan,  147 
brary,    and    other    curiosities,    but    was  feet  in  height,  still  standing.     The  bas- 
burned  during  the  reign  of   Commodus;  reliefs    with    which    it   is    enriched,    ex- 
the  temple  of  the   Sun,  which   Aurelian  tending  in   spiral  fashion   from  base  to 
erected  to  the   E.   of  the   Quirinal;    and  summit,  represent  the  exploits  of  Trajan, 
the  magnificent  temple  of  Venus,  which  and  contain  about  2,500  half  and  whole 
Caesar  caused  to  be  built  to  her  as  the  human  figures.     A  flight  of  stairs  with- 
origin  of  his  family.     The  principal  pal-  in  the  pillar  leads  to  the  top.     The  most 
ace  of  ancient  Rome  was   the   Palatium  celebrated  of  ancient  sewers  is  the  Clo- 
or  imperial  palace,  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  aca     Maxima,     ascribed     to     Tarquinius 
a    private    dwelling-house    enlarged    and  Priscus,  a  most  substantial  structure,  the 
adopted  as  the  imperial  residence  by  Au-  outlet  of  which  is  still  to  be  seen, 
gustus.      Succeeding    emperors    extended         The  Roman  aqueducts  were  formed  by 
and  beautified  it.  erecting  one   or   several  rows   of   arches 
Nero   built   an   immense   palace  which  superimposed    on    each    other    across    a 
was  burned  in  the  great  fire.     He  began  valley,    and    making   the    structure    sup- 
to  replace  it  by  another  of   similar  ex-  port  a  waterway  or  canal,  and  by  pierc- 
tent,   which   was   not   completed    till   the  ing  through  hills  which  interrupted  the 
reign  of  Domitian.     Among  the  theaters,  watercourse.       Some     of    them    brought 
those  of  Pompey,  Cornelius  Balbus,  and  water  from  a  distance  of  upward  of  60 
Marcellus     were     the     most     celebrated,  miles.     Among  others,  the  Aqua   Paola, 
That   of    Pompey,   in   the   Campus    Mar-  or    Aqua    Trajana,   and   the  Aqua   Mar- 
tius,  was    capable    of    containing   40,000  zia,   still   remain,  and   contribute   to   the 
persons.      Of  the   Theater   of   Marcellus,  supply  of  the  city,  and  also  its   numer- 
completed    13    B.    C,    a   portion    still    re-  ous     important     ornamental     fountains, 
mains.      The    most    magnificent    of    the  Among  the  magnificent  sepulchral  mon- 
amphitheaters   was   that   of   Titus,   com-  uments,   the   chief   were   the   mausoleum 
pleted  A.  D.  80,  now  known  as  the  Coli-  of    Augustus    in    Campus    Martius ;    and 
seum  or   Colosseum.      Though   only   one-  that  of  Hadrian,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the 
third  of  the  gigantic  structure  remains,  Tiber,  now  the  fortress  of  modern  Rome, 
the  ruins  are  still  stupendous.    The  prin-  and  known  as  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo. 
cipal    of    the    circuses    was    the    Circus  The    catacombs    of    Rome    are    subterra- 
Maximus,     between     the     Palatine     and  nean  galleries  which  were  used  as  burial 
Aventine,    which    was    capable    of    con-  places  and  meeting  places,  chiefly  by  the 
taining  260,000   spectators.     With  slight  early  Christians,  and  which  extend  under 
exception   its  walls  have   entirely   disap-  the  city  itself  as  well  as  the  neighboring 
peared,   but   its    form    is    still   distinctly  country.      The   chief   are    the   catacombs 
traceable.     The   porticoes   or   colonnades,  of  Calixtus,  St.  Praetextatus  on  the  Via 
which  were  public  places  used  for  recrea-  Appia ;   of   St.   Priscilla,  2  miles   beyond 
tion  or  for  the  transaction   of  business,  the  Porta  Salora;  of  St.  Agnese,  outside 
were  numerous  in  the  ancient  city,  as  were  the  Porta  Pia ;  of  S.  Sebastiano,  beneath 
also  the  basilicas  or  public  halls.    Among  the  church  of  that  name,  etc.     See  Cat- 
them  may  "be  noticed  the  splendid  Basil-  aoombs. 


ROME 


103 


HOME 


Modern  Rome. — It  was  not  till  the 
17th  century  that  the  modern  city  was 
extended  to  its  present  limits  on  the 
right  bank,  by  a  wall  built  under  the 
pontificates  of  Urban  VIII.  (1623-1644) 
and  Innocent  X.  (1644-1655),  and  in- 
closing both  the  Janiculum  and  the  Vat- 
ican hills.  The  boundary  wall  on  the 
left  or  E.  bank  of  the  river  follows  the 
same  line  as  that  traced  by  Aurelian  in 
the  3d  century,  and  must  in  many  parts 
be  identical  with  the  original  structure. 
The  walls  on  both  banks  are  built  of 
brick,  with  occasional  portions  of  stone 
work,  and  on  the  outside  are  about  55 
feet  high.  The  greater  part  dates  from 
A.  D.  271  to  276.  The  city  is  entered  by 
12  gates  (several  of  those  of  earlier 
date  being  now  walled  up)  and  several 
railway  accesses.  Since  Rome  became 
the  capital  of  united  Italy  it  has  lost 
much  of  its  ancient  picturesque  appear- 
ance, and  has  acquired  the  look  of  a 
great  modern  city  with  wide,  straight 
streets  of  uniform-looking  tenements  hav- 
ing little  distinctive  character.  The  ex- 
tensive excavations  carried  out  have  laid 
completely  bare  the  remains  of  many 
of  the  grandest  monuments  of  ancient 
Rome,  notably  the  whole  of  Forum  Ro- 
manum  and  the  Via  Sacra,  the  remains 
of  the  Temples  of  Saturn  and  of  Castor 
and  Pollux,  the  Temples  of  Vespasian, 
of  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  the  Temple 
of  Vesta,  etc. 

Streets,  Squares,  etc. — Among  the  prin- 
cipal streets  and  squares  of  modern 
Rome  are  the  Piazza  del  Popolo  imme- 
diately within  the  Porta  del  Popolo  on 
the  N.  side  of  the  city  near  the  Tiber, 
with  a  fine  Egyptian  obelisk  in  its  cen- 
ter, and  two  handsome  churches  in  front, 
standing  so  far  apart  from  each  other 
and  from  the  adjoining  buildings  as  to 
leave  room  for  the  divergence  of  three 
principal  streets,  the  Via  di  Ripetta,  the 
Corso,  and  the  Via  del  Babuino.  The 
Corso  stretches  for  upward  of  a  mile 
in  a  direct  line  to  its  termination  at 
the  Piazza  di  Venezia,  not  far  from  the 
Capitol,  and  is  the  finest  street  in  the 
city.  The  appearance  of  the  Capitol 
has  been  entirely  altered  to  permit  the 
erection  of  a  monument  to  Victor  Em- 
manuel. The  Via  del  Babuino  proceeds 
first  directly  to  the  Piazza  di  Spagna, 
thence  to  the  Quirinal,  and  by  a  tunnel 
opens  out  on  the  Esquiline.  It  contains 
a  large  number  of  handsome  edifices. 
The  whole  of  the  city  to  the  E.  of  this 
street,  and  in  the  triangular  space  in- 
cluded between  it  and  the  Corso,  is  well 
aired  and  healthy,  and  is  regarded  as 
the  aristocratic  quarter.  The  Ghetto,  or 
Jews'  quarter,  was  cleared  away  in  1889. 

The  chief  open  spaces  besides  the  Pi- 
azza del  Popolo  are  the  Piazza  S.  Pietro, 


with  its  extensive  colonnade;  the  Piazza 
Navona,  adorned  with  two  churches  and 
three  fountains,  one  at  each  extremity 
and  the  third  in  the  center;  the  Piazza 
di  Spagna,  adorned  by  a  monumental 
pillar  and  a  magnificent  staircase  of 
travertine,  leading  to  the  Church  of 
Trinita  de'  Monti,  conspicuously  seated 
on  an  eminence  above  it;  the  Piazza 
Barberini,  beside  the  palace  of  the  same 
name,  adorned  by  a  beautiful  fountain; 
the  Piazza  Colonna,  in  the  center  of  the 
city,  with  column  of  Marcus  Aurelius; 
near  it,  in  the  Piazza  di  Monte  Citoria, 
is  the  spacious  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
Larger  spaces  for  amusement  or  exer- 
cise have  been  formed  only  in  a  few 
spots.  One  of  the  finest  is  the  Pincio, 
or  "hill  of  gardens,"  overlooking  the  Pi- 
azza del  Popolo,  and  commanding  a  fine 
view.  It  is  a  fashionable  drive  toward 
evening,  and  presents  a'  gay  and  ani- 
mated appearance.  At  a  short  distance 
outside  the  walls  on  the  N.  of  the  city 
is  the  Villa  Borghese,  forming  a  finely 
planted  and  richly  decorated  park  of  3 
miles  in  circuit,  which,  though  private 
property,  forms  the  true  public  park  of 
Rome  and  is  the  favorite  resort  of  all 
classes.  Various  localities  in  and  near 
Rome  that  were  malarious  have  been 
rendered  healthy  by  planting  eucalyptus 
trees. 

Churches. — The  most  remarkable  of 
these  is  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Peter,  the 
largest  and  most  imposing  to  be  found 
anywhere.  Another  remarkable  church 
is  that  of  San  Giovanni  in  Laterano, 
on  an  isolated  spot  near  the  S.  wall  of 
the  city.  It  was  built  by  Constantine 
the  Great,  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 
in  896,  re-erected  (904-911),  burned  in 
1308,  restored  and  decorated  by  Giotto. 
Again  burned  in  1360,  rebuilt  by  Urban 
V.  and  Gregory  XI.,  and  has  undergone 
various  alterations  and  additions  from 
1430  till  the  present  facade  was  erected 
in  1734.  A  modern  extension  has  in- 
volved the  destruction  of  the  ancient 
apse.  From  the  central  balcony  the 
Pope  pronounces  his  benediction  on  As- 
cension day,  and  the  church  is  the  scene 
of  the  councils  which  bear  its  name. 

Other  churches  are  those  of  Santa  Ma- 
ria Maggiore  (434);  Santa  Croce;  San 
Clement,  containing  a  number  of  inter- 
esting frescoes  by  Masaccio;  II  Gesu,  the 
principal  church  of  the  Jesuits,  with  the 
facade  and  cupola  by  Giacomo  della 
Porta  (1577)  ;  and  an  interior  enriched 
with  the  rarest  marbles  and  several  fine 
paintings,  and  containing  the  monument 
of  Cardinal  Bellarmine;  Sta.  Maria-delli- 
Angeli,  originally  a  part  of  Diocletian's 
Baths,  converted  into  a  church  by  Mi- 
chelangelo, one  of  the  most  imposing 
which  Rome  possesses,  and  containing  an 


ROME 


104 


ROME 


altarpiece  by  Muziano,  a  fine  fresco  by 
Domenichino,  and  the  tomb  of  Salvator 
Rosa;  Sta.  Maria  in  Ara  Cceli,  on  the 
Capitoline,  a  very  ancient  church  ap- 
proached by  a  very  long  flight  of  stairs, 
remarkable  for  its  architecture  and  for 
containing  the  figure  of  the  infant  Christ 
called  the  santissimo  bambino;  Sta.  Ma- 
ria in  Cosmedin,  at  the  N.  base  of  the 
Aventine,  remarkable  for  its  fine  Alex- 
andrine pavement  and  its  lofty  and 
beautiful  campanile  of  the  8th  century; 
Sta.  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  so  called  from 
occupying  the  site  of  a  temple  of  that 
goddess,  begun  in  1285  and  restored 
1848-1855,  remarkable  as  the  only  Goth- 
ic church  in  Rome;  Sta.  Maria  in  Do- 
minica or  della  Navicella,  on  the  Caelian, 
is  remarkable  for  18  fine  columns  of 
granite  and  two  of  porphyry,  and  the 
frieze  of  the  nave  painted  in  camieau 
by  Giulio  Romano  and  Perino  del  Vago. 
Among  other  churches  are  Sta.  Maria 
della  Pace,  celebrated  for  its  paintings, 
particularly  the  four  Sibyls,  considered 
among  the  most  perfect  works  of  Ra- 
phael; Sta.  Maria  del  Popolo,  interest- 
ing from  the  number  of  its  fine  sculp- 
tures and  paintings  (Jonah  by  Raphael, 
ceiling  frescoes  by  Pinturicchio,  and  mo- 
saics from  Raphael's  cartoons  by  Aloisio 
della  Pace)  ;  Sta.  Maria  in  Trastevere, 
a  very  ancient  church,  first  mentioned  in 
499  and  San  Paolo  fuori  le  Mura. 

Palaces,  Picture  Galleries,  etc. — The 
Vatican,  adjoining  St.  Peter's,  comprises 
the  old  and  new  palaces  of  the  Popes 
(the  latter  now  the  ordinary  papal  res- 
idence), the  Sistine  chapel,  the  Loggie 
and  Stanze,  containing  some  of  the  most 
important  works  of  Raphael,  the  picture 
gallery,  the  museums  (Pio-Clementino, 
Chiaramonti,  Etruscan  and  Egyptian), 
and  the  library  (220,000  volumes  and 
over  25,000  MSS.).  The  palace  of  the 
Quirinal  was  formerly  a  favorite  sum- 
mer residence  of  the  Popes,  but  is  now 
occupied  by  the  King  of  Italy.  The 
Palazzo  della  Cancelleria  is  the  only  pal- 
ace on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  still 
occupied  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities. 
The  building  was  designed  by  Bramante, 
and  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Rome.  A 
series  of  palaces  crowns  the  summit  of 
the  Capitol,  and  surrounds  the  Piazza 
del  Campidoglio.  It  is  approached  frqm 
the  N.  W.  by  a  flight  of  steps,  at  the 
foot  of  which  two  Egyptian  lions,  and 
at  the  summit  two  colossal  statues  of 
Castor  and  Pollux  standing  beside  their 
horses,  are  conspicuous.  In  the  center 
of  the  piazza  is  a  bronze  equestrian 
statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (161-181). 
On  the  S.  E.  side  of  the  piazza  is  the 
Senatorial  Palace,  in  which  the  senate 
holds  its  meetings.  The  building  also 
contains  the  offices  of  the  municipal  ad- 


ministration and  an  observatory.  Its  fa- 
cade was  constructed  by  Giacomo  della 
Porta,  under  the  direction,  it  is  said,  of 
Michelangelo.  On  the  S.  W.  side  of 
the  piazza  is  the  palace  of  the  Conser- 
vatori,  containing  a  collection  of  antique 
sculpture,  including  objects  of  art  dis- 
covered during  the  recent  excavations, 
and  a  gallery  of  pictures.  Opposite  is 
the  museum  of  the  Capitol,  with  inter~ 
esting  objects  of  ancient  sculpture  and 
a   picture  gallery. 

Among  private  palaces  may  be  noted 
the  Palazzo  Barberini,  on  the  Quirinal, 
with  a  collection  of  paintings.  The  li- 
brary attached  to  it  has  numerous  val- 
uable MSS.,  with  some  other  literary 
curiosities.  The  Palazzo  Borghese,  be- 
gun in  1590,  has  a  fine  court  surrounded 
by  lofty  arcades,  but  is  chiefly  cele- 
brated for  its  picture  gallery,  containing 
the  Aldobrandi  Marriage  and  some  other 
works  of  great  renown.  The  Palazzo 
Colonna  has  a  picture  gallery  and  a 
beautiful  garden  containing  several  re- 
mains of  antiquity.  The  Palazzo  Cor- 
sini  has  a  picture  gallery,  garden,  and 
collection  of  MSS.  and  printed  books  of 
great  value.  The  Palazzo  Farnese,  one 
of  the  finest  in  Rome,  was  built  under 
the  direction  of  Antonio  da  Sangallo, 
Michelangelo,  and  Giacomo  della  Por- 
ta in  succession.  The  celebrated  antiqui- 
ties it  once  contained  (Farnese  Bull, 
Hercules,  Flora,  etc.),  are  now  in  the 
Museum  of  Naples.  The  Palazzo  Ros- 
pigliosi,  erected  in  1603,  contains  some 
valuable  art  treasures;  among  others, 
on  the  ceiling  of  a  casino  in  the  garden 
is  the  celebrated  fresco  of  Aurora  by 
Guido.  Villa  Ludovisi,  situated  in  the 
N.  of  the  city,  the  ancient  gardens  of 
Sallust,  contains  a  valuable  collection  of 
ancient  sculptures.  Villa  Farnesina,  on 
the  right  bank,  containing  Raphael's 
charming  creations  illustrative  of  the 
myth  of  Cupid  and  Psyche. 

Educational  Institutions,  Charities,  etc. 
— Among  educational  institutions  the 
first  place  is  claimed  by  the  university, 
founded  in  1303.  The  most  flourishing 
period  of  the  university  was  the  time  of 
Leo  X.  (1513-1522),  under  whom  the 
building  still  occupied  by  it  was  be- 
gun. Attached  to  the  university  are 
an  anatomical  and  a  chemical  theater, 
and  cabinets  of  physics,  mineralogy,  and 
zoology,  as  also  botanic  gardens,  and  an 
astronomical  observatory.  The  univer- 
sity is  attended  by  about  2,700  students. 
The  Collegio  Romano,  formerly  a  Jesuit 
college,  now  contains  the  Archaeological 
Museum  and  the  recently  established  li- 
brary, Biblioteoa  Vittorio  Emanuele — 
consisting  mostly  of  the  old  library  of 
the  Jesuits,  augmented  by  the  libraries 
of   suppressed  monasteries    (about   500,- 


ROME 


105 


ROME 


000  volumes).  The  Collegio  de  Propa- 
ganda Fide  has  acquired  great  celebrity 
as  the  establishment  where  Roman  Cath- 
olic missionaries  are  trained.  The  Acca- 
demia  di  San  Luca,  for  the  promotion 
of  the  fine  arts,  is  composed  of  painters, 
sculptors,  and  architects,  and  was  found- 
ed in  1577  and  reorganized  in  1874. 
Connected  with  it  are  a  picture  gallery 
and  schools  of  the  fine  arts.  Other  as- 
sociations and  institutions  connected  with 
art,  science,  or  learning  are  numerous; 
one  of  them,  the  Accademia  de'  Lincei, 
founded  in  1603  by  Galileo  and  his  con- 
temporaries, is  the  earliest  scientific  so- 
ciety of  Italy.  Besides  the  Vatican  and 
Vittorio  Emanuele  libraries  mentioned 
above,  the  chief  are  the  Biblioteca  Ca- 
sanatense;  the  Biblioteca  Angelica,  and 
the  Biblioteca  Berberini.  For  elemen- 
tary education  much  has  been  done  since 
the  papal  rule  came  to  an  end.  Hospi- 
tals and  other  charitable  foundations 
are  numerous.  The  chief  theaters  in- 
clude the  Teatro  Apollo,  Teatro  Ar- 
gentina, Teatro  Valle,  the  Capranica, 
Metastasio,  Rossini,  and  the  Costanzi. 

Trade  and  Manufactures — The  exter- 
nal trade  is  unimportant,  and  is  carried 
on  chiefly  by  rail,  the  Tiber  being  navi- 
gated only  by  small  craft.  There  are 
railway  lines  connecting  with  the  gen- 
eral system  of  Italy;  and  steamers  from 
Civita  Vecchia  to  Naples,  Leghorn,  and 
Genoa.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
woolen  and  silk  goods,  artificial  flowers, 
earthenware,  jewelry,  musical  strings, 
mosaics,  casts,  and  objects  of  art.  The 
trade  is  chiefly  in  these  articles,  and  in 
olive  oil,  pictures,  and  antiquities. 

History. — The  ancient  history  of  Rome 
has  already  been  given.  From  the  down- 
fall of  the  empire  its  history  is  mainly 
identified  with  that  of  the  papacy.  An 
important  event  in  its  history  is  its  cap- 
ture and  sack  by  the  troops  of  the  Con- 
stable of  Bourbon  in  1527.  In  1798 
Rome  was  occupied  by  the  French,  who 
stripped  the  palaces,  churches,  and  con- 
vents of  many  works  of  art  and  objects 
of  value.  Pope  Pius  VI.  was  taken 
prisoner  to  France,  where  he  soon  after- 
ward died,  and  a  Roman  republic  was 
set  up.  In  1848  Pope  Pius  IX.  was 
driven  from  Rome,  and  another  Roman 
republic  formed  under  Mazzini  and  Ga- 
ribaldi. A  French  army  was  sent  to  the 
Pope's  assistance,  and  after  a  determined 
resistance  Rome  was  captured  by  the 
French  in  July,  1849,  and  the  Pope  re- 
turned and  resumed  his  power  under  the 
protection  of  French  bayonets  (April, 
1850).  The  rule  of  the  Pope  continued 
till  October,  1870,  when  Rome  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Italian  troops  on  the  down- 
fall of  the  French  empire,  and  in  June, 
1871,    the    "Eternal    City''    became    the 


capital  of  united  Italy.  The  king  took 
up  his  residence  in  the  Quirinal;  and  to 
accommodate  the  legislature  and  various 
public  departments  numei*ous  conventual 
establishments  were  expropriated.  The 
population  of  the  city  has  of  late  vastly 
increased.  In  1870  it  was  226,022;  in 
1881,  276,463;  in  1901,  424,860;  and  in 
1920,  about  534,000. 

ROME,  AMERICAN  ACADEMY  OF 
FINE  ARTS  IN,  a  division  of  the  Amer- 
ican Academy  in  Rome,  a  consolidation 
of  the  American  School  of  Classical 
Studies  in  Rome,  founded  in  1895,  and 
the  American  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Rome,  originated  in  1894  and  formally 
organized  and  incorporated  in  1897.  The 
American  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Rome  was  created  as  an  institution  to 
serve  the  national  need  for  acquaintance 
with  the  classical  sources  and  atmos- 
phere. Begun  under  the  impetus  and 
inspiration  of  the  World's  Fair  and  sup- 
ported by  such  men  as  McKim  and  Burn- 
ham,  it  soon  became  a  vital  force  in  the 
art  world  of  America,  receiving  and 
training  many  of  our  best  artists,  archi- 
tects, and  sculptors  at  the  Villa  Aurora 
in  Rome.  In  1909  the  Academy  accepted 
the  bequest  of  Mrs.  Heyland,  an  Amer- 
ican lady  resident  in  Rome  and  long  a 
generous  patron  of  the  society,  and 
moved  the  school  to  the  beautiful  Villa 
Aurelia,  a  home  of  peculiar  fitness  for 
its  work,  both  by  equipment  and  loca- 
tion. Here  it  has  continued  its  work, 
offering  instruction  and  criticism  to  stu- 
dents in  the  more  advanced  fields  of 
architecture,  painting,  landscape  archi- 
tecture, and  sculpture.  Annual  fellow- 
ships of  generous  amount  are  offered  by 
the  Academy  to  American  students  of 
exceptional  attainment  and  promise  in 
the  several  divisions  of  art  above  men- 
tioned, and  the  Academy  has  already 
made  its  influence  apparent  in  the  mod- 
ern art  world  of  America  by  the  note- 
worthy accomplishments  of  its  graduates. 

ROME,  AMERICAN  COLLEGE  IN,  a 

Catholic  institution  in  Rome,  Italy,  es- 
tablished in  1859,  for  the  education  of 
American  ecclesiastics.  The  prime  mov- 
ers in  the  project  were  Archbishop 
Hughes  of  New  York  and  Archbishop 
Kenrick  of  Baltimore,  and  the  first  pres- 
ident was  the  Rev.  William  George  Mc- 
Closkey,  later  Bishop  of  Louisville.  The 
money  required  for  the  establishment 
and  conduct  of  the  college  was  mainly 
contributed  from  the  United  States, 
though  Pope  Pius  IX.  bought  and  pre- 
sented to  the  American  bishops  as  the 
nucleus  of  the  foundation  the  old  Visita- 
tion Convent  of  the  Umilta,  then  occu- 
pied by  the  soldiers  of  the  French  gar- 
rison in  Rome.    The  college  was  formally 


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ROMULUS 


opened  with  thirteen  students  who  had 
for  some  time  been  waiting  in  the  Col- 
lege of  the  Propaganda  for  the  event. 
The  first  ordination  of  an  alumnus  was 
in  1862,  in  the  Church  of  St.  John  Lat- 
eran  by  Cardinal  Patuzzi.  During  the 
Vatican  Council  the  American  prelates 
in  Rome  decided  that  the  property  of 
the  college  should  remain  in  the  hands 
of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Propa- 
ganda. There  are  thirty-five  purses  or 
scholarships  founded  in  the  colleges.  The 
number  of  students  is  about  one  hundred 
and  forty.  In  1884  the  college  was  ex- 
empted from  the  effect  of  the  Italian 
statutes   of  confiscation. 

ROME,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a  govern- 
ment educational  institution  situated  in 
Rome,  Italy,  and  now  known  as  the 
Royal  University.  In  former  times  it 
was  known  as  the  Studium  Urbis.  The 
University  of  Rome  was  founded  at  the 
beginning  of  the  14th  century  by  Pope 
Boniface  VIII.  During  the  political  and 
social  upheavals  which  accompanied  the 
Great  Schism  and  so  violently  affected 
the  more  temporal  aspects  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  the  University  ceased  for  a 
time  to  exist.  It  was  revived  and  re- 
organized under  its  former  name  by  Eu- 
genius  IV.  in  1431.  From  then  on  it 
maintained  its  existence  as  a  papal  in- 
stitution until  the  year  1870,  when  in 
the  political  upheaval  of  that  period,  it 
was  brought  under  the  control  of  the 
Italian  Government.  The  Royal  Uni- 
versity has  a  registration  of  between 
four  and  five  thousand  students.  Al- 
though handicapped,  as  other  educational 
institutions  have  been  by  the  recent 
World  War,  it  has  continued  to  carry 
on  its  activities  in  the  several  schools 
of  engineering,  pharmacy,  agriculture, 
diplomacy,  philosophy,  science,  medicine, 
and  law.  Its  manuscript,  pamphlet,  and 
book  collections,  known  as  the  Biblio- 
teca  Alessandrina,  have  been  credited 
with  about  250,000  volumes. 

ROMNEY,      GEORGE,      an      English 

pa. ,    oorn    in    Reckside,    Lancashire, 

Dec.  26,  1734.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
carpenter,  and  at  first  worked  at  his 
father's  trade,  but  he  afterward  was 
apprenticed  to  an  itinerant  artist  named 
Steele,  and  at  the  age  of  23  began  the 
career  of  a  painter.  After  a  certain 
amount  of  local  success  he  went  to  Lon- 
don in  1762,  and  next  year  won  a  prize 
offered  by  the  Society  of  Art  for  a  his- 
torical composition.  He  steadily  rose  in 
popularity,  and  was  finally  recognized 
as  inferior  only  to  Reynolds  and  Gains- 
borough as  a  portrait  painter;  some 
critics  even  placed  him  higher  than 
either.  His  residence  in  London  was 
interrupted   by   occasional   visits   to   the 


Continent  for  purposes  of  study,  and 
his  most  prosperous  period  dates  from 
1775,  after  his  return  from  a  visit  of 
18  months  to  Rome.  Many  distinguished 
Englishmen  and  many  ladies  of  rank 
sat  to  him  for  their  portraits;  but  per- 
haps the  most  beautiful  of  his  sitters 
was  Emma  Hart,  afterward  Lady  Ham- 
ilton, whom  he  depicted  in  very  numer- 
ous character.  He  did  not  neglect  his* 
torical  or  imaginative  compositions,  and 
he  contributed  several  pictures  to  Boyd- 
ell's  famous  Shakespeare  gallery,  found- 
ed in  1786.  His  health  began  to  fail  in 
1797,  and  in  1799  he  rejoined  his  wife 
(married  in  1756),  who  throughout  his 
whole  London  career  had  remained  at 
Kendal.  Romney  displays  a  want  of 
carefulness,  and  defective  knowledge  of 
anatomy  in  his  historical  compositions; 
but  he  atones  for  these  faults  by  fine 
color,  a  subtle  sense  of  beauty,  and  by 
his  originality.  Fine  examples  of  his 
work  command  high  prices.  He  died  in 
Kendal,   Nov.   15,   1802. 

ROMULUS,  mythical  founder  and  first 
King  of  Rome.  According  to  the  legends, 
he  was  the  son  of  the  vestal  Rhea  Sylvia 
by  the  god  Mars,  Sylvia  being  a  daugh- 
ter of  Numitor,  rightful  heir  of  the 
King  of  Alba,  but  deprived  by  his  broth- 
er. Exposed  with  his  twin  brother 
Remus,  the  babes  were  suckled  by  a  she 
wolf,  and  afterward  brought  up  by  a 
shepherd.  Their  parentage  was  discov- 
ered, and  they  determined  to  found  a 
city  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  the  scene 
of  their  exposure.  The  right  to  choose 
the  site  was  acquired  by  Romulus;  and 
Remus  not  acquiescing,  in  his  disap- 
pointment, was  slain.  Inhabitants  for 
the  new  city  were  found  by  establishing 
a  refuge  for  murderers  and  fugitive 
slaves  on  the  Capitoline  hills,  and  by 
carrying  off  the  Sabine  maidens  at  a 
feast  to  which  they  were  invited.  This 
led  to  war  with  the  Sabines,  which 
ended,  through  the  intervention  of  the 
Sabine  women,  in  a  union  of  Romans 
and  Sabines,  under  their  two  kings, 
Romulus  and  Titus  Tatius.  The  latter 
was  soon  slain,  and  Romulus  reigned 
alone.  He  was  regarded  as  the  author 
of  the  fundamental  division  of  the  peo- 
ple into  tribes,  curiae,  and  gentes,  and 
of  the  institution  of  the  senate  and  the 
comitia  curiata.  The  date  commonly 
assigned  for  the  foundation  of  Rome  is 
753  B.  c. 

The  tomb  in  which  the  body  of  Romu- 
lus is  alleged  to  have  been  interred  was 
discovered  in  January,  1899,  in  the  Ro- 
man Forum,  near  the  arch  of  Septimus 
Severus,  along  the  Via  Sacra.  A  large 
slab  of  black  marble,  measuring  four 
square  meters,  was  found,  exactly   cor- 


BONA 


107 


BOOK 


responding  to  the  description  of  the 
tomb  of  Romulus  alluded  to  by  Varro 
as  "Lapis  Niger."  This  stone  differs 
from  ordinary  Roman  silicium,  and  comes 
from  Cape  Tenarium,  in  Greece,  thus 
proving  that  communication  existed  be- 
tween Rome  and  Greece  in  the  most 
remote  period.  For  many  centuries,  till 
the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  tomb 
of  Romulus  was  considered  a  sacred 
shrine  by  the  Romans.  The  discovery 
is  incalculably  valuable  to  historians  and 
archaeologists,  proving  the  fact,  often 
doubted  and  ridiculed,  especially  by  the 
German  school,  that  a  black  stone,  sur- 
rounded by  a  marble  inclosure  one  me- 
ter high,  was  missing  from  the  E.  side 
of  the  Rostra  Julia. 

BONA,  an  island  with  a  lighthouse  in 
the  Inner  Hebrides,  between  Skye  and 
the  mainland  of  Scotland,  4%  miles  long, 
1  broad.  It  is  extremely  barren  and  of 
unattractive  aspect.  Also  the  name  of 
a  small  island  with  remains  of  an  ancient 
oratory,  44  miles  N.  E.  of  the  Butt  of 
Lewis. 

RONDEAU,  or  RONDO,  a  kind  of 
poetry  which  returns,  as  it  were,  to  the 
same  point,  or  in  which  part  is  repeated, 
thus  containing  a  refrain.  In  French 
poetry,  the  rondeau  is  a  little  composi- 
tion of  13  verses,  divided  into  three  un- 
equal strophes,  with  two  rhymes  (five 
lines  masculine  and  five  feminine,  or 
vice  versa).  The  first  two  or  three  words 
of  the  first  verse  serve  as  the  burden, 
and  recur  in  that  shape  after  the  8th 
and  13th  verses.  There  are  also  double 
rondeaux  and  single  rondeaux;  the  lat- 
ter an  obsolete  but  easier  kind  of  verse. 
In  music,  a  light  form  of  composition, 
in  which  the  subject  or  theme  returns 
frequently;  it  usually  forms  the  last 
movement  of  a  symphony  or  sonata. 

RONSABD,  PIERRE  DE,  a  French 
poet;  born  in  Vendomois,  France,  Sept. 
11,  1524.  At  the  age  of  12  he  became 
page  to  the  Due  d'Orleans;  and  in  1537 
he  accompanied  James  V.  of  Scotland 
and  his  bride,  Madeleine  of  France,  back 
to  their  kingdom.  He  also  spent  six 
months  at  the  English  court,  and  after 
his  return  to  France  in  1540  was  em- 
ployed in  a  diplomatic  capacity  in  Ger- 
many, Piedmont,  Flanders,  and  Scotland. 
He  was  compelled,  however,  by  deafness 
to  abandon  the  diplomatic  career;  and  he 
devoted  himself  to  literary  studies  and 
became  the  chief  of  the  band  of  seven 
poets  afterward  known  as  the  "Pleiade." 
Ronsard's  popularity  and  prosperity  dur- 
ing his  life  were  very  great.  Henry 
II.,  Francis  II.,  and  Charles  IX.  es- 
teemed him,  and  the  last  bestowed  sev- 
eral abbacies  and  priories  on  the  poet. 
His    writings    consist    of    sonnets,    odes, 


hymns,  eclogues,  elegies,  satires,  and  a 
fragment  of  an  epic  poem,  "La  Fran- 
ciade."  He  died  at  Tours,  in  December, 
1585. 

ROOD,  a  cross  or  crucifix;  specifically, 
a  representation  of  the  crucified  Saviour, 
or,  more  generally,  of  the  Trinity,  placed 
in  Catholic  churches  over  the  altar 
screen,  hence  termed  the  rood  screen. 
The  cross  displayed  the  three  persons 
of  the  Trinity,  the  Son  being  represented 
as  crucified.  Generally  figures  of  the 
Virgin  and  St.  John  were  placed  at  a 
slight  distance  on  each  side  of  the  prin- 
cipal group,  in  reference  to  John  xix: 
26.     See  Rod. 

ROOD,  HENRY,  an  essayist  and  edi- 
tor, born  in  Philadelphia,  1867.  From 
1900  to  1910  he  was  assistant  editor  of 
"Harper's  Magazine."  He  contributed 
short  stories  and  essays  on  literary  and 
economic  topics  to  many  of  the  leading 
magazines  and  was  special  correspon- 
dent for  the  New  York  "Sun,"  "Times," 
"Herald,"  and  "Evening  Post."  He 
wrote,  together  with  Colonel  W.  H. 
Crook,  "Memories  of  the  White  House" 
(1911). 

ROOF,  the  external  covering  on  the 
top  of  a  building;  sometimes  of  stone, 
but  usually  of  wood  overlaid  with  slates, 
tiles,  lead,  etc.  The  form  and  construc- 
tion of  the  timber  work  of  roofs  differ 
materially  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
building  on  which  it  is  to  be  placed,  and 
any  attempt  to  notice  all  the  varieties 
would  far  exceed  the  limits  of  this  work. 
The  main  parts  of  the  framing,  which 
in  most  cases  are  placed  at  regular  in- 
tervals, are  each  called  a  truss,  princi- 
pal, or  pair  of  principals;  these,  in  or- 
namental open  roofs,  are  the  leading 
features,  and  in  some  ancient  roofs  are 
contrived  with  an  especial  view  to  ap- 
pearance. A  king-post  roof  has  one 
vertical  post  in  each  truss,  a  queen-post 
roof  has  two.  Since  the  introduction  of 
iron  in  the  construction  of  roofs,  spaces 
of  almost  any  width  can  be  roofed  over. 
Also  that  which  resembles,  or  corre- 
sponds with,  the  cover  of  a  building;  as, 
the  roof  of  the  mouth,  the  roof  of  the 
firmament,  etc. 

ROOF  OF  THE  WORLD,  the  Pamirs; 
an  extensive  table-land  of  Central  Asia, 
so  named  by  its  natives.  A  part  of  the 
plateau  is  said  to  be  15,000  feet  above 
the  sea. 

ROOK,  a  European  species  of  crow 
(Corvus  frugilegus,  Linn.),  resembling 
in  size  and  color  the  carrion  crow,  but 
differing  in  having  the  base  of  the  bill 
whitish  and  scurfy,  and  bare  of  feathers. 
The  rook  is  gregarious  at  all  seasons, 
resorting   constantly   to   the   same   trees 


BOONEY 


108 


BOOSEVELT 


every  spring  to  breed.  After  their  young 
have  taken  wing,  they  all  forsake  their 
nest  trees,  returning  to  them  again  in 
October  to  roost;  but  as  winter  comes 
on,  they  generally  select  more  sheltered 
places  at  night  nearby,  to  which  they 
fly  off  together. 

BOONEY,  JOHN  JEBOME,  an  Amer- 
ican jurist  and  writer,  born  in  Bingham- 
ton,  N.  Y.,  in  1866.  He  was  educated  at 
Mt.  St.  Mary's  College,  Maryland.  After 
five  years'  service  on  the  editorial  staff 
of  the  Philadelphia  "Record,"  he  was 
admitted  to  the  New  York  bar.  In  1813 
he  became  presiding  judge  of  the  N.  Y. 
State  Court  of  Claims.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  several  legal  and  Irish-American 
societies,  as  well  as  of  the  Poetry  So- 
ciety of  America.  He  wrote  occasional 
verses,  the  best  known  of  which  was, 
"The  Man  Behind  the  Guns,"  written 
during  the  Spanish-American  War,  and 
later  published  in  book  form  under  that 
title. 

BOOSEVELT,  a  borough  of  Middlesex 
co.,  N.  J.  It  has  a  frontage  on  Staten 
Island  Sound,  and  on  the  Rahway  river, 
and  is  on  the  Central  of  New  Jersey 
railroad.  It  was  formed  in  1906  by  the 
consolidation  of  three  districts.  It  is  an 
important  industrial  city  and  has  manu- 
factures of  steel,  fertilizers,  metal  goods, 
cigars,  paints,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  5,786; 
(1920)    11,047. 

BOOSEVELT,  EBANKLIN  DELANO, 
an  American  public  official,  born  at 
Hyde  Park,  Dutchess  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1882, 
a  distant  relative  of  Theodore  Roosevelt. 
He  graduated  from  Harvard  University 
in  1904  and  studied  at  the  Columbia 
University  Law  School  from  1904  to 
1907.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
the  latter  year  and  began  practice  with 
the  firm  of  Carter,  Ledyard  &  Milburn, 
of  New  York  City.  He  remained  in  this 
connection  until  1910,  when  he  became  a 
member  of  the  firm  of  Marvin,  Hooker 
&  Roosevelt.  He  was  elected  to  the 
State  Senate  in  1910,  but  resigned  in 
1913  on  his  appointment  as  assistant 
secretary  of  the  navy.  In  1918  he  was 
in  charge  of  the  inspection  of  the  United 
States  naval  forces  in  Eui'opean  waters 
and  in  1919  had  general  charge  of  de- 
mobilization of  naval  forces  in  Europe. 
During  the  World  War  he  carried  on 
his  important  duties  with  the  Navy  De- 
partment with  great  energy,  and,  in 
general,  escaped  the  criticism  which  was 
lodged  against  other  high  officials  of  that 
department.  Although  he  had  not  hith- 
erto been  conspicuous  in  partisan  poli- 
tics, he  was  chosen  Democratic  candi- 
date for  vice-president  at  the  Democratic 
National  Convention,  in  July,  1920.  Fol- 
lowing his  nomination  he  took  a  vigorous 


part  in  the  campaign  and  made  speeches 
in  all  parts  of  the  country,  but  chiefly 
in  the  Middle  and  Far  West. 

BOOSEVELT,  KEBMIT,  an  American 
writer,  born  in  Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y.,  in 
1889,  the  second  son  of  Theodore  Roose- 
velt (q.  v.).  He  was  educated  at  Har- 
vard University  in  1909,  and  in  1910  he 
accompanied  his  father  on  a  hunting 
trip  to  Africa,  being  also  his  companion 
on  his  South  American  trip  in  1914. 
From  1911  to  1916  he  was  engaged  in 
engineering  and  banking  enterprises  in 
South  America.  During  the  World  War 
he  served  as  captain  in  the  British  army 
in  Mesopotamia,  being  transferred  to  the 
7th  artillery,  first  division,  United  States 
Army,  in  June,  1918.  He  was  honorably 
discharged  in  March,  1919,  and  received 
the  British  Military  Cross  and  the  Mon- 
tenegrin War  Cross.  After  the  war  he 
was  for  some  time  secretary  of  the 
American  Ship  and  Commerce  Corpora- 
tion and  of  the  Kerr  Navigation  Cor- 
poration. He  wrote  "War  in  the  Garden 
of  Eden"   (1919). 

BOOSEVELT,  QTJENTIN,  an  Amer- 
ican aviator,  youngest  son  of  Theodore 


QUENTIN   ROOSEVELT 

Roosevelt     (q.  v.),  born   at  Oyster   Bay, 
N.  Y.,  in  1897.     At  the  entrance  of  the 


ROOSEVELT 


109 


ROOSEVELT 


United  States  into  the  World  War  he  at 
once  enlisted  in  the  aviation  service  and, 
after  training,  was  assigned  to  the  Amer- 
ican Air  Force  in  France.  On  July  14, 
1918,  he  war  flying  with  an  American 
squadron,  when  it  was  suddenly  attacked 
by  German  aeroplanes.  A  struggle  en- 
sued which  culminated  in  a  duel  between 
Lieutenant  Roosevelt  and  a  German  non- 
commissioned officer.  The  latter  suc- 
ceeded in  so  injuring  Lieutenant  Roose- 
velt's machine  that  it  fell  near  the  village 
of  Chamery,  about  six  miles  north  of  the 
Marne.  Lieutenant  Roosevelt  was  found 
to  have  been  shot  through  the  head.  He 
was  buried  with  military  honors  by  the 
German  airmen  and  in  1920  the  area  in 
which  his  body  lay  was  given  to  Mrs. 
Theodore  Roosevelt  by  the  French  Gov- 
ernment. 

ROOSEVELT,  ROBERT  BARNWELL, 
an  American  lawyer;  born  in  New  York 
City,  Aug.  7,  1829.  He  was  an  enthusi- 
astic sportsman,  and  published:  "The 
Game  Fish  of  North  America"  (1860); 
"The  Game  Birds  of  the  North"  (1866)  ; 
"Superior  Fishing"  (1866)  ;  "Florida  and 
the  Game  Water  Birds"  (1868)  ;  "Five 
Acres  Too  Much"  (1869),  a  satire  pro- 
voked by  Edmund  Morris's  "Ten  Acres 
Enough";  and  "Progressive  Petticoats," 
a  satire  on  female  physicians.  He  died 
June  14,  1906. 

ROOSEVELT,  THEODORE,  an  Amer- 
ican statesman,  historian,  essayist,  pub- 
licist, naturalist,  explorer,  civil  and  politi- 
cal reformer,  soldier,  26th  president  of 
the  United  States.  Born,  New  York  City, 
Oct.  27,  1858;  was  graduated  from  Har- 
vard University  1880,  and  was  subse- 
quently the  recipient  of  many  honorary 
degrees  from  American  and  European 
universities.  During  early  life  Roosevelt 
was  frail,  but  succeeded  in  building  up  a 
strong  physical  constitution  by  exercise 
and  open  air  life. 

After  graduation  he  engaged  in  the 
study  of  law,  but  abandoned  the  pursuit 
to  become  a  member  of  the  New  York 
State  Legislature,  1882-84,  representing 
the  21st  Assembly  District  of  New  York. 
The  key  to  his  later  attitude  as  a  reformer 
will  be  found  in  his  indignation  over  the 
decision  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  that  a 
law  he  had  fathered  in  favor  of  public 
health  by  prohibiting  the  manufacture 
and  the  preparation  of  tobacco  in  tene- 
ment-housec  was  declared  unconstitu- 
tional. 

He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Republican 
National  Convention,  1884,  and  during 
the  campaign  supported  James  G.  Blaine. 
From  1884-86  he  lived  on  a  ranch  in  North 
Dakota,  which  gave  the  background  for 
his  subsequent  writings  on  life  in  the  far 
west.     In  1886  he  was  defeated  for  the 

H— 


mayoralty  of  New  York  City  by  Abram 
F.  Hewitt.  Upon  appointment  by  Presi- 
dent Benjamin  Harrison,  Roosevelt  be- 
came a  member  of  the  United  States  Civil 
Service  Commission  serving  1889-95. 
Into  this  work  he  threw  great  enthusiasm, 
and  forced  the  question  of  civil  service 
reform  upon  Congress  and  the  American 
people.  He  resigned  in  1895  to  become 
President  of  the  Board  of  Police  Commis- 
sioners for  the  City  of  New  York,  in 
which  position  he  probably  made  himself 


THEODORE  ROOSEVELT 

more  felt  than  any  other  official  in  the 
history  of  the  city. 

At  the  request  of  President  McKinley 
in  1897  he  resigned  to  become  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  under  John  D. 
Long  of  Massachusetts.  Foreseeing  that 
war  with  Spain  was  inevitable,  he  in- 
sisted on  putting  the  United  States  fleet 
in  preparation  for  instant  action.  When 
the  war  with  Spain  came  he  resigned  his 
naval  position,  May  6,  1898,  and  en- 
tered the  military  service  as  Lieutenant 
Colonel,  First  United  States  Cavalry 
Volunteers,  known  subsequently  as  the 
"Rough  Riders."  He  was  in  command 
of  his  regiment  in  the  fight  at  San  Juan 
Hill,  was  commended  for  gallantry  and 
promoted  to  be  Colonel. 

In     November,     1898,     Roosevelt     was 

elected    Governor    of    the    State   of   New 

York.     During  his  incumbency  he  fought 

strenuously  against  boss  control  and  for 

Cyc  Vol  8 


BOOSEVELT 


110 


ROOSEVELT 


the  many  measures  he  had  advocated 
while  United  States  Civil  Service  Com- 
missioner. 

The  Republican  National  Convention  in 
Philadelphia,  1900,  nominated  him  for,  the 
Vice-Presidency  on  the  McKinley  ticket, 
a  candidacy  which  Roosevelt  was  very 
reluctant  to  accept.  President  McKinley 
was  assassinated  on  Sept.  14,  1901,  and 
Roosevelt  succeeded  to  the  Presidency 
at  the  age  of  43.  During  his  term  of 
office  he  fulfilled  his  promise  and  ad- 
hered strictly  to  the  Republican  plat- 
form and  principles  as  enunciated  by 
McKinley  during  the  campaign,  and  re- 
tained the  Cabinet  which  McKinley  had 
chosen.  One  of  his  outstanding  acts  was 
to  appoint  the  Anthracite  Strike  Arbi- 
tration Commission,  which  brought  about 
]  eace  in  the  anthracite  coal  regions  for 
many  subsequent  years. 

The  Republican  National  Convention  at 
Chicago  in  1904  unanimously  nominated 
Roosevelt  for  the  Presidency,  and  he  re- 
ceived 7,623,486  popular  votes  and  336 
electoral  votes  to  5,077,970  popular  votes 
and  140  electoral  college  votes  given  for 
the  Democratic  candidate,  Alton  B. 
Parker.  During  his  presidency  Roosevelt 
endeavored  to  regulate  the  influence  of 
large  corporations  without  destroying 
their  equities.  He  resisted  the  German 
Kaiser  and  brought  about  the  submission 
of  the  Moroccan  dispute  to  a  conference 
of  the  Powers  of  Algeciras.  Evidence 
has  come  to  light  that  both  Roosevelt  and 
his  Secretary,  John  Hay,  were  well  aware 
?.t  that  time  of  the  plains  of  the  German 
Emperor  for  universal  dominion,  and  they 
succeeded  in  frustrating  those  plans  so 
far  as  American  interests  were  concerned, 
and  particularly  in  relation  to^  China. 
Through  Roosevelt's  influence  in  1905 
Russia  was  persuaded  to  come  to  terms 
with  Japan  and  thus  close  the  costly 
Russo-Japanese  War,  for  which  he  re- 
ceived the  Nobel  Prize  in  1906.  Through- 
out his  administration  Roosevelt's  chief 
domestic  policy  was  the  conservation  of 
natural  resources.  The  most  conspicuous 
and  spectacular  of  Roosevelt's  acts  as 
President  was  the  recognition  of  the  new 
republic  of  Panama  which  led  to  the  sub- 
sequent completion  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

Upon  the  expiration  of  his  term  Roose- 
velt went  immediately  on  a  big  game 
hunting  excursion  through  Central  Africa. 
From  1909-14  he  was  contributing  editor 
of  the  "Outlook,"  in  which  journal  he 
commented  on  national  and  international 
affairs.  In  1910  he  was  special  ambassa- 
dor of  the  United  States  at  the  funeral 
of  King  Edward  VII. 

Upon  his  return  from  Africa  and  Eu- 
rope Roosevelt  became  convinced  that  the 
Republican  Party  was  falling  into  the 
hands  of  reactionaries.     The  Republican 


National  Convention,  Chicago,  1912, 
brought  on  a  crisis  in  which  the  Liberal 
or  Progressive  Republicans  demanded 
Roosevelt's  nomination.  There  was  bitter 
dispute  over  the  seating  of  certain  dele- 
gates, but  William  H.  Taft  was  nominated 
for  the  presidency.  Owing  to  a  belief 
that  certain  rulings  of  the  Chairman  were 
unparliamentary,  the  Progressive  Repub- 
licans felt  that  they  were  not  bound  by 
the  vote.  This  gave  birth  to  what  was 
known  as  the  Progressive  or  Bull  Moose 
Party,  which  six  weeks  later  met  in  Chi- 
cago and  nominated  Roosevelt  for  the 
presidency  on  a  new  party  ticket.  The 
platform  adopted  stressed  many  of  the 
liberal  doctrines  which  Roosevelt  had  ad- 
vocated during  his  career  and  some  to 
which  he  gave  personally  only  reluctant 
assent.  The  chief  planks  in  the  platform 
were  direct  primaries,  conservation  of 
natural  resources,  woman  suffrage,  the 
initiative,  the  referendum  and  the  recall 
of  judicial  decisions.  Woodrow  Wilson, 
Governor  of  New  Jersey,  was  nominated 
by  the  Democratic  Party  which  resulted 
in  an  intensely  bitter  three-cornered  fight. 
At  the  election  on  Nov.  5,  Wilson 
was  elected  by  6,286,000  votes  out  of 
15,310,000.  Roosevelt  received  4,126,000 
and  Taft  3,483,000. 

Although  many  of  the  Progressives  felt 
that  they  had  formed  a  new  permanent 
political  party,  Roosevelt  did  not  share 
their  views,  for  in  1916  he  gave  his  un- 
qualified support  to  Charles  E.  Hughes, 
the  Republican  candidate  for  the  presi- 
dency. In  1913  Roosevelt  went  to  South 
America  where  he  delivered  a  series  of 
addresses,  and  in  1914  explored  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Madeira  river,  in  Brazil,  for 
a  distance  of  600  miles.  Fever  contracted 
during  this  expedition  led  to  _  physical 
troubles  which  finally  ended  _  in  death. 
The  year  1915  is  memorable  in  his  life 
because  of  a  law-suit  brought  against 
him  by  William  Barnes,  Jr.,  of  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  charging  Roosevelt  with  libel.  The 
verdict  was  in  favor  of  the  defendant. 

The  Progressive  Party  in  1916  nomi- 
nated Roosevelt  for  the  presidency  which 
he  declined  almost  immediately,  in  order 
to  throw  his  personal  influence  in  favor 
of  Hughes  against  Wilson. 

During  the  World  War,  1914-18, 
Roosevelt  spoke  and  wrote  incessantly  on 
the  duty  of  America  to  take  a  more  posi- 
tive stand  in  the  conflict.  He  offered  to 
raise  and  equip  an  army  division  or  sev- 
eral divisions  and  lead  them  to  France 
in  1917,  but  the  offer  was  declined  by 
President  Wilson. 

Roosevelt  died  unexpectedly  Jan.  6, 
1919.  Since  his  death  all  partisan  feel- 
ing toward  him  has  passed  away,  and 
he  is  now  recognized  as  one  of  the  greatest 
leaders    of   the   United    States,   certainly 


ROOSEVELT 


111 


ROOT 


the  most  versatile  man  America  has  pro- 
duced. He  was  apparently  impulsive  in 
his  utterances,  but  when  his  conclusions 
were  examined,  almost  invariably  they 
were  found  to  rest  upon  sound  erudition 
and  had  been  reached  by  sustained  and 
consecutive  thought.  His  reading  was 
unusually  extensive,  and  his  personal 
friendship  with  statesmen,  scientists  and 
eminent  thinkers  and  writers  of  many 
lands  made  him  familiar  with  the  best 
and  most  advanced  contemporaneous 
thought  of  the  world. 

Besides  a  multitude  of  magazine  and 
newspaper  articles  he  wrote  the  following 
volumes:  "Winning  of  the  West"  (1889- 
96)  ;  "History  of  the  Naval  War  of  1812" 
(1882) ;  "Hunting  Trips  of  a  Ranchman" 

(1885)  ;   "Life  of  Thomas  Hart  Benton" 

(1886)  ;  "Life  of  Gouverneur  Morris" 
(1887) ;  "Ranch  Life  and  Hunting  Trail" 
(1888)  ;  "History  of  New  York"   (1890)  ; 

"The  Wilderness  Hunter"  (1893)  ;  "Amer- 
ican Ideals  and  Other  Essays"  (1897)  ; 
"The  Rough  Riders"  (1899)  ;  "Life  of 
Oliver  Cromwell"  (1900)  ;  "The  Strenu- 
ous Life"  (1900)  ;  "Works"  (8  Vols., 
1902)  ;  "The  Deer  Family"  (1902)  ;  "Out- 
door Pastimes  of  an  American  Hunter" 
(1906)  ;  "Good  Hunting"  (1907)  ;  "True 
Americanism";  "African  and  European 
Addresses"  (1910)  ;  "African  Game 
Trails"  (1910)  ;  "The  New  Nationalism" 
(1910);  "Realizable  Ideals"  (the  Earl 
lectures,  1912)  ;  "Conservation  of  Woman- 
hood and  Childhood"  (1912) ;  "History 
as  Literature,  and  Other  Essays"  (1913) ; 
"Theodore  Roosevelt,  an  Autobiography" 
(1913)  ;  "Life  Histories  of  African  Game 
Animals"  (2  vols.,  1914)  ;  "Through  the 
Brazilian  Wilderness"  (1914) ;  "America 
and  the  World  War"  (1915) ;  "A  Book- 
lover's  Holidays  in  the  Open"  (1916)  ; 
"Fear  God,  and  Take  Your  Own  Part" 
(1916);  "Foes  of  Our  Own  Household" 
(1917)  ;  "National  Strength  and  Inter- 
national Duty"  (Stafford  Little  Lectures, 
Princeton  Univ.,  1917)  ;  "Theodore  Roose- 
velt's Letters  to  His  Children"    (1919). 

ROOSEVELT,  THEODORE,  an  Ameri- 
can military  officer  and  public  of- 
ficial, born  in  Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y.,  in  1887, 
oldest  son  of  Theodore  Roosevelt  (q.  v.). 
He  graduated  from  Harvard  University 
in  1908,  receiving  an  honorary  degree  of 
M.A.  in  1919.  After  leaving  college  he 
engaged  in  business.  Upon  the  entrance 
of  the  United  States  into  the  World  War, 
he  volunteered,  being  commissioned  major 
of  the  26th  infantry  on  April  20,  1917, 
and  being  promoted  lieutenant-colonel  in 
September,  1918.  He  saw  service  in 
France  from  June,  1917,  to  the  end  of 
the  war,  participating  in  the  battles  at 
Cantigny,  Soissons,  and  in  the  Argonne- 
Meuse  and  the  St.  Mihiel  offensives.     He 


was  wounded  and  received  the  Legion  of 
Honor  and  the  Croix  de  Guerre.  He  was 
an  organizer  of  the  American  Legion,  a 
member  of  the  National  Executive  Com- 
mittee of   the   Boy    Scouts   of   America, 


THEODORE  ROOSEVELT 

and  trustee  of  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  New  York.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1919,  he  was  elected  to  the  New  York 
State  Assembly,  and  was  elected  again 
in  November,  1920.  He  wrote  "Average 
Americans"  (1919).  He  was  nominated 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy  on 
March  7,  1921,  by  President  Harding, 
and  confirmed  March  9th. 

ROOT,  in  anatomy,  that  part  of  any 
organ  or  appendage  of  the  body  which  is 
buried  in  another  part.  Thus  the  root  of 
a  nail  is  the  portion  covered  by  the  skin; 
the  root  of  a  tooth,  the  base  of  it  which 
is  lodged  in  a  socket. 

In  astronomy,  the  moment  from  which 
one  begins  to  calculate  the  time  of  revo- 
lution of  a  planet. 

In  botany,  the  radix  or  descending  axis 
of  a  plant.  The  roots  of  dicotyledons  are 
exorhizal,  those  of  monocotyledons  en- 
dorhizal,  and  those  of  acotyledons  hetero- 
hizal.  A  root  has  no  perfect  bark,  true 
pith,  medullary  sheath,  or  true  leaves, 
and  only  a  thin  epidermis,  a  few  stomata, 
and  very  rarely  leafbuds.     Its  growth  is 


ROOT 


112 


ROOT 


chiefly  at  the  lower  extremity.  The  hody 
of  a  root  is  called  the  caudex,  its  minute 
sub-divisions  the  fibrils  or  radicles,  and 
their  ends  the  spongioles.  A  primary 
root  is  one  formed  by  the  downward 
elongation  of  the  axis  of  the  embryo, 
and  is  therefore  in  a  line  with  the  stem; 
secondary  or  lateral  roots,  like  those  of 
ivy,  spring  laterally  from  the  stem  and 
from  the  primary  root.  When  the  pri- 
mary root  is  thicker  than  the  branches 
which  proceed  from  it,  it  is  called  a  tap 
root,  when  it  is  no  thicker  than  its  rami- 
fications, which  conceal  it  from  view,  the 
root  is  said  to  be  fibrous.  Other  forms 
of  roots  are  conical,  fusiform,  napiform, 
rotund,  nodose  or  coralline,  moniliform, 
tuberose,  or  (finally)  premorse.  Most 
roots  are  terrestrial,  a  few  are  aerial, 
and  a  few  aquatic.  The  chief  functions 
of  the  root  are  to  anchor  the  plant  firmly 
in  the  ground,  and  to  transmit  upward  to 
the  stem  and  leaves  absorbed  nutriment 
from  the  soil.  Roots  require  air,  and  in 
some  cases  in  gardens  obtain  it  by  push- 
ing their  way  into  old  drains. 

In  hydraulic  engineering,  the  end  of 
a  weir  or  dam  where  it  unites  with  the 
natural  bank.  In  mathematics,  the  root 
of  a  quantity  is  any  quantity  which,  being 
taken  a  certain  number  of  times  as  a 
factor,  will  produce  the  quantity  (see 
Square  Root).  A  root  of  a  quantity 
may  be  real,  or  it  may  be  imaginary. 
The  character  used  to  denote  a  root  is  V, 
called  the  radical  sign.  In  music:  (1) 
A  note  which,  besides  its  own  sound,  gives 
overtones  or  harmonics.  (2)  That  note 
from  among  whose  overtones  any  chord 
may  be  selected.  (3)  Sometimes  used  by 
modern  musicians  as  describing  a  note 
on  which,  when  either  expressed  or  im- 
plied, a  chord  is  built  up.  In  philology, 
an  elementary  notional  syllable ;  that  part 
of  a  word  which  conveys  its  essential 
meaning  as  distinguished  from  the  forma- 
tive parts  by  which  this  meaning  is  modi- 
fied. 

ROOT,  ELIHXT,  an  American  lawyer 
and  statesman,  born  in  Clinton,  N.  Y., 
1845.  He  studied  at  Hamilton  College, 
of  whose  faculty  his  father  was  a  mem- 
ber, then  attended  New  York  University 
Law  School,  being  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1867.  His  first  public  office  was  that 
of  United  States  District  Attorney  for 
the  Southern  District  of  New  York,  which 
he  held  in  1883.  In  that  same  year  he 
was  a  delegate  at  large  to  the  New  York 
State  Constitutional  Convention,  where 
he  was  appointed  chairman  of  the  judici- 
ary committee.  In  1899  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  War  by  President  McKinley, 
and  again  in  1901.  During  this  period, 
covering  the  Spanish-American  War  and 
the   Filipino  insurrection,  he   performed 


remarkable  work  in  harmonizing  the  regu- 
lar army  and  the  state  militia  forces.  It 
was  at  his  initiative  that  the  General 
Staff  was  created.  In  1904  he  again  took 
up  private  law  practice,  but  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  succeeded  John  Hay  as  Sec- 
retary of  State.  In  1909  he  went  to 
Washington  as  Senator  from  New  York, 
but  declined  to  serve  further  as  such  in 


ELIHU   ROOT 

1913.  In  1910  he  was  made  a  permanent 
member  of  the  International  Court  of 
Arbitration  at  the  Hague,  since  which  he 
has  been  prominently  identified  with  the 
movement  toward  international  peace.  In 
1912  he  was  awarded  the  Nobel  prize. 
In  1917  he  was  sent  as  special  commis- 
sioner to  represent  President  Wilson  to 
the  Provisional  Government  of  the  new 
Russian  Republic,  but  was  not  well  re- 
ceived there  on  account  of  his  well  known 
antipathy  toward  Socialistic  ideas.  Dur- 
ing 1920,  when  it  became  apparent  that 
the  United  States  would  not  become  a 
member  of  the  League  of  Nations,  Mr. 
Root  devoted  his  attention  to  drafting 
alternative  proposals  in  the  form  of  an 
international  legislative  body  which  would 
be  less  centralized  than  the  League.  Mr. 
Root  was  generally  considered  one  of  the 
keenest  American  diplomats  and  experts 
on  international  law. 


ROOT 


113 


RORQUAL 


ROOT,  GEORGE  FREDERICK,  an 

American  musician  and  song-writer ;  born 
in  Sheffield,  Mass.,  Aug.  30,  1820.  His 
first  song,  "Hazel  Dell"  (1853),  was  very 
popular.  It  appeared  as  the  work  of 
"Wurzel,"  the  German  name  for  "Root," 
a  pseudonym  he  often  used  later.  Among 
the  most  popular  of  his  songs  are:  "Ro- 
salie, the  Prairie  Flower"  (1855)  ;  "Shout- 
ing the  Battle  Cry  of  Freedom"  (1861)  ; 
"Just  Before  the  Battle,  Mother"  (1863) ; 
"Tramp,  Tramp,  Tramp,  the  Boys  are 
Marching"  (1864)  ;  and  the  well-known 
quartet,  "There's  Music  in  the  Air."  His 
cantatas  include  "The  Flower  Queen" 
(1852)  and  "The  Haymakers"  (1857). 
He  did  much  to  elevate  the  standard  of 
music  in  the  United  States,  and  also  pub- 
lished methods  for  the  piano  and  organ, 
handbooks  on  harmony  and  teaching,  etc. 
He  died  Aug.  6,  1895. 

ROPE,  a  large,  stout,  twisted  cord  of 
hemp,  of  not  less,  generally,  than  an  inch 
in  circumference.  A  certain  proportion 
of  hemp  twisted  together  forms  a  yarn, 
and  a  number  of  yarns  form  a  strand. 
Three  strands  twisted  together  form  a 
rope.  Rope  is  either  white  or  tarred, 
the  latter  being  the  best  if  liable  to  ex- 
posure to  wet,  the  former  if  not  exposed. 
The  strength  of  tarred  rope  is,  however, 
only  about  three-fourths  that  of  white 
rope,  and  its  loss  of  strength  increases 
with  time.  Rope  is  designated  by  its 
circumference,  expressed  in  inches,  and 
is  issued  in  coils  of  113  fathoms  each; 
marline  and  hambroline  in  skeins,  spun- 
yarn  in  pounds;  the  latter  is  made  from 
old  rope  (junk).  Government  rope  is 
distinguished  by  a  colored  thread,  red, 
blue,  or  yellow,  which  runs  through  it. 
Rope  used  in  the  artillery  service  is  coiled 
with  the  sun,  i.  e.,  from  left  to  right,  in 
which  direction  the  yarns  are  twisted 
so  as  to  avoid  kinking.  Coir  rope,  which 
comes  from  Ceylon  and  the  Maldive 
Islands,  is  made  from  the  fibrous  husk 
of  the  cocoanut.  Manila  rope  from  the 
fibers  of  a  species  of  wild  banana.  Wire 
rope,  both  iron  and  steel,  is  also  employed ; 
on  shipboard,  particularly,  to  a  consider- 
able extent. 

ROPER,     DANIEL     CALHOUN,     an 

American  public  official,  born  in  Marlboro 
co.,  S.  C,  in  1867.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  N.  C,  and  at  the  Na- 
tional University,  Washington,  D.  C. 
From  1892  to  1894  he  was  a  member  of 
the  S.  C.  House  of  Representatives,  from 
1894  to  1897  clerk  of  the  United  States 
Senate  Committee  on  Interstate  Com- 
merce; from  1900  to  1910  expert  special 
agent,  United  States  Census  Bureau; 
from  1910  to  1913  clerk  of  the  Ways  and 
Means  Committee,  United  States  House 
of    Representatives;    and   from    1913     to 


1916  first  assistant  postmaster  general. 
He  took  active  part  in  President  Wilson'3 
election  campaign  in  1916,  was  vice-chair- 
man of  the  United  States  Tariff  Com- 
mission from  March  to  September,  1917, 
when  he  became  commissioner  of  internal 
revenue.  He  greatly  improved  the  col- 
lection of  cotton  statistics,  originated  the 
publication  of  the  series  of  reports  on 
cotton  supply,  and  made  a  systematic 
study  on  behalf  of  the  government  of  do- 
mestic and  foreign  textile  industries.  He 
wrote  the  "United  States  Post  Office" 
(1917). 

ROPES,  JOHN  CODMAN,  an  Ameri- 
can historian;  born  in  St.  Petersburg, 
Russia,  April  28,  1836;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1857;  studied  at  the  Har- 
vard law  school,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1861.  _  Largely  through  his  influ- 
ence the  United  States  Government  be- 
gan the  collection  and  preservation  of 
information  relating  to  the  Civil  War, 
and  he  organized  the  Military  Historical 
Society  of  Massachusetts.  Besides  con- 
tributions to  this  society  and  to  periodi- 
cals, he  wrote:  "The  Army  under  Pope" 
(1881);  "The  First  Napoleon"  (1885); 
"The  Campaign  of  Waterloo";  "Atlas  of 
Waterloo";  and  "The  Story  of  the  Civil 
War."  He  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct. 
28,  1899. 

RORAIMA,  a  celebrated  mountain  in 
South  America,  where  the  boundaries  of 
British  Guiana,  Venezuela,  and  Brazil 
meet,  8,580  feet  high,  flat-topped,  with 
steep,  rocky  sides,  rendering  the  summit 
almost  inaccessible. 

RORER,  SARAH  TYSON,  an  Ameri- 
can domestic  economist  and  writer,  born 
at  Richboro,  Pa.  She  was  educated  at  the 
East  Aurora  Academy,  and  in  1871  mar- 
ried W.  Albert  Rorer.  She  was  for  33 
years  lecturer  on  food,  health,  and  dis- 
ease, and  a  writer  on  domestic  science. 
From  1886  to  1892  she  was  editor  and 
part  owner  of  "Table  Talk,"  and  from 
1893  to  1897  was  the  editor  of  "House- 
hold News."  From  1897  to  1911  she  was 
on  the  staff  of  the  "Ladies'  Home  Jour- 
nal," and  from  the  latter  date  devoted  all 
her  time  to  lecturing  on  domestic  science. 
She  was  the  author  of  many  books  on 
cookery  which  obtained  a  wide  sale  and 
popularity. 

RORQUAL,  the  name  given  to  certain 
whales,  closery  allied  to  the  common  or 
whalebone  whales,  but  distinguished  by 
having  a  dorsal  fin,  with  the  throat  and 
under  parts  wrinkled  with  deep  longi- 
tudinal folds,  which  are  supposed  to  be 
susceptible  of  great  dilatations,  but  the  use 
of  which  is  as  yet  unknown.  Two  or  three 
species  are  known,  but  they  are  rather 
avoided  on  account  of  their  ferocity,  the 


BOSA 


114 


BOSACEA 


shortness  and  coarseness  of  their  baleen 
or  whalebone,  and  the  small  quantity  of 
oil  they  produce.  The  N.  rorqual  (Balae- 
noptera  boops)  attains  a  great  size,  being 
found  from  80  to  over  100  feet  in  length, 
and  is  thus  the  largest  living  animal 
known.  The  rorqual  feeds  on  cod,  herring, 
pilchards,  and  other  fish,  in  pursuing 
which  it  is  not  seldom  stranded  on  the 
shore. 

BOSA,    CABL    AUGUST    NICHOLAS, 

originally  Rose,  a  German  opera  manager 
and  violinist;  born  in  Hamburg,  Ger- 
many, March  22,  1842.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Leipsic  Conservatory  for  a  violinist, 
and  appeared  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in 
London,  March  10,  1866.  He  soon  came 
to  the  United  States,  where  during  a  con- 
cert tour  he  met  and  married  (in  New 
York,  in  February,  1867)  Mme.  Parepa; 
formed  an  opera  company,  including  Mme. 
Parepa-Rosa,  Wachtel,  Santley,  Ronconi, 
and  Formes,  traveling  as  far  as  Cali- 
fornia. After  his  wife's  death  (1874), 
he  organized  in  London  an  English  opera 
company  with  which  he  produced  nearly 
a  score  of  popular  operas  not  previously 
given  in  English.  He  died  in  PariG, 
France,  April  30,  1889.  See  Parepa-Rosa. 

BOSA,  MONTE,  a  mountain  or  group 
of  the  Pennine  Alps,  on  the  frontiers  of 
the  Swiss  canton  of  Valais  and  Piedmont, 
and  forming  part  of  the  watershed  be- 
tween the  Rhone  and  the  Po.  Next  to 
Mont  Blanc  it  is  the  highest  mountain  in 
the  Alps,  but  as  a  group  it  is  much  more 
massive  than  the  Mont  Blanc  group.  It 
has  eight  summits  above  14,000  feet,  the 
highest  being  Dufourspitze  (15,217), 
ascended  for  the  first  time  in  1855.  Of 
the  huge  glaciers  that  occupy  the  slopes 
of  this  mountain  the  chief  are  the  Gorner 
Glacier  on  the  W.,  the  Schwarzberg  and 
Findelen  Glaciers  on  the  N.,  the  Sesia 
and  Macugnaga  Glaciers  on  the  E.,  and 
the  Lys  Glacier  on  the  S. 

BOSA,  SALVATOB,  an  Italian  paint- 
er, etcher  and  poet;  born  near  Naples, 
Italy,  June  20,  1615.  He  received  instruc- 
tion in  art  from  his  brother-in-law,  Fran- 
cesco Fracanzaro,  a  pupil  of  Ribera,  but 
his  taste  and  skill  were  more  influenced 
by  his  studies  of  nature  on  the  Neapoli- 
tan coast.  Rosa's  father,  dying  in  1632, 
left  his  family  in  difficulties,  and  Salva- 
tor  was  compelled  to  sell  his  landscapes 
for  small  sums.  One  of  his  pictures  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  painter  Lanfranco, 
who  at  once  recognized  the  genius  of  the 
youth  and  encouraged  him  to  go  to  RomV 
In  1638  Rosa  settled  in  Rome,  where  he 
soon  established  his  reputation  and  rose 
to  fame  and  wealth.  The  bitterness  of 
his  satire,  expressed  both  in  his  satirical 
poems  and  in  an  allegorical  painting  of 


the  "Wheel  of  Fortune"  rendered  his  stay 
in  Rome  inadvisable.  He  therefore  ac- 
cepted an  invitation  to  Florence  (1642), 
where  he  remained  nearly  nine  years 
under  the  protection  of  the  Medici.  He 
finally  returned  to  Rome.     Salvator  Rosa 


SALVATOR  ROSA 

delighted  in  romantic  landscape,  delineat- 
ing scenes  of  gloomy  grandeur  and  bold 
magnificence.  He  also  painted  battle 
scenes,  and  latterly  historical  pictures. 
His  poems  were  all  satires,  vigorous 
enough  and  pungent;  among  them  are 
"Babylon"  (i.e.,  Rome),  "Music,"  "Poet- 
ry," "Painting,"  "War,"  and  "Envy." 
Rosa  etched  from  his  own  works  with 
great  skill.  He  died  in  Rome,  Italy, 
March  15,  1673. 

BOSACEA,  ACNE  BOSACEA,  or 
GUTTA  BOSEA,  an  affection  which  ap- 
pears on  the  face,  especially  the  nose, 
forehead,  cheeks,  and  skin,  characterized 
by  an  intense  reddening  of  the  skin  with- 
out swelling.  Persons  who  indulge  in 
alcohol  to  excess  are  liable  to  it. 

BOSACEJE,  roseworts;  an  order  of 
plants  placed  by  Lindley  under  his  Rosal 
Alliance.  Calyx  four  or  five-lobed,  free 
or  adhering  to  the  ovary;  petals  five  peri- 
gynous,  equal;  stamens  indefinite,  rising 
from  the  calyx  just  within  the  petals, 
curving  inward  in  aestivation ;  ovaries  sev- 
eral or  only  one ;  ovules  two  or  more,  gen- 
erally suspended;  fruit  either  one-seeded 


ROSAMOND 


115 


ROSCOE 


nuts  or  acini,  or  several-seeded  follicles; 
the  leaves  are  simple  or  compound,  gen- 
erally with  two  stipules.  Herbaceous 
plants  or  shrubs.  The  rosaces?  are  closely 
akin  to  the  pomacese,  the  drupacese,  the 
sanguiso-rbese,  and  some  other  orders. 
They  are  divided  by  Lindley  into  five 
families  or  tribes,  rosidss,  potentillidse, 
epiraeidss,  quillaise,  and  neuradese.  The 
rosacea?  occur  chiefly  in  the  temperate  and 
cold  parts  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere; 
when  they  occur  in  the  tropics  it  is  gen- 
erally on  high  land.  They  are  in  general 
astringent,  and  have  been  regarded  as 
febrifuges.  A  recent  estimate  gives  90 
genera  and  1,500  species. 

ROSAMOND,  commonly  called  Fair 
Rosamond,  the  mistress  of  Henry  II.  of 
England.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Wal- 
ter de  Clifford,  a  knight  of  property  in 
various  shires.  Almost  everything  else 
related  to  Rosamond  is  legendary.  The 
fable  of  the  dagger  and  poison  with  which 
the  jealous  Queen  Eleanor  is  said  to  have 
sought  out  her  rival  has  not  been  traced 
higher  than  a  ballad  of  1611.  She  died 
in  1176  or  1177,  and  was  buried  in  the 
Church  of  Godstow  Nunnery,  whence, 
however,  Hugh  of  Lincoln  caused  her 
body  to  be  removed  in  1191. 

ROSANILINE,  in  chemistry, 

a  red  dye,  occurring  in  commerce  under 
the  names  of  aniline  red,  azaleine,  fuch- 
sine,  magenta,  roseine,  etc.  It  is  prepared 
by  heating  a  mixture  of  dry  arsenic  acid 
and  aniline  to  140°,  for  six  or  eight  hours. 
It  forms  colorless  crystalline  plates,  which 
are  colored  red  on  exposure  to  the  air, 
insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  alco- 
hol. The  aniline  reds  used  in  dyeing  are 
generally  monoacid  salts  of  rosaniline 
more  or  less  pure. 

ROSARIO,  the  third  city  of  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  and  the  largest  in  Santa 
Fe;  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Parana,  190 
miles  N.  W.  of  Buenos  Ayres.  It  has  an 
excellent  harbor,  and  carries  on  a  large 
commerce  direct  with  Europe ;  the  exports 
exceed  $100,000,000.  The  houses  for  the 
most  part  are  of  a  single  story;  for  the 
rest,  the  city  is  laid  out,  on  a  smaller 
scale,  on  the  lines  of  Buenos  Ayres,  with 
narrow  streets,  few  and  paltry  plazas,  and 
only  one  monument  of  note — a  lofty  marble 
shaft  (1883)  bearing  a  figure  of  Victory 
and  surrounded  by  four  statues.  Tram- 
ways run  in  every  direction,  and  there  is 
a  telephone  to  Buenos  Ayres.  The  city 
possesses  an  exchange,  a  theater,  a  great 
bull-ring,  two  markets,  hospitals,  steam 
elevators,  a  sugar  factory,  etc.  Rosario 
was  founded  in  1725.    Pop.  about  250,000. 


ROSARY,  in  ordinary  language,  a 
chaplet,  a  garland.  Also,  a  bed  of  roses; 
a  place  where  roses  grow;  or  a  coin  so 
called  from  bearing  the  figure  of  a  rose, 
of  foreign  coinage,  about  the  size  of  a 
penny,  but  worth  less  than  a  halfpenny, 
chiefly  smuggled  into  Ireland.  In  1300 
it  was  made  death  to  import  them.  In 
comparative  religion,  a  string  of  beads 
by  means  of  which  account  is  kept  of  the 
number  of  prayers  uttered. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church:  (1)  A 
form  of  prayer  in  which  the  "Hail  Mary" 
is  recited  150  times  in  honor  of  the  Virgin 
Mary.  It  is  divided  into  15  decades,  each 
of  which  begins  with  the  "Our  Father" 
(see  Lord's  Prayer),  is  accompanied  by 
meditation  on  one  of  the  mysteries  in  the 
life  of  our  Lord,  and  ends  with  the  dox- 
ology.  This  is  properly  called  the  Do- 
minican, or  Great  Rosary,  but  the  name 
is  often  popularly  given  to  the  Chaplet, 
which  contains  but  50  aves.  The  15 
Mysteries  which  should  be  meditated  on 
during  the  recitation  of  the  Rosary  are 
divided  into  three  series,  each  correspond- 
ing to  a  chaplet: 

1.  Joyful. — The  Annunciation,  the  Visi- 
tation, the  Birth  of  Jesus,  the  Presenta- 
tion in  the  Temple,  the  Finding-  in  the 
Temple. 

2.  Sorrowful. — The  Agony  in  the  Gar- 
den, the  Scourging  at  the  Pillar,  the 
Crowning  with  Thorns,  the  Carrying  of 
the  Cross,   the   Crucifixion. 

3.  Glorious. — The  Resurrection,  the  As- 
cension, the  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
the  Assumption,  and  the  Coronation  of  the 
B.   V.  M. 

There  are  also  the  Rosaries  of  St.  Brid- 
get, of  the  Seven  Dolors,  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  of  the  Five  Wounds,  and 
the  Crown  of  Our  Saviour.  (2)  The  beads 
on  which  any  of  the  foregoing  forms  of 
prayers  are  said. 

ROSARY  SUNDAY,  the  first  Sunday 
in  October;  a  feast  instituted  by  Gregory 
XIII.  for  the  Confraternity  of  the  Rosary, 
and  made  of  universal  observance  after 
the  victory  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI. 
over  the  Turks,  in  gratitude  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  An  impetus  has  been  given  to 
the  devotion  of  the  rosary  by  Leo  XIII., 
who  enjoined  its  daily  use  in  public  dur- 
ing October.  Roses  are  blessed  and  dis- 
tributed as  souvenirs,  and  the  rosary  is 
recited   continually  during  the   day. 

ROSCITTS,  QUINTTJS,  the  most  cele- 
brated comic  actor  at  Rome;  born  a  slave 
about  134  B.  c.  He  realized  an  enormous 
fortune  by  his  acting,  and  was  raised  to 
the  equestrian  rank  by  Sulla.  He  enjoyed 
the  friendship  of  Cicero,  who  in  his  early 
years  received  instruction  from  the  great 
actor.     Roscius  died  about  62  B.  c. 

ROSCOE,  WILLIAM,  an  English  his- 
torian; born  in  Mt.  Pleasant,  Liverpool, 


ROSCOMMON 


116 


ROSEBERY 


England,  March  8,  1753.  His  most  im- 
portant work,  "The  Life  of  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici"  (1796),  did  much  toward  stimu- 
lating English  interest  in  Italian  litera- 
ture. His  "The  Butterfly's  Ball  and  the 
Grasshopper's  Feast"  (1807),  a  nursery 
classic  in  verse,  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  king  and  queen,  and  was  set  to 
music  for  the  young  princesses.  Among 
his  many  other  works  may  be  named :  "A 
General  View  of  the  African  Slave  Trade" 
(1788) ;  "The  Life  and  Pontificate  of  Leo 
the  Tenth"  (1805) ;  and  "On  the  Origin 
and  Vicissitudes  of  Literature,  Science 
and  Art"  (1817).  He  died  in  Toxteth 
Park,  Liverpool,  June  30,  1831. 

ROSCOMMON,  an  inland  county  of 
Connaught,  Ireland,  called  after  Comon, 
a  founder  of  monasteries  and  schools  in 
the  eighth  century.  The  area  is  949 
square  miles.  The  surface  is  fertile  and 
I  is  watered  by  the  Shannon  river.  The 
plain  of  Boyle  in  the  center,  celebrated 
for  sheep,  is  full  of  historical  landmarks, 
and  at  Croaghon,  formerly  Rath  Crua- 
chain,  the  ancient  burial-place  of  the 
kings  of  Connaught,  still  stands  the 
pillar  stone  of  King  Dathi,  killed  in  the 
Alps,  428  A.  D.  Sheep  and  cattle  raising 
and  agriculture  are  highly  developed. 
The  capital  is  Roscommon.  Pop.  about 
90,000. 

ROSE,  the  beautiful  and  fragrant 
flower  which  has  given  name  to  the  large 
natural  order  Rosacex,  seems  to  be  con- 
fined to  the  cooler  parts  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere.  The  species  are  numerous 
and  are  extremely  difficult  to  distinguish. 
The  rose  is  easily  cultivated,  and  its 
varieties  are  almost  endless. 

Nature,  almost  unaided,  will  perform 
wonders  in  bringing  forth  new  roses;  but 
man,  properly  conversant  with  her  >  se- 
crets, can  do  much  to  help.  Crossing, 
grafting,  and  bud  variation  are  the 
methods  practiced  by  growers.  Of  these 
crossing  is  the  favorite  and  most  success- 
ful; it  consists  in  transferring  the  pollen 
of  one  variety  to  the  stigma  of  another. 
The  American  Beauty  rose  had  its  birth  in 
an  almost  neglected  corner  of  the  Wash- 
»  ington  garden  of  the  late  George  Bancroft. 
Amid  a  tangle  of  roses  of  common  varie- 
ties suddenly  blossomed  this  new  and  won- 
derful rose.  Slips  were  at  once  experi- 
mented with,  and  American  Beauty  has 
been  steadily  improved  in  size  and  fra- 
grance. 

ROSE,  JOHN  HOLLAND,  an  English 
historian,  born  at  Bedford,  England,  in 
1855.  He  was  educated  at  Owens  Col- 
lege, Manchester,  and  at  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  graduating  from  the  latter 
in  1879.  He  was  lecturer  on  modern  his- 
tory to  the   Cambridge   and   London   So- 


cieties for  University  Extension,  in  1911, 
after  which  he  was  reader  of  modern 
history  at  Cambridge.  His  historical 
writings  include  "The  Revolutionary  and 
Napoleonic  Era"  (1894)  ;  "The  Reign  of 
Queen  Victoria"  (1897);  "The  Rise  of 
Democracy"  (1897) ;  "William  Pitt  and 
the  Great  War"  (1911)  ;  "Origins  of  the 
War"  (1914) ;  and  "The  Development  of 
the  European  Nations,  1870-1914"  (1915). 
He  was  one  of  the  contributors  to  the 
Cambridge  Modern  History. 

ROSE  ACACIA  (Robinia  hispida, 
natural  order  Leguminosse) ,  a  highly  or- 
namental flowering  shrub  inhabiting  the 
S.  parts  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  and 
now  frequently  seen  in  gardens  in  Eu- 
rope. It  is  a  species  of  locust;  the  flowers 
are  large,  rose-colored,  and  inodorous ;  the 
pods  are  glandular-hispid. 

ROSE  APPLE,  or  MALABAR  PLUM, 
a  tree  of  the  genus  Eugenia,  the  E.  Jam- 
bos,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Myr- 
tacese.  It  is  a  branching  tree,  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies.  The  fruit  is  about 
the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  is  rose-scented, 
and  has  the  flavor  of  an  apricot. 

ROSE,  ATTAR  OF.     See  Attar. 

ROSEBAY,  in  botany,  the  popular 
name  of  the  genus  Rhododendron. 

ROSEBERY,  ARCHIBALD  PHILIP 
PRIMROSE,  FIFTH  EARL  OF,  an  Eng- 
lish statesman;  born  May  7,  1847;  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  grandfather  in  1868.  He  was 
an  advanced  Liberal  in  politics,  and  a 
ready  and  effective  speaker.  He  was  un- 
der-secretary  at  the  home  office,  1881- 
1883;  lord  privy  seal  and  first  commis- 
sioner of  works,  1885 ;  next  year  held  the 
secretaryship  of  foreign  affairs  till  the 
fall  of  Gladstone.  Had  he  been  able  to 
enter  the  House  of  Commons,  his  rise 
would  have  been  more  rapid.  In  1878 
he  was  elected  lord-rector  of  Aberdeen 
University;  in  1880  of  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity; in  1899  of  Glasgow  University, 
Chancellor  of  the  same  in  1908.  In  1889 
he  became  a  member  of  the  London 
County  Council,  and  was  appointed  chair- 
man of  that  body.  The  University  of 
Cambridge  conferred  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
on  him  in  1888.  He  advocated  the  reform 
of  the  House  of  Lords,  and  was  much 
interested  in  the  questions  of  imperial 
federation  and  the  social  conditions  of 
the  masses.  In  1878  he  married  Hannah, 
daughter  of  Baron  Mayer  de  Rothschild; 
she  died  in  1890.  When  Mr.  Gladstone 
succeeded  to  power  Lord  Rosebery  be- 
came Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and 
in  October  of  the  same  year  (1892)  he 
was  made  a  Knight  of  the  Garter.  On 
the    resignation    of    Mr.    Gladstone    in 


HOSE  CHAFER 


117 


ROSEN 


March,  1894,  the  queen  offered  the  post 
of  prime  minister  to  Lord  Rosebery,  and 
he  carried  on  the  government  with  no 
little  success  till  July,  1895.  He  then 
urged  on  his  supporters  that  the  general 
election  should  be  fought  on  the  question 
of  the  predominance  of  the  House  of 
Lords.  During  1896  his  attitude  on  the 
Armenian  question  differed  from  that  of 
Mr.  Gladstone,  and  finally  he  decided  on 
resigning  the  leadership  of  the  party  in 
order  to  leave  himself  an  absolutely  free 
hand  on  this  question.  He  took  no  fur- 
ther active  part  in  political  life,  but  de- 
voted his  time  chiefly  to  historical  writing. 
Lord  Rosebery  kept  an  excellent  racing 
stud  and  in  1894  and  1895  he  won  the 
Derby.  Among  his  publications  are: 
"Napoleon"  (1900) ;  "Lord  Randolph 
Churchill"    (1906);   "Chatham"    (1910). 

ROSE  CHAFER  (Cetonia  aurata),  an 
injurious  beetle,  whose  grubs  destroy  the 
roots  of  strawberries  and  other  plants, 
while  the  adults  spoil  the  flowers  of  roses, 
strawberries,  and  seed  turnips.  The  eggs 
are  laid  in  the  ground;  the  full-grown 
grubs  are  whitish  and  about  an  inch  and 
a  half  in  length,  after  two  or  three  years 
they  pupate  inside  earthen  cocoons.  The 
adults,  which  are  well  able  to  fly  from 
place  to  place,  measure  about  an  inch  in 
length,  are  golden  green  above,  coppery 
with  a  tint  of  rose  beneath.  The  "rose- 
bug"  of  the  Eastern  United  States  is  an- 
other beetle  (Macrodactylus  subspino- 
sus),  a  voracious  pest  which  destroys  the 
flowers  of  rosaceous  plants. 

ROSECRANS,    WILLIAM    STARKE, 

an  American  military  officer;  born  in 
Kingston,  O.,  Sept.  6,  1819;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy in  1842;  entered  the  army  as  brevet 
2d  lieutenant  of  engineers,  but  after 
serving  for  a  year  at  Hampton  Roads 
returned  to  West  Point  as  assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Engineering.  In  1847  he  again 
entered  active  service,  but  resigned  in 
1854  to  become  a  consulting  engineer  and 
architect  in  Cincinnati,  O.  He  began  his 
career  in  the  Civil  War  by  organizing 
and  drilling  the  Home  Guard  in  Ohio; 
and  in  June,  1861,  was  placed  in  charge 
of  Camp  Chase.  He  was  made  colonel 
of  the  23d  Ohio  Volunteers  soon  after- 
ward, and  in  a  short  time  was  appointed 
a  Brigadier-General.  He  was  second  in 
command  to  General  McClellan  in  the 
operations  in  West  Virginia,  engaging 
successfully  in  the  actions  at  Rich  Moun- 
tain, Va.,  and  at  Carnifax  Ferry,  Va., 
Sept.  10,  1861.  In  May,  1862,  he  com- 
manded the  right  wing  of  the  Army  of 
the  Mississippi  during  the  siege  of  Cor- 
inth; and  on  June  11,  1862,  succeeded 
General  Halleck  in  the  command  of  that 
army.    On  Oct.  26,  1862,  he  relieved  Gen- 


eral Buell  of  the  command  of  the  Army 
of  the  Cumberland,  and  on  Oct.  30  began 
his  memorable  march  to  Nashville,  Tenn. 
Owing  to  his  defeat  at  Chickamauga 
in  September  of  the  following  year  he 
was  superseded  in  command  by  General 
Thomas  and  assigned  to  the  Department 
of  Missouri.  He  was  deprived  of  his  com- 
mand Dec.  9,  1864,  whereupon  he  retired 
to  Cincinnati,  where  he  remained  inactive 
till  the  close  of  the  war.  In  1868  he  was 
appointed  United  States  minister  to  Mex- 
ico; in  1880  and  1882  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress; and  in  June,  1885,  was  appointed 
register  of  the  United  States  Treasury. 
An  act  passed  in  1889  restored  him  to 
the  rank  of  Brigadier-General  in  the  army 
and  placed  him  on  the  retired  list.  He 
died  near  Redondo,  Cal.,  March  11,  1898. 

ROSEDALE,  a  city  of  Kansas,  in 
Wyandotte  co.  It  adjoins  Kansas  City, 
Kansas,  on  the  N.,  and  Kansas  City,  Mis- 
souri, on  the  E.,  and  forms  practically  a 
part  of  Greater  Kansas  City.  Pop. 
(1910)   5,960;    (1920)   7,674. 

ROSELLE,  a  borough  of  New  Jersey, 
in  Union  co.,  on  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the 
Central  of  New  Jersey,  and  the  Ranway 
Valley  railroads.  Its  principal  industry 
is  the  manufacture  of  hydraulic  machin- 
ery. Its  notable  buildings  include  a  high 
school  and  a  borough  hall.  Pop.  (1910) 
2,725;    (1920)    5,737. 

ROSELLE  PARK,  a  borough  of  New 
Jersey  in  Union  co.,  adjoining  on  the  west 
the  borough  of  Roselle.  It  is  a  separate 
borough  and  is  entirely  a  residential 
place.     Pop.   (1910)   3,138;    (1920)   5,438. 

ROSEMARY,  the  Rosmarinus  offici- 
nalis, a  native  of  the  S.  of  Europe  and 
Asia  Minor,  and  cultivated  in  India,  etc.; 
a  very  fragrant  labiate  plant  with  a 
white  or  pale-blue  corolla.  The  leaves  are 
sessile  and  gray  with  edges  rolled  round 
below.  It^  is  sometimes  made  into  gar- 
lands. It  is  slightly  stimulant,  and  tends 
to  relieve  headache  and  mental  weariness. 
It  is  an  ingredient  in  Hungary-water.  It 
is  also  used  as  a  conserve,  and  a  liquor 
is  made  from  it. 

ROSEN,  ROMAN  ROMANOVITCH, 
BARON,  a  Russian  diplomat,  born  in 
1849.  He  was  educated  at  Reval,  Dorpat, 
and  Petrograd.  He  early  entered  the  De- 
partment of  Justice  in  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernment, from  which  he  was  promoted 
to  the  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs. 
From  1886  to  1894  he  was  Consul  at  New 
York  and  was  charge  d'affaires  at  Wash- 
ington, during  the  first  administration  of 
President  Cleveland.  He  served  as  Sec- 
retary of  Legation  in  Japan  for  one  term 
and  as  Minister  for  two  terms.     In  1905 


ROSENFELD 


118 


ROSES 


he  was  appointed  Ambassador  to  the 
United  States  and  was  one  of  the  Russian 
delegates  during  the  peace  negotiations 
at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.  He  was  appointed 
to  the  Council  of  the  Empire  following 
his  services  in  the  United  States,  and  re- 
mained in  this  position  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution,  in  1917,  when  he 
escaped  to  the  United  States.  He  wrote 
in  1920  "Forty  Years  of  a  Diplomat's 
Life." 

ROSENFELD,  MAURICE  (BER- 
NARD), an  American  pianist  and  music 
critic,  born  in  Vienna,  Austria,  in  1867. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1873. 
He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York  and  the  Chicago  Mu- 
sical College.  From  1888  to  1911  he  was 
a  member  of  the  faculty  of  this  institu- 
tion, from  1911  to  1912  of  the  Sherwood 
Musical  School,  and  from  1912  a  mem- 
ber of  the  board  of  musical  directors  of 
the  Chicago  Musical  College.  In  April, 
1916,  he  established,  at  Chicago,  a  piano 
school  bearing  his  name.  He  was  music 
editor  of  the  Chicago  "Examiner"  (1907 
to  1915)  and  of  the  Chicago  "Daily 
News,"  beginning  with  1917.  He  was 
also  a  contributor  to  the  "Musical  Cour- 
ier," "Musical  America,"  and  several 
newspapers  and  was  a  member  of  several 
musical  and  journalistic  societies.  His 
appearances  as  a  pianist  were  frequent 
and  accompanied  with  success. 

ROSENTHAL,  MORITZ,  a  pianist; 
born  in  Lemberg,  Austria-Hungary,  Dec. 
18,  1862.  In  1876  he  gave  his  first  con- 
cert, which  led  to  fame;  in  1878  was 
pianist  to  the  Rumanian  Court;  in  1878- 
1895  played  in  the  principal  cities  of 
Europe;  and  in  1895  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance in  London,  where  he  was  enthu- 
siastically received.  This  was  followed 
by  many  tours  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States. 

ROSENWALD,  JULIUS,  an  American 
merchant  and  philanthropist.  He  was 
born  at  Springfield,  111.,  in  1862,  and  in 
1879  became  connected  with  Hammer- 
slough  Brothers,  wholesale  clothiers,  New 
York.  In  1885  he  became  president  of 
Rosenwald  &  Weil,  Chicago,  and  later 
became  vice-president  and  then  president 
of  Sears,  Roebuck  &  Co.,  mail  order 
business,  Chicago.  In  1916  he  was  ap- 
pointed member  of  the  Advisory  Commis- 
sion of  the  Council  of  National  Defense 
and  chairman  of  the  commission  on  sup- 
plies. He  has  contributed  time  and  money 
to  civic,  philanthropic,  and  educational 
enterprises  and  on  his  fiftieth  birthday 
gave  about  $700,000  to  the  University 
of  Chicago,  Social  Workers  Country  Club 
and  other  institutions.  He  gave  hand- 
somely to  Y.  M.  C.  A.  buildings  for  col- 


ored men  and  to  colored  people  in  the 
South. 

ROSE  OF  JERICHO  ( Anastatica 
hierochuntica) ,  a  plant  of  the  natural 
order  Cruciferae,  which  grows  in  the 
sandy  deserts  of  Arabia,  and  on  rubbish, 
the  roofs  of  houses,  and  other  situations 
in  Syria  and  other  parts  of  the  East.  It 
is  a  small,  bushy,  herbaceous  plant,  sel- 
dom more  than  six  inches  high,  with  small 
white  flowers;  and  after  it  has  flowered 
the  leaves  fall  off,  and  the  branches  be- 
come incurved  toward  the  center,  so  that 
the  plant  assumes  an  almost  globular 
form,  and  in  this  state  it  is  often  blown 
about  by  the  wind  in  the  desert.  When 
it  happens  to  be  blown  into  water  the 
branches  expand  again,  and  the  pods  open 
and  let  out  the  seeds.  Numerous  super- 
stitions are  connected  with  this  plant, 
which  is  called  Rosa  Mariae  or  Rose  of 
the  Virgin.  If  taken  up  before  it  is  quite 
withered  the  plant  retains  for  years  its 
hygrometric  property  of  contracting  in 
drought  and  expanding  in  moisture. 

ROSE  POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE, 
an  engineering  school  founded  at  Terre 
Haute,  Ind.,  in  1874,  and  opened  for  stu- 
dents in  1883.  It  has  courses  in  mechani- 
cal, electrical,  civil,  architectural,  and 
chemical  engineering.  There  were  in 
1920  about  240  students.  The  productive 
funds  amounted  to  nearly  $1,000,000. 
Acting  president,  John  White,  Ph.D. 

ROSES,  WARS  OF  THE,  a  disastrous 
dynastic  struggle  which  desolated  Eng- 
land during  the  15th  century,  from  the 
first  battle  of  St.  Albans  (1455)  to  that 
of  Bosworth  (1485).  It  was  so-called 
because  the  two  factions  into  which  the 
country  was  divided  upheld  the  two  sev- 
eral claims  to  the  throne  of  the  Houses 
of  York  and  Lancaster,  whose  badges 
were  the  white  and  the  red  rose  respec- 
tively. The  Lancastrian  claim  to  the 
crown  came  through  John  of  Gaunt,  third 
son  of  Edward  III.,  created  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster in  1362,  having  married  three  years 
before  the  heiress  of  Henry,  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster. On  John  of  Gaunt's  death  King 
Richard  II.  seized  his  lands,  whereupon 
his  son  Bolingbroke,  then  in  exile,  re- 
turned to  assert  his  rights,  and,  finding 
his  cause  exceedingly  popular,  was  em- 
boldened to  claim  the  crown,  which  was 
granted  him  by  the  Parliament  after  the 
deposition  of  his  cousin  Richard  II.  After 
the  House  of  Lancaster  had  thus  pos- 
sessed the  throne  for  three  reigns  (Henry 
IV.,  V.,  VI.),  Richard,  Duke  of  York, 
during  the  weakness  of  the  last  reign, 
began  to  advance,  at  first  somewhat  co- 
vertly, his  claim  to  the  throne.  He  was 
the  son  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Cambridge, 


ROSES 


119 


ROSEWATER 


by  Anne,  sister  of  Edmund  Mortimer, 
the  last  Earl  of  March,  and  he  was  thus 
the  nearest  actual  heir  to  Edward  III. 
through  his  second  son,  Lionel,  Duke  of 
Clarence. 

The  reigning  family  had  become  un- 
popular from  its  loss  of  France  and  its 
clericalism,  but  its  strength  was  great  in 
the  N.,  where  the  power  of  the  Percies 
was  alone  rivaled  by  that  of  the  Nevilles. 
The  Yorkist  strength  lay  chiefly  in  the 
mercantile  population  of  the  southern 
counties.  The  effect  of  the  war  was  the 
almost  complete  destruction  of  the  old  no- 
bility, the  weakening  of  the  power  of  the 
Church,  and  an  enormous  increase  in  the 
power  of  the  crown,  together  with  the 
great  advance  of  the  commercial  classes 
and  the  large  towns,  destined  a  few  gener- 
ations later  to  measure  strength  with  the 
crown  itself.  In  1454  Richard  was  ap- 
pointed protector  of  the  realm  during 
Henry's  insanity,  and  on  his  recovery  soon 
after  took  up  arms  against  his  rival  Som- 
erset and  crushed  him  at  the  first  battle 
of  St.  Albans  (1455).  A  second  period 
of  insanity  again  gave  him  the  protector- 
ship, but  the  king  recovered  in  1456.  His 
weak  attempts  at  reconciliation  proved 
failures,  and  in  1460  the  Yorkist  earls  of 
Salisbury,  Warwick,  and  March  defeated 
and  captured  the  King  at  Northampton 
(1460). 

The  lords  now  decided  to  grant  the  re- 
version of  the  crown  to  York,  passing 
over  Prince  Edward.  The  queen  refused 
assent  and  fled  to  Scotland,  returning 
only  after  the  death  of  York  at  Wake- 
field (Dec.  30,  1460) ;  but  York's  son  Ed- 
ward quickly  gained  a  victory  at  Morti- 
mer's Cross  (1461)  though  Warwick  was 
defeated  by  the  queen's  main  body  in  the 
second  battle  of  St.  Alban's  (1461).  But 
London  rallied  to  young  Edward,  and  in 
June  he  was  crowned  at  Westminster 
after  the  great  victory  of  Towton  (1461). 
Next  year  Queen  Margaret  again  ap- 
peared in  the  N.  but  in  1464  her  forces 
were  utterly  routed  by  Warwick's  brother, 
Montague,  at  Hedgeley  Moor  and  Hex- 
ham. The  estrangement  of  Warwick  and 
his  alliance  with  Queen  Margaret's  party 
drove  Edward  IV.  from  England  and  re- 
stored Henry  VI.  But  Edward  returned 
in  the  spring  of  1471,  defeated  (and  slew) 
Warwick  at  Barnet,  and  the  queen  at 
Tewkesbury.  The  murder  of  Prince  Ed- 
Ward  after  the  battle,  and  the  convenient 
death  of  Henry  VI.  in  the  Tower,  cleared 
away  his  two  chief  dangers  and  left  him 
to  reign  in  peace.  The  accession  of  Henry 
VII.  after  the  death  of  Richard  III.  on 
Bosworth  field  (1485),  his  marriage  with 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV. 
(1486),  and^  the  blending  of  the  red  and 
white  rose  in  the  Tudor  badge,  marked 
the  termination  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses, 


though  the  reign  of  Henry,  whose  own 
title  was  not  good,  was  from  time  to  time 
disturbed  by  the  pretentions  of  Yorkist 
impostors. 

ROSETTA,  a  town  of  the  Nile  delta 
in  Egypt,  on  the  old  Bolbitic  arm  of  the 
river,  9  miles  from  its  entrance  into  the 
Mediterranean  and  44  miles  N.  E.  of 
Alexandria.  In  the  time  of  the  Crusades 
it  was  a  place  of  great  strength;  and  St. 
Louis  made  it  the  basis  of  his  crusading 
operations.  Sultan  Beybers,  after  that 
(in  1251)  founded  the  present  city  farther 
inland.  The  Arabs  call  it  Raschid,  be- 
lieving that  Haroun  al-Raschid  founded 
the  old  city.  A  few  miles  to  the  N.  of 
the  town  was  discovered  the  Rosetta 
Stone  (q.  v.).  At  Rosetta,  too,  are  bar- 
rage works  for  holding  up  the  Nile  water 
till  it  can  be  directed  into  the  irrigation 
channels.  These  works,  originally  con- 
structed by  Mougel  Bey  (1843-1861),  were 
almost  entirely  rebuilt  by  Sir  C.  Scott 
MoncriefF  in  1886-1890.  The  barrage  is 
508  yards  long  and  has  61  arches.  Pop. 
about  16,000. 

ROSETTA  STONE,  the  name  given  to 
a  stone  found  near  the  Rosetta  mouth  of 
the^  Nile  by  a  French  engineer  in  1798. 
It  is  a  tablet  of  basalt,  with  an  inscrip- 
tion of  the  year  196  B.  c,  during  the  reign 
of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes.  The  inscription 
is  in  hieroglyphic,  in  demotic,  and  in 
Greek.  It  was  deciphered  by  Dr.  Young, 
and  formed  the  key  to  the  reading  of  the 
hieroglyphic  characters.  It  was  captured 
by  the  English  on  the  defeat  of  the 
French  forces  in  Egypt,  and  is  now  kept 
in  the  British  Museum. 

ROSETTA  WOOD,  a  good-sized  East 
Indian  wood,  imported  in  logs,  9  to  14 
inches  in  diameter;  it  is  handsomely 
veined,  and  its  general  color  is  a  lively 
red-orange.  The  wood  is  close,  hard,  and 
very  beautiful  when  first  cut,  but  soon 
becomes  darker  by  exposure  to  the  air. 

ROSETTI,  or  ROSETI,  CONSTAN- 
TIN,  a  Rumanian  poet  and  politician; 
born  in  Bucharest,  Rumania,  June  14, 
1816.  He  published  a  volume  of  poems 
under  the  title  of  "Hours  of  Contentment" 
(1843)  ;  and  wrote  many  political  trea- 
tises, poems,  and  translations,  a  new  edi- 
tion of  which  appeared  in  Bucharest  in 
1885.     He  died  April  19,  1885. 

ROSEWATER,  VICTOR,  an  Ameri- 
can journalist,  born  in  Omaha,  Nebraska, 
in  1871.  He  was  educated  at  Columbia 
University.  In  1893  he  began  his  jour- 
nalistic career  on  the  Omaha  "Bee,"  be- 
coming managing  editor  in  1895,  editor 
in  1906,  and  publisher  in  1917.  He  took 
an  active  interest  in  Republican  affairs, 
being  a  member  of  the  Republican  Na- 


ROSE    WINDOW 


120 


ROSOLIC  ACID 


tional  Committee,  1908  to  1912.  He  was 
also  at  various  times  a  member  of  the 
National  Civic  Federation,  the  American 
Jewish  Committee,  and  of  several  histori- 
cal and  economic  associations.  During 
the  World  War  he  served  as  a  member 
of  the  Committee  on  Labor,  Advisory 
Commission  of  the  Council  of  National 
Defense,  as  well  as  the  Nebraska  State 
Administrator  of  paper  and  pulp  of  the 
War  Industries  Board.  He  has  frequently 
contributed  to  magazines  and  wrote  "Spe- 
cial Assessments — a  Study  in  Municipal 
Finance"   (1898). 

ROSE  WINDOW,  a  circular  window, 
divided  into  compartments  by  mullions 
and  tracery  radiating  from  a  center,  also 
called  Catharine  wheel  and  marigold  win- 
dow according  to  modifications  of  the  de- 
sign. It  forms  a  fine  feature  in  the 
church  architecture  of  the  13th  and  14th 
centuries,  and  is  mostly  employed  in  the 
triangular  spaces  of  gables.  Some  ex- 
amples, as  that  of  Rheims  Cathedral,  are 
over  40  feet  in  diameter. 

ROSEWOOD,  a  valuable  wood,  the  best 
of  which  comes  from  Brazil.  Two  kinds, 
or  two  qualities,  are  known  in  commerce. 
These  much  resemble  each  other,  the  one, 
which  is  usually  rather  the  better  figured 
of  the  two,  coming  from  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
the  other  from  Bahia.  Three  well- 
known  Indian  species  of  this  genus  are 
called  respectively,  Dallergia  latifolia,  D. 
sissoo,  and  D.  cultrata,  all  of  which,  ex- 
cept that  they  want  the  dark  blotchy 
veining,  closely  resemble  the  Brazilian 
rosewoods.  They  are  all  rich  in  resinous 
coloring  matter,  and  all  except  D.  latifolia, 
which  is  slightly  lighter,  have  a  specific 
gravity  ranging  between  .900  and  1.000, 
so  that  they  just  float  in  water.  Since  at 
least  1830  the  D.  latifolia  has  been  known 
in  England  as  Indian  rosewood.  The 
South  American  and  Indian  kinds  named 
above  are  all  hard  and  durable  and  take 
a  fine  polish.  The  Indian  rosewood  is 
often  elaborately  carved  by  native  work- 
men, and  for  this  purpose  it  is  well  suited. 
An  inferior  kind  of  rosewood  is  brought 
from  Honduras.  The  name  is  said  to 
have  been  given  because  of  a  striking 
rose-like  odor  that  the  wood  gives  out 
when  freshly  cut. 

ROSICRUCTANS,  a  mystic  secret  so- 
ciety which  became  known  to  the  public 
early  in  the  17th  century,  and  was  al- 
leged to  have  been  founded  by  a  German 
noble  called  Christian  Rosenkreuz,  A.  D. 
1378.  He  was  said  to  have  died  at  the 
age  of  102.  The  society  consisted  of 
adepts,  who  perpetuated  it  by  initiating 
other  adepts.  It  did  not  interfere  with 
religion  or  politics,  but  sought  after  true 
philosophy.     The  Rosicrucians  pretended 


to  be  able  to  transmute  metals,  to  pro- 
long life,  and  to  know  what  was  passing 
in  distant  places.  They  are  said  to  have 
died  out  in  the  18th  century. 

ROSIN.     See  Resin. 

ROSLIN,  a  Midlothian  village,  near  the 
wooded  glen  of  the  North  Esk,  6Y2  miles 
S.  of  Edinburgh,  Scotland.  Its  castle, 
dating  from  the  14th  century,  was  the 
seat  of  the  St.  Clairs,  Earls  of  Orkney 
from  1379  to  1471,  and  afterward  of 
Caithness,  and  hereditary  grand-master  of 
Masons  of  Scotland  from  1455  to  1736. 
The  exquisite  "chapel"  built  about  1450, 
is  really  the  choir  of  an  intended  colle- 
giate church,  and  is  only  70  feet  long,  35 
broad,  and  42  high.  Its  beauty  lies  not 
in  the  outline,  but  in  the  profusion  of 
stone-carving  lavished  on  pinnacles, 
niches,  vaulted  roof,  and  clustered 
columns,  and  especially  on  the  famous 
"Prentice  pillar."  Much  damaged  by  an 
Edinburgh  mob  in  1688,  it  was  restored 
by  the  3d  Earl  of  Rosslyn  and  has  served 
since  1862  as  an  Episcopal  church.  On 
Roslin  Moor  the  Scotch  are  said  to  have 
twice  defeated  the  English  in  one  day, 
Feb.  24,  1303. 

ROSMINI,  ANTONIO  ROSMINI- 
SERBATI,  an  Italian  philosopher;  born 
of  noble  family  at  Roveredo  in  the  Italian 
Tyrol,  March  25,  1797.  After  a  stainless 
youth  of  devotion  and  study,  he  decided 
for  the  priesthood  against  his  parents' 
wishes,  and  began  the  course  at  Padua 
in  1817.  Three  years  later  his  father's 
death  gave  him  an  ample  estate.  He  was 
ordained  priest  in  1821,  and  devoted  the 
next  five  years  at  home  to  study,  medi- 
tation and  prayer.  He  formed  a  compre- 
hensive and  coherent  system  to  serve  as 
a  basis  for  the  truths  of  revelation,  and 
planned  a  new  institution  for  the  train- 
ing of  teachers  and  priests  in  wisdom 
and  holiness.  From  1826  to  1828  he  lived 
mostly  in  Milan,  next  thought  out  the 
rule  of  his  new  order  in  a  period  of  retire- 
ment and  severe  mortification  at  Domo- 
dossola  in  the  Piedmontese  Alps,  visited 
Rome,  gained  the  approval  of  Pius  VIII. 
both  for  his  special  studies  and  for  the 
institution  of  his  order,  and  published  his 
"New  Essay  on  the  Origin  of  Ideas"  (4 
vols.  1830),  which  at  once  carried  his 
name  over  the  Catholic  world.  He  iden- 
tified himself  with  rational  movements 
and  lost  power  with  the  Pope.  His  works 
filled  35  volumes  and  they  were  placed 
on  the  Index  in  1849.  Rosmini  retired 
to  Stresa,  where  he  died  in  1855. 

ROSOLIC   ACID,   in   chemistry, 

C2„HM03=Hf    >C<gH3(CHS,OH. 

a  weak  acid  prepared  by  treating  roaaui- 


BOSS 


121 


BOSS 


line  with  nitrous  acid,  and  boiling  the 
resulting  ^  diazo-compound  with  hydro- 
chloric acid.  It  forms  shining  monoclinic 
prisms,  closely  resembling  those  of  aurine, 
melts  above  220°,  is  insoluble  in  water, 
but  dissolves  readily  with  brownish-yel- 
low color  in  alcohol  and  ether.  Boiled 
with  aniline  and  benzoic  acid  it  yields  a 
beautiful  and  permanent  blue  dye. 

BOSS,  BETSY,  famous  in  history  as 
the  maker  of  the  first  American  flag.  She 
was  born  in  1752,  in  Philadelphia,  a 
daughter  of  Samuel  Griscom,  who  helped 
to  erect  Independence  Hall,  and  was  mar- 
ried to  John  Ross.  Following  the  deci- 
sion of  the  Continental  Congress  in  re- 
spect to  a  national  flag,  a  committee, 
including  George  Washington,  Robert 
Morris,  and  George  Ross  called  on  Mrs. 
Ross  and  invited  her  to  undertake  the 
sewing.  She  agreed  and  it  was  on  her 
suggestion  that  the  five-point  rather  than 
the  six-point  star  was  used.  Mrs.  Ross 
contracted  to  make  all  the  government 
flags  and  the  business  continued  in  the 
family  till  1857.  Mrs.  Ross  died  in  1836. 
In  1898  the  Betsy  Ross  Memorial  Asso- 
ciation was  formed,  and  in  1905  the  house 
of  Betsy  Ross  was  converted  into  public 
property  as  the  American  Flag  House. 

BOSS,     EDWABD     ALSWOBTH,     an 

American  economist,  born  at  Virden,  111., 
in  1866.  He  graduated  from  Coe  College 
in  1886  and  took  post-graduate  studies 
at  the  University  of  Berlin  and  at  Johns 
Hopkins.  In  1891-2  he  was  professor  of 
economics  at  Indiana  University,  and  in 
1892-3  was  associate  professor  of  political 
economy  and  finance  at  Cornell.  He  be- 
came professor  of  sociology  in  Leland 
Stanford  Jr.  University  in  1893;  he  occu- 
pied the  same  chair  at  the  University 
of  Nebraska  (1901-6).  In  1906  he  was 
professor  of  sociology  at  the  University 
of  Wisconsin.  He  lectured  on  sociology 
at  Harvard,  Chicago,  and  other  universi- 
ties. His  works  on  economic  subjects  in- 
clude "Honest  Dollars"  (1896);  "Social 
Control"  (1901);  "Sin  and  Society" 
(1907) ;  "The  Changing  Chinese"  (1911) ; 
"Changing  America"  (1912) ;  "The  Old 
World  in  the  New"  (1914)  ;  "Russia  in 
Upheaval"  (1918) ;  and  "What  Is  Amer- 
ica?" (1919). 

BOSS,  SIB  JAMES  CLABK,  an  Eng- 
lish Arctic  and  Antarctic  explorer;  born 
in  London,  England,  April  15,  1800.  He 
entered  the  British  navy  at  the  age  of  12, 
accompanied  his  uncle,  Sir  John  Ross,  on 
his  two  voyages  in  search  of  a  N.  W. 
passage,  and  in  the  interval  between  them 
accompanied  Capt.  William  Parry  in  his 
three  Arctic  voyages.  He  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  post-captain  in  1834,  par- 


ticularly for  the  discovery  of  the  North 
magnetic  pole  in  1831.  He  commanded 
the  expedition  in  the  "Erebus"  and  "Ter- 
ror" to  the  Antarctic  Ocean  in  1839- 
1843;  and  on  his  return  published  a  nar- 
rative of  that  voyage,  which  had  contrib- 
uted largely  to  geographical  and  scientific 
knowledge  generally.  Captain  Ross  was 
knighted  for  his  services,  and  received 
numerous  other  honors.  In  1848  he  made 
a  voyage  in  the  "Enterprise"  to  Baffin 
Bay  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin.  He 
died  in  Aylesbury,  England,  April  3,  1862. 

BOSS,  SIB  JOHN,  an  English  Arctic 
navigator;  born  in  Inch,  Wigtownshire, 
Scotland,  June  24,  1777.  In  1786  he  en- 
tered the  navy,  and  saw  a  considerable 
amount  of  service  before  the  peace  of 
1815,  which  found  him  with  the  rank  of 
commander.  In  1817  he  accepted  the 
command  of  an  admiralty  expedition  to 
search  for  a  N.  W.  passage,  and  in  April, 
1818,  set  sail  in  the  "Isabella,"  accompa- 
nied by  Lieutenant  Parry  in  the  "Alexan- 
der." After  passing  through  Davis 
Straits  and  Baffin  Bay  the  vessels  entered 
Lancaster  Sound  and  proceeded  up  it  for 
a  considerable  distance,  when  Ross  con- 
ceived the  erroneous  idea  that  the  sound 
was  here  brought  to  a  termination  by  a 
chain  of  mountains,  and  accordingly  re- 
turned to  England.  Shortly  after  landing 
he  was  advanced  to  the  rank  of  post- 
captain,  and  the  following  year  published 
an  account  of  his  voyage.  His  next  ex- 
pedition, in  the  steamer  "Victory,"  was 
equipped  by  Sir  Felix  Booth  and  set  out 
in  May,  1829.  Ross  entered  Prince  Re- 
gent Inlet  and  discovered  and  named 
Boothia  Felix  and  King  William  Land. 
In  1832  he  was  forced  to  abandon  his 
ships,  and  he  and  his  crew  suffered  great 
hardships  before  they  were  picked  up  in 
August,  1833,  by  his  old  ship,  the  "Isa- 
bella." In  1834  Captain  Ross  was  knight- 
ed, and  in  the  following  year  published  a 
narrative  of  his  second  voyage.  From 
1839  till  1845  he  was  consul  at  Stockholm. 
In  1850  he  made  a  last  Arctic  voyage  in 
the  "Felix,"  in  a  vain  endeavor  to  ascer- 
tain the  fate  of  Sir  John  Franklin.  He 
became  a  rear-admiral  in  1851,  and  died 
in  London,  England,  Aug.  30,  1856. 

BOSS,  BOBEBT  BALDWIN,  a  British 
art  critic,  born  at  Tours,  France,  in  1869. 
He  was  the  son  of  John  Ross,  attorney- 
general  for  Upper  Canada,  and  received 
part  of  his  education  at  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity, England.  He  took  up  newspaper 
writing  and  soon  became  known  as  an  au- 
thority on  art,  the  drama  and  literature. 
In  1908-12  he  worked  on  the  staff  of  the 
"Morning  Post"  and  acted  as  adviser  to 
the  Inland  Revenue  on  picture  valuations, 
1912-14.    He  wrote  and  edited  some  books, 


ROSSE 


122 


BOSSETTI 


among  them  Wilde's  works  and  a  biogra- 
phy of  Aubrey  Beardsley.  He  died  in 
London  in  1918. 

ROSSE,  WILLIAM  PARSONS,  THIRD 
EARL  OF,  an  English  astronomer;  born 
in  York,  England,  June  17,  1800.  Though 
a  representative  Irish  peer,  Lord  Rosse's 
chief  attention  was  devoted  to  the  study 
of  practical  astronomy.  In  1827  he  con- 
structed a  telescope,  the  speculum  of 
which  had  a  diameter  of  three  feet,  and 
the  success  and  scientific  value  of  this  in- 
strument induced  him  to  attempt  to  cast 
a  speculum  twice  as  large.  After  many 
failures,  Lord  Rosse  succeeded  in  1845  in 
perfecting  machinery  which  turned  out 
the  huge  speculum,  weighing  three  tons, 
without  warp  or  flaw.  It  was  then 
mounted  in  his  park  at  Parsonstown,  at 
a  cost  of  $150,000  on  a  telescope  54  feet 
in  length  with  a  tube  7  feet  in  diameter. 
A  series  of  cranks,  swivels,  and  pulleys 
enables  this  huge  instrument  to  be  han- 
dled almost  with  as  much  ease  as  tele- 
scopes of  ordinary  size.  The  sphere  of 
observation  was  immensely  widened  by 
Lord  Rosse's  instrument,  which  has  been 
chiefly  used  in  observations  of  nebulae. 
He  died  Oct.  31,  1867. 

ROSSER,  THOMAS  LAFAYETTE,  an 
American  soldier,  born  in  Campbell  co., 
Virginia,  in  1836.  He  entered  West  Point 
in  1856,  but  resigned  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  to  enter  the  artillery  serv- 
ice of  the  Confederate  army.  He  was 
afterward  transferred  to  Stuart's  cav- 
alry, where  he  became  brigadier-general. 
He  became  a  major-general  in  1864.  He 
refused  to  surrender  at  the  close  of  the 
war,  but  made  his  escape  and  attempted 
to  reorganize  the  Confederate  forces  in 
northern  Virginia.  He  was  captured,  but 
was  soon  released.  In  1871  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief  engineer  of  the  Eastern  Di- 
vision of  the  Northern  Pacific.  From 
1881  to  1886  he  acted  as  chief  engineer 
of  the  Canadian  Pacific  railroad.  During 
the  Spanish-American  War  he  served  as 
brigadier-general  of  the  United  States 
volunteers.     He  died  in  1910. 

ROSSETTI,  the  name  of  an  Italian 
family,  the  most  famous  members  of 
which  were: 

Rossetti,  Gabriele,  an  Italian  poet  and 
critic;  born  in  Vasto,  Abruzzo  Citeriore, 
then  forming  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Na- 
ples, Feb.  28,  1783.  His  father,  Nicola 
Rossetti,  was  engaged  in  the  iron  trade 
of  the  district;  his  mother  was  Maria 
Francesca  Pietrocola.  The  parents  were 
not  in  easy  circumstances,  and  had  a  large 
family;  besides  Gabriele,  two  of  the  sons 
attained  some  eminence,  Andrea  becoming 
a  canon  in  the  Church,  and  Domenico  be- 


ing well  reputed  in  letters  and  antiquities. 
Gabriele  gave  early  signs  of  more  than 
common  ability,  and  was  placed  by  the 
local  grandee,  the  Marchese  del  Vasto,  to 
study  in  the  University  of  Naples.  He 
had  a  fine  tenor  voice,  and  was  sometimes 
urged  to  try  his  success  on  the  operatic 
stage;  he  drew  with  such  precision  that 
some  of  his  extant  pen-drawings  with 
sepia-ink  might  readily  be  taken  for  steel 
engravings;  he  composed  poetry,  both 
written  and  improvised,  and  became  one 
of  the  most  noted  improvisatori  in  Na- 
ples. The  boyhood  and  youth  of  Rossetti 
passed  in  a  period  of  great  political  com- 
motion, consequent  on  the  revolutionary 
and  imperial  wars  of  France.  The  Bour- 
bon King  of  Naples,  Ferdinand  I.,  was 
ousted  by  the  Parthenopean  Republic,  and 
again  by  King  Joseph,  the  brother  of 
Napoleon,  and  his  successor  King  Joachim 
(Murat),  the  emperor's  brother-in-law, 
and  Ferdinand  had  to  retire  to  Sicily. 

Rossetti  obtained  an  appointment  as 
curator  of  ancient  bronzes  in  the  Museum 
of  Naples,  and  also  as  librettist  to  the 
operatic  theater  of  San  Carlo;  he  wrote 
the  libretto  of  an  opera,  "Giulio  Sabino," 
was  well  received  at  the  court  of  the  Na- 
poleonic sovereigns,  and  in  1813  acted  as 
a  member  of  the  provisional  government 
sent  to  Rome  by  Murat.  After  the  res- 
toration of  Ferdinand  to  Naples  in  1815 
he  continued  his  connection  with  liberal 
politicians  and  joined  the  widely  diffused 
secret  society  of  Carbonari.  In  1820  a 
military  uprising  compelled  King  Ferdi- 
nand to  grant  a  constitution  on  the  model 
of  that  which  had  recently  been  estab- 
lished in  Spain.  Rossetti  saluted  its  ad- 
vent in  one  of  his  most  celebrated  odes, 
beginning,  "Beautiful  indeed  art  thou, 
with  the  stars  in  thine  hair."  The  good 
faith  of  the  king  was  highly  dubious  from 
the  first,  and  in  1821  he  abrogated  the 
constitution  and  put  it  down  with  the  aid 
of  Austrian  troops.  The  Constitutional- 
ists were  proscribed  and  persecuted,  Ros- 
setti among  them.  He  escaped  and  about 
1824  made  his  way  to  London  to  follow 
the  career  of  a  teacher  of  Italian.  In 
1826  he  married  Frances  Mary  Lavinia 
Polidori,  daughter  of  a  Tuscan  father 
and  English  mother;  soon  afterward  he 
was  elected  Professor  of  Italian  in  King's 
College,  London.  They  had  four  children : 
(1)  Maria  Francesca,  born  1827,  died 
1876  (author  of  "A  Shadow  of  Dante," 
etc.)  ;  (2)  Gabriel  Charles  Dante  (see  be- 
low) ;  (3)  William  Michael,  born  1829 
(critical  writer,  and  editor  of  Shelley; 
see  below)  ;  (4)  Christina  Georgina  (see 
below).  In  London  Rossetti  lived  a  stu- 
dious, laborious,  and  honorable  life.  In 
politics  he  was  a  vigorous  liberal,  but 
more  inclined  to  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy than  a  republic;  in  religion  he  was 


ROSSETTI 


123 


ROSSETTI 


mainly  a  freethinker,  but  tending  in  his 
later  years  toward  an  undogmatic  form 
of  Christianity.  Though  totally  opposed 
to  the  papal  system  and  pretensions,  he 
would  not  openly  abjure,  in  a  Protestant 
country,  the  Roman  Catholic  creed  of  his 
fathers.  His  health  began  to  fail  in  1842, 
and  his  sight  became  dim.  After  some 
attacks  of  a  paralytic  character  he  died 
in  London,  April  26,  1854. 

Besides  some  poems  published  in  Italy, 
Rossetti  produced  the  following  works: 
"Dante,  Commedia"  (the  Inferno  only  was 
published),  with  a  commentary  aiming  to 
show  that  the  poem  is  chiefly  political  and 
anti-papal  in  its  inner  meaning  (1826) ; 
"Lo  Spirito  Antipapale  che  produsse  la 
Riforma"  ("The  Anti-Papal  spirit  which 
produced  the  Reformation" — an  English 
translation  also  was  published),  reinforc- 
ing and  greatly  extending  the  same  gen- 
eral views  (1832);  "Iddio  e  l'Uomo,  Sal- 
terio"  ("God  and  Man,  a  Psaltery"), 
poems  (1833) ;  "II  Mistero  dell'  Amor 
Platonico  del  Medio  Evo"  ("The  Myste- 
rious Platonic  Love  of  the  Middle  Ages"), 
five  volumes  (1840).  This  book  was 
printed  and  prepared  for  publication,  but 
withheld  as  likely  to  be  deemed  rash  and 
subversive;  "La  Beatrice  di  Dante,"  con- 
tending that  Dante's  Beatrice  was  a  sym- 
bolic personage,  not  a  real  woman 
(1842);  "II  Veggente  in  Solitudine" 
("The  Seer  in  Solitude"),  a  speculative 
and  partly  autobiographical  poem 
(1846) ;  it  circulated  largely,  though 
clandestinely,  in  Italy,  and  a  medal  of 
Rossetti  was  struck  there  in  commemo- 
ration; "Versi"  (miscellaneous  poems) 
(1847) ;  and  _  "L'Arpa  Evangelica4" 
("The  Evangelic  Harp"),  religious  poems 
(1852). 

Christina  Georgina,  an  English  poet; 
born  in  London,  England,  Dec.  5,  1830, 
daughter  of  the  preceding.  "Goblin  Mar- 
ket" (1862)  is  regarded  as  her  finest 
production.  Her  other  writings  consist 
chiefly  of  lyric  poems  of  great  beauty, 
and  sonnets  mostly  of  a  devotional  order. 
They  include:  "The  Prince's  Progress" 
(1866) ;  "Commonplace,  and  Other  Short 
Stories"  (in  prose:  1870);  "Sing-Song: 
A  Nursery  Rhyme  Book"  (1872) ;  "An- 
nus Domini:  A  Prayer  for  Each  Day  in 
the  Year"  (1873) ;  "Speaking  Likenesses" 
(1874) ;  "Seek  and  Find"  (1879) ;  "A 
Pageant,  and  Other  Poems"  (1881) ; 
"Letter  and  Spirit"  (1883);  "Verses" 
(1893) ;  and  several  posthumous  works. 
She  died  Dec.  29,  1894. 

Dante  Gabriel  (or  properly  Gabriel 
Charles  Dante),  an  English  painter  and 
poet;  born  in  London,  May  12,  1828,  eld- 
est son  of  Gabriele.  He  was  educated  in 
King's  College  School,  London;  but,  hav- 
ing from  his  earliest  years  evinced  a 
wish  to  become  a  painter,  he  was  taken 


from  school  in  1843  and  began  the  study 
of  art,  entering  soon  afterward  the  an- 
tique school  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Here 
he  associated  with  the  young  painters 
John  Everett  Millais  and  William  Hol- 
man  Hunt,  and  the  sculptor  Thomas 
Woolner;  along  with  these  three  he 
founded  the  so-called  Pre-Raphaelite 
Brotherhood,  which  was  completed  by 
the  addition  of  three  other  members. 
The  chief  incentive  to  the  foundation  of 
this  society,  and  of  the  school  of  art 
which  it  initiated,  was  the  distaste  of 
the  followers  for  the  commonplace  sub- 
jects and  slurred  execution  in  current 
English  art.  They  aimed  to  revive  the 
lofty  feeling,  and  patient  handiwork, 
which  had  been  developed  by  the  Euro- 
pean schools  of  art  preceding  the  cul- 
mination of  Raphael  and  his  followers. 

The  English  Pre-Raphaelites  wished  to 
exhibit  true  and  high  ideas  through  the 
medium  of  true  and  rightly  elaborated 
details.  Rossetti's  earliest  oil  picture, 
exhibited  in  1849,  was  "The  Girlhood  of 
Mary  Virgin";  his  next  (1850),  now  in 
the  National  Gallery,  "The  Annuncia- 
tion." After  this  he  withdrew  from  ex- 
hibiting almost  entirely,  and  his  art 
developed  through  other  phases,  in  which 
the  sense  of  human  beauty,  intensity  of 
abstract  expression,  and  richness  of  color 
were  leading  elements.  He  produced  nu- 
merous water-colors  of  a  legendary  or 
romantic  cast,  several  of  them  being 
from  the  poems  of  Dante,  others  from 
the  Arthurian  tradition. 

Among  his  principal  oil  pictures  are 
the  Triptych  for  Llandaff  Cathedral,  of 
the  "Infant  Christ  Adored  by  a  Shep- 
herd and  a  King,"  "The  Beloved"  (the 
Bride  of  the  Canticles),  "Dante's  Dream" 
(now  in  the  Walker  Gallery,  Liverpool), 
"Beata  Beatrix"  (National  Gallery), 
"Pandora,"  "Proserpine,"  "The  Blessed 
Damozel"  (from  one  of  his  own  poems), 
"The  Roman  Widow,"  "La  Ghirlandata," 
"Venus  Astarte,"  "The  Day-dream."  He 
designed  several  large  compositions,  such 
as  the  "Magdalene  at  the  door  of  Simon 
the  Pharisee,"  "Giotto  Painting  Dante's 
Portrait,"  "Cassandra,"  and  the  "Boat 
of  Love"  (from  a  sonnet  by  Dante). 
Notwithstanding  his  passionate  impulse 
as  an  inventive  artist,  and  his  impress- 
ive realization  of  beauty  in  countenance 
and  color,  some  shortcomings  in  severe 
draughtsmanship  and  in  technical  meth- 
od, and  some  degree  of  mannerism  in 
form  and  treatment,  have  often,  and  not 
unjustly,  been  laid  to  his  charge. 

Rossetti  began  writing  poetry  about 
the  same  time  that  he  took  definitely  to 
the  study  of  painting.  Besides  some 
juvenile  work,  and  some  translations 
from  the  German  (that  of  "Henry  the 
Leper,"  by  the  mediaeval  poet,  Hartmann 


ROSSETTI 


124 


ROSSINI 


von  der  Aue,  is  preserved),  he  executed 
a  number  of  translations  from  Dante 
and  other  Italians,  published  in  1861  as 
"The  Early  Italian  Poets,"  and  again  in 
1874  as  "Dante  and  his  Circle."  Two 
of  his  best-known  original  poems,  "The 
Portrait"  and  "The  Blessed  Damozel," 
were  written  in  his  19th  year,  and  many 
others  followed.  Rossetti  had  fallen  in 
love  toward  1851  with  a  very  beautiful 
girl,  a  dressmaker's  assistant,  named 
Elizabeth  Eleanor  Siddal;  he  married 
her  in  1860,  but  she  died  suddenly  in 
February,  1862.  In  the  first  impulse  of 
desperation  he  buried  his  MSS.  in  her 
coffin.  In  1869  he  thought  fit  to  recover 
them,  and  in  1870  he  issued  his  volume 
named  "Poems."  This  volume  was  a  suc- 
cess with  poetical  readers,  and  was  re- 
viewed with  great  admiration  and  even 
enthusiasm  by  some  leading  critics.  Late 
in  1871,  however,  Mr.  Robert  Buchanan, 
writing  in  the  "Contemporary  Review" 
under  the  pseudonym  of  "Thomas  Mait- 
land,"  attacked  the  book  on  literary,  and 
more  especially  on  moral  grounds. 

Rossetti  was  now  in  a  depressed  state 
of  health,  suffering  much  from  insomnia, 
from  an  abuse  of  chloral  as  a  palliative, 
and  from  weakened  eyesight.  About  the 
middle  of  1872  he  became  morbidly  sen- 
sitive and  gloomy,  and  very  recluse  in 
his  habits  of  life.  In  1881  he  published 
a  second  volume  of  poems  named  "Bal- 
lads and  Sonnets"  (containing  some  of 
his  finest  work,  "Rose  Mary,"  "The 
White  Ship,"  "The  King's  Tragedy,"  and 
the  completed  sonnet-sequence,  "The 
House  of  Life").  A  touch  of  paralysis 
affected  him  toward  the  end  of  1881, 
and,  retiring  in  the  hope  of  some  im- 
provement to  Birchington-on-Sea,  near 
Margate,  he  died  there  April  9,  1882. 

The  poetry  of_  Rossetti  is  intense  in 
feeling,  exalted  in  tone,  highly  individ- 
ual in  personal  gift,  picturesque  and 
sometimes  pictorial  in  treatment,  and 
elaborately  wrought  in  literary  form. 
These  characteristics  are  sometimes 
made  consistent  with  simplicity,  but 
more  generally  with  subtlety,  of  emo- 
tion or  of  thought.  As  in  his  paintings, 
there  is  a  strong  mediaeval  tendency. 

William  Michael,  an  English  poet 
and  art  critic;  born  in  London,  England, 
Sept.  25,  1829;  brother  of  Dante  Ga- 
briel. He  entered  the  excise  office  in 
1845,  and  was  assistant  secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Inland  Revenue  in  1869-1894. 
He  was  the  author  of  "Dante's  Com- 
edy— The  Hell,  Translated  into  Literal 
Blank  Verse"  (1865) ;  "Poems  and  Bal- 
lads: A  Criticism"  [of  Swinburne] 
(1866);  "A  Life  of  Percy  Bysshe  Shel- 
ley" (1869) ;  and  "Life  of  John  Keats" 
(1887).  He  edited  the  works  of  many 
poets.    He  died  in  1919. 


ROSSINI,    GIOACCHINO    ANTONIO, 

one  of  the  most  popular,  and  perhaps 
the  greatest  Italian  composer  of  operas; 
born  in  Pesaro,  Italy,  Feb.  29,  1792. 
His  parents  belonged  to  a  strolling  opera 
company,  and  he  began  his  career  by 
playing  second  horn  to  his  father  when 
he  was  only  10  years  old.  Having  a  fine 
voice,  his  father  had  him  taught  singing 
by  an  eminent  professor,  and  he  took 
the  treble  parts  as  a  chorister  in  the 
Bologna  churches,  and  soon  became  an 
excellent  singer  and  accompanist.  The 
breaking  of  his  voice  put  an  end  to  his 


GIOACCHINO  ANTONIO  ROSSINI 

occupation  as  a  chorister,  and  at  the  age 
of  15  he  was  admitted  into  the  Lyceum 
at  Bologna,  and  received  lessons  in  coun- 
terpoint from  Padre  Mattei.  But  his 
ardent  nature  turned  restive  under  the 
strict  discipline  and  dry  studies  of  Mat- 
tei, and,  conscious  of  the  possession  of 
genius,  he  set  to  work  assiduously  to 
educate  himself — studying  intently  the 
best  models,  Italian  and  German.  He 
produced  some  light  operatic  pieces,  the 
only  one  of  which  juvenile  efforts  that 
has  lived  is  the  "Lucky  Trick,"  which 
came  out  in  1812.  "Tancred,"  brought 
out  at  Venice  in  1813,  when  he  was 
scarcely  more  than  20  years  of  age,  all 
at  once  made  his  name  famous.  In  1816 
he  produced  his  world-famous  "Barber 
of  Seville"  at  Rome.  Those  of  his  other 
works   which   still   keep   the   stage  are: 


ROSTAND 


125 


ROTATION 


<'Othello,"   "Moses   in    Egypt,"   "Semira-  burg  in  1853.     He  died  in  Moscow,  Jan. 

mide,"    "The    Pilfering    Magpie,"  ;>"The  30,  1826. 

Lady    of   the    Lake,"    "Count    Ory,"   and         ROSTOV-ON-DON,    a    city   of    Russia, 

"William  Tell."     This,  last,  the   greatest  situated  in   the   delt£   of  the   Don   river 

and  most  original  of  his  works,  was  writ-  near     the     gea     of    Azoy>       Before    the 

ten  at  the  age  of  37,  and  with  it  closed  World   War   it  wag   an   important   trade 

the    career    of    Rossini    as    a    composer.  center>    from    which    was    shipped    vast 

After   holding   the   post   of   manager    of  quantities  of  grain  and  flour.     The  man. 

the  Italian  Theater  at  Paris  during  some  ufactures  alone  amounted  to  ten  million 

time,  he,  in  1836    returned  to  his  native  dollars    a    year#      Here    are    iocated    the 

country,    where    he    continued    to  _  reside  largest    flour    mills    in    the   worid.      The 

till  1856,  when  he  repaired  to  Paris  once  dty   ig    alg0    the    center    of    the    Donetz 

more.      His    only   important   work    since  Bagin  coal  mineg>  f Qr  which  the  Bolghe. 

the  production  of     William   Tell     is  his  viki  and  the  counter-revolutionary  forces 
T,r«n  l^^-nm  "QfoKof  Mnfpr"     He  died  in  -^     •,  ■        ,  ,    ^        ,  J  ■, 


well-known  "Stabat  Mater. 

his  villa  in  Passy,  near  Paris,  Nov.   13, 

1808. 

ROSTAND,  EDMOND,  a  French  poet; 


under  Denikin  struggled  fiercely  during 
1919.  The  Bolsheviki  have  held  the  city 
since  the  beginning  of  1920.  The  pop- 
ulation of  about  175,000  consists  largely 
born"m"Marseiiies"Fr*ance"  in  1868;" was  of  Cossacks, 
educated  in  Paris;  and  in  1894  his  first  ROSTRUM,  plural  ROSTRA,  a  scaf- 
play  "The  Romanesques  was  produced  foM  Qr  elevat'ed  platform  in  th'e  Forum 
at   the    Comedie    Francaise.       It   was   an    at    R  from    whkh        bUc    orations 

instantaneous    success   and    was   followed    pleadingS)  funeral  harangues,  etc.,  were 
by      Princess    Lomtaine       (1896);    _La    delivered.   so  called  from  the  rostra  or 


Samaritaine"    (1897)  ;    "Cyrano    de    Ber 
gerac"    (1897) ;    "L'Aiglon"    ("The    Eag 


beaks  of  ships  with  which  it  was  orna- 
mented.    Also  a  pulpit,  platform,  or  ele- 


fe.'"  ,  19?°2'    and    "fhantecler"     (1910).  vated  place  from  which  a  speak^r    as  a 

The  last  three  were  translated  into  Eng-  preacher    an    auctioneer,   etc.,   addresses 

lish  and  played  in  the  United  States  by  ^    audjence 
Richard   Mansfield  and    Maude    Adams. 

Rostand's  versification  is  of  remarkable  ROSWELL,  a  city  of  New  Mexico,  the 
beauty.  On  May  30,  1901,  he  was  county-seat  of  Chaves  co.  It  is  on  the 
elected  one  of  the  40  "immortals"  of  the  Pecos  river  and  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka 
French  Academy.  He  died  in  1918.  and  Santa  Fe  railway.  It  is  the  center 
-r»«,«rr.-^-7,  ■  •vi  i  .  „  of  an  important  agricultural  and  cattle 
•  R10STERl'  m  ™jit»fy  language,  a  term  and  gh  *  raigi  Industry.  Its  notable 
implying  the  seniority  list  from  which  institutions  include  the  New  Mexico  Mil- 
officers  are  detailed  for  duty  m  regular  it  institute,  St.  Mary's  Hospital,  a 
succession;  hence,  occasionally  a  list  bUc  library  and  a  Federal  building 
showing  the.turn  or  rotation  of  service  £nd  courthouse.  Pop-  (1910)  6 112; 
or  duty,  as  in  the  case  of  military  om-  (1920)    7  033 


cers   and   others  who  relieve   or   succeed 
each  other. 

ROSTOPCHIN,    FEODOR    VAS- 


ROT,  a  disease  in  sheep  and  other  gram- 
inivorous animals,  produced  by  the  hy- 
dratids  Fasciola  hepatica  and  Distoma 
SILIEVICH,  COUNT,  a  Russian  general;  ianceoiatum,  often  living  in  great  num- 
??rniinooth?r,,PoroV1£C(;  •  Of <3l,  Russia,  berg  in  the  gall.ducts  and  bladder  of 
March  23,  1763.  Entering  the  Russian  the  animal.  The  latter  parasite  has  been 
military  service  as  a  lieutenant  in  the  detected  in  the  human  subject. 
Imperial   Guard,  he  won  great  influence 

over  the  weak  mind  of  the  Emperor  ROTATION,  in  astronomy,  the  turn- 
Paul,  who  promoted  him  to  various  of-  ing  round  of  a  planet  on  its  imaginary 
fices  in  rapid  succession.  In  May,  1812,  axis,  like  that  of  a  wheel  on  its  axle, 
the  Emperor  Alexander  appointed  him  In  the  infancy  of  astronomy  it  was  as- 
governor  of  Moscow.  He  it  was,  accord-  sumed  that  the  earth  was  at  rest,  and 
ing  to  the  French  writers,  who  planned  that  the  sun  and  stars  moved  round  it 
and  began  with  his  own  hand  the  burn-  from  E.  to  W.  After  note  had  been 
ing  of  Moscow.  But  in  1823  he  pub-  taken  of  the  fact  that  when  a  boat  is 
lished  "The  Truth  About  the  Burning  gently  gliding  along  a  canal  or  tranquil 
of  Moscow"  (Paris,  1823),  in  which  he  lake,  the  sensation  to  one  on  board  is 
rebuts  the  charge.  Nevertheless,  he  sub-  as  if  the  boat  was  stationary,  and  the 
sequently  recalled  this  denial  and  ad-  objects  on  the  bank  moved  past  in  the 
mitted  that  he  at  least  set  fire  to  his  opposite  direction,  a  second  hypothesis 
own  mansion  house.  His  works,  which  became  worth  consideration,  viz.,  that 
include  a  number  of  historical  memoirs,  the  apparently  stationary  earth  might 
two  comedies,  etc.,  in  Russian  and  be  like  the  moving  boat,  and  the  heavens 
French,    were    published    at    St.    Peters-     resemble  the  really  stationary  bank.     It 

I— Cyc  Vol  8 


ROTATION   OF   CROPS 


126 


ROTHERMERE 


gathered  strength  when  it  was  consid- 
ered that  the  earth  was  not  a  sphere 
but  an  oblate  spheroid,  as  if  rapid 
whirling  had  bulged  it  out  at  the  equa- 
tor, that  Jupiter  was  yet  more  flattened 
at  the  poles  than  the  earth,  and  that 
the  direction  of  the  trade  winds,  cy- 
clones, etc.,  seemed  the  result  of  rotation. 
In  1851  Foucault  completed  the  proof  by 
making  visible  to  the  eye  that  a  pendu- 
lum with  a  very  long  string  alters  its 
direction  in  a  way  which  cannot  be 
accounted  for  except  by  rotation  (see 
Gyroscope).  The  rotation  of  the  earth 
is  performed  with  a  uniform  motion 
from  W.  to  E.  and  occupies  the  interval 
in  time  which  would  elapse  between  the 
departure  of  a  star  from  a  certain  point 
in  the  sky  and  its  return  to  the  same 
point  again.  The  only  motions  which 
interfere  with  its  regularity  are  those  of 
the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  and 
nutation  (see  Precession).  The  time 
taken  for  the  rotation  of  the  earth 
measures  the  length  of  its  day.  So  with 
the  other  planets.  The  sun  also  ro- 
tates as  is  shown  by  the  movement  of 
spots  across  its  disk  (see  Sun).  The 
earth's  rotation  slightly  increases  the 
force  of  gravity  in  moving  from  the 
equator  to  the  poles.  Sir  William  Thom- 
son reasoning  from  some  small  anoma- 
lies in  the  moon's  motion,  inferred  that 
10,000,000  years  ago  the  earth  rotated 
one-seventh  faster  than  it  does  now,  and 
that  the  centrifugal  force  then  was  to 
that  now  as  64  to  49. 

In  botany,  a  rotary  movement  of  a 
layer  of  protoplasm,  investing  the  whole 
internal  surface  of  a  cell,  as  well  seen 
in  Chara,  etc.  It  was  first  investigated 
by  Corti  in  1774.  Called  more  fully  in- 
tercellular rotation.  In  physiology:  (1) 
The  movement  of  a  bone  round  its  axis, 
without  any  great  change  of  situation. 
(2)  The  moving  of  the  yolk  in  an  ovum 
at  a  certain  stage  of  development  on  its 
axis  in  the  surrounding  fluid.  This  was 
first  observed  by  Leuwenhoeck  in  1695. 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  a  different  kind  of  crop  each 
year,  for  a  certain  period,  to  prevent  the 
exhaustion  of  the  soil.  If  a  plant  re- 
quiring specially  alkaline  nutriment  be 
planted  year  after  year  in  the  same  field 
or  bed,  it  will  ultimately  exhaust  all  the 
alkalies  in  the  soil  and  then  languish. 
But  if  a  plant  be  substituted  in  large 
measure  requiring  siliceous  elements  for 
its  growth,  it  can  flourish  where  its  al- 
kaline predecessor  is  starved.  Mean- 
while the  action  of  the  atmosphere  is 
continually  reducing  to  a  soluble  condi- 
tion small  quantities  of  soil,  thus  re- 
storing the  lost  alkalies.  Manure  will 
replace  lost  elements  more  quickly.    The 


period    of   rotation    is    often    made    four 
years. 

ROTHENSTEIN,  WILLIAM,  a  Brit- 
ish artist.  He  was  born  in  Bradford, 
Yorkshire,  England,  in  1872,  and  was 
educated  at  Bradford  Grammar  School. 
He  went  to  London  in  1888  and  worked 
under  Legros  at  the  Slade  School  and 
afterward  in  Paris,  where  he  first  ex- 
hibited. In  1893  he  went  to  Oxford  and 
drew  portraits  and  settled  in  Chelsea 
shortly  afterward.  He  has  pictures  and 
portraits  in  the  Tate  Gallery;  British 
Museum;  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum; 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge;  Trinity 
Hall,  Cambridge;  Carnegie  Institute, 
Pittsburgh;  Magdalen  College,  Oxford; 
National  Portrait  Gallery,  Edinburgh; 
Luxembourg,  Paris,  etc.  His  publica- 
tions include:  "Oxford  Characters," 
"English  Portraits,"  "Manchester  Por- 
traits," "Liber  Juniorum";  six  portraits 
of  Rabindranath  Tagore. 

ROTHERHAM,  a  manufacturing  town 
in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, on  the  Don,  here  joined  by  the 
Rother;  5  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Sheffield. 
Its  chief  glory  is  the  magnificent  cruci- 
form church,  Perpendicular  in  style,  with 
crocketed  spire  and  fine  W.  front.  It 
is  probably  somewhat  earlier  than  its 
reputed  founder,  Thomas  de  Rotherham, 
Archbishop  of  York  (1423-1500)  ;  in 
1875  it  was  restored  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott. 
A  handsome  edifice  in  the  Collegiate 
Gothic  style,  built  for  an  independent 
college  in  1875,  has  been  bought  and 
applied  to  the  purpose  of  a  grammar 
school  (1843),  at  which  Bishop  Sander- 
son was  educated.  There  are  also  a 
mechanics'  institute  (1853)  ;  a  free  li- 
brary (1881)  ;  an  infirmary  (1870)  ;  a 
covered  market  (1879)  ;  public  baths 
(1887)  ;  a  park  (1876)  of  20  acres,  300 
feet  above  the  town;  and  the  Clifton 
Park  of  57  acres.  The  manufactures 
include  stoves,  grates,  chemicals,  pot- 
tery, glass,  railway  carriages,  etc.  Eben- 
ezer  Elliott  was  a  native  of  the  suburb 
of  Masborough,  which  is  included  within 
the  municipal  boundary,  incorporated  in 
1871.  Roche  Abbey,  a  ruin,  8  miles 
E.  S.  E.,  was  a  Cistercian  foundation 
(1147)  ;  and  8  miles  N.  E.  is  Conisbor- 
ough  Castle.     Pop.  (1919)  71,913. 

ROTHERMERE,  HAROLD  SIDNEY 
HARMSWORTH,  FIRST  VISCOUNT, 
a  British  newspaper  proprietor.  He  was 
born  in  1868  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  son  of 
Alfred  Harmsworth,  and  removing  to 
England,  following  the  example  of  his 
brother,  Lord  Northcliffe,  became  inter- 
ested in  newspapers,  of  which  he  is  the 
proprietor  of  several.  He  endowed  the 
King  Edward  VII.  Chair  of  English  Lit- 


EOTHSCHILD 


127 


ROTTERDAM 


rrftture  and  the  Vere  Harmsworth  Chair 
of  Naval  History  at  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity. The  success  of  the  Union  Jack 
Club  is  largely  due  to  his  assistance  and 
support.  In  1916-17  during  the  World 
War  he  was  director-general  of  the 
Royal  Army  Clothing  Department.  In 
1917-18  he  was  Air  Minister,  being  cre- 
ated viscount  in  1919. 

ROTHSCHILD  (red  shield),  the  name 
of  a  Jewish  family  of  European  bankers 
and  capitalists,  the  enormousness  of 
whose  aggregate  wealth  has  passed  into 
a  proverb.  The  founder  of  this  race  of 
financiers,  Meyer  Anselm  Rothschild, 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1743, 
died  there  in  1812,  after  having  accumu- 
lated the  most  gigantic  fortune  ever 
possessed  by  a  single  individual  up  to 
his  day.  Commencing  as  a  small  trader, 
he,  by  his  probity,  frugality,  and  supe- 
rior business  qualifications,  eventually 
became  the  banker  of  monarchs  and  the 
creditor  of  states.  Of  the  five  sons  who 
succeeded  to  the  vast  inheritance  he 
bequeathed  them,  the  eldest,  Anselm 
fborn  1773,  died  1855),  was  his  father's 
^  artner  and  successor  at  Frankfort.  The 
second,  Solomon  (born  1774,  died  1855), 
became  established  as  the  representative 
of  the  house  of  Rothschild  at  Vienna. 
The  third,  Nathan  Meyer  (born  1777, 
died  1836),  settled  as  the  London  part- 
ner, and  became  the  leading  member  and 
ablest  financier  of  the  family.  The 
fourth,  Charles  (born  1788,  died  1855), 
filled  the  representation  of  the  firm  at 
Naples.  Lastly,  James  (born  1792,  died 
1868),  eventually  took  up  his  residence 
in  Paris,  where  he  died,  leaving  a  for- 
tune estimated  at  $200,000,000.  Within 
a  period  of  less  than  12  years  the  Roth- 
schilds advanced  in  leans  as  follows:  to 
England,  $200,000,000;  Austria,  $50,000,- 
000;  Prussia,  $40,000,000;  France,  $80,- 
000,000;  Naples,  $50,000,000;  Russia, 
$25,000,000;  Brazil,  $12,000,000;  besides 
some  $5,000,000  to  smaller  states;  or, 
altogether,  the  then  almost  incredible 
amount  of  $462,000,000.  The  colossal 
financiering  operations  of  the  house  are 
now  conducted  by  the  descendants  of  the 
above-mentioned  brothers,  and  the  firm 
has  banking  houses  and  representatives 
in  all  the  leading  cities  of  the  civilized 
world. 

ROTIFERA,  in  zoology,  wheel-animal- 
cules; a  group  of  Metazoa  which  have 
been  variously  classified.  Ehrenberg  ar- 
ranged them  according  to  the  peculiari- 
ties of  their  trochal  disks,  and  Dujardin 
according  to  their  methods  of  locomotion. 
They  are  now  often  made  a  class  of 
Vermes,  with  four  families,  Philodinidse, 
Brachionidse,  Hydatinese,    and    Floscida- 


ridx.  They  are  microscopic  animals,  con- 
tractile, crowned  with  vibratile  cilia  at 
the  anterior  part  of  the  body,  which,  by 
their  motion,  often  resemble  a  wheel  re- 
volving rapidly.  Intestine  distinct,  ter- 
minated at  one  extremity  by  a  mouth, 
at  the  other  by  an  anus;  generation 
oviparous,  sometimes  viviparous.  The 
nervous  system  is  represented  by  a  rela- 
tively large  single  ganglion,  with  one 
or  two  eye-spots,  on  one  side  of  the  body, 
near  the  mouth,  and  there  are  organs 
which  appear  to  be  sensory.  They  are 
free  or  adherent,  but  never  absolutely 
fixed  animals. 

ROTTERDAM,  the  chief  port  and 
second  city  of  Holland;  on  the  Nieuwe 
Maas  or  Meuse,  at  its  junction  with  the 
Rotte;  about  14  miles  from  the  North 
Sea,  with  which  it  is  also  directly  con- 
nected by  a  ship  canal  (Nieuwe  Water- 
weg^  admitting  the  largest  vessels  and 
not  interrupted  by  a  single  lock.  The 
town  is  intersected  by  numerous  canals, 
which  permit  large  vessels  to  moor 
alongside  the  warehouses  in  the  very 
center  of  the  city.  These  canals,  which 
are  crossed  by  innumerable  drawbridges 
and  swing  bridges,  are  in  many  cases 
lined  with  rows  of  trees;  and  the  hand- 
some quay  on  the  river  front,  1*4  miles 
long,  is  known  as  the  Boompjes  ("little 
trees"),  from  a  row  of  elms  planted  in 
1615  and  now  of  great  size.  Many  of 
the  houses  are  quaint  edifices,  having 
their  gables  to  the  street,  with  over- 
hanging upper  stories.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  town  ball,  court  houses, 
exchange,  old  East  India  House,  Boy- 
mans'  Museum,  containing  chiefly  Dutch 
and  modern  paintings,  and  the  govern- 
ment dockyards  and  arsenal,  besides  the 
numerous  churches,  of  which  the  mos*., 
conspicuous  is  the  Groote  Kerk,  or 
Church  of  St.  Lawrence  (15th  century). 
The  Groote  Markt  has  a  statue  of  Eras- 
mus, a  native  of  the  town;  and  there 
are  fine  parks  and  a  large  zoological 
garden.  Rotterdam  contains  shipbuild- 
ing yards,  sugar  refineries,  distilleries, 
tobacco  factories,  and  large  machine 
works;  but  its  mainstay  is  commerce. 
It  not  only  carries  on  a  very  extensive 
and  active  trade  with  Great  Britain,  the 
Dutch  East  and  West  Indies,  and  other 
transoceanic  countries,  but,  as  the  nat- 
ural outlet  for  the  entire  basin  of  the 
Rhine  and  Meuse,  it  has  developed  an 
important  commerce  with  Germany,  ' 
Switzerland,  and  Central  Europe.  The 
Maas  is  crossed  by  a  great  railway 
bridge  and  another  for  carriages  and 
foot-passengers.  Rotterdam  received 
town  rights  in  1340,  and  in  1573  it 
obtained  a  vote  in  the  Estates  of  the 
Netherlands;   but  its  modern  prosperity 


ROTTI 


128 


ROUGET    DE    LISLE 


has   been   chiefly    developed    since    1830. 
Pop.  (1919)  506,067. 

ROTTI,  an  island  in  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, belonging  to  the  Dutch;  S.  W. 
of  Timor.  It  is  36  miles  in  length  (650 
square  miles),  and  has  a  population  of 
80,000.  The  surface,  though  hilly,  is 
nowhere  more  than  800  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  the  fertile  soil  produces  a  rich 
vegetation. 

ROTTLERA,  a  genus  of  Ewphorbiacese. 
R.  tinctoria  is  a  tree  very  common  in 
India,  and  occurring  also  in  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  Australia,  and  Arabia.  The 
three-lobed  fruit  is  covered  with  a  red 
mealy  powder  called  in  India  kamala. 
As  people  in  India  occasionally  paint 
their  faces  with  the  red  powder,  the  tree 
itself  is  sometimes  called  the  monkey- 
faced  tree.  It  is  used  in  the  N.  W.  prov- 
inces of  India  for  tanning  leather.  It 
yields  a  clear  limpid  oil,  useful  as  a 
cathartic. 

ROTUMAH,  an  island  in  the  South 
Pacific,  annexed  to  the  Fiji  Islands  by 
Great  Britain  in  1881;  distant  about  300 
miles  N.  N.  W.  from  the  nearest  island 
of  that  group,  of  which  it  is  a  depend- 
ency; area,  14  square  miles;  pop.  2,300, 
all  Christians. 

ROTJBAIX,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Nord;  6  miles  N.  E.  of 
Lille;  is  a  highly  important  seat  of  the 
French  textile  industry,  remarkable  for 
its  rapid  growth,  most  of  it  being  not 
more  than  50  years  old.  Woolens,  cot- 
tons, and  silk  or  mixed  stuffs  are  chiefly 
made;  also  beet  sugar,  machinery,  etc. 
During  the  World  War  it  saw  much 
fighting  and  suffered  severely.  Pop. 
about  122,000. 

ROUBLE,  the  unit  of  the  Russian 
money  system.  The  silver  rouble  before 
the  World  War  was  equivalent  to  about 
80^  cents  in  United  States  gold.  _  Half 
and  quarter  roubles  were  coined  in  sil- 
ver, also  gold  coins  of  nominally  five 
roubles  (demi-imperials)  and  three  rou- 
bles (imperial  ducats).  Paper  roubles 
are  the  principal  money  in  circulation. 
Normally  a  paper  rouble  is  worth  about 
49  cents.  The  rouble  is  divided  into  100 
kopeks. 

ROUEN,  a  city  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Seine-Inferieure,  and 
formerly  of  the  province  of  Normandy, 
on  the  Seine,  44  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  86  miles  N.  W.  of  Paris.  It  is  situate 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine,  in  a  fer- 
tile, pleasant,  and  varied  country.  The 
streets,  though  in  general  straight,  are 
narrow  and  dirty,  and  some  of  the 
houses  are  of  wood.  The  most  agree- 
able part  of  the  town  is  that  which  ad- 


joins the  Seine.  The  public  buildings 
of  interest  are,  the  cathedral,  containing 
many  old  monuments,  and  one  of  the 
finest  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture 
in  France;  the  Church  of  St.  Ouen,  like- 
wise a  fine  Gothic  building,  situate 
nearly  in  the  center  of  the  town;  and 
that  of  St.  Maclou,  considered  a  master- 
piece of  its  kind.  There  are  two  bridges 
over  the  Seine,  one  of  stone,  another  of 
iron,  connecting  the  town  with  the  sub- 
urb of  St.  Sever;  also  various  literary 
societies  and  schools,  an  academy  of 
belles-lettres,  a  society  of  agriculture  and 
the  arts,  a  central  school,  classes  for 
medicine  and  surgery,  a  navigation  and 
drawing  school,  together  with  a  public 
library,  a  collection  of  paintings  and 
natural  history  and  a  botanical  garden. 
Manufactures  cotton  goods,  woolens,  lin- 
ens, iron  ware,  paper,  hats,  pottery,  wax, 
cloth,  and  sugar  refineries.  Dyeing, 
both  of  woolens  and  cotton,  is  also  con- 
ducted with  care  and  success.  Rouen 
has  frequently  been  taken  and  retaken. 
In  1419  it  was  taken  by  Henry  V.,  and 
Joan  of  Arc  was,  in  1431,  burned  here. 
A  statue  to  her  memory  has  been  erected 
on  the  spot.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  the 
two  Corneilles,  and  of  Fontenelle  and 
Boieldieu.     Pop.  about  120,000. 

ROUGE,  in  ordinary  language,  a  cos- 
metic prepared  from  the  dried  flowers  of 
Carthamus  tinctorius,  and  used  to  im- 
part artificial  bloom  to  the  cheeks  or 
lips.  Jeweler's  rouge:  an  impalpable 
preparation  of  oxide  of  iron,  obtained 
by  gently  heating  the  yellow  oxalate  of 
iron  till  it  decomposes,  carbonic  acid 
escaping,  and  only  a  red  powder  being 
left.  It  is  used  for  polishing  silver,  and 
for  this  purpose  should  be_  of  the  finest 
quality.  Many  cheaper  varieties  are  sold 
under  this  name. 

ROUGE  ET  NOIR  (French,  "red  and 
black"),  Trente-un  ("31"),  or  Trente 
et  Quarante  ("30  and  40"),  a  modern 
game  of  chance,  played  by  the  aid  of 
packs  of  cards  on  a  table  covered  with 
green  cloth. 

ROUGET  DE  LISLE,  CLAUDE 
JOSEPH,  a  French  song-writer;  born  in 
Lons-le-Saulnier,  France,  May  10,  1760. 
He  composed  both  words  and  music  of 
"The  Marseillaise,"  when  he  was  an  offi- 
cer of  engineers  at  Strasburg  on  the 
night  of  April  25,  1792.  It  first  ap- 
peared under  the  title  of  "Song  of  the 
Army  of  the  Rhine."  He  wrote  several 
other  fragments  of  songs,  included  in  his 
"Fifty  French  Songs,  Words  of  Various 
Authors,  Set  to  Music  by  Rouget  de 
Lisle"  (1825) ;  and  other  poems,  stories, 
and  plays,  of  but  little  merit.  He  died 
in  Choisy-le-Roi,  June  26  or  27,  1836. 


BOUGH    RIDERS 


129 


ROUSSEAU 


ROUGH  RIDERS.  See  Roosevelt, 
Theodore;   Spanish- American  War. 

ROULERS,  or  ROUSSELAERE,  a  city 
of  Belgium,  situated  on  the  Mandelbeke, 
in  West  Flanders,  17  miles  S.  of  Bruges. 
It  was  the  scene  of  heavy  fighting  be- 
tween the  Allied  forces  and  the  Germans 
during  the  World  War.  Before  the 
war  it  was  an  important  industrial  cen- 
ter, on  account  of  its  manufactories  of 
textiles,  especially  linen.  The  population 
is  about  25,000. 

ROULETTE  (French,  "a  little  wheel"), 
a  game  of  chance  which  from  the  end 
of  the  18th  century  till  the  beginning  of 
1838  reigned  supreme  over  all  others  in 
Paris.  It  continued  to  be  played  at  Ger- 
man watering-places  till  1872,  when  it 
ceased  in  terms  of  an  act  passed  four 
years  before.  Roulette  then  found  a 
home  at  Monaco.  It  is  played  on  a  table 
of  an  oblong  form,  covered  with  green 
cloth,  which  has  in  its  center  a  cavity  of 
a  little  more  than  two  feet  in  diameter, 
in  the  shape  of  a  punch  bowl.  This  cav- 
ity, which  has  several  copper  bands 
round  its  sides  at  equal  distances  from 
each  other,  has  its  sides  fixed,  but  the 
bottom  is  movable  round  an  axis  placed 
in  the  center  of  the  cavity,  the  handle 
by  which  motion  is  communicated  being 
a  species  of  cross  or  capstan  of  copper 
fixed  on  the  upper  extremity  of  the  axis. 
Round  the  circumference  of  this  movable 
bottom  are  38  holes,  painted  in  black 
and  red  alternately,  with  the  first  36 
numbers,  and  a  single  and  double  zero; 
and  these  38  symbols  are  also  figured 
at  each  end  of  the  table  in  order  that 
the  players  may  place  their  stakes  on 
the  chance  they  select.  Along  the  mar- 
gin of  the  table  and  at  each  end  of  it 
are  painted  six  words — pair,  passe,  noir, 
impair,  manque,  rouge. 

ROUMANIA.     See    Rumania. 

ROUMELIA.     See  Bulgaria. 

ROUNDERS,  a  game  played  by  two 
parties  or  sides  on  a  piece  of  ground 
marked  off  into  a  square  or  circle,  with 
stations  for  a  batter  and  bowler,  and 
,  five  bases  or  stopping-places  at  equal 
distances  from  each  other  and  the  bat- 
ter's station.  The  object  of  the  batter 
is  to  strike  the  ball  as  far  as  possible 
away  with  a  short  bat  held  in  one  hand, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  make  a  complete 
circuit  of  the  ground,  passing  through 
each  goal,  or  as  far  as  any  one  of  the 
goals,  before  the  ball  is  returned  by  one 
of  the  fielders.  A  complete  circuit  of 
the  ground  made  at  once  counts  a  run. 
The  batter  is  out  if  the  ball,  after  being 
hit  by  him,  is  caught  by  one  of  the 
fielders,   or   if  he  is   struck   by   the  ball 


thrown  by  a  fielder  while  running  be- 
tween any  of  the  goals.  Also  a  rock* 
boring  tool  having  a  cylindrical  form 
and   indented   face. 

ROUNDFISH,  the  Salmo  (cor  eg  onus) 
quadr  (lateralis.  The  specimen  on  which 
Sir  John  Richardson  based  his  descrip- 
tion was  about  18  inches  long.  It  is  not 
highly   nrized  for  food. 

ROUNDHEAD,  a  term  applied  by  the 
Cavaliers  or  adherents  of  Charles  I., 
during  the  Civil  War  of  1642,  to  the 
Puritans  or  adherents  of  the  Parliamen- 
tary party,  from  their  wearing  their 
hair  cut  short,  while  the  Cavaliers  al< 
lowed  their  hair  to  fall  onto  their  shoul. 
ders. 

ROUND  TABLE,  KNIGHTS  OF  THE, 
See  Arthur;  Malory,  Thomas;  Morte  d* 
Arthur. 

ROUND  TOWERS,  a  class  of  tall  nar* 
row  circular  edifices,  tapering  somewhat 
from  the  base  upward,  and  generally 
with  a  conical  top,  from  60  to  130  feet 
in  height,  and  from  20  to  30  in  diam- 
eter. With  the  exception  of  three  in 
Scotland,  they  are  peculiar  to  Ireland. 
The  doors  are  from  6  to  20  feet  from 
the  ground,  the  windows  small.  The  in- 
terior contained  no  stairs,  but  the  suc- 
cessive stories  were  reached,  like  the 
doors,  by  means  of  ladders.  Authorities 
are  now  pretty  well  agreed  that  these 
towers  were  the  works  of  a  Christianized 
race  erected  as  places  of  refuge  and  as 
watch  towers.  They  date  from  the  8th 
or  9th  to  the  13th  century. 

ROUP,  one  of  the  most  serious  diseases 
which  the  poultry  or  pheasant  keeper 
has  to  fight,  because  in  it  there  is  gen- 
erally an  affection  other  than  the  mere 
cold  which  develops  and  makes  it  ap- 
parent. >  It  is  usually  found  that  the 
system  is  scrofulous,  which  is  the  milder 
form;  but  sometimes  it  takes  a  diph- 
theritic development,  and  this  is  the 
most  severe  and  deadly  disease  known  to 
poultry  keepers. 

ROUSSEAU,      HARRY      HARWOOD, 

an  American  naval  officer,  born  in  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  in  1870.  He  was  educated  at 
Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy, 
N.  Y.  After  some  years  as  draftsman 
and  engineer  for  private  companies,  he 
was  appointed  a  civil  engineer  in  the 
United  States  Navy,  with  the  rank  of 
Lieutenant  in  1898.  From  1899  to  1903 
he  was  an  engineer  in  the  bureau  of 
yards  and  docks,  Washington;  from  1903 
to  1907  engineer  of  public  improvements, 
Mare  Island  Navy  Yard,  California;  and 
in  1907  was  appointed  chief  of  the  bureau 
of  yards  and  docks  with  the  rank  of 
rear-admiral.      From    1907    to    1914    he 


ROUSSEAU 


130 


ROUSSEAU 


was  a  member  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission.  From  1914  to  1916,  engi- 
neer of  terminal  construction,  Panama 
Canal;  from  1916  to  1920  a  member  of 
the  commission  of  Navy  Yards,  and  from 
1917  to  1919  manager  of  the  shipyard 
plants  division,  Emergency  Fleet  Cor- 
poration. He  was  also  a  director  of  the 
Panama  Railroad  Company,  vice-chair- 
man of  the  United  States  Shipping 
Board,  and  a  member  of  several  engi- 
neering societies. 

ROUSSEAU,  JEAN  JACQUES,  a 
Swiss-French  philosopher,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  and  influential  writers 
of  the  18th  century;  born  in  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  June  28,  1712.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  watchmaker.  For  the  first 
35  years  of  his  life  the  chief  authority 


JEAN    JACQUES  ROUSSEAU 

is  his  own  painfully  frank,  but  perhaps 
not  absolutely  accurate  "Confessions," 
first  published  in  1782  and  1789.  After 
a  desultory  education  he  was  apprenticed 
in  1725  to  an  engraver,  from  whose  real 
or  fancied  severity  he  ran  away  in  1728. 
He  now  fell  under  the  notice  of  Madame 
de  Warens,  a  lady  residing  at  Annecy, 
who  sent  him  to  a  Roman  Catholic  in- 
stitution at  Turin,  where  he  abjured 
Protestantism.  After  several  fits  of  ec- 
centric wandering  he  went  to  live  with 
Mme.  de  Warens  at  Les  Charmettes,  a 
country  house  near  Chambery,  where 
they  appear  to  have  lived  happily  to- 
gether for  nearly  three  years.  From  a 
short  absence  at  Montpellier,  however, 
Rousseau  returned  to  find  his  place  at 
Les  Charmettes  occupied  by  another, 
whereupon  he  departed  to  become  a  tutor 
at   Lyons.     In    1741   he   went   to   Paris, 


and  in  1743  obtained  the  post  or  secre- 
tary to  the  French  ambassador  at  Ven- 
ice. This  office  he  resigned,  and  returned 
to  Paris  in  1745,  to  lead  a  precarious 
life,  copying  music  and  studying  science. 
About  this  time  he  became  intimate 
wit,h  Diderot,  Grimm,  D'Holbach,  Mme. 
D'Epinay,  etc.,  and  contributed  to  the 
"Encyclopedic";  and  from  this  period  also 
dated  his  connection  with  Therese  le 
Vasseur,  with  whom,  25  years  later,  he 
went  through  some  form  of  marriage 
ceremony.  In  1750  his  essay,  in  which 
he  adopted  the  negative  side  of  the  ques- 
tion whether  civilization  has  contrib- 
uted to  purify  manners,  won  a  prize 
offered  by  the  Academy  of  Dijon,  and 
brought  him  for  the  first  time  into  gen- 
eral notice.  In  1752  he  brought  out  a 
successful  operetta  (the  music  by  him- 
self), and  soon  after  a  celebrated  "Let- 
ter on  French  Music." 

In  1754  he  revisited  Geneva,  where  he 
was  readmitted  a  free  citizen  on  once 
more  embracing  Protestantism.  Having 
returned  to  Paris  he  wrote  a  sort  of 
novel,  "Julia,  or  the  New  Heloise,"  which 
was  published  in  1760,  being  followed  by 
"The  Social  Contract"  (Le  Contrat  So- 
cial), a  political  work,  and  "Emile,  or 
on  Education,"  another  story,  in  1762. 
The  principles  expressed  in  these  works 
stirred  up  much  animosity  against  their 
author.  The  confession  of  faith  of  the 
Savoyard  vicar  in  Emile  was  declared 
a  dangerous  attack  on  religion,  and  the 
book  was  burned  both  in  Paris  and  Gen- 
eva. Persecution,  exaggerated  by  his 
own  morbid  sensibility,  forced  Rousseau 
to  flee  to  Neufchatel,  then  to  the  He  St. 
Pierre  in  the  Lake  of  Bienne,  and  finally 
to  England,  where  he  was  welcomed  by 
Hume,  Boswell,  and  others  in  1766.  A 
malicious  letter  by  Horace  Walpole  un- 
luckily roused  his  suspicions  of  his  Eng- 
lish friends,  and  in  May,  1767,  he  re- 
turned to  France,  where  his  presence 
was  now  tolerated.  He  lived  in  great 
poverty,  supporting  himself  by  copying 
music  and  publishing  occasional  works. 
In  May,  1778,  he  retired  to  Ermenon- 
ville  near  Paris.  His  celebrated  "Con- 
fessions" appeared  at  Geneva  in  1782. 
Rousseau  united  an  enthusiastic  passion 
for  love  and  freedom  with  an  inflexible 
obstinacy  and  a  strange  spirit  of  para- 
dox. The  chief  importance  of  his  works 
lies  perhaps  in  the  fact  that  they  con- 
tain the  germ  of  the  doctrines  which 
were  carried  out  with  such  ruthless  con- 
sistency in  the  French  Revolution.  He 
died  in  Ermenonville,  July  2,  1778. 

ROUSSEAU,  THEODORE,  a  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1812.  His  tal- 
ent was  well  developed  before  he  was 
14  years  of  age.     He  identified  himself 


ROVNO 


131 


ROWE 


with  a  school  of  painting  opposed  to  the 
prevailing  classicism,  and  for  a  time  met 
with  bitter  hostility  from  the  officials  of 
the  French  Academy.  This  continued 
until  1848,  when  by  his  pre-eminent 
skill  as  an  artist  he  compelled  recogni- 
tion. From  1833  he  spent  his  life  chiefly 
at  Barbizon,  although  he  visited  other 
parts  of  Europe.  He  was  chiefly  notable 
as  a  painter  of  landscapes,  in  which  he 
excelled.  His  works  are  represented  in 
most  of  the  leading  galleries,  including 
the  Metropolitan  Museum,  which  has  13 
examples.  Rousseau  died  on  Dec.  20, 
1867. 

ROVNO,  a  small  city  in  Volhynia, 
Russia,  but  more  important  as  a  fort. 
It  formed  one  of  a  triangle  of  forts, 
the  other  two  being  located  at  Lutsk 
and  Dubno.  Rovno  was  first  fortified 
in  1887,  and  consisted  of  a  system  of 
seven  forts  in  the  form  of  a  semi-circle, 
at  a  distance  of  from  four  to  six  miles 
from  the  city  itself,  and  with  a  circum- 
ference of  about  twenty  miles.  During  the 
early  part  of  the  World  War  Rovno  served 
as  the  base  of  a  Russian  invasion  of 
Austria-Hungary,  until  after  the  retreat 
of  the  Russian  army,  when  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Germans.  After  the 
final  defeat  of  Germany  the  forts  again 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians. 
During  the  war  between  Soviet  Russia 
and  Poland,  in  the  spring  of  1920,  the 
Poles  attacked  Rovno,  and  were  reported 
to  have  taken  it,  but  at  the  end  of  the 
campaign  it  was  still  in  the  hands  of 
the  Bolsheviki. 

ROVTJMA,  a  river  of  East  Africa, 
which  rises  on  the  E.  of  Lake  Nyassa, 
and  flows  nearly  due  E.,  with  a  course 
of  about  500  miles,  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 
The  Rovuma  is  not  well  adapted  for 
navigation. 

ROWAN,  STEPHEN  CLEGG,  an 
American  naval  officer;  born  near  Dub- 
lin, Ireland,  Dec.  25,  1808;  came  to  the 
United  States  when  a  boy,  and  on  Feb. 
1,  1826,  was  appointed  a  midshipman  in 
the  navy.  He  was  promoted  lieutenant, 
March  8,  1837;  took  part  in  the  capture 
of  Monterey  and  San  Diego  in  the  Mex- 
ican War,  and,  as  executive  officer  of  the 
"Cyane,"  in  the  bombardment  of  Guay- 
mas.  In  the  battle  of  La  Mesa,  Upper 
California,  he  commanded  the  naval  bat- 
talion under  Commodore  Stockton,  and 
was  especially  commended  for  his  skill 
in  leading  the  landing  party  that  made 
a  successful  attack  on  a  Mexican  out- 
post near  Mazatlan.  He  was  promoted 
commander  Sept.  14,  1855.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  he  was  on  the 
"Pawnee,"  with  which  he  engaged  the 
Confederate  battery  at  Acquia  Creek  on 


May  25,  1861;  this  being  the  first  naval 
action  of  the  war.  He  was  promoted 
both  captain  and  commodore,  July  16, 
1862,  for  gallantry  in  the  Goldsborough 
expedition  to  North  Carolina,  and  the 
engagements  on  Roanoke  Island  and  Al- 
bemarle Sound.  He  forced  the  surren- 
der of  the  forts  at  Newbern,  N.  C.,  and 
by  the  capture  of  Fort  Mason  restored 
National  authority  in  the  waters  of 
North  Carolina.  He  commanded  the 
"New  Ironsides"  in  the  engagements 
with  Forts  Wagner,  Gregg,  and  Moul- 
trie; received  a  vote  of  thanks  from 
Congress;  and  was  promoted  rear-ad- 
miral, July  25,  1866.  After  the  close 
of  the  war  Rear-Admiral  Rowan  was 
appointed  to  various  executive  offices; 
was  promoted  vice-admiral  Aug.  15, 
1870;  and  was  chairman  of  the  Light- 
house Board  at  the  time  of  his  retire- 
ment, Feb.  26,  1889.  He  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  March  31,  1890. 

ROWE,  LEO  S.,  an  American  econom- 
ist and  public  official,  born  in  McGregor, 
Iowa,  in  1871.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Central  High  School  of  Philadelphia, 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
University  of  Halle.  He  also  received 
honorary  degrees  from  several  South 
American  universities.  From  1895  to 
1896  he  was  instructor  in  municipal  , 
government,  from  1896  to  1904  assistant 
professor  of  political  science,  and  from 
1904  to  1917  professor  of  political  sci- 
ence at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  commission  to 
revise  and  compile  the  laws  at  Porto 
Rico  (1900-1901) ;  a  United  States  dele- 
gate to  the  Third  International  Confer- 
ence of  American  States  at  Rio  Janeiro 
(1906)  ;  chairman  of  the  United  States 
delegation  to  the  First  Pan-American 
Scientific  Congress,  Santiago,  Chile 
(1908)  ;  a  member  of  the  United  States- 
Panama  Joint  Claims  Commission 
(1913)  ;  secretary-general  of  the  Pan- 
American  Financial  Conference  at 
Washington,  D.  C.  (1915)  ;  secretary- 
general  of  the  International  High  Com- 
mission (1915-1917)  ;  a  delegate  to  the 
Second  Pan-American  Scientific  Congress 
(1915)  ;  secretary  of  the  American-Mex- 
ican Joint  Commission  (1916-1917)  ;  as- 
sistant secretary  of  the  treasury  (1917- 
1920).  In  October,  1920,  he  became 
director-general  of  the  Pan-American 
Union.  He  was  a  member  of  many  do- 
mestic and  foreign  societies,  and  wrote: 
"Report  of  the  Insular  Code  Commis- 
sion" (with  J.  M.  Keedy,  8  vols.,  1902) ; 
"The  United  States  and  Porto  Rico" 
(1904)  ;  "Problems  of  City  Government" 
(1908) ;  as  well  as  many  reports  and 
articles    in    economic    journals    and    re- 


ROWE 


132 


BOWING 


ROWE,  NICHOLAS,  an  English  dra- 
matist and  translator;  born  in  Little 
Barf ord,  Bedfordshire,  England,  June  30, 
1674.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster 
under  Busby,  and  studied  law  in  the 
Middle  Temple;  but  early  inheriting  a 
small  competency  by  the  death  of  his 
father,  he  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
Between  1700  and  1714  he  produced 
eight  plays,  of  which  three  were  long 
popular:  "Tamerlane"  (1702);  "The 
Fair  Penitent"  (1703) ;  "and  "Jane 
Shore"  (1714).  The  character  of  Lo- 
thario in  "The  Fair  Penitent"  was  the 
prototype  of  Lovelace  in  Richardson's 
"Clarissa  Harlowe,"  and  indeed  the  name 
is  still  the  proverbial  synonym  for  a 
fashionable  rake.  Rowe  translated  Lu- 
can's  "Pharsalia."  His  edition  of  Shake- 
speare (6  vols.  1709-1710)  at  least  con- 
tributed to  the  popularity  of  his  author. 
His  comedy,  "The  Biter"  (1705),  failed. 
The  Duke  of  Queensberry  made  him  un- 
der-secretary  of  state;  in  1715  he  suc- 
ceeded Tate  as  poet-laureate;  the  same 
year  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  sur- 
veyors of  customs  to  the  port  of  London; 
the  Prince  of  Wales  made  him  Clerk  of 
his  Council;  and  the  Lord  Chancellor 
Parker  clerk  of  Presentations  in  Chan- 
cery. He  died  Dec.  6,  1718,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

ROWELL,  NEWTON  WESLEY,  a 
Canadian  lawyer.  He  was  born  in  Mid- 
dlesex co.,  Ont.,  in  1867,  and  was  edxv 
cated  in  the  public  schools  and  Ontario 
Law  Society.  He  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1891  and  eventually  became  head  of 
the  law  firm  of  Rowell,  Reid,  Wood  & 
Wright,  Toronto.  He  became  bencher 
Of  the  Law  Society  in  1911  and  liberal 
member  of  the  Ontario  Legislative  As- 
sembly for  North  Oxford.  He  was 
leader  of  the  liberal  opposition  in  the 
Ontario  Legislature,  1911-17,  and  in  1918 
became  a  member  of  the  Imperial  War 
Cabinet.  He  became  president  of  the 
Privy  Council  of  Canada  in  1917. 

ROWING,  the  propulsion  of  a  boat  by 
oars.  Fresh  water  rowing  is,  of  course, 
carried  on  primarily  by  individuals  as 
a  means  for  exercise  or  as  a  form  of 
pleasure.  Rowing,  however,  has  also 
developed  extensively  as  a  sport,  with 
competitive  races  between  highly  trained 
crews,  mostly  of  amateurs.  These  crews 
consist  most  frequently  of  eight  men, 
although  crews  of  four  and  of  two  are 
also  used.  Professional  rowing  is  prac- 
tically exclusively  single  sculling.  The 
styles  of  rowing,  as  well  as  the  styles 
of  boats  used  differ  with  place  and  time, 
and  each  particular  style  has  its  adher- 
ents. Racing  boats  are  light,  long,  and 
narrow.  In  England  the  eight-men  crew 
is   seated  in   such   a   manner   that  each 


man  sits  as  far  away  from  his  rowlock 
as  possible,  resulting  in  an  arrangement 
which  leaves  four  men  on  each  side.  In 
America,  however,  all  eight  men  sit  in  a 
straight  line  down  the  center  of  the 
boat.  The  steering  in  an  eight-crew  boat 
is  done  by  a  coxswain,  sitting  in  the 
stern  and  guiding  the  boat  by  means  of 
tiller  ropes,  attached  to  the  rudder.  In 
a  four-crew  boat  the  steering,  however, 
is  usually  done  by  the  first  rower  from 
the  stern  by  means  of  a  board  to  which 
the  rudder  lines  are  attached  and  which 
is  worked  with  his  feet.  No  rudder  is 
used  in  a  two-crew  boat. 

The  actual  propulsion  of  the  boat  is 
accomplished  by  whatever  the  oar  does 
while  in  the  water.  Rowing  boats,  of 
course,  have  undergone  considerable  de- 
velopment and  modern  boats  are  pro- 
vided with  every  possible  means  of  in- 
creasing the  speed  and  of  lessening  the 
strain  on  the  rower.  The  most  impor- 
tant developments  are  the  addition  of 
light  iron  brackets  (outriggers)  which 
have  been  universally  adapted  and  which 
increase  the  power  of  the  stroke.  Mod- 
ern rowing  styles  are  based  practically 
exclusively  on  the  requirements  of  keel- 
less  boats,  the  first  of  which  was  built 
in  1856,  in  England.  In  1870  the  slid- 
ing seat  was  introduced  by  Yale  and 
after  it  was  improved  in  various  ways, 
it  has  been  adopted  both  in  England  and 
in  America.  In  England  fixed  rowlocks 
are  used,  whereas  in  America  they  work 
on  a  swivel.  The  most  frequently  used 
wood  for  boats  is  cedar.  American  oars 
are  lighter  and  wider  than  English  oars. 

The  most  important  American  rowing 
competitions  are  the  following:  varsity 
races  of  eight-crew  boats  between  Yale 
and  Harvard,  instituted  in  1852  and  in 
recent  years  held  at  New  London,  Conn. 
In  1920  this  race  was  won  by  Harvard. 
The  inter-collegiate  regatta  is  rowed  at 
Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Hudson, 
since  1901.  The  American  Association 
of  Amateur  Oarsmen,  founded  in  1871, 
holds  annual  championship  regattas  for 
all  kinds  of  crews.  The  American  Hen- 
ley regatta  is  held  on  the  Schuylkill 
river,  Philadelphia,  and  so  is  the  annual 
People's  regatta.  The  Middle  States  an- 
nual regatta  is  held  on  the  Harlem  river, 
New  York  City.  Famous  foreign  regat- 
tas are  the  English  Henley  on  the 
Thames,  the  Oxford-Cambridge  regatta, 
and  the  Royal  Canadian  Henley.  The 
most  famous  international  rowing  con- 
test is  the  regatta  held  in  connection 
with  the  Olympic  games.  In  1920  this 
was  held  on  the  Grand  Canal  course 
near  Brussels.  United  States  oarsmen 
were  entered  in  four  out  of  five  events, 
winning  three  and  finishing  second  in 
one.      American    crews    also    frequently 


ROWLAND 


133 


ROYAL  INSTITUTION 


participate  in  the  English  Henley,  and 
specially  arranged  races  have  been  held 
between  American  and  English  college 
crews. 

Rowing  is  a  major  sport  in  most  of 
the  larger  American  universities.  There 
are  also  many  rowing  clubs  of  different 
types  throughout  the  country. 

ROWLAND,  HENRY  COTTRELL,  an 

American  novelist,  born  in  New  York  in 
1874.  He  was  educated  privately  and 
carried  on  special  studies  in  surgery 
at  the  Polyclinic  Hospital  in  New  York. 
During  the  Spanish-American  War  he 
served  as  a  naval  seaman,  and  in  1899- 
1900  was  assistant  surgeon  in  the  Phil- 
ippines. In  1914-15  he  served  as  physi- 
cian in  France.  During  the  World  War 
he  acted  also  as  war  correspondent  for 
"Collier's  Weekly"  and  was  a  special 
agent  of  the  intelligence  department  of 
the  United  States  Navy.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Sea  Scamps"  (1903) ;  "The 
Wanderers"  (1905)  ;  "In  the  Service 
of  the  Princess"  (1909);  "The  Closing 
Net"  (1912);  "Filling  His  Own  Shoes" 
(1914).  He  was  a  frequent  contributor 
of  stories  to  magazines. 

ROXBURGH,  a  county  of  southeast 
Scotland,  near  the  English  border.  Area, 
665  square  miles.  It  is  mainly  agricul- 
tural and  is  fertile,  farming,  sheep- 
raising  and  market  gardening  being  the 
chief  industries.  It  is  watered  by  the 
River  Tweed,  and  the  Cheviot  and  Lau- 
riston  hills  rise  up  on  the  horizon,  with 
lakes  and  streamlets  to  vary  the  scenery. 
Jedburgh  is  the  capital,  and  a  chief  town 
is   Hawick.      Pop.   about   50,000. 

ROYAL  ACADEMY,  THE.  See 
Academy  of  Arts,  the  Royal. 

ROYAL  ARCANUM,  a  fraternal, 
beneficiary  and  secret  society  in  the 
United  States.  The  head  offices  are  in 
Boston,  where  the  society  was  formed 
in  1877  and  where  accommodation  is 
provided  for  the  sessions  of  the  Supreme 
Council.  The  organization  is  based  on 
the  subordinate  councils  which  number 
about  2,000,  spread  over  the  United 
States,  and  are  grouped  under  State  or 
grand  councils,  the  representatives  of 
which  make  up  the  governing  body.  The 
membership  is  around  250,000  and  con- 
sists only  of  male  adults.  The  benefi- 
ciary work  of  the  society  is  that  which 
receives  its  chief  attention  and  a  reor- 
ganization of  its  insurance  system  en- 
tailing an  increase  in  the  amount  of 
premiums  payable  has  occasionally  been 
found  necessary.  The  benefits  paid  to 
members  from  the  date  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  society  to  September,  1920, 
total  nearly  $215,000,000. 


ROYAL  PLYING  CORPS,   British, 

the  military  branch  of  the  British  Air 
Forces.  The  Royal  Flying  Corps  was 
organized  in  1912  in  England  in  re- 
sponse to  a  demand  that  the  importance 
of  aeronautics  be  recognized  by  forming 
a  special  branch  devoted  to  aviation  in 
the  British  military  service.  From  the 
date  of  its  origin,  with  Major  Seely  as 
its  first  commandant,  the  Royal  Flying 
Corps  showed  a  remarkable  progress  in 
expansion  and  personnel.  Starting  with 
a  total  enlisted  force  of  less  than  one 
thousand  officers  and  men,  it  became, 
even  in  the  early  years  of  the  World 
War,  one  of  the  most  efficient  and  highly 
organized  branches  of  the  service.  At 
the  close  of  the  World  War,  its  enlist- 
ment numbered  well  over  three  hundred 
thousand,  including  the  ground  service 
and  mechanics.  In  1916  the  Royal  Fly- 
ing Corps,  while  preserving  its  name 
and  organization  unchanged,  became,  by 
inclusion,  a  division  of  the  Royal  Air 
Service,  which  included  the  naval,  diri- 
gible, kite  balloon,  and  blimp  branches  of 
the  aviation  service.  The  Royal  Flying 
Corps  was  recruited  principally  from 
Great  Britain,  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
Australia  and  the  United  States.  The 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Allied  Forces 
complimented  the  service  for  the  inval- 
uable aid  that  it  offered  at  the  Somme, 
Vimy,  Messines  and  Ypres,  where  it  dis- 
tinguished itself  equally  as  a  fighting 
unit  and  as  an  essential  factor  in  the 
success  of  the  ground  operations. 

ROYAL  GEOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETY, 

a  British  association  founded  in  1830, 
having  for  its  object  the  promotion  and 
diffusion  of  geographical  science.  The 
members  of  the  society  had  originally 
been  a  group  of  travelers  and  explorers 
who  formed  the  Raleigh  Dining  Club. 
Lectures  were  delivered  at  the  meetings 
and  the  latest  results  of  scientific  re- 
search in  geography  were  committed  to 
the  "Royal  Geographical  Journal,"  which 
was  the  organ  of  the  club.  In  1859  the 
association  was  chartered,  and  in  1882 
its  journal  began  to  bear  the  title  of 
"Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society,"  and  "Monthly  Record,"  changed 
again  in  1893  to  "Geographical  Journal." 
The  society  has  a  large  library  and  is- 
sues a  year  book  and  other  geographical 
literature.  It  has  also  financed  several 
expeditions  having  geographical  research 
as  their  object. 

ROYAL  INSTITUTION,  an  institu- 
tion founded  in  London,  England,  by 
Count  Rumford,  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  etc., 
March  9,  1799,  and  incorporated  Jan.  13, 
1800.  It  was  reconstituted  in  1810.  It 
is  designed  to  diffuse  knowledge,  to  facil- 
itate the  general  introduction  of  mechan- 


ROYAL  OBSERVATORY 


134 


ROYER-COLLARD 


ical  inventions,  and  teach  by  lectures 
and  experiments  the  application  of  sci- 
ence to  the  common  purposes  of  life.  It 
has,  as  a  rule,  had  for  its  lecturers  some 
of  the  first  scientific  men  of  the  age: 
e.  g.,  Thomas  Young,  Davy,  Brande, 
Faraday,  Tyndall,  Frankland,  and  Ray- 
leigh.  It  maintains  professors  of  nat- 
ural philosophy,  chemistry  and  physiol- 
ogy, and  has  laboratories  (including, 
since  1896,  the  Davy-Faraday  research 
laboratory  presented  by  Dr.  Ludwig 
Mond). 

ROYAL  OBSERVATORY,  GREEN- 
WICH, the  famous  English  observatory 
founded  by  Charles  II.  in  1675.  The 
first  observation  was  made  Sept.  19, 
1675.  The  Director  of  the  Observatory 
is  styled  the  Astronomer  Royal,  and  is 
under  the  official  control  of  the  Admir- 
jtlty,  but  receives  his  appointment  di- 
rectly from  the  Prime  Minister,  and 
holds  office  by  warrant  under  the  royal 
sign  manual.  Meridian  observations  of 
sun,  moon,  planets  and  stars  constitute 
the  fundamental  work.  Photographs  of 
the  sun  are  taken  on  every  available 
day,  and  after  being  measured  are  care- 
fully stored  for  reference.  Magnetic  and 
meteorological  observations,  made  con- 
tinuously, form  an  important  branch  of 
the  works.  The  chronometers  used  in 
the  English  navy  are  purchased,  and 
generally  examined,  at  the  Observatory. 
Hourly  and  daily  time-signals  are  sent 
out  from  the  Observatory  through  the 
post-office  telegraphs  giving  Greenwich 
time  to  all  parts  of  the  country. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY  (LONDON),  a  so- 
ciety for  prosecuting  research  in  general 
and  physico-mathematical  science  in  par- 
ticular, founded  in  1660.  Its  first  jour- 
nal opened  Nov.  28,  1660,  and  the 
members,  in  1662,  obtained  a  charter, 
and  were  incorporated  as  the  Royai 
Society.  The  first  number  of  the  "Phil- 
osophical Transactions,"  recording  the 
work  of  the  society,  appeared  on  March 
6,  1665.  After  1750  the  annual  volume 
took  the  place  of  occasional  numbers.  In 
1709  a  bequest  from  Sir  Godfrey  Copley 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Copley 
gold  medal,  and  a  donation  from  Count 
Rumford  in  1796  resulted  in  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Rumford  gold  and  silver 
medals.  Two  more  medals  were  estab- 
lished by  George  IV.  in  1825.  The  Lin- 
nsean  Society  branched  off  from  it  in  1788, 
the  Geological  Society  in  1807,  and  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society  in  1820.  For 
a  considerable  time  the  number  of  the 
members  stood  at  600;  latterly,  however, 
only  15  members  have  been  annually 
elected,  so  that  the  number  of  fellows 
will  in  a  few  years  be  reduced  below  500. 

Many  of  the  most  important  scientific 


achievements  and  discoveries  have  been 
due  to  its  enlightened  methods.  It  de- 
servedly enjoys  an  influential  and  semi- 
official position  as  the  scientific  adviser 
of  the  British  Government,  and  not  only 
administers  the  $20,000  annually  voted 
by  Parliament  for  scientific  purposes, 
but  has  given  suggestions  and  advice 
which  have  borne  valuable  fruit,  from 
the  voyage  of  Captain  Cook  in  the  "En- 
deavor" in  1768  down  to  the  present 
time.  The  roll  of  the  Royal  Society  con- 
tains practically  all  the  great  scientific 
names  of  its  country  since  its  founda- 
tion. Among  its  presidents  have  been 
Lord-Chancellor  Somers,  Samuel  Pepys, 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Sir  J.  Banks,  Sir 
Hans  Sloane,  and  Sir  Humphry  Davy. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  LITERATURE, 
a  society  founded  in  England  under  the 
patronage  of  George  IV.,  in  1823,  and 
chartered  in  1826.  It  awards  gold 
medals. 

ROYCE,  JOSIAH,  an   American  edu- 
cator and  author;  born  in  Grass  Valley, 
Cal.,  Nov.  20,  1855.     He  became  Profes- 
sor   of    the    History    of    Philosophy    in 
Harvard    in    1892,    and    published:     "A 
Primer    of    Logical    Analysis"     (1881)  ; 
"The    Religious    Aspect    of    Philosophy" 
(1885) ;  "California"  (1886) ;  "The  Feud 
of  Oakfield  Creek"  (1887),  a  novel;  "The 
Spirit    of    Modern    Philosophy"    (1892) 
"Studies    of    Good    and    Evil"     (1898) 
"The  World  and  the  Individual"  (1900) 
"The  Conception  of  Immortality"  (1900) 
"Herbert  Spencer"  (1904) ;  "The  Philos- 
ophy    of     Loyalty"     (1908);     "William 
James;     and     Other     Essays"     (1911); 
"Problems      of      Christianity"      (1912)  ; 
"War  and  Insurance"  (1914) ;  "The  Hope 
of  the   Great   Community"    (1917).     He 
died  Sept.  14,  1916. 

ROYE,  a  village  in  the  Department  of 
the  Somme,  France,  situated  on  the 
Avre,  26  miles  S.  E.  of  Amiens.  The 
village  was  taken  by  the  Germans  soon 
after  the  invasion  of  France,  in  Septem- 
ber, 1914,  but  afterward  was  the  scene 
of  much  of  the  heavy  fighting  in  that 
region.     Pop.  about  4,500. 

ROYER-COLLARD,  PIERRE  PAUL,  a 

French  statesman;  born  in  Sompuis, 
France,  June  21,  1763.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Revolution  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  municipality  of  Paris, 
and  in  1790-1792  acted  as  joint-secre- 
tary. Having  incurred  the  enmity  of 
the  Jacobins,  he  lived  in  hiding  at  Som- 
puis during  the  Reign  of  Terror.  Three 
years  afterward  (1797)  chosen  to  the 
Council  of  the  Five  Hundred,  he  took' 
an  active  part  in  the  work  of  that  as- 
sembly, till  the  18th  Fructidor.     In  1811 


ROYLE 


135 


RUBBER 


he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Philos- 
ophy in  Paris,  and  exercised  an  immense 
influence  on  the  philosophy  of  France. 
Rejecting  the  purely  sensuous  system  of 
Condillac,  he  gave  special  prominence  to 
the  principles  of  the  Scotch  school  of 
Reid  and  Stewart.  Strongly  "spiritual- 
ist" as  opposed  to  materialism,  he  orig- 
inated the  "Doctrinaire"  school,  of  which 
Jouffroy  and  Cousin  were  the  chief  rep- 
resentatives. He  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  Commission  of  Public  In- 
struction in  1815,  but  resigned  that  post 
in  1820;  in  1825  also  he  returned  to 
political  life  as  deputy  for  the  depart- 
ment of  Marne.  The  French  Academy 
opened  its  doors  to  him  in  1827;  and  in 
1828  he  was  named  president  of  the 
Chamber  of  Representatives,  and  in  that 
capacity  presented  the  address  of  the 
221  deputies  (March,  1830)  withdrawing 
their  support  from  the  government, 
which  the  king  refused  to  hear  read. 
Next  day  the  Chamber  was  prorogued. 
From  1842  Royer-Collard  completely 
withdrew  from  public  life.  His  salon 
was  latterly  the  resort  of  such  men  as 
Cousin,  Guizot,  De  Broglie,  Casimir  Pe- 
rier,  Villemain,  De  Remusat,  and  others. 
He  never  was  a  writer,  and  he  became 
a  philosopher  only  by  accident;  his  true 
interest  in  life  was  politics,  his  real  emi- 
nence as  a  political  orator  after  the 
ancient  pattern  rather  than  that  of  the 
modern  parliamentary  debater.  He  died 
in  his  country  seat,  Chateauvieux,  near 
St.   Aignan,   Loir-et-Cher,   Sept.   4,   1845. 

ROYLE,  EDWIN"  MILTON,  an  Ameri, 
can  dramatist  and  actor,  born  at  Lex- 
ington, Mo.,  in  1862.  He  graduated  from 
Princeton  in  1883  and  took  post-graduate 
courses  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
He  studied  law  but  did  not  practice.  His 
first  play,  "Friends,"  was  produced  in 
1892.  This  was  followed  by  "The  Squaw 
Man,"  "The  Struggle  Everlasting,"  "The 
Silent  Call,"  "The  Unwritten  Law," 
"Peace  and  Quiet,"  and  "The  Longest 
Way  Round." 

ROYSTON  CROW,  the  common  Eng- 
lish  name  for  the  hooded  crow,  Corvus 
comix.     See  Crow 

ROZHDESTVENSKY,  ZINIVY  PE»- 
TROVITCH,  a  Russian  naval  officer, 
born  in  1848.  During  the  Russo-Turk- 
ish  War  he  served  as  a  lieutenant.  He 
rose  through  the  various  grades,  becom- 
ing admiral  in  1904.  He  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  Baltic  fleet  which  was 
dispatched  to  the  Far  East.  (See  Russo- 
Japanese  War.)  He  was  defeated  by 
the  Japanese  fleet  under  Admiral  Togo 
in  the  battle  of  the  Sea  of  Japan,  in 
May,  1905.  During  this  action  he  was 
taken  prisoner.     He  was  tried  by  court- 


martial  on  his  return  to  Russia,  but  was 
acquitted  of  blame.     He  died  in  1909. 

RUATAN,  or  ROATAN,  an  island  of 
Central  America,  in  the  Bay  of  Honduras ; 
area,  about  240  square  miles.  Surface, 
somewhat  elevated  and  well  wooded;  soil, 
fertile.  The  shores  abound  in  fish  and 
turtles,  and  near  the  S.  extremity  is  a 
good  harbor. 

RUBACE,  or  RT7BASSE,  in  mineral- 
ogy: (1)  Rock  crystal  from  Brazil,  in- 
closing red  scales  of  haematite  or  gothite. 
(2)  Rock  crystal  which,  when  heated  and 
plunged  into  a  cool  colored  solution,  be- 
comes fissured  and  admits  the  red  color- 
ing matter.  (3)  Rubicelle.  (4)  Rose- 
quartz. 

RUBBER,  known  also  as  India  Rubber, 
or  Caoutchouc,  a  substance  of  increasing 
use  in   the   arts   and   industries   for   it3 


w> 


RUBBER 
Method  of  Cutting  the  Rubber  Tree  to  Collect  the  Sap. 

combination  of  qualities.  In  chemistry 
rubber  is  a  hydrocarbon  with  the  formula 
C10H16,  and  is  soluble  only  in  carbon 
disulphide,  carbon  tetrachloride,  and  in 
volatile  oils  such  as  ether,  turpentine,  etc., 


RUBBER 


136 


RUBBER 


the  product  is  yielded  from  the  stems  of 
trees  of  Hevea,  Manihot,  Ficus,  Castilloa 
and  Funtumia,  from  the  guayale  plant 
Parthenium,  and  from  the  climbers,  roots 
and  leaves  of  other  trees.  These  trees 
and  plants  grow  in  equatorial  regions, 
some  of  them  requiring  a  stony  soil  with 
an  occasional  rainfall  and  others  a  moist 
alluvial  soil.  Rubber  is  found  in  a  solid 
state  in  the  fiber  of  the  Parthenium,  and 
extraction  from  this  shrub  is  easy.  In 
the  case  of  the  other  plants  and  trees 
the  extraction  of  the  product  is  more 
complicated.  The  calls  of  industry  and 
commerce  have  used  up  enormous  sup- 
plies of  rubber  in  recent  years,  but  heavy 
as  the  demand  has  been,  the  sources  have 
shown  no  signs  of  exhaustion.  In  Ceylon 
and  Malaya,  Sumatra,  Brazil,  Bolivia, 
Peru,  and  in  other  areas  of  South  Amer- 
ica, and  the  E.,  the  cultivation  of  rubber 
has  continually  extended.  Until  recently 
the  product  harvested  in  the  State  of 
Para  in  Brazil  was  looked  upon  as  the 
best  in  quality  and  the  standard  by  which 
other  grades  of  rubber  were  judged,  but 
more  recently  the  product  from  the  East 
has  improved  both  in  quantity  and  quality. 
In  1900  very  little  plantation  rubber 
could  be  found  in  the  markets,  yet  in 
1915  the  amount  exported  from  Ceylon 
and  Malaya  alone  was  nearly  100,000 
tons.  The  United  States  is  the  largest 
importer  and  consumer  of  rubber  among 
the  nations.  In  1904,  59,016,000  pounds 
were  imported,  and  in  1915,  172,068,428 
pounds. 

The  use  of  rubber  goes  back  almost  to 
the  period  of  the  voyages  of  Columbus, 
for  according  to  the  accounts  of  that  time, 
Columbus  brought  back  to  Spain  rubber 
balls  from  Haiti;  and  in  1615  Juan  de 
Torquemada  talks  of  rubber  trees,  and 
of  the  use  of  the  gum  in  the  making  of 
shoes  and  waterproofing  of  canvas.  The 
name  of  India  rubber  seems  to  have  come 
into  vogue  about  the  middle  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  when  the  product  began 
to  be  attached  to  the  end  of  pencils  to 
rub  out  pencil  marks.  From  that  time 
onward  rubber  gradually  came  into  use 
for  one  purpose  or  another  all  over  the 
civilized  world. 

Rubber  in  its  crude  state  is  obtained 
from  the  juice  of  the  rubber  tree,  ranging 
from  the  Hevea  brasiliensis,  flourishing 
in  the  Amazon  valley,  to  the  tropical 
African  variety  which  gives  the  rubber 
of  commerce  associated  with  that  region. 
It  is  a  fortunate  fact  that  the  milky 
juice  of  the  tree  which  is  the  essence  of 
rubber  does  not  appear  to  be  an  element 
in  its  sap  nor  essential  to  its  life,  so  that 
even  unskillful  harvesting  is  not  fatal  to 
the  tree  itself.  The  juice  or  latex  is  in 
its  nature  a  secretion  in  which  float  small 
globules  of  rubber  which  when  the  juice 


is  permitted  to  stand  for  a  given  time 
comes  to  the  top  like  cream.  A  tree  may 
in  the  course  of  the  year  yield  up  to  17 
pounds.  Before  the  scientific  cultivation 
of  rubber  had  been  developed  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  cut  the  trees  and  saplings 
down  and  in  that  way  procure  the  caout- 
chouc wholesale,  but  the  method  now  in 
vogue,  having  in  view  the  prolongation 
of  the  life  of  the  tree,  eliminates  waste- 
fulness. The  modern  method  is  to  make 
incisions  in  the  trunk  through  which  the 
rubber  is  drawn  into  clay  cups  held  by 
the  workers.  The  contents  of  the  cups 
are  later  emptied  into  a  large  vessel, 
which  is  heated  moderately  so  that  the 
water  may  evaporate  and  the  rubber 
harden  into  cakes  ready  for  shipping. 
This  is  the  method  in  vogue  in  the  plan- 
tations where  the  best  rubber  of  com- 
merce is  drawn. 

In  recent  years  botany  and  the  allied 
sciences  have  lent  their  aid  In  the  develop- 
ment of  rubber  cultivation.  Waste  has 
now  been  reduced  to  a  minimum  and  even 
where  the  trees  have  been  cut  down 
methods  of  transplantation  have  been 
evolved.  The  method  of  collection  is  usu- 
ally through  an  incision  made  to  resemble 
a  herringbone,  with  a  vertical  channel 
toward  which  a  series  of  oblique  cuts 
have  been  made  with  the  cup  at  the  base 
to  receive  the  fluid  as  it  descends. 

The  many  uses  to  which  natural  rubber 
showed  itself  capable  of  being  put  natur- 
ally turned  the  thoughts  of  those  who 
used  it  to  the  possibility  of  manufactur- 
ing rubber  and  experiments  in  that  line 
were  made  from  the  beginning.  One  of 
the  first  uses  to  which  rubber  was  put 
in  manufacture  was  in  waterproof  cloth, 
and  as  flexible  tubes  and  containers.  Rub- 
ber boots  were  imported  in  1852  into 
Boston  from  Brazil.  A  little  before  1844 
Charles  Goodyear  discovered  the  art  of 
vulcanizing  and  this,  with  the  discovery 
of  Hayward  that  by  mixing  dry  sulphur 
with  rubber  its  stickiness  was  removed, 
added  greatly  to  the  commercial  possibili- 
ties of  the  product.  New  methods  of 
vulcanizing  rubber  were  gradually  per- 
fected, so  that  it  became  unchangeable 
under  all  ordinary  conditions  whether  of 
heat,  cold  or  moisture.  When  hardened 
by  cold  it  does  not  become  brittle.  When 
subjected  to  heat  or  put  in  boiling  water 
it  does  not  dissolve  but  becomes  more 
elastic.  When  kept  stretched  to  many 
times  its  original  length,  it  can  be  cut 
into  elastic  threads  to  be  used  in  garters, 
gloves,  etc.  In  a  semi-liquid  state  it  may 
be  used  as  a  cement,  and  combined  with 
shellac  and  coal  tar^  it  forms  a  tenacious 
variety  of  glue.  It  is  used  as  an  element 
in  varnish,  and  in  many  lubricating 
liquids.  Apart  from  the  making  of  tires, 
footwear,  clothing,  belting,  surgical  and 


BUBBLE 


137 


RUBICON 


medical  apparatus,  rubber  is  increasingly 
used  in  articles  of  commerce  both  in  the 
hard  rubber  and  soft  rubber  state.  One 
of  its  most  valuable  uses  is  as  an  adjunct 
to  the  electrical  industry  in  which  it  is 
found  of  great  service  as  an  insulating 
material. 

RUBBLE,  a  common  kind  of  masonry, 
in  which  the  stones  are  irregular  in  size 
and  shape.  Walls  faced  with  ashlar  are 
generally  packed  with  rubble  at  the  back. 
Rubble  is  of  various  kinds,  according  to 
the  amount  of  dressing  given  to  the  stones. 
Common  rubble  is  built  with  stones  left 
almost  as  they  come  from  the  quarry. 
Hammer-dressed  rubble  is  so  called  when 
the  stones  are  squared  with  the  mason's 
hammer;  coarsed  rubble,  when  the  stones 
are  squared  and  equal  in  height,  etc. 

RUBEFACIENTS,  external  agents  em- 
ployed in  medicine  for  the  purpose  of 
stimulating,  and  consequently  reddening, 
the  part  to  which  they  are  applied.  All 
agents  which,  after  a  certain  period,  act 
as  blisters  may  be  made  to  act  as  rube- 
facients, if  their  time  of  action  is  short- 
ened. The  mildest  rubefacients  are  hot 
poultices,  cloths  soaked  in  very  hot  water, 
moderately  stimulating  liniments — as,  for 
example,  soap-liniment,  with  various  pro- 
portions of  liniment  of  ammonia,  or  chlo- 
roform, etc.  Spanish  fly,  in  the  form  of 
Emplastrum  Calefaciens,  or  warm  plaster, 
in  which  the  active  ingredient  is  blunted 
by  the  free  admixture  of  soap  plaster, 
resin  plaster,  etc.,  is  a  good  form  of  this 
class  of  agents.  Capsicum  or  cayenne 
pepper,  in  the  form  of  a  poultice,  is  an 
excellent  rubefacient;  it  is  much  used  in 
the  West  Indies.  Mustard,  in  the  form 
of  Cataplasma  Sinapis,  or  mustard  poul- 
tice, and  oil  of  turpentine  are  perhaps  the 
best  of  the  ordinary  rubefacients.  The 
best  method  of  employing  turpentine  is 
to  sprinkle  it  freely  on  three  or  four 
folds  of  clean  flannel  wrung  out  of  boiling 
water.  The  sprinkled  surface  of  this  pad 
is  placed  on  the  skin,  and  a  warm  dry 
towel  is  laid  over  the  flannel. 

RUBELLITE,  in  mineralogy,  a  red 
variety  of  Tourmaline  (q.  v.),  occurring 
in  crystals  mostly  transparent  and  con- 
taining lithia. 

RUBENS,  PETER  PAUL,  a  distin- 
guished Flemish  painter;  born  in  Siegen, 
Westphalia,  June  29,  1577.  When  he  was 
10  years  old,  his  mother,  then  a  widow, 
returned  to  her  native  place,  Antwerp. 
He  received  an  excellent  education;  and 
after  studying  in  his  own  country,  espe- 
cially under  Otto  Van  Veen,  he  went  to 
Italy,  where  he  improved  himself  by  copy- 
ing the  works  of  the  best  masters,  but 
chiefly  Titian.  While  in  Italy  he  was 
employed  by   the   Duke   of   Mantua,   not 


only  as  an  artist,  but  on  an  embassy  to 
Madrid.  He  returned  to  Antwerp  in  1808, 
and  was  soon  after  made  court  painter 
to  the  Archduke  Albert,  Spanish  gov- 
ernor of  the  Low  Countries.  In  1620  he 
was  employed  by  the  Princess  Mary  de 
Medici  to  adorn  the  gallery  of  the  Luxem- 
bourg with  a  series  of  paintings  illustra- 
tive of  the  principal  scenes  of  her  life. 


PETER  PAUL  RUBENS 

While  thus  engaged  he  became  known  to 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  who  purchased 
his  museum.  He  was  afterward  employed 
by  the  Infanta  Isabella  and  the  King  of 
Spain  in  some  important  negotiations 
which  he  executed  with  such  credit  as  to 
be  appointed  secretary  of  the  privy  coun- 
cil. He  acquired  immense  wealth,  and 
was  twice  married,  the  second  time,  in 
1631,  to  a  lovely  girl  of  16.  Rubens,  be- 
yond all  comparison,  was  the  most  rapid 
in  execution  of  all  the  great  masters,  and 
was  incontestably  the  greatest  perfector 
of  the  mechanical  part  of  his  art  that 
ever  existed.  His  works  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  very  diversified  in  subject.  There 
are  nearly  100  in  the  Picture  Gallery 
at  Munich.  "The  Descent  from  the 
Cross,"  at  Antwerp,  is  perhaps  his  mas- 
terpiece. He  died  in  Antwerp,  May  30, 
1640. 

RUBIACE.SJ,  an  order  of  plants 
founded  by  Jussieu  in  1759 ;  monopetalous 
plants,  with  opposite  leaves,  interpetiolar 
stipules;  stamens  inserted  in  the  tube  of 
the  corolla,  and  alternating  with  its  lobes; 
ovary  inferior,  compound. 

RUBICON,  a  river  in  north  Italy 
(now  the  Fiumicino,  a  tributary  of  the 
Adriatic),  famous  in  Roman  history, 
Csesar  having  by  crossing  this  stream 
(49  B.  c),  at  that  time  regarded  as  the 
N.  boundary  of  Italy,  finally  committed 
himself    to    the    civil    war.      Hence    the 


RUBIDIUM 


138 


RUBRIC 


phrase  "to  pass  the  Rubicon"  is  to  take 
the  decisive  step  by  which  one  commits 
one's  self  to  a  hazardous  enterprise. 

RUBIDIUM,  a  metal  much  resembling 
ca?sium,  with  which  it  was  discovered  in 
1860,  by  Bunsen  and  Kirchoff,  during  the 
analysis  of  a  spring  of  water  which  con- 
tained these  metals  in  minute  quantities. 
Rubidium  has  since  been  found  in  small 
quantities  in  other  mineral  waters,  in 
lepidolite,  and  in  the  ashes  of  many  plants. 
This  metal  is  closely  related,  in  proper- 
ties, to  potassium,  but  is  more  easily 
fusible  and  convertible  into  vapor,  and 
actually  surpasses  that  metal  in  its  at- 
traction for  oxygen,  rubidium  taking  fire 
spontaneously  in  air.  It  burns  on  water 
with  exactly  the  same  flame  as  potassium. 
Its  oxide,  rubidia  (RbO),  is  a  powerful 
alkali,  like  potash,  and  its  salts  are  iso- 
morphous  with  those  of  potash. 

RUBINSTEIN,  ANTON  GREGOR,  a 
Russian  musician;  born  in  Wechwotynez, 
Kherson,  Nov.  28,  1829.  He  was  trained 
to  music  in  Moscow  by  his  mother  and  a 
master.      Liszt   heard    him,   "an    infant 


ANTON   GREGOR  RUBINSTEIN 

prodigy,"  play  in  Paris  in  1840,  recog- 
nized his  genius,  and  encouraged  him  to 
play  in  other  cities.  After  some  further 
"touring"  he  gave  himself  to  serious  study 
in  Berlin  and  Vienna,  and  in  1848  settled 
in  St.  Petersburg  as  teacher  of  music.  In 
1854  he  made  another  musical  tour.  On 
his  return  to  St.  Petersburg  he  succeeded 
in  getting  a  musical  conservatory  founded 


(1862)  there  and  became  its  director. 
But  his  concert  tours  engrossed  a  good 
deal  of  his  time,  and  in  1867  he  resigned 
the  directorship  of  the  conservatoire.  In 
1872  he  went  to  the  United  States  and  had 
an  enthusiastic  reception.  He  ended  his 
concert  tours  in  1886.  He  was  induced 
in  the  following  year  to  resume  the  direc- 
torship of  the  conservatory  at  St.  Peters- 
burg. From  the  Russian  Government  he 
received  a  patent  of  nobility  and  other 
honors. 

He  was  a  strongly  pronounced  opponent 
of  the  principles  of  Wagner.  As  a  pian- 
ist he  held  the  highest  rank,  being  usually 
reckoned  the  greatest  since  Liszt. 

Among  his  best  musical  productions 
are  the  operas:  "The  Maccabees,"  "The 
Demon,"  "Feramors"  (the  libretto  from 
Moore's  "Lalla  Rookh"),  and  "Kalaschni- 
koff";  the  two  symphonies:  "Ocean"  and 
"Dramatic";  and  the  sacred  operas:  "Par- 
adise Lost,"  "The  Tower  of  Babel,"  and 
"Sulamith."  His  numerous  songs  and 
pieces  of  chamber  music  are  highly  es- 
teemed and  more  widely  known.  He  wrote 
his  "Autobiography"  (1839-1889)  and 
"Conversation  on  Music."  He  died  in 
St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  Nov.  20,  1894. 

RUBLEE,  GEORGE,  an  American 
lawyer  and  public  official,  born  in  Madi- 
son, Wis.,  in  1868.  He  graduated  from 
Harvard  in  1890,  from  the  Harvard  Law 
School  in  1895  and  in  1896  became  in- 
structor in  that  school.  After  practicing 
for  one  year  in  Chicago,  he  removed  to 
New  York  in  1898.  He  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  Federal  Trade  Commis- 
sion in  1915,  and  in  1916  was  appointed 
to  report  on  the  operation  of  the  Adam- 
son  8-hour  law.  In  1917  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  Commercial 
Economy  Board  by  the  Council  of  Na- 
tional Defense,  and  in  the  same  year 
acted  as  special  counsel  for  the  Treasury 
Department.  He  represented  the  United 
States  Shipping  Board,  and  the  Emer- 
gency Fleet  Corporation  on  the  priorities 
committee  of  the  War  Industries  Board, 
in  1917.  In  1918-19  he  was  American 
delegate  to  the  Allied  Maritime  Trans- 
port Council  in  London. 

RUBRIC,  in  the  language  of  the  old 
copies  of  MSS.  and  of  modern  printers, 
any  writing  or  printing  in  red  ink;  the 
date  and  place  in  a  title-page  being  fre- 
quently in  red  ink,  the  word  rubric  has 
come  to  signify  the  false  name  of  a  place 
on  a  title-page.  Thus,  many  books 
printed  at  Paris  bear  the  rubric  of  Lon- 
don, Geneva,  etc. 

In  law,  the  title  of  a  statute;  so  called 
as  being  formerly  written  in  red  char- 
acters. Also,  in  MS.  missals,  the  direc- 
tion prefixed  to  the  several  prayers  and 
offices   formerly  written   in   red; — hence, 


RUBUS 


139 


RUDOLF  II. 


an  ecclesiastical  or  episcopal  injunction; 
also  the  rubric  familiarly  signifies  the 
order  of  the  liturgy  in  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic and  Protestant  Episcopal  Churches. 
Hence,  that  which  is  definitely  fixed  or 
authoritatively  established;  as,  the  rubric 
of  the  planetary  system. 

RUBUS,  a  genus  of  Potentillidse  (Lind- 
ley) ;  of  Rubese  (Sir  Joseph  Hooker) ; 
creeping  herbs  or  sarmentose  shrubs,  al- 
most always  prickly;  flowers  in  panicles 
or  solitary,  white  or  red.  Fruit  of  sev- 
eral single-seeded  juicy  drupes,  in  a  pro- 
tuberant fleshy  receptacle;  known  species 
about  100,  chiefly  from  the  north  temper- 
'  ate  zone.  In  North  America  the  leaves 
of  R.  villosus  are  employed  as  an  astrin- 
gent. The  leaves  of  R.  arcticus  have  been 
used  as  a  substitute  for  tea.  Several 
Himalayan  species  or  sub-species  have 
edible  fruits. 

RUBY,  a  term  applied  popularly  to 
two  distinct  minerals — the  pyrope  and  the 
spinelle  ruby,  both  of  which  are  much 
valued  as  gems.  The  pyrope  is  a  silicate 
of  magnesia  and  alumina,  with  varying 
admixtures  of  iron,  chromium,  manganese, 
and  lime.  It  occurs  chiefly  at  Zoblitz, 
in  Saxony;  at  Mittelgebirge,  in  Bohemia; 
and  at  Elie,  in  Scotland.  The  spinelle 
ruby  and  its  varieties,  the  orange-red 
rubicelle,  and  the  violet  or  brown  alman- 
dine,  are  aluminates  of  magnesia,  with 
different  proportions  of  iron  and  chro- 
mium. They  mostly  occur  in  Ceylon  at 
Ava  and  in  other  parts  of  the  East  In- 
dies.    Rubies  are  wonderfully  imitated. 

RUBY  THROAT,  the  Trochilus  colu- 
bris,  a  species  of  humming  bird,  so  named 
from  the  brilliant  ruby  red  color  of  its 
chin  and  throat.  In  summer  it  is  found 
in  all  parts  of  North  America  up  to  lat. 
57°  North. 

RUDDER,  primarily,  an  oar;  specifi- 
cally the  instrument  by  which  a  ship  is 
steered,  being  that  part  of  the  helm  which 
consists  of  a  piece  of  timber  which  enters 
the  water,  and  is  attached  to  the  stern- 
post  by  hinges,  on  which  it  turns. 

RUDDER  FISH,  Caranx  Carangus;  a 
fish  allied  to  the  mackerel,  very  common 
in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  so 
named  from  its  habit  of  swimming  around 
the  sterns  of  ships,  attracted,  doubtless, 
by  the  refuse  thrown  overboard.  The 
flesh  is  said  to  be  coarse  in  flavor. 

RUDINI,  ANTONIO  STARRABBA, 
MARQUIS  DI,  an  Italian  statesman; 
,  born  in  Palermo,  Sicily,  in  1839.  He  be- 
came prominent  as  mayor  of  Palermo, 
where  he  vigorously  suppressed  an  insur- 
rection. Though  an  aristocrat,  he  sided 
with  Garibaldi.  In  1869  he  was  minister 
of  the  interior  and  member  of  the  Cham- 


ber of  Deputies,  serving  in  the  Parliament 
till  called  to  succeed  Crispi  as  premier, 
Feb.  7,  1891.  During  the  Mafia  dif- 
ficulty in  New  Orleans  he  recalled  the 
Italian  minister  from  Washington  to  en- 
force his  demands  on  the  United  States 
Government.  He  succeeded  Crispi  in 
1891,  was  succeeded  by  Giolitti  in  1892, 
and  was  again  made  premier  in  1896, 
when  disasters  to  the  Italian  army  in 
Abyssinia  caused  Crispi's  fall.  His  third 
term  of  office  closed  June  29,  1898.  He 
died  Aug.  6,  1908. 

RUDOLF  I.,  or  RUDOLPH,  founder 
of  the  former  imperial  dynasty  of  Aus- 
tria; born  in  Limburg  castle  in  the  Breis- 
gau,  Germany,  May  1,  1218.  He  became 
a  warm  partisan  of  Frederick  II.,  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  arms,  and  spent 
much  of  the  early  years  of  his  manhood 
in  quarrels  with  the  bishops  of  Basel  and 
Strasburg.  His  possessions  were  greatly 
increased  by  inheritance  and  by  his  mar- 
riage, till  he  was  the  most  powerful  prince 
of  Swabia.  In  1273  the  electors  chose 
him  to  be  German  king;  as,  never  having 
been  crowned  by  the  Pope,  he  was  not 
entitled  to  be  called  kaiser  or  emperor. 
His  accession  was  opposed  by  none;  the 
Pope's  consent  was  secured  at  the  price 
of  certain  rights  already  parted  with  by 
Rudolf's  predecessors.  Ottocar  of  Bo- 
hemia, rebelling  against  him,  was  defeated 
and  slain  in  1278  at  Marchfeld  beside  the 
Danube.  Rudolf  spent  the  greater  part 
of  his  life  that  remained  in  suppressing 
the  castles  of  the  robber  knights  and  put- 
ting an  end  to  their  lawless  practices. 
He  died  in  Spires,  July  15,  1291,  and  was 
buried  in  the  cathedral  there. 

RUDOLF  II.,  eldest  son  of  the  Em- 
peror Maximilian  II. ;  born  in  Vienna,  July 
18,  1552;  he  was  educated  at  the  Spanish 
court  by  the  Jesuits;  made  King  of  Hun- 
gary in  1572,  King  of  Bohemia,  with  the 
title  King  of  the  Romans,  in  1575,  and  on 
the  death  of  his  father  in  1576  succeeded 
to  the  imperial  crown.  Gloomy,  taciturn, 
bigoted,  indolent  both  in  body  and  mind, 
he  put  himself  in  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits 
and  low  favorites  and  left  the  empire  to 
govern  itself.  His  attention  was  given 
to  his  curiosities,  his  stable,  his  alchemi- 
cal and  magical  studies;  nevertheless  his 
taste  for  astrology  and  the  occult  sciences, 
and  his  desire  to  discover  the  philosopher's 
stone,  made  him  extend  his  patronage  to 
Kepler  and  Tycho  Brahe.  The  astrono- 
mical calculations  begun  by  Tycho,  and 
continued  by  Kepler,  known  as  "The  Ru- 
dolphine  Tables,"  derive  their  name  from 
this  emperor.  Meanwhile  the  Protestants 
were  bitterly  persecuted  by  the  Jesuits 
throughout  the  empire ;  the  Turks  invaded 
Hungary  and  defeated  the  Archduke 
Maximilian     (1596) ;    Transylvania    and 


RUDOLPH 


140 


BUFFED  GROUSE 


Hungary  rose  in  revolt;  and  at  last  Ru- 
dolf's brother  Matthias  wrested  from  him 
the  crowns  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and 


RUDOLF   II. 

the  states  of  Austria  and  Moravia.  Less 
than  a  year  after  losing  the  crown  of 
Bohemia  he  died,  unmarried,  Jan.  20, 1612, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Matthias. 

RUDOLPH,  an  Austrian  Archduke, 
son  of  Francis  Joseph  L,  born  in  1858. 
He  was  carefully  educated  and  entered 
the  army  at  the  age  of  twenty,  but  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a  traveler  and 
writer.  In  1881  he  married  Stephanie, 
daughter  of  King  Leopold  II.,  of  Bel- 
gium. In  1889  he  became  the  subject  of 
a  great  deal  of  romantic  interest,  because 
of  his  death  in  a  hunting  lodge  in  the 
royal  preserves,  at  Myerling,  near  Vienna. 
He  had  obviously  committed  suicide,  the 
rumored  cause  being  his  love  for  an  ac- 
tress, but  this  phase  of  the  scandal  was 
suppressed.  Archduke  Rudolph  was  one 
of  the  most  accomplished  members  of  the 
Imperial  family.  He  was  the  author  of 
"Fifteen  Days  on  the  Danube"  (1881)  ; 
"A  Trip  to  the  Orient"  (1884)  ;  and 
planned  and  partly  edited  the  monumen- 
tal work  "The  Austrian-Hungarian  Em- 
pire through  Word  and  Picture"  (1886- 
1902). 

RUDOLSTADT,  Germany,  capital  of 
the  former  principality  of  Schwarzburg- 
Rudolstadt  (now  part  of  the  federated 
State  of  Thuringia),  situated  on  the 
Saale,  18  miles  S.  of  Weimar.  It  is  fa- 
mous for  its  manufacturies  of  fine  porce- 
lains, pianos,  toys  and  chemicals.  Pop. 
about  13,000. 


RUE,  the  genus  Ruta.  The  common 
rue  is  R.  graveolens,  a  half -shrubby  plant, 
of  a  fetid  odor  and  an  acrid  taste.  The 
bluish  -  green  leaves  are  pinnate,  the 
flowers  yellow;  a  native  of  southern  Eu- 
rope, but  grown  in  gardens  in  the  East 
and  West  Indies,  the  United  States,  etc. 
Rue  oil  is  a  powerful  topical  stimulant, 
an  anti-spasmodic  and  an  emmenagogue. 
It  is  used  internally  in  flatulent  colic, 
hysteria,  epilepsy,  etc.,  and  as  an  enema, 
and  externally  as  a  rubefacient. 

RUFF,  the  Machetes  pugnax,  a  bird 
that  is  a  spring  and  summer  visitor  in 
north  Europe,  having  its  winter  home  in 
Africa.  It  is  rather  larger  than  a  snipe; 
general  plumage  ash-brown,  spotted  or 
mottled  with  black,  but  no  two  specimens 
are  alike.     In   the   breeding   season   the 


RUFF 

neck  is  surrounded  by  a  frill  or  ruff  of 
numerous  long  black  feathers,  glossed 
with  purple,  and  barred  with  chestnut. 
While  probably  serving  primarily  as  an 
attraction  to  the  hen  birds,  this  frill  acts 
also  as  a  shield,  when  furious  battles  take 
place  between  them  for  the  possession 
of  the  females,  which  are  called  reeves. 
The  nest  is  usually  of  coarse  grass,  in  a 
moist,  swampy  place;  the  eggs  four  in 
number.     Also  a  breed  of  the  Jacobin. 

RUFFE,  in  ichthyology,  the  Acerina 
cernua,  from  the  rivers  of  Europe.  It 
is  olive-green,  marbled  and  spotted  with 
brown,  and  resembles  the  perch  in  habits. 
The  name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the 
harsh  sensation  caused  by  its  ctenoid 
scales. 

RUFFED  GROUSE,  Bonasa  umbellus, 
a  North  American  species  of  grouse 
of  the  same  genus  as  the  hazel  grouse  of 
Europe.     It  is  named  from  the  tufts  of 


RUFIJI 


141 


RUGER 


feathers  on  the  sides  of  its  neck,  and  fre- 
quents forests  and  thickets. 

RUFIJI,  or  LUFIJI,  a  river  of  east- 
ern Africa  which  rises  to  the  N.  E.  of 
Lake  Nyassa,  and  enters  the  Indian  Ocean 
opposite  the  island  of  Mafia. 

RUGBY,  a  town  in  Warwickshire, 
England;  83  miles  N.  W.  of  London  and 
30  E.  S.  E.  of  Birmingham.  At  the  foot 
of  the  hill  on  which  it  stands  the  Swift 
gave  John  Wyclif's  ashes  to  the  Avon; 
close  by,  at  Ashby  and  at  Dunchurch,  the 
Gunpowder  Plot  was  hatched;  the  battle- 
field of  Naseby  was  visited  by  Carlyle 
from  its  school  house  in  1842,  a  few  days 
before  Arnold's  death ;  it  is  within  a  drive 
of  Stratford-on-Avon,  Coventry,  and  Ken- 
ilworth.  It  is  the  center  of  a  great  hunt- 
ing district  and  the  seat  of  a  world- 
famous  public  school.  The  school  was 
founded  in  1567  by  Lawrence  Sheriff, 
a  grocer  and  a  staunch  supporter  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  by  a  gift  of  property 
in  Manchester  Square,  London.  After 
maintaining  its  position  for  some  time  as 
a  good  school  for  the  Warwickshire  gen- 
try and  a  few  others,  specially  under  Dr. 
James  and  Dr.  Wool,  it  became  of  na- 
tional reputation  under  Dr.  Arnold,  who 
in  raising  his  school,  raised  at  the  same 
time  the  dignity  of  his  whole  profession. 
Since  his  time  the  school  has  never  lacked 
able  teachers,  remarkable  for  indepen- 
dence of  mind.  When  Arnold  died  in 
1842,  Archbishop  Tait  succeeded  him,  hav- 
ing as  coadjutors  Lord  Lingen,  Dean 
Bradley,  Principal  Shairp,  Thomas  Evans, 
Theodore  Walrond,  Bishop  Cotton.  He  in 
turn  was  succeeded  by  Dean  Goulburn, 
who  had  as  one  of  his  assistants  the  fu- 
ture Archbishop  Benson.  The  Crimean 
War  reduced  the  numbers  of  the  school 
to  300,  and  Dr.  Goulburn  resigned  in 
1857.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  future 
Bishop  of  London,  Dr.  Temple,  who  re- 
mained 12  years.  He  made  a  brilliant 
record,  and  added  fame  to  Rugby's  repu- 
tation. Having  collected  enough  money  to 
rebuild  the  chapel,  to  erect  a  gymnasium 
and  to  build  new  schools,  Dr.  Temple  was 
succeeded  by  Dr.  Hayman.  To  him  suc- 
ceeded Dr.  Jex-Blake,  who  inaugurated 
a  still  greater  building  era.  When  he 
resigned  in  1887  he  left  behind  him  a 
school  unrivaled  in  its  appointments.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Percival.  Of  illus- 
trious Rugbeians  may  be  named  the  poets 
Landor,  Clough,  and  Matthew  Arnold; 
Dean  Stanley,  who  had  the  rare  privilege 
of  recording  the  work  of  his  great  head- 
master in  biography;  Judge  Hughes,  who 
did  the  same  equally  felicitously  in  "Tom 
Brown's  School  Days";  Dean  Vaughan, 
Lord  Derby,  Lord  Cross,  Mr.  Goschen, 
Sir  R.  Temple,  and  York  Powell  the  his- 
torians, Justice  Bowen,  Sir  W.  Palliser, 

J—1 


Professor  Sidgwick,  C.  Stuart-Wortley, 
Arthur  Acland,  and  many  others  famous 
in  British  affairs.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

RUGBY,  a  former  town  in  Morgan  co., 
Tenn.;  about  114  miles  N.  of  Chatta- 
nooga; on  the  Cumberland  plateau;  is  in 
a  rich  mining  and  agricultural  region. 
It  owes  its  existence  to  a  series  of  public 
lectures  delivered  in  the  United  States  by 
Thomas  Hughes  of  England.  It  was 
settled  by  a  company  from  England  in 
1880,  who  bought  a  large  tract  of  land, 
and  the  settlement  was  made  with  im- 
pressive ceremonies.  The  town  was  laid 
out  in  building  sites,  farms,  parks,  etc.; 
several  industries  were  introduced,  but 
the  scheme  never  realized  the  expecta- 
tions of  its  projectors;  and  the  place  is 
now  only  classed  as  a  health  resort. 

RUGE,  ARNOLD,  a  German  publicist; 
born  in  Bergen,  Island  of  Riigen,  Prus- 
sia, Sept.  13,  1802,  or  1803.  He  embraced 
the  doctrines  of  Hegel,  and  wrote  philo- 
sophical criticisms  in  the  Halle  Year  Book. 
He  joined  Karl  Marx  in  Paris,  and  pub- 
lished with  him  the  "German-French  Year 
Books"  (1843-1845).  After  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  paper  which  he  started  in  Ber- 
lin, called  "Reform,"  he  went  to  London 
and  formed,  in  connection  with  Ledru- 
Rollin  and  Mazzini,  the  European  Demo- 
cratic Committee.  Among  his  works  are : 
"Two  Years  in  Paris"  (1845) ;  "Poetic 
Pictures"  (1847) ;  "Political  Pictures" 
(1848);  "Our  System"  (1850);  "In  For- 
mer Times"  (1862-1867)  ;  and  "Manifesto 
of  the  German  People."  He  died  in 
Brighton,  England,  Dec.  31,  1880. 

RUGEN  (ru'gen),  an  island  in  the 
Baltic  Sea,  belonging  to  Prussia,  near  the 
coast  of  Pomerania;  area,  377  square 
miles;  exceedingly  irregular  in  shape. 
The  surface  is  fertile,  undulating,  and  in 
many  places  covered  with  beautiful  beech 
forests.  The  Stubbenkammer,  a  sheer 
chalk  cliff  (400  feet  high)  at  the  N.  E. 
extremity,  is  frequently  visited.  The 
capital  is  Bergen.  Many  of  the  coast 
villages  are  popular  sea-bathing  resorts. 
From  1648  till  1815  Riigen  belonged  to 
Sweden.     Pop.  about  50,000. 

RUGER,      THOMAS      HOWARD,     an 

American  military  officer;  born  in  Lima, 
N.  Y.,  April  2,  1833;  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1854;  studied  law  and  practiced  in  Janes- 
ville,  Wis.,  in  1855-1861 ;  became  lieuten- 
ant-colonel of  the  3d  Wisconsin  regiment 
in  June,  1861;  won  distinction  in  numer- 
ous engagements  during  the  Civil  War; 
suppressed  the  draft  riots  in  New  York 
City  in  1863;  was  brevetted  Major-Gen- 
eral of  volunteers,  Nov.  30,  1864;  pro- 
moted colonel,  U.  S.  A.,  in  1867 ;  brigadier- 
Cyc  Vol  8 


RUGOSA 


142 


RUMANIA 


general    in    1886;    and   major-general    in 
1895.    He  died  June  3,  1907. 

RUGOSA,  in  zoology,  a  group  of 
Prladreporaria;  corallum  sclerodermic 
with  a  true  theca;  generally  both  tubulae 
and  septa  combined ;  septa  generally  some 
multiple  of  four,  but  with  one  or  three 
prominent,  or  with  a  small  channel; 
simple  or  compound  corals  represented  in 
the  modern  seas  only  by  two  genera,  one 
from  the  Mediterranean,  the  other  from 
Florida.  Families:  Stauridse,  Cyathaxo- 
nidse,  Cyathophyllidx,  and  Cystiphyl- 
iidx.  Also  found  in  the  Palaeozoic  rocks, 
the  Upper  Greensand,  and  the  Tertiary. 
They  were  reef-builders. 

RUHR  (ror),  a  river  of  Prussia,  that 
joins  the  Rhine  at  Ruhrort,  about  15 
miles  N.  of  Diisseldorf.  It  rises  in  West- 
phalia, and  has  a  tortuous  course  of  about 
200  miles,  latterly  through  the  Ruhr  coal 
field  region. 

RUHR  DISTRICT,  the  principal  in- 
dustrial and  mining  district  of  Germany, 
located  in  the  Prussian  province  of  West- 
falen  and  Rhenish  Prussia.  It  contains 
the  Ruhr  mountains,  which  yield  vast 
quantities  of  a  superior  grade  of  coal. 
The  coal  industry,  which  has  been  highly 
developed,  has  resulted  in  the  establish- 
ment of  vast  industrial  enterprises,  espe- 
cially in  connection  with  the  metallur- 
gical and  textile  industries.  The  most 
important  towns  are  Dortmund,  Hoerde, 
Witten,  Bochum,  Gelsenkirchen,  Essen, 
Muelheim,  Oberhausen,  and  Duisburg. 
Large  quantities  of  coal,  in  normal  times, 
are  exported  to  Belgium,  France,  and 
Luxembourg,  and  through  the  Dortmund- 
Ems  Canal  to  the  North  Sea  ports.  The 
district  is  one  of  the  wealthiest  of  Cen- 
tral Europe. 

In  March,  1920,  after  the  collapse  of 
the  Kapp  coup  d'etat,  uprisings  of  a 
serious  nature  occurred  in  the  district. 
They  were  the  result  of  the  general  strike 
which  was  declared  by  the  Ebert  govern- 
ment in  order  to  suppress  the  reaction- 
ary movement  started  by  Dr.  Kapp  and 
his  adherents.  However,  after  the  col- 
lapse of  this  movement,  the  general  strike, 
which  was  called  off  in  the  other  parts 
of  Germany,  was  continued  in  the  Ruhr 
District  and  before  long  assumed  dan- 
gerous proportions.  Groups  of  armed 
workingmen  led  by  radicals  attempted 
to  secure  control  of  the  industrial  estab- 
lishments. The  uprising,  however,  was 
not  all  of  a  purely  economic  nature,  but 
to  a  certain  extent  was  influenced  by 
internal  and  foreign  politics.  Eventually 
the  Ebert  government  by  the  use  of  armed 
forces,  succeeded  in  suppressing  the  re- 
volt. The  occupation  of  the  Ruhr  District 
was  mentioned  at  various  times  since  the 


signing  of  the  Versailles  Peace  Treaty 
as  a  possibility  in  order  to  force  Ger- 
many to  give  more  prompt  and  strict 
adherence  to  the  peace  terms.  The  dis- 
trict was  especially  affected  by  the  Peace 
Treaty  and  the  negotiations  following  the 
latter,  because  of  the  fact  that  the  ma- 
jority of  the  coal  which  Germany  was 
forced  to  deliver  to  France  came  from 
its  mines. 

RUIZ,  JUAN  (ro-eth')  a  Spanish 
poet  of  the  14th  century,  known  as  "Arch- 
priest  of  Hita";  born  in  Alcala  or  Guada- 
lajara in  1300.  He  is  the  most  original 
of  mediaeval  Spanish  poets,  and  has  left 
a  poem  on  love  and  women  which  is  in 
reality  a  text-book  for  the  man  who  wishes 
to  become  a  successful  lover.  It  is  in- 
terspersed with  songs,  the  best  of  which 
are  the  "Song  of  Scholars"  and  "Song 
of  the  Blind."     He  died  about  1351. 

RULES  OF  THE  ROAD,  the  official 
designation  of  regulations  adopted  by 
national  or  international  authorities  for 
the  management  of  vessels  in  storms.,  fogs, 
or  other  danger.  Under  act  of  the  United 
States  Congress,  in  1896,  the  rules  al- 
ready established  were  considerably 
changed  to  comport  with  the  schedule  to 
be  observed  by  vessels  of  all  civilized 
nations  on  and  after  July  1,  1897.  These 
rules  apply  also  to  inland  waters,  except- 
ing the  Great  Lakes,  for  which  a  special 
set  has  been  devised. 

RUM,  a  spirit  distilled  chiefly  in  the 
West  Indies  from  the  fermented  skim- 
mings of  the  sugar-boilers  and  molasses, 
together  with  sufficient  cane-juice  to  im- 
part the  necessary  flavor.  Its  peculiar 
flavor  is  due  to  butyric  ether.  Caramel  is 
added  for  coloring. 

RUM,  a  mountainous  island  of  Argyll- 
shire, Scotland,  belonging  to  the  group 
of  the  Inner  Hebrides,  15  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Ardnamurchan  Point.  It  is  8%  miles 
long,  8  miles  broad,  and  42  square  miles 
in  area,  only  300  acres  being  arable,  and 
the  rest  deer  forest  and  moorland.  The 
surface  presents  a  mass  of  high  sharp- 
peaked  mountains,  rising  in  Halival  and 
Haskeval  to  the  height  of  2,368  and 
2,659  feet.  In  1826  the  crofters,  number- 
ing fully  400,  were,  all  but  one  family, 
cleared  off  to  America,  and  Rum  was 
converted  into  a  single  sheep  farm;  but 
in  1845  it  was  sold  (as  again  in  1888) 
for  a  deer  forest. 

RUMANIA,  a  European  kingdom. 
The  total  area  in  1920  was  122,282  square 
miles,  as  against  53,489  square  miles 
prior  to  the  World  War.  The  territory 
added  following  the  war  included  Bessa- 
rabia, Bukovina,  Transylvania,  Crisana, 
Maramuresh,  and  a  part  of  Banat.  Old 
Rumania    included   the   principalities     of 


RUMANIA 


143 


RUMANIA 


Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  and  the  prov- 
ince of  Dobrudja  on  the  Black  Sea.  The 
total  population  in  1920  was  about  17,- 
400,000.  The  capital  is  Bucharest,  with 
a  population  of  about  300,000.  Other  im- 
portant cities  are  Jassy,  Galatz,  Braila, 
and  Giurgevo. 

Topography. — The  surface  is  mainly 
occupied  by  undulating  and  well-watered 
plains  of  great  fertility,  gradually  slop- 
ing upward  to  the  Carpathians  on  the  N. 
and  W.  borders,  where  the  summits  range 
from  2,650  to  8,800  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  entire  kingdom  is  in  the  basin  of  the 
Danube,  which  has  a  course  of  595  miles 
in  Rumania,  forming  the  boundary  with 
Bulgaria  nearly  the  whole  way.  Its  chief 
Rumanian  tributaries  are  the  Olta  or 
Aluta,  Ardjis,  Jalomitza,  Sereth,  and 
Pruth  (on  N.  W.  border).  The  Danube 
forms  a  number  of  marshy  lakes  as  it 
approaches  the  alluvial  region  of  the  Do- 
brudja, through  which  it  discharges  itself 
into  the  Black  Sea  by  the  St.  George, 
Sulina,  and  Kilia  channels.  The  climate 
is  much  more  extreme  than  at  the  same 
latitude  in  other  parts  of  Europe;  the 
summer  is  hot  and  rainless,  the  winter 
sudden  and  very  intense;  there  is  almost 
no  spring,  but  the  autumn  is  long  and 
pleasant.  Rumania  is  an  essentially  ag- 
ricultural and  pastoral  state,  fully  70 
per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  being  directly 
engaged  in  husbandry.  The  chief  cereal 
crops  are  maize,  wheat,  barley,  rye,  and 
oats;  tobacco,  hemp,  and  flax  are  also 
grown;  and  wine  is  produced  on  the  hills 
at  the  foot  of  the  Carpathians.  Cattle, 
sheep,  and  horses  are  reared  in  large 
numbers.  Excellent  timber  abounds  on 
the  Carpathians.  Bears,  wolves,  wild 
boars,  large  and  small  game,  and  fish  are 
plentiful.  The  country  is  rich  in  minerals 
of  nearly  every  description,  but  salt, 
petroleum,  and  lignite  are  the  chief  min- 
erals worked.  Manufactures  are  still  in 
a  rudimentary  state. 

Production  and  Commerce. — Trade  is 
fairly  active,  but  is  almost  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  foreigners ;  the  internal  trade 
is  chiefly  carried  on  by  Jews,  whose  num- 
bers and  prosperity  are  constant  sources 
of  anxiety  to  Rumanian  statesmen,  and 
who  are  in  consequence  subject  to  certain 
disabilities.  The  chief  exports  are  grain 
(especially  maize),  cattle,  timber,  and 
fruit;  the  chief  imports,  manufactured 
goods,  coal,  etc.  Before  the  World  War 
Germany,  Great  Britain,  and  Austria- 
Hungary  appropriated  by  far  the  greatest 
share  of  the  foreign  trade,  the  bulk  of 
which  passes  through  the  Black  Sea  ports. 
The  chief  agricultural  crops  in  1919  were 
as  follows:  wheat  1,320,000  tons,  rye  87,000 
tons,  barley  257,000  tons,  oats  207,000 
tons.  The  acreage  under  forests  amounted 
to  about  18,750,000.     In  the  year  1915  the 


imports  amounted  to  £13,185,821,  and  the 
exports  to  £22,581,469.  The  chief  imports 
were  metals  and  manufactures,  vege- 
tables, textiles  and  manufactures,  wool, 
hair  and  manufactures,  vegetable  seed, 
etc.  The  principal  exports  were  grain, 
petroleum,  beans,  oil,  seeds,  and  food- 
stuffs. The  output  of  petroleum  has 
rapidly  increased  in  recent  years.  In 
1919  it  reached  over  44,000  tons.  Other 
minerals  worked  to  some  extent  are  cop- 
per, iron  manganese,  and  salt.  Sugar  is 
grown  on  an  extensive  scale  and  tobacco 
is  produced  in  important  quantities. 

People. — The  Rumanians,  who  call 
themselves  Romani,  claim  to  be  descen- 
dants of  Roman  colonists  introduced  by 
Trajan;  but  the  traces  of  Latin  descent 
are  in  great  part  due  to  a  later  immi- 
gration, about  the  12th  century,  from  the 
Alpine  districts.  Their  language  and  his- 
tory both  indicate  that  they  are  a  mixed 
race  with  many  constituents.  Their  lan- 
guage, however,  must  be  classed  as  one 
of  the  Romance  tongues,  though  it  con- 
tains a  large  admixture  of  foreign  ele- 
ments. In  Rumania  there  are  about 
4,700,000  Rumanians;  834,000  Jews  and 
the  remainder  Gipsies,  Bulgars,  Magyars, 
Germans,  Greeks  and  Armenians  in  the 
order  named.  Three-fourths  of  the  popu- 
lation are  peasants,  who  till  1864  were 
kept  in  virtual  serfdom  by  the  boiars  or 
nobles.  In  that  year  upward  of  400,000 
peasant  families  were  made  proprietors 
of  small  holdings  averaging  10  acres,  at 
a  price  to  be  paid  back  to  the  State  in  15 
years.  In  1918,  91,695,714  Inhabitants  be- 
longed to  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church. 

Education.  —  Education  is  compulsory 
and  is  improving  from  year  to  year,  al- 
though there  is  still  much  to  be  desired. 
There  were  in  1918-19  5,764  elementary 
schools,  with  11,088  teachers  and  692,896 
pupils.  There  are  also  a  number  of  sec- 
ondary schools,  normal  schools,  and  high 
schools.  There  are  two  unr  ersities  at 
Bucharest,  one  at  Jassy,  and  one  at 
Kolozsvar,  founded  in  1919,  and  one  in 
Cernauti,  founded  in  1920. 

Transportation. — There  are  about  7,240 
miles  of  railway,  all  of  which  are  under 
the  direction  of  the  State.  The  railway 
system  was  partly  disorganized  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  military  campaigns,  but  has 
been  extensively  repaired.  The  merchant 
marine  of  Rumania  in  1919  consisted  of 
158  vessels  of  71.158  tons. 

Army  and  Navy. — Military  sei'vice  is 
compulsory  and  universal  from  the  ages 
of  21  to  46.  In  1920  the  approximate 
strength  of  the  army  was  250,000,  or- 
ganized in  five  army  corps  and  seven  army 
groups.  The  navy  consists  of  a  protec- 
tive cruiser,  a  training  ship,  and  a  num- 
ber of  gunboats,  coast  guard  vessels,  etc. 

Finances. — For  the  year  1916-1917  the 


RUMANIA 


144 


RUMFORD 


revenue  and  expenditure  balanced  at 
$124,624,000.  The  public  debt  on  June 
30,  1918,  was  about  $1,025,000,000. 

Government. — A  constituent  Assembly 
elected  in  May  and  June,  1920,  unified  the 
different  constitutions  of  old  Rumania, 
Bessarabia,  Bukovina,  and  Transylvania. 
There  is  a  legislature  of  two  houses.  The 
Senate  consisted  in  1920  of  170  members 
and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  of  347  mem- 
bers. All  citizens  of  over  21  years  of 
age  paying  taxes  are  electors.  The  exe- 
cutive is  vested  in  a  Council  of  Ministers. 

History. — The  country  that  is  now  Ru- 
mania was  anciently  part  of  Dacia,  which 
was  conquered  by   Trajan   and   made  a 
Roman   province   in   A.   D.    106,   a   great 
many  Roman  colonists  being  then  settled 
in  it.     In  the  3d  century  it  was  overrun 
by  the  Goths,  and   subsequently  by  the 
Huns,    Bulgars,   Avars,    and    Slavs,  _  all 
of  whom  have  left  more  or  less  distinct 
traces  on  the  land  and  people.     At  the 
beginning  of  the  9th  century   Rumania 
formed  part  of  the  great  Bulgarian  king- 
dom, after  the  fall  of  which  in   1019  it 
nominally  belonged  to  the  Eastern  Roman 
empire,  though  soon  taken  possession  of 
by  Turkish  tribes.     Wallachia  and  Mol- 
davia  were    long   divided.      About     1241 
Radu  Negru,  "Duke"  of  Fogeras,  is  said 
to  have  founded  a  voivodeship  in  Wal- 
lachia, which  finally  fell  under  Turkish 
supremacy  after  the  battle  of  Mohacs  in 
1526.     The  boiars  retained  the  nominal 
right  of  electing  the  voivodes  till  1726; 
but  thenceforward  the  Sultan  openly  sold 
the  office  to  the  highest  bidders,  who,  with- 
out security  of  tenure,  mercilessly  plun- 
dered the  unfortunate  province  so  long 
as  their  power  lasted.    In  Moldavia,  Dra- 
gosh  or  Bogdan,  about  1354,  founded  a 
kingdom,   much   as   Radu    had    done   in 
Wallachia,  and  it,  too,  fell  under  the  over- 
lordship  of  the  Porte  after  the  death  of 
the  voivode,  Stephan  the  Great,  in  1504. 
The  Turks   subsequently  introduced    the 
same  custom  of  selling  the  hospodarship 
or  voivodeship.  In  both  provinces  the  gov- 
ernment was  most  frequently  purchased 
by  Phanariotes,  Greek  inhabitants  of  the 
Phanar  district  of  Constantinople.     The 
successive  wars  between  Russia  and  Tur- 
key, the  first  of  which  began   in   1768, 
were  on  the  whole  beneficial  to  Rumania, 
for   the   Russians   gradually    established 
a  kind  of  protectorate  over  their  fellow- 
Christians  on  the  Danube.    The  treaty  of 
Paris  in  1856,   after  the   Crimean   War, 
confirmed  the  suzerainty  of  the  Porte,  but 
preserved  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the 
Danubian   principalities,   and    added    to 
them    a   part   of    Bessarabia.      In    1858 
the  two    provinces,    each    electing    John 
Couza   as  its  hospodar,  were  united  by 
a  personal  union  which  in  1861  was  for- 
mally converted  into  a  real  and  national 


union.  Couza,  who  assumed  the  title  of 
Prince  Alexander  John  I.  in  1860,  was 
forced  by  a  revolution  to  abdicate  the 
throne  in  1866,  and  Prince  Charles  of 
Hohenzollern  -  Sigmaringen  was  elected 
to  reign  in  his  place.  In  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War  of  1877-1878  Rumania  sided 
with  Russia  and  proclaimed  its  indepen- 
dence of  Turkey.  This  claim  was  recog- 
nized by  the  treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878, 
but  Rumania  was  compelled  to  retrocede 
to  Russia  the  part  of  Bessarabia  which 
it  acquired  at  the  close  of  the  Crimean 
War,  and  to  receive  the  Dobrudja  in  ex- 
change. In  1881  the  principality  declared 
itself  a  kingdom.  When  the  Balkan  War 
(q.  v.)  broke  out  in  1912,  Rumania  was 
at  first  neutral,  but  joined  with  Serbia 
and  Greece  in  the  second  Balkan  War 
against  Bulgaria  and  as  a  result  was 
awarded  a  part  of  the  Dobrudja.  King 
Charles  died  in  1914  and  was  succeeded 
to  the  throne  by  Crown  Prince  Ferdinand. 
Rumania  was  neutral  in  the  World  War 
until  1916  when  she  joined  the  Allies.  At 
first  success  rewarded  her  arms,  but  ow- 
ing largely  to  the  failure  of  Russia  to 
render  promised  help,  her  resistance 
crumbled  under  the  swift  invasion  of 
powerful  German  armies.  By  the  Peace 
Treaty  of  May,  1918,  Bulgaria  received 
that  part  of  the  Dobrudja  awarded  to 
Rumania  in  1913,  Germany  obtained  con- 
cessions in  petroleum,  salt,  etc.,  and  Aus- 
tria obtained  mountain-passes,  and  min- 
eral rights.  (By  the  Peace  of  Versailles 
in  1919,  all  these  concessions  forced  from 
Rumania  were  abolished.)  In  1918  Bes- 
sarabia, after  being  ravaged  by  the  Bol- 
sheviki,  voted  almost  unanimously  on 
April  9,  1918,  for  union  with  Rumania. 

RUMELIA,  EAST.     See  BULGARIA. 

RUMEX,  dock;  a  genus  of  Polygoneas; 
sepals  six,  the  three  inner  ones  enlarging; 
petals  none;  stamens  six,  styles  three, 
stigma  multified;  achene  triquetrous,  cov- 
ered by  the  enlarged  inner  sepals,  the  lat- 
ter often  tuberculate.  There  are  about 
50  known  species;  generally  distributed. 

RTJMFORD,  BENJAMIN  THOMP- 
SON, COUNT,  an  American  scientist; 
born  in  Woburn,  Mass.,  March  26,  1753. 
Being  a  Tory  in  sympathy,  he  lived  in 
London  during  the  American  Revolution. 
After  serving  England  for  a  time,  he 
entered  the  service  of  the  Elector  of  Ba- 
varia, rose  to  the  position  of  Minister  of 
War,  and  was  finally  created  a  count  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  He  took  the 
title  Rumford  from  the  village  of  that 
name  (now  Concord,  N.  H.),  where  he 
had  married.  He  spent  the  last  years 
of  his  life  at  Auteuil,  busily  engaged  in 
scientific  researches — particularly  on  the 
nature  and  effects  of  heat,  studies  with 


RUMINANTS 


145 


RUNES 


which  his  name  is  generally  associated. 
His  works  include:  "Essays:  Political, 
Economical,  and  Philosophical"  (1797- 
1806)  ;  and  studies  in  domestic  economy, 
particularly  of  cookery.  He  died  in  Au- 
teuil  near  Paris,  Aug.  21,  1814. 

RUMINANTS,  or  RUMINANTIA,  a 
group  of  herbivorous  mammals,  belonging 
to  the  great  order  of  hoofed  or  ungulate 
Mammals,  included  in  the  Artiodactyle  or 
"even-toed"  section  of  these,  and  compris- 
ing the  five  families  Camelidse  (camel  and 
llama),  Tragulidx  (chevrotain),  Cervidse, 
(true  deer),  Camelopardalidae  (giraffe), 
and  Bovidse  or  Cavicornia  (ox,  sheep, 
goat,  antelope).  The  faculty  of  rumina- 
tion, though  it  gives  name  to  this  order, 
is  not  quite  peculiar  to  it.  Ruminants 
are  distinguished  from  other  orders  by 
certain  peculiarities  of  dentition.  The 
most  typical  of  the  group,  the  ox,  sheep, 
antelope,  etc.,  have  no  incisor  or  canine 
teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  but  have  instead 
a  hardened  or  callous  pad  against  which 
the  six  lower  incisors  bite.  In  the  lower 
jaw  are  two  canines  quite  similar  to  the 
incisors,  and  the  Camelidse  and  Tragu- 
lidse  possess  also  upper  canines.  In  both 
jaws  are  six  grinding  teeth  on  either  side, 
separated  by  an  interval  from  the  front 
teeth.  The  feet  of  ruminants  are  cloven. 
Horns,  developed  in  pairs,  are  present  in 
the  majority  of  the  species;  either  solid, 
as  in  the  antlers  of  the  true  deer,  or  hol- 
low as  in  the  horns  of  the  ox,  etc.  The 
alimentary  canal  is  very  long.  The  stom- 
ach is  divided  into  four  compartments. 
In  young  ruminants,  which  feed  on  milk, 
the  first  three  "stomachs"  remain  unde- 
veloped till  the  animal  begins  to  take  vege- 
table food.  Most  of  the  ruminants  are 
suitable  for  human  food.  They  are  gen- 
erally gregarious,  and  are  represented 
by  indigenous  species  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  except  Australia. 

RUMINATION,  the  act  of  chewing 
the  cud.  The  food  of  the  ruminants  is 
grass,  which  requires  a  longer  series  of 
chemical  changes  to  convert  a  portion  of 
it  into  blood  than  does  the  flesh  of  other 
animals  eaten  by  the  Carnivora.  To  pro- 
duce these  changes  there  is  a  complex 
stomach  divided  into  four  parts,  the 
rumen  or  paunch,  the  reticulum  or  honey- 
comb bag,  the  psalterium  or  manyplies, 
and  the  abomasum  or  reed.  A  ruminant 
does  not  chew  the  fodder  which  it  eats, 
but  simply  swallows  it.  When  it  has  had 
enough  it  retires  to  a  quiet  spot,  forces 
up  again  to  the  mouth  a  portion  of  the 
food  in  its  paunch,  thoroughly  chews  it 
and  then  swallows  it  again.  Another  and 
another  bolus  is  thus  disposed  of.  Each 
of  these,  started  from  the  paunch,  is 
forced  next  into  the  honeycomb  bag, 
where  it  receives  its  form,  and  then  goes 


up  the  gullet.  On  returning  it  passes 
direct  from  the  paunch  into  the  manyplies 
or  third  stomach,  and  thence  to  the  abo- 
masum. Fluids  may  pass  directly  into 
any  part  of  the  stomach. 

RUMP  PARLIAMENT,  in  English  his- 
tory, the"rump"  (tail  end)  of  the  Long  Par- 
liament after  "Pride's  Purge,"  Dec.  6,  1648. 
It  was  dissolved  by  Cromwell,  April  20, 
1653;  restored,  May  7, 1659;  dissolved,  Oct. 
13 ;  recalled,  December,  1659,  merged  in  the 
restored  Long  Parliament,  Feb.  21,  1660. 
See  Pride,  Thomas;  Long  Parliament. 

RUNCIMAN,  RIGHT  HON.  WAL- 
TER, a  British  public  official.  He  was 
born  at  South  Shields,  England,  in  1870, 
and  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  He  became  connected  with 
several  shipping  organizations  and  from 
1896  to  1905  was  a  managing  director  of 
the  Moor  Line  of  cargo  steamships.  In 
1898  he  contested  Gravesend  for  a  seat 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  elected  to  represent  Old- 
ham as  a  liberal.  In  1902  he  was  elected 
M.  P.  for  Dewsbury,  and  represented  that 
constituency  till  1916.  In  1905-7  he  was 
Parliamentary  Secretary  to  the  Local 
Government  Board ;  1907-8,  Financial  Sec- 
retary to  the  Treasury;  1908-11,  Presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Education;  1914-16, 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 

RUNCINATE,  in  botany  (of  a  leaf) : 
hook-backed;  curved  in  a  direction  from 
the  apex  to  the  base,  having  the  points 
of  the  great  central  lobes  reflexed,  as  the 
leaves  of  Taraxacum  officinale. 

RUNES.  In  the  Scandinavian  lands, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway,  thou- 
sands of  inscriptions  have  been  found 
written  in  the  ancient  alphabet  of  the 
heathen  Northmen.  Similar  records  are 
scattered  sparsely  and  sporadically  over 
the  regions  which  were  overrun  or  settled 
by  the  Baltic  tribes  between  the  2d  cen- 
tury and  the  10th.  A  few  are  found  in 
Kent,  England,  which  was  conquered  by 
the  Jutes,  others  in  Cumberland,  Dum- 
friesshire, Orkney,  and  the  Isle  of  Man, 
which  were  occupied  by  the  Norwegians, 
and  in  Yorkshire,  which  was  settled  by 
the  Angles.  One  or  two  have  been  found 
in  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  which  was 
the  earliest  halting-place  of  the  Goths  in 
their  migration  S.;  and  there  is  reason  \ 
to  believe  that  a  similar  alphabet  was 
used  by  the  Visigoths  and  Burgundians 
in  Spain  and  France,  while  it  is  note- 
worthy that  there  is  no  _  trace  of  this 
writing  having  been  used  in  Germany  or 
by  the  Saxons  and  Franks. 

There  are  several  interesting  runic  in- 
scriptions in  England,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  that  on  the  Ruthwell  cross 
in  Dumfriesshire,  and  that  on  the  Bew- 


RUNJEET  SINGH 


146 


RURAL  CREDIT 


castle  cross  in  Cumberland.  Several 
crosses  in  the  Isle  of  Man  are  carved 
with  the  old  Irish  interlaced  ornaments, 
and  are  in  the  form  of  the  old  Irish 
cross.     See  Alphabet. 

RUNJEET  SINGH,  called  the  "LlON 
of  the  Punjab,"  founder  of  the  Sikh 
kingdom;  born  in  Gugaranwalla,  India, 
Nov.  '2,  1780.  His  father,  a  Sikh  chief- 
tain, died  in  1792,  and  the  government 
fell  into  the  hands  of  his  mother.  At  the 
age  of  17,  however,  Runjeet  rebelled 
against  his  mother's  authority,  assumed 
the  reins  himself,  and  began  a  career  of 
ambition.  The  Shah  of  Afghanistan 
granted  him  possession  of  Lahore,  which 
had  been  taken  from  the  Sikhs,  and  Run- 
jeet soon  subdued  the  small  Sikh  states 
to  the  N.  of  the  Sutlej.  The  chiefs  to  the 
S.  of  that  river  invoked  the  protection 
of  the  British,  who  made  an  arrangement 
with  Runjeet  in  1809,  both  accepting  the 
Sutlej  as  the  S.  boundary  of  his  do- 
minions. He  now  organized  his  army 
after  the  European  model  with  the  help 
of  French  and  English  officers,  and  stead- 
ily extended  his  power,  assuming  the  title 
of  rajah  in  1812.  In  1813  he  took  At- 
tock,  and  in  the  same  year  assisted  Shah 
Shuja,  then  a  refugee  from  Afghanistan, 
in  return  for  the  famous  Koh-i-noor  dia- 
mond. In  1818  he  captured  Multan;  in 
1819  he  annexed  Kashmir,  and  in  1823  the 
Peshawur  valley.  He  was  now  ruler  of 
the  entire  Punjab,  and  in  1819  had  already 
assumed  the  title  of  Maharajah,  or  king 
of  kings.  In  1836  he  suffered  a  heavy 
defeat  from  the  Afghans,  but  until  his 
death  he  retained  his  power  over  his 
20,000,000  subjects.  He  died  in  Lahore, 
June  27,  1839. 

RUNNIMEDE,  a  long  stretch  of  green 
meadow,  lying  along  the  right  bank  of 
the  Thames,  1  mile  above  Staines  and  36 
miles  by  river  W.  S.  W.  of  London.  Here, 
or  on  Charta  Island,  a  little  way  off  the 
shore  Magna  Charta  (q.  v.)  was  signed 
by  King  John,  June  15,  1215.  In  the 
document  the  king  states  that  it  was 
signed  "by  our  hands  in  the  meadow 
which  is  called  Runnimede." 

RUPEE,  a  silver  coin  in  use  in  the 
British  dominions  in  India,  with  corre- 
sponding ones  of  much  inferior  workman- 
ship and  variable  value  in  the  native 
states.  Also  a  silver  coin  of  India,  worth 
normally,  in  United  States  money,  32.4c. 

RUPERT  OF  BAVARIA,  PRINCE, 
an  English  military  officer;  born  in 
Prague,  Bohemia,  Dec.  17,  1619.  He  was 
the  third  son  of  Frederick  V.,  elector  pala- 
tine and  King  of  Bohemia,  by  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  James  I.  of  England.  After 
some  military  experience  on  the  Continent 
he  went  to  England  to  assist  his  uncle, 


Charles  I.,  and  in  1642  was  made  general 
of  the  horse.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  Edgehill  and  Chalgrove,  captured  Bir- 
mingham and  Lichfield  in  1642,  and  Bris- 
tol in  1643,  and  displayed  his  courage  at 
Marston  Moor  and  Naseby  in  1645.  His 
feeble  defense  of  Bristol  against  Fairfax 
involved  him  in  temporary  disgrace  with 
Charles ;  but  in  1648  he  was  made  admiral 
of  the  English  royalist  fleet.  He  carried 
on  a  predatory  naval  war  against  Parlia- 
ment, in  European  waters,  till  Blake 
forced  him  to  escape  to  the  West  Indies, 
where  he  preyed  on  English  and  Spanish 
merchantmen.  In  1653  he  joined  Charles 
II.  at  Versailles.  After  the  Restoration 
he  was  appointed  lord-high-admiral  and 
served  with  Monk  against  the  Dutch.  He 
became  governor  of  Windsor  Castle, 
privy-councilor,  etc.  Many  of  his  later 
years  were  devoted  to  scientific  study.  He 
introduced  mezzotint  engraving  into  Eng- 
land. As  one  of  the  founders  and  the 
first  governor  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany his  name  was  given  to  Ruperts- 
land  (q.  v.).  He  died  in  London,  Nov. 
29,  1682,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 

RUPERTSLAND,  an  extensive  but  in- 
determinate region  in  the  interior  of 
Canada,  named  in  honor  of  Prince  Ru- 
pert, and  transferred  to  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company,  of  which  that  prince  was  one 
of  the  founders,  by  Charles  II.  in  1670. 
This  region  is  now  included  in  the  North- 
west Territories. 

RUPTURE,  the  breaking  or  laceration 
of  the  walls  or  continuity  of  an  organ, 
especially  of  a  viscus.  Also,  the  popular 
name  for  Hernia  (q.  v.). 

RURAL  CREDIT,  various  systems  of 
extending  loans  to  farmers  for  the  pur- 
pose of  financing  the  growing  and  mar- 
keting of  their  crops.  Rural  credit  may 
be  divided  into  two  chief  forms:  co-opera- 
tive and  state  aid.  The  former  is  by 
far  the  most  extensively  practiced.  The 
co-operative  method  had  its  origin  in  Ger- 
many, where  it  was  first  established  by 
Raiffeisen,  from  whom  it  has  taken  its 
name  as  the  Raiffeisen  system.  A  num- 
ber of  farmers  in  a  community  join  to- 
gether and  form  a  co-operative  bank  in 
which  the  members  are  jointly  liable  for 
the  debts  of  the  association.  Each  mem- 
ber owns  a  limited  number  of  shares, 
usually  only  one.  Each  member  has  only 
one  vote  in  determining  the  policies  of 
the  association.  In  Germany,  before  the 
World  War,  the  share  capital  of  the  banks 
formed  only  three  and  eight-tenths  per 
cent,  of  the  total  capital  available  for 
loans,  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  the  capital 
being  supplied  by  the  savings  accounts 
of  the  farmer-members.    This  system  has 


RURIK 


147 


RUSH 


spread  all  over  agricultural  Europe,  but 
has  made  little  or  no  headway  in  this 
country.  In  the  United  States  the  farm- 
er usually  obtains  his  credit  through  the 
regular  commercial  banks,  through  credit 
at  the  general  store,  or  by  means  of 
crop  liens,  all  of  which  have  been  ex- 
tremely unsatisfactory.  Within  recent 
years  credit  unions  have  been  established, 
especially  in  Massachusetts,  where  they 
have  been  encouraged  by  special  legisla- 
tion. The  progress  of  co-operative  credit 
unions  has  been  so  slow  in  this  country, 
however,  that  the  need  of  some  system 
of  state  aid  has  long  been  felt,  and  finally 
took  concrete  shape  in  the  Federal  Farm 
Loan  Act,  passed  in  July,  1916,  with  the 
specific  purpose  of  aiding  the  farmers  to 
produce  for  the  war  needs  of  the  nation 
during  a  critical  period.  See  "Co-opera- 
tion in  Agriculture,"  by  G.  Harold  Powell, 
and  "Co-operation  Among  Farmers,"  by 
John  Lee  Coulter. 

RURIK,  the  founder  of  the  Russian 
monarchy;  flourished  in  the  9th  century; 
he  is  generally  considered  to  have  been 
a  Varangian  of  Scandinavian  origin,  and 
to  have  led  a  successful  invasion  against 
the  Slavs  of  Novgorod  about  862.  He 
was  assisted  by  his  brothers,  to  whose 
territories  he  afterward  succeeded.  He 
died  in  879,  and  his  family  reigned  in 
Russia  till  the  death,  in  1598,  of  Feodor, 
son  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  when  it  was 
succeeded  by  the  house  of  Romanoff. 
Many  Russian  families  still  claim  a  direct 
descent  from  Rurik. 

RUSA,  a  genus  of  Cervidae,  or  a  sub- 
genus of  Cervus,  with  several  species, 
from  the  East  Indies.  They  are  generally 
of  large  size,  and  have  round  antlers, 
with  a  snag  projecting  in  front  just 
above  the  base  of  each.  There  are  several 
species,  of  which  the  best  known  is  R. 
aristotelis,  the  sambur. 

RUSH  (Juncas) ,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Juncese,  having  a  glume- 
like (not  colored)  perianth,  smooth  fila- 
ments, and  a  many-seeded,  generally 
three-celled  capsule.  The  species  are  nu- 
merous, mostly  natives  of  wet  or  marshy 
places  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  world; 
some  are  found  in  tropical  regions.  The 
name  rush  perhaps  properly  belongs  to 
those  species  which  have  no  proper  leaves ; 
the  round  stems  of  which,  bearing  or  not 
bearing  small  lateral  heads  of  flowers,  are 
popularly  known  as  rushes.  The  soft  rush 
(J.  effusus)  is  a  native  of  Japan  as  well 
as  of  Great  Britain,  and  is  cultivated  in 
Japan  for  making  mats.  The  common 
rush  (J.  conglomerates)  and  the  soft 
rush  are  largely  used  for  the  bottoms  of 
chairs  and  for  mats,  and  in  ruder  times, 
when  carpets  were  little  known,  they  were 


much  used  for  floor  covering.  The  stems 
of  the  true  rushes  contain  a  large  pith 
or  soft  central  substance,  which  is  some- 
times used  for  wicks  to  small  candles 
called  rushlights.  There  are  20  or  22 
British  species  of  rush.  They  are  often 
very  troublesome  weeds  to  the  farmer. 
Thorough  drainage  is  the  best  means  of 
getting  rid  of  them.  Many  marshy  and 
boggy  places  abound  in  some  of  the  spe- 
cies having  leafy  stems  and  the  leaves 
jointed  internally,  popularly  called  sprots 
or  sprits,  as  J.  acutiflorus,  J.  lamprocar- 
pus,  and  J.  obtusiflorus.  They  afford  very 
little  nourishment  to  cattle;  but  are  use- 
ful for  making  coarse  ropes  for  ricks. 

The  stage  was  also  strewed  with  rushes 
in  Shakespeare's  time,  as  well  as  the 
churches  with  rushes  or  straw  according 
to  the  season  of  the  year,  and  anciently 
rushes  were  scattered  in  the  way  where 
processions  were  to  pass.  To  order  fresh, 
rushes  was  a  sincere  mark  of  honor  to 
a  guest.  The  strewing  of  the  churches 
grew  into  a  religious  festival  conducted 
with  much  pomp  and  circumstance.  This 
ceremonious  rush-bearing  lingered  long 
in  the  northern  counties  of  England,  and 
has  been  occasionally  revived  in  modern 
times,  as  at  Grasmere  in  1884,  etc. 

RUSH,  BENJAMIN,  an  American 
physician;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  24, 
1745;  he  was  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
1760;  studied  medicine  in  Philadelphia, 
Edinburgh,  London,  and  Paris;  and  in 
1769  was  made  Professor  of  Chemistry 
in  the  Philadelphia  Medical  College. 
Elected  a  member  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress, he  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence (1776).  In  April,  1777,  he  was 
appointed  surgeon-general,  and  in  July 
physician-general,  of  the  Continental 
army.  His  duties  did  not  prevent  him 
from  writing  a  series  of  letters  against 
the  articles  of  confederation  of  1776.  In 
1778  he  resigned  his  post  in  the  army 
because  he  could  not  prevent  frauds  on 
soldiers  in  the  hospital  stores,  and  re- 
turned to  his  professorship.  He  was  a 
founder  of  the  Philadelphia  dispensary, 
the  first  in  the  United  States,  and  of  the 
College  of  Physicians,  was  active  in  the 
establishment  of  public  schools,  was  a 
member  of  the  state  conventions  which 
ratified  the  Federal  Constitution  and 
formed  the  State  constitution.  He  next 
became  Professor  of  the  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Medicine  at  Philadelphia,  to 
which  chair  he  added  those  of  the  Insti- 
tutes and  Practice  of  Medicine  and  Clini- 
cal Practice  (1791)  ;  and  of  the  Practice 
of  Physic  (1797)  ;  and  during  the  epi- 
demic of  1793  he  was  as  successful  as 
devoted  in  the  treatment  of  yellow  fever. 
In  1799  Rush  was  appointed  treasurer  of 
the   United   States   Mint,  which  post   he 


BUSH 


148 


BUSKIN 


held  till  his  death.  He  was  called  "the 
Sydenham  of  America"  and  his  medical 
works  brought  him  honors  from  several 
European  sovereigns.  He  wrote  "Medi- 
cal Inquiries  and  Observations"  (5  vols., 
1789-1793);  "Essays"  (1798),  and  "Dis- 
eases of  the  Mind"  (1812).  He  died  in 
Philadelphia,  April  19,  1813. 

BUSH,  BICHABD,  an  American 
statesman;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Aug.  29,  1780;  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in 
1797;  studied  law  in  Philadelphia;  was 
appointed  attorney-general  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1811,  and  was  attorney-general 
of  the  United  States  from  1814  to  1817. 
In  1817  he  was  temporary  Secretary  of 
State  under  President  Monroe,  and  was 
by  him  appointed  minister  to  England, 
from  whence  he  was  recalled  in  1825  by 
President  Adams,  who  made  him  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury.  In  1828  he  was 
candidate  for  the  vice-presidency  on  the 
same  ticket  with  President  Adams,  who 
was  nominated  for  re-election,  and  re- 
ceived the  same  number  of  electoral  votes. 
In  1836  President  Jackson  appointed  him 
commissioner  to  obtain  the  Smithsonian 
legacy,  then  in  the  English  Court  of 
Chancery,  in  which  he  was  successful,  and 
returned  in  1838  with  the  entire  amount, 
$515,169.  In  1847  he  was  appointed  min- 
ister to  France.  At  the  close  of  President 
Polk's  term  he  asked  to  be  recalled  and 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retirement. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  30, 
1859.  He  left  "Memoranda  of  a  Resi- 
dence at  the  Court  of  St.  James,"  two 
volumes  (1833-1845);  "Washington  in 
Domestic  Life"  (1857)  ;  "Occasional  Pro- 
ductions, Political,  Diplomatic"  (1860)  ; 
etc. 

BUSHVILLE,  a  city  of  Indiana,  the 
county-seat  of  Rush  co.  It  is  on  the  Cin- 
cinnati, Hamilton,  and  Dayton,  the  Cleve- 
land, Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis, 
the  Fort  Wayne,  Cincinnati,  and  Louis- 
ville, and  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  Chi- 
cago, and  St.  Louis  railroads.  It  has 
important  industries,  which  include  the 
manufacture  of  furniture,  woodworking 
machinery,  carriages,  lumber,  etc.  It  has 
also  an  important  trade  in  grain,  cattle, 
sheep,  and  hogs.  Pop.  (1910)  4,925; 
(1920)   5,498. 

BUSK,  JEBEMIAH  M'LAIN,  an 
American  agriculturist;  born  in  Morgan 
co.,  Ohio,  June  17,  1830;  removed  to  Wis- 
consin in  1853  and  became  a  farmer.  He 
entered  the  Union  service  during  the  Civil 
War,  as  major  of  a  regiment  he  had 
raised,  the  25th  Wisconsin  Volunteers; 
was  promoted  to  lieutenant-colonel  in 
1863;  was  brevetted  colonel  and  brigadier- 
general,  1865.    From  1866  to  1870  he  was 


bank-controller  of  Wisconsin,  and  repre- 
sented his  State  from  1871  to  1877  in 
Congress.  In  1882  he  was  elected  gover- 
nor of  Wisconsin  and  served  in  that 
capacity  till  1889.  He  was  made  secre- 
tary of  the  newly-created  Department  of 
Agriculture  in  1889,  and  held  this  office 
till  1893.  He  died  in  Viroqua,  Wis.,  Nov. 
21,  1893. 

BUSKIN,  JOHN,  an  English  author; 
born  in  London,  Feb.  8,  1819.  He  studied 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  gained  the 
Newdigate  prize  in  1839,  and  graduated 
in  1842.  In  1867  he  was  appointed  Rede 
lecturer  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1870-1872, 
1876-1878,  1883-1885,  he  was  Slade  Pro- 
fessor of  Fine  Arts  at  Oxford,  where  in 
1871  he  gave  $25,000  for  the  endowment 
of  a  university  teacher  of  drawing.  In 
"Modern  Painters"  he  advocated  a  com- 
plete revolution  in  the  received  conven- 
tions of  art  and  art  criticism.  Ruskin 
was  the  first  art  critic  to  place  criticism 
upon  a  scientific  basis.  In  1851  he  ap- 
peared as  a  defender  of  pre-Raphaelitism. 
About  1860  he  began  to  write  as  a  politi- 
cal economist  and  social  reformer;  his 
chief  works  in  this  sphere  being  "Unto 
this  Last"  (1862);  "Munera  Pulveris" 
(1872);  and  "Fors  Clavigera"  (1871- 
1884),  a  periodical  series  of  letters  to  the 
working  men  and  laborers  of  Great  Bri- 
tain. In  this  connection  he  founded  in 
1871,  "The  Guild  of  St.  George";  founded 
a  linen  industry  at  Keswick,  and  revived, 
in  Langdale,  hand-loom  weaving.  His 
chief  works,  apart  from  pamphlets  and 
contributions  to  periodicals,  are :  "Modern 
Painters"  (1843-1860)  ;  "Seven  Lamps  of 
Architecture";  "Poems"  (1850);  "King 
of  the  Golden  River"  (1851),  a  fairy  leg- 
end; "The  Stones  of  Venice"  (1851-1853) ; 
"Giotto  and  his  Works  at  Padua"  (1854) ; 
"Lectures  on  Architecture  and  Painting" 
(1854) ;  "Notes  on  the  Royal  Academy" 
(1855-1859  and  1875)  ;  the  letterpress  ac- 
companying "Turner's  Harbors  of  Eng- 
land" (1856);  "Notes  on  the  Turner 
Gallery  at  Marlborough  House"  (1857) ; 
"Catalogue  of  Turner's  Sketches  at  the 
National  Gallery"  (1857);  "Elements  of 
Drawing"  (1857);  "Political  Economy  of 
Art"  (1857),  better  known  as  "A  Joy  For- 
ever"; "Sesame  and  Lilies"  (1865); 
"Ethics  of  the  Dust"  (1866)  ;  "Crown  of 
Wild  Olive"  (1866) ;  "Lectures  on  Art" 
(1870);  "Aratra  Pentelici"  (1872); 
"Love's  Meinie"  (1873);  "Val  d'Arno" 
(1874) ;  "Proserpina"  (1875) ;  "Deuca- 
lion" (1875);  "Mornings  in  Florence" 
(1875) ;  "Frondes  Agrestes"  (1875-1876) ; 
"Elements  of  English  Prosody"  (1880) ; 
"Fiction,  Fair  and  Foul,  in  the  19th  Cen- 
tury" (1880-1881);  "Our  Fathers  Have 
Told  Us"  (1881) ;  "Lectures  on  the  Art 
of  England"   (1883);  "On  the  Pleasures 


RUSSELL 


149 


RUSSELL 


of  England"  (1884) ;  "Hortus  Inclusus" 
(1887),  a  selection  of  letters;  and  "Prae- 
terita,"  an  autobiography  (1885-1889). 
After  1885  he  lived  at  Brantwood,  on 
Coniston  Lake,  where  he  died  Jan.  20, 
1900. 

RUSSELL,  ANNIE,  an  American  ac- 
tress, born  in  Liverpool,  England,  1869. 
She  made  her  first  appearance  at  the 
age  of  7  in  Montreal.  Somewhat  later 
she  was  a  member  of  a  juvenile  "Pina- 
fore" company  in  New  York.  After  tour- 
ing in  South  America,  she  returned  to 
the  United  States,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  Madison  Square  Theatre  Com- 
pany. Her  first  great  success  was  scored 
as  "Esmeralda."  Beginning  with  1895 
she  appeared  in  many  stellar  roles  in 
"Mice  and  Men,"  "Major  Barbara,"  etc. 
She  was  also  very  successful  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  Shakespearian  characters, 
such  as  "Puck"  in  "Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,"  etc.,  as  well  as  in  a  number  of 
other  classical  plays,  including  Sheridan's 
"Rivals"  and  "School  for  Scandal"  and 
Goldsmith's  "She  Stoops  to  Conquer."  At 
various  times  she  also  appeared  with  con- 
siderable success  in  London. 

RUSSELL,  BERTRAND  ARTHUR 
WILLIAM,  a  British  author.  He  was 
born  at  Trelleck  in  1872  and  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Later  he 
became  Lecturer  and  Fellow  of  the  same 
college.  He  has  written  and  traveled 
much,  and  articles  written  by  him  on 
Sovietism  after  a  visit  to  Russia  in  1920 
attracted  attention.  His  works  include: 
"German  Social  Democracy,"  "Essay  on 
the  Foundations  of  Geometry,"  "Phi- 
losophy of  Leibnitz,"  "Principles  of 
Mathematics,"  "Philosophical  Essays," 
"Problems  of  Philosophy,"  "Principia 
Mathematical'  "Principles  of  Social  Re- 
construction," "Mysticism  and  Logic," 
"Roads  to  Freedom." 

RUSSELL,   CHARLES   EDWARD,  an 

American  journalist  and  author,  born  at 
Davenport,  Iowa,  in  1860.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  Johnsbury  Academy,  and  for 
several  years  was  engaged  in  newspaper 
work.  He  was  a  student  of  Socialism 
and  one  of  the  most  prominent  Socialists 
in  the  United  States  up  to  the  entrance  of 
the  United  States  in  the  World  War,  when 
he  withdrew  from  the  regular  Socialist 
Party  organization.  He  was  Socialist 
candidate  for  governor  of  New  York  in 
1910  and  1912.  In  1917  he  was  a  member 
of  the  diplomatic  mission  sent  to  Russia 
by  the  United  States  and  in  1919  was  a 
member  of  the  President's  Industrial 
Commission.  His  writings  include  "Busi- 
ness, the  Heart  of  the  Nation"  (1911); 
"Unchained  Russia"   (1918) ;  "After  the 


Whirlwind"  (1919) ;  "Bolshevism  and  the 
United  States"   (1919). 

RUSSELL,  COUNTESS,  a  British 
writer.  She  was  born  in  England,  the 
daughter  of  H.  Herron  Beauchamp,  and 
married  1st,  Count  Henning  August  Ar- 
nim  (d.  1910),  and  2nd,  in  1916,  Earl 
Russell.  Her  works  include:  "Elizabeth  i 
and  Her  German  Garden,"  "The  Solitary 
Summer,"  "The  April  Baby's  Book  of 
Tunes,"  "The  Benefactress,"  "The  Ad- 
ventures of  Elizabeth  in  Ruegen,"  "The 
Princess  Priscilla's  Fortnight,"  "Fraulein 
Schmidt  and  Mr.  Anstruther,"  "The  Cara- 
vaners,"  "Priscilla  Runs  Away,"  "The 
Pastor's  Wife,"  "Christopher  and  Colum- 
bus." 

RUSSELL,  GEORGE  W.,  an  Irish 
poet  and  writer,  born  in  1867.  His  chief 
literary  work  was  done  under  the  initials 
"AE."  For  a  time  he  studied  art,  but 
abandoned  this  to  devote  himself  to  the 
Celtic  movement  and  the  economic  im- 
provement of  Ireland.  Some  of  his  poetry 
is  of  great  beauty.  He  was  one  of  the 
chief  figures  in  the  Irish  literary  revival. 
His  published  works  include  "Homeward: 
Songs  by  the  Way"  (1894)  ;  "The  Earth 
Breath  and  Other  Poems"  (1897) ;  "The 
Spirit  of  England"  (1915)  ;  and  "Collect- 
ed Poems"  (1915).  He  also  wrote  several 
dramas  in  prose.  The  most  notable  of 
these  was  "Deirdre,"  which  was  per- 
formed by  the  Irish  National  Theater 
Society. 

RUSSELL,  GEORGE  WILLIAM  ER- 
SKINE,  an  English  public  official  and 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1853.  He  was 
educated  at  Harrow  and  at  University 
College,  Oxford.  He  was  elected  to  the 
House  of  Commons  as  a  Liberal  from 
Aylesbury,  from  1880  to  1885,  and  from 
North  Bedfordshire  from  1892  to  1895. 
From  1892  to  1894  he  was  Under-Sec- 
retary of  State  for  India  and  was  Un- 
der-Secretary of  the  Home  Department 
in  1894-1895.  He  wrote  "A  Life  of  Glad- 
stone" (1891);  two  series  of  memoirs 
entitled  "Collections  and  Recollections" 
(1898) ;  "Sydney  Smith"  (1905) ;  and 
"The  Spirit  of  England"    (1915). 

RUSSELL,  HOWARD  HYDE,  ail 
American  clergyman  and  publisher,  born 
at  Stillwater,  Minn.,  in  1855.  He  studied 
at  Griswold  College  and  graduated  from 
the  law  department  of  Indianola  College, 
in  1878,  practicing  law  for  5  years. 
He  served  as  superintendent  of  schools 
in  Adams  co.,  Iowa.  In  1885  he  was  or- 
dained to  the  Congregational  ministry 
and  was  pastor  of  missions  and  churches 
in  Kansas  City  and  Chicago.  In  1893 
he  founded  the  Anti-Saloon  League  in 
Ohio  and  was  its  superintendent  for  the 
four  years  following.     He  was  also  one 


RUSSELL 


150 


RUSSELL 


of  the  organizers  and  the  first  superin- 
tendent of  the  National  Anti-Saloon 
League  in  America.  He  was  chairman 
of  the  executive  committee  of  the  League 
from  1903  to  1909,  and  served  also  in 
various  executive  capacities  in  that  or- 
ganization. He  founded  the  Lincoln-Lee 
Legion  and  was  a  founder  and  the  first 
American  president  of  the  World  League 
Against  Alcoholism.  He  wrote  "A  Law- 
yer's Examination  of  the  Bible"  (1893), 
and  many  pamphlets  and  articles  against 
liquor  traffic. 

RUSSELL,    ISAAC    FRANKLIN,    an 

American  jurist  and  educator,  born  at 
Hamden,  Conn.,  in  1857.  He  graduated 
from  the  New  York  University  in  1875, 
and  from  1881  was  professor  of  political 
science  at  that  university.  He  served 
as  chief  justice  of  the  Court  of  Special 
Sessions  in  New  York,  from  1910  to 
1916.  He  contributed  many  articles  on 
law  to  law  journals  and  to  encyclopae- 
dias. 

RUSSELL,  JOHN,  EARL  RUSSELL, 
K.G-.,  an  English  statesman,  third  son 
of  the  6th  Duke  of  Bedford;  born  in 
London,  August  18,  1792.  Educated  at 
Edinburgh  University,  he  entered  Par- 
liament in  1813  before  attaining  his  ma- 
jority. In  1819  he  made  his  first  motion 
in  favor  of  parliamentary  reform,  of 
which  through  life  he  was  the  champion. 
Though  temporarily  unseated  in  1826, 
owing  to  his  advocacy  of  Catholic  Eman- 
cipation, he  carried  a  motion  in  1828 
against  the  Test  Acts  and  thus  led  to 
their  repeal.  In  1831  he  was  paymaster- 
general  in  Lord  Grey's  administration, 
and  introduced  the  first  Reform  Bill  to 
the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  home 
secretary  from  1835-1839,  when  he  be- 
came colonial  secretary.  From  1841  till 
1845  he  led  the  opposition  against  Peel, 
with  whom,  however,  he  was  in  sympa- 
thy on  the  Corn  Law  question;  and  when 
Peel  resigned  in  1846  Russell  formed  a 
ministry  and  retained  power  till  Febru- 
ary, 1852.  He  re-entered  office  in  De- 
cember, 1852,  as  foreign  secretary  under 
Lord  Aberdeen,  and  in  1855  became  colo- 
nial secretary  in  Lord  Palmerston's  cab- 
inet. He  represented  Great  Britain  at 
the  Vienna  conference,  but  resigned  of- 
fice in  July  of  the  same  year.  In  1859 
he  became  foreign  secretary,  the  Trent 
affair  with  the  United  States  occurring 
while  he  was  in  office.  In  1861  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  and  in  1865  suc- 
ceeded Lord  Palmerston  in  the  leader- 
ship of  the  Liberal  party;  but  when  his 
new  reform  bill  was  rejected  in  1866  he 
went  out  of  office.  He  was  the  author 
of  numerous  books  and  pamphlets,  in- 
cluding lives  of  Thomas  Moore,  Lord 
William  Russell,   and  Charles   Fox,  and 


"Recollections  and  Suggestions"  (1813*- 
1873),  published  in  1875.  He  died  in 
1878. 

RUSSELL,  LILLIAN  (MRS.  ALEX- 
ANDER P.  MOORE),  an  American  ac- 
tress, born  in  Clinton,  Iowa,  in  1861. 
She  studied  vocal  and  violin  music  in 
Chicago,  and  grand  opera  under  Leopold 
Damrosch.  Her  first  appearance  on  the 
stage  was  made  in  1879  as  a  member  of 
the  chorus  of  a  "Pinafore"  company. 
Somewhat  later  she  appeared  as  a  bal- 
lad singer  at  Pastor's  Theater,  New 
York,  at  which  time  she  first  used  the 
stage  name  of  "Lillian  Russell,"  her  real 
name  being  Leonard.  Until  1899  she  sang 
at  the  Casino  Theater,  New  York.  For 
several  seasons  she  was  one  of  the  most 
successful  members  of  Weber  &  Field's 
Stock  Company,  joining  later,  as  prima 
donna,  the  McCaull  Opera  Company,  and 
organized,  still  later,  her  own  company 
with  which  she  appeared  with  great  suc- 
cess both  in  England  and  the  United 
States.  She  has  also  made  frequent 
appearances  on  the  vaudeville  stage, 
where  her  lecture,  "How  to  Live  a  Hun- 
dred Years,"  became  well  known.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  she  took  an  active 
interest  in  Red  Cross  and  Liberty  Loan 
campaigns. 

RUSSELL  OF  KILLOWEN,  CHAS., 
BARON,  a  British  jurist,  born  at  Newry, 
Ireland,  in  1832.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  1859.  He  gained 
prominence  as  an  advocate  and  was  ap- 
pointed Attorney-General  in  the  Glad- 
stone cabinet  in  1886,  and  held  that 
office  again  from  1892  to  1894.  In  1893 
he  was  counsel  for  the  British  claims 
before  the  Bering  Sea  Commission.  In 
the  following  year  he  was  appointed 
Lord  of  Appeal  in  Ordinary  and  was 
made  a  life  peer.  In  the  same  year  he 
became  Chief  Justice.  He  served  as  a 
member  of  the  Venezuelan  Boundary 
Arbitration  Tribunal  in  1899.  He  died 
in  1900. 

RUSSELL,  WILLIAM,  LORD  RUS- 
SELL, an  English  statesman,  third  son 
of  the  5th  Earl  of  Bedford;  born  Sept. 
29,  1639.  He  entered  Parliament  imme- 
diately after  the  Restoration,  and  in 
1669  married  Rachel,  Lady  Vaughan, 
afterward  known  for  her  "Letters."  He 
was  a  prominent  leader  of  the  Whigs, 
animated  by  a  bitter  distrust  of  the 
Roman  Catholics  and  a  strong  love  of 
political  liberty.  In  1679  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  new  privy  council  appointed 
by  Charles  II.  to  ingratiate  himself  with 
the  Whigs.  Resigning  in  1680,  he  be- 
came conspicuous  in  the  efforts  to  ex- 
clude   the    king's    brother,    the    Roman 


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RUSSELL                              151  RUSSIA 

Catholic   Duke  of   York,   from   the    sue-  ers.     He   received  various   honors    from 

cession   to  the   throne,   but  retired  from  foreign    governments    and   was   knighted 

public  life  when  the   Exclusion   Bill  was  in    1895    in    recognition    of    his    achieve- 

rejected.    When  the  Rye  House  Plot  was  ments.     He  died  Feb.   11,  1907. 

discovered  in  1683,  Russell  was  arrested  bttooptt    ca^-p    BnrT^AmTATT 

on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  and  though  *™3SELL   SAGE   FOUNDATION,   an 

nothing  was  proved  against  him  the  law  organization  incorporated  in  1907  for  the 

was    stretched    to   secure    his    conviction,  improvement  of  social  and  living  condi- 

He  was  sentenced  to  death,  and  was  be-  ^ons  m  the  Y™}?*  States.     The  institu- 

headed    in    London,   July   21,    1683.      An  gon    was    established    by    Mrs     Russell 

act    was    passed    in    1689    reversing    his  Sage,  with  an  endowment  of  $10,000,000 

attainder  work  is   chiefly   devoted   to   research 

and   publication.      There   are   a    Division 

RUSSELL,  WILLIAM  CLARK,  an  of  Statistics  and  Education,  a  Depart- 
English  novelist;  born  (of  English  par-  ment  of  Recreation,  a  Division  of  In- 
entage)  in  New  York  City,  Feb.  24,  dustrial  Studies,  a  Division  of  Remedial 
1844.  He  spent  much  of  his  early  life  Loans,  a  Department  of  Surveys  and 
at  sea,  and  afterward  settled  at  Rams-  Exhibits,  a  Charity  Organization  De- 
gate,  England.  He  published  a  great  partment,  and  _  a  Department  of  Child 
number  of  sea  stories  and  novels,  among  Helping.  Besides  extensive  research 
which  are:  "The  Wreck  of  the  Grosve-  work  in  these  various  departments,  the 
nor"  (1878)  ;  "A  Sailor's  Sweetheart"  results  of  which  were  embodied  in  many 
(1880);  "My  Watch  Below"  (1883);  "A  publications,  the  Foundation  also  super- 
Sea  Queen"  (1883) ;  "The  Frozen  Pi-  vised  the  development  of  a  modern  sub- 
rate"  (1887) ;  "Marooned"  (1889)  ;  "The  urban  community  at  Forest  Hills  Gar- 
Romance  of  Jenny  Harlowe"  (1889)  ;  dens,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.  During  the 
and  "The  Good  Ship  Mohock"  (1895)  ;  war,  practically  the  entire  staff  and  re- 
sist Ye  Landsmen,"  "The  Two  Cap-  sources  of  the  Foundation  were  put  at 
tains,"  and  "Nelson"  (1897)  ;  "The  Ro-  the  disposal  of  the  government  and  the 
mance  of  a  Midshipman"  (1898)  ;  "The  various  welfare  organizations  engaged 
Ship's  Adventure"  (1899)  ;  "His  Island  in  work  for  soldiers  and  their  depend- 
Princess"   (1905).     He  died  in  1911.  ents.   The  headquarters  of  the  Foundation 

_,_,-,_,__      -.TT-r-r  T -r « ,,    t,_„mT„  are   at   130    East   Twenty-second   street, 

RUSSELL,    WILLIAM     EUSTIS,    an  New  York  City.     In  1920,  R.  W.  de  For- 

Amencan    lawyer;    born    m    Cambridge,  est  was  president,   and   John    M.   Glenn, 

Mass.,  Jan    6,   1857;   was   graduated   at  seeretary  and  general  director. 
Harvard    University    m    1877,    and    was 

admitted  to  the  bar  in  1880 ;  was  mayor  RUSSIA— THE  RUSSIAN   FEDERA- 

of  his  native  city  in  1885-1887,  and  gov-  TIVE  REPUBLIC,  formerly  one  of  the 

ernor    of    Massachusetts    in    1890-1892.  most    powerful    empires    of    the    world. 

He   then   resumed   the    practice    of   law,  second  only  in  extent  to  the  British  em- 

and  became  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Pire-     It  comprehended  most  of  eastern 

Indian  Commissioners  in  November,  1894.  Europe  and  all  northern  Asia,  and  was 

He  was   found  dead   in  his   fishing  tent  bounded  N.  by  the  Arctic  Ocean;  W.  by 

at  Little  Pabos,  Quebec,  Canada,  on  the  Sweden,   the    Gulf    of    Bothnia    and   the 

morning  of  July  16,  1896.  Baltic,  Prussia,   Austria,  and   Rumania; 

S.   by  the   Black   Sea,   Turkey   in   Asia, 

RUSSELL,     SIR     WILLIAM     HOW-  Persia,    Afghanistan,    the    Chinese    em- 

ARD,    an    English    journalist;    born    in  pire;  E.  by  the  Pacific  and  Bering  Strait. 

Lilyvale    near    Dublin,    March    28,  1820.  The    total    area    was    8,647,657     square 

He  was  special  correspondent  of  the  Lon-  miles,   and   the   population    in    excess    of 

don    "Times"    in    the    Danish    War    in  180,000,000. 

Schleswig-Holstein    (1850)  ;    in    the   Cri-  The  largest  towns  were  St.  Petersburg 

tnea    (1854-1855);    in   India    during   the  (Petrograd),   Moscow,    Warsaw,    Odessa, 

Sepoy  Mutiny   (1857-1859)  ;  in  the  Ital-  Lodz,  Riga,  Kieff,  Kharkoff  and  Tiflis. 

ian    campaign     (1859)  ;     in    the    United  European  Russia  included  the   Sea  of 

States  during  the  Civil  War,  and  known  Azof,  the  Vistula  provinces    (former  Po- 

as  "Bull  Run  Russell"  and  its  war  cor-  land),  and  Finland;   Russia  proper  was 

respondent  in   the  Austro-Prussian   War  subdivided  into  50  provinces;  Archangel, 

(1866);   in  the   Franco-German  War  of  Astrakhan,    Bessarabia,    Courland,    Don 

1870;  in  the  war  in  South  Africa   (1879-  Cossacks,  Ekaterinoslaf,  Esthonia,  Grod- 

1880)  ;     in    the     Egyptian     War     (1883-  no,   Kaluga,   Kazan,   Kharkoff,    Kherson, 

1885).      He    published:     "Extraordinary  Kieff,  Kostroma,  Kovno,  Kursk,  Livonia, 

Men"      (1853)  ;      "The     Crimean     War"  Minsk,    Mohilev,    Moscow,    Nijni-Novgo- 

(1855-1856);  "My  Diary  in  India";  "My  rod,  Novgorod,  Olonetz,   Orel,  Orenburg, 

Diary    During    the     Last     Great     War"  Penza,    Perm,    Podolia,    Poltava,    Pskof, 

(1873)  ;    "The   Prince   of   Wales's   Tour"  Riazan,  S.  Petersburg,  Samara,  Saratoff, 

(1877);  "Hesperothen"  (1882);  and  oth-  Simbirsk,    Smolensk,    Tambof,    Taurida, 


RUSSIA 


152 


RUSSIA 


Tchernigoff,  Tula,  Tver,  Ufa,  Vilna,  Vi- 
tebsk, Viatka,  Vladimir,  Volhynia,  Vol- 
ogda, Voronezh,  Yaroslavl.  Poland  formed 
10  provinces :  Kalisz,  Kielce,  Lomza,  Lub- 
lin, Piotrkov,  Plock,  Radom,  Siedlce,  Su- 
walki,  and  Warsaw.  Finland,  eight  prov- 
inces: Abo-Bjorneborg,  Kuopio,  Nyland, 
St.  Michel,  Tavastehus,  Uleaborg,  Vasa, 
and  Viborg.  There  were  also  certain 
popular  divisions  of  Russia,  as  Great 
Russia  (in  the  center),  Little  Russia 
(in  the  S.  W.),  White  Russia  (in  the 
N.  W.).  Asiatic  Russia  was  divided  into: 
Northern  Caucasia,  Transcaucasia,  Trans- 
caspia,  Kirghiz  Steppes,  Turkestan,  West- 
ern Siberia,  Eastern  Siberia,  Amur  and 
Maritime  provinces.  St.  Petersburg  and 
Moscow  were  the  capitals  of  the  empire. 

In  1920  the  greater  part  of  the  for- 
mer Russian  empire,  including  Siberia, 
was  under  the  rule  of  the  Bolsheviks. 
A  number  of  states,  however,  had 
evolved  and  were  maintaining  them- 
selves on  the  borders  of  the  old  empire. 
Two  of  these,  Finland  and  Poland,  had 
been  formally  recognized  and  were  well 
established  as  independent  governments. 
Six  others,  Armenia,  Azerbaijan,  Estho- 
nia,  Georgia,  Latvia,  and  Lithuania  had 
received  some  degree  of  recognition  from 
the  allied  countries,  while  the  Ukraine 
had  been  recognized  by  Poland.  As  to 
the  condition  of  Daghestan,  Kuban  and 
Terek,  little  definite  was  known,  al- 
though in  each  of  these  provinces  an 
independent  republic  had  been  set  up. 

General  Description. — European  Rus- 
sia consists  almost  wholly  of  immense 
plains,  the  Valdai  Hills,  between  St. 
Petersburg  and  Moscow,  averaging  500 
feet  and  never  exceeding  1,200  feet  above 
sea-level,  forming  the  only  elevated  re- 
gion of  the  interior  and  an  important 
watershed.  The  mountains  of  Taurida, 
lining  the  S.  shores  of  the  Crimea,  have 
a  height  of  about  4,000  feet;  the  Cau- 
casus, running  from  the  Black  Sea  to 
the  Caspian,  reach  the  height  of  18,500 
feet;  the  Urals,  stretching  from  the  Cas- 
pian to  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  separat- 
ing European  from  Asiatic  Russia,  have 
their  greatest  height  below  7,000  feet. 
Beyond  the  Urals  are  the  vast  Siberian 
plains.  Russia  is  watered  by  numerous 
rivers,  some  running  a  course  of  thou- 
sands of  miles.  The  Petchora,  the  Me- 
zene,  Northern  Dwina,  and  Onega  are 
the_  principal  rivers  of  European  Russia 
which  send  their  waters  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean;  the  Neva,  Volkhoff,  Svir,  Narova, 
Velikaya,  Duna,  Niemen,  and  Vistula 
belong  to  the  Baltic  basin;  the  Black 
Sea  basin  comprises  the  Pruth,  Dniester, 
Dnieper,  and  the  Don;  while  the  Caspian 
receives  besides  other  rivers  the  Volga, 
the  largest  of  all  Russian  rivers.  Alto- 
gether   Russia    and    Poland   have    49,000 


miles  of  navigable  rivers.  Asiatic  Rus- 
sia has  also  a  number  of  very  large 
rivers,  as  the  Obi,  Yenisei,  and  Lena 
in  Siberia,  and  the  Amur  toward  thfe 
Chinese  frontier.  This  complete  river 
system  is  of  incalculable  value  to  Russia, 
as  by  its  means  internal  communication 
is  carried  on.  Canals  connect  the  navi- 
gable rivers,  so  as  to  form  continuous 
waterways;  there  being  500  miles  of  ca- 
nals and  717  of  canalized  rivers.  River 
steam  navigation  has  been  much  devel- 
oped of  recent  years.  The  lakes  are  also 
on  a  gigantic  scale.  Lake  Ladoga,  near 
Petrograd,  is  the  largest  in  Europe. 
Other  large  lakes  in  Europe  are  those 
of  Onega,  Peipus,  and  Ilmen.  In  Asia 
there  is  the  Sea  of  Aral  larger  than  any 
of  those  mentioned,  followed  by  Baikal, 
Balkash,  and  others.  The  Caspian  Sea 
now  also  forms  almost  a  Russian  lake. 
From  the  extent  of  the  plains  and 
steppes,  the  swamps,  moors,  desert 
wastes,  and  forests  of  Russia,  the  scen- 
ery as  a  whole  is  very  monotonous. 

Climate  and  Soil. — As  may  be  expect- 
ed from  its  vastness  this  empire  offers 
soils  and  climates  of  almost  every  vari- 
ety. Extreme  cold  in  winter  and  ex- 
treme heat  in  summer  are,  however,  a 
general  characteristic  of  Russian  cli- 
mates. As  regards  soil,  large  sections 
of  Russia  are  sandy,  barren  wastes  and 
vast  morasses.  The  most  productive 
portion  is  that  between  the  Baltic  and 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  the  Volga,  on 
the  N.  and  E.;  Prussia,  Austria,  etc., 
on  the  W.;  and  the  Black  Sea  on  the  S. 
It  has,  generally  speaking,  a  soft  black 
mold  of  great  depth,  mostly  on  a  sandy 
bottom,  easily  wrought,  and  very  fertile. 
The  more  southern  portion  of  Siberia,  as 
far  E.  as  the  river  Lena,  has,  for  the  most 
part,  a  fertile  soil,  and  produces,  not- 
withstanding the  severity  of  the  climate, 
nearly  all  kinds  of  grain. 

Vegetable  Products,  Agriculture. — 
Boundless  forests  exist,  the  area  of  the 
forest  land  in  Europe  being  42  per  cent, 
of  the  total  area.  The  fir,  larch,  alder, 
and  birch  predominate.  In  the  S.  for- 
ests are  less  abundant  and  the  tracts 
around  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian, 
and  the  immense  steppes  of  the  S.  and 
E.,  are  almost  wholly  destitute  of  wood. 
Most  of  the  forest  land  before  the  World 
War  was  under  government  control. 
Agriculture  is  the  chief  pursuit  of  the 
bulk  of  the  population.  The  chief  crops 
are  rye,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  hemp,  flax, 
and  tobacco. 

Zoology. — Among  wild  animals  may  be 
mentioned  the  bear,  the  wolf,  wild  hog, 
elk,  and  various  animals  which  are 
hunted  for  their  furs.  Wild  fowi 
abound,  particularly  near  the  mouths  of 
rivers.     In  the  Arctic  Ocean  vast  num- 


BUSSIA 


153 


RUSSIA 


bers  of  seals  are  taken.  The  rivers  of 
the  Caspian,  particularly  the  Ural  and 
Volga,  and  the  Sea  of  Azof,  are  cele- 
brated for  their  sturgeons.  In  the  same 
quarters  are  also  important  salmon  fish- 
eries. In  the  regions  bordering  on  the 
Arctic  Ocean  large  herds  of  reindeer 
are  kept;  and  in  the  S.,  among  the  Tar- 
tars of  the  Crimea  and  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Caucasus,  the  camel  is  often  seen. 

Minerals. — Russia  is  rich  in  minerals. 
The  precious  metals  are  chiefly  obtained 
in  the  Ural  and  Altai  regions.  In  the 
Ural,  iron  beds  are  also  rich  and  nu- 
merous, exceeding  all  others  in  produc- 
tiveness. Copper  is  most  abundant  in 
the  government  of  Perm;  lead  in  the 
Ural  and  some  parts  of  Poland;  salt- 
peter in  Astrakhan.  Of  the  coal  mines 
those  of  the  Don  basin  are  the  principal, 
those  of  Kielce  ranking  second ;  the  mines 
around  Moscow  come  next.  About  60,- 
000  tons  of  manganese  ore  were  annually 
extracted  in  the  Ural  and  the  Caucasus. 
The  petroleum  wells  of  Baku  on  the 
Caspian  before  the  World  War  sent  their 
products  all  over  Europe. 

Manufactures. — Prior  to  the  accession 
of  Peter  the  Great,  Russia  had  no  man- 
ufactories; he  started  them,  and  under 
the  more  or  less  fostering  care  of  his 
successors  and  Russia's  protective  policy 
they  steadily  grew.  Manufactures  were 
in  a  chaotic  state  under  the  Soviet  Gov- 
ernment and  no  statistics  of  production 
were  available.  It  was  well  known,  how- 
ever, that  nearly  75%  of  the  manufac- 
turing establishments  had  ceased  opera- 
tions. In  1915,  the  latest  date  for  which 
statistics  were  available,  there  were  14,- 
056  manufacturing  establishments,  em- 
ploying 1,600,860  persons. 

Commerce. — The  bulk  of  Russia's  ex- 
ternal trade  was  carried  on  through  the 
European  frontier  and  the  Baltic  and 
Black  Sea  ports.  The  chief  exports 
were  grain  (about  one-half  of  entire 
exports),  flax,  linseed  and  other  oleagi- 
nous seeds,  timber,  hemp,  wool,  butter 
and  eggs,  spirits,  bristles,  and  furs,  in 
the  order  indicated.  The  chief  imports 
were  cotton,  wool,  tea,  machinery,  coal 
and  coke,  cotton  yarn,  metal  goods,  wine, 
olive  oil,  raw  silk,  herrings,  textile 
goods,  fruit,  coffee,  tobacco.  The  im- 
port trade  was  heaviest  with  Germany, 
Great  Britain,  France,  Austria-Hungary, 
and  Belgium,  in  the  order  named.  In 
the  export  trade  Great  Britain  took  the 
lead,  Holland,  France,  Germany  follow- 
ing. The  development  of  the  vast  nat- 
ural resources  and  trade  of  Russia  is 
prevented  by  transport  difficulties.  The 
magnificent  river  and  canal  system  is 
not  available  for  a  good  part  of  the 
year,  and  railways  are  comparatively 
limited.     No  statistics  of  commerce  are 


available  later  than  1916.  The  Soviet 
Government  endeavored  to  bring  about 
commercial  relations  between  it  and 
other  European  countries,  as  well  as 
the  United  States,  and  proposed  such  an 
arrangement  with  Great  Britain  in  March, 
1921.  The  total  lack  of  raw  materials 
essential  to  manufacturing  prevented  the 
exportation  of  goods  of  any  appreciable 
value. 

Transportation. — There  were  in  1920 
about  36,000  miles  of  railway  in  Euro- 
pean Russia,  and  10,586  in  Asiatic  Rus- 
sia. Practically  all  lines  were  under 
the  control  of  the  government.  Railway 
operation  had  become  so  thoroughly  dis- 
organized as  to  be  almost  useless.  The 
Soviet  Government  gave  large  conces- 
sions for  railway  construction  to  syndi- 
cates in  Norway  and  the  United  States, 
but  no  active  work  had  been  undertaken 
in  relation  to  these  at  the  end  of  1920. 

Finances. — The  financial  system  suf- 
fered entire  collapse  during  the  Soviet 
rule.  Issues  of  paper  money  had  reached 
colossal  figures  and  these  had  become 
of  little  value.  The  ruble  depreciated 
until  it  became  almost  without  value. 
As  a  result  of  this  condition  prices  of 
commodities  had  mounted  at  a  terrific 
rate.  The  revenue  for  1919  was  48,000,- 
000,000  rubles  and  the  expenditure 
230,000,000,000  rubles.  The  total  debt 
amounted  to  over  32,300,000,000  rubles. 
The  total  estimated  cost  of  the  war  for 
Russia  is  about  £5,000,000,000. 

Army  and  Navy. — There  were  no 
trustworthy  figures  of  the  strength  of 
the  Soviet  army.  By  the  decree  of 
Feb.  1,  1918,  the  government  established 
a  Workers  and  Peasants  Red  Army  Vol- 
unteers and  this  was  brought  under  the 
guidance  of  regular  officers  of  the  old 
Russian  army  and  assumed  a  fair  state 
of  efficiency.  The  Bolshevist  armies  were 
uniformly  successful  during  the  second 
half  of  1919.  (See  History  below.)  The 
full  strength  of  the  Bolshevist  army  was 
estimated  at  600,000  men,  with  a  reserve 
and  other  forces  amounting  to  another 
700,000.  These  forces  were  organized 
into  13  armies,  of  which  5  are  in  the 
eastern  front,  chiefly  in  Siberia,  5  in  the 
southern  front,  and  the  remaining  3  on 
the  northern  and  western  fronts.  The 
navy  figured  little  in  the  operations  of 
the  Bolshevist  Government.  Attempts 
were  made  by  General  Denikin  in  1919 
to  organize  the  Black  Sea  Fleet,  but  this 
failed.  The  Baltic  Sea  Fleet  fell  com- 
pletely into  the  hands  of  the  Bolshevist 
Government  and  was  used  entirely  for 
defensive  purposes. 

Government. — The  so-called  Russian 
Socialist  Federal  Soviet  Republic  is 
nominally  governed  by  a  constitution 
adopted  by  the  Fifth  All-Russian  Soviet 


RUSSIA 


154 


RUSSIA 


Congress  in  July,  1918.  According  to 
the  terms  of  this  constitution  Russia  is 
a  republic  of  Soviets  of  workers,  sol- 
diers, and  peasant  delegates,  and  the 
central  and  local  authority  is  vested  in 
these  Soviets.  Private  property  in  land 
is  abolished,  all  land  being  common  prop- 
erty of  the  people.  The  state  owns  all 
factories,  mines,  railways,  and  other 
means  of  production  and  transport.  The 
highest  authority  in  the  state  is  the  All- 
Russian  Congress  of  Soviets,  which  con- 
sists of  representatives  of  town  Soviets, 
on  the  basis  of  one  delegate  for  each 
25,000  electors,  and  a  provincial  council 
of  Soviets  on  a  basis  of  one  delegate 
for  each  125,000  inhabitants.  The  Con- 
gress elects  the  All-Russian  Central  Ex- 
ecutive Committee,  consisting  of  not 
more  than  200  members,  which  consti- 
tutes a  supreme  legislative,  administra- 
tive, and  controlling  body  of  the  repub- 
lic. This  executive  committee  also  forms 
a  Council  of  People's  Commissioners,  for 
the  general  administration  of  the  affairs 
of  the  republic,  consisting  of  commissa- 
riats of  foreign  affairs,  war,  navy,  inte- 
rior, justice,  labor,  social  relief,  public 
instruction,  posts  and  telegraphs,  nation- 
alities, finance,  transportation  and  com- 
munications, agriculture,  commercial 
industry,  food  supply,  state  control,  a 
supreme  economic  council,  and  public 
health.  The  franchise  is  nominally  en- 
joyed by  all  citizens  over  18  years  of 
age  who  earn  their  livelihood  by  produc- 
tive labor  and  by  soldiers,  sailors,  and 
the  Soviet  Army  and  Navy. 

Religion. — The  Soviet  Government  dis- 
established the  church  and  appropriated 
all  its  property.  All  religions,  however, 
may  be  freely  professed  in  the  empire. 

Education. — In  December,  1917,  the 
Soviet  Government  secularized  all  schools 
and  educational  institutions.  Several 
new  universities  were  established  under 
the  Bolshevist  Government.  Elementary 
education  is  poorly  developed. 

People. — The  population  of  Russia  up 
to  1914  was  increasing  faster  than  that 
of  any  other  European  nation,  Great 
Britain,  perhaps,  excepted.  As  regards 
language  (and  so  far  also  race)  the  peo- 
ples of  Russia  were  comprised  under  the 
two  great  divisions  of  Aryans  and  Mon- 
golians; the  former  include  Slavonians, 
Germans,  and  Greeks,  the  latter  the  Fin- 
nish and  Tartar  races.  The  Slavonians 
formed  about  75,000,000  of  the  popula- 
tion. The  Turco-Tartars  counted  about 
10,000,000.  The  political  divisions  of 
the  Russian  people  comprised  numerous 
grades  of  nobility,  which  were  partly 
hereditary  and  partly  acquired  by  mili- 
tary and  civil  service,  especially  the  for- 
mer, military  rank  being  most  highly 
prized  in  Russia.     The  clergy,  both  reg- 


ular and  secular,  formed  a  separate 
privileged  order.  Previous  to  the  year 
1861  the  mass  of  the  people  were  serfs 
subject  to  the  proprietors  of  the  soil. 
The  Emperors  Alexander  and  Nicholas 
took  some  initial  steps  toward  the  eman- 
cipation of  this  class;  but  a  bold  and 
complete  scheme  of  emancipation  was  be- 
gun and  carried  out  by  Alexander  II.  in 
1861. 

Language. — A  number  of  languages 
and  a  vast  variety  of  dialects  are  spoken, 
but  the  Russian  is  the  vernacular  of  at 
least  four-fifths  of  the  inhabitants,  the 
literary  and  official  languages  being  spe- 
cifically the  "Great  Russian,"  or  that  be- 
longing to  Central  Russia  surrounding 
Moscow.  It  has  an  alphabet  of  37  let- 
ters, a  written  and  printed  character  of 
a  peculiar  form,  and  a  pronunciation 
which  it  is  hardly  possible  for  any  but 
natives  to  master. 

History.— The  origin  of  the  Russian 
empire  is  involved  in  much  obscurity, 
but  it  is  usually  regarded  as  having  been 
founded  by  Rurik,  a  Scandinavian  (Va- 
rangian), about  862,  his  dominions  and 
those  of  his  immediate  successors  com- 
prising Novgorod,  Kieff,  and  the  sur- 
rounding country.  Vladimir  the  Great 
(960-1015),  the  Charlemagne  of  Russia, 
introduced  Christianity  and  founded  sev- 
eral cities  and  schools.  For  more  than 
two  centuries  Russia  continued  subject 
to  the  Tartars,  while  on  its  opposite 
frontier  it  was  exposed  to  the  attacks  of 
the  Poles  and  Teutonic  knights,  but  in 
1481  the  Tartars  were  finally  expelled 
under  Ivan  the  Great  (1462-1505).  Ivan 
the  Terrible  (1533-1584)  did  much  to 
extend  and  consolidate  the  Russian  terri- 
tory, and  in  particular  began  the  con- 
quest of  Siberia,  which  was  completed 
in  1699.  In  1613  the  house  of  Romanoff, 
whence  the  late  Czar  Nicholas  was  de- 
scended, was  raised  to  the  throne,  and 
from  this  period  the  empire  gained 
greater  strength  and  consistency.  But 
Russia's  real  greatness  may  be  said  to 
date  from  the  accession  of  Peter  the 
Great  in  1689,  who  first  secured  for  the 
country  the  attention  of  the  more  civil- 
ized nations  of  Europe.  From  then  on 
the  growth  of  the  empire  was  continu- 
ous. The  three  partitions  of  Poland 
took  place  under  Catherine  II.  in  1772, 
1793,  and  1795.  Russia  acquired  nearly 
two-thirds  of  this  once  powerful  state. 
By  the  peace  of  Kutchuk-Kainarji  in 
1774,  the  Turks  gave  up  Azof,  part  of 
the  Crimea  (the  other  part  was  taken 
possession  of  in  1783),  and  Kabardah; 
and  by  the  peace  of  Jassy  in  1792, 
Oczakov.  The  peace  of  Frederickshaven, 
1809,  robbed  Sweden  of  the  whole  of 
Finland,  which  now  passed  to  Russia; 
the  peace  of  Bucharest,  1812,  took  Bes- 


RUSSIA 


155 


RUSSIA 


sarabia  from  the  Turks;  that  of  Tiflis, 
1813,  deprived  the  Persians  of  parts  of 
the  Caucasus;  and  then  the  Vienna  Con- 
gress of  1815  gave  the  remainder  of 
Poland  to  Russia.  The  desire  to  possess 
further  dominions  of  the  Sultan  led  to 
a  war  against  Turkey  in  1853,  in  which 
England,  France,  and  Sardinia  also  took 
part  in  1854,  and  which  ended  in  the 
peace  of  Paris,  1856.  (See  Crimean 
War.)  In  1858  Russia  acquired,  by 
agreement  with  China,  the  sparsely  pop- 
ulated but  widely  extended  district  of 
the  Amur.  A  ukase  of  1868  annihilated 
the  last  remains  of  the  independence  of 
Poland  by  incorporating  it  completely  in 
the  czardom.  On  the  other  hand,  Rus- 
sian America  was  sold  to  the  United 
States  in  1867. 

In  1877  Russia  declared  war  against 
Turkey,  ostensibly  to  free  the  Bulgarians 
from  Turkish  misrule.  The  military  op- 
erations terminated  in  the  following  year 
in  favor  of  Russia,  whose  forces  reached 
the  gates  of  Constantinople,  where,  at 
San  Stefano,  on  March  3,  1878,  a  treaty 
was  agreed  to  whereby  Turkey  would 
have  been  practically  expelled  from  the 
whole  European  continent.  The  treaty 
was  radically  revised  a  few  months  later 
at  Berlin,  largely  at  the  instigation  of 
Great  Britain  and  Germany,  with  the 
result  that  Russia  was  brought  to  real- 
ize that  she  could  not  hope  to  reach  her 
much-desired  outlet  to  the  open  sea  by 
way  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  with  the 
consent  of  the  other  Great  Powers.  It 
then  became  a  policy  of  the  Imperial 
Government  to  seek  this  outlet  in  the 
Far   East. 

In  May,  1896,  a  treaty  was  made  with 
China  permitting  the  construction  of  a 
railroad  by  Russia  through  Manchuria, 
and  the  Liao-tung  ports,  Talien-wan  and 
Port  Arthur  were  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  the  Russian  Government  for  commer- 
cial purposes.  These  privileges  Russia 
sought  constantly  to  enlarge.  To  what 
extent  these  encroachments  on  Chinese 
sovereignty  might  have  extended  is  not 
a  matter  of  history,  for  gradually  the 
pretensions  of  Russia  in  the  Far  East 
clashed  with  those  of  Japan,  terminating 
in  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  in  1904, 
with  the  result  that  Russian  expansion 
was  effectually  checked  in  this  direction. 

Meanwhile  domestic  troubles  were  as- 
suming a  share  in  shaping  the  destiny 
of  the  Empire.  The  first  popular  dis- 
content with  the  autocracy  of  the  Rus- 
sian Government  manifested  itself  in  the 
early  70's,  shaping  itself  into  that  revo- 
lutionary movement  which  was  generally 
known  under  the  name  of  Nihilism.  At 
first  this  was  merely  a  disorganized  pro- 
test against  the  degraded  state  of  the 
peasantry  on  the  part  of  young  univer- 


sity students  and  the  sons  and  daugh- 
ters of  the  liberal  land-owning  class. 
These  youthful  enthusiasts  began  estab- 
lishing informal  schools  among  the  vil- 
lagers, in  which  nothing  more  harmful 
than  reading  and  writing  were  taught. 
Much  has  been  said  of  the  liberality  of 
Alexander  II.,  at  that  time  Czar,  who 
had  indeed  signed  the  decree  liberating 
the  serfs,  in  1861,  but  the  fact  remains 
that  his  counsellors  initiated  a  very  se- 
vere policy  of  repression  against  these 
harmless  educators  of  the  common  peas- 
ants. Finally,  after  one  of  them,  a 
woman,  had  been  disrobed  and  subjected 
to  degrading  punishment  by  a  Russian 
chief  of  police,  the  Nihilists  resorted  to 
terrorism — assassination.  One  after  an- 
other the  higher  officials,  known  to  be  in 
sympathy  with  the  policy  of  suppression, 
were  picked  off  by  the  Nihilists,  with  the 
result  that  this  underground  warfare, 
the  secret  police  on  the  one  side,  the 
Nihilists  on  the  other,  became  more  and 
more  acute.  Finally,  on  March  13,  1881, 
the  Czar  himself  was  slain  by  one  of  the 
conspirators,  who  at  the  same  time  sacri- 
ficed his  own  life  by  being  blown  up 
with  the  same  bomb  that  destroyed  the 
autocrat. 

So  strenuous  became  the  efforts  of  the 
secret  police  after  this  event  that  the 
Nihilists  were  practically  cleaned  out  of 
Russia;  the  majority  were  killed,  hanged 
or  sent  to  Siberia,  while  a  small  minority 
escaped  into  exile  abroad,  mostly  to  Eng- 
land, Switzerland  and  Bulgaria.  For  the 
following  ten  years  or  more  there  was 
comparative  quiet  in  Russia.  Gradually, 
however,  shortly  before  the  close  of  the 
century,  the  revolutionary  movement  be- 
gan again  to  manifest  itself,  this  time 
through  the  more  thoroughly  organized 
Social  Democrats  and  Social  Revolution- 
ists, who  represented  ideas  more  definite 
than  a  mere  blind  protest  against  the 
tyranny  of  the  autocracy.  The  latter 
represented  largely  the  same  elements 
which  had  composed  the  Nihilists;  the 
sons  and  daughters  of  the  minor  nobil- 
ity and  university  students.  While  all 
were  radicals,  imbued  with  the  principles 
of  Socialism,  they  were  more  directly 
concerned  with  the  peasantry,  whose  lot 
they  sought  chiefly  to  improve  and  whom 
they  hoped  to  inspire  to  revolutionary 
uprisings. 

The  Social  Democrats  represented  the 
Marxian  Socialists,  who  believed  that  the 
salvation  of  society  lay  in  the  hands  of 
the  industrial  workers.  Many  of  their 
leaders  were  young  Jews  who  had  gone 
abroad,  especially  to  Switzerland  and 
Germany,  to  acquire  the  university  edu- 
cation which  was  denied  them  by  the 
country  of  their  birth.  The  government's 
policy   of   persecution   of   the   Jews,   re- 


xtTTSSIA 


156 


BTTSSIA 


suiting  in  the  heavy  emigration  of  these 
people  to  the  United  States,  also  tended 
to  throw  many  thousands  of  them  into 
the  ranks  of  the  Social  Democrats,  which 
in  turn  brought  on  still  more  severe 
measures  of  repression  against  them 
from   the   government. 

The  weakness  of  the  government,  re- 
vealed by  its  inability  to  cope  with  the 
war  situation  in  Manchuria,  in  1905, 
served  as  the  occasion  for  the  first 
serious  outbreak  of  revolutionary  activ- 
ities in  Russia.  Thousands  of  the  Rus- 
sian soldiers  who  had  been  taken  prison- 
ers by  the  Japanese,  were  exposed  to 
the  propaganda  of  the  Socialist  agitators 
in  the  Japanese  prison  camps,  and  when 
they  returned  to  Russia,  after  the  sign- 
ing of  peace,  in  August,  1905,  they  lost 
no  time  in  joining  in  the  demonstrations 
of  the  revolutionists. 

In  the  previous  January  a  large  dele- 
gation of  workers  had  presented  itself 
before  the  palace  of  the  Czar,  in  Petro- 
grad,  with  a  peaceful  petition  for  certain 
reforms.  The  authorities  made  the  al- 
most fatal  mistake  of  firing  on  the 
delegation,  numbering  some  thousands, 
headed  by  a  priest,  Father  Gapon,  kill- 
ing and  wounding  hundreds.  This  fate- 
ful day  was  ever  afterward  known  as 
"Red  Sunday."  It  formed  the  starting- 
point  of  the  real  Russian  revolutionary 
movement. 

In  February  the  Grand  Duke  Sergius 
was  assassinated.  Many  smaller  assas- 
sinations followed.  More  important  still, 
strikes  of  the  workers  were  called,  and, 
in  spite  of  severe  repressive  measures, 
tended  to  blend  into  one  great,  general 
strike.  Finally  the  Czar  signed  a  ukase 
calling  into  existence  a  popular  assem- 
bly, the  Duma,  with  little  more  than  the 
right  to  hold  debates,  however.  Still  the 
strike  augmented.  In  Moscow  Leon 
Trotzsky,  one  of  the  Social  Democrat 
leaders,  organized  the  first  Council,  or 
Soviet,  of  Workingmen  Delegates  (see 
Council  of  Workingmen  and  Soldiers), 
and  this  body  proceeded  to  initiate  an 
armed  uprising. 

By  this  time,  Oct.  31,  the  Govern- 
ment was  thoroughly  alarmed,  and  now 
a  decree  was  passed  granting  a  genuine 
constitutional  government. 

Only  gradually,  however,  did  the  dis- 
orders, by  this  time  extending  all  over 
the  empire,  quiet  down.  The  Moscow 
uprising  was  terminated  only  after  se- 
vere bloody  encounters  between  the  po- 
lice and  soldiers  and  the  revolutionists. 
Finally  the  elections  were  held  and  the 
Duma  assembled  in  Petrograd.  It  was 
allowed  to  proceed  unmolested,  until  the 
disorders  had  more  or  less  ceased,  and 
then,  in  July,  1906,  the  Duma  was  dis- 
solved by  at?   imperial   ukase      The   de- 


cree frankly  stated  that  the  Duma  had 
attempted  to  interfere  with  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  the  country,  which  could 
only  be  changed  by  the  will  of  the  Czar, 
and  this   could   not  be   tolerated. 

Then  followed  a  renewed  spurt  of  ac- 
tivity of  the  secret  revolutionary  organi- 
zations, and  high  officials  were  killed 
almost  daily.  A  new  Duma  was  called, 
but  the  restrictions  on  suffrage  were  so 
arranged  that  there  was  little  danger 
of  the  members  again  attempting  to 
interfere  with  the  prerogatives  of  the 
autocracy.  It  was  a  thoroughly  subser- 
vient body,  and  so  remained  until  after 
the  outbreak  of  the  World  War,  in  1914. 

Meanwhile  the  war  on  the  revolution- 
ary elements  was  continued  with  energy. 
The  discovery  that  a  large  number  of  the 
chief  leaders  of  the  revolutionary  organ- 
izations were  the  paid  agents  of  the 
government,  more  than  the  repressive 
measures,  tended  to  their  utter  demoral- 
ization, and  in  1907  reaction  was  again 
triumphant  in  Russia.  The  leaders  who 
had  been  compromised  had  taken  refuge 
abroad,  while  those  who  found  it  pos- 
sible to  remain  in  Russia  turned  their 
attention  to  the  Co-operative  Movement, 
hoping  to  accomplish  by  economic  action 
what  they  could  not  accomplish  by  ter- 
rorism or  political  action. 

On  July  28,  1914,  Austria-Hungary 
declared  war  on  Serbia.  It  was  Russia's 
policy  to  oppose  and  prevent  the  fur- 
ther expansion  of  the  Austrian  Empire 
at  the  cost  of  any  of  the  Southern  Slav 
peoples.  Russia,  therefore,  began  an 
immediate  mobilization  of  her  troops, 
which  brought  forth  a  protest  from  Ger- 
many, Austria's  ally.  On  August  1, 
1914,  Germany  declared  war  on  Russia, 
and  the  great  World  War  was  pre- 
cipitated. On  August  6,  1914,  Austria- 
Hungary  declared  war  on  Russia. 

The  Russian  army  had  been  reorgan- 
ized on  a  more  efficient  basis  since  the 
Russo-Japanese  War,  though  perhaps  not 
so  extensively  as  was  popularly  supposed 
among  the  public  of  the  Allied  countries. 
The  Russian  armies  were  able  to  hold 
their  own  against  the  forces  of  the  Cen- 
tral Empires  on  the  Eastern  front  for 
two  years  or  more,  but  at  a  tremendous 
cost  to  the  Russian  economic  structure. 
Nor  would  it  have  been  possible  for 
Russia  to  have  accomplished  as  much 
as  she  did  had  the  war  not  had  popular 
support.  Many  of  the  former  revolution- 
ary leaders  in  exile  returned  to  Russia 
to  give  their  support,  though  the  autoc- 
racy was  short-sighted  enough  to  have 
many  of  them  arrested  on  their  arrival. 

It  was  within  the  inner  government 
circles  that  the  seed  of  ultimate  disin- 
tegration germinated.  Very  soon  after 
the    outbreak   of   the   war    many    of   the 


RUSSIA 


157 


RUSSIA 


reactionary  officials,  some  of  whom  were  Council,  or  Soviet,  of  Workingmen's  Del- 
descendants  of  the  Germans,  brought  to  egates,  which  shared  with  the  Duma  in 
Russia  by  the  Empress  Catherine,  real-  the  establishment  of  the  Revolutionary 
ized  that  the  defeat  of  German  Imperial-  Government.  Prince  George  Lvov,  and 
ism  would  also  be  a  defeat  for  Russian  Paul  Miliukov,  both  Liberals,  were  made, 
autocracy.  This  group  of  traitors  had  respectively,  Premier  and  Foreign  Min- 
the  support  of  the  German  Czarina,  ister  of  the  Provisional  Government,  on 
Chief  of  these  "dark  forces"  was  a  fa-  March  15,  1917.  On  March  22  the 
vorite  of  the  Czarina,  a  monk  by  the  United  States  formally  recognized  the 
name  of  Razputin,  who  had  gained  his  Revolutionary  Government  of  Russia, 
ascendency  over  the  weak-minded  Czar  The  Provisional  Government  first  de- 
and  the  Czarina  because  of  his  reputed  clared  Russia  a  republic,  under  a  con- 
healing  powers  over  the  little  Czaro-  stitutional  government,  and  announced 
witch,  who  was  constitutionally  diseased,  itself  as  determined  to  continue  the  war 
Gradually  it  became  generally  realized  against  the  Central  Empires  to  a  vie- 
that  this  inner  court  circle  was  working  torious  conclusion.  On  May  13,  1917, 
for  the  defeat  of  the  Russian  forces  in  the  cabinet  of  the  Revolutionary  Govern- 
the  field.  The  Liberal  elements  in  the  ment  was  reconstructed,  and  Alexander 
Duma  combined  with  the  radical  minor-  Kerensky,  a  Socialist,  and  previously 
ity,  and  began  to  protest.  This  bloc  Minister  of  Justice,  became  Premier  and 
gradually  gained  the  support  of  even  the  War  Minister. 

more  intelligent  reactionaries,  including  Kerensky  attempted  to  reorganize  the 
several  of  the  Grand  Dukes,  who  at-  shattered  Russian  military  forces  and 
tempted  to  warn  the  Czar  of  the  danger  in  the  following  July  attempted  an  of- 
from  within,  though  without  effect.  Late  fensive  against  the  Germans  and  Aus- 
in  December,  1916,  Razputin  was  assas-  trians.  For  a  week  this  attempt  seemed 
sinated  by  a  group  of  those  former  reac-  likely  to  succeed,  then  suddenly  crum- 
tionaries  who  had  now  joined  the  Lib-  pled,  because  of  the  refusal  of  a  large 
eral  elements  against  the  dark  forces,  proportion  of  the  troops  to  fight.  The 
one  of  the  assassins  being  the  Grand  Russian  peasants  composing  the  Russian 
Duke  Dimitri  Pavlovitch,  and  another  armies  were  exceedingly  war  weary  and, 
being  A.  N.  Khvostov,  formerly  Minister  moreover,  under  the  encouragement  of 
of  the  Interior.  But  Razputin's  removal  certain  elements  in  the  Council  of  Work- 
was  accomplished  too  late.  His  intrigues  ingmen  (and  soldiers')  Delegates,  had 
were  taken  up  by  Alexander  Protopopov,  begun  to  question  the  aims  of  the  war. 
Minister  of  the  Interior,  who  now  set  to  It  was  this  tendency  in  the  minds  of 
work  determinedly  to  accomplish  the  dis-  the  soldiers  which  gave  the  ultra-Marx- 
integration  of  the  Russian  efforts  against  ian  Socialists,  the  extreme  left  of  the 
Germany.  This  he  attempted  to  do  by  Social  Democrats,  their  opportunity, 
arousing  revolutionary  activities  among  Under  the  leadership  of  Nikolai  Lenin, 
the  workers  in  the  war  industries,  hop-  leader  of  this  faction  of  the  extreme 
ing  that  the  blame  would  be  placed  on  left,  known  as  the  Bolsheviki,  an  inten- 
the  radical  elements.  The  latter,  how-  sive  propaganda  was  carried  on  among 
ever,  raised  a  protest,  and  were  easily  the  soldiers  for  the  overthrow  of  the 
able  to  prove  their  innocence.  Protopopov  Provisional  Government  and  the  estab- 
worked  to  create  disorders  which  would  lishment,  in  its  place,  of  a  Socialist 
have  to  be  suppressed  by  the  troops,  Government  which  should  be  represented 
creating  a  domestic  situation  which  solely  by  the  Council  of  Workingmen's 
could  be  the  pretext  for  a  separate  and  Soldiers'  Delegates,  better  known  as 
peace  with  Germany.  One  of  his  chief  the  Soviet.  The  Bolsheviki  might  not 
tactics  to  bring  about  the  disorders  was  have  succeeded  in  their  plans,  had  it 
to  withhold  shipments  of  food  from  the  not  been  that  in  September  General 
capital.  Kornilov,  Commander-in-Chief,  attempt- 
In  the  first  week  of  March,  1917,  he  ed  to  overthrow  the  Kerensky  Govern- 
had  so  far  succeeded  that  the  people  ment  and  proclaim  a  military  dictator- 
began  demonstrations  in  the  streets  ship  in  its  stead.  Fear  of  a  return  of 
against  the  government.  The  police  and  Czarism  threw  the  rank  and  file  of  the 
the  troops  were  ordered  to  fire  on  the  army  over  to  the  Bolsheviki,  and  on 
demonstrators.  The  troops,  however,  re-  Nov.  7,  1917,  the  Provisional  Govern- 
fused  to  do  so,  and  then  openly  joined  ment  was  overthrown  in  Petrograd  and 
the  uprising.  Thus  Protopopov's  plan  the  Soviet  was  proclaimed  the  supreme  au- 
was  completely  upset.  The  Duma  there-  thority,  with  Lenin  as  Premier  and  Leon 
upon  repudiated  the  government  and  Trotzsky  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
proclaimed  a  new  Provisional  Govern-  Steps  were  at  once  taken  to  secure 
ment,  which  a  few  days  later  forced  peace  with  Germany,  at  first  a  general 
the  Czar  to  abdicate.  The  radical  ele-  peace,  then,  the  Allies  having  refused 
ments   at   the   same   time   organized   the  to   respond,  a   separate  peace.     On   Dec. 

K— Clc  Vol  8 


BTJSSIA 


158 


RUSSIA 


15,  1917,  the  Bolsheviki  Government  came 
to  an  agreement  with  Germany  and  her 
allies  for  an  armistice.  Immediately 
after  peace  negotiations  were  instituted 
at  Brest-Litovsk.  These  lasted  until 
Feb.  10,  1918,  when  the  Russian  dele- 
gates withdrew,  refusing  to  accept  the 
German  terms,  because  the  German  Gov- 
ernment refused  to  withdraw  its  forces 
from  the  Baltic  provinces  and  allow 
their  people  to  decide  by  plebiscites  what 
form  of  government  they  desired.  The 
Germans  immediately,  after  the  expira- 
tion of  the  armistice  period,  on  Feb.  18, 
began  an  advance  eastward  into  Russia, 
and  the  Soviet  Government  of  Russia 
was  forced  to  plead  for  a  renewal  of 
negotiations.  This  the  Germans  agreed 
to  only  after  they  had  advanced  a  con- 
siderable distance,  and  then  the  Soviet 
was  forced  to  accept  terms  extremely 
severe,  including  not  only  German  occu- 
pation of  the  Ukraine  and  the  Baltic 
provinces,  but  a  heavy  indemnity.  Peace 
on  these  terms  was  finally  declared,  on 
March  3,  1918. 

The  impression  now  seemed  to  prevail 
in  the  Allied  countries  that  the  Soviet 
Government  was  not  only  submissive  to 
Germany,  but  more  than  willing  to  play 
its  game  against  the  Allies.  England, 
France,  Japan  and,  later,  the  United 
States,  thereupon  came  to  an  agreement 
of  intervention  in  Russia.  The  osten- 
sible reason  given  was  to  rescue  the 
Czecho-Slovak  contingents  of  the  Rus- 
sian Army  in  Siberia  and  the  Urals, 
which  had  turned  on  the  Bolsheviki  Red 
Guards  and  were  fighting  their  way 
toward  Vladivostok.  In  August,  1918, 
Allied  troops,  and  7,000  United  States 
regulars  landed  at  Vladivostok  and  be- 
gan an  invasion  of  Siberia.  At  the  same 
time  an  anti-Bolshevik  Russian  Govern- 
ment was  set  up  in  Siberia,  at  Omsk, 
constituted  of  Liberal  and  radical  ele- 
ments, but  later  superseded  by  the  dic- 
tatorship of  Admiral  Kolchak,  who  had 
previously  been  in  command  of  the  Rus- 
sian Black  Sea  Fleet,  before  it  had  been 
taken  over  by  the  Bolsheviki.  Already, 
in  July,  1918,  Allied  troops,  including 
Americans,  had  been  landed  in  northern 
Russia,  on  the  Murmansk  Peninsula, 
with  the  object  of  countering  the  Ger- 
mans in  Finland.  These  were  now  con- 
siderably augmented,  and  an  offensive 
against  the  Bolsheviki  was  begun  to  the 
southward,  but  never  with  any  success. 
Here  a  provisional  government  of  North 
Russia  was  set  up,  with  Nicholas  Tchai- 
kovsky, the  old  Nihilist  leader,  as  Pre- 
mier, but  it  never  received  popular  sup- 
port, and  lasted  only  as  long  as  the 
foreign   occupation. 

At  the  same  time  General  Denikin,  a 
Cossack  leader  in  the  S.  of  Russia,  in- 


itiated a  campaign  from  the  Don  region 
against  Moscow.  He  was  plentifully 
supplied  with  munitions  from  the  British 
Government. 

On  July  5,  1918,  the  German  Ambas- 
sador to  Moscow,  von  Mirbach,  was  as- 
sassinated by  Social  Revolutionists,  who 
were  attempting  to  overthrow  the  Soviet. 
Similar  attempts  were  made  against  high 
Soviet  officials,  one  against  Lenin.  The 
Bolsheviki  thereupon  began  a  campaign 
of  suppression  which  was  known  as  the 
Red  Terror.  The  Soviet  had  national- 
ized practically  all  industry  and  the 
banks,  and  was  attempting  to  establish 
a  Socialist  Republic  based  on  Marxian 
principles. 

The  defeat  of  Germany  freed  the  So- 
viet Government  from  its  obligations  to 
the  German  Government  and  liberated 
the  Ukraine  from  German  control  and 
occupation.  Leon  Trotzsky  had  been  ap- 
pointed Bolshevik  Minister  of  War,  and 
he  now  set  to  work  with  remarkable 
energy  to  organize  an  effective  Red 
Army,  with  notable  success.  The  Soviet 
forces  now  turned  on  their  enemies  on 
all  fronts,  and  one  after  the  other  de- 
feated them.  In  June,  1919,  the  United 
States  decided  to  withdraw  its  troops 
from  North  Russia,  and  a  few  months 
later  the  British  followed.  By  the  end 
of  the  year  the  Bolsheviki  had  com- 
pletely cleaned  up  what  remained  of  this 
front.  In  Siberia  the  Czecho-Slovaks 
had  shown  themselves  disgusted  with  the 
Kolchak  dictatorship,  and  gradually 
withdrew.  In  the  fall  "of  1919  the 
Soviet  forces  turned  on  Kolchak  with 
full  force,  and  before  the  end  of  the 
year  he  had  been  completely  crushed,  the 
dictator  himself  being  executed.  A  few 
months  later  Denikin,  in  the  S.,  was 
routed  and  compelled  to  retire,  his  forces 
having  melted  to  almost  nothing  through 
desertions. 

In  January,  1920,  the  Supreme  Coun- 
cil in  Paris  offered  to  resume  trade  with 
Soviet  Russia  through  the  Co-operative 
Movement,  which  carried  on  all  distri- 
bution and  a  large  part  of  the  manu-  ' . 
facturing  activities  which  could  be 
undertaken  in  the  country.  The  Soviet 
Government  immediately  nationalized  the 
Co-operative  enterprises,  and  sent  a 
trade  delegation  to  London,  to  negotiate 
the  reopening  of  trade  relations.  In  the 
latter  part  of  1920  an  agreement  was 
reached  between  the  Soviet  Government 
and  Great  Britain  whereby  trade  was  to 
be  resumed  early  in  1921. 

Meanwhile,  in  the  spring  of  1920,  re- 
lations between  the  Soviet  Government 
and  Poland  became  strained,  and  the  sit- 
uation suddenly  changed  into  open  hos- 
tilities when,  early  in  March,  1920,  the 
Poles    began    an    offensive    against    the  i 


RUSSIA    LEATHER 


159 


RUST 


Russians,  succeeding  in  advancing  as 
far  as  Kiev,  in  the  Ukraine.  Though  at 
first  thrown  back,  the  Soviet  forces 
suddenly  rallied  and  initiated  a  counter- 
offensive,  which  turned  the  tables  on  the 
Poles,  who  all  but  lost  their  capital, 
Warsaw,  during  the  following  summer. 
Taking  advantage  of  the  Polish  attack, 
General  Baron  Wrangel,  a  lieutenant  of 
Denikin,  had  organized  an  army  in  the 
Crimea  and  begun  an  attack  on  the  Bol- 
sheviki  from  the  south.  Hurriedly  the 
Soviet  made  peace  with  Poland,  in  No- 
vember, 1920,  and  turned  on  Wrangel, 
whose  forces  were  completely  defeated 
in  the  early  part  of  November,   1920. 

By  Jan.  1,  1921,  the  Soviet  Govern- 
ment had  triumphed  over  all  its  enemies 
from  outside,  and  was  faced  with  the 
task  of  demobilization.  The  situation 
in  the  interior  of  Russia,  economically 
speaking,  had  sunk  into  a  deplorable 
state,  especially  in  transportation  facil- 
ities. The  population  was  suffering  se- 
verely from  short  rations.  The  removal 
of  outside  pressure,,  which  had  brought 
all  elements  of  the  Russian  population 
to  the  support  of  the  Soviet  Government, 
was  removed,  and  the  latter  had  now  to 
face  counter-revolutionary  activities  from 
within. 

RUSSIA  LEATHER,  a  kind  of  leather 
originally  made  in  Russia  from  the  skins 
of  goats  and  sheep. 

RUSSNIAKS.     See    Ruthenians. 

RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR.  After  the 
Boxer  movement  in  China,  Russia  ob- 
tained from  China  a  concession  to  build 
a  railway  in  Manchuria,  and  hence  al- 
lowed Russian  troops  to  remain  in  that 
province  to  maintain  order.  Japan  ob- 
jected to  the  presence  of  Russia's  army 
in  Manchuria,  and  insisted  upon  evacu- 
ation. To  this  Russia  would  not  agree, 
and  after  exhausting  all  diplomacy,  the 
Japanese  minister  at  St.  Petersburg, 
Feb.  1,  1904,  declared  diplomatic  rela- 
tions at  an  end.  At  the  same  time  the 
Russian  minister  at  Tokio  prepared  to 
leave  the  Island  Empire.  The  next  day, 
forty  Japanese  transports  were  loaded 
with  troops  to  be  landed  at  various 
points  in  Korea.  Also  a  naval  division 
sailed  from  Japanese  waters,  and  by  the 
flagship  of  this  fleet  the  first  shot  in  the 
war  was  fired,  on  the  night  of  Feb.  8. 
The  Japanese  admiral,  Togo,  sent  a  flo- 
tilla of  torpedo  boats  into  the  harbor  of 
Port  Arthur  to  attack  the  Russian  fleet. 
Japan  had  waived  the  formality  of  a 
declaration  of  war,  and  the  sudden  at- 
tack was  wholly  unexpected  by  the  Rus- 
sians. Admiral  Stark,  in  command  of 
the  Russian  fleet,  and  many  of  his  offi- 
cers, were  on  shore  at  places  of  amuse- 


ment, and  with  the  first  shot  the  fleet, 
was  thrown  into  the  utmost  confusion. 
Defeat  ensued  for  the  Russians,  who  lost 
a  battleship  and  two  cruisers.  The  Jap- 
anese torpedo  boats  escaped  unharmed. 
The  next  day  the  Japanese  fleet  opened 
a  bombardment  on  the  forts  and  ships 
at  Port  Arthur,  and  from  that  time 
forward,  through  the  first  three  months 
of  the  war,  the  Japanese  continued  the 
bombardment  at  intervals  of  a  few  days 
— nine  attacks  in  all — without  effect. 
On  Feb.  9,  a  division  of  the  Japanese 
fleet,  under  Admiral  Uriu,  appeared  out- 
side the  harbor  of  Chemulpo,  Korea, 
and  the  Russian  cruiser  "Variag"  and 
the  gunboat  "Korietz"  came  out  in  the 
hope  of  escaping  in  a  running  fight. 
Both  the  Russian  vessels,  however,  were 
crushed  by  weight  of  metal,  and  both 
crawled  back  to  the  harbor,  where  they 
blew  up  and  sank.  Admiral  Makaroff 
was  later  appointed  to  the  supreme  com- 
mand of  the  Russian  fleet,  and  General 
Kuropatkin  reached  Harbin,  Manchuria, 
in  April,  to  assume  command  of  the 
Russian  land  forces.  On  April  13  the 
Russian  fleet  met  with  a  disaster  that 
was  regarded  in  Russia  as  a  national 
calamity.  The  battleship  "Petropav- 
lovsk,"  with  Admiral  Makaroff  aboard, 
while  steaming  out  of  the  harbor  of 
Port  Arthur  to  attack  the  Japanese 
fleet,  struck  a  mine,  the  ship  turned 
turtle,  after  blowing  up,  and  Makaroff 
and  nearly  the  entire  ship's  company 
were  drowned.  On  May  27-28,  1905,  Ad- 
miral Rojestvensky's  fleet  was  utterly 
annihilated  by  the  Japanese  navy  in  Tsus- 
hima Straits,  with  the  deaths  of  4,000 
Russians  and  the  capture  of  twice  as 
many,  and  insignificant  loss  on  the  other 
side.  This  ended  the  war,  and  peace  was 
signed  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  on  Sept.  5. 
Russia  lost  400,000  soldiers  and  83  ships 
of  war,  Japan  170,000  soldiers  and  19 
ships  of  war,  and  obtained  half  of  the 
Saghalien  Islands  as  compensation.  Oth- 
er provisions  of  the  treaty  called  for 
the  evacuation  of  Manchuria,  Russian 
acknowledgment  of  Japan's  paramount 
interests  in  Korea,  Japan  to  take  over 
Port  Arthur,  Dalny,  and  the  Liao-tung 
Peninsula,  and  to  control  the  Chinese 
Eastern  railroad  S.  from  Kunshien, 
which  is  10  miles  S.  of  Harbin. 

RUST,  the  yellowish  coat  of  peroxide 
which  forms  on  the  surface  of  iron  ex- 
posed to  moist  atmosphere.  To  prevent 
the  rusting  of  iron  utensils,  oil,  paint, 
varnish,  plumbago,  grease,  or  any  sub- 
stance which  will  protect  the  metal  from 
the  moist  air,  may  be  employed.  In  all  , 
ordinary  circumstances  iron  decomposes 
water,  abstracts  the  oxygen,  and  com- 
bines with  it,  thus  forming  rust. 


RTJSTCHUK 


160 


RUTHERFORD 


In  botany,  a  disease  of  plants,  which 
shows  itself  on  the  stems  and  leaves  of 
many  plants,  and  on  the  ears  of  grasses, 
both  of  the  cereal  grasses  and  of  many 
pasture  and  forage  grasses,  in  brown, 
yellow,  or  orange  colored  spots,  and  af- 
ter destroying  the  epidermis  of  the  plant 
assumes  the  form  of  a  powder  which 
soils  the  fingers  when  touched. 

RTJSTCHUK,  a  town  of  Bulgaria;  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  where 
that  river  is  joined  by  the  Lorn,  opposite 
Giurgevo,  and  42  miles  S.  W.  of  Bu- 
charest.    Pop.  about  36,000. 

RUSTIC  WORK,  an  imitation  of  rough 
or  primitive  work;  furniture  for  sum- 
mer houses  and  lawns,  made  of  limbs 
and  trees,  taking  advantage  of  natural 
crooks  to  form  the   shapes   desired. 

RUTACE.ffi,  rueworts;  the  typical  or- 
der of  Rutales;  trees,  shrubs,  or  rarely 
herbs,  with  opposite  or  alternate,  simple 
or  compound  leaves,  covered  with  pellu- 
cid resinous  dots;  calyx  in  four  or  five 
divisions;  petals  as  many,  distinct  or 
combined  into  a  tube,  or  wanting;  tribes, 
Cuspariex,  Pilocarpese,  Boronicse,  Eudi- 
osmese,  Dictamnex,  Rutese,  and  perhaps 
Cneorese.  Genera,  according  to  Lindley, 
47;  species,  400. 

RUTGERS  COLLEGE,  an  educational 
institution  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.; 
founded  in  1766,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Dutch  Reformed  Church;  reported 
at  the  close  of  1919:  Professors  and  in- 
structors, 75;  students,  460;  volumes  in 
the  library,  about  100,000;  number  of 
graduates,  2,900;  president,  William  H. 
S.  Demarest,  LL.D. 

RUTH,  a  canonical  book  now  placed 
in  the  Hagiographa  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, between  the  Song  of  Solomon  and 
the  Lamentations.  The  English  Bible, 
following  the  Septuagint  and  the  Vul- 
gate, arranges  it  between  the  Books  of 
Judges  and  Samuel.  During  the  times 
of  the  Judges,  a  certain  Elimelech,  of 
Bethlehem-Judah,  i.  e.,  of  Bethlehem  in 
Judah,  as  distinguished  from  Beth-le- 
hem  in  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix.  15),  to  es- 
cape a  famine  then  raging,  went  to 
Moab  with  his  wife  Naomi,  and  his  two 
sons,  Mahlon  and  Chilion,  who  married 
two  Moabitesses,  Orpah  and  Ruth.  There 
all  the  male  members  of  the  family  died, 
and  the  widowed  Naomi,  hearing  that 
the  famine  was  over,  thought  of  return- 
ing home.  Orpah,  after  starting  with 
her,  was  prevailed  on  to  return;  Ruth, 
the  heroine  of  the  narrative,  could  not 
be  persuaded  to  go  back,  and  having, 
after  reaching  Bethlehem,  gone  into  the 
fields  as  a  gleaner,  she  attracted  the 
notice  of  Boaz,  an  aged  kinsman,  with 


whom  she  made  a  romantic  marriage, 
ultimately  becoming  the  great-grand- 
mother of  King  David  and  an  ancestress 
of  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  i.  5).  The  Book 
of  Ruth  is  a  beautiful  idyllic  composi- 
tion. It  was  penned  not  earlier  than 
the  time  of  David  (ch.  iv.  22),  and 
probably  much  later,  for  there  had  been 
time  for  customs  existent  in  the  days 
of  Boaz  and  Ruth  to  change.  The 
narrative  is  in  pure  Hebrew,  but  there 
are  Aramseanisms  in  the  dialogues.  Most 
critics  place  its  composition  before,  but 
Ewald  during,  the  Exile.  Its  canonicity 
has  never  been   doubted. 

RUTHENIANS,  a  Slavonic  branch  of 
Little  Russians.  About  3,500,000  dwell 
in  Galicia,  over  400,000  in  Hungary,  and 
300,000  in  Bukowina.  Most  of  them  now 
belong  to  the  new  state  of  Czecho-Slovakia. 

RUTHENIUM,  a  tetrad  metallic  ele- 
ment discovered  by  Osann  in  1828,  in  the 
platinum  ores  from  the  Ural,  and  first 
isolated  by  Claus  in  1845.  Symbol,  Ru.; 
at.  wt.,  101.7.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  osmi- 
ridium,  and  is  separated  from  the  latter 
by  heating  to  redness  a  mixture  of  this 
ore  and  common  salt  in  a  current  of 
moist  chlorine.  By  digestion  in  cold 
water  an  extract  is  obtained  from  which 
ammonia  throws  down  the  oxides  of  ru- 
thenium and  osmium.  The  latter  is 
expelled  by  heat,  and  the  former  con- 
verted into  ruthenate  of  potassium  by 
fusion  with  potash,  which  yields  oxide 
of  ruthenium  on  addition  of  nitric  acid. 
On  ignition  in  a  stream  of  hydrogen  the 
oxide  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  state 
in  the  form  of  porous  fragments.  With 
the  exception  of  osmium  it  is  the  most 
refractory  of  all  metals,  but  can  be 
fused  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  oxy- 
hydrogen  blowpipe.  It  then  has  a  den- 
sity of  11  to  11.4,  and  is  scarcely  at- 
tacked by  nitro-muriatic  acid. 

RUTHERFORD,  a  borough  of  New 
Jersey,  in  Bergen  co.  It  lies  between 
the  Passaic  and  Hackensack  rivers,  and 
is  on  the  Erie  railroad.  It  is  almost 
entirely  a  residential  place.  Pop.  (1910) 
7,045;    (1920)    9,497. 

RUTHERFORD,  SIR  ERNEST,  a 
British  physicist,  born  in  Nelson,  New 
Zealand,  in  1870.  He  was  educated  at 
Nelson  College,  and  at  Canterbury  Col- 
lege, New  Zealand,  and  took  post-grad- 
uate courses  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  professor  of  physics 
at  McGill  University,  from  1898  to  1907, 
and  was  professor  and  director  of  the 
physical  laboratory  at  the  University  of 
Manchester.  He  received  the  Rumford 
medal  from  the  Royal  Society  in  1904, 
and  the  Barnard  medal  in  1910.  In  1908 
he  received  the   Bressa   prize  from  the 


RUTHERFORD 


161 


RUTLEDGE 


Turin  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  also  the 
Nobel  prize  in  1908.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  made  a  knight.  His  scientific  work 
related  chiefly  to  radio  activity.  His 
works  include.  "Radio-Activity"  (1904)  ; 
"Radio-Active  Transformations"  (1906)  ; 
and  "Radio-Active  Substances  and  Their 
Radiations"    (1912). 

RUTHERFORD,  or  RUTHERFURD, 
SAMUEL,  a  Scotch  divine;  born  in 
Nisbet,  Scotland,  about  the  year  1600. 
He  studied  at  Edinburgh  University,  and 
in  1627  was  appointed  minister  of  An- 
woth  in  Kirkcudbright.  On  account  of 
his  strong  Presbyterian  views  he  was 
deprived  of  his  living  in  1636  and  im- 
prisoned for  two  years,  when  he  was 
restored.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  drawing  up  of  the  National  Cove- 
nant. In  1639  he  became  Professor  of 
Divinity,  and  in  1649  principal  of  the 
new  college,  St.  Andrews.  He  published 
numerous  politieo-theological  treatises. 
The  most  famous  of  these  is  "Lex  Rex" 
("The  Law,  King"),  which  on  the  Res- 
toration was  publicly  burned  and  he 
himself  charged  with  high  treason. 
Death  prevented  him  from  answering 
the  charge  before  Parliament.  His  fa- 
miliar "Letters"  have  been  frequently  re- 
printed. He  died  in  Edinburgh,  March 
23,  1661. 

RUTHERFURD,  LEWIS  MORRIS,  an 
American  astronomer;  born  in  Morri- 
sania,  New  York  City,  Nov.  25,  1816 ;  was 
graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1834; 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1837 ;  and  practiced 
in  New  York  till  1849,  when  he  retired 
from  practice  to  devote  himself  to  travel 
and  the  study  of  astronomy.  He  made 
a  number  of  instruments  for  his  observ- 
atory, among  which  were  an  object  glass 
which  proved  a  great  success,  a  microm- 
eter for  the  measurements  of  astronomi- 
cal photographs,  a  ruling  engine  with 
which  he  produced  interference  gratings 
on  glass  and  speculum  metal.  He  re- 
tired from  active  astronomical  work  in 
1883,  and  presented  his  instruments  to 
Columbia  College.  He  was  one  of  the 
original  members  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  He  died  in  Tranquil- 
lity, N.  J.,  May  30,  1892. 

RUTHERGLEN,  a  royal.parliamentary 
and  municipal  burgh  in  Scotland.  It  is 
situated  in  the  county  of  Lanark,  on 
the  Clyde,  3  miles  S.  E.  of  Glasgow.  It 
figures  in  Gaelic  mediaeval  history,  and 
to-day  is  an  industrial  center  with  coal 
mines  and  iron  and  steel  works.  The 
oldest  church  goes  back  to  the  twelfth 
century.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

RUTILE,  a  widely  distributed  min- 
eral, occurring  mostly  in  crystals,  occa- 
sionally massive;   crystallization   tetrag- 


onal; much  twinned,  by  repetition  of  the 
same  twin  often  assuming  a  geniculated 
appearance;  hardness,  6  to  6.5;  sp.  gr., 
4.18  to  4.25;  luster,  metallic-adamantine; 
color,  red  to  reddish-brown,  yellowish- 
black;  streak,  brown;  transparent  to 
opaque;  fracture,  sub-conchoidal  to  un- 
even; composition:  oxygen,  39;  tita- 
nium, 61=100,  corresponding  with  the 
formula  TiOo.  Dana  divides  this  species 
into:  (1)  ordinary,  which  includes  the 
brownish-red  and  other  shades;  sp.  gr., 
4.18-4.22,  and  the  acicular  varieties  often 
inclosed  in  rock  crystal;  (2)  ferriferous; 
color  black  (a)  nigrine,  (&)  ilmenoru- 
tile;  (3)  chromiferous,  color  grass-green, 
owing  to  oxide  of  chromium.  Found  dis- 
tributed in  granite,  gneiss,  mica-schists, 
and  sometimes  in  granular  limestones. 

RUTLAND,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Rutland  co.,  Vt.;  on  Otter  creek,  and 
on  the  Rutland,  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson,  the  Central  Vermont,  and  the 
Bennington  and  Rutland  railroads;  50 
miles  S.  W.  of  Montpelier.  Here  are 
an  English  and  Classical  Institute,  the 
Baxter  Memorial  Reference  Library,  Rut- 
land Free  Library,  State  House  of  Cor- 
rection, city  hospital,  court  house,  United 
States  Government  building,  the  first 
State  Capitol  (built  in  1784),  a  State 
penitentiary;  waterworks,  street  railroad 
and  electric  light  plants,  National  and 
savings  banks,  and  several  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers.  It  is  in  a  region 
rich  in  limestone,  and  marble  has  been 
quarried  here  since  1830.  West  Rutland, 
which  was  set  off  from  Rutland  in  1886, 
is  the  center  of  the  marble  interest. 
Besides  its  marble  industry,  Rutland  has 
extensive  scale  works,  iron  works,  and 
shirt  and  school  furniture  factories.  In 
1784-1804  Rutland  was  one  of  the  State 
capitals.  During  the  Revolutionary  War 
it  was  on  the  frontier.  Pop.  (1910)  13,- 
546;    (1920)    14,954. 

RUTLEDGE,  EDWARD,  an  American 
statesman;  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C, 
Nov.  23,  1749;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1773;  began  practice  in  his  native 
town;  was  a  member  of  the  Continental 
Congress  in  1774-1777;  took  a  conspic- 
uous part  in  the  discussions  preceding 
the  adoption  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, of  which  he  was  a  signer;  was 
on  a  commission  with  John  Adams  and 
Benjamin  Franklin  which  met  Lord 
Howe,  Sept.  11,  1776,  on  Staten  Island, 
but  refused  to  enter  into  any  treaty 
with  him  except  on  the  basis  of  Ameri- 
can independence.  He  was  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  the  Charleston  Artillery  which 
aided  in  expelling  the  British  from  the 
island  of  Port  Royal  in  1779;  and  was 
captured  in  1780  and  imprisoned  for  a 
year  in  St.  Augustine.     At  the   conclu- 


RTJTLEDGE 


162 


RYAN 


sion  of  hostilities,  he  resumed  the  prac- 
tice of  law  in  Charleston;  and  was 
elected  governor  of  South  Carolina  in 
1798.  He  died  in  Charleston,  S.  C, 
Jan.   23,   1800. 

RTJTLEDGE,  JOHN,  an  American 
jurist,  brother  of  Edward;  born  in 
Charleston,  S.  C,  in  1739.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  South  Carolina  conven- 
tion of  1774  that  decided  to  take  part 
in  the  Continental  Congress,  and  a  dele- 
gate to  the  latter  body  in  1775;  chair- 
man of  the  committee  that  framed  the 
South  Carolina  constitution  in  1776,  and 
elected  that  year  president  of  the  new 
State  government  and  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  militia.  In  1778  he  was 
again  elected  governor  of  South  Caro- 
lina. In  1780,  when  Charleston  was  cap- 
tured by  the  British,  he  retired  to  North 
Carolina,  joining  Greene's  army;  but 
resumed  the  governorship  at  the  close 
of  the  war.  In  1782  he  was  elected  to 
Congress,  and  re-elected  in  1783.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  that 
framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  In  July,  1795,  he  was  appointed 
by  Washington  Chief  Justice  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  and  served  the  August  term 
of  that  year;  but  his  mental  faculties 
failing,  he  was  not  confirmed  by  the 
Senate  in  December.  He  died  in  Charles- 
ton, July  23,  1800. 

RTJVO  DI  PTTGLIA,  a  town  in  the 
province  of  Bari,  Italy,  20  miles  W.  of 
the  city  of  Bari,  famous  for  its  pro- 
duction of  potteries,  and  as  a  center  of 
a  fertile  region  producing  grains  and 
fruit.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

RUWENZORI,  a  chain  of  mountains 
in  Central  Africa,  slightly  N.  of  the 
equator,  discovered  by  Henry  Stanley  in 
1888,  when  he  rescued  Emin  Pasha. 
Some  of  the  higher  peaks  have  an  alti- 
tude of  16,000  feet  and  are  covered  by 
perpetual  snow,  while  many  of  the  val- 
leys are  packed  with  glaciers.  The  main 
chain  lies  two  hundred  miles  west  of 
Victoria  Nyanza,  between  Albert  Nyanza 
and  Edward  Nyanza,  extending  into  the 
Belgian   Congo. 

RUYSDAEL,  or  RTJISDAEL,  JAKOB, 
a  Dutch  landscape  painter;  born  in  Haar- 
lem, Holland,  about  1625.  In  1648  he  was 
enrolled  a  member  of  the  guild  of  St. 
Luke  at  Haarlem,  and  in  1659  was 
granted  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  Am- 
sterdam. His  works  are  very  picturesque 
in  detail.  He  had  a  fine  feeling  for  the 
poetic  spirit  of  nature,  which  he  em- 
bodies with  great  skill.  His  pictures 
exist  in  Dresden,  Berlin  (probably  the 
two  best  collections),  the  Louvre,  the  Lon- 
don National  Gallery,  Amsterdam,  and 
The    Hague.      He   left   a    few    etchings, 


which  are  highly  prized.     He  died  in  the 
almshouse  of  Haarlem,  March  14,  1682. 

RUYTER  (roi'ter),  MICHIEL  ADRI- 
AANSZOON  DE,  a  Dutch  naval  officer; 
born  in  Flushing,  Holland,  March  24, 
1607.  From  the  situation  of  cabin  boy 
he  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain  in  the  Dutch 
navy  in  1635,  and  rear-admiral  in  1645. 
He  defeated  and  sunk  an  Algerine  pirate 
squadron  in  1647.  He  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  war  with  England  and  in  the 
service  of  Denmark.  In  1667,  sailing 
up  the  Thames  he  destroyed  the  English 
shipping  and  burned  several  men-of-war. 
His  victories  led  to  the  peace  of  Breda. 
After  fighting  the  French  fleet  in  the 
Mediterranean,  he  retreated  to  the  har- 
bor of  Syracuse,  Sicily,  where  he  died  of 
his  wounds,  April  29,  1676. 

RTJZSKY,  NICOLAS  VLADIMIRO- 
VITCH,  a  Russian  soldier,  horn  about 
1853.  He  was  educated  at  a  military 
academy  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  when 
but  18  years  of  age  served  in  the  Tur- 
kish War  in  the  Grenadier  Guards.  He 
was  made  a  colonel  at  31  and  a  major- 
general  at  42.  He  served  as  chief  of 
staff  in  the  Second  Manchurian  Army 
during  the  Russo-Japanese  War  in  1904- 
1905.  He  afterward  became  a  member 
of  the  Army  Council  and  commanded  an 
army  corps.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War  he  commanded  the  Russian 
forces  which  won  a  great  victory  over 
four  Austrian  army  corps  near  Lemberg, 
in  September,  1914.  In  1915  he  com- 
manded the  Russian  forces  near  Riga, 
and  his  exertions  so  undermined  his 
health,  that  he  died  in  the  same  year. 

RYAN,  JAMES,  American  Roman  Cath- 
olic bishop,  born,  1848,  in  Thurles  co.,  Tip- 
perary,  Ireland.  He  was  brought  to  the 
United  States  in  childhood  and  was  edu- 
cated to  the  priesthood  in  the  seminaries 
of  St.  Joseph,  and  St.  Thomas.  He  was 
professor  in  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  and 
afterward  served  as  pastor  in  several 
churches.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Alton,  111.,  in  1888. 

"  RYAN,  MARAH  ELLIS,  an  American 
novelist,  born  in  Butler  co.,  Pennsylvania, 
in  1866.  Her  novels,  chiefly  of  southern 
scenes,  include  "Told  in  the  Hills"  (1890) ; 
"The  Bond-Woman"  (1899);  "Indian 
Love  Letters"  (1907)  ;  "The  Woman  of 
the  Twilight"  (1913) ;  "The  House  of  the 
Dawn'?  (1914) ;  and  "Treasure  Trail" 
(1919). 

RYAN,  PATRICK  JOHN,  an  Amer- 
ican Roman  Catholic  prelate;  born  in 
Thurles,  Ireland,  Feb.  20,  1831.  He  was 
ordained  deacon  in  1853,  completing  his 
studies  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  raised  to 
the   priesthood   in    1854.      In    1872   was 


BYAN 


163 


RYSWICK 


elected  coadjutor  archbishop  of  St.  Louis. 
His  administration  was  energetic  and 
successful.  He  was  promoted  archbishop 
in  1883  and  in  1884  transferred  to  the 
see  of  Philadelphia.  He  wrote:  "What 
Catholics  do  not  Believe,"  "The  Causes 
of  Modern  Religious  Skepticism."  He 
died  Feb.  11,  1911. 

RYAN,  THOMAS  FORTUNE,  an 
American  financier.  He  was  born  in  Nel- 
son co.,  Va.,  in  1851,  and  after  receiving 
his  preliminary  education  began  his  busi- 
ness career  in  1868  in  a  Baltimore  dry 
goods  house.  He  entered  Wall  Street  in 
1870  and  became  a  member  of  the  Stock 
Exchange  in  1874.  He  afterward  became 
interested  in  the  consolidation  and  ex- 
tension of  street  railway  and  lighting 
systems  in  New  York,  Chicago,  and  other 
cities,  and  in  the  reorganization  of 
various  railways  in  the  South,  coal  prop- 
erties in  Ohio  and  West  Virginia  and 
railways  in  Ohio.  He  purchased  the  con- 
trolling interest  in  the  stock  of  the  Equi- 
table Life  Assurance  Society  of  the  United 
States  and  in  1908  retired  as  officer  or 
director  in  more  than  30  corporations  in 
which  he  was  controlling  factor.  He  was 
a  delegate  from  Virginia  to  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Convention  in   1904. 

RYAZAN,  a  city  and  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name  in  Central 
Russia,  on  the  Trubesh,  a  tributary  of 
the  Oka,  in  the  center  of  a  rich  agricul- 
tural district;  has  a  large  trade,  more 
especially  in  rye.  Manufactures  include 
woolens,  linens,  needles,  and  leather.  Pop. 
about  41,000.  The  government  has  an 
area  of  16,254  square  miles,  and  is  wholly 
drained  by  the  Oka  and  its  tributaries. 
Cereals  of  all  kinds  are  produced  for  ex- 
port. The  principal  manufactures  are 
cotton,  linen,  leather  and  spirits.  Pop. 
about  2,700,000. 

RYBINSK,  or  RUBINSK,  a  town  in 
Russia,  in  the  province  of  Jaroslav,  on 
the  Volga,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ry- 
binska.  It  is  the  center  of  the  corn  trade 
on  the  Volga,  and  commands  an  extensive 
commerce,  being  at  the  head  of  the  canal 
and  river  system  uniting  the  Baltic  Sea 
with  the  Caspian.    Pop.  about  32,000. 

RYE,  a  village  of  New  York,  in  West- 
chester co.  It  is  on  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford,  and  other  railroads. 
Its  excellent  beach  on  Long  Island  Sound 
makes  it  a  favorite  summer  resort.  It 
is  chiefly  a  residential  place  and  has  many 
fine  residences,  a  seminary  for  girls,  a 
public  library,  and  a  hospital.  Pop. 
(1910)   3,964;    (1920)   5,308. 

RYE,  Secale  cereale.  The  glumes  are 
one-nerved  and  shorter  than  the  spikelet, 
the  rachis  is  very  tough;  not  known  in 


a  wild  state.  It  is  the  prevailing  grain 
cultivated  in  the  S.  of  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way, in  Denmark,  Holland,  the  N.  of 
Germany,  and  part  of  Siberia.  It  is  cul- 
tivated to  a  small  extent  in  England,  and 
somewhat  more  extensively  in  America. 
It  grows  on  poor,  light  soils  unsuitable 
for  wheat.  The  value  of  rye  is  about 
two-thirds  that  of  wheat;  its  nutritious 
properties  are  to  those  of  wheat  as  about 
64  to  71.  When  formerly  mixed  with 
wheat  it  was  called  meslin.  It  is  the 
chief  grain  from  which  Holland  gin  is 
distilled.  When  rye  is  attacked  by  ergot 
it  is  said  to  be  spurred.  In  1919  the 
United  States  produced  88,478,000  bushels 
on  an  area  of  6,963,000  acres. 

RYE  GRASS,  the  genus  Lolium,  spe- 
cifically, L.  perenne,  an  excellent  grass 
to  mix  with  others  for  permanent  pas- 
tures, or  to  be  sown  free  from  admixture 
as  part  of  the  rotation  of  crops.  The 
variety  L.  italica  is  more  valuable  than 
the  normal  type. 

RYE  HOUSE  PLOT,  in  English  his- 
tory, a  conspiracy,  planned  in  1683,  the 
immediate  object  of  which  was  to  assas- 
sinate Charles  II.  and  his  brother,  the 
Duke  of  York  (afterward  James  II.),  as 
they  returned  from  the  Newmarket  races. 
This  plan  was  to  have  been  executed  on 
the  road  to  London,  near  a  farm  called 
Rye  House,  belonging  to  one  of  the  con- 
spirators named  Rumbold;  but  it  was 
frustrated  by  the  king  and  his  brother 
happening  to  return  from  Newmarket 
earlier  than  was  expected.  The  detec- 
tion of  the  plot  led  to  the  arrest,  on  a 
charge  of  high  treason,,  of  Lords  William 
Russell,  Essex,  and  Algernon  Sidney,  who 
were  in  no  way  connected  with  it.  Essex 
put  an  end  to  his  own  life  in  the  Tower, 
while  Russell  and  Sidney  were  beheaded, 
as  also  Lieutenant-Colonel  Walcot,  one  of 
the  real  contrivers  of  the  plot. 

RYMER,  or  RHYMER,  THOMAS 
THE  (Thomas  Lermont  of  Erceldoune), 
a  Scotch  poet  of  the  13th  century,  who 
occupies  an  important  place  in  the  mythi- 
cal and  legendary  literature  of  Scot- 
land. His  name  is  associated  with  frag- 
ments of  rhymed  or  alliterative  verse, 
many  of  which  have  been  collected  and 
published  as  "The  Prophecies"  (1691) ; 
and  "Sir  Tristem:  A  Metrical  Romance 
Edited  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  from  the 
Auchinleck  MSS."  (1804). 

RYSWICK  (ris'wik;  properly  RlJS- 
wijk),  a  village  and  castle  situated  in 
South  Holland,  not  far  from  The  Hague, 
where  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  which  ter- 
minated the  war  waged  against  Louis 
XIV.  by  a  league  consisting  of  Holland, 
the  German  empire,  Britain,  and  Spain, 
was  signed,  Sept.  21,  1697. 


s 


S,  s,  the  19th  letter  and  the  15th  conso- 
nant of  the  English  alphabet.  It  repre- 
sents a  hissing  sound  and  is  classed  as  a 
sibilant.  There  are  two  sounds  attached 
to  this  letter  in  English;  the  one  surd,  or 
uttered  with  breath  merely,  the  other 
sonant  or  voiced.  The  first  is  a  mere 
hissing  sound,  as  in  sin,  so,  etc.;  the 
other  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  z, 
as  in  music,  muse,  etc.  S  in  some  words, 
as  isle,  island,  viscount,  is  silent.  It  is 
closely  allied  to  r,  and  even  in  the  oldest 
English  we  have  traces  of  the  interchange, 
as  in  frore=froren=frosen  (frozen),  ge- 
coren=chosen,  etc.  S  has  become  st  in 
hoist=hoise,  whilst=whiles,  etc.  It  has 
been  changed  into  c,  as  in  mice=01d 
English  mys,  once=01d  English  ones, 
hence=01d  English  hennes,  etc.  With  a 
following  h  it  forms  a  digraph,  a  weaken- 
ing of  an  older  and  stronger  sound  sc,  as 
shall=01d  English  sceal,  fish=01d  Eng- 
lish fisc,  etc.  S  is  an  exceedingly  common 
letter  in  English.  It  is  the  characteristic 
sign  of  the  genitive  case  and  plurals  of 
nouns. 

S  as  an  initial  is  used  for  South,  as  in 
S.  W.=Southwest ;  for  Society,  as  F.  R. 
S.=Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society;  for 
Saint,  or  double  (SS.)  for  Saints.  S  as 
a  symbol  is  used  as  a  numeral  for  7,  and 
with  a  dash  over  it,  for  70,000.  Also  in 
chemistry  for  the  element  sulphur. 

SAALE,  a  river  of  Germany;  distin- 
guished from  smaller  rivers  of  the  same 
name  as  the  Saxon  or  Thuringian  Saale, 
rises  on  the  W.  slope  of  the  Fichtelge- 
birge  (Bavaria),  and  flowing  N.  through 
several  minor  States,  finally  across  Prus- 
sian Saxony,  past  the  towns  of  Hof,  Ru- 
dolstadt,  Jena,  Naumburg,  Weissenfels, 
Merseburg,  and  Halle,  falls  into  the  Elbe, 
about  25  miles  above  Magdeburg,  after 
a  course  of  226  miles.  It  is  navigable 
from  Naumburg  to  its  confluence  with 
the  Elbe,  a  distance  of  99  miles,  for  ves- 
sels up  to  200  tons. 

SAALFELD,  a  town  in  the  former 
Duchy     of     Saxe-Meiningen,     Germany, 


situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Saale,  87 
miles  S.  W.  of  Leipzig.  Its  importance 
is  based  on  its  manufacturing,  its  indus- 
tries being  principally  knit  goods,  paints, 
and  machinery.     Pop.  about  15,000. 

SAARBRUCK,  or  SAARBRUCKEN 
(French,  Sarrebruck),  a  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia;  on  the  Saar;  40  miles  S.  E.  of 
Treves;  the  center  of  a  large  coalfield, 
and  of  iron  and  glass  works,  with  manu- 
factures of  tobacco,  chemicals,  metal 
utensils,  etc.  Here,  on  Aug.  2,  1870,  the 
first  engagement  took  place  between  the 
French  and  Germans,  the  latter  retreat- 
ing. As  a  result  of  the  Versailles  Peace 
Treaty,  the  town  came,  at  least  tempo- 
rarily, under  French  control.  See  Sarre 
Basin.    Pop.  about  106,000. 

SABA,  a  small  island  in  the  Leeward 
group  of  the  West  Indies,  a  little  N.  of  St. 
Kitt's  and  near  the  island  of  St.  Eusta- 
tia.  Though  a  Dutch  colony  the  Island 
of  Saba  is  an  independent  republic.  Pop. 
(1918)  2,229.  The  island  rises  abruptly 
from  the  sea,  and  is  about  12  miles  in 
circumference.  On  the  S.  side  there  is 
a  break  in  the  perpendicular  rock-walls 
where  a  "ladder"  of  1,000  steps  and  a 
gallery  leads  to  the  habitable  part  of  the 
island.  The  natives  raise  cotton,  fruit, 
and  vegetables  for  export,  and  build  boats 
of  considerable  size.  A  cabbage  is  the 
coat-of-arms  of  the  republic.  The  Sabans 
are  pure-blooded  white  people,  descen- 
dants of  Dutch,  Swedish,  and  Danish  pi- 
rates of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries. 

SABADILLA,  CEBADILLA,  or  CE- 
VADILLA,  the  name  given  in  commerce 
to  the  pulverized  seeds  of  two  plants, 
the  Asagrsea  officinalis  of  Lindley,  and  the 
Veratrum  Sabadilla,  both  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Melanthaceae. 

SAB-ffiANS,  the  name  of  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Yemen  in  southern  Ara- 
bia. They  are  the  people  called  Sheba 
in  Gen.  x.  28,  xxv.  3;  Job  vi.  19;  and 
other  passages  in  the  prophets;  and  it  was 


164 


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SABATIER 


165 


SABELLIANISM 


probably  the  sovereign  of  this  people  who 
paid  the  celebrated  visit  to  Solomon.  The 
Sabzeans  were  a  powerful  and  wealthy 
people,  who  from  long  before  the  days 
of  Solomon  down  to  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era  controlled  the  sea  and  cara- 
van traffic  in  gold,  sweet  spices,  ivory, 
ebony,  and  valuable  tissues  that  came 
from  India  and  Africa  and  were  dis- 
patched N.  to  Syria.  To  protect  and 
watch  oyer  this  trade  they  had  stations 
or  colonies  in  northern  Arabia  and  in 
Ethiopia.  The  capital  of  their  country 
was  Mariaba  (Marib),  the  ruins  of  which, 
including  vast  dams,  lie  N.  E.  of  Sanaa. 
Their  religion  included  the  worship  of 
the  sun  and  moon,  and  a  number  of  other 
deities.  Their  language  is  intermediate 
between  Arabic  and  Ethiopian,  but  nearer 
akin  to  the  former. 

SABATIER,  PAUL,  a  French  writer. 
He  was  born  at  St.  Michel  de  Chabril- 
lanoux,  in  the  Cevennes,  in  1858,  and  was 
educated  at  the  Faculte  de  Theologie, 
Paris,  becoming  in  1885  vicar  of  the  St. 
Nicolas  Church  of  Strasbourg.  In  1885 
he  published  the  Greek  text  of  the  Di- 
dache,  but  it  was  his  "Vie  de  St.  Fran- 
cois" which  made  his  name  well-known, 
and  the  work  was  translated  into  several 
languages.  After  that  appeared:  "Col- 
lection d'etudes  et  des  documents  sur  l'his- 
toire  litteraire  et  religieuse  du  moyen 
age";  "Speculum  Perfectionis  seu  sancti 
Francisci  Assisiensis  Legenda  Antiquis- 
sima,  auctore  fr.  Leone";  "Modernism." 

SABBATARIAN,  in  the  16th  century, 
a  sect  who  considered  that  the  Christian 
Sabbath  should  be  kept  on  the  seventh 
day  (Saturday).  In  modern  times  the 
word^  means  one  who  holds  that  the  Lord's 
day  is  to  be  observed  among  the  Chris- 
tians in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  the 
Jews  were  enjoined  to  keep  the  Sabbath; 
one  who  holds  rigid  views  of  Sabbath 
observance. 

SABBATH,  a  sacred  day  of  rest  (the 
word  being  derived  from  shabath,  Hebrew, 
to  rest),  the  institution  of  which  is  first 
mentioned  in  Gen.  ii.  2-3 : 

"And  on  the  seventh  day  God  finished 
his  work  which  he  had  made;  and  he 
rested  on  the  seventh  day  from  all  his 
work  which  he  had  made.  And  God  blessed 
the  seventh  day  and  hallowed  it;  because 
that  in  it  he  rested  from  all  his  work 
which  God  had  created  and  made." — "Re- 
vised Version." 

The  prevailing  interpretation  of  these 
verses  is  that  the  Sabbath  was  instituted 
at  the  creation  for  mankind  in  general, 
and  that  septenary  institutions  may  there- 
fore be  expected  in  all  nations.  Prior 
to  the  giving  of  the  law  from  Mount  Sinai, 
the  Sabbath  is  mentioned  in  connection 
with  the  descent  of  manna    (Exod.  xvi. 


5,  22-30).  The  keeping  holy  of  the  Sab- 
bath is  enjoined  in  the  fourth  command- 
ment in  Exodus,  because  of  God's  having 
rested  after  the  creation  (Exod.  xx.  8- 
11)  ;  in  Deuteronomy  because  of  the  de- 
liverance of  the  Hebrew  bondsmen  from 
Egypt  (Deut.  v.  12-15).  Two  lambs  in- 
stead of  one  were  offered  when  it  came 
(Num.  xxviii.  3-4,  9).  Isaiah  (lvi.  2, 
lviii.  13)  strongly  advocated  its  obser- 
vance. 

Always  in  the  Gospels,  and,  as  a  rule, 
in  the  other  books,  Sabbath  means  the 
seventh  day  of  the  week.  By  this  time 
its  observance  had  become  very  rigid  and 
punctilious,  and  Jesus  Himself  was  con- 
stantly denounced  by  the  Pharisees  and 
others  as  a  Sabbath-breaker  (Matt.  xii. 
1-2;  Mark  iii.  2-3).  In  self-defense  he 
laid  down  this  principle:  "The  Sabbath 
was  made  for  man,  and  not  man  for  the 
Sabbath;  therefore  the  Son  of  Man  is 
Lord  also  of  the  Sabbath"  (Matt.  xii.  8, 
with  Mark  ii.  28). 

<  For  the  first  three  centuries  of  Church 
history,  the  Christian  fathers  in  general 
drew  a  distinction  between  the  Sabbath 
and  the  Sunday  or  Lord's  day,  regarding 
the  former  as  Jewish  and  obsolete,  and 
the  latter  as  a  divinely  instituted  day, 
joyous  in  its  character  as  commemorating 
Christ's  resurrection.  But  from  the  days 
of  the  first  and  ambiguous  edict  of  Con- 
stantine  on  the  subject: 

"Let  all  judges,  inhabitants  of  the  cities, 
and  artificers,  rest  on  the  venerable  Sun- 
day [dies  solis].  But  husbandmen  may 
freely  and  at  their  pleasure  apply  to  the 
business   of   agriculture," 

there  was  an  increasing  tendency  to  trans- 
fer to  the  Sunday,  and,  in  a  less  degree, 
to  saints'  days  and  minor  festivals  the 
restrictions  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath.  The 
third  Council  of  Orleans  (a.  d.  538)  strove 
to  check  this  tendency,  but  in  the  same 
century  we  find  legends  of  miraculous 
judgments  on  those  who  worked  on  the 
Sunday.  The  idea  of  the  "Christian  Sab- 
bath" seems  to  be  enunciated  for  the  first 
time  in  Alcuin.  The  Reformers  generally 
were  opposed  to  Sabbatarian  views,  which, 
however,  more  or  less  modified,  found  a 
place  in  Protestant  churches  generally, 
and  reached  their  height  in  the  Puritan 
period. 

SABBATICAL  YEAR,  in  Judaism,  the 
name  given  to  every  seventh  year,  during 
which  the  Hebrews  were  not  to  sow  their 
fields  or  prune  their  vineyards  (Exod. 
xxiii.  10,  11;  Lev.  xxv.  2-7;  Deut.  xv. 
1-11;  xxxi.  10-13). 

SABELLIANISM,  in  Church  history, 
the  name  given  to  any  form  of  doctrine 
which  denies  a  real  distinction  between 
the  Persons  of  the  Trinity;  the  same  as 


SABER 


166 


SABLE 


Patripassianism.  Also  the  doctrine  of  the 
adherents  of  Sabellius  (an  African  pres- 
byter of  the  3rd  century),  if  not  of  Sa- 
bellius himself.  It  resolved  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  into  three  manifestations 
of  God  to  man,  and  taught  that  the  same 
Person  was  the  Holy  Ghost  when  mani- 
festing himself  to  the  Christian  Church, 
and,  by  parity  of  reasoning,  the  Son, 
when  he  appeared  in  Christ.  Thus  Patri- 
passianism was  avoided,  but  the  Incarna- 
tion, as  well  as  the  Trinity,  was  denied, 
for  the  manifestation  of  God  in  Christ 
could  differ  only  in  degree,  not  in  kind, 
from  his  union  with  other  holy  men.  Akin 
to  this  teaching  was  that  of  Marcellus 
(Bishop  of  Ancyra  in  the  early  part  of 
the  4th  century),  who  made  the  Logos 
a  mere  attribute  of  God,  manifesting  it- 
self in  the  creation,  the  Incarnation,  and 
the  sanctification  of  Christians. 

SABER,  or  SABRE,  a  sword  having  a 
curved  blade,  specially  adapted  for  cut- 
ting. 

SABIANISM,  SABIANISM,  or  TSA- 
BAISM,  a  faith  which  recognized  the 
unity  of  God,  but  worshiped  angels  or  in- 
telligences supposed  to  reside  in  the  stars 
and  guide  their  motions,  whence  the 
lapse,  at  least  on  the  part  of  the  com- 
mon people,  to  the  worship  of  the  stars 
became  easy.  They  had  sacrifices  and 
sacred  days,  and  believed  in  a  future 
state  of  retribution.  They  were  once  nu- 
merous in  Arabia,  Syria,  and  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  their  sacred  books  were  in 
Syriac.  The  early  Mohammedans  did  not 
rank  them  with  polytheists. 

SABICtr,  or  SAVICXT,  a  leguminous 
tree,  Lysiloma  Sabicu,  native  of  Cuba. 
It  furnishes  an  exceedingly  heavy  and 
hard  wood,  with  a  texture  as  smooth, 
close,  and  firm  as  ivory  almost,  and  of  a 
rich,  warm,  red  color.  It  is  much  em- 
ployed for  shipbuilding  and  cabinet  mak- 
ing. 

SABINE,  a  river  of  the  United  States, 
forming  the  boundary  between  Louisiana 
and  Texas.  It  rises  in  northeastern 
Texas,  and  after  a  course  of  some  500 
miles  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
through  Sabine  Bay.  It  is  too  shallow 
to  be  of  much  use  for  navigation. 

SABINE  CROSSROADS,  a  place  in 
De  Soto  parish,  La.,  about  4  miles  S.  of 
Mansfield,  where,  in  the  Civil  War,  the 
Confederate  troops  under  command  of 
Generals  E.  Kirby  Smith,  Taylor,  Moul- 
ton,  and  Green,  defeated  the  Federal 
troops  under  command  of  Generals  Lee, 
Franklin,  Banks,  and  Ransom.  The  Union 
forces  lost  10  guns  and  about  7,000  of 
their  men  were  taken  prisoners. 


SABINE  LAKE,  a  body  of  water 
formed  by  an  expansion  of  the  Sabine 
river,  on  the  boundary  of  Louisiana  and 
Texas,  about  5  miles  N.  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  It  is  about  18  miles  long,  aver- 
ages about  9  miles  in  breadth,  and  has 
an  area  of  about  150  square  miles. 

SABINE  MOUNTAINS,  a  range  that 
is  a  branch  of  the  Apennines,  near  the 
border  of  ancient  Latium,  E.  of  Rome. 
Its  highest  point  is  about  4,200  feet. 

SABINES  (sa'binz),  an  ancient  peo- 
ple of  Italy,  supposed  to  have  been  named 
from  "Sabus,"  one  of  their  deities.  Little 
is  known  of  their  history.  They  were 
at  war  with  the  Romans  at  a  very  early 
period.  A  contest  broke  out  between 
them  504  B.  C,  and  a  body  of  the  Sabines 
migrated  to  Rome,  where  they  were  wel- 
comed, and  founded  the  powerful  family 
and  tribe  of  Claudii.  The  Sabines  car- 
ried their  ravages  to  the  very  gates  of 
Rome,  469  B.  c.  On  their  defeat  by  Mar- 
cus Horatius,  449  B.  C,  their  camp  was 
found  full  of  plunder  obtained  in  the  Ro- 
man territories.  They  were  again  at  w,ar 
with  the  Romans,  290  B.  C,  and  having 
been  vanquished,  many  of  them  were  sold 
as  slaves.  The  remaining  citizens  were 
admitted  to  the  Roman  franchise. 

SABLE,  the  Mustela  zibellina,  a  digi- 
tigrade  carnivorous  mammal,  nearly  allied 
to  the  common  marten  and  pine  marten, 
found  chiefly  in  Siberia  and  Kamtchatka, 
and  hunted  for  its  fur.  Its  length,  ex- 
clusive of  the  tail,  is  about  18  inches.  Its 
fur,    which    is    extremely    lustrous,    and 


SABLE 

hence  of  the  very  highest  value,  is  gen- 
erally brown,  grayish-yellow  on  the 
throat,  and  with  small  grayish-yellow 
spots  scattered  on  the  sides  of  the  neck. 
It  is  densest  during  winter.  Two  other 
species  of  sable  are  enumerated,  the 
Japanese  sable  (M.  melanopus)  and  a 
North  American  species  (M.  leucopus) . 
The  Tartar  sable  (M.  siberica)  is  the 
name  given  to  a  species  of  the  weasel 
genus  found  in  northern  Russia  and  Si- 
beria, and  the  pekan  (M.  canadensis  or 
M.  pennantii)  of  North  America  is  some- 


SABLE 


167 


SACCHARUM 


times  known  as  the  Hudson  Bay  sable. 
Sable  hair  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  artists'  pencils. 

SABLE,  in  heraldry,  black,  one  of  the 
tinctures  used  in  blazonry.  In  engrav- 
ing it  is  expressed  by  perpendicular 
crossed  by  horizontal  lines. 

SABLE  ISLAND,  a  low-lying  island 
in  the  Atlantic;  in  lat.  44°  N.  and  Ion. 
60°  W.;  110  miles  E.  of  the  central  part 
of  Nova  Scotia  (and  not  near  Cape  Sable, 
at  the  S.  E.  corner  of  Nova  Scotia,  where 
there  is  also  a  Sable  Island).  It  consists 
of  two  parallel  sand  ridges,  with  a  la- 
goon between  them.  Scrubby  grass,  cran- 
berries, etc.,  grow  on  the  island,  which 
is  so  dangerous  to  navigation,  and  has 
so  frequently  been  the  scene  of  wrecks,  as 
to  be  called  "the  sailor's  grave."  The 
Canadian  Government  maintains  two 
lighthouses  here.  The  island  is  gradually 
sinking.  Early  in  the  19th  century  it 
was  40  miles  long;  it  is  now  reduced  to 
20  miles.    Near  it  there  are  sandbanks. 

SABLES  D'OLONNE,  LES,  a  seaport 
of  France;  department  of  Vendee;  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  50  miles  S.  by  W.  of 
Nantes.  It  owes  its  early  importance 
to  Louis  XI.,  who  excavated  (1472)  the 
port  and  erected  the  fortifications.  There 
is  a  trade  in  grain,  wine,  salt,  cattle,  tim- 
ber, and  tar.  Salt  making,  shipbuilding, 
and  fishing  (sardines  and  oysters)  are  the 
chief  occupations.  The  town  is  visited 
for  its  sea-bathing.     Pop.  about  15,000. 

SABOT  (sab'o),  a  wooden  shoe  made 
of  one  piece  hollowed  out  by  boring  tools 
and  scrapers.  The  kinds  of  woods  used 
are  willow,  poplar  (Lombardy),  beech, 
birch,  aspen,  ash,  hornbeam,  walnut.  Sa- 
bots are  worn  by  the  peasants  of  France, 
Belgium,  etc. 

SABOTAGE,  an  expression  which  is 
believed  to  have  had  its  origin  in  the 
practice,  in  France,  during  the  early 
period  of  industry,  whereby  the  weavers 
inserted  a  wooden  shoe,  or  sabot,  in  the 
machinery  to  destroy  it.  From  its  com- 
mon usage  among  French  workers,  the 
term  has  acquired  a  broader  and  an  in- 
ternational significance  among  organized 
workers.  It  signifies  a  systematic  imped- 
ing of  the  wheels  of  industry  by  destruc- 
tion or  disabling  of  machinery,  for  definite 
tactical  aims.  Emery  dust  is  thrown  into 
complicated  machinery,  tools  are  dulled, 
material  is  destroyed,  all  for  the  purpose 
of  bringing  the  employer  to  terms  in  a 
labor  dispute.  Another  method  with  the 
same  aim  is  the  obeying  of  rules  to  the 
letter,  as  in  the  railroad  industry,  caus- 
ing delay  in  traffic.  Systematic  slacken- 
ing of  effort  in  the  workshops  is  also 
another  practice  which  comes  under  the 
term  of  sabotage. 


As  a  substitute  for  the  strike  as  a 
means  to  bringing  the  employer  to  terms, 
sabotage  was  at  one  time  generally  recog- 
nized among  the  radical  labor  elements 
as  a  legitimate  weapon  to  attaining  their 
ends.  Within  recent  years,  however,  there 
has  been  a  decided  reaction  against  this 
form  of  "direct  action."  In  1912  the  So- 
cialist Party  of  the  United  States  defi- 
nitely declared  itself,  at  a  national  con- 
vention, against  all  forms  of  direct  action, 
including  sabotage.  It  is  still  regarded 
as  a  legitimate  weapon  by  the  Industrial 
Workers  of  the  World,  who,  on  the  other 
hand,  consider  political  action  futile  as 
a  method  by  which  to  achieve  benefits  for 
the  working  classes. 

SABOTIERE,  a  French  apparatus  for 
making  ices.  It  differs  little  from  the 
common  American  ice-cream  freezer.  The 
space  between  the  wooden  pail  and  metal 
container  is  filled  with  pounded  ice  and 
salt,  or  sulphate  of  soda  and  hydrochloric 
acid. 

SACBUT,  or  SACKBUT,  a  musical  in- 
strument of  the  trumpet  kind  with  a 
slide;  in  fact  an  old  variety  of  Trom- 
bone (q.  v.).  The  instrument  called  sab- 
beka  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  has  been 
erroneously  rendered  as  sacbut  by  the 
translators.  The  exact  form  of  the  sabeka 
has  been  much  disputed,  but  that  it  was 
a  stringed  instrument  is  certain,  for  the 
name  passed  over  into  Greek  and  Latin 
in  the  forms  sambuke,  sambuca,  a  harp- 
like instrument  of  four  or  more  strings. 

SACCHARIN,  in  chemistry, 

C7H5N03S=C6H4.<gg>  NH; 

a  sweet  substance  which  was  discovered 
by  Fahlberg  and  Remsen  in  1879,  and 
named  by  them  anhydro-orthosulphamine- 
benzoic  acid.  It  may  be  prepared  by 
oxidizing  orthotoluene  with  potassium  per- 
manganate. It  forms  white  crystals,  solu- 
ble in  hot  water,  alcohol,  and  ether,  and 
melts  at  220°  with  partial  decomposition. 
Its  sweetness  exceeds  that  of  cane  sugar 
about  500  times.  When  taken  into  the 
system  it  passes  through  unchanged.  It 
is  used  to  disguise  the  taste  of  medicines 
and  in  cases  of  diabetes  where  sugar  is 
prohibited.  It  was  used  extensively  in 
place  of  sugar  during  the  World  War. 

SACCHARUM,  sugar  cane;  a  genus  of 
grasses,  tribe  Andropogoneae ;  inflores- 
cence in  loose  panicles,  with  lanceolate 
spikelets;  glumes  two-valved,  two  flow- 
ered, enveloped  in  long  wool;  lower  neu- 
ter with  one  pale,  upper  hermaphrodite 
with  two ;  mostly  tropical  or  sub-tropical ; 
known  species  about  32.  S.  officinarum 
is  the  common  sugar-cane.  Other  Indian 
species — S.  fuscum,  S.  mara,  S.  munja, 
S.  semidecumbens,  S.  canaliculatum,  and 


SACHEVERELL 


168 


S  ACK  VILLE-W  EST 


S.  spontaneum — have  fibers  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  ropes,  strings,  mats,  and 
paper.  The  leaves  and  seeds  are  employed 
for  thatch,  and  the  culms  of  some  for 
native  pens. 

In  chemistry,  a  term  formerly  synony- 
mous with  sugar,  but  now  used  almost 
exclusively  to  denote  an  invert  sugar  pre- 
pared from  cane  sugar  by  the  action  of 
acids.     It  is  largely  used  by  brewers. 

SACHEVERELL  (sa-shev'ur-el) , 
HENRY,  an  English  clergyman;  born 
in  Marlborough,  England,  in  1674.  While 
preacher  at  St.  Saviour's,  Southwark,  he 
in  1709  delivered  two  bitter  sermons 
against  dissent  and  accused  the  existing 
Whig  ministry  of  jeopardizing  the  safety 
of  the  Church.  He  was  impeached  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  tried  in  the  spring 
of  1710,  and  suspended  for  three  years. 
This  persecution  secured  him  at  once  the 
character  of  a  martyr,  and  helped  to 
stimulate  the  already  fierce  passions 
which  then  divided  the  Whig  and  Tory 
party.  Sacheverell  became  the  popular 
hero  of  the  hour;  while  the  Godolphin 
(Whig)  ministry  was  overthrown.  Par- 
liament thanked  him  for  his  defense  of 
the  Church,  and  as  soon  as  his  suspension 
expired,  Queen  Anne  presented  him  with 
the  rich  living  of  St.  Andrew's,  Holborn. 
Sacheverell,  having  no  merit  to  keep  him 
permanently  before  the  public,  now  fell 
back  into  obscurity.  He  died  in  London, 
June  5,  1724. 

SACHS,  HANS,  the  most  distinguished 
meistersinger   of   Germany   in   the    16th 


HANS  SACHS 

oentury,  born  in  Nuremberg,  Germany, 
Nov.  5,  1494.  He  learned  the  trade  of 
a  shoemaker,  commenced  business  in  his 


native  city,  married  (1519),  and  pros- 
pered. He  took  lessons  under  one  of  the 
chief  meistersingers  of  Nuremberg,  and 
soon  surpassed  all  his  contemporaries. 
As  a  staunch  follower  of  Luther,  and  an 
ardent  advocate  of  his  teachings,  Sachs 
succeeded  in  imparting  to  his  hymns  a 
fervor  which  considerably  aided  the 
spread  of  the  Reformation.  A  bronze 
statue  in  his  memory  was  erected  in 
1874  at  Nuremberg,  where  his  house  may 
still  be  seen.  He  died  in  Nuremberg, 
Jan.  19,  1576. 

SACK  (Spanish,  seco;  French,  sec, 
"dry"),  formerly  a  general  name  for  the 
different  sorts  of  dry  wines,  more  espe- 
cially the  Spanish,  which  were  first  ex- 
tensively used  in  England  in  the  16th 
century.  Also  a  measure  or  weight,  vary- 
ing according  to  the  article  and  country.. 
Also  a  term  applied  to  the  plundering  of 
a  town  or  city. 

SACKVILLE,  THOMAS,  Lord  Buck- 
hurst  and  Earl  of  Dorset,  an  English 
statesman;  born  in  Buckhurst,  England, 
1536.  At  Oxford  and  Cambridge  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  Latin  and  Eng- 
lish poetry,  and  as  a  student  of  the  Inner 
Temple  he  wrote,  in  conjunction  with 
Thomas  Norton,  the  tragedy  of  "Gor- 
boduc,"  or  "Ferrex  and  Porrex"  (pub- 
lished in  1561),  remarkable  as  the  first 
example  in  English  of  regular  tragedy 
in  blank  verse.  The  "Mirror  of  Magis- 
trates," and  the  "Complaint  of  Henry, 
Duke  of  Buckingham,"  contain  fine  pas- 
sages. He  took  a  prominent  and  credi- 
table part  in  some  of  the  chief  events 
of  Elizabeth's  reign.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  court  which  tried  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots;  he  succeeded  Lord  Burleigh  as 
lord  high  treasurer;  and  presided  at  the 
trial  of  the  Earl  of  Essex.  From  1587- 
1588  he  suffered  imprisonment  at  the  in- 
stigation of  the  queen's  favorite  Leices- 
ter. In  1566  he  had  succeeded  to  his 
father's  ample  estate;  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  as  Baron  Buckhurst  shortly  af- 
terward; and  James  I.  created  him  Earl 
of  Dorset  in  1604.  He  died  in  London, 
April  19,  1608,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

SACKVILLE-WEST,  SIR  LIONEL 
SACKVILLE,  an  English  diplomatist; 
born  July  19,  1827;  was  British  minister 
to  the  United  States  in  1881-1888.  He 
received  his  passports  in  the  latter  year 
from  President  Cleveland  for  having  writ- 
ten a  letter  during  the  presidential  cam- 
paign in  which  he  advised  a  vote  for  the 
Democratic  ticket  as  conducing  to  British 
interests,  in  answer  to  a  correspondent 
who  represented  himself  to  be  a  natural- 
ized English  citizen  desiring  political 
advice.     He  died  Sept.  3,  1908. 


SACO 


169 


SACRAMENTARIANS 


SACO,  a  city  in  York  co.,  Me.;  on  the 
Saco  river,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
railroad;  4  miles  from  the  ocean;  and  14 
miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Portland.  It  is  con- 
nected with  Biddeford  on  the  W.  side  of 
the  river  by  bridges.  Here  are  York 
institute,  Thornton  Academy,  Dyer  Li- 
brary, Wardwell  Home  for  Old  Ladies, 
street  railroads,  electric  lights,  and  Na- 
tional and  savings  banks.  The  city 
has  manufactories  of  harness,  belting, 
brushes,  boots  and  shoes,  lumber,  cotton 
goods,  cotton  machinery,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
5,583;   (1920)  6,817. 

SACO,  a  river  in  the  United  States. 
It  rises  in  New  Hampshire,  in  the  White 
Mountains,  and  runs  S.  E.  into  the  At- 
lantic below  Saco,  Me.  It  is  160  miles 
long,  and  has  falls  of  72  feet  at  Hiram, 
of  42  feet  at  Saco,  and  numerous  minor 
ones. 

SACRAMENT,  the  military  oath  taken 
by  every  Roman  soldier,  pledging  him 
to  obey  his  commander  and  not  to  desert 
his  standard;  hence,  an  oath  or  ceremony 
involving  an  obligation. 

In  Protestant  theology  the  Church  of 
England  and  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  United  States  define  a  sac- 
rament as  "an  outward  and  visible  sign 
of  an  inward  and  spiritual  grace  given 
unto  us,  ordained  by  Christ  Himself,  as 
a  means  whereby  we  receive  the  same  and 
a  pledge  to  assure  us  thereof."  They 
recognize  two  only  as  generally  neces- 
sary to  salvation,  Baptism  and  the  Sup- 
per of  the  Lord.  Article  xxv.  says  that 
they  were  ordained  by  Christ  not  only 
to  be  badges  or  tokens  of  Christian  men's 
profession,  but  also,  or  rather,  to  be  sure 
signs  of  grace  and  God's  good  will  toward 
us,  by  which  He  strengthens  our  faith 
in  Him.  They  have  a  wholesome  effect 
or  operation  only  to  those  who  worthily 
receive  them;  unworthy  recipients  pur- 
chase to  themselves  damnation  (I  Cor. 
xi.  29.  The  Revised  Version  has  "judg- 
ment.") The  Westminster  Confession  of 
Faith  teaches  essentially  the  same  doc- 
trine. It  considers  sacraments  to  be 
"holy  signs  and  seals  of  the  covenant  of 
grace"  (ch.  xxvii.).  Other  Protestant 
formulas  are  substantially  the  same. 

In  Roman  theology,  a  visible  sign,  in- 
stituted by  Christ,  which  confers  ex  opere 
operato  (by  the  performance  of  the  act) 
sanctifying  grace  on  man.  Matter,  form 
and  a  minister  acting  with  the  intention 
of  doing  what  the  Church  does  are  neces- 
sary to  the  valid  administration  of  a  sac- 
rament. Besides  sanctifying  grace,  sacra- 
ments confer  sacramental  grace — that  is, 
they  aid  the  suscipient  in  a  special  man- 
ner to  attain  the  end  for  which  each 
sacrament  was  instituted.  The  Council 
of  Trent   (sess.  vii.,  can.  1)   defines  that 


the  Sacraments  of  the  New  Law  were 
instituted  by  our  Lord,  and  are  neither 
more  nor  fewer  than  seven  in  number: 
Baptism,  confirmation,  eucharist,  penance, 
extreme  unction,  holy  orders,  and  matri- 
mony. The  first  five  are  necessary  for 
all  Christians,  the  last  two  are  necessary 
only  for  the  community.  Baptism,  con- 
firmation, and  orders  imprint  a  character 
on  their  subject  and  cannot  be  repeated 
without  sacrilege.  The  term  sacraments 
of  the  old  law  has  been  adopted  to  signify 
circumcision,  the  paschal  lamb,  the  ordi- 
nation of  priests  and  Levites,  etc.,  of  the 
Mosaic  economy. 

SACRAMENTAL,  in  Roman  theology, 
a  name  given  to  rites  which  bear  some 
outward  resemblance  to  the  sacraments, 
but  which  are  not  of  divine  institution. 
They  are:  the  prayers  of  the  Church, 
especially  the  Lord's  prayer;  holy  water, 
blessed  ashes,  palms  and  candles,  blessed 
bread;  the  general  confession  in  the  mass 
and  office;  alms-giving,  and  the  blessing 
of  bishops  and  abbots.  The  prayers,  how- 
ever, must  be  offered  in  a  consecrated 
place,  and  the  alms  given  in  the  name  of 
the  Church.    See  Sacrament. 

SACRAMENTARIANS,  a  term  used 
in  several  senses.  (1)  Ordinarily  in 
England  it  means  one  who  holds  a  "high" 
or  extreme  doctrine  of  the  efficacy  of  the 
sacraments,  especially  of  the  Eucharist. 
(2)  Technically,  however,  the  word  is 
used  in  Church  history  in  an  almost  dia- 
metrically opposite  sense  for  persons 
holding  a  "low"  doctrine  on  the  subject 
of  the  sacraments — for  the  party  among 
the  Reformers  who  separated  from  Luther 
on  the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist.  Luther 
taught  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence 
of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  along 
with  the  bread  and  wine.  Carlstadt, 
Capito,  and  Bucer  were  the  leaders  of 
those  who  called  this  doctrine  in  question. 
This  sacramentarian  party  became  so 
considerable  that  in  the  diet  of  Augs- 
burg they  claimed  to  present  a  special 
confession  known  in  history  by  the  name 
of  the  Tetrapolitan  Confession — so  called 
from  the  four  cities,  Strasburg,  Con- 
stance, Lindau,  and  Memmingen.  The 
Tetrapolitan  Confession  rejects  the  doc- 
trine of  a  corporeal  presence,  and  though 
it  admits  a  spiritual  presence  of  Christ 
which  the  devout  soul  can  feel  and  en- 
joy, it  excludes  all  idea  of  a  physical 
presence  of  Christ's  body.  Simultaneously 
with  this  German  movement,  yet  inde- 
pendent of  it,  was  that  of  the  Swiss  re- 
former Zwingli,  whose  doctrine  on  the 
Eucharist  was  identical  with  that  of 
Carlstadt,  and  who  himself  presented  a 
private  confession  of  faith  to  the  Augs- 
burg diet  in  which  this  doctrine  is  em- 
bodied.     The   four    cities    named    above 


SACRAMENTO 


170 


SACRIFICE 


continued  for  many  years  to  adhere  to 
this  confession  presented  to  the  diet  of 
Augsburg  in  their  name;  but  eventually 
they  accepted  the  so-called  Confession  of 
Augsburg,  and  were  merged  in  the  gen- 
eral body  of  Lutherans.  On  the  contrary, 
the  article  of  Zwingli  upon  the  Eucharist 
was  in  substance  embodied  in  the  confes- 
sion of  the  Helvetic  Church. 

SACRAMENTO,  a  city,  capital  of  the 
State  of  California,  and  county-seat  of 
Sacramento  co. ;  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Sacramento  and  American  rivers,  at  the 
head  of  low  water  navigation,  96  miles 
N.  E.  of  San  Francisco.  It  is  built  on 
a  broad,  low  plain  and  has  strong  levees 
as  a  protection  against  floods.  It  has  a 
semi-tropical  climate,  and  vegetation  is 
most  luxuriant.  The  city  has  about  200 
manufacturing  establishments,  and  the 
combined  annual  output  exceeds  $75r000,- 
000  in  value.  There  is  a  large  variety  of 
industries,  the  most  important  including 
the  manufacture  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, carriages  and  wagons,  pottery, 
woolen  goods,  machinery,  furniture,  etc. 
Here  are  also  the  Southern  Pacific  rail- 
road shops  which  cover  25  acres  of  ground 
and  employ  about  4,000  men.  The  con- 
venient location  of  Sacramento  in  the 
center  of  a  rich  agricultural  region  gives 
it  a  large  trade  with  the  interior  of  the 
State.  There  are  a  number  of  National 
and  State  banks,  and  numerous  daily  and 
weekly  periodicals.  The  assessed  prop- 
erty valuation  is  nearly  $136,400,000. 

Public  Interests. — The  streets  are  well 
laid  out,  and  mostly  lighted  by  electricity. 
The  State  capitol,  which  stands  in  a  beau- 
tiful plaza  covering  30  acres,  was  fin- 
ished in  1869  at  a  cost  of  about  $2,500,000. 
Within  the  plaza  are  the  State  Printing 
office  and  the  Exposition  Building  of  the 
State  Agricultural  Society.  In  the  latter 
the  resources  of  the  State  are  annually 
exhibited.  There  are  over  1,000  acres  of 
]jarks,  and  98  miles  of  paved  streets.  The 
thirteen  banks  in  1920  had  deposits  of 
$66,000,000.  The  clearings  in  1919  were 
for  $300,000,000.  There  are  thirty-six 
school  buildings,  with  an  enrollment  of 
over  13,000  pupils.  The  other  noteworthy 
buildings  include  the  court  house,  United 
States  Government  building,  city  hall, 
Hall  of  Justice,  Agricultural  Pavilion, 
City  Library,  Crocker  Art  Gallery,  the 
California  State  bank,  Fort  Sutter  (re- 
built), the  Sacramento  Institute,  Chris- 
tian Brothers'  College,  California  State 
Library,  Mater  Misericordia  and  South- 
ern Pacific  Railroad  Hospitals,  Children's 
Day  Home,  and  many  charitable  homes. 

History. — Capt.  John  A.  Sutter  built  a 
fort  here  in  1839,  but  the  city  was  not 
settled  till  1848,  after  the  discovery  of 
gold.    The  first  house  was  built  in  1849. 


Sacramento  was  made  the  State  capital 
in  1854,  and  received  its  city  charter  in 
1863.  It  has  suffered  severely  twice  from 
fire  and  twice  from  inundation.  Pop. 
(1910)   44,696;   (1920)  65,908. 

SACRAMENTO,  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  in  California.  It  rises  in  Lassen 
co.,  flows  W.  then  S.  and  drains  the 
central  valley  of  California  from  the  N. 
Its  course  is  about  500  miles,  320  of  which 
are  navigable  for  small  vessels.  It  dis- 
charges its  waters  into  the  Suisun  Bay, 
on  the  line  between  Contra  Costa  ar>d 
Solono  counties. 

SACRED  HEART,  in  the  Roman 
Church,  the  physical  heart  of  Christ,  con- 
sidered, not  as  mere  flesh,  but  as  united 
to  the  divinity.  It  is  the  object  of  a 
special  devotion,  founded  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  17th  century  by  a  French 
nun  of  the  Order  of  the  Visitation,  Sister 
Margaret  Mary  Alacoque  (beatified  in 
1864),  and  first  preached  in  England  by 
Father  de  la  Colombiere,  S.  J.,  chaplain 
to  Mary  of  Modena,  queen  of  James  II. 
The  feast  of  the  Sacred  Heart  is  cele- 
brated on  the  Friday  (in  England  on  the 
Sunday)  after  the  octave  of  Corpus 
Christi. 

SACRED  HEART,  LEAGUE  OF  THE, 
or  Apostleship  of  Prayer  in  League  With 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  a  confraternity 
of  the  Catholic  faithful,  founded  at  Vals, 
in  France,  1844,  by  Father  Gautrelet, 
S.  J.,  with  the  intention  of  promoting  an 
apostolic  spirit  among  the  young  Jesuit 
students  located  there.  The  association, 
with  its  motto  "Thy  Kingdom  Come," 
attracted  the  pious  and  soon  spread 
throughout  the  Catholic  world.  Father 
Ramiere,  S.  J.,  added  to  the  progress  of 
the  confraternity  by  the  establishment  of 
the  "Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus,"  which  became,  in  various  lan- 
guages, the  monthly  organ.  Names  of 
members  are  kept  on  record  and  number 
over  25,000,000  while  local  centers  are 
around  63,000.  There  are  over  5,000,000 
members  in  the  United  States. 

SACRED  WAR,  a  war  about  sacred 
places  or  about  religion.  Four  sacred 
wars  were  waged  in  Greece  (595-338 
B.  c.)  chiefly  for  the  defense  of  the  temple 
of  Delphi  and  the  sacred  territory  sur- 
rounding it.  A  Mohammedan  war  for 
the  faith  is  called  a  Jihad.  The  Cru- 
sades and  the  wars  of  the  Reformation 
were  sacred  wars.  The  quarrel  which  led 
to  the  Crimean  War  was  at  first  a  dis- 
pute between  Russia  and  France  about 
sacred  spots  at  Jerusalem. 

SACRIFICE,  the  offering  of  anything 
to  God  or  to  any  deity.  Also  that  which 
is    sacrificed,    offered,    or    consecrated    to 


SACRIFICE 


171 


SADDUCEES 


God  or  to  any  deity  or  divinity;  an  im- 
molated victim,  or  an  offering  of  any 
kind,  laid  on  an  altar  or  otherwise  re- 
ligiously presented  by  way  of  thanks- 
giving,   atonement,   or   conciliation. 

Sacrifices  form  an  important  part  of 
all  early  forms  of  religion.  Tylor  traces 
three  stages  in  the  development  of  the 
rite:  (1)  The  gift  theory,  in  which  the 
deity  takes  and  values  the  offering  for 
himself.  (2)  The  homage  theory,  in 
which  the  submission  or  gratitude  of  the 
offerer  is  expressed  by  a  gift.  (3)  The 
abnegation  theory,  in  which  the  worshiper 
deprives  himself  of  something  prized. 
With  regard  to  their  nature,  sacrifices 
are  divided  into  (1)  Bloody  [(a)  human; 
(6)  of  the  lower  animals],  and  (2)  Un- 
bloody. The  terrible  custom  of  offering 
human  sacrifices  was  very  widely  spread. 
It  was  known  among  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans;  and  is  frequently  mentioned  in 
Scripture. 

As  civilization  advanced,  human  victims 
were  replaced  by  symbols,  or  oxen  or 
sheep  were  offered  in  their  stead.  Un- 
bloody sacrifices  consisted  of  libations, 
incense,  fruit,  and  cakes  (often  in  the 
form  of,  and  as  substitutes  for,  real  ani- 
mals). It  is  noteworthy  that  though  the 
first  sacrifice  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (Gen.  iv.  3)  belonged  to  this  cate- 
gory, the  first  sacrifice  accepted  (Gen. 
iv.  4)  was  a  bloody  one. 

In  the  Old  Testament  sacrifices  were 
of  two  kinds,  bloody  and  unbloody.  Those 
designed  to  atone  for  sin  were  of  the 
former  kind  (Lev.  i.  7;  Heb.  ix.  22). 
The  idea  of  sacrifice  first  appears  in  Gen. 
iv.  3-5,  and  viii.  20,  but  the  English  word 
sacrifice  does  not  occur  in  the  Authorized 
Version  till  xxxi.  54.  The  paschal  lamb 
is  called  a  sacrifice  (Exod.  xxxiv.  25; 
Deut.  xvi.  2).  Even  from  patriarchal 
times  sacrifices  were  limited  to  clean 
beasts  and  birds,  and  were  offered  on  an 
altar  (Gen.  viii.  20).  Many  of  these 
sacrifices  were  made  by  fire.  A  certain 
portion  of  the  slain  animal  was  reserved 
for  the  priest  (Deut.  xviii.  3).  Under 
the  law  there  were  morning  and  even- 
ing sacrifices  (I  Kings  xviii.  29;  Ezra 
ix.  4,  5,  Dan.  viii.  11,  12,  13;  xii.  11), 
besides  weekly  sacrifices  on  the  Sabbath, 
sacrifices  at  new  moons,  annual  ones,  etc. 
Not  merely  were  there  stated  sacrifices 
for  the  people  at  large,  arrangements 
were  at  times  made  that  private  families 
also  should  possess  the  boon  (I  Sam.  xx. 
6,  29).  Under  the  monarchy  sacrifices 
were  confined  to  the  temple  at  Jerusalem 
(II  Chron.  vii.  12).  Thanksgiving  was 
called  a  sacrifice  (Lev.  vii.  12,  13;  Psalm 
cvii.  22;  cxvi.  17;  Jonah  ii.  9),  so  was 
praise    (Jer.  xxxiii.  11). 

In  the  New  Testament,  Abel's  offering 
is  now  called  a  sacrifice,  and  its  excel- 


lence is  made  to  arise  from  the  faith 
with  which  it  was  offered  (Heb.  xi.  4). 
In  theology,  the  evangelical  doctrine  is 
that  the  sacrifices  of  the  older  economy 
were  types  and  shadows  of  the  atoning 
sacrifice  made  by  Christ.  It  is  held  that 
when  Jesus  died,  His  sacrifice  once  for 
all  satisfied  Divine  justice,  and  no  other 
was  requisite,  or  would,  if  offered,  be 
accepted  (Heb.  ix.  12,  25-28,  x.  10,  12, 
14). 

SACRILEGE,  in  a  general  sense,  the 
violation  or  profaning  of  sacred  things; 
more  strictly  the  alienating  to  laymen, 
or  common  purposes,  what  was  given  to 
religious  persons  and  pious  uses.  Church 
robbery,  or  the  taking  things  out  of  a 
holy  place  is  sacrilege,  and  by  the  com- 
mon law  was  punished  with  more  severity 
than  other  thefts,  but  it  is  now  put  by 
statute  on  the  same  footing  with  burg- 
lary or  housebreaking. 

SACRISTAN,  the  same  as  sexton, 
which  is  a  corrupted  form  of  the  same 
word;  an  officer  in  a  church  whose  duty 
it  is  to  take  care  of  the  church,  the  sacred 
vestments,  utensils,  etc. 

SACRISTY,  the  apartment  in  or  con- 
nected with  a  church  intended  for  the 
keeping  of  the  sacred  vestments  and  uten- 
sils while  not  in  use,  and  in  which  also 
the  clergy  and  others  who  take  part  in 
religious  ceremonies  array  themselves  for 
service. 

SACRUM,  in  anatomy,  the  bony  struc- 
ture which  forms  the  basis  or  inferior 
extremity  of  the  vertebral  column. 

SADDLE,  a  kind  of  seat  for  a  horse's 
back,  contrived  for  the  safety  and  com- 
fort of  the<  rider.  The  modern  riding 
saddle  consists  of  the  tree,  generally  of 
beech,  the  seat,  the  skirts,  and  the  flaps, 
of  tanned  pig's-skin.  Among  the  varie- 
ties are  racing  saddles,  military  saddles, 
hunting  saddles,  and  side  saddles  for 
ladies.  The  name  saddle  is  also  given 
to  a  part  of  the  harness  of  an  animal 
yoked  to  a  vehicle,  being  generally  a 
padded  structure  by  means  of  which  the 
shafts  are  directly  or  indirectly  supported. 

SADDLEBACK,  a  mountain  in  Cum- 
berland, England,  5  miles  N.  E.  of  Kes- 
wick; height,  2,847  feet. 

SADDLEBACK  MOUNTAIN,  a  moun- 
tain in  Franklin  co.,  Me.;  reaches  a 
height  of  4,000  feet. 

SADDUCEES,  one  of  the  three  Jewish 
sects.  The  current  tradition,  which  was 
first  published  by  Rabbi  Nathan  in  the 
2d  century,  is  that  the  Sadducees  derived 
their  name  from  a  certain  Zadok,  a  dis- 
ciple of  Antigonus  of  Soko  (200-170  B.  a). 
The  Zadok  from  whom  they  derive  their 


SADDUCEES 


172 


SAFE 


name  was  the  priest  who  declared  in 
favor  of  Solomon  when  the  High  Priest 
Abiathar  adhered  to  Adonijah  (I  Kings  i. 
32-45).  His  descendants  had  a  subse- 
quent pre-eminence  (Ezek.  xl.  46,  xliii. 
19,  xliv.  15,  xlviii.  11).  Not  that  the 
Sadducees  became  a  party  so  early,  or 
that  Zadok  was  their  founder;  but  that 
some  of  them  may  have  been  his  descen- 
dants, and  all  admired  his  fidelity  to  the 
theocratic  government,  even  when  the 
head  of  the  priesthood  had  gone  astray. 
It  was  their  desire  to  be  equally  faithful. 
All  the  Jews  admitted  that  the  Mosaic 
law  was  given  at  Sinai  by  Jehovah  Him- 
self. Most  of  the  people,  with  the  con- 
currence and  support  of  the  Pharisees, 
believed  that  an  oral  law  of  Moses  had 
similarly  come  from  God.  The  Sadducees 
rejected  this  view,  and  would  accept 
nothing  beyond  the  written  word.  They 
were  the  Protestants  of  the  older  economy. 
Certain  consequences  followed.  In  the 
Mosaic  law  there  is  no  reference  to  a 
state  of  rewards  and  punishments  in  a 
future  world.  When  Jesus  proves  the 
resurrection  from  the  Pentateuch,  He 
does  so  by  an  inference,  there  being  no 
direct  passage  which  He  can  quote  (Matt, 
xxii.  31,  32).  The  Sadducees  therefore 
denied  the  resurrection  from  the  dead 
(verse  23).  The  doctrine  of  a  future 
world  is  taught  in  some  passages  of  the 
Old  Testament,  especially  in  Dan.  xii.  2, 
3,  etc.,  which  should  have  modified  their 
belief.  That  it  did  not  do  so  can  be  ex- 
plained only  by  supposing  that  they  at- 
tributed a  higher  inspiration  to  the  Mo- 
saic law  than  to  other  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Epiphanius  (Hoeres.,  xiv.) 
and  some  other  of  the  fathers  assert  that 
the  Sadducees  rejected  all  the  Old  Testa- 
ment but  the  Pentateuch.  Probably,  how- 
ever, these  writers  confounded  the  Sad- 
ducees with  the  Samaritans.  In  Acts 
xxiii.  8,  it  is  stated  that  they  say  that 
"there  is  neither  angel  nor  spirit."  How 
they  could  ignore  all  the  angelic  ap- 
pearances in  the  Pentateuch  (Gen.  xvi. 
7,  11,  xix.  1,  etc.)  is  hard  to  understand. 
Perhaps  they  may  have  believed  that, 
though  angelic  appearances  once  took 
place,  they  had  now  ceased.  It  is  sur- 
prising that  a  sect  with  these  views 
should,  at  least  at  one  time,  have  almost 
monopolized  the  highest  places  in  the 
priesthood;  yet  such  was  the  case,  at 
least  temporarily  (Acts  iv.  1-6).  But, 
with  all  their  sacred  office  and  worldly 
rank,  they  could  have  had  no  hold  on  the 
common  people.  It  is  probable  that,  when 
Christianity  spread — even  among  its  Jew- 
ish opponents — a  belief  in  the  resurrec- 
tion, the  Sadducees  must  have  still  further 
lost  ground;  but  they  ultimately  revived, 
and  still  exist,  under  the  name  of  Kara- 
ites   (q.  v.). 


SADI,  or  SAADI,  the  most  celebrated 
didactic  poet  of  Persia;  born  in  Shiraz, 
Persia,  about  the  end  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury. In  his  youth  he  visited  Hindustan, 
Syria,  Palestine,  Abyssinia,  and  made 
several  pilgrimages  to  Mecca  and  Me- 
dina. While  in  Syria  he  was  taken  by 
the  Crusaders,  and  forced  to  labor  on 
the  fortifications  of  Tripoli.  After  about 
50  years  of  wandering  he  returned  to  his 
native  city.  The  best  of  his  works  are: 
"Gulistan"  (Garden  of  Roses),  a  moral 
work,  comprising  stories,  anecdotes,  and 
observations  and  reflections  in  prose  and 
verse;  and  "Bostan"  (the  Orchard),  of 
much  the  same  character.  He  died  about 
the  end  of  the  13th  century. 

SADOWA.     See  Koniggratz. 

SAENZ,  PENA  ROQTJE,  an  Argentine 
statesman,  born  at  Buenos  Ayres,  in  1851. 
He  studied  law  in  the  University  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  in  1876  was  elected 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  becoming  in 
the  course  of  a  year  president  of  the 
Chamber.  When  the  war  with  Peru 
broke  out  in  1879  he  joined  the  army  and 
was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner.  Re- 
turning to  his  native  city  in  1881  he 
became  Under-Secretary  for  Foreign 
Affairs.  Meanwhile  he  had  entered  jour- 
nalism and  founded  the  review  "Sud 
America."  He  became  minister  to  Ura- 
guay  and  served  as  ambassador  to  Spain 
in  1906,  and  to  Italy  1907-10.  In  1910 
he  was  elected  president  of  the  republic 
and  as  such  promoted  the  A.  B.  C.  (Ar- 
gentine, Brazil,  Chile)  entente.  He  died 
in  1914. 

SAFE,  a  receptacle  for  valuables,  of 
iron  or  steel,  or  both  combined.  A  safe 
to  answer  all  requirements  should  be  fire, 
explosive,  acid,  drill,  and  wedge  proof.  A 
fireproof  safe  need  only  be  so  constructed 
that,  though  exposed  to  the  intense  heat 
of  a  conflagration,  its  inner  recesses  re- 
main at  a  sufficiently  low  temperature  to 
prevent  combustion  of  the  contents.  A 
burglar-proof  safe  needs  many  other  safe- 
guards, and  the  history  of  safe-making 
is  mainly  a  record  of  struggles  between 
the  safe  manufacturer  and  the  burglar; 
the  result  is  that  safes  can  now  be  ob- 
tained which  are  all  but  impregnable. 
The  safe  consists  of  an  outer  _  and  an 
inner  wall,  the  space  between  being  filled 
with  some  fire-proof  material  such  as 
asbestos,  silicate  cotton,  gypsum,  etc.  The 
outside  casting,  which  may  be  single  or 
compound,  naturally  receives  the  greatest 
attention,  and  various  are  the  devices  of 
manufacturers  to  render  it  sufficiently 
hard  and  solid  to  resist  the  finely  tem- 
pered drills  of  the  burglar.  To  prevent 
wrenching,  the  door  is  secured _  by  bolts 
moving  straight  or  diagonally  into  slots 


SArED 


173 


SAFETY  LAMP 


on  one  or  on  all  sides.  These  bolts  are 
moved  by  the  door  handle,  and  the  lock 
key  fixes  them  in  their  positions. 

The  first  great  improvements  in  locks, 
as  applied  to  safes,  ai*e  due  to  Chubb  of 
London;  but  numerous  patents,  mostly  of 
American  origin,  have  been  introduced. 
Of  these  the  keyless  permutation  locks 
deserve  particular  mention,  as  they  ob- 
viate the  danger  which  arises  from  lost 
or  false  keys.  Such  locks  allow  of  open- 
ing only  after  an  indicator  has  been 
moved  in  accordance  with  a  certain  com- 
bination of  numbers  arranged  before  clos- 
ing the  safe.  Some  safe  locks  are  so 
constructed  that  to  be  freed  they  require 
different  keys  on  different  days,  some  can 
only  be  opened  at  a  certain  hour,  this 
being  fixed  on  before  the  door  is  closed; 
while  others  again  require  two  or  more 
keys  in  charge  of  different  persons;  in 
fact,  the  arrangements  contrived  to 
render  the  plundering  of  safes  next  to 
impossible  are  too  numerous  even  to  men- 
tion. The  connection  of  safes  with  elec- 
tric alarms  in  a  variety  of  ways  forms 
another  safeguard. 

SAFED,  one  of  the  four  holy  cities  of 
the  modern  Jews  in  Palestine;  in  horse- 
shoe shape  round  a  hill  2,700  feet  above 
the  Mediterranean;  6  miles  N.  W.  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee.  Here  dwell  about  15,000 
Jews,  Moslems,  and  Christians.  The  town 
was  overthrown  by  earthquakes  in  1759 
and  1837.  A  castle  of  the  Christians, 
built  during  the  Crusades,  was  destroyed 
by  the  Sultan  of  Damascus  in  1220,  and, 
having  been  rebuilt  by  the  Templars,  was 


various  safety  devices,  and  secondly  to 
educate  the  workers  and  the  public  to  a 
realization  of  the  need  for  greater  care 
and  thoughtfulness  in  a  world  in  which 
the  use  of  mechanical  devices  is  continu- 
ally on  the  increase.  Contrary  to  gen- 
eral belief  the  education  of  the  worker 
is  found  to  be  far  more  important  than 
the  use  of  mechanical  safety  devices.  In 
a  report  made  by  the  Industrial  Commis- 
sion of  Wisconsin  the  statement  is  made: 
"We  must  conclude  that  the  great  ma- 
jority of  accidents  are  not  preventible 
by  guards.  ...  If  every  danger-point 
on  every  machine  were  perfectly  guarded, 
making  accidents  upon  them  impossible, 
then  we  would  have  eliminated  just  about 
one-fourth  of  all  accidents."  In  other 
words,  carelessness  is  the  chief  cause  of 
accidents. 

Mechanical  safety  devices  are  constant- 
ly being  introduced  and  are,  already, 
countless  in  number.  They  vary  from 
simple  metal  guards  placed  around  mov- 
ing machinery  to  automatic  devices  which 
prevent,  for  instance,  the  moving  of  an 
elevator  until  its  doors  have  been  closed; 
and  from  simple  gates  across  a  level 
crossing  to  elaborate  automatic  signaling 
devices.  Safety  engineering  also  concerns 
itself  with  the  prevention  and  extinguish- 
ing of  fires,  the  provision  of  fire  escapes, 
installation  of  safety-valves  on  boilers, 
adequate  timbering  and  roofing  of  mines 
and  tunnels,  and  with  many  other  mat- 
ters far  too  numerous  to  mention. 

SAFETY  LAMP.  It  has  been  long 
known  that  when  methane,  marsh  gas,  or 


again  taken  and  destroyedby  Beybars  of    light  carbureted  hydrogen,  which  is  fre 


Egypt  in  1266.  The  Jewish  colony  has 
been  settled  here  since  the  16th  century, 
and  embraces  many  immigrants  from 
Poland. 

SAFED  KOH  (White  Mountains),  a 
mountain  range  in  Afghanistan.  The  W. 
portion  of  the  chain  separates  the  Herat 
river  valley  from  the  Murghab,  while 
the  E.  Safed  Koh  forms  the  S.  boundary 
of  the  Kabul  basin.  These  mountains 
are  quite  alpine  in  their  character,  and 
some  of  the  peaks  exceed  15,000  feet  in 
height.  Among  the  spurs  of  the  E.  sec- 
tion are  the  passes  leading  from  Kabul 
to  Jalalabad,  and  from  Jalalabad  to 
Peshawur  famous  in  the  annals  of  British 
military  expeditions  into  Afghanistan. 

SAFETY  ENGINEERING,  the  name 
given  to  the  study  of  methods  and  ap- 
pliances for  the  prevention  of  accidents 
in  industry.     Of  recent  years  the  matter 

has  received  much  attention  and  has  pro-  cooling,  and  its  transmission  rendered  im'- 
duced  a  nation-wide  "Safety  first"  cam-  possible.  In  this  experiment  high  con- 
paign.  Its  purpose  is  to  reduce  injury  ducting  power  and  diminished  diameter 
and  loss  of  life  caused  by  preventible  compensate  for  diminution  in  length;  and 
accidents  and  it  seeks  first  to  introduce     to  such  an  extent  may  this  shortening  of 

L— Cyc  Vol  8 


quently  disengaged  in  large  quantities 
from  coal  seams,  is  mixed  with  10  times 
its  volume  of  atmospheric  air,  it  becomes 
highly  explosive.  Moreover,  this  gas — 
the  fire  damp  of  miners — in  exploding  ren- 
ders 10  times  its  bulk  of  atmospheric  air 
unfit  for  respiration,  and  the  choke  damp 
thus  produced  is  often  as  fatal  to  miners 
as  the  primary  explosion.  With  the  view 
of  discovering  some  means  of  preventing 
these  dangerous  results,  Davy  instituted 
those  important  observations  on  flame 
which  led  him  to  the  invention  of  the 
safety  lamp.  He  found  that  when  two 
vessels  filled  with  a  gaseous  explosive  mix- 
ture are  connected  by  a  narrow  tube,  and 
the  contents  of  one  fired,  the  flame  is 
not  communicated  to  the  other,  provided 
the  diameter  of  the  tube,  its  length,  and 
the  conducting  power  for  heat  of  its  ma- 
terial bear  certain  proportions  to  each 
other;   the   flame  being   extinguished   by 


SAFETY  AT  SEA 


174 


SAFETY  AT  SEA 


length  be  carried  that  metallic  gauze, 
which  may  be  looked  on  as  a  series  of 
very  short  square  tubes  arranged  side 
by  side,  completely  arrests  the  passage 
of  flame  in  explosive  mixtures. 

The  first  lamp  which  would  safely  burn 
in  an  explosive  mixture  of  gas  and  air 
was  contrived  in  1813  by  Dr.  W.  Reid 
Clanny  of  Sunderland.     Into  this  lamp 


DAVY   SAFETY  LAMP 

fresh  air  was  blown  through  water,  and 
heated  air  escaped  through  water  by 
means  of  a  recurved  tube.  Such  a  lamp 
was  unfit  for  ordinary  use.  George  Ste- 
phenson invented  a  safety  lamp  which 
was  tried  at  the  Killingworth  pits  in 
1815.  Both  Clanny  and  Stephenson  ap- 
plied wire  gauze  cylinders  to  their  lamps 
after  Davy's  came  into  use,  or  at  least 
after  a  communication  about  it  had  been 
made  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1815.  Por- 
table electric  lamps  are  now  in  general 
favor,  but  they  give  no  warning  of  gas, 
and  in  mines  much  affected  by  gases  the 
oil-safety  lamp  is  in  use. 

SAFETY  AT  SEA.  The  principal 
dangers  to  life  at  sea  are  connected  with 
stranding,  foundering,  collision  and  fire. 
These  dangers  are  being  reduced  year 
by  year  through  improvements  in  the 
design,   construction   and    equipment    of 


ships  and  through  inventions  and  im- 
provements in  the  conditions  of  naviga- 
tion, many  of  which  are  revolutionary  in 
their  nature.  Radio  telegraphy  is  finding 
what  is  perhaps  its  most  beneficent  ap- 
plication, in  communication  at  sea,  where 
a  ship  in  distress  can  now  give  notice  of 
its  danger  to  other  ships  and  to  shore 
stations  hundreds  of  miles  away;  and  a 
very  recent  development  makes  it  pos- 
sible for  a  ship  hastening  to  her  assis- 
tance, to  locate  her  not  only  by  reports 
of  her  latitude  and  longitude  but  by  the 
direction  from  which  her  signals  are  com- 
ing. The  same  invention  which  makes 
this  possible, — the  "Radio-direction  Find- 
er"— makes  it  possible  also  for  shore  sta- 
tions to  guide  a  ship  at  sea  and  in  a  fog 
as  accurately  toward  the  entrance  of  the 
harbor  she  is  seeking  as  if  the  lights  and 
buoys  of  the  entrance  were  plainly  visible. 
A  similar  device  for  determining  accu- 
rately the  direction  of  sound,  makes  it 
possible  for  ships  in  a  fog  to  locate  and 
avoid  each  other,  thus  enormously  re- 
ducing what  is  perhaps  the  most  serious 
of  all  dangers  at  sea,  collision  in  a  fog. 
It  is  even  proposed  today  to  lay  a  wire 
along  the  bottom  of  a  channel  and,  by 
sending  through  it  a  current  of  electricity, 
to  enable  a  ship  to  follow  the  channel 
perfectly,  no  matter  how  tortuous  it  may 
be;  and  this  in  the  thickest  fog  and  with 
the   helmsman   blindfolded. 

The  service  of  weather  observation  and 
report  is  improving  steadily  and  both  its 
sources  of  information  and  the  area  cov- 
ered by  its  warnings  are  being  greatly 
extended.  Dangerous  storms  are  located 
almost  at  their  origin  and  tracked  not 
only  day  by  day  but  hour  by  hour,  notices 
being  sent  broadcast  through  the  air  pre- 
dicting their  future  movements  with  such 
accuracy  that  they  are  easily  avoided  by 
ships  which  can  afford  the  time  to  give 
them  a  wide  berth.  The  latest  plan  of  the 
United  States  weather  service  is  to  main- 
tain a  number  of  small  vessels  during  the 
hurricane  season,  in  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
where  most  of  the  Atlantic  tropical  storms 
have  their  origin,  to  study  these  storms 
by  actually  seeking  them  and  accompany- 
ing them  on  their  course. 

In  spite  of  all  that  has  been  done  and 
all  that  can  be  done  to  reduce  the  dan- 
gers of  the  sea,  disasters  still  occur  and 
will  continue  to  occur;  and  the-  problem 
of  minimizing  their  effects  is  receiving 
more  attention  than  was  ever  devoted  to 
it  in  days  when  the  dangers  were  far 
greater  than  at  present  and  disasters  far 
more  frequent. 

The  details  of  construction  of  ships 
and  especially  of  ships  carrying  passen- 
gers, are  prescribed  by  laws  enforced 
by  careful  inspection  which  begins  with 
the  building  of  the  ship  and  follows  it 


SAFETY  AT  SEA 


175 


SAFETY  AT  SEA 


throughout  its  whole  career.  The  ship 
having  been  completed  in  accordance  with 
requirements,  the  law  looks  next  to  the 
officers  and  crew  and  to  the  equipment 
of  life-boats  and  other  safety  appliances. 
Rules  cover  the  nature  and  stowage  of  the 
cargo  and  the  depth  to  which  the  ship 
may  be  loaded.  A  limit  is  set  to  the  num- 
ber of  passengers  that  may  be  carried, 
and  these  must  never  exceed  those  for 
whom  accommodation  is  provided  in  life- 
boats and  life-rafts  of  approved  type. 
Rules  for  the  avoidance  of  collision  have 
been  drawn  up  through  international 
agreement,  covering  as  fully  as  possible 
every  situation  that  can  arise  when  ves- 
sels are  meeting  or  crossing  each  other's 
courses. 

Among  the  most  important  features 
involved  in  the  prescribed  designs  of  ships, 
is  the  requirement  for  a  thorough  sub- 
division of  the  ship  into  water-tight  com- 
partments of  such  size  that  the  flooding  of 
one  or  even  two  of  these  compartments 
through  collision  or  stranding  will  leave 
the  ship  with  sufficient  buoyancy  to  re- 
main afloat.  Where  communication  is 
necessary  between  adjoining  compart- 
ments, water-tight  doors  must  be  fitted 
with  arrangements  for  closing  quickly, 
and  in  certain  cases,  automatically. 
Other  requirements  as  to  the  ship  itself 
have  to  do  with  boilers  and  machinery, 
with  steering  gear,  with  pumps  and  fire- 
fighting  apparatus.  The  rules  governing 
life-boats  are  especially  strict  and  include 
methods  of  stowing  and  launching, — fea- 
tures which  were  too  often  neglected 
until  made  the  subject  of  special  rules 
in  recent  years. 

The  laws  which  have  been  mentioned 
as  covering  the  construction  of  ships  have 
reduced  to  a  minimum  the  chances  of 
foundering  in  the  open  sea.  Disasters  of 
this  nature,  formerly  among  the  most 
common  of  disasters  at  sea,  are  now  ex- 
tremely rare  and  should  be  practically 
unknown  except  when  a  small  ship  is 
contending  with  a  hurricane  of  great 
violence.  A  vessel  of  size  sufficient  to  be 
rated  as  a  passenger  carrier,  constructed 
in  accordance  with  present-day  laws,  with 
water-tight  compartments  that  are  in  fact 
water-tight,  with  cargo  properly  limited 
and  properly  stowed,  and  handled  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  dictates  of  sound  sea- 
manship, should  be  able  to  ride  out  any 
gale  so  long  as  she  has  plenty  of  sea- 
room.  It  is  near  the  shore  that  gales 
and  fog  are  most  to  be  feared;  for  there 
conditions  may  prevent  the  manceuvers 
that  would  insure  safety. 

Danger  from  fire,  once  the  most  dreaded 
of  all  sea  dangers,  has  been  robbed  of 
most  of  its  terrors  by  the  substitution 
of  steel  for  wood  in  the  interior  fittings 
of  steamers  as  well  as  in  construction  of 


the  hulls;  and  it  is  only  when  a  cargo  of 
explosives  or  inflammable  material  is 
carried  that  the  danger  from  this  source 
becomes  great.  Here,  again,  modern  law 
steps  in  to  protect  passengers,  by  limiting 
the  conditions  under  which  inflammable 
cargo,  and  especially  explosives,  may  be 
carried.  As  a  rule,  they  are  not  per- 
mitted at  all  on  ships  designed  primarily 
for  passenger  traffic. 

No  degree  of  perfection  in  the  equip- 
ment of  a  ship  can  insure  the  safety  of 
the  ship  or  the  passengers  and  crew 
unless  the  use  of  the  equipment  is  thor- 
oughly understood.  On  a  well-ordered 
ship,  drills  are  frequent,  especially  in 
fighting  fire  and  handling  boats,  and 
these  drills  are  doubly  useful  if  they  in- 
clude participation, — necessarily  super- 
ficial,— by  the  passengers.  Every  pas- 
senger should  understand  the  significance 
of  danger  signals  and  what  his  part  is 
to  be  in  co-operation  with  the  officers  and 
crew.  Every  passenger  should  be  fur- 
nished a  list  of  all  signals  which  concern 
him,  together  with  information  as  to  the 
location  and  fitting  of  life-belts,  and,  most 
important  of  all,  the  number  and  location 
of  the  life-boat  to  which  he  is  assigned. 
A  preliminary  drill  at  lowering  boats 
should  always  be  held  before  leaving  port 
and  the  boats  inspected  as  to  their  fittings 
and  equipment;  and  as  soon  as  convenient 
after  leaving  port,  a  drill  at  "Stations 
for  Emergency"  should  be  held,  and  each 
passenger  required  to  go  to  the  life-boat 
which  he  is  to  enter  in  case  it  becomes 
necessary  to  abandon  the  ship. 

In  addition  to  the  normal  equipment  of 
the  boats,  each  one  should  be  provided 
with  provisions  and  water  sufficient  for 
all  occupants  for  at  least  a  week.  Other 
important  items  to  be  insisted  upon  are: 
compass,  lead-line,  lantern,  rockets  and 
other  fire-works  for  signaling,  buckets 
for  bailing  and  other  necessary  purposes, 
mast  and  sails  (may  be  useful  for  "sea- 
anchor"),  navigational  books  and  instru- 
ments. 

Information  should  be  given  to  all 
boats,  of  the  course  and  distance  to  the 
nearest   land   or   steamship   lane. 

Boats  should  be  instructed  to  keep  to- 
gether if  possible  under  authority  of  the 
senior  officer  of  the  group. 

The  rules  regulating  all  of  the  matters 
that  have  been  described  are  for  United 
States  vessels  established  by  Congress  and 
by  regulations  of  the  "Steam  Boat  In- 
spection Service"  of  the  Department  of 
Commerce,  and  are  published  in  a  pam- 
phlet entitled  "General  Rules  and  Reg- 
ulations prescribed  by  the  Board  of 
Supervising  Inspectors." 

For  many  years  before  the  matter  of 
safety  at  sea  was  taken  up  seriously  by 
various  maritime  governments,  many  of 


SAFETY  VALVE 


176 


SAGA 


the  questions  involved  were  efficiently 
controlled  by  private  companies  interested 
in  marine  insurance.  These  companies 
based  their  rates  for  insurance  upon  re- 
quirements of  their  own  making  which 
covered  primarily  matters  involved  in  the 
safety  of  the  ship  and  cargo,  but  which 
at  the  same  time  covered,  necessarily, 
safety  of  life,  though  omitting  many  de- 
tails now  covered  by  laws  which  make 
safety  of  life  their  first  concern.  The 
principal  companies  of  this  kind  are  the 
following:  The  Bureau  Veritas,  French 
(1828)  ;  Lloyd's  Register,  British  (1834)  ; 
The  German  Lloyd,  German  (1867) ;  and 
The  American  Bureau  of  Shipping 
(1867).  These  companies  will  doubtless 
continue  their  existence  and  activities, 
which  are  purely  commercial,  not  humani- 
tarian, although  their  work  is  to  a  great 
extent  duplicated  by  the  governmental 
agencies  above  described. 

SAFETY  VALVE,  a  valve  which  au- 
tomatically opens  to  permit  steam  to 
escape  or  air  to  enter  the  boiler  in  order 
to  prevent  its  explosion  or  collapse.  Of 
these  there  are  two  kinds,  the  one  in- 
ternal, opening  to  the  inner  side  when 
the  pressure  of  steam  is  less  than  a  given 
weight;  the  other  opening  to  the  outside 
when  the  pressure  of  steam  exceeds  a 
given  weight. 

SAFFI,  or  ASFI,  a  seaport  of  Moroc- 
co, on  a  bay  on  the  Mediterranean  coast, 
102  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  the  city  of  Mo- 
rocco. It  is  a  compactly  built  place, 
dominated  by  a  fine  ruined  castle  of  the 
Sultans  of  Morocco  dating  from  the  16th 
century.  The  place  was  held  by  the  Portu- 
guese for  several  years;  they  abandoned 
it  in  1648.  The  fortifications  they  built 
still  stand  in  part.  The  shrine  of  the 
Seven  Sleepers  here  is  visited  by  both 
Moslems  and  Jews.  Saffi  was  at  one  time 
the  chief  seat  of  the  trade  of  Morocco 
with  Europe,  and,  though  it  has  declined 
since  the  rise  of  Mogador,  it  still  exports 
beans,  maize,  peas,  wool,  olive  oil,  and 
imports  cottons,  sugar,  etc. 

SAFFLOWEB,  or  BASTARD  SAF- 
FRON (Carthamus  tinctorius),  a  large 
thistle  -  like  plant  with  orange  -  colored 
flowers,  natural  order  Composite.  It  is 
cultivated  in  China,  India,  Egypt,  and  in 
the  S.  of  Europe.  An  oil  is  expressed 
from  the  seeds,  which  is  used  as  a  lamp 
oil.  The  dried  flowers  afford  two  color- 
ing matters  (also  called  saffiower),  a 
yellow  and  a  red,  the  latter  (carthamine) 
being  that  for  which  they  are  most  val- 
ued. They  are  chiefly  used  for  dyeing 
silk,  affording  various  shades  of  pink, 
rose,  crimson,  and  scarlet.  Mixed  with 
finely-powdered  talc,  saffiower  forms  a 
common  variety  of  rouge.    In  some  places 


it  is  used  in  lieu  of  the  more  expensive 
saffron,  and  for  adulterating  the  latter. 
The  oil,  in  large  doses,  acts  as  a  purga- 
tive. 

SAFFORD,  WILLIAM  EDWIN,  an 
American  botanist,  born  at  Chillicothe, 
Ohio,  in  1859.  He  graduated  from  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1880 
and  took  post-graduate  studies  at  Yale 
and  Harvard.  From  1880  to  1902  he  was 
engaged  in  collecting  for  the  United 
States  National  Museum  in  the  depart- 
ments of  ethnology  and  ethnobotany. 
From  1902  to  1915  he  was  assistant  bot- 
anist, and  from  the  latter  date  was  eco- 
nomic botanist  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture.  He  conducted  an  expedition 
to  South  America  for  the  Chicago  Expo- 
sition. In  1898-90  he  was  vice-governor 
of  the  Island  of  Guam.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  many  learned  societies.  His  writ- 
ings include:  "A  Year  on  the  Island  of 
Guam"  (1904);  "An  Aztec  Narcotic" 
(1915) ;  "Natural  History  of  Paradise 
Key  and  the  Nearby  Everglades  of  Flor- 
ida" (1919)  ;  and  articles  on  botanical 
subjects  to  several  encyclopaedias. 

SAFFRON,  in  botany,  the  Crocus  sati- 
vus,  a  species  with  light  purple  flowers 
which  come  out  in  autumn.  It  grows  in 
the  S.  of  Europe  and  in  parts  of  Asia. 
It  is  extensively  cultivated  in  France, 
Austria  and  Spain,  as  it  formerly  was 
in  England.  The  Spanish  variety  is  the 
best  for  commercial  purposes,  though  it 
is  said  that  100,000  flowers  are  necessary 
to  produce  one  pound  of  saffron.  The 
stigmas  of  the  flower  are  from  1  to  \xk 
inches  in  length,  narrow  and  rounded 
where  they  are  attached  to  the  style,  but 
spreading  and  club-shaped  near  the  ex- 
tremity, which  is  truncated.  They  have 
an  orange  or  brownish-red  color,  yellow 
in  the  narrower  part,  and  an  agreeable 
aromatic  odor.  The  dried  stigmas  of  the 
saffron  crocus  are  sometimes  used  in  dye- 
ing and  for  coloring  tinctures.  They 
have  a  bitter  taste,  and  impart  a  yellow 
color  to  water,  alcohol,  and  oils.  It  was 
formerly  met  with  in  two  forms,  viz., 
hay  saffron  and  cake  saffron,  but  the 
former  is  now  alone  in  demand.  Saffron 
is  slightly  stimulant.  It  is  used  in  the 
treatment  of  exanthemata,  but  chiefly  as 
a  coloring  agent  in  preparing  medicines 
and  in  cookery.  The  natives  in  India 
use  saffron  as  a  remedy  in  fever,  melan- 
cholia, catarrhal  affections  of  children, 
and  as  a  coloring  matter  in  some  dishes. 

SAGA,  an  ancient  Scandinavian  tale, 
legend,  or  tradition,  of  considerable 
length,  and  relating  either  historical  or 
mythical  events ;  a  tale,  a  history,  a  story, 
a  legend.  The  Scandinavian  sagas  were 
compiled  chiefly  in  the  12th  and  three  fol- 


SAGA 


177 


SAGE 


lowing  centuries.  The  most  remarkable 
are  those  of  Lodbrok,  Hervara,  Vilkina, 
Volsunga,  Blomsturvalla,  Yynglinga,  Olaf 
Tryggva-Sonar,  with  those  of  Jomsvikin- 
gia  and  of  Knytlinga  (which  contain  the 
legendary  history  of  Iceland),  the  Heims- 
Kringla  and  New  Edda,  due  to  Snorri 
Sturlason. 

SAGA,  a  town  of  Japan,  capitol  of  the 
province  of  Hizen,  on  the  island  of  Kioo 
Lioo  74  miles  N.  E.  of  Nagasaki.  It  is 
important  as  a  seaport  and  commercial 
center.  A  large  number  of  brooks  and 
channels  traverse  the  town.  The  most 
important  channel  is  that  of  Sentonofutsi, 
50  miles  in  length.  It  unites  the  Gulf  of 
Simabara  with  the  Northern  Sea,  and 
greatly  conduces  to  the  inland  commerce 
of  the  island.     Pop.  about  38.000. 

SAGAPENUM,  a  fetid  gum  -  resin 
brought  from  Persia  and  Alexandria,  and 
generally  believed  to  be  furnished  by  some 
species  of  the  genus  Ferula.  It  occurs 
either  in  tears  or  irregular  masses  of  a 
dirty  brownish  color,  containing  in  the 
interior  white  or  yellowish  grains.  It 
has  an  odor  of  garlic,  and  a  hot,  acrid, 
bitterish  taste.  It  is  occasionally  used 
in  medicine  as  a  nervine  and  stimulating 
expectorant. 

SAGAR,  or  SATTGOR,  a  well-built 
town  in  the  Central  Provinces  of  India, 
in  a  hilly  tract,  on  a  feeder  of  the  Jumna. 
There  are  here  a  Mahratta  fort,  now 
converted  into  British  stores,  barracks, 
and  a  magazine,  as  well  as  a  jail  (1846) 
and  a  park  (1862)  ;  and  there  were  for- 
merly a  college  (removed  to  Jabalpur) 
and  a  mint  (removed  to  Calcutta).  Sa- 
gar  has  a  trade  in  salt,  sugar,  and  cloth. 
Pop.  about  44,000. 

SAGAR,  a  low,  swampy  island  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Hugli,  the  holiest  branch  of 
the  Ganges;  it  is  particularly  sacred  in 
the  estimation  of  the  Hindus.  Multitudes 
of  pilgrims  annually  resort  to  it  in  Jan- 
uary, and  after  the  three  days'  festival 
of  purification  is  over  a  great  fair  is 
held.  The  island  has  an  area  of  225 
square  miles,  but  is  very  thinly  inhabited, 
the  greater  part  being  jungle,  the  haunt 
of  tigers  and  other  wild  animals.  A  light- 
house (1808),  a  meteorological  observa- 
tory, and  a  telegraph  station  are  the  chief 
buildings. 

SAGE,  the  genus  Salva,  specifically 
S.  officinalis  and  S.  grandiflora.  The  first 
of  these  is  the  common  garden  sage,  a 
native  of  the  S.  of  Europe.  It  has  blue 
flowers,  and  has  run  into  many  varieties. 
Formerly  it  had  a  high  reputation  as  a 
sudorific,  an  aromatic,  an  astringent,  and 
an  antiseptic,  but  it  has  not  now  a  place 
in  the  pharmacopoeia.     The  Chinese  use 


it  as  a  tonic  for  debility  of  the  stomach 
and  nerves.  It  is  employed  in  cooking 
for  sauces  and  stuffing  for  luscious  meats. 
Also  the  genus  Artemisia. 

SAGE,  HENRY  WILLIAMS,  an 
American  philanthropist;  born  in  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  Jan.  31,  1814;  engaged  in 
business  with  his  uncle  in  1832-1854, 
when  he  became  interested  in  the  lumber 
regions  of  Canada  and  the  West,  where 
he  bought  large  tracts  of  timber  and  be- 
came one  of  the  most  extensive  land  own- 
ers in  Michigan.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Legislature  in  1847  and  subsequently  as- 
sociated himself  with  many  philanthropic 
schemes.  His  early  benefactions  included 
the  endowment  of  the  Lyman  Beecher  lec- 
tureship at  Yale  College,  the  building  and 
endowment  of  several  churches  and 
schools,  and  the  building  of  the  public 
library  at  West  Bay  City,  Mich.  He  was 
elected  a  trustee  of  Cornell  University 
in  1870,  and  gave  to  that  institution  $266,- 
000  for  the  Sage  College  for  Women; 
$50,000  for  the  Susan  Lynn  Sage  chair 
of  philosophy;  $200,000  for  the  Sage 
School  of  Philosophy;  $260,000  and  an 
endowment  of  $300,000  for  the  University 
Library  Building;  and  over  $70,000  to 
other  departments.  He  died  in  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.,  Sept.  17,  1897. 

SAGE,  MARGARET  OLIVIA  SLO- 
CTTM  (Mrs.  Russell  Sage),  an  American 
philanthropist,  born  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y., 
in  1828.  She  was  a  graduate  of  the 
Emma  Willard  Seminary,  and  for  years 
taught  school,  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  else- 
where. When  past  forty  she  met  Russell 
Sage  (q.  v.),  who  was  then  a  prospering 
grocer  in  Troy.  Mrs.  Sage  was  through- 
out all  her  life  keenly  sympathetic  toward 
equal  suffrage  for  women.  She  was  also 
a  keen  business  woman,  and  during  the 
last  five  years  of  her  husband's  life  trans- 
acted all  his  business  affairs.  At  his  death 
she  had  at  her  disposal  $70,000,000,  of 
which  $30,000,000  were  devoted  to  a  long 
series  of  philanthropies.  She  died  in 
1918. 

SAGE,  RUSSELL,  an  American  capi- 
talist and  philanthropist,  born  in  Verona, 
Oneida  co.,  New  York,  in  1816.  He  had 
only  a  country  school  education  and  at  a 
very  early  age  entered  his  brother's  gro- 
cery store  as  clerk.  In  1837  he  went  into 
a  small  business  for  himself,  but  grad- 
ually prospered,  until  he  was  able  to  go 
into  the  wholesale  business.  From  1841 
to  1847  he  was  an  alderman  in  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  and  in  1853  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress by  the  Whigs.  In  1863  he  removed 
to  New  York  and  entered  the  brokerage 
business,  gradually  building  up  a  large 
fortune  by  speculation  in  securities,  es- 
pecially of  railroads.     At  the  time  of  his 


SAGEBRUSH 


178 


SAG    HARBOR 


death  he  had  acquired  $70,000,000,  after 
having  devoted  Targe  sums  to  various 
philanthropic  institutions.  His  biggest  do- 


RUSSELL   SAGE 

nation  was  toward  the  Russell  Sage  Foun- 
dation, whose  purpose  was  to  inquire  into 
the  sources  of  poverty  and  seek  their 
elimination.     He  died  in  1906. 

SAGEBRUSH  (Artemisia  Ludovici- 
ana) ,  a  low  irregular  shrub  of  the  order 
Composite,  growing  in  dry  alkaline  soils 
of  the  North  American  plains.  The  name 
is  also  given  to  other  American  species 
of  Artemisia. 

SAGE  COCK,  the  Centrocercus  uropha- 
sianus,  called  also  cock  of  the  plains.  It 
is  the  largest  of  the  American  grouse, 
and  the  male  has  a  distinctive  character 
in  the  bare  spaces  of  orange-colored  skin 
on  each  side  of  the  neck,  which  he  in- 
flates during  the  mating  season.  Range 
from  the  Black  Hills  to  California  and 
Oregon,  and  from  British  Columbia 
nearly  to  Arizona.  It  feeds  on  the 
wormwood  of  the  plains,  and  in  conse- 
quence its  fiesh  becomes  so  bitter  as  to 
be  unfit  for  food. 

SAGES  OF  GREECE,  SEVEN,  Solon, 
Chilo,  Pittacus,  Bias,  Periander,  Cleobu- 
lus,  and  Thales  are  those  most  generally 
named  as  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece, 
and  they  were  the  authors  of  the  cele- 


brated mottoes  inscribed  in  more  recent 
times  in  the  Delphian  Temple.  Solon, 
through  the  imprudent  course  of  his 
father,  was  compelled  to  engage  in  com- 
mercial adventures  in  other  lands.  His 
work  on  returning  to  Athens  was  that  of 
a  wise,  unselfish  patriot,  who  sought  to 
compose  the  distractions,  social  and  po- 
litical, which  then  rent  the  city.  His 
motto  was,  "Know  thyself."  Chilo,  one 
of  the  ephori,  was  a  Spartan,  who  early 
directed  his  attention  to  public  affairs, 
and  many  of  whose  maxims  are  quoted 
by  the  ancient  writers;  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  these  was,  "Consider  the  end." 
Pittacus  was  a  native  of  Mytilene,  in 
Lesbos,  became  a  soldier,  rose  to  supreme 
power  in  the  state,  acted  with  great  pa- 
triotism, and  having  done  much  for  the 
people,  voluntarily  resigned  his  power. 
"Know  thy  opportunity,"  or,  as  it  is  some- 
times rendered,  "Be  watchful  of  oppor- 
tunities," is  attributed  to  him.  Bias,  a 
native  of  Ionia,  was  a  poetical  philoso- 
pher, who  studied  the  laws  of  his  country 
and  employed  his  knowledge  in  the  service 
of  his  friends,  defending  them  in  the 
courts  of  justice.  Said  Bias:  "Most  men 
are  bad."  Periander  was  distinguished 
for  his  love  of  science  and  literature, 
which  entitled  him  to  be  ranked  among 
the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece.  Of  Cleo- 
bulus,  of  the  island  of  Rhodes,  who  was 
remarkable  for  strength  and  beauty,  but 
little  is  known.  His  favorite  maxim  was, 
"Avoid  excesses."  Thales,  a  celebrated 
philosopher,  born  at  Miletus,  and  founder 
of  the  Ionic  sect,  traveled  like  Solon,  and 
it  is  said  learned,  while  at  Memphis, 
geometry,  philosophy,  and  astronomy.  He 
is  said  also  to  have  invented  several  fun- 
damental propositions  which  were  after- 
ward incorporated  into  the  elements  of 
Euclid.  He  taught  the  Greeks  the  division 
of  the  heavens  into  five  zones,  and  the 
solstitial  and  equinoctial  points. 

SAGHALIEN.     See  SAKHALIN. 

SAG  HARBOR,  a  village  in  Suffolk  co., 
Long  Island,  N.  Y.;  on  Gardiner's  Bay, 
and  on  the  Long  Island  railroad;  100 
miles  E.  by  N.  of  New  York  City.  There 
is  an  excellent  harbor  and  regular  steam- 
boat connections  with  New  York.  Here 
are  a  union  school,  the  Academy  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Mercy  (R.  C),  several 
banks,  two  weekly  newspapers,  and  many 
handsome  summer  residences  of  New 
York  business  men.  The  village  has  flour 
and  cotton  mills,  and  manufactories  of 
tools,  watch  cases,  cigars,  and  leather. 
Sag  Harbor  was  originally  the  site  of 
Indian  settlements,  and  many  interesting 
relics  have  here  been  exhumed.  The  pop- 
ulation varies,  being  larger  during  the 
summer  season  than  at  other  thnes. 


SAGINA 


179 


SAGO 


SAGINA,  in  botany,  the  pearlwort,  a 
genus  of  Alsinex.  Sepals  four  or  five; 
petals  four  or  five,  entire  or  emarginate, 
sometimes  wanting;  stamens  4  to  10; 
styles  four  or  five;  capsule  four-  to  five- 
valved.  Known  species  eight,  from  the 
temperate  zones.  All  but  S.  saxatilis  and 
S.  nivalis,  which  are  Alpine  species,  are 
common. 

SAGINAW,  a  city  of  Michigan,  the 
county-seat  of  Saginaw  co.  It  is  on  the 
Saginaw  river,  and  on  the  Grand  Trunk, 
the  Michigan  Central,  and  Pere  Mar- 
quette railroads.  The  river  here  is 
spanned  by  11  bridges,  4  of  which  are 
railroad  and  7  public  bridges.  The  city 
has  an  excellent  street  system  and  most 
of  the  important  roadways  are  paved  with 
asphalt  and  brick.  There  is  an  extensive 
park  system  including  Hoyt,  Linton,  Ezra 
Rust,  and  Bliss  parks.  The  city  also  con- 
tains two  excellent  libraries,  the  Hoyt 
Library  and  the  Public  Library.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  Michigan  Institute  for  the 
Blind,  the  Old  Folks'  Home,  and  the  Ger- 
mania  Institute.  Its  educational  institu- 
tions include  a  free  manual  training 
school  given  to  the  city  by  Hon.  W.  R. 
Burt.  There  is  also  a  trade  school,  the 
gift  of  Hon.  Arthur  Hill.  Other  notable 
buildings  include  three  Masonic  temples, 
a  court  house,  city  hall,  and  two  hospitals. 
Also  an  Elks  temple,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and 
Y.  W.  C.  A.  buildings,  and  a  post-office. 
During  the  lumber  era  of  Michigan,  Sag- 
inaw was  one  of  the  chief  scenes  of  the 
lumber  trade.  The  lumbering  industry 
is  still  important.  Within  recent  years 
extensive  beds  of  bituminous  coal  have 
been  discovered  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  city,  and  over  2,000,000  tons  are 
mined  annually.  The  beet  sugar  indus- 
try is  an  important  one  in  the  surround- 
ing country.  Among  the  other  leading 
industries  are  the  manufacture  of  glass, 
lumber,  salt,  and  many  other  products. 
The  city  has  an  important  wholesale  trade 
with  the  surrounding  country.  Pop. 
(1910)  50,510;   (1920)  61,903. 

"  SAGINAW  BAY,  the  largest  inden- 
ture of  Lake  Huron  on  the  United  States 
6ide  entering  the  S.  peninsula  of  Michigan, 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State.  It  is 
60  miles  long,  30  miles  in  extreme  width, 
and  is  bordered  by  Iosco  Bay,  and  Tus- 
cola and  Huron  counties.  It  affords  ex- 
cellent navigation,  and  is  a  safe  harbor 
for  large  vessels.  Its  surface  is  usually 
rough,  but  not  dangerously  so,  when  the 
open  lake  is  comparatively  smooth.  The 
color  of  the  water  is  plainly  different 
from  that  of  the  open  lake,  being  a  brown- 
ish-green, often  termed  "tea-water." 

SAGITTA,  in  astronomy,  the  Arrow; 
a  small  northern  constellation,  one  of  the 


48  ancient  asterisms.  It  is  situated  be- 
tween the  hill  of  the  Swan  and  Aquila, 
and  is  traversed  by  a  branch  of  the  Milky 
Way.  A  nebula  in  Sagitta  was  resolved 
by  Sir  William  Herschel,  in  1783,  into 
a  cluster  of  stars.  In  geometry,  (1)  the 
versed  sine  of  an  arc.  (From  the  re- 
semblance of  an  arrow  standing  upright 
on  the  string  of  a  bow.)  (2)  The  ab- 
scissa of  a  curve.  In  zoology,  the  sole 
genus  of  Chsetogriatha,  with  several  spe- 
cies, found  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean 
all  over  the  world.  They  are  transparent 
unsegmented  worms,  about  an  inch  long. 
The  genus  presents  analogies  with  both 
the  Nematoidea  and  the  Ammelida. 

SAGITTARIUS  (the  Archer).,  in  as- 
tronomy, the  ninth  sign  of  the  zodiac,  into 
which  the  sun  enters  Nov.  22.  The  con- 
stellation consists  of  eight  visible  stars. 
It  is  represented  on  celestial  globes  and 
charts  by  the  figure  of  a  centaur  in  the 
act  of  shooting  an  arrow  from  his  bow. 

SAGITTATE,  in  botany,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  the  form  of  leaf  shaped  like  the 
head  of  an  arrow;  triangular,  hollowed 
at  the  base,  with  angles  at  the  hinder 
part. 

SAGO,  a  nutritive  farinaceous  sub- 
stance obtained  from  the  pith  of  several 
species  of  palms,  principally,  however, 
from  Sagus  (Metroxylon)  Rumphii,  the 
spiny,  and  S.  Ixvis,  which  is  spineless. 
For  the  natives  of  the  eastern  Archipel- 
ago this  palm  is  a  source  of  vegetable 
food  naturally  more  abundant  and  less 
variable  in  its  yield  than  rice.  The  stem 
consists  of  a  thin  hard  wall,  about  two 
inches  thick,  and  of  an  enormous  volume 
of  a  spongy  medullary  substance,  which 
is  edible.  Each  tree  yields  about  600 
pounds  of  pith.  There  are  three  well- 
marked  varieties  of  this  palm.  The  tree 
grows  in  Java,  Sumatra,  Celebes,  Borneo, 
Malacca,  and  Siam.  The  only  countries, 
however,  where  it  is  found  growing  in 
large  forests  are  New  Guinea,  the  Moluc- 
cas, Celebes,  Mindanao,  Borneo,  and  Su- 
matra, being  widely  spread  over  the  Mo- 
luccas, but  confined  to  particular  parts 
of  the  others.  A  tree  becomes  mature 
at  about  15  years. 

These  palms  propagate  themselves  by 
lateral  shoots  as  well  as  by  seed,  and  they 
die  after  producing  fruit,  so  that  a  sago 
plantation  once  formed  is  perpetual.  Large 
quantities  of  the  meal  in  its  pure  state 
are  sent  to  Singapore  from  the  eastern 
islands,  where  it  is  granulated  or  pearled 
and  bleached  by  the  Chinese  for  shipment 
to  Europe.  It  comes  into  commerce  in 
three  forms,  the  common  brown  sago, 
pearl  sago,  and  sago  flour.  It  is  made  by 
two  processes,  the  starch  grains  being 
burst  in  some  samples  and  not  in  others. 


SAGOIN 


180 


SAHABA 


The  chief  uses  of  sago  in  Europe  are  for 
feeding  stock,  making  starch,  and  in  giv- 
ing thickness  and  consistency  to  cocoa. 

The  stem,  about  15  to  20  feet,  is  cut 
into  lengths,  split  open,  and  the  pith  dug 
out  and  placed  in  a  vessel  with  a  sieve 
bottom.  Water  is  applied  to  separate 
the  flour  and  carry  it  into  a  second  ves- 
sel, where  it  is  soon  deposited.  The  water 
is  then  run  off,  and  the  flour  dried.  The 
produce  of  a  tree  ranges  from  600  to  750 
pounds.  Pearl  sago  (which  the  Chinese 
of  Malacca  prepare  and  send  to  Singa- 
pore) is  in  small  white  spherical  grains. 
There  are  several  varieties  which  differ 
much  in  color,  some  being  white  and  oth- 
ers reddish  brown.  One  kind  of  granu- 
lated sago  from  India  has  been  introduced 
under  the  name  of  tapioca — the  real  Tap- 
ioca (q.  v.)  being  a  totally  different  sub- 
stance. Sago  is  not  entirely  soluble  in 
hot  water  like  ordinary  starch,  and  can 
therefore  be  employed  in  making  pud- 
dings, etc. 

SAGOIN,  or  SAGOUIN,  the  native 
South  American  name  of  a  genus  (Calli- 
thrix)  of  Brazilian  monkeys  of  small  size, 
and  remarkably  light,  active,  and  grace- 
ful in  their  movements. 

SAGTJENAY,  a  river  of  Canada,  in 
the  province  of  Quebec;  formed  by  two 
outlets  of  Lake  St.  John,  which  unite 
about  9  miles  below  the  lake,  from  which 
point  the  river  flows  S.  E.  and  falls  into 
the  St.  Lawrence  at  Tadousac  harbor; 
length  about  100  miles.  For  many  miles 
of  the  latter  part  of  its  course  the  banks 
are  very  lofty,  and  in  some  parts  there 
are  precipices  more  than  1,000  feet  high. 
Ships  moor  at  rings  fixed  into  some  of  the 
precipitous  walls  of  rock,  the  water  being 
so  deep  as  to  be  unsuitable  for  anchorage. 
The  Saguenay  is  navigable  for  vessels  of 
any  size  to  Ha  Ha  Bay,  a  distance  of 
about  50  miles  to  60  miles  from  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  at  high  water  for  vessels 
of  large  dimensions  from  15  miles  to  18 
miles  farther.  It  is  visited  by  a  great 
many  tourists  on  account  of  its  remark- 
able scenery. 

SAGUNTtTM,  a  former  town  of  Spain, 
S.  of  the  Ebro,  about  3  miles  from  the 
coast.  It  is  famous  in  Roman  history; 
its  siege  by  Hannibal  in  219-218  B.  c. 
having  given  rise  to  the  second  Punic 
War.  The  site  is  occupied  by  the  modern 
town  of  Murviedro. 

SAHARA  (Arabic  Sah'ra),  the  vast 
desert  region  of  North  Africa,  stretching 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Nile,  and  from 
the  S.  confines  of  Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunis, 
and  Tripoli  S.  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Niger 
and  Lake  Tchad.     It  is  usual  to  regard 


the  Libyan  Desert,  lying  between  Egypt, 
the  Central  Sudan,  and  Tripoli,  as  a  sep- 
arate division.  Both  are,  however,  links 
in  the  chain  of  great  deserts  that  girdle 
the  Old  World  from  the  Atlantic  coast 
across  Africa,  Arabia,  Persia,  Turkestan, 
and  Mongolia  to  the  Pacific.  It  was  long 
customary  to  assert  that  the  Sahara  was 
the  bed  of  an  ancient  inland  sea,  and 
that  it  consisted  of  a  vast,  uniform  ex- 
panse of  sand,  swept  up  here  and  there 
into  ridges  by  the  wind.  But  this  idea 
is  utterly  erroneous.  Since  the  French 
became  masters  of  Algeria,  they  have 
completely  revolutionized  our  knowledge 
of  the  Sahara,  at  all  events  of  the  coun- 
try immediately  to  the  S.  of  Algeria  and 
Tunis.  The  surface,  instead  of  being  uni- 
form and  depressed  below  sea-level,  is 
highly  diversified,  and  attains  in  one 
place  an  altitude  of  fully  8,000  feet. 

From  the  neighborhood  of  Cape  Blanco 
in  the  W.  a  vast  bow  or  semicircle  of 
sand-dunes  stretches  right  round  the  N. 
side  of  the  Sahara  to  Fezzan,  skirting  the 
Atlas  Mountains  and  the  mountains  of 
Algeria.  This  long  belt  of  sand  hills 
varies  in  width  from  50  to  300  miles,  and 
is  known  by  the  names  Igidi  and  Erg, 
both  meaning  "sand  hills."  The  hills  rise 
to  300  feet  (in  one  place,  it  is  said,  to 
more  than  1,000  feet),  though  the  aver- 
age elevation  is  about  70  feet.  Water  is 
nearly  always  to  be  found  below  the  sur- 
face in  the  hollows  between  the  different 
chains  of  these  sand  hills,  and  there  a 
few  dry  plants  struggle  to  maintain  a 
miserable  existence.  S.  of  Algeria,  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Erg,  the  country 
rises  into  the  lofty  plateau  of  Ahaggar 
(4,000  feet),  which  fills  all  the  middle 
parts  of  the  Sahara.  Its  surface  runs 
up  into  veritable  mountains  6,500  feet 
high,  which,  incredible  as  it  may  seem, 
are  covered  with  snow  for  three  months 
in  the  year.  On  the  S.  it  apparently  falls 
again  toward  the  basins  of  the  Niger  and 
Lake  Tchad ;  nevertheless  there  are  moun- 
tain ranges  along  the  E.  side  reaching 
8,000  feet  in  Mount  Tusidde  in  the  Tibbu 
country,  and  a  mountain  knot  in  the  oasis 
of  Air  (or  Asben)  which  reaches  up  to 
6,500  feet.  Mountainous  tracts  'occur 
also  in  the  W.,  between  Morocco  and  Tim- 
buctoo,  but  of  inferior  elevation  (2,000 
feet).  These  mountainous  parts  embrace 
many  deep  valleys,  most  of  them  seamed 
with  the  dry  beds  of  ancient  rivers,  as 
the  Igharghar  and  the  Mya,  both  going 
some  hundreds  of  miles  N.  toward  the 
"shotts"  of  Algeria  and  Tunis.  These 
valleys  always  yield  an  abundance  of  wa- 
ter, if  not  on  the  surface  in  the  water- 
courses, then  a  short  distance  below  it, 
and  are  mostly  inhabited,  and  grazed  by 
the  cattle  and  sheep  and  camels  of  the 
natives. 


SAHARA 


181 


SAHARANPTJR 


Another  characteristic  type  of  Saharan 
landscape  is  a  low  plateau  strewn  with 
rough  blocks  of  granite  and  other  rocks, 
and  perfectly  barren.  In  very  many  parts 
of  the  Sahara,  especially  in  the  valleys 
of  the  mountainous  parts,  in  the  recesses 
or  bays  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  alongside 
the  watercourses,  and  in  the  hollows  of 
the  sand-dunes,  in  all  which  localities 
water  is  wont  to  exist,  there  are  oases — 
habitable,  cultivable  spots,  islands  of  ver- 
dure in  the  midst  of  the  ocean  of  desert. 
These  oases  occur  in  greatest  number 
along  the  S.  face  of  the  Atlas  and  the 
Algerian  mountains,  on  the  N.  side  of  the 
Ahaggar  plateau.  These  lines  of  oases 
mark  the  great  caravan  routes  between 
the  Central  Sudan  States  and  the  Medi- 
terranean. 

A  large  portion  of  the  Sahara,  though 
not  the  whole,  was  undoubtedly  under 
water  at  one  time,  probably  in  the  Cre- 
taceous period  and  earlier.  Then  the 
surface  seems  to  have  been  in  great  part 
elevated,  so  that  the  waters  remained 
only  in  some  lakes  and  in  gulfs  near  the 
Mediterranean  coast.  The  Romans  had 
colonies  or  military  posts  a  long  way  S., 
in  what  are  now  desert  regions;  and  both 
Herodotus  and  Pliny  tell  us  that  the  ele- 
phant, the  rhinoceros,  and  the  crocodile, 
all  animals  that  only  live  near  abundant 
supplies  of  water,  were  common  through- 
out North  Africa  in  their  day.  None  of 
the  Egyptian  inscriptions  or  animal  sculp- 
tures represent  the  camel,  nor  do  the 
Greek  and  Roman  historians  mention  it 
either  as  being  a  denizen  of  North  Africa. 
The  camel  is  now  the  principal  carrier 
across  the  Sahara,  and  must  have  been 
introduced  since  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.  The  inference  from  these 
and  other  facts  is  that  the  process  of 
desiccation  has  gone  on  more  rapidly  dur- 
ing the  last  2,000  years. 

The  range  of  temperature  is  exceed- 
ingly great:  often  the  thermometer  falls 
from  considerably  more  than  100°  F. 
during  the  day  to  just  below  freezing- 
point  at  night.  In  the  W.  of  the  Sahara 
the  daily  average  is  85°  in  the  shade  in 
the  month  of  May.  Rain  does  fall  in  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  Sahara  with  more  or 
less  frequency;  but  in  most  districts  on 
the  average  after  intervals  of  two  to  five 
years. 

The  plant  life  is  very  rich  in  the  oases, 
the  date  palm,  which  has  its  home  in 
these  regions,  being  the  most  valuable 
possession  of  these  fertile  spots.  But  fruit 
trees,  as  oranges,  lemons,  peaches,  figs, 
pomegranates,  etc.,  are  also  grown,  with 
cereals,  rice,  durrha,  millet,  and  such- 
like food  crops.  In  the  desert  regions  the 
plant  life  is  confined  principally  to  tam- 
arisks, prickly  acacias  and  similar  thorny 
shrubs  and  trees,  salsolaceae,  and  coarse 


grasses.  The  animals  most  commonly  met 
with  include  the  giraffe,  two  or  three 
kinds  of  antelope,  wild  cattle,  the  wild 
ass,  desert  fox,  jackal,  hare,  lion  (only 
on  the  borders  of  the  desert),  ostrich, 
desert  lark,  crow,  viper,  and  python.  The 
people  keep  as  domestic  animals  the  camel, 
horse,  sheep,  and  goat. 

The  human  inhabitants,  who  are  esti- 
mated altogether  at  about  2,000,000,  con- 
sist of  Moors,  Tuareg,  Tibbu,  Negroes, 
Arabs,  and  Jews.  The  Moors  and  Tuareg 
are  both  Berbers ;  the  former  live  between 
Morocco  and  Senegal,  the  latter  in  the 
middle,  S.  of  Algeria  and  Tunis.  The 
Tuareg  are  great  traders,  and  control 
the  principal  caravan  routes.  The  Tibbu, 
who  number  about  200,000,  occupy  the 
oases  between  Fezzan  and  Lake  Tchad. 
The  Arabs  of  pure  stock  are  very  few; 
they  have  become  mixed  with  the  Berbers 
and  the  Negroes.  The  most  valuable 
products  of  the  Sahara  are  dates  and 
salt,  the  latter  collected  on  the  salt  pans, 
and  made  from  the  rock-salt  of  the  Tau- 
deni  in  the  W.,  and  of  Kawar  (Bilma) 
in  the  E.;  the  remaining  products  are 
horses,  soda,  and  a  little  saltpeter.  But 
for  many  long  years  there  has  been  a  very 
active  trade  carried  on  by  caravans  be- 
tween the  central  Sudan  and  Niger  coun- 
tries and  the  Mediterranean  states,  the 
ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  gums,  spices, 
musk,  hides,  gold  dust,  indigo,  cotton, 
palm  oil,  shea  butter,  kola  nuts,  ground 
nuts^  silver,  dates,  salt,  and  alum  of  the 
interior  lands  being  exchanged  for  the 
manufactured  wares  (textiles,  weapons, 
gunpowder,  etc.)  of  European  countries. 

Scientific  men  have  eagerly  discussed 
the  possibility  of  reclaiming  the  Sahara 
from  the  arid  desolation  to  which  such  a 
vast  proportion  of  its  surface  is  now 
abandoned.  One  scheme  has  been  carried 
out  with  success  in  limited  areas.  It  con- 
sists in  boring  of  artesian  wells,  and  with 
the  water  so  obtained  irrigating  the  soil 
in  the  vicinity.  This  method  of  reclaim- 
ing the  desert  has  been  prosecuted  by  the 
French  with  great  energy  since  1856. 
Water  is  generally  found  at  depths  vary- 
ing from  10  to  300  feet,  and  in  great 
abundance.  Wherever  these  wells  have 
been  bored  the  date  palm  groves  and  the 
orchards  have  increased  greatly  in  extent, 
and  the  population  has  become  much 
denser. 

SAHABANPTJR,  a  town  of  British 
India,  in  the  Northwest  Provinces;  111 
miles  N.  of  Delhi;  is  the  station  for  the 
hill  sanatorium  of  Masuri.  It  has  an  old 
Rohilla  fort,  a  handsome  new  mosque, 
St.  Thomas'  Church  (1858),  numerous 
administrative  offices,  and  government 
botanical  gardens  (1817).  Pop.  about 
63,000. 


SAHIB  182 


SAINT 


SAHIB,  a  common  term  used  by 
natives  of  India  and  Persia  in  addressing 
or  speaking  of  Europeans.  The  feminine 
form  is  Sahibah. 

SAHLITE,  in  mineralogy,  a  name  for- 
merly applied  to  a  grayish-green  variety 
of  pyroxene  from  Sala;  but  now  adopted 
by  Dana  and  others  for  a  group,  viz.,  the 
lime-magnesia-iron  pyroxene. 

SAI,  the  name  applied  to  the  weeper- 
monkey  of  Brazil. 

SAIGA,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  Bovidse, 
with  one  species,  S.  tartarica,  from  east- 
ern Europe  and  western  Asia.  They  dif- 
fer so  much  from  all  other  antelopes  that 
some  naturalists  have  made  them  a  dis- 
tinct family.  Also,  any  individual  of  the 
genus  Saiga.  They  are  about  the  size  of 
a  fallow  deer,  tawny  yellow  in  summer, 
and  light  gray  in  winter;  horns,  found 
only  in  the  male,  less  than  a  foot  long, 
slightly  lyrate  and  annulated. 

SAIGON,  capital  of  French  Cochin- 
China;  on  the  Saigon,  a  branch  of  the 
delta  of  the  Mekhong;  about  35  miles 
from  the  sea.  The  present  town  has 
grown  up  under  French  influences  since 
1861,  and  with  its  fine  streets  and  squares 
and  boulevards  is  one  of  the  handsomest 
cities  of  the  East.  It  has  a  magnificent 
governor's  palace,  a  cathedral  (1877), 
two  higher  colleges,  an  arsenal,  floating 
dock  and  drydock,  administrative  offices, 
and  a  botanical  and  zoological  garden. 
Saigon  (properly  Gia-dinh)  is  the  most 
important  port  between  Singapore  and 
Hong  Kong.  It  exports  every  year  rice, 
chiefly  to  China,  the  Philippines,  Japan, 
and  the  Straits  Settlements.  The  remain- 
ing exports  include  fish,  salt,  cotton, 
wood,  beans,  and  hides.  Previous  to  the 
French  occupation  (1861)  Saigon,  though 
only  a  collection  of  common  Siamese  huts, 
was  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Lower 
Cochin-China.  Pop.  (1919)  64,496,  prin- 
cipally Chinese,  Annamese,  and  French. 

SAIL,  a  piece  of  canvas  cloth  spread 
to  catch  the  wind,  so  as  to  cause  or  assist 
in  causing  a  ship  or  boat  to  move  through 
the  water.  Sails  are  supported  by  the 
masts,  spars,  or  stays  of  the  vessel,  and 
take  their  names  from  the  mast,  yard,  or 
stay  on  which  they  are  stretched,  as  the 
mainsail,  etc.  The  upper  edge  of  a  sail 
is  the  head,  the  lower  edge  the  foot,  the 
vertical  edge  the  leech,  the  weather  side 
or  edge  (that  is,  the  side  or  edge  next  the 
Lnast  or  stay  to  which  it  is  attached)  of 
any  but  a  square-sail  is  the  luff,  and  the 
:>ther  edge  the  after  leech.  The  clews  or 
clues  are  the  lower  corners  of  a  square 
sail,  or  the  lower  after  corner  of  a  fore- 
and-aft  sail.  A  tack  is  the  lower  weather 
corner  of  a  square  sail,  or  the  lower  for- 


ward corner  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail.  The 
earing  is  the  upper  corner  of  a  square 
sail.  A  square  sail  is  one  that  is  extended 
by  a  yard  hung  (slung)  by  the  middle 
and  balanced.  A  sail  set  on  a  gaff,  boom, 
or  stay  is  called  a  fore-and-aft  sail.  Also, 
that  part  of  the  arm  of  a  windmill  which 
catches  the  wind. 

SAILCLOTH,  a  strong  linen,  cotton, 
or  hempen  cloth  used  in  making  sails.  The 
best  is  made  of  flax,  and  combines  flexi- 
bility with  lightness  and  strength. 

SAILING,  the  act  of  moving  on  water, 
or  the  movement  of  a  ship  or  vessel  im- 
pelled by  the  action  of  wind  on  her  sails; 
act  of  setting  sail  or  beginning  a  voy- 
age; also,  smooth  impulsion  through  the 
air,  as  in  a  balloon;  or  the  aerial  passage 
of  a  bird.  In  navigation,  the  art  of  di- 
recting a  ship  on  a  given  line  laid  down 
on  a  chart.  It  is  called  plane  sailing  when 
the  chart  is  constructed  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  the  surface  of  the  ocean  is  an 
extended  plane;  and  globular  sailing, 
when  the  chart  is  a  globular  chart,  or 
constructed  on  the  hypothesis  that  the 
earth  is  a  sphere,  the  ship  being  then 
supposed  to  be  sailing  on  the  arc  of  a 
great  circle.  Sailing  order,  or  order  of 
sailing,  is  any  determinate  order  pre- 
served by  a  squadron  of  ships.  It  usually 
implied,  in  the  days  of  sailing  fleets,  one, 
two,  or  three  parallel  columns;  but  it  is 
at  the  disposition  of  the  admiral  or  com- 
modore. 

SAINFOIN,  a  plant,  Onobrychis  sati- 
va,  natural  order  Leguminosie,  a  native 
of  central  and  southern  Europe  and  part 
of  Asia.  It  has  been  in  cultivation  for 
centuries  for  the  purpose  of  supplying 
fodder  for  cattle  either  in  the  green  state 
or  converted  into  hay.  It  is  a  pretty 
plant  with  narrow  pinnate  leaves  and 
long  spikes  of  bright  pink  flowers;  stem 
lV2-2  feet  high. 

SAINT,  a  name  applied  in  the  New 
Testament  to  the  members  of  the  Chris- 
tian community  generally,  but  restricted 
by  ecclesiastical  usage  from  very  early 
times  to  those  who  have  been  specially 
remarkable  for  their  personal  virtues  and 
their  eminent  services  to  the  cause  of  re- 
ligion. In  the  ages  of  persecution  the 
quality  which  most  of  all  challenged  the 
admiration  and  reverence  of  the  faithful 
was  naturally  constancy  in  the  profession 
and  the  defense  of  the  Christian  faith; 
and  the  honors  of  the  martyrs,  even  be- 
fore the  age  of  persecution  had  passed, 
were  extended  to  confessors,  and  event- 
ually to  all  who  died  in  the  odor  of 
sanctity,  and  especially  to  those  who  also 
obtained  the  reputation  of  performing 
miracles.  In  general,  the  saints  of  the 
Catholic  Church  are  distributed  into  sev- 


SAINT 


183 


ST.  ALDWYN 


eral  classes,  chiefly  in  relation  to  the  spe- 
cial character  of  the  ecclesiastical  offices 
appropriated  to  their  honor.  Thus  we 
find  enumerated  (1)  apostles  and  evan- 
gelists; (2)  martyrs;  (3)  confessors,  a 
name  applied  primitively  to  those  who  had 
courageously  undergone  imprisonment  or 
pains  for  the  faith  without  gaining  the 
final  crown  of  martyrdom,  but  in  later 
times  understood  of  all  who,  not  being 
martyrs,  were  eminent  for  sanctity  of 
life;  (4)  doctors  or  saints  eminent  for 
sacred  learning;  (5)  virgins;  (6)  ma- 
trons and  widows.  Anciently  the  title  of 
saint  was  bestowed  on  an  individual  by 
the  members  of  the  particular  Christian 
community  to  which  he  belonged,  or  to 
which  his  merits  were  most  familiar.  It 
Was  not  till  the  12th  century  that  the 
Pope  reserved  to  himself  the  exclusive 
right  to  add  to  the  roll  of  saints,  or  that 
a  regular  form  of  procedure  was  estab- 
lished in  the  Roman  courts  for  the  pur- 
pose of  testing  and  of  solemnly  pronounc- 
ing on  the  title  of  persons,  who  had  died 
with  a  reputation  for  sanctity,  to  the  pub- 
lic ctdtus  of  the  Church.  A  saint,  accord- 
ing to  the  received  interpretation,  is  one 
who  has  exercised  the  three  theological 
virtues  of  faith,  hope,  and  charity,  and 
the  cardinal  virtues,  prudence,  justice, 
fortitude,  in  a  heroic  degree,  and  has 
persevered  in  this  exercise  till  death. 
Sanctity  may  exist  without  miracles;  as, 
according  to  one  of  the  most  commonly 
alleged  instances,  there  is  no  record  of 
John  the  Baptist  having  wrought  mir- 
acles; and,  on  the  other  hand,  miracles 
may  be  performed  by  heretics  or  sinners. 
Nevertheless,  by  the  existing  discipline 
of  the  Roman  Church,  before  a  decree  of 
canonization  can  be  obtained,  the  rule  re- 
quires evidence  of  such  miracles  as  an 
expected  fruit  of  heroic  faith  and  as  a 
confirmatory  sign  of  sanctity  after  proof 
has  been  given  of  the  heroic  virtues.  The 
most  notable  canonization  of  modern 
times  was  that  of  Joan  of  Arc  in  1920. 
This  was  due  to  the  spiritual  inspiration 
rendered  by  her  memory  to  the  French 
armies  and  people  during  the  World  War. 
In  Christian  art  representations  of  the 
saints  are  often  marked  by  the  nimbus, 
aureole,  or  glory,  and  many  of  the  saints 
are  pictured  as  accompanied  by  emblems, 
by  which  they  could  readily  be  recog- 
nized. Apart  from  symbols  which  only 
typified  the  person  indicated  (as  a  shep- 
herd for  Christ,  a  gourd  or  a  whale  for 
Jonah),  the  figure  of  the  saint  is  given 
with  an  added  emblem.  Thus  the  four 
evangelists  were  symbolized  by  four  riv- 
ers, the  four  rivers  of  paradise.  The 
adoption  of  the  four  living  creatures 
(Rev.  iv.  6)  for  the  same  purpose  does 
not  appear  to  have  taken  place  till  the 
5th  century;  but  soon  it  became  a  con- 


stant practice  to  represent  St.  Matthew 
by  or  with  the  man,  Mark  with  the  lion, 
Luke  with  the  ox,  John  with  the  eagle. 
The  12  apostles  are  depicted  as  12  men, 
12  sheep,  or  12  doves.  St.  Peter  (for  ob- 
vious reasons)  is  represented  with  the 
keys  or  with  a  fish;  many  of  the  saints 
with  the  instruments  by  which  they  were 
martyred — St.  Paul  with  a  sword ;  St.  An- 
drew with  a  cross ;  St.  Simon  with  a  saw ; 
St.  James  the  Less  with  a  club;  St. 
Matthew  with  a  lance ;  St.  Catharine  with 
a  wheel;  St.  Lawrence  with  a  gridiron; 
others  with  objects  connected  with  their 
history  or  in  some  other  way — St.  George 
with  a  dragon ;  St.  Matthew  with  a  purse. 
St.  James  the  Elder  is  figured  as  a  pil- 
grim. 

ST.  ALBANS,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Franklin  co.,  Vt.;  on  the  Central 
Vermont  railroad;  3  miles  E.  of  Lake 
Champlain,  and  59  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Montpelier.  It  is  built  on  elevated  grounds 
surrounded  by  a  fertile  agricultural  re- 
gion as  well  as  by  beautiful  scenery.  It 
contains  a  number  of  sulphur  springs 
which  add  to  its  attractions  as  a  summer 
resort.  The  city  contains  St.  Albans 
Academy,  the  Warner  Home  for  Little 
Wanderers,  Warner  Hospital,  Franklin 
Library,  Villa  Barlow  Convent,  electric 
lights,  National  and  State  banks,  and 
daily,  weekly,  and  monthly  periodicals.  It 
has  large  locomotive  and  railroad  car 
works,  cotton  mills,  bridge  works,  steel 
works,  and  one  of  the  largest  creameries 
in  the  world.  In  1864  St.  Albans  was 
raided  by  Confederates  from  Canada,  and 
in  1866  was  for  a  time  a  Fenian  head- 
quarters. It  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1897.     Pop.  (1910)  6,381;   (1920)  7,588. 

ST.  ALBANS,  a  municipal  borough 
and  cathedral  city  in  Hertfordshire,  Eng- 
land, 24  miles  N.  W.  of  London.  It  stands 
close  to  the  site  of  the  ancient  Verula- 
mium,  and  owes  its  name  to  St.  Albans, 
the  proto-martyr  of  Britain.  St.  Albans 
figures  prominently  in  English  history, 
and  two  battles  were  fought  here  (1455 
and  1461)  between  the  rival  houses  of 
York  and  Lancaster.  The  cathedral  is  a 
large  and  beautiful  structure  recently  re- 
stored, and  St.  Michael's  contains  the  re- 
mains of  and  a  monument  to  Lord  Bacon. 
Straw  plaiting  and  silk  throwing  are  the 
chief  _  industries.  By  a  readjustment  of 
the  dioceses  of  Rochester  and  Winchester, 
the  See  of  St.  Albans  was  created  in  1877. 
St.  Albans  gives  its  name  to  one  of  the 
parliamentary  divisions  of  Hertfordshire. 
Pop.  about  18,000. 

ST.  ALDWYN,  MICHAEL  EDWARD 
HICKS-BEACH,  LORD,  born  at  London, 
Oct.  23,  1837.  He  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  at  Christchurch  College,  Oxford.      In 


SAINT-AMANT 


184 


SAINT   ARNAUD 


1864  he  was  elected  M.  P.  for  East 
Gloucestershire  by  the  Conservatives.  He 
became  successively  rJnder  Secretary  for 
the  Home  Department,  Secretary  to  the 
Poor  Law  Board  (1868),  Chief  Secretary 
for  Ireland  (1874),  and  Secretary  for  the 
Colonies  (1878).  In  1885  he  was  made 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  by  Lord 
Salisbury,  and  Conservative  leader  in  the 
House  of  Commons;  and  in  1888  he  be- 
came President  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 
On  the  defeat  of  Lord  Rosebery's  ministry 
in  1895,  he  again  held  the  office  of  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer  till  1902,  when  on 
Lord  Salisbury's  retirement  he  resigned. 
He  was  founder  of  the  Unionist  Free  Food 
League.  In  1906  he  was  created  Viscount 
St.  Aldwyn,  and  in  1915  Earl.  He  died 
in  1916. 

SAINT-AMANT,  MARC  ANTOINE 
GIRARD,  SIEUR  DE,  a  French  writer 
of  bacchanalian  verses;  born  in  Rouen, 
France,  in  1594.  He  wrote  "Moses  Saved" 
(1653),  an  epic  of  the  school  of  Tasso; 
and  a  number  of  short  miscellaneous 
poems,  among  which  those  on  bacchana- 
lian scenes  are  the  best — "The  Revel"  is 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  convivial 
poems.     He  died  in  Paris  in  1661. 

ST.  ANDREWS,  a  town  of  Scotland; 
on  a  rocky  plateau  at  the  edge  of  St.  An- 
drews Bay,  42  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Edin- 
burgh. From  the  number  and  nature  of 
the  remains  of  ancient  burials  found 
in  and  around  the  city  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  there  was  a  settlement  here  in 
early  prehistoric  times.  The  monkish 
legend,  long  discredited,  assigned  its  ec- 
clesiastical origin  to  St.  Regulus  or  Rule, 
who,  warned  in  a  dream,  brought  certain 
bones  of  St.  Andrew  from  Patras  in  the 
4th  century,  and  was  wrecked  at  Muck- 
ros,  afterward  called  Kilrimont,  now  St. 
Andrews.  There  is,  however,  reason  for 
believing  not  only  that  those  relics  were 
brought  in  the  8th  century,  but  that, 
before  the  end  of  the  6th,  Cainnech,  or 
Kenneth,  the  patron  saint  of  Kilkenny, 
had  founded  a  monastery  at  Rig-Monadth, 
the  Royal  Mount,  and  that  thus  arose  the 
name  of  Kilrimont.  Early  in  the  10th 
century  it  seemingly  became  the  seat  of 
the  high  bishop  of  the  Scotch;  and  in 
Queen  Margaret's  time  he  began  to  be 
called  the  Bishop  of  St.  Andrews.  The 
Augustinian  Priory,  founded  in  1144,  was 
the  richest  and  greatest  of  all  the  relig- 
ious houses  of  Scotland.  The  cathedral, 
founded  in  or  about  1160,  and  consecrated 
in  1318,  was  stripped  of  its  images  and 
ornaments  in  1559,  and  afterward  fell 
into  ruin.  The  extreme  length  inside 
is  355  feet,  but  at  one  time  it  had  been 
several  bays  longer.  The  bishop's  palace 
or  castle,  first  built  in  1200,  was  fre- 
quently   demolished   and    rebuilt,   and   is 


now  a  ruin.  George  Wishart  and  other 
martyrs  were  confined  in  its  dungeon, 
and  Cardinal  Beaton  was  slain  within  its 
walls.  None  of  the  ruins  is  less  imposing 
or  more  interesting  than  the  foundations 
on  the  Kirkhill — the  site  of  the  Celtic 
church.  St.  Rule's  Tower  has  probably 
occasioned  more  discussion  and  perplexed 
more  archaeologists  than  any  other  build- 
ing in  Scotland.  Its  arches,  as  well  as 
that  of  its  roofless  chapel,  approach  the 
horseshoe  in  form.  The  parish  church, 
which  was  almost  entirely  rebuilt  in  1798, 
was  founded  in  1412.  Its  predecessor, 
which  stood  near  the  cathedral,  was  built 
three  centuries  earlier.  Of  the  Black 
Friars  Monastery  a  portion  of  the  chapel 
remains;  but  of  the  Grey  Friars  almost 
nothing.  The  parish  church  of  St.  Leon- 
ard's is  roofless,  and  the  congregation 
worships  in  the  fine  chapel  of  St.  Salva- 
tor's.  The  Madras  College,  founded  and 
endowed  by  Dr.  Bell,  has  been  remodeled 
and  placed  under  a  new  governing  body. 
The  town  was  erected  into  a  free  burgh 
between  1144  and  1153.  The  manufac- 
ture of  golf  clubs  and  balls  is  naturally 
a  thriving  industry,  St.  Andrews  being 
known  all  over  the  world  as  the  headquar- 
ters of  golf.  It  is  a  popular  watering 
place  and  summer  resort.  Pop.  about 
8,000. 

SAINT  ANDREW'S,  D"NIVERSITY 
OE,  an  ancient  Scottish  university.  The 
university  rose  out  of  a  school  founded 
by  a  colony  of  Scotch-Irish  monks  from 
Columcille's  foundation  at  Iona,  renewed 
by  Bishop  Wardlaw  in  1411,  and  con- 
firmed by  a  bull  of  Pope  Benedict  XIII. 
Like  Oxford  in  England,  it  was  modeled 
on  the  plan  of  the  University  of  Paris  and 
based  its  teaching  largely  on  the  scrip- 
tures and  theology.  There  were  three  col- 
leges in  the  16th  century:  St.  Salvator, 
St.  Leonard,  and  St.  Mary,  and  these, 
after  the  Reformation,  became  the  strong- 
holds of  Protestantism.  In  1579  the  col- 
leges were  reorganized,  so  that  theology 
was  made  the  principal  study  at  St. 
Mary's,  while  St.  Salvator  and  St.  Leon- 
ard took  over  the  teaching  of  philosophy, 
law  and  medicine.  University  College  at 
Dundee  was  affiliated  with  Saint  An- 
drew's in  1890.  The  number  of  students 
is  (1921)  830. 

SAINT  ARNATJD,  JACQUES  LEROT 
DE,  a  French  marshal;  born  in  Paris, 
France,  in  1801.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1817,  but  left  it  in  1827  to  take  part  in 
the  Greek  struggle  for  independence.  Re- 
turning to  the  French  army  in  1831,  he 
six  years  later  proceeded  to  join  the  for- 
eign legion  in  north  Africa,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  his  reputation  in  the  wars 
against  the  native  tribes  during  the  next 
10  years.    In  1847  he  was  made  a  general 


ST.  ASAPH 


185 


ST.    BERNARD 


of  brigade;  and  in  the  early  part  of  1851 
he  carried  on  a  bloody  but  successful  war- 
fare with  the  Kabyles.  Louis  Napoleon, 
plotting  the  overthrow  of  the  republic, 
was  at  this  time  on  the  lookout  for  reso- 
lute and  unscrupulous  accomplices;  and 
he  recalled  General  Saint  Arnaud  and  ap- 
pointed him  to  the  command  of  the  second 
division  of  the  city  forces.  On  Oct.  25 
Saint  Arnaud  became  war  minister,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  arrangements 
for  the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  and  in  the 
subsequent  massacres  at  the  barricades. 
For  these  services  he  was  rewarded  with 
the  marshal's  baton.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Crimean  War  in  1854  he  was 
intrusted  with  the  command  of  the  French 
forces,  and  co-operated  with  Lord  Raglan 
in  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  Sept.  20.  But 
nine  days  afterward  he  died  on  board 
ship,  on  his  way  home  to  France,  Sept. 
29,  1854. 

ST.  ASAPH,  a  cathedral  city  of  Flint- 
shire, North  Wales,  on  an  eminence  be- 
tween the  Elwy  and  Clwyd,  6  miles  S. 
S.  E.  of  Rhyl.  The  cathedral,  182  feet 
long,  is  the  smallest  in  the  kingdom,  and, 
rebuilt  after  1284,  is  a  plain,  cruciform, 
red  sandstone  structure,  mainly  Deco- 
rated in  style,  with  a  massive  central 
tower  93  feet  high,  fine  oak  stalls.  It 
was  restored  by  Scott  in  1867-1875.  St. 
Kentigern  is  said  to  have  founded  about 
560  a  bishopric  at  Llanelwy,  renamed  St. 
Asaph  after  his  favorite  disciple.  St. 
Asaph  has  a  grammar  school,  founded 
about  1600,  and  rebuilt  in  1882.  Pop. 
about  7,000. 

ST.  AUGUSTINE,  a  city,  port  of  en- 
try, and  county-seat  of  St.  John  co.,  Fla.; 
on  the  Matanzas  river,  near  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  on  the  Florida  and  East 
Coast  Canal  and  the  Florida  East  Coast 
railroad;  36  miles  S.  of  Jacksonville.  It 
occupies  a  peninsula  formed  by  the  Ma- 
tanzas river  on  the  E.  and  the  St.  Sebas- 
tian river  on  the  S.  and  W.  Directly 
in  front  is  Anastasia  Island,  forming  a 
breakwater.  Here  are  the  State  Institute 
for  the  Blind,  Deaf,  and  Dumb,  the  Sis- 
ters of  St.  Joseph  and  St.  Mary's  Con- 
vents, Wilson  Public  Library,  United 
States  barracks,  United  States  govern- 
ment building,  the  great  Ponce  de  Leon, 
Cordova,  and  Alcazar  hotels,  and  two 
newspapers.  The  chief  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  cigars  and  palmetto  straw 
goods,  dairying  and  the  growing  of  agri- 
cultural and  horticultural  products.  The 
city,  however,  is  principally  of  importance 
as  a  winter  resort.  The  climate  is  mild 
and  equable,  there  being  only  a  few  days 
in  winter  when  invalids  cannot  take  reg- 
ular out-door  exercise.  The  gardens  and 
squares  are  full  of  palmettoes,  Spanish 
daggers,   orange   and   citron   trees,   date 


palms,  magnolia,  and  bananas.  St.  Au- 
gustine is  the  oldest  town  in  the  United 
States,  a  fort  having  been  built  here  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1565.  As  early  as  1512 
Ponce  de  Leon  landed  near  the  site  of 
the  city.  In  1763  it  became  a  British  pos- 
session, and  during  the  Revolutionary 
War  was  an  important  military  depot. 
Later  it  again  passed  into  the  hands  of 
Spain,  and  was  ceded  to  the  United  States 
in  1821.  Pop.  (1910)  5,494;  (1920) 
6,192. 

ST.  BARTHOLOMEW,  or  ST.  BAR- 
THELEMY,  a  French  West  Indian 
island,  190  miles  E.  of  Porto  Rico;  area, 
8  square  miles.  The  treeless  surface  rises 
to  1,003  feet;  the  climate  is  very  dry. 
French  from  1648  till  1784,  the  island 
then  was  Swedish  till  1877,  when  it  was 
bought  back  by  France  for   $55,000. 

ST.  BARTHOLOMEW,  MASSACRE 
OF,  a  massacre  of  the  Huguenots  which 
took  place  in  Paris,  France,  beginning  on 
the  night  of  August  23-24  (St.  Bartholo- 
mew's day),  1572.  A  large  number  of 
prominent  Huguenots  had  been  invited 
to  the  royal  palace  to  participate  in  the 
wedding  festivities  of  Henry  of  Navarre. 
While  these  guests  were  in  the  palace  they 
were  slaughtered  without  mercy,  and  at 
a  signal  the  massacre  quickly  spread  over 
the  city.  The  anti-Huguenot  leaders  were 
Charles  IX.,  the  queen-mother  Catharine 
de  Medici,  and  the  Duke  of  Guise.  It  has 
been  said  that  the  queen-mother  insti- 
gated the  king  to  his  fatal  persecution  of 
the  Huguenots.  Coligny  was  the  princi- 
pal victim  of  the  St.  Bartholomew  mas- 
sacre, probably  as  much  for  political  as 
for  religious  reasons.  The  massacre 
spread  over  France  and  about  30,000  lives 
were  lost.  A  religious  war  immediately 
followed.  It  is  disputed  whether  the  mas- 
sacre was  deliberately  planned  or  was  the 
sudden  result  of  the  discovery  of  Hu- 
guenot plots,  though  the  evidence  points 
largely  to  the  former. 

SAINT  BERNARD,  a  city  of  Ohio  in 
Hamilton  co.  It  is  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Southwestern,  the  Cleveland,  Cin- 
cinnati, Chicago,  and  St.  Louis,  and  the 
Norfolk  and  Western  railroads,  and  on 
the  Miami  and  Erie  Canal.  It  is  a  suburb 
of  Cincinnati.  Its  chief  industries  are 
soap  factories  and  fertilizer  plants.  Pop. 
(1910)  5,002;  (1920)  6,312. 

ST.  BERNARD,  the  name  of  two 
mountain  passes  in  the  Alps.  (1)  Great 
St.  Bernard  is  on  the  road  between  Aosta 
in  Piedmont  and  Martigny  in  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Valais,  and  is  8,120  feet  above 
sea-level.  Almost  on  its  crest  stands  the 
celebrated  hospice  founded  in  962  by  Ber- 
nard de  Menthon,  a  neighboring  noble- 
man, for  the  benefit  of  pilgrims  journey- 


ST.    BERNARD 


186 


ST.    CLAIR 


ing  to  Rome.  It  now  affords  sleeping 
accommodations  for  80  travelers,  and  can 
give  shelter  to  about  300  in  all.  The 
hospice  is  connected  with  a  station  in 
the  valley  below,  from  which  the  monks 
above  are  warned  by  telephone  when  trav- 
elers are  on  their  way  up  the  mountain. 
The  keepers  of  the  hospice  are  a  dozen 
or  so  of  Augustinian  monks,  all  young 
and  strong;  their  work  is,  with  the  aid 
of  large  dogs,  to  rescue  travelers  who  are 
in  danger  of  perishing  from  the  snow  and 
cold.  But  the  dogs  they  use  are  no  lon- 
ger the  famous  St.  Bernard  breed,  but 
Newfoundlands.  In  1889  a  botanical  gar- 
den, chiefly  for  Alpine  plants,  was  laid 
out  in  the  Entremontthal,  on  the  N.  slope 
of  the  pass.  Diggings  in  1890  revealed 
the  foundation  of  a  small  Roman  temple 
of  imperial  times  near  the  summit  of  the 
pass,  with  a  few  bronzes  and  other  an- 
tiques. (2)  Little  St.  Bernard,  S.  W. 
of  the  above  in  the  Graian  Alps,  connects 
the  valley  of  Aosta  with  that  of  Taran- 
taise  in  Savoy.  By  this  pass  Hannibal 
is  believed  to  have  led  his  forces  into 
Italy.  It,  too,  has  a  hospice,  7,143  feet 
above  the  sea. 

ST.  BERNARD,  a  breed  of  dogs  which 
derives  its  name  from  the  hospice  of  St. 
Bernard,  where  it  was  first  introduced 
for  the  purpose  of  finding  the  pass  across 
the  mountain  in  snow. 

The  St.  Bernard,  according  to  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  monastery,  is  the  result  of 
a  cross  between  a  Danish  bull-bitch  and 
a  mastiff,  a  native  hill  dog,  though  at 
what  time  effected  it  is  impossible  to  say. 
After  the  breed  was  once  established  it 
was  kept  pure  till  1812.  About  1860 
these  dogs  first  attracted  the  attention  of 
English  travelers,  who  imported  them  to 
Great  Britain,  where  they  were  exhibited 
and  at  once  excited  much  notice  on  ac- 
count of  their  size  and  beauty.  Others 
were  introduced,  and  the  St.  Bernard  was 
soon  established  as  the  most  popular  big 
dog,  a  popularity  which  has  gone  on  in- 
creasing. The  St.  Bernard,  as  bred  to 
modern  English  ideas,  is  an  immense  red 
or  orange  colored  dog,  marked  with  white 
on  muzzle,  neck,  chest,  feet,  and  tip  of 
tail. 

ST.  CATHARINES,  a  city  and  capital 
of  Lincoln  co.,  Ont.,  Canada;  on  the  Wel- 
land  canal,  and  the  Welland,  the  Niagara 
Central,  and  the  Grand  Trunk  railroads; 
12  miles  N.  W.  of  Niagara  Falls.  Here 
are  a  Collegiate  Institute,  Bishop  Ridley 
College,  a  convent,  numerous  churches, 
General  and  Marine  Hospitals,  water- 
works, gas  and  electric  lights,  celebrated 
mineral  springs,  several  branch  banks, 
and  a  number  of  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers. St.  Catharines  is  the  center  of 
the  fruit  trade  of  Ontario.    It  has  numer- 


ous canning  factories,  flour  mills,  ma- 
chine shops,  planing  mills,  breweries, 
woolen  mills,  wheel  works,  tanneries,  hair 
cloth  factories,  etc.    Pop.  about  20,000. 

SAINT  CATHARINE'S  COLLEGE,  a 
college  of  Cambridge  University,  founded 
in  1473.  It  is  one  of  the  smaller  Cam- 
bridge colleges,  having  about  30  scholars. 

ST.  CHARLES,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  St.  Charles  co.,  Mo.;  on  the  Mis- 
rouri  river,  the  Wabash,  and  the  Mis- 
souri, Kansas,  and  Texas  railroads;  22 
miles  W.  of  St.  Louis.  It  contains  Lin- 
denwood  Female  College,  St.  Charles  Col- 
lege (M.  E.  S.),  the  Convent  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  electric  lights,  St.  Charles  Borro- 
meo  and  St.  Charles  Libraries,  National 
and  savings  banks,  and  a  number  of  daily 
and  weekly  newspapers.  An  iron  rail- 
road and  highway  bridge,  built  at  a  cost 
of  $1,750,000,  crosses  the  river  here.  In 
the  vicinity  are  several  quarries  of  lime- 
stone. The  city  has  a  woolen  factory,  a 
large  bridge-building  plant,  flour  mills, 
manufactures  of  railroad  cars,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)  9,437;  (1920)  8,503. 

ST.  CHRISTOPHER.     See  KlTT'S,  St. 

SAINT  CLAIR,  a  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Schuylkill  co.  It  is  on  the  Penn- 
sylvania and  the  Philadelphia  and  Read- 
ing railroads.  It  is  the  center  of  an 
important  anthracite  coal  region  and  coal 
mining  is  the  leading  industry.  Pop. 
(1910)    5,640;   (1920)   6,585. 

ST.  CLAIR,  a  lake  in  North  America, 
between  Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Erie,  and 
connected  with  the  former  by  St.  Clair 
river,  with  the  latter  by  Detroit  river. 
It  is  30  miles  long,  greatest  breadth  24 
miles,  area  360  square  miles.  It  contains 
several  fine  islands.  The  river  St.  Clair, 
which  separates  Canada  and  the  United 
States,  is  about  40  miles  long,  1  mile  wide, 
and  navigable. 

SAINT  CLAIR  RIVER,  a  river  form- 
ing the  boundary  between  Michigan  and 
Ontario,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Huron.  It 
empties  into  Lake  St.  Clair.  The  river 
is  navigable  and  a  canal  has  been  dug 
through  one  of  its  channels,  forming  the 
St.  Clair  Flats  Canal.  A  tunnel  under- 
neath the  river  between  Port  Huron  and 
Sarnia  connects  the  Canadian  Grand 
Trunk  and  the  Chicago  and  Grand  Trunk 
railways. 

ST.  CLAIR,  ARTHUR,  an  American 
military  officer ;  born  in  Thurso,  Scotland, 
in  1734.  He  was  at  Louisburg  in  1758 
and  Quebec  in  1759;  engaged  in  the  bat- 
tles of  Trenton  and  Princeton;  was  in 
command  in  1777  at  Ticonderoga,  which 
Burgoyne  forced  him  to  evacuate;  was  at 
the  battle  of  Yorktown ;  president  of  Con- 


ST.    CLOUD 


187 


ST.    DAVIDS 


gress  in  1787;  governor  of  Northwest 
Territory  in  1789-1802.  The  expedition- 
ary force  against  the  Miami  Indians, 
numbering  1,400,  commanded  by  him,  was 
cut  to  pieces  near  Miami  village  in  1791. 
He  resigned  his  command  in  1792;  pub- 
lished an  account  of  the  Miami  expedition 
in  1812;  and  died  near  Greensburg,  Pa., 
August  31,  1818. 

ST.  CLOUD,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Stearns  co.,  Minn.;  on  the  Mississippi 
river,  and  on  the  Northern  Pacific,  and 
the  Great  Northern  railroads;  75  miles 
N.  W.  of  St.  Paul.  It  contains  the  Min- 
nesota State  Reformatory,  a  State  Normal 
School,  hospital,  public  library,  water- 
works, street  railroad  and  electric  light 
plants,  National  and  private  banks,  and 
daily  newspapers.  It  has  novelty  works, 
manufactures  of  lumber  and  wagons, 
flour  mills,  foundry,  several  granite  quar- 
ries, the  Great  Northern  railroad  car 
shops,  and  large  grain  interests.  Pop. 
(1910)   10,600;    (1920)   15,873. 

ST.  CLOUD,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Seine-et-Oise ;  on  an  emi- 
nence near  the  Seine,  -5  miles  W.  of 
Paris.  Henry  III.  was  assassinated  here 
in  1589  by  the  fanatical  monk  Jacques 
Clement.  St.  Cloud  was  long  famous  on 
account  of  its  magnificent  chateau,  built 
by  Louis  XIV.'s  brother,  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans. Napoleon  planned  and  carried  out 
here  the  coup  of  18th  Brumaire,  and  after 
he  became  emperor  made  this  chateau 
his  favorite  place  of  residence.  It  was 
destroyed,  and  its  magnificent  park  (in 
which  stands  the  Sevres  porcelain  fac- 
tory), greatly  injured,  during  the  siege 
of  Paris  in  1870.     Pop.  about  6,000. 

ST.  CROIX,  an  American  river,  called 
also  the  Passamaquoddy  and  the  Schoo- 
dic,  which,  flowing  out  of  Grand  Lake, 
on  the  E.  border  of  Maine,  runs  S.  E.  75 
miles  to  Passamaquoddy  Bay,  and  forms 
a  portion  of  the  boundary  between  the 
United  States  and  New  Brunswick. 

ST.  CROIX,  a  West  Indian  island, 
formerly  belonging  to  Denmark;  pur- 
chased by  the  United  States  in  1916  and 
now  one  of  the  Virgin  Islands.  Area, 
74  square  miles;  pop.  about  20,000.  Pop. 
of  Fredericksted,  chief  town,  3,000.  The 
W.  portion  is  hilly,  but  the  soil  almost 
throughout  the  island  is  productive.  Sugar 
is  the  principal  crop,  which  is,  however, 
diminishing.  The  island  was  discovered 
by  Columbus. 

ST.  CUTHBERT,  an  English  bishop; 
born  near  Melrose,  England;  early  in  the 
7th  century.  He  was  successively  prior 
of  the  monasteries  of  Melrose  and  Lindis- 
farne,  retired  afterward  to  the  lone  and 
desolate  isle  of  Fame,  where  he  might  en- 


joy a  life  of  solitude.  He  finally  yielded 
to  the  persuasion  of  the  Northumbrian 
king,  Oswy,  and  took  the  bishopric  of  the 
province  of  Lindisfarne.  He  held  this  of- 
fice for  two  years,  when,  worn  out  by 
labors  and  austerities,  he  died  on  the 
island  of  Fame,  March  20,  687,  which 
day  is  observed  for  his  festival. 

ST.    CYRIL    OF    ALEXANDRIA,    an 

Egyptian  bishop;  born  in  Alexandria, 
Egypt,  about  376.  He  succeeded  his  uncle 
Theophilus  as  Bishop  of  Alexandria  in 
412.  He  compelled  the  Novatians  to  si- 
lence, banished  the  Jews,  and  caused  Nes- 
torius  to  be  condemned  and  deposed  by 
the  Council  of  Ephesus.  A  subsequent 
ex  parte  council  of  42  bishops,  headed  by 
John,  patriarch  of  Antioch,  and  favoring 
Nestorius,  excommunicated  and  deposed 
his  opponent.  The  emperor,  appealed  to 
in  this  strait,  condemned  both  sides,  and 
ordered  the  rival  champions  to  be  impris- 
oned. The  powerful  intercession  of  Rome, 
however,  caused  this  sentence  against 
Cyril  to  be  abrogated.  His  works,  mostly 
controversial,  have  been  published,  Paris, 
1638,  in  seven  volumes,  folio.  He  died  in 
Alexandria  in  June,  444. 

ST.  CYRIL  OF  JERUSALEM,  a 
Church  father;  born  in  or  near  Jerusa- 
lem, Palestine,  about  315.  He  was  elected 
bishop  of  his  native  city  in  351.  He  was 
soon  engaged  in  hot  conflict  with  his  met- 
ropolitan, the  Arian  bishop  Acacius  of 
Caesarea,  who  caused  him  to  be  twice  de- 
posed. He  was  for  the  second  time  re- 
stored to  his  episcopate  in  360.  Soon  af- 
ter, his  old  enemy  Acacius  died,  but  Cyril 
was  immediately  involved  in  new  difficul- 
ties. After  considerable  strife  Cyril  was 
banished  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Valens 
in  367;  nor  did  he  return  till  the  emper- 
or's death  in  378.  His  writings,  mostly 
doctrinal,  are  extremely  valuable.  They 
present  to  us,  in  a  more  complete  and 
systematic  manner  than  the  writings  of 
any  other  father,  the  creed  of  the  Church. 
He  died  in  386. 

ST.  DAVID.     See  David  I. 

ST.  DAVID,  FORT,  a  ruined  defensive 
work  on  the  coast  of  Madras  presidency, 
British  India;  100  miles  S.  of  Madras,  on 
the  outskirts  of  Cuddalore.  It  became 
British  in  1690,  along  with  all  the  land 
round  about  to  the  distance  of  a  "randome 
shott,"  and  was  an  important  place  dur- 
ing the  struggle  with  the  French,  forming 
the  chief  of  the  English  settlements  on 
the  Coromandel  coast  from  1746  to  1752. 
It  is  of  interest  also  from  association  with 
Clive,  who  became  governor  in  1756. 

ST.  DAVIDS,  a  village  in  Pembroke- 
shire, South  Wales,  on  the  rivulet  Alan, 
within  lVz  miles  of  St.  Brides  Bay  and  16 


ST.    DENIS 


188 


ST.    ETIENNE 


miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Haverford-West  sta- 
tion. The  ancient  Menevia,  it  is  now  a 
very  small  place;  but  in  the  Middle  Ages 
its  cathedral,  with  the  shrine  of  its  found- 
er, St.  David,  the  patron  saint  of  Wales, 
attracted  many  pilgrims,  among  them  the 
Conqueror,  Henry  II.,  Edward  I.  and 
Queen  Eleanor.  Rebuilt  between  1180 
and  1522  that  cathedral  is  a  cruciform 
pile,  measuring  298  feet  by  120  across 
the  transepts,  with  a  central  tower  116 
feet  high.  Special  features  are  the  base 
of  St.  David's  shrine,  the  tomb  of  Ed- 
mund Tudor,  Henry  VII. 's  father,  and 
the  mosaics  by  Salviati.  Little  is  known 
of  the  British  bishops  after  St.  David's 
death  in  601;  of  the  72  since  1115  may 
be  mentioned  Archbishops  Thoresby  and 
Chichely,  Barlow,  Ferrar  the  Marian 
martyr,  Middleton  the  forger,  Arch- 
bishop Laud,  Mainwaring,  Bull,  Lowth, 
Horsley,  and  Thirlwall.  N.  of  the  cathe- 
dral is  the  ruined  college  of  St.  Mary 
(1377),  with  a  slender  tower  70  feet  high; 
and  across  the  Alan  are  the  stately  re- 
mains of  Bishop  Gower's  palace  (1342). 

ST.  DENIS.    See  Denis,  St. 

ST.  DIE,  a  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  the  Vosges;  on  the  Meurthe,  50 
miles  S.  E.  of  Nancy.  It  has  a  Roman- 
esque-Gothic cathedral,  a  large  seminary, 
and  a  museum,  and  carries  on  energeti- 
cally the  weaving  of  cotton,  the  making 
of  hosiery,  paper,  machinery,  and  iron 
goods.  It  is  a  convenient  starting-point 
for  excursions  into  the  Vosges  mountains. 
Pop.  about  22,000. 

ST.  DOMINGO.    See  Santo  Domingo. 

ST.  DOMINIC.     See  Dominic,  Saint. 

SAINTE  ANNE  DE  BEAUPRE,  a 
village  of  Quebec,  Canada,  in  Montmor- 
ency co.,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ste.  Anne 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  rivers.  It  is  chiefly 
noted  for  the  church  of  Ste.  Anne,  con- 
taining relics  of  Ste.  Anne  which  are 
alleged  to  have  miraculous  powers.  Thou- 
sands of  pilgrims  visit  the  shrine  annu- 
ally. Ste.  Anne  was  founded  about  1620 
and  the  first  church  was  erected  in  1658. 
It  was  restored  in  1878  and  still  remains. 
Several  picturesque  falls  are  in  the  neigh- 
borhood.    Pop.  about  2,000. 

SAINTE-BEUVE,  CHARLES  ATT- 
GUSTIN,  a  French  writer,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  of  modern  critics;  born  in 
Boulogne,  France,  in  1804.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Paris,  but  abandoned  that 
science  in  favor  of  literature,  his  first 
work  of  importance  being  on  the  French 
literature  of  the  16th  century.  In  1837 
he  delivered  some  lectures  in  the  School 
of  Port  Royal  at  Lausanne,  and  these  laid 
the  foundation  of  his  elaborate  work, 
"History  of  Port  Royal."    In  1840  he  was 


appointed  conservator  of  the  Mazarin  Li- 
brary, and  in  1845  admitted  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy.  After  1848  he  con- 
tributed a  number  of  critiques  to  the  Mon- 
day numbers  of  the  "Constitutional"  and 
then  of  the  "Moniteur"  ("Monday  Talks," 
15  vols.;  "New  Mondays,"  13  vols.).  In 
1852  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Latin 
Poetry  in  the  College  of  France,,  but  his 
views  in  favor  of  Napoleon  III.  and  im- 
perialism rendered  him  unacceptable  to  a 
large  section  of  the  students,  and  he  re- 
signed; he  also  lectured  for  some  years 
on  French  literature  at  the  Ecole  Normale 
Superieure.  The  cross  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  was  bestowed  on  him  in  1859,  and 
the  senatorship  in  1865.  Most  of  his  crit- 
ical writings  have  been  republished  in 
various  editions.  He  also  wrote  three 
volumes  of  poetry  (1829-1837),  under  the 
pseudonym  "Joseph  Delorme,"  but  these 
do  not  rank  high.  He  died  in  Paris  in 
1869. 

ST.  ELIAS,  MOTTNT.  See  ELIAS, 
Saint. 

ST.     ELIZABETH.       See     Elizabeth, 

Saint. 

ST.  ELMO'S  FIRE,  a  peculiar  electri- 
cal phenomenon.  Just  preceding  a  storm 
the  atmosphere  often  becomes  charged 
with  electricity  which  flows  from  the 
clouds.  This  makes  itself  visible  in  small, 
brush-like  flames  appearing  on  the  sharp 
edges  or  points  of  different  bodies.  At 
sea,  where  it  is  a  very  common  occur- 
rence, it  has  been  regarded  by  sailors 
with  superstitious  awe  and  dread  from 
the  earliest  times.  The  Romans  called 
the  lights  Castor  and  Pollux.  If  one  ap- 
peared, they  said  it  was  an  omen  of  dan- 
ger ;  if  two,  it  was  an  assurance  of  safety. 
Italian  mariners  of  the  Middle  Ages  re- 
garded the  light  as  a  luminous  emanation 
from  the  body  of  Christ,  and  the  appear- 
ance is  still  called  by  the  Portuguese 
Corpo  Santo.  In  an  account  of  the  second 
voyage  of  Columbus  they  are  described. 
Fournier,  a  writer  of  the  17th  century, 
says  the  light  was  named  after  a  saint, 
familiarly  known  as  Saint  Telme,  but  who 
was  San  Pedro  Gonzales  de  Tuy,  in  Ga- 
licia,  who  had  been  a  mariner,  then  was 
canonized,  and  became  a  patron  saint  of 
sailors.  Galician  sailors  called  the  light 
San  Pedro  Gonzales.  The  phenomenon 
also  has  been  known  by  the  name  of  St. 
Hermes,  St.  Ermyn,  St.  Helen,  St.  Nich- 
olas, St.  Peter,  St.  Anne,  or,  indeed,  by 
that  of  any  one  of  a  hundred  other  saints. 

ST.  ETIENNE,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant industrial  towns  in  France,  in  the 
department  of  Loire,  on  a  tributary  of  the 
Loire,  36  miles  S.  W.  of  Lyons  and  312 
S.  S.  E.  of  Paris.  It  is  built  in  the  midst 
of  the  second  largest  coal  field  of  France. 


ST.    FRANCIS 


189 


ST.    GERMAIN-DES-PRES 


The  town  has  a  school  of  mines  (1816),  a 
national  small  arms  factory  (1764),  a 
gallery  of  art,  an  artillery  and  a  commer- 
cial museum.  The  chief  industries  are  in 
iron  and  steel  and  in  ribbons.  Besides 
these  branches  of  industry,  hats,  pottery, 
and  hem?  cables  are  made.  The  coal 
mines  began  to  be  worked  in  the  14th 
century,  but  only  on  an  extensive  scale 
in  the  end  of  the  18th.  The  town  was 
twice  captured  by  the  Huguenots,  in  1563 
and  1570,  and  between  this  last  date  and 
1629  it  suffered  terribly  on  three  occa- 
sions from  the  plague.  The  first  railways 
in  France  were  built  from  St.  Etienne, 
one  in  1828  to  Andrezieu,  the  other  in 
1831  to  Lyons.     Pop.  about  149,000. 

ST.  FRANCIS,  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  forming  part  of  the  boundary  be- 
tween Arkansas  and  Missouri,  and  en- 
tering the  Mississippi.  At  high  water  it 
is  navigable  for  about  150  miles;  total 
length  450. 

ST.  FRANCIS  DE  SALES.  See  Fran- 
CIS  de  Sales,  St. 

ST.  FRANCIS  OF  PAOLA.  See  FRAN- 
CESCO di  Paula. 

ST.  FRANCIS  XAVIER,  a  Roman 
Catholic  educational  institution,  formerly 
the  College  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  but 
now  a  high  school.  The  college  depart- 
ment was  transferred  to  Brooklyn  Col- 
lege, Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  1913,  which 
gives  degrees  under  the  title  of  the  Col- 
lege of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  N.  Y.  The 
high  school  has  a  library  of  about  130,000 
volumes,  and  has  about  400  students  and 
17  instructors.  President,  Thomas  Fell, 
Ph.D. 

ST.  GALL,  the  capital  of  the  Swiss 
canton  of  the  same  name;  on  the  Stein- 
ach;  2,196  feet  above  sea-level  (the  high- 
est town  in  Europe),  53  miles  E.  of  Zu- 
rich, and  9  from  Rorschach  on  the  Lake 
of  Constance.  The  buildings  of  its  famous 
Benedictine  monastery  are  now  used  as 
government  offices  and  schools,  and  for 
housing  the  monastic  library,  founded  in 
830,  of  41,700  volumes  and  1,800  MSS., 
several  of  these  last  of  great  antiquity 
and  value.  Other  buildings  are  the  old 
abbey  church,  thoroughly  restored  in 
1756-1766,  and  made  a  cathedral  in  1846; 
the  Protestant  Church  of  St.  Lawrence 
(restored  1851-1853)  ;  the  town  library, 
founded  in  1536;  and  the  museum  with 
collections  of  natural  history,  works  of 
art,  and  antiquities.  The  city  carries  on 
a  large  trade  in  its  staple  commodity,  em- 
broidered textiles  (cotton,  muslin,  etc.), 
and  in  agricultural  products.  The  origi- 
nal nucleus  of  the  place  was  the  cell  of 
St.  Gall  (about  550-645),  an  Irish  fol- 
lower of  St.  Columban,  who  settled  here 

M— 


in  614.  Around  this  soon  grew  up  a 
monastery  of  the  Benedictine  order,  which 
was  promoted  by  Charles  Martel  to  the 
dignity  of  an  abbey.  The  abbey  grad- 
ually became  one  of  the  masterpieces  of 
mediaeval  architecture;  while  the  monks 
were  indefatigable  in  the  collection  and 
transcription  of  MSS. — Biblical,  patris- 
tic, historical  (sacred  and  profane,  class- 
ical, liturgical,  and  legendary).  Several 
of  the  classics,  especially  Quintilian,  Sili- 
us  Italicus,  and  Ammianus  Marcellinus, 
have  been  preserved  solely  through  the 
MSS.  of  St.  Gall.  Its  monastic  schools 
enjoyed  the  greatest  reputation  for  learn- 
ing from  the  9th  to  the  12th  century.  In 
1454  the  town  was  admitted  to  the  Swiss 
confederation,  and  in  1528,  through  the 
influence  of  the  reformer  Vadianus,  it 
embraced  the  new  doctrines.  At  the  close, 
however,  of  the  religious  war,  in  1531,  the 
Catholic  religion  was  re-established,  and 
the  abbot  reinstated.  At  the  French  Rev- 
olution the  abbey  was  secularized  (1798), 
and  its  revenues  were  soon  afterward 
sequestrated  (1805).  By  a  later  arrange- 
ment (1836)  St.  Gall  was  erected  into 
a  bishopric.  The  French  republicans  cre- 
ated the  canton  of  Santis  out  of  the  town 
and  abbey  lands,  with  others,  in  1799; 
and  in  1803  the  existing  canton  of  St.  Gall 
was  formed.  Pop.  of  canton  (1920)  294,- 
028;  of  city   (1920)   69,733. 

SAINT    GATJDENS,    AUGUSTUS,    an 

American  sculptor;  born  in  Dublin,  lre~ 
land,  March  1,  1848;  came  to  the  United 
States  in  infancy;  studied  art  at  Cooper 
Institute,  New  York  City,  in  1861 ;  at  the 
National  Academy  of  Design  in  1865- 
1866,  and  at  Paris,  where  he  attended  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  in  1867.  In  1871, 
while  in  Rome  he  produced  his  first  fig- 
ure, "Hiawatha,"  but  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1873.  Among  his  works 
are  the  bas-relief,  "Adoration  of  the  Cross 
by  Angels,"  statues  of  Admiral  D.  G.  Far- 
ragut;  Robert  R.  Randall,  and  President 
Lincoln;  the  Shaw  monument  in  Boston, 
and  the  original  Diana  on  the  Madison 
Square  Garden,  N.  Y.  He  assisted  John 
La  Farge  in  the  decoration  of  Trinity 
Church,  Boston,  and  in  the  modeling  of 
the  statue  of  Le  Roy  King,  in  Newport, 
R.  I.  He  designed  the  Medal  of  Award 
of  the  Columbian  Exposition,  and  a  num- 
ber of  presentation  medals  authorized  by 
Congress.  He  received  a  medal  of  honor 
at  Buffalo  in  1901.    He  died  Aug.  3,  1907. 

ST.  GENEVIEVE.    See  GENEVIEVE,  St. 

ST.  GEORGE.     See  GEORGE,  St. 

ST.       GEORGE'S       CHANNEL.        See 
George's  Channel,  St. 

ST.     GERMAIN-DES-PRES,    named 
from  Germanus;  was  a  famous  Benedic- 
Cyc  Vol  8 


ST.    GERMAIN-EN-LAYE 


190 


SAINT-HILAIRE 


tine  monastery  near  Paris.  Its  church 
(1001-1163)  ranks  as  the  oldest  in  that 
city. 

ST.  GERMAIN-EN-LAYE.  See  Ger- 
main-en  Laye,  St. 

ST.  GOAR,  a  fortified  town  of  Prussia, 
15  miles  from  Coblentz.  It  is  on  the  W. 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  under  the  stupendous 
rock  and  castle  of  Rheinfels,  with  which 
it  surrendered  to  the  French  in  1794. 
On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  is  the 
smaller  town  of  St.  Goarshausen,  and  on 
a  mountain  near  it  is  the  strong  castle 
called  Katz.  St.  Goar  has  a  considerable 
trade  in  wines  and  hides.  At  the  end  of 
the  World  War  American  troops  occupied 
the  town  in  accordance  with  the  armistice 
terms. 

ST.  GOTTHARD,  a  mountain  knot  of 
the  Alps,  in  the  Swiss  cantons  of  Uri, 
Grisons,  Ticino,  and  Valais,  9,850  feet 
high.  In  its  arms  it  holds  the  sources 
of  the  Rhine,  Rhone,  Ticino,  Reuss  rivers, 
and  so  sends  the  water  from  its  melted 
snows  to  the  German  Ocean,  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  the  Adriatic.  On  its  shoul- 
der it  bears  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  Alpine  passes  from  Switzerland  to 
Italy.  The  road  that  crosses  this  pass 
(6,936  feet)  leads  from  the  shores  of  Lakj 
Lucerno  to  the  shores  of  Lago  Maggiore. 
This  route  was  first  used  by  the  Longo- 
bardi  in  the  6th  century.  Since  1882,  a 
railway  has  climbed  up  the  lower  slopes 
of  the  St.  Gotthard,  and  then  burrowed 
through  it  in  a  tunnel.  The  making  of 
this  tunnel  was  begun  in  1872  and  fin- 
ished in  1880;  it  extends  from  Goschenen 
(at  a  height  of  3,639  feet)  in  Uri  to  Airo- 
lo  (3,757  feet)  in  Ticino,  measures  9% 
miles  in  length,  is  26  feet  wide,  and  21 
high,  rises  with  a  gradient  that  reaches 
on  an  average  26  in  100  feet,  and  cost 
$11,350,000  to  make.  The  total  cost  of  the 
St.  Gotthard  railway  was  $45,400,000. 
The  line  has  proved  very  successful  finan- 
cially. 

ST.  GREGORY.     See  Gregory,  St. 

ST.  HELENA,  a  lonely  island  in  the 
Atlantic,  1,200  miles  from  the  W.  coast  of 
Africa;  length,  10  miles;  width,  8  miles; 
area,  47  square  miles.  Pop.  about  3,750. 
It  is  part  of  an  old  volcano  and  reaches 
2,823  feet  in  High  Hill.  Its  shores  are 
perpendicular  cliffs  600  to  2,000  feet  high, 
and  are  in  many  places  cleft  by  deep,  nar- 
row valleys.  The  climate  is  pretty  con- 
stant and  generally  healthy.  Whale-fish- 
ing and  the  growing  of  potatoes  are  the 
principal  occupations  of  the  inhabitants. 
Previous  to  the  cutting  of  the  Suez  Canal 
St.  Helena  was  a  favorite  port  of  call  for 
vessels  bound  to  and  from  India  by  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  inhabitants 


did  a  large  trade  in  furnishing  these  ves- 
sels with  provisions  and  other  supplies. 
But  the  shorter  route  afforded  by  the 
canal  and  the  Red  Sea  has  entirely  de- 
stroyed  this  trade,  and  the  island  is  speed' 
ily  going  from  bad  to  worse.  At  James- 
town, the  capital,  a  detachment  of  Royal 
Marines  is  stationed.  St.  Helena  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  in  1502,  and 
taken  possession  of  by  the  British  East 
India  Company  in  1651.  They  remained 
masters  of  the  island  down  to  1834 ;  since 
that  time  it  has  been  administered  by  a 
governor  and  an  executive  council  of  four 
members.  The  island  is  chiefly  celebrated 
as  the  place  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte's  im- 
prisonment from  1815  to  his  death  in 
1821.  His  home  was  the  farmhouse  of 
Longwood,  3  miles  inland  from  James- 
town; and  the  spot  where  he  was  first 
buried  lies  about  1  mile  to  the  S.  W. 

ST.  HELENS,  a  town  of  Lancashire, 
England,  on  the  Sankey  brook;  14  miles 
E.  N.  E.  of  Liverpool  and  21  W.  by  S. 
of  Manchester.  Thanks  to  its  railway 
and  canal  facilities,  and  to  the  immedi- 
ate neighborhood  of  coal,  it  has  grown 
from  a  small  village  to  an  important  in- 
dustrial center,  and  now  is  the  great  seat 
of  the  manufacture  of  crown,  plate,  and 
sheet  glass,  and  also  possesses  extensive 
alkali,  copper  smelting,  and  iron  works. 
It  was  constituted  a  municipal  borough 
in  1868;  a  parliamentary  borough  in 
1885;  and  a  county  borough  in  1888.  The 
handsome  town  hall,  with  a  public  li- 
brary, was  opened  in  1876.  Pop.  (1919) 
105,009. 

ST.  HELEN'S  MOUNTAIN,  a  volcanic 
peak  of  the  Cascade  range,  at  the  N.  W. 
angle  of  Skamania  co.,  Wash.;  height, 
about  13,400  feet. 

ST.  HELIER,  the  capital  of  the  island 
of  Jersey;  on  the  S.  shore  of  the  island, 
and  the  E.  side  of  St.  Aubin's  Bay.  It  is 
defended  by  Elizabeth  Castle  (1551- 
1586),  on  a  rocky  island  off  the  shore, 
approached  by  a  causeway  at  low  water; 
and  by  Fort  Regent,  on  the  S.  E.  side  of 
the  town;  built  in  1806-1815  on  a  scarped 
granite  rock,  at  a  cost  of  $5,000,000.  Vic- 
toria college  (1852)  is  a  handsome  edi- 
fice; and  one  may  also  notice  the  court 
house  (1647),  the  public  library  (1736), 
a  gilt  statue  of  George  II.  (1751),  and 
the  harbor,  forming  an  outer  and  inner 
basin.  An  active  trade  is  carried  on  with 
England,  France,  and  India.  Pop.  about 
30,000.    See  Jersey. 

SAINT-HILAIRE,  AUGTJSTIN 
FRANCOIS  CESAR  PROUVENCAL  DE, 

called  'Auguste  de  Saint-Hilaire,  a 
French  botanist;  born  in  Orleans,  France, 
Oct.  4,  1799;  wrote:  "Flora  of  Southern 


ST.    IVES 


191 


ST.    JOHN'S 


Brazil,"  and  a  series  of  four  works,  which 
included  his  travels,  under  the  general 
title  of  "Journey  in  the  Interior  of  Bra- 
zil," and  issued  in  eight  volumes,  at  inter- 
vals from  1830  till  1851.  He  traveled 
extensively  in  the  S.  and  interior  prov- 
inces of  Brazil  from  1816  till  1822.  He 
died  in  Orleans,  Sept.  30,  1853. 

ST.  IVES,  a  seaport  and  watering  place 
in  England,  on  St.  Ives  Bay,  on  the  N. 
coast  of  Cornwall;  57  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Plymouth.  It  is  a  popular  winter  resort, 
has  an  extensive  pilchard  fishery,  and 
exports  large  quantities  of  tin,  copper, 
and  slate.  Its  harbor  is  protected  by  a 
pier  built  in  1770.  It  has  beautiful 
churches  and  chapels,  a  custom  house,  and 
other  public  buildings,  including  a  literary 
institution.     Pop.  about  7,000. 

ST.  JAMES'S  PALACE,  a  palace  in 
London,  England.  Originally  a  hospital 
dedicated  to  St.  James,  it  was  recon- 
structed and  made  a  manor  by  Henry 
VIII.,  who  also  annexed  to  it  a  park, 
which  he  inclosed  with  a  brick  wall,  to 
connect  St.  James's  with  Whitehall.  The 
gateway  and  clock  tower  are  from  de- 
signs by  Holbein.  Here  Queen  Mary  died 
(1558) ;  Charles  I.  slept  here  the  night 
before  his  execution;  and  here  Charles 
II.,  the  Old  Pretender,  and  George  IV. 
were  born.  When  Whitehall  was  burned 
in  1697,  St.  James's  became  the  regular 
London  residence  of  the  British  sove- 
reigns, and  it  continued  to  be  so  till  Queen 
Victoria's  time.  Additions  and  improve- 
ments, gradually  made,  have  totally 
changed  the  original  palace,  so  that  at 
the  present  time  little,  if  any,  of  the 
old  structure  remains.  In  1837  the  royal 
household  was  transferred  to  Bucking- 
ham Palace,  whither  the  drawing  rooms 
were  also  removed  at  the  death  of  the 
prince  consort,  and  St.  James's  was  used 
only  for  levees.  The  Court  of  St.  James's 
is  a  frequent  designation  of  the  British 
court.  St.  James's  Park  lies  S.  of  the 
palace,  and  extends  over  93  acres. 

ST.  JOHN,  a  city,  seaport,  and  capital 
of  St.  John  co.,  province  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, Canada,  on  the  St.  John  river,  at 
its  entrance  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  and 
on  the  Intercolonial,  the  New  Brunswick 
Southern,  and  the  Canadian  Pacific  rail- 
roads, 481  miles  E.  of  Montreal.  It  has 
an  excellent  harbor,  protected  by  a  break- 
water 2,250  feet  long.  The  tides  here 
rise  and  fall  from  25  to  35  feet  every 
day.  The  city  is  built  on  rising  ground, 
the  elevated  portion  consisting  wholly  of 
solid  rock,  which  in  numerous  places  has 
been  excavated  to  a  considerable  depth 
for  new  streets.  Here  are  churches  rep- 
resenting all  of  the  principal  denomina- 
tions, and  excellent  schools.     The  public 


buildings  include  the  post  office,  custom 
house,  Odd  Fellows'  and  Masonic  Halls, 
Free  Public  Library,  Mechanics'  Institute, 
Provincial  Insane  Asylum,  City  Hospital, 
Sailors'  Home,  Home  for  Aged  Females, 
Reformatory  for  Boys,  Wiggin's  Orphan 
Asylum  for  Sons  of  Seamen,  Protestant 
and  Roman  Catholic  orphan  asylums,  and 
the  Dominion  Savings  Bank.  St.  John 
has  large  business  interests.  The  prin- 
cipal industries  include  the  manufacture 
of  carriages,  paint,  sashes  and  doors, 
lead  pipe,  engines  and  boilers,  nuts  and 
bolts,  furniture,  nails,  rolled  iron,  cotton 
goods,  and  lumber.  The  foreign  trade 
is  also  very  extensive,  as  the  city  is  the 
shipping  point  of  a  rich  agricultural,  tim- 
ber, and  mineral  region.  In  1604  the 
site  of  St.  John  was  visited  by  M.  de 
Monts,  and  in  1635  Charles  de  la  Tour 
erected  a  fort  here.  In  1735  the  place 
became  a  British  possession  by  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht.  In  the  same  year  it  was 
colonized  by  American  royalists,  and  two 
years  later  was  chartered  as  a  city.  Pop 
about  61,500. 

ST.  JOHN,  the  largest  river  of  New 
Brunswick,  rising  in  the  highlands  in 
the  N.  of  Maine,  flowing  N.  E.,  and  then 
S.  E.  450  miles,  and  falling  into  the  Bay 
of  Fundy  by  an  estuary  5  miles  in  width. 
Near  the  sea  it  is  navigable  for  large 
vessels;  while  for  craft  of  120  tons  it  is 
practicable  as  far  as  Fredericton  (86 
miles),  and  for  small  steamers  to  Wood- 
stock, 75  further  up.  Through  most  of 
its  upper  course  the  stream  separates 
Maine  from  Canada. 

ST.  JOHN.     See  John,  St. 

ST.  JOHN  LATERAN,  CHURCH  OF. 

See  Lateran,  Church  op  St.  John. 

ST.  JOHN'S,  a  city,  capital  of  New- 
foundland, and  the  extreme  eastern  sea- 
port of  North  America;  1,076  miles  N.  E. 
of  Montreal  and  1,665  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
Galway,  Ireland,  the  shortest  distance 
between  any  two  seaports  of  America  and 
Europe.  It  is  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and 
the  Newfoundland  railway.  The  city  is 
built  on  an  acclivity.  It  has  an  excellent 
harbor,  affording  perfect  shelter  for  ves- 
sels and  having  a  drydock  at  its  head, 
600  feet  long.  The  entrance  to  the  har- 
bor is  called  the  Narrows,  and  is  about 
600  feet  wide  at  the  narrowest  point.  To 
the  N.  of  the  Narrows  is  Signal  Hill  at 
which  place  Marconi  received  the  first 
trans-Atlantic  wireless  telegraph  message, 
510  feet  above  sea-level,  and  to  the  S. 
South  Side  Hill,  nearly  650  feet.  At  the 
foot  of  the  latter  is  Fort  Amherst  light- 
house. The  city  has  numerous  churches, 
of  which  St.  John's  Cathedral  (R.  C), 
and  the  Anglican  Cathedral,  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  specimens  of  Gothic  archi- 


ST.    JOHNSBURY 


192 


SAINT    JOSEPH 


tecture  in  British  America,  are  the  most 
noteworthy.  The  institutions  for  higher 
education  include  Anglican,  Methodist, 
Presbyterian,  and  Roman  Catholic  Col- 
leges. Here  also  are  several  literary 
institutes,  libraries,  Government  House, 
House  of  Assembly,  Poorhouse,  Peniten- 
tiary, Hospital,  and  several  banks  and 
public  halls.  The  city  has  a  number  of 
foundries,  tanneries,  breweries,  cabinet 
factories,  biscuit  factories,  oil  refineries, 
a  net  factory,  boot  and  shoe  plant,  rope 
Walk,  nail  factory,  and  gas  works.  There 
is  a  large  trade  in  supplying  fishermen 
for  the  cod  and  seal  fisheries  with  fish- 
ing gear,  clothing,  and  provisions.  The 
city  was  visited  by  a  disastrous  fire  in 
1892,  causing  a  total  loss  of  $16,000,000. 
A  water  power  generating  plant  at  Petty 
Harbor,  8  miles  distant,  supplies  the  city 
with  electricity  for  all  purposes.  Pop. 
(1918)  34,045. 

ST.  JOHNSBURY,  a  town  and  county 
seat  of  Caledonia  go.,  Vt.;  on  the  Pas- 
sumpsic  river,  and  on  the  Portland  and 
Ogdensburg,  the  Passumpsic,  and  the  St. 
Johnsbury  and  Lake  Champlain  railroads ; 
34  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Montpelier.  It  con- 
tains a  fine  court  house,  St.  Johnsbury 
Academy,  St.  Johnsbury  Atheneum, 
waterworks,  street  railroad  and  electric 
light  plants,  National  and  savings  banks, 
and  two  newspapers.  It  has  foundries, 
machine  shops,  manufactories  of  farming 
implements,  and  scale  works.  Pop.  (1910) 
6,693;    (1920)   7,163. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE,  a  college 
of  Cambridge  University,  founded  in  1511. 
It  ranks  second  among  the  Cambridge 
colleges  in  size  and  importance.  It  has 
about  250  undergraduates.  The  library 
contains  about  40,000  volumes. 

ST.  JOHN'S  RIVER,  the  chief  river 
of  Florida.  It  has  its  rise  in  the  swamp 
regions  of  Brevard  and  Osceola  counties 
and  flows  in  a  northerly  direction,  rough- 
ly parallel  with  the  coast  line,  emptying 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  25  miles  S.  of 
the  Georgia  boundary.  From  its  source 
it  passes  through  a  chain  of  lakes,  the 
largest  of  which  is  Lake  George.  At  this 
point  it  expands  into  the  form  of  a  lagoon 
from  1  to  5  miles  wide.  The  river  has 
been  dredged  to  a  depth  of  18  feet  to 
Jacksonville,  and  to  a  depth  of  8  feet  to 
Lake  George.  It  is  navigable  to  small 
steamers  as  far  as  Enterprise,  230  miles 
from  its  mouth. 

SAINT  JOHN  THE  DIVINE,  CA- 
THEDRAL OF,  Protestant  Episcopal 
Cathedral  of  the  diocese  of  New  York. 
It  is  situated  on  the  elevation  in  the 
N.  part  of  Manhattan  Island  called  Morn- 
•  ingside  Heights  and  overlooks  the  upper 


E.  part  of  the  city.  The  project  for  its 
erection  began  in  1872,  but  first  took  a 
practical  turn  in  1889  when  Bishop  Pot- 
ter invited  designs  from  architects,  that 
of  La  Farge  and  Heins  being  accepter1 
This  design,  having  as  important  elements 
a  mixture  of  the  Byzantine  and  Ro- 
manesque, has  been  subjected  to  consider* 
able  modification  in  the  actual  working 
out.  In  1899  the  crypt  was  completed, 
and  in  1915  the  final  touches  were  given 
to  the  choir,  chancel,  and  chapels,  and 
the  domed  roof  made  a  stately  impres- 
sion. There  are  seven  chapels  of  St. 
Saviour,  St.  Columcille,  St.  Ambrose,  St. 
Martin  of  Tours,  St.  Boniface,  St.  James, 
and  St.  Ansgarius.  The  half  dome  of 
the  apse  is  supported  by  six  large  columns 
of  granite  from  Hurricane  Island,  Me. 
The  structure  measures  360  feet  as  it 
stands;  the  chancel  is  50  feet  wide  and 
130  feet  high.  When  completed,  the 
cathedral  will  be  600  feet  long  with 
transepts  having  a  total  breadth  of  300 
feet.  The  cost  in  1915  had  been  $3,615,- 
000. 

ST.  JOHN'S  WORT  (Hypericum),  the 
typical  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Hypericinex.  It  is  a  numerous 
genus  of  herbs  and  shrubs  widely  dis- 
tributed, both  in  the  New  and  Old  World, 
particularly  abundant  in  Western  Asia, 
Southern  Europe,  and  in  North  America; 
it  occurs  also  within  the  tropics.  The 
leaves  are  opposite  entire,  without  stip- 
ules, often  marked  with  glandular  dots 
of  two  kinds,  pellucid  ones  which  are  very 
apparent  when  the  leaves  are  held  against 
the  light,  and  black  ones  which  are  usually 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  round  the 
edge,  or  sometimes  on  the  flowers.  The 
flowers  are  regular,  with  five  sepals,  and 
five  petals,  usually  yellow.  They  abound 
in  a  yellow  resinous  juice  which  is  more 
or  less  purgative  and  anthelmintic.  The 
leaves  of  H.  androssemium  are  called  by 
the  French  toute  saine,  hence  the  English 
name  tutsan ;  in  both  countries  they  were 
formerly  used  to  dress  fresh  wounds. 
Other  species  of  Hypericum  have  similar 
properties.  There  are  several  species, 
such  as  H.  calycinum  (also  called  Aaron's 
Beard),  frequently  cultivated  in  British 
gardens. 

SAINT  JOSEPH,  a  city  of  Michigan 
in  Berrien  co.  It  is  at  the  mouth  of  the 
St.  Joseph  river,  on  Lake  Michigan  and 
on  the  Pere  Marquette,  the  Michigan  Cen- 
tral, and  the  Interurban  railroads.  It 
is  connected  with  Chicago  by  steamboat 
lines.  Its  favorable  location  makes  it  a 
favorite  summer  resort.  It  has  an  excel- 
lent beach,  a  public  library,  and  a  park. 
Its  industries  include  the  manufacture 
of  iron,  paper,  boats,  engines,  automobile 


ST.    JOSEPH 


193 


ST.    LAWBENCE 


tubes,   flour,   etc.     Pop. 
(1920)  7,251. 


(1910)     5,936; 


ST.  JOSEPH,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Buchanan  co.,  Mo.;  on  the  Missouri 
river,  and  on  the  Burlington  Route,  the 
Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe,  the 
Chicago  Great  Western,  the  Missouri 
Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and 
Pacific,  the  St.  Joseph  and  Grand  Island, 
and  the  Kansas  City,  Clay  County  and 
St.  Joseph  railroads;  60  miles  N.  W.  of 
Kansas  City.  It  is  the  third  city  in  the 
State  in  population  and  is  one  of  the 
wealthiest  cities  of  its  size  in  the  United 
States. 

Business  Interests. — St.  Joseph  has  up- 
ward of  300  manufacturing  establish- 
ments. The  chief  manufactures  are  cloth- 
ing, shirts,  overalls,  flour,  and  grist  mill 
products,  boots  and  shoes,  furniture, 
machinery,  packed  meat,  and  woolen 
blankets.  The  city  is  the  trade  center  of 
a  large  and  rich  agricultural  region,  with 
which  it  has  a  large  jobbing  trade.  It 
is  also  an  important  shipping  point  for 
cattle,  hogs,  and  grain,  and  one  of  the 
greatest  live  stock  markets  in  the  coun- 
try. There  are  several  National  and  pri- 
vate banks,  and  numerous  daily,  weekly, 
and  monthly  periodicals.  The  assessed 
property  valuation  exceeds  $50,000,000, 
and  the  total  bonded  debt  is  about 
$600,000. 

Public  Interests. — The  city  has  an  area 
of  13.87  square  miles.  The  sewer  system 
covers  the  entire  city,  and  the  streets  are 
lighted  by  electricity.  There  is  a  public 
school  enrollment  of  over  12,000  pupils. 
Here  are  the  Ensworth  and  Central  Medi- 
cal Colleges,  College  of  St.  Joseph  (non- 
sect.),  Academy  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (R. 
C),  the  State  Lunatic  Asylum,  St.  Jo- 
seph's Hospital,  Ensworth  Hospital,  public 
library,  waterworks,  and  street  railroads. 

History. — The  city  was  established  by 
Joseph  Robidoux  in  1843;  incorporated 
as  a  town  in  1845 ;  and  chartered  as  a  city 
in  1885.  ^  After  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
California  it  became  prominent  as  the 
starting-point  for  mining  parties  on  their 
way  across  the  prairies.  During  the  Civil 
War  it  was  fortified  by  the  Federals. 
Pop.   (1910)  77,403;   (1920)   77,939. 

ST.  JOSEPH,  a  river  in  Michigan 
whose  course  is  in  Hillsdale  co.,  and 
which  flows  into  Lake  Michigan  at  St. 
Joseph.  Its  course  is  very  winding  and 
nearly  W.  and  N.,  curving  through  Elk- 
hart co.,  Ind.,  and  touching  South  Bend, 
and  a  few  miles  below  that  city  returning 
to  Michigan,  and  then  flowing  N.  through 
Berrien  co.  It  is  navigable  to  South 
Bend  and  is  250  miles  long.  Another 
river  of  the  same  name  is  in  southern 
Michigan    and    passes   across    a    part   of 


northwestern  Ohio  and  northeastern  In- 
diana, uniting  at  Fort  Wayne  with  St. 
Mary's  river  and  so  forming  the  Maumee. 
Its  length  is  about  100  miles. 

ST.  JOSEPH  ISLAND,  an  island  in 
the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior  into  Lake 
Huron.  It  belongs  to  Ontario,  Canada,  is 
20  miles  long,  15  miles  wide. 

SAINT  -  JUST,  ANTOINE  LOUIS 
LEON  FLORELLE  DE,  a  French  revolu- 
tionist; born  in  1767.  He  adopted  with 
enthusiasm  the  principles  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, became  the  right  hand  of  Robes- 
pierre, and  was  one  of  the  most  energetic 


ANTOINE  L.   L.   F.  DE   SAINT-JUST 

and  resolute  members  of  the  Mountain 
party.  He  was  an  effective  speaker,  but 
unscrupulous  and  uncompromising.  The 
guillotine  was  his  general  answer  to  all 
arguments  and  actions  which  did  not  har- 
monize with  his  own.  He  fell  with  Robes- 
pierre through  the  events  of  the  9th 
Thermidor  (July  27,  1794),  and  perished 
on  the  same  scaffold  with  him  on  the  fol- 
lowing day,  July  28,  1794. 

ST.  LAWRENCE,  a  river  of  North 
America,  forming  in  its  upper  reaches 
part  of  the  N.  boundary  of  the  United 
States,  but  for  the  most  part  confined 
to  the  Canadian  Dominion.  It  issues  from 
Lake  Ontario  at  Kingston,  where  the 
name  begins  to  be  applied  to  the  river, 
though  the  remotest  source  of  the  highest 
feeder  of  its  basin,  the  St.  Louis,  which 
enters  the  W.  end  of  Lake  Superior,  is 
in   the    N.    E.    of    Minnesota.      Passing 


ST.    LAWBENCE    CAPE 


194 


ST.    LOUIS 


through  the  chain  of  Great  Lakes  on  leav- 
ing Lake  Ontario,  it  flows  N.  E.t  first 
through  the  beautiful  district  known  as 
the  Thousand  Isles,  from  the  number  of 
islands  large  and  small  (in  all  about  1,- 
500),  which  here  vary  its  course,  and  then 
forms  the  wide  expanses  called  Lakes  St. 
Francis  (just  after  quitting  the  United 
States  boundary),  St.  Louis  (just  above 
Montreal  Island),  and  St.  Peter  (a  little 
above  Three  Rivers,  between  Montreal  and 
Quebec).  Below  Quebec  it  forms  a  broad 
estuary,  and  it  enters  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  by  a  mouth  26  miles  wide,  be- 
tween Point  des  Monts  (Saguenay)  and 
the  Gaspe  Peninsula.  •  Length  from  Lake 
Ontario  to  the  Gulf  760  miles,  to  the  W. 
point  of  Anticosti  1,034  miles.  The  height 
of  Lake  Ontario  above  sea-level  is  246.6 
feet  of  which  the  river  descends  206.75 
feet  in  the  348  miles  above  Montreal.  Be- 
low Montreal  accordingly,  the  total  fall 
is  about  40  feet,  or  about  1  foot  in  10 
miles,  a  rate  presenting  no  difficulty  for 
navigation;  and  since  the  construction 
of  a  ship  canal,  27  Vz  feet  deep,  through 
Lake  St.  Peter,  the  largest  merchant  ves- 
sels afloat  have  been  able  to  reach  that 
city  in  summer.  In  the  stretches  above 
Montreal  the  fall  of  the  river-bed  takes 
place  in  a  succession  of  rapids,  to  avoid 
which  canals  have  been  constructed. 
These  are  in  the  ascending  order  the 
Lachine  Canal,  8%  miles  long,  with  5 
locks,  and  a  rise  of  45  feet;  Beauharnois 
Canal,  11*4  miles  long,  with  9  locks,  and 
a  rise  of  82%  feet;  Cornwall  Canal,  11 
miles  long,  with  6  locks,  and  a  rise  of 
48  feet;  Farran's  Point  Canal,  %  miles 
long,  with  1  lock,  and  a  rise  of  4  feet; 
Rapide  Plat,  4  miles  long,  with  2  locks, 
and  a  rise  of  11%  feet;  and  Galops 
Canal,  7%  miles  long,  with  3  locks,  and 
a  rise  of  15%  feet.  The  basin  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  is  estimated  to  contain  297,000 
square  miles,  of  which  95,000  are  covered 
with  the  waters  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

ST.  LAWRENCE,  CAPE,  the  N.  pro- 
jection of  Cape  Breton  Island  which  is  a 
part  of  the  province  of  Nova  Scotia.  It 
is  about  100  miles  long. 

ST.  LAWRENCE,  GULF  OF.  See 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

ST.  LAWRENCE  ISLAND,  an  island 
in  Bering  Sea  which  belongs  to  Alaska. 
It  is  inhabited  by  Eskimo.  It  is  100 
miles  long,  35  miles  wide,  and  its  altitude 
is  492  feet. 

ST.    LAWRENCE    UNIVERSITY,    a 

coeducational  institution  in  Canton,  N.  Y. ; 
founded  in  1858  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Universalist  Church;  reported  at  the 
close  of  1919:  Professors  and  instructors, 
58;  students,  645;  president,  R.  E.  Sykes, 
D.D. 


ST.  LOUIS,  a  port  of  entry,  and  chief 
city  of  Missouri;  on  the  W.  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  20  miles  S.  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Missouri.  It  is  the  sixth  city  in 
the  United  States  in  population,  and  the 
commercial  metropolis  of  the  Mississippi 
valley.  The  city  is  built  on  rising  ground, 
comprising  three  terraces,  the  highest  of 
which  is  200  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
river;  area,  61  square  miles;  pop.  (1910) 
687,029;   (1920)  772,897. 

Municipal  Improvements. — The  city 
owns  an  extensive  waterworks  system, 
with  an  average  daily  consumption  of 
101,810,000  gallons,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
$33,000,000.  The  water  is  distributed 
through  1,040  miles  of  mains.  There  are 
in  all  1,048  miles  of  streets,  of  which  947 
miles  are  paved.  The  streets  are  lighted 
by  gas  and  electricity  at  an  annual  cost 
of  about  $600,000.  The  average  cost  of 
the  police  department  exceeds  $2,411,000 
per  annum,  and  that  of  the  fire  depart- 
ment $1,308,300.  The  annual  cost  of  main- 
taining the  city  government  is  about 
$17,900,000.  The  annual  death  rate  aver- 
ages 16.76  per  1,000. 

Public  Parks. — St.  Louis  has  a  park 
system  which  constitutes  one  of  its  most 
attractive  features.  .  There  are  70  parks 
and  playgrounds,  100  municipal  baseball 
grounds  and  soccer  fields,  26  public  play- 
grounds for  children,  2  public  golf  links, 
2  outdoor  swimming  pools  (one  being  the 
largest  of  its  kind  in  the  world),  a  mu- 
nicipal open-air  theater  seating  9,300, 
summer  free  band  concerts  attended  by 
an  average  of  460,000  each  summer,  and 
an  annual  playground  festival. 

Notable  Buildings. — The  principal  pub- 
lic buildings  are  the  massive  post-office 
and  custom-house  costing  more  than 
$6,500,000 ;  the  city  hall,  built  at  a  cost  of 
$2,000,000;  the  court  house;  the  union 
railroad  station;  Railway  Exchange; 
Boatmen's  Bank;  Central  National  Bank; 
Century;  Chemical;  Federal  Reserve;  In- 
ternational Life;  Merchants'  National 
Bank;  Merchants'  Exchange;  Syndicate 
Trust;  Title  Guaranty. 

The  Eads  bridge{  a  massive  struc- 
ture, was  completed  in  1874,  at  a  cost  of 
over  $10,000,000.  It  consists  of  three 
spans,  the  center  one  being  520  feet  long, 
and  the  other  two  502  feet  each.  The 
piers  upon  which  these  spans  rest  are 
built  of  limestone  carried  down  to  bed 
rock.  The  main  passage,  for  the  accom- 
modation of  pedestrians,  is  54  feet  wide, 
and  below  this  are  two  lines  of  rail.  The 
merchant's  bridge,  3  miles  N.,  was  com- 
pleted in  1890,  at  a  cost  of  $3,000,000. 
The  latter  is  used  exclusively  for  railroad 
traffic.  A  municipal  free  bridge,  costing 
$6,250,000,  spans  the  river. 

Trade  and  Manufactures. — The  favor- 
able location  of  St.  Louis  in  the  heart  of 


ST.    LOUIS 


195 


ST.    LOUIS 


the  vast  and  fertile  Mississippi  valley 
makes  it  one  of  the  greatest  commercial 
cities  in  the  United  States.  There  is  an 
immense  trade  in  breadstuffs,  grain,  pro- 
visions, lumber,  hides,  agricultural  prod- 
ucts, hardware,  boots  and  shoes,  tobacco 
and  cigars,  quarries,  steel  castings,  drugs 
and  chemicals,  dry  goods,  electrical  prod- 
ucts, soap  and  candles,  wooden-ware,  etc. 
The  automobile  industry  is  of  great  im- 
portance. 

Commerce. — The  city  has  direct  com- 
munication with  more  than  6,000  miles 
of  rivers.  In  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1920,  the  imports  of  merchandise  ag- 
gregated in  value  $18,638,711. 

Banks. — On  Sept.  1,  1919,  there  were 
6  National  banks  in  operation,  besides 
many  private  banks  and  trust  companies. 
The  total  resources  of  the  banks  in  1920 
were  $659,220,721,  with  $463,944,744  in 
deposits.  The  exchanges  at  the  United 
States  clearing-house  in  the  year  ending 
Sept.  30,  1920,  aggregated  $8,065,368. 

Education. — The  St.  Louis  public  school 
system  is  recognized  by  educators  as  one 
of  the  most  complete  in  the  United  States. 
It  has  124  public  grade  and  high  schools 
for  white  and  negro  pupils.  The  grade 
schools  include  one  school  for  the  deaf, 
one  for  dependent  and  delinquent  chil- 
dren, 13  for  backward  pupils  and  two 
open-air  schools  for  children  tubercularly 
inclined.  A  system  of  parochial  grade 
and  high  schools  is  maintained  by  Catho- 
lic institutions  for  Catholic  children.  St. 
Louis  has  St.  Louis  University,  and  Wash- 
ington University,  with  its  celebrated 
school  for  girls— Mary  Institute.  St. 
Louis  University  is  the  oldest  Catholic 
university  in  the  West.  The  Medical 
Department  of  Washington  University, 
which  is  operated  in  connection  with 
Barnes  Hospital,  constitutes  the  most  ex- 
tensive medical  institution  in  America. 
Many  other  hospitals  with  most  modern 
equipment  give  St.  Louis  one  of  the  best 
hospital  systems  in  the  country.  The 
City  Hospital  is  recognized  as  among  the 
most  complete  municipal  institutions  in 
the  West.  The  Ranken  School  of  Me- 
chanical Trades  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
pletely equipped  mechanical  trade  schools 
for  boys  and  men  in  the  United  States. 
Hosmer  Hall,  Lenox  Hall,  Forest  Park 
College,  Mary  Institute  are  among  the 
other  educational  institutions. 

Churches. — One  of  the  finest  groups  of 
representative  architecture  in  the  city  is 
at  Kings  Highway  and  Washington  ave- 
nue, where  the  four  corners  are  occupied 
by  magnificent  churches — Temple  Israel 
(Jewish  synagogue)  ;  First  Church  of 
Christ,  Scientist;  St.  John's  Methodist 
Episcopal,  South;  and  Second  Baptist. 
The  new  cathedral  is  the  seat  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  St.  Louis.    The  struc- 


ture cost  $3,250,000,  the  main  altars 
$100,000,  and  the  organ  $50,000.  The 
old  cathedral  occupies  the  site  of  the  first 
church  built  in  St.  Louis,  shortly  after 
the  landing  of  Laclede  in  1764.  Pope 
Gregory  conferred  favors  on  this  old 
cathedral  which  no  other  church  in  the 
world  has  except  the  Basilicas  in  Rome. 
Christ  Church  Cathedral,  the  mother 
church  of  the  Episcopal  Diocese  of  Mis- 
souri, is  the  first  Protestant  church 
founded  west  of  the  Mississippi  river. 
The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association 
and  Young  Women's  Christian  Associa- 
tion maintain  commodious  central  build- 
ings and  branches  in  various  sections  of 
the  city. 

Finances.— In  1919  the  total  bonded 
debt  of  the  city  was  $13,999,706.  The 
assessed  property  valuation  in  1919  was 
$765,722,620;  tax  rate  $23.50  per  $1,000. 

History.— On  Feb.  14,  1764,  while  what 
is  now  Missouri  was  a  part  of  Upper 
Louisiana,  Auguste  Chouteau,  a  young 
trader,  with  about  30  men,  arrived  at  the 
site  of  the  city  to  establish  a  permanent 
post.  The  spot  had  been  selected  the  pre- 
vious year  by  Laclede.  France  had  ceded 
the  whole  of  Louisiana  Territory  to  Spain 
in  1762.  Spain  ceded  it  back  in  1800,  and 
in  1803  France  sold  it  to  the  United 
States.  In  1896  the  city  was  swept  by 
a  destructive  tornado  that  overthrew 
many  buildings,  destroyed  shipping,  and 
tore  out  a  shore  span  of  the  great  bridge. 
Several  hundred  lives  were  lost  and  many 
rendered  homeless.  Tower  Grove  Park 
and  Shaw's  Gardens  were  greatly  in- 
jured. In  1904,  the  Louisiana  Purchase 
Exposition  was  held  at  St.  Louis.  The 
attendance  was  19,  as  compared  with  Chi- 
cago 28  (1893),  and  Paris  50  millions 
(1900). 

ST.  LOUIS,  the  capital  of  the  French 
colony  of  Senegal  in  West  Africa,  on  a 
small  low  island  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Senegal  river.  Bridges  connect  it  with 
N'dar  Toute,  a  summer  watering-place, 
on  the  right  bank,  and  with  the  suburb 
of  Bouetville,  the  terminus  of  the  rail- 
way, on  the  left  bank.  The  mouth  of  the 
river  is  rendered  dangerous  by  a  shifting 
bar  of  sand.  The  great  ocean  steamers 
land  goods  and  passengers  at  Dakar,  on 
Cape  Verde,  163  miles  to  the  S.  W.,  and 
thence  they  are  conveyed  by  rail.  The 
climate  is  not  healthy;  water  is  supplied 
by  an  aqueduct  7  V2  miles  long.  There  are 
a  cathedral,  governor's  palace,  etc.,  and 
a  public  garden.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

ST.  LOUIS,  a  river  in  Minnesota  which 
rises  in  St.  Louis  co.  in  the  N.  W.  part 
of  the  State.  Its  course  is  S.  and  S.  E.; 
it  flows  into  the  W.  extremity  of  Lake 
Superior,  9  miles  from  Duluth,  and  is 
about  200  miles  long. 


SAINT    LOUIS    UNIVERSITY 


196 


ST.    MARY'S    RIVER 


SAINT  LOUIS  UNIVERSITY,  a 
Roman  Catholic  institution  for  higher  edu- 
cation, founded  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in  1832. 
It  includes  professional  schools  and  a  col' 
lege  of  liberal  arts.  In  1919  there  were 
1,945  students  and  245  instructors.  Presi- 
dent, Rev.  B.  J.  Otting. 

ST.  LUCIA,  the  largest  of  the  Wind- 
ward Islands,  in  the  West  Indies,  42  miles 
long  and  15  to  20  wide;  area,  233  square 
miles;  pop.  (1918)  53,788.  The  exports 
(sugar,  cocoa,  logwood,  etc.)  in  1918  were 
valued  at  £362,785;  imports  at  £368,123. 
Much  of  the  island  is  high  and  rocky 
land,  covered  with  well-nigh  impenetrable 
forests,  and  it  contains  extensive  deposits 
of  sulphur.  The  climate  is  in  the  main 
healthy,  a  fresh  trade  wind  blowing  al- 
most continually.  The  island,  discovered 
in  1502,  was  colonized  by  the  French  in 
1563;  but  between  that  date  and  1803, 
when  it  definitively  became  an  English 
possession,  it  five  or  six  times  changed 
hands  between  France  and  England,  by 
capture  or  treaty.  The  capital  is  Castries. 
Caribbee  bark  is  sometimes  called  St. 
Lucia  bark. 

ST.  LUCIA  BAY,  a  bay  in  South 
Africa,  an  indenture  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Umbolozi  river  in 
Zululand.  The  bay  is  S.  of  St.  Lucia 
Lake.  The  Germans  claimed  it  in  1884, 
but  the  British  gained  final  possession  in 
1885. 

ST.  LUCIA  LAKE,  a  lake  which  is 
really  a  lagoon  in  Zululand,  South  Africa, 
on  the  E.  coast.  It  is  united  with  the 
Indian  Ocean  by  St.  Lucia  Bay;  is  60 
miles  long,  and  varies  in  breadth  from 
10  to  25  miles. 

ST.  LUKE.     See  Luke. 

ST.  MALO,  a  seaport  in  France,  de- 
partment of  Ille-et-Vilaine,  on  an  island 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Ranee  river.  It  is  a 
watering-place  and  has  important  com- 
mercial interests;  is  strongly  fortified; 
has  extensive  docks  and  quays,  notable 
ramparts,  a  castle,  and  parish  church 
(formerly  a  cathedral)  ;  and  is  noted  for 
the  height  of  the  tides  (40  to  50  feet). 
It  was  the  birthplace  of  Cartier,  Mane 
de  la  Bourdonnais,  Lamettrie,  Maupertuis, 
Lamennais,  and  Chateaubriand.  The  de- 
struction of  the  town  was  attempted  by 
the  English  in  1693,  1695,  and  1758.  Pop. 
about  12,000. 

ST.  MARK.     See  Mark. 

ST.  MARTIN,  one  of  the  Lesser  An- 
tilles, W.  I.  Since  1648  it  has  been  di- 
vided between  France  and  the  Nether- 
lands. It  exports  sugar,  cotton,  tobacco, 
maize,  etc.,  and  large  quantities  of  salt. 
The    French    portion,    a    dependency    of 


Guadeloupe,  has  an  area  of  20  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  4,500.  The 
Dutch  portion,  a  dependency  of  Curacao, 
has  an  area  of  17  square  miles  and  a 
pop.  (1919)  2,552. 

ST.  MARY  BAY,  an  indenture  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  S.  coast  of  the 
peninsula  of  Avalon,  Newfoundland.  Also 
an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the 
W.  coast  of  Nova  Scotia. 

ST.  MARY  ISLAND,  an  island  of 
western  Africa,  belonging  to  the  British 
colony  of  Gambia,  at  the  N.  of  the  Gambia 
river.  Also  the  largest  of  the  Scilly 
Islands,   S.  W.  of   Cornwall,   England. 

SAINT  MARYS,  a  city  of  Ohio,  in 
Auglaize  co.  It  is  on  the  Miami  and  Erie 
Canal,  St.  Marys  river,  and  on  the  Lake 
Erie  and  Western  and  the  Toledo  and 
Ohio  Central  railroads.  It  is  an  important 
industrial  community,  having  manufac- 
tories of  machinery,  wool,  lumber  prod- 
ucts, strawboard,  paper,  flour,  cigars,  etc. 
Pop.  (1910)  5,732;   (1920)  5,679. 

SAINT  MARYS,  a  borough  of  Penn- 
sylvania, in  Elk  co.  It  is  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  Pittsburg,  Shawmut,  and 
Northern  railroads.  It  is  in  an  important 
soft  coal  mining  region  and  has  deposits 
of  natural  gas  and  fire  clay.  Its  chief 
industries  are  the  manufacture  of  sewer 
pipes,  lumber,  chemicals,  and  electrical 
supplies.  Large  railroad  shops  are  lo- 
cated here,  and  it  is  the  seat  of  the  acad- 
emy of  the  St.  Benedict  Sisterhood.  Pop. 
(1910)    6,346;    (1920)    6,967. 

ST.  MARY'S  CANAL,  an  improved 
river  channel  connecting  Lake  Superior 
with  Lake  Huron.  It  flows  N.  E.  for  40 
miles  on  the  frontier  between  the  upper 
peninsula  of  Michigan  and  the  Canadian 
Province  of  Ontario.  There  are  two  main 
channels  divided  by  large  islands  and 
both  expand  into  small  lakes  at  some 
points  10  miles  wide.  There  is  a  fall  of 
20  feet,  the  steepest  descent  being  at  St. 
Mary's  Rapids,  about  a  mile  long,  near 
the  upper  end.  The  improvement  began 
in  1855  with  locks  built  at  a  cost  of 
$1,000,000,  and  was  continued  in  1870-81 
and  1889-96  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment. The  traffic  through  the  canal  has 
attained  great  proportions  in  recent  years, 
and  improvements  have  been  made  on 
the  Canadian  side  by  the  Canadian  Gov- 
ernment. 

ST.  MARY'S  RIVER,  the  channel 
connecting  Lake  Superior  with  Lake 
Huron,  having  more  the  character  of  a 
lake  than  a  river.  At  Sault  Ste.  Marie, 
or  St.  Mary's  Falls,  there  is  a  fall  of 
16  feet,  and  to  enable  vessels  to  avoid 
this  a  ship  canal  was  built  in  1855,  and 


ST.    MATTHEW 


197 


ST.    NAZAIRE 


since  greatly  enlarged  and  improved.   See 
Sault  Ste.  Marie. 

ST.  MATTHEW.     See   Matthew. 

ST.  MAURICE,  a  river  of  Canada, 
Province  of  Quebec,  which  enters  the  St. 
Lawrence  at  Three  Rivers  after  a  course 
of  about  300  miles  through  fine  scenery 
and  extensive  forests.  About  22  miles 
above  its  mouth  are  fine  falls  160  feet 
high. 

ST.  MICHAEL.     See  Archangel. 

ST.  MICHAEL'S  MOUNT,  a  conical 
and  isolated  granite  rock  in  Mount's  Bay, 
Cornwall,  England,  3  miles  E.  of  Pen- 
zance. It  communicates  with  the  shore 
by  a  causeway  560  yards  long,  which, 
however,  is  covered  with  water  8  hours 
out  of  12,  and  sometimes  is  impassable 
for  two  or  three  days  together.  The 
Mount  is  230  feet  high,  is  5  furlongs  in 
circumference,  and  is  crowned  by  an  old 
and  picturesque  castle — now  used  as  a 
manorial  residence — surmounted  by  a 
tower,  on  one  angle  of  which  there  is  a 
projecting  stone  lantern,  popularly  called 
"St.  Michael's  Chair."  At  the  base  of 
the  N.  or  landward  side  of  the  Mount 
is  a  fishing  village.  The  "guarded  mount" 
is  said  to  have  received  its  name  from 
an  apparition  of  St.  Michael  to  some 
hermits;  and  Edward  the  Confessor 
founded  on  it  a  Benedictine  priory,  which 
in  1088  was  annexed  to  the  Abbey  of 
Mont  Saint-Michel  in  Normandy.  After 
the  Dissolution  it  became  the  residence 
of  five  families  in  turn,  till  it  was  sold 
in  1660  to  its  present  proprietors. 

SAINT-MICHEL,  MONT,  a  fortified 
rocky  height  in  the  department  of  La 
Manche,  France,  in  Cancale  Bay,  7  miles 
S.  W.  of  Avranches.  On  its  summit  are 
a  castle,  and  an  interesting  church  of  the 
10th  century.  There  is  a  straggling  vil- 
lage on  the  hill,  with  a  population  of 
about  300.  It  forma  altogether  an  ex- 
tremely picturesque  mass,  and  can  be  ap- 
proached across  the  sands  at  low  water. 

ST.  MIHIEL,  a  town  of  France,  which 
was  the  scene  of  several  battles  during 
the  World  War.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Meuse,  11  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Commercy, 
and  before  the  World  War  had  several 
interesting  churches,  one  of  them  the 
church  of  the  former  Abbey  of  Saint 
Mihiel,  some  quaint  dwellings,  and  a  fine 
stone  bridge.  There  were  two  forts  on 
the  river  near  the  town.  There  was  also 
considerable  commerce  and  industry,  cen- 
tering largely  round  the  manufacture  of 
lace  and  embroidery.  The  population  be- 
fore the  war  was  about  9,000.  The  region 
round  St.  Mihiel  and  Verdun  became 
hotly  contested  following  the  repulse  of 
the   Germans  from  the   Marne.     In   the 


middle  of  September,  1914,  the  armies  in 
the  center  had  reached  a  deadlock,  and 
on  the  E.  the  German  Crown  Prince  sent 
large  forces  S.  of  Verdun.   The  Germans 
speedily  reduced  the  fort  of  Troyon,  just 
S.  of  Verdun,  and  had  reached  St.  Mihiel, 
a   little   farther   S.   on   the   Meuse,   thus 
threatening    to    surround    Verdun,   when 
the  French  re-enforced  their  line  at  this 
point.     Thus   St.  Mihiel  continued  to  be 
an  outer  defense  for  Metz  and  a  possible 
starting-point    for    a    strong  German  of- 
fensive.     From   that   time   forward,    St. 
Mihiel  continued  the  scene  of  determined 
attacks   and   counter-attacks.      The   Ger- 
mans  captured    St.    Mihiel   on    Sept.    23, 
1914,  and  continued  to  hold  it.     Early  in 
1915  attempts  were  made  by  the  French 
to  carry  the  opposing  German  lines  in  the 
eastern  sector,  swinging  round  the  great 
fortifications  of  Verdun,  bending  sharply 
to  the  Meuse  at  St.   Mihiel  and  turning 
E.  again  from   St.   Mihiel  to  strike  the 
Moselle  river   at   a   point  near   the   Lor- 
raine frontier.    In  the  center  of  this  sec- 
tor the  French  made  a  desperate  effort 
to  wipe  out  the  St.  Mihiel  salient ;  small 
gains  were  secured  on  the  northern  and 
southern  sides  of  the  wedge,  but  the  main 
objective  was  not  achieved.  The  net  result 
was  a  success  for  the  Germans,  culminat- 
ing on  July  6,  1915.   Matters  stood  in  this 
condition    till    the    arrival    of    American 
forces  in  1918,  and  the  beginning  of  the 
battle  of  St.  Mihiel  in  September  of  that 
year.    On    September   12,   the   American 
forces  attacked  both  flanks  of  the  St.  Mi- 
hiel salient,  and  captured  Thiaucourt  and 
other  important  positions  with  8,000  pris- 
oners.    The  chief  resistence  was  in  the 
W.,   where   the    German    positions   were 
defended  by  the  heights  on  the  edge  of 
the  Woevre.     So  impetuous  was  the  at- 
tack, which  followed  four  hours'  bombard- 
ment, that  on  the  following  day  the  forces 
advancing  from   the   S.   and   W.   met   at 
Vigneulles  and  the  St.  Mihiel  salient  was 
no  more.     At  the  end  of  the  American 
attack,  seventy  villages  had  been  taken 
and  nearly  175  square  miles  of  territory; 
16,000  prisoners  were  taken  and  450  guns; 
the  great  French  railway  system,  running 
through  Verdun,  Toul,  and  Nancy,  was 
freed  and  a  strategically  important  po- 
sition  was   obtained  from   which   subse- 
quently an   offensive  might  be  launched 
against  Metz  and  the  iron  fields  of  Briey. 
It  was  the  beginning  of  the  end,  which 
came  a  few  weeks  later.    See  World  War. 

ST.  NAZAIRE,  a  seaport  of  France, 
department  of  Loi re-Infer ieure,  on  the 
N.  side  of  the  estuary  of  the  Loire,  40 
miles  W.  by  N.  of  Nantes.  Between  1831 
and  1887  $7,250,000  was  spent  on  harbor 
improvements,  extensive  docks  (82  acres) 
having  been  built  in  1845-1857  and  1864- 


ST.    NICHOLAS 


198 


SAINT    PAUL 


1881  to  accommodate  the  larger  vessels 
that  were  unable  to  get  up  the  Loire  to 
Nantes.  Since  these  began  to  be  used 
the  shipping  of  the  place  has  increased 
at  a  very  rapid  rate.  The  most  important 
of  the  imports  are  wine,  coal,  tar,  iron 
and  lead,  wheat  and  flour,  timber,  and 
manure;  the  exports  embrace  chiefly 
brandy,  wine,  coal,  wheat  and  flour — 
these  four  in  transit — eggs  and  poultry, 
sardines,  butter,  bonedust,  vegetables, 
dyes,  glass,  and  toys.  The  city  was  one 
of  the  most  important  naval  depots  of 
France  during  the  World  War.  Pop. 
about  38,000. 

ST.  NICHOLAS,  an  early  bishop  of 
Myra  in  Lycia,  Asia  Minor.  He  is  a 
popular  saint  in  the  Roman  and  the  Greek 
Churches,  being  considered  the  patron 
of  sailors,  travelers,  merchants,  parish 
clerks,  virgins  and  children.  His  feast 
day,  falling  on  Dec.  6,  was  once  elabo- 
rately celebrated  in  English  public  schools, 
the  solemnities  continuing  to  Dec.  29. 
These  curious  practices  died  out  after  the 
Protestant  Reformation,  vestiges  of  it 
lingering  longest  at  Eton.  The  best- 
known  legend  connected  with  St.  Nicho- 
las' name  represents  him  as  visiting,  on 
three  successive  nights,  the  home  of  a 
poor  nobleman  distressed  about  the  future 
of  his  three  daughters,  and  throwing  a 
purse  of  gold  through  the  window  each 
night.  It  has  long  been  a  custom  in  cer- 
tain European  countries  to  keep  St.  Nich- 
olas' Eve  by  placing  gifts  in  the  shoes 
or  stockings  of  children.  This  custom  has 
been  transferred  to  Christmas  Eve  and 
the  transformed  saint  is  known  as  Santa 
Claus    (from  the  Dutch  Sant  Nicolaus). 

ST.  NICOLAS,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in 
East  Flanders,  12  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Ant- 
werp, in  the  district  of  Waes,  a  densely- 
peopled  and  productive  agricultural  re- 
gion. It  has  a  large  flax  market,  and 
manufactures  cotton  and  woolen  stuffs, 
lace,  needles,  bricks,  and  pottery.  A  flour- 
ishing trade  is  carried  on  in  linens,  flax, 
corn,    etc.      Pop.    about   32,000. 

ST.  OLAF  COLLEGE,  a  coeducational 
institution  in  Northfield,  Minn.;  founded 
in  1874  under  the  auspices  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church;  reported  at  the  close  of 
1920:  Professors  and  instructors  48; 
students,  794;  president,  Julius  Boraas, 
Ph.D. 

ST.  OMER,  a  town  of  France,  and 
second-class  fortress,  department  of  Pas- 
de-Calais,  in  a  marshy  site,  on  the  Aa, 
?6  miles  S.  E.  of  Calais.  The  chief 
objects  of  interest  are  the  Gothic  cathe- 
dral (13th-15th  century),  with  remark- 
able sculptures,  the  ruined  tower  and 
arches  of  the  Benedictine  Abbey  Church 
of  St.  Bertin,  an  arsenal,  a  museum,  and 


a  library.  A  college  for  the  education 
of  English  and  Irish  Catholics  was  opened 
at  St.  Omer  in  1592.  It  was  closed,  how- 
ever, during  the  Revolution,  but  still  ex- 
ists as  a  seminary.  Alban  Butler  was  a 
president,  and  O'Connell  a  student.  The 
people  carry  on  active  manufactures  of 
tobacco-pipes,  tulle,  cambric,  cloth,  and 
muslin,  and  a  brisk  trade  in  provisions, 
sugar,  and  spirits.     Pop.   about  21,000. 

SAINTONGE,  a  former  French  mari- 
time province,  now  forming  mainly  the 
department  of  Charente-Inferieure.  The 
capital  was  Saintes. 

ST.  PATRICK.      See  PATRICK,  St. 

SAINT  PAUL,  the  capital  of  Minnesota. 
It  is  on  the  Mississippi  river,  and  on  the 
Great  Northern,  the  Northern  Pacific,  the 
Chicago,  St.  Paul,  the  Minneapolis  and 
Omaha,  the  Rock  Island,  Burlington, 
Great  Western,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul,  the  Minneapolis  and  St. 
Louis,  and  other  railroads.  The  city  is 
most  attractively  situated  on  the  banks 
of  the  Mississippi.  The  business  portion 
is  built  on  a  foundation  of  solid  rock. 
Trolley  lines  radiate  in  all  directions,  lead- 
ing to  the  suburbs,  and  scores  of  lakes 
lie  within  a  short  drive  from  the  heart 
of  the  city.  The  city  is  provided  with 
good  arterial  highways  running  into  the 
country,  as  well  as  paved  streets  within 
the  city  itself.  There  are  nearly  100 
miles  of  paved  streets  and  over  45  miles 
of  macadamized  streets.  Travel  and  trade 
from  without  the  city  are  facilitated  by 
12  important  national  highways  which 
pass  through  it. 

There  are  within  the  city  limits  52 
improved  parkways  with  an  area  of  over 
1,600  acres,  21  unimproved  parks,  12 
boulevards,  and  10  public  playgrounds. 
The  largest  of  the  parks  is  Phalen  Park; 
with  an  area  of  487  acres,  247  of  which 
are  taken  up  by  a  lake  which  has  a  bath- 
ing beach.  Como  Park  is  427  acres  in 
extent.  In  it  are  located  the  botanical 
gardens  of  the  city,  as  well  as  game  pre- 
serves of  elk,  buffalo,  and  deer.  The 
most  notable  public  buildings  of  the  city 
are  the  State  Capitol,  which  is  conceded 
to  be  one  of  the  finest  and  most  artistic 
administration  buildings  in  the  world,  the 
city  hall,  Federal  buildings,  post  office, 
public  library,  the  James  J.  Hill  Reference 
Library,  and  the  Municipal  Auditorium. 
The  latter  building  was  built  by  popular 
subscription  of  the  citizens.  In  its  upper 
floors  is  housed  the  St.  Paul  Institute, 
which  maintains  a  free  art  gallery  and 
a  museum,  and  is  the  center  of  the  edu- 
cational and  intellectual  activities  of  the 
city.  The  Minnesota  State  Art  Society 
has  its  headquarters  in  the  Old  Capitol 
Building,  and  there  it  has  an  unusually 


SAINT    PAUL 


199 


ST.    PAUL'S 


large  collection  of  pictures,  sculpture,  and 
craft  work. 

St.  Paul  is  notable  for  its  beautiful 
private  residences.  The  principal  resi- 
dential street  is  Summit  Avenue,  but  there 
are  others  scarcely  less  notable.  The  hills 
on  which  the  city  is  built  make  the  resi- 
dential portions  particularly  attractive, 
and  in  every  direction  from  its  center  lie 
attractive  suburbs.  Among  the  suburbs 
lying  S.  along  the  river  is  South  Saint 
Paul,  where  are  located  the  great  stock 
yards. 

The  city  has  an  excellent  school  system 
comprising  public  and  high  schools.  There 
were  in  1920,  62  public  grade  and  high 
schools,  with  a  teaching  and  supervising 
staff  of  750,  and  an  enrollment  of  over 
35,000  pupils.  In  addition  there  are  46 
private  and  parochial  schools  with  an 
attendance  of  about  13,000.  There  are 
six  colleges  and  universities,  including 
the  State  College  of  Agriculture.  The 
State  University  is  within  ten  minutes 
ride  from  the  city  limits.  There  are  11 
business  and  trade  schools,  8  schools  of 
music,  and  3  art  schools. 

St.  Paul  has  facilities  for  large  river 
traffic.  The  municipal  dock  is  equipped 
with  the  most  modern  facilities.  Four 
railroads  have  direct  access  to  the  river 
front  on  different  portions  of  the  harbor. 
There  is  an  adequate  supply  of  power 
derived  from  water  power  developments 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city.  There 
is  also  available  a  supply  of  gas  for  those 
industries  which  require  this  commodity 
for  a  source  of  energy. 

There  were  in  1919  849  manufacturing 
establishments,  with  41,248  wage-earners, 
a  capital  investment  of  $155,685,000,  and 
a  product  valued  at  $215,000,000.  The 
most  important  industries  are  boots  and 
shoes,  the  manufacture  of  butter,  cheese 
and  condensed  milk,  railroad  repair  shops, 
foundry  and  machine  shop  products,  fur 
goods,  and  meat  packing.  It  is  also  one 
of  the  most  important  milling  centers  of 
the  United  States.  St.  Paul  is  a  whole- 
sale jobbing  center  for  the  surrounding 
country. 

There  were  in  1920,  32  banks  with  an 
aggregate  capital  of  $10,040,373,  and  sur- 
plus and  undivided  profits  of  $5,776,480. 
The  bank  clearings  at  the  close  of  1919 
amounted  to  $961,376,325.  The  assessed 
value  of  property  on  December  31,  1919, 
was  $135,804,277,  of  which  $99,300,903 
was  in  real  estate.  The  net  bonded  debt 
was  $8,300,941.  Pop.  (1900)  163,065; 
(1910)  214,744;  (1920)   234,698. 

History. — A  French  Canadian  settled 
on  the  site  of  the  city  in  1838.  Three 
years  later  Father  Gaultier,  a  French 
Catholic  priest,  founded  the  first  church 
here,  and  named  it  St.  Paul,  from  which 
the  city  derived  its  name.    It  received  its 


city  charter  in  1854,  and  united  the  sub- 
urb of  West  St.  Paul  in  1874.  Since  the 
latter  year  there  has  been  such  a  rapid 
growth  that  the  outskirts  of  the  city 
reach  those  of  Minneapolis.  These  two 
cities  are  known  as  "The  Twin  Cities  of 
the  West." 

ST.  PAUL,  a  volcanic  islet  2  miles 
long  and  860  feet  high,  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  midway  between  Africa  and  Aus- 
tralia. It  is  comparatively  bare,  in  con- 
trast to  the  smaller  but  densely  vegetated 
island  of  New  Amsterdam,  50  miles  to  the 
N.  St.  Paul's  Rocks  is  a  group  of  small 
islets  1°  N.  of  the  equator  and  540  miles 
from  the   South  American  coast. 

ST.  PAUL,  an  island  near  the  entrance 
of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  N.  E.  of  Cape 
Breton.  It  is  small;  its  surface  is  undu- 
lating and  hilly;  and  it  is  traversed  by 
strips  of  forest. 

ST.  PAUL'S,  a  cathedral  in  London, 
England,  situated  on  Ludgate  Hill,  an 
elevation  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Thames. 
The  site  of  the  present  building  was  orig- 
inally occupied  by  a  church  erected  by 
Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  in  610.  This 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1087,  and  another 
edifice,  Old  St.  Paul's,  was  shortly  after- 
ward commenced.  The  structure  was  in 
the  Gothic  style,  in  the  form  of  a  Latin 
cross,  690  feet  long,  130  feet  broad,  with 
a  lead-covered  wooden  spire  rising  to  the 
height  of  520  feet.  The  middle  aisle  was 
termed  Paul's  walk,  from  its  being  fre- 
quented by  idlers  as  well  as  money  lend- 
ers and  general  dealers.  Old  St.  Paul's 
was  much  damaged  by  a  fire  in  1139,  by 
lightning  in  1444,  again  by  fire  in  1561, 
and  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the  great 
fire  in  1666.  The  ruins  remained  for 
about  eight  years,  when  the  rebuilding 
was  taken  in  hand  by  the  government  of 
Charles  II.  (1675-1710).  The  whole  build- 
ing was  completed  at  a  total  cost  of  $7,- 
556,010  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren.  It  is 
of  Portland  stone,  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 
Its  length  is  510  feet;  the  width  from  N. 
to  S.  portion  282  feet;  the  general  height 
is  100  feet.  The  whole  is  surmounted  by 
a  great  dome  raised  on  eight  arches. 
Above  the  dome  is  a  lantern  or  gallery 
terminated  above  by  a  ball  and  gilded 
cross,  363  feet  from  the  pavement  be- 
neath. The  elevated  portico  forming  the 
grand  entrance  consists  of  12  Corinthian 
columns,  with  an  upper  series  of  eight 
pillars  of  the  Composite  order,  support- 
ing a  pediment;  the  front  being  flanked 
by  two  bell-towers  120  feet  in  height.  The 
entablature  represents  in  relief  the  con- 
version of  St.  Paul,  a  work  of  Francis 
Bird.  On  the  S.  front,  which  corresponds 
with  the  N.,  is  a  phcenix  rising  from  the 
flames,  with  the  motto,  "Resurgam"    (I 


ST.    PAUL'S    BAY 


200    SAINT  PIERRE  AND  MIQUELON 


shall  rise  again).  The  pavement  of  the 
interior  is  composed  of  slabs  of  black  and 
white  marble.  The  crypt  under  the  nave 
contains  the  burying-places  of  many  il- 
lustrious personages,  and  some  interest- 
ing relics  of  old  St.  Paul's.  Among  the 
numerous  monuments  and  statues  to  the 
illustrious  dead  may  be  noted  those  of 
John  Howard  and  Dr.  Johnson,  by  Bacon; 
statues  of  Nelson,  Earl  Howe,  and  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,  by  Flaxman;  Bishop 
Heber,  by  Chantrey;  and  monuments  to 
Lord  Rodney,  Lord  Heathfield,  Admiral 
Collingwood,  General  Abercrombie,  etc., 
by  Rossi,  Westmacott,  and  others.  The 
monument  to  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  by 
Alfred  Stevens,  is  accounted  the  finest 
work  of  its  kind  in  England.  It  consists 
of  a  rich  marble  sarcophagus  and  canopy 
elaborately  ornamented  with  bronze  sculp- 
tures. It  is  30  feet  in  height  and  cost 
upward  of  $150,000. 

ST.  PAUL'S  BAY,  a  bay  on  the  N. 
coast  of  Malta,  notable  as  being  the  tra- 
ditional scene  of  St.  Paul's  shipwreck.  It 
is  GV2  miles  from  Valetta  and  its  environ- 
ments are  prominent  in  Biblical  litera- 
ture. 

ST.  PAUL'S  ROCKS,  a  group  of  small 
islands  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  E.  of  South 
America.  They  are  characterized  by  great 
bowlders  scattered  over  their  surface,  and 
by  the  rocks  at  their  bases  in  the  sea, 
making  an  approach  to  them  dangerous. 

ST.  PAUL'S  SCHOOL,  an  English 
school,  in  West  Kensington,  London; 
originally  founded  in  1509.  Among  its 
pupils  have  been  Major  Andre,  Camden, 
Roger  Cotes,  Sir  P.  Francis,  Halley,  Le- 
land,  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  Milton, 
Robert  Nelson,  Pepys,  Strype,  and  Judge 
Jeffreys. 

ST.  PETER,  LAKE,  a  sheet  of  water 
which  is  really  an  expansion  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  river,  near  Three  Rivers.  Many 
rivers  flow  into  it,  the  largest  being  the 
St.  Francis.  There  are  many  islands  in 
its  S.  half,  several  of  which  are  notable 
for  beautiful  scenery.  The  lake  is  35  miles 
long  and  its  greatest  breadth  is  10  miles. 

ST.  PETER  PORT,  the  capital  of  the 
island  of  Guernsey,  one  of  the  Channel 
Islands;  about  25  miles  from  St.  Helier. 
It  is  a  watering-place  and  has  a  beautiful 
Gothic  church.     Pop.  about  20,000. 

ST.  PETER'S,  the  Cathedral  of  Rome, 
the  largest  and  one  of  the  most  magnifi- 
cent churches  in  Christendom.  It  is  a 
cruciform  building  in  the  Italian  style, 
surmounted  by  a  lofty  dome,  built  on  the 
legendary  site  of  St.  Peter's  martyrdom. 
In  306  Constantine  the  Great  erected  on 
this  spot  a  basilica  of  great  magnificence. 
In  the  time  of  Nicholas  V.  it  threatened 


to  fall  into  ruins,  and  he  determined  on 
its  reconstruction,  but  the  work  of  res- 
toration proceeded  slowly,  and  Julius  II. 
(1503-1513)  decided  on  the  erection  of  an 
entirely  new  building.  He  laid  the  foun- 
dation stone  of  the  new  cathedral  on  the 
18th  of  April,  1506,  and  selected  the  fa- 
mous Bramante  as  his  architect.  After 
the  latter's  death  various  architects  had 
charge  of  the  work  till  Michelangelo 
was  appointed  in  1546.  He  nearly  com- 
pleted the  dome  and  a  large  portion  of 
the  building  before  his  decease  (1564). 
The  nave  was  finished  in  1612,  the  facade 
and  portico  in  1616,  and  the  church  was 
dedicated  by  Urban  VIII.  Nov.  18,  1626. 
The  extensive  colonnade  which  surrounds 
the  piazza  and  forms  a  magnificent  ap- 
proach to  the  church  was  begun  by  Ber- 
nini in  1667,  and  the  sacristy  erected  by 
Carlo  Marchionni  in  1776.  The  interior 
diameter  of  the  dome  is  139  feet,  the  ex- 
terior diameter  195 V2  feet;  its  height 
from  the  pavement  to  the  base  of  the  lan- 
tern 405  feet,  to  the  top  of  the  cross  out- 
side 435  feet.  The  length  of  the  cathedral 
within  the  walls  is  613 V2  feet;  the  height 
of  the  nave  near  the  door  152 V2  feet;  the 
width  87%  feet.  The  width  of  the  side 
aisles  is  33  %  feet ;  the  entire  width  of  the 
nave  and  side  aisles,  including  the  piers 
that  separate  them,  197%  feet.  The  cir- 
cumference of  the  piers  which  support 
the  dome  is  253  feet.  The  floor  of  the 
cathedral  covers  nearly  5  acres,  and  its 
cost  is  estimated  to  have  exceeded  $50,- 
000,000. 

SAINT  PETERSBURG,  a  city  of 
Florida  in  Pinellas  co.  It  is  on  the  penin- 
sula separating  Tampa  Bay  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  is  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast  and  the  Tampa  and  Gulf  Coast 
lines.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor  and  in 
recent  years  has  developed  an  important 
commerce.  It  is  also  a  favorite  winter 
resort.  The  population  since  1910  has 
rapidly  increased.  Pop.  (1910)  4,127; 
(1920)   14,237. 

ST.   PETERSBURG.     See   PETROGRAD. 

ST.  PIERRE,  the  largest  town,  though 
not  the  capital,  of  the  island  of  Martin- 
ique (q.  v.),  W.  I.  It  was  founded  in 
1665,  and  at  the  time  of  its  destruction 
by  an  eruption  of  Mont  Pelee  in  19t)2  it 
had  a  population  of  from  26,000  to  30,- 
000,  and  was  of  considerable  commercial 
importance.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Josephine,  consort  of  Napoleon  I. 

SAINT    PIERRE    AND    MIQUELON, 

a  French  colony,  10  miles  S.  of  Newfound- 
land, consisting  of  the  three  islands  of 
Saint  Pierre,  Ile-aux-Chiens,  and  Mique- 
lon,  having  in  all  an  area  of  93  square 
miles.  They  are  only  moderately  fertile, 
but  are  of  importance  as  the  center  of  the 


SAINT-PIERRE 


201 


SAINT-SAENS 


French  cod  fisheries,  which  employ  many 
thousand  persons,  with  exports  amount- 
ing to  nearly  $3,000,000  per  annum.  The 
capital  of  the  colony  is  Saint  Pierre, 
where  the  headquarters  of  the  governor 
are  situated,  and  a  representative  of  the 
colony  sits  in  the  French  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  The  capital  has  cable  commu- 
nication with  Europe  and  lines  of  steam- 
ers run  between  it  and  Boston  and  Hali- 
fax. Pop.  about  6,000.  The  islands 
were  the  subject  of  controversies  and 
!  wrangling  between  French  and  English 
'  from  1713  to  1816,  but  in  the  latter  year 
France  was  confirmed  in  their  possession. 

SAINT-PIEBRE,  JACQUES  HENRI 
BERNARDIN  DE,  a  French  author 
born  in  1737.  He  learned  engineering, 
and  in  the  capacity  of  engineer  worked 
in  Malta,  Russia,  and  Germany,  and  for 
about  three  years  for  the  French  Govern- 


JACQUES   H.  B.  DE   SAINT-PIERRE 

ment  in  Mauritius.  Having  returned  to 
France  he  betook  himself  to  literature. 
His  "Studies  of  Nature,"  published  in 
1783,  first  secured  him  a  literary  position. 
Then  followed  his  chief  works :  "Paul  and 
Virginia"  (1787)  and  "Indian  Cottage" 
(1790),  both  of  them  (especially  the  for- 
mer) very  popular.  In  1795  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Institute.    He  died  in  1814. 

ST.  POL  DE  LEON,  a  town  in  the 
Breton  department  of  Finistere,  France, 
near  the  English  Channel,  13  miles  N.  N. 
W.  of  Morlaix.  It  has  a  18th-century 
cathedral,  dedicated  to  St.  Pol,  who  came 
hither  from  Cornwall  in  the  6th  century, 
and  also  the  Kreizker  church,  with  a 
beautiful  spire  252  feet  high. 

ST.  QTJENTIN,  a  town  in  the  French 
department  of  Aisne,  on  the  Somme,  95 
miles  N.  E.  of  Paris  and  33  S.  of  Cam- 


brai.  The  church  of  St.  Quenthi  is  a  re- 
markably fine  Gothic  structure,  dating 
from  the  12th  to  the  15th  century,  and 
containing  a  much  more  ancient  crypt. 
The  town  hall  (15th  and  16th  centuries) 
is  also  a  fine  specimen  of  Gothic.  The 
town  is  a  center  of  the  cotton  industries, 
including  the  making  of  calicoes,  tulle, 
cretonnes,  jaconets,  muslin,  merino,  cam- 
bric, gauze,  and  so  forth.  Further,  vast 
quantities  of  embroidery  are  prepared, 
and  machinery,  hats,  paper,  sugar,  soap, 
and  beer  are  manufactured.  St.  Quentin 
and  its  vicinity  has  been  the  scene  of 
memorable  battles.  The  Spaniards  under 
the  Duke  of  Savoy  and  Ferdinand  Gon- 
zaga,  assisted  by  an  English  contingent 
under  the  Earl  of  Pembroke  and  Egmont 
in  command  of  hie  Flemings,  inflicted  a 
crushing  defeat  on  the  French  under  Con- 
stable Montmorency,  Aug.  10,  1557  (St. 
Lawrence's  Day),  a  victory  which  Philip 
II.  commemorated  in  the  Escorial.  Shortly 
afterward  the  town,  after  a  brilliant  de- 
fense by  Coligny,  capitulated  to  the  Span- 
ish army.  On  Jan.  19,  1871,  the  Germans 
under  Von  Goeben  put  to  rout  the  army 
of  Faidherbe,  capturing  nearly  10,000 
prisoners.  During  the  World  War  St. 
Quentin  was  reduced  to  ruins  by  the  Ger- 
man guns.  By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty 
of  Peace  (1919)  the  city  is  to  be  rebuilt 
by  German  labor.  Pop.  before  the  war 
about  55,500. 

ST.  REMY,  a  town  in  the  department 
of  Bouches-du-Rhone,  France;  15  miles 
N.  E.  of  Aries.  Near  it  are  antiquities 
from  the  Roman  town  of  Glanum  Livii. 
The  most  noteworthy  are  the  triumphal 
arch,  A.  D.  100,  and  the  tomb,  or  monu- 
ment, of  the  Julii.  The  latter  is  about 
60  feet  high,  rising  two  stories  above  the 
square  base.  Around  the  base  is  a  series 
of  military  scenes  in  relief;  the  first  story 
is  pierced  by  archways,  and  decorated 
with  Corinthian  semi-columns;  and  the 
second  story  is  a  circular  edicule  with 
10  Corinthian  columns  and  a  domical  roof 
sheltering  two  statues.  This  monument 
is  assigned  to  the  time  of  the  early  em- 
pire. 

SAINT-SAENS,  CHARLES  CAMILLE, 
a  French  musician ;  born  in  Paris,  France, 
Oct.  3,  1835.  At  the  age,  it  is  said,  of 
two  and  a  half  years  he  was  taught  the 
pianoforte  by  his  great-aunt,  and  at  seven 
he  had  further  instruction  from  Stamaty, 
and  subsequently  learned  harmony  under 
Maleden.  In  1847  he  studied  the  organ 
under  Benoist.  At  the  age  of  16  he  wrote 
his  first  symphony,  which  was  performed 
with  success,  and  was  followed  by  numer*- 
ous  other  instrumental  works.  He  became 
organist,  first  of  the  church  of  St.  Mery, 
and  in  1858  of  the  Madeleine,  where  he 
continued  till  1877.    His  first  opera,  "The 


SAINTSBURY 


202 


SAINT    SIMON 


Yellow  Princess,"  was  given  in  1872,  and 
"The  Silver  Bell"  in  1877;  but  neither 
was  successful.  "Samson  and  Dalila," 
a  sacred  drama,  was  produced  at  Weimar 
also  in  1877,  and  was  subsequently  suc- 
cessfully revived  at  Rouen.  More  impor- 
tant operas  are:  "Henry  VIII.,"  brought 
out  in  1883  at  the  Grand  Opera  with  suc- 
cess, not  however  extending  to  its  subse- 
quent revivals;  "Proserpina,"  given  in 
1887,  but  received  with  disapprobation; 
and  "Ascanius,"  produced  at  the  Grand 
Opera,  March  21,  1890,  and  well  received, 
though  not  with  unmixed  praise;  "The 
Barbarians"  (1901);  "Andromaque" 
(1903)  ;  "'L'Ancetre"  (1906).  He  was  one 
of  the  greatest  performers  on  the  piano 
and  organ,  and  had  remarkable  powers 
of  improvisation.  He  appeared  as  a  per- 
former in  various  countries.  His  repu- 
tation as  a  composer  is  high,  though  he 
has  not  attained  the  highest  rank  in  op- 
era.   He  wrote  several  works  on  music. 

SAINTSBURY,    GEORGE    EDWARD 

BATEMAN,  an  English  litterateur;  born 
in  Southampton,  England,  Oct.  23,  1845; 
was  educated  at  King's  College  School, 
and  Oxford.  From  1868  till  1876  he  filled 
scholastic  appointments  at  Manchester, 
Guernsey,  and  Elgin,  but  soon  after  es- 
tablished himself  in  the  literary  world  of 
London  as  one  of  the  most  active  and  in- 
fluential critics  of  his  day.  He  was  an 
active  contributor  to  the  greater  maga- 
zines (of  "Macmillan's"  he  was  for  some 
time  editor)  and  to  encyclopaedias.  Among 
his  books  are  a  "Primer"  (1880)  and  a 
"Short  History"  (1882)  of  French  litera- 
ture; "Dryden"  in  "English  Men  of  Let- 
ters" (1881),  and  "Marlborough"  in 
"English  Worthies"  (1885)  ;  a  "History 
of  Elizabethan  Literature"'  (1887)  ;  a 
short  history  of  "Manchester"  (1887); 
:'Essays  in  English  Literature,  1780- 
1860"  (1890);  "Essays  on  French  Novel- 
ists" (1891);  "Short  History  of  English 
Literature"  (1898)  ;  "Matthew  Arnold" 
(1899),  etc.  Besides  these  he  edited 
Scott's  "Dryden,"  "Specimens  of  French 
Literature,  from  Villon  to  Hugo"  (1883)  ; 
"Specimens  of  English  Prose  Style,  from 
Malory  to  Macaulay"  (1885)  ;  Corneille's 
"Horace,"  and  other  French  classics  for 
schools;  and  a  translation  of  Scherer's 
"Critical  Essays  on  English  Subjects" 
(1891).  In  1895  he  became  Professor  of 
Rhetoric  and  English  Literature  at  Edin- 
burgh University.  Among  his  later  works 
were  "History  of  Criticism"  (1900) ; 
"History  of  English  Prosody"  (1906- 
1908)  ;  "History  of  English  Prose 
Rhythm"  (1912);  "The  English  Novel" 
(1913),  etc. 

SAINTS'  DAYS,  days  set  apart  by 
traditional  usage  or  authority  of  the 
Church  for  anniversary   celebrations   in 


honor  of  particular  saints.     They  were 
first  instituted  in  honor  of  martyrs. 

ST.  SEBASTIAN,  a  celebrated  Roman 
martyr;  born  in  Narbonne  about  255.  Ac- 
cording to  the  anonymous  "Acts"  by 
which  his  history  is  preserved  (supposed 
to  have  been  written  in  the  4th  century, 
and  by  some  attributed  to  St.  Ambrose), 
he  was  a  captain  in  the  praetorian  guard 
under  Diocletian,  and  used  the  facilities 
afforded  by  his  station  to  propagate  the 
Christian  faith.  Having  refused  to  ab- 
jure his  religion,  he  was  tied  to  a  tree, 
shot  with  arrows,  and  left  for  dead.  A 
Christian  woman  found  him  still  alive, 
and  cared  for  him  till  he  was  restored; 
but,  having  ventured  to  appear  before 
Diocletian  to  remonstrate  against  his  cru- 
elty, he  was  beaten  to  death  with  clubs. 
In  the  9th  century  his  relics  were  dis- 
tributed throughout  Christendom  as  a 
remedy  against  the  plague.  He  died  in 
Rome,  Jan.  20,  288. 

ST.  SERVAN,  a  seaport  of  France, 
department  Ille-et-Vilaine,  on  the  E.  side 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Ranee,  just  above 
St.  Malo  (g.  v.),  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  a  creek  a  mile  wide.  It  has  a 
floating  dock,  is  much  frequented  as  a 
watering-place,  and  carries  on  shipbuild- 
ing and  its  cognate  branches,  and  has  a 
little  commerce  in  fruit,  potatoes,  barley 
(exports),  coal,  and  timber  (imports). 
Close  by  are  the  ruins  of  the  cathedral 
of  Aleth  (6th  to  12th  century).  Pop. 
about  12,000. 

SAINT  SIMON,  CLAUDE  HENRI, 
COUNT  DE,  a  French  social  philosopher, 
the  founder  of  French  socialism;  born  in 
Paris,  France,  in  1760.  After  completing 
his  education  he  entered  the  army,  and 
in  1777  was  included  in  an  expedition  sent 
by  Louis  XVI.  to  assist  the  United  States 
in  her  war  with  England.  After  seeing 
some  service  under  Washington,  and  trav- 
eling through  Mexico,  he  returned  to 
France  and  was  appointed  colonel  in  the 
French  army.  He,  however,  took  no  in- 
terest in  his  military  duties,  as  he  in- 
tended to  devote  his  life  to  the  advance- 
ment of  human  civilization.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Revolution,  though 
he  warmly  sympathized  with  the  move* 
ment,  he  took  no  part  in  the  subsequent 
events,  but  retired  entirely  from  the  army, 
and  bought  a  considerable  _  quantity  of 
confiscated  land,  with  the  view  of  estab- 
lishing a  large  scientific  and  industrial 
school;  but  the  scheme  was  a  failure,  and 
St.  Simon  retired  from  it  after  losing  a 
vast  sum  of  money.  From  this  time  he 
devoted  himself  to  what  he  termed^  a 
"physico-political"  reformation,  for  which 
purpose  he  entered  into  the  study  of  all 
the   physical   sciences — mathematics,   as- 


ST.    STEPHEN 


203 


ST.    VINCENT 


tronomy,  general  physics,  and  chemistry 
— and  all  the  general  science  attainable 
with  respect  to  organized  beings.  He  next 
proceeded  to  make  his  "experimental  edu- 
cation"; he  married  and  continued  to  pur- 
sue his  prescribed  career,  in  which  good 
and  evil  were  confounded.  This,  how- 
ever, in  1807,  came  to  an  end ;  his  fortune 
was  gone,  and  he  was  compelled  to  become 
a  clerk  in  a  government  office  at  a  small 
yearly  salary.  In  1812,  he  being  then  in 
his  52d  year,  he  considered  it  time  to  "es- 
tablish his  theory,"  and  published  a  num- 
ber of  remarkable  works  which  attracted 
round  him  a  large  number  of  disciples. 
His  last  efforts  were  directed  toward  the 
foundation  of  a  new  religion,  which  he 
called  the  New  Christianity,  in  which  so- 
ciety was  to  be  reorganized  on  this  for- 
mula :  "To  each  man  a  vocation  according 
to  his  capacity,  and  to  each  capacity  a 
recompense  according  to  its  worth."  Be- 
fore breathing  his  last  he  gave  final  in- 
structions to  his  chief  disciples,  among 
whom  were  Augustin  Thierry  and 
Comte,  the  future  author  of  the  "Positive 
Philosophy."  His  most  important  works 
were,  "Introduction  to  the  Scientific  La- 
bors of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  "The 
Reorganization  of  European  Society,"  and 
"New  Christianity."    He  died  in  1825. 

ST.  STEPHEN,  The  Deacon,  called 
also  the  "protomartyr,"  or  earliest  of  the 
Christian  martyrs;  one  of  the  seven  dea- 
cons whose  appointment  is  related  in  the 
6th  chapter  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
The  circumstances  of  his  martyrdom  are 
related  in  the  same  chapter. 

ST.  STJLPICE,  a  famous  diocesan  semi- 
nary for  priests  in  Paris,  close  by  the 
large  and  wealthy  church  of  St.  Sulpice, 
on  the  S.  side  of  the  Seine,  near  the  Lux- 
embourg. 

ST.  THOMAS,  a  volcanic  island  of 
Africa  belonging  to  Portugal ;  in  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea;  166  miles  W.  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Gabun  river.  Its  S.  extremity  almost 
touches  the  equator.  Measuring  32  miles 
by  21,  it  has  an  area  of  360  square  miles; 
pop.  about  59,000.  Though  it  rises  to 
the  altitude  of  7,000  feet,  it  has  the  rep- 
utation of  being  very  unhealthy.  Coffee 
and  cocoa,  with  some  pepper,  cinnamon, 
maize,  indigo,  etc.,  are  the  principal  prod- 
ucts. Chief  town,  St.  Thomas,  on  the 
N.  E.  coast,  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  The 
island  was  discovered  in  1470,  and  col- 
onized in  1493  by  the  Portuguese,  to  whom 
it  reverted  after  a  Dutch  occupation  from 
1641  to  1844. 

ST.  THOMAS,  one  of  the  Virgin 
Islands,  W.  I.,  formerly  belonging  to  Den- 
mark, but  now  territory  of  the  United 
States;  36  miles  E.  of  Porto  Rico;  area, 


33  square  miles.  English  is  the  language 
of  the  educated  classes.  The  surface  is 
hilly  and  the  soil  poor.  The  cultivation 
of  vegetables,  guinea  grass,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  cotton  employs  the  scanty  ru- 
ral population.  The  port,  St.  Thomas, 
was  formerly  a  busy  emporium  for  the 
European  trade  of  the  West  Indies,  the 
harbor  in  which  the  merchant  fleets  as- 
sembled to  wait  for  their  convoys,  and 
later  the  principal  port  of  call  in  the  West 
Indies.  All  these  advantages  have  now 
passed  from  it.  Before  the  abolition  of 
slavery  it  was  covered  with  prosperous 
sugar  plantations.  The  island  is  often 
visited  by  earthquakes,  but  they  are  not, 
as  a  rule,  so  destructive  as  the  cyclones. 
It  was  first  colonized  by  the  Dutch  in 
1657.  The  British  held  it  in  1667-1671, 
1801,  1807-1815;  and  the  United  States 
purchased  it  from  Denmark  in  1916.  Pop. 
(1917)  10,191. 

ST.  THOMAS,  a  city  and  capital  of 
Elgin  co.,  Ontario,  Canada;  on  Kettle 
creek,  on  the  Michigan  Central,  the  Can- 
adian Pacific,  the  Wabash,  the  Pere  Mar- 
quette, and  the  Grand  Trunk  railroads; 
75  miles  S.  W.  of  Hamilton.  Here  are 
numerous  churches  and  hotels,  water^ 
works,  gas  and  electric  lights,  several 
branch  banks,  and  a  number  of  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers.  The  city  has  flax, 
planing,  and  flour  mills,  the  Michigan 
Central  railroad  shops,  and  manufac- 
tories of  ear-wheels,  carriages,  mattress- 
es, brooms,  spokes,  churns,  etc.  Pop. 
about  20,000. 

ST.  VINCENT,  one  of  the  British 
islands  in  the  West  Indies,  Windward 
Group,  105  miles  W.  of  Barbadoes;  area, 
140  square  miles;  pop.  (1919)  53,210,  of 
whom  about  3,000  are  whites  and  Hindu 
coolies,  the  rest  being  negroes  and  people 
of  mixed  blood.  The  island  is  traversed 
from  N.  to  S.  by  a  chain  of  volcanic 
mountains,  which  rise  in  the  volcano 
called  the  Souffriere  to  3,500  feet.  This 
volcano  erupted  May  7,  1902,  with  great 
violence,  causing  about  1,600  deaths.  The 
climate  is  healthy.  Sugar,  rum,  cocoa, 
spices,  and  arrowroot  are  the  principal 
products.  The  chief  town  is  Kingstown 
(pop.  about  5,000),  at  the  head  of  a  bay 
on  the  S.  W.  coast.  The  island  is  ruled 
by  a  governor  and  a  nominated  legisla- 
tive council  of  seven  members;  previous 
to  1877  it  had  a  representative  govern- 
ment. St.  Vincent  was  discovered  by  Col- 
umbus in  1498,  and  was  then  inhabited 
by  Caribs.  These  people  were  left  in  pos- 
session down  to  1783,  although  Charles  I. 
gave  the  island  to  the  Earl  of  Carlisle  in 
1627.  In  1797  the  Caribs,  rebelling  with 
French  aid,  were  transferred  to  the  island 
of  Ruatan  in  the  Bay  of  Honduras. 


ST.    VINCENT 


204 


SAKHALIN 


ST.  VINCENT,  CAPE,  a  promontory 
forming  the  S.  W.  corner  of  Portugal,  off 
which  several  important  naval  battles 
have  taken  place.  On  June  16,  1693,  the 
English  Admiral  Rooke  was  here  attacked 
by  a  superior  French  fleet,  and  defeated 
with  the  loss  of  12  men-of-war  and  80 
merchantment  which  were  sailing  under 
his  convoy ;  on  January  16,  1780,  Admiral 
Rodney  destroyed  here  several  Spanish 
ships  of  Langara's  fleet;  on  February  14, 
1797,  the  great  battle  of  Cape  St.  Vincent 
resulted  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  Span- 
iards and  capture  of  some  of  their  larg- 
est ships.  This  victory  frustrated  the 
formidable  Spanish-French  scheme  of  in- 
vading England.  The  fourth  naval  fight 
off  Cape  St.  Vincent  took  place  between 
the  fleet  of  Queen  Maria  of  Portugal, 
commanded  by  Sir  Charles  Napier,  and 
that  of  Dom  Miguel,  in  which  a  portion 
of  the  latter  was  destroyed  and  the  rest 
captured,  July  5,  1833. 

ST.  VINCENT,  JOHN  JEEVIS, 
EARL  OF,  an  English  naval  officer;  born 
in  Meaford  Hall.  Staffordshire,  England, 
Jan.  9,  1734.  Running  away  to  sea  as  a 
boy,  he  rose  to  be  a  naval  lieutenant  in 
1755,  and  so  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Quebec  expedition  in  1759  as  to  receive 
the  rank  of  commander.  As  captain  of 
the  "Foudroyant"  in  1778  he  fought  in 
the  action  of  Brest,  and  in  1782  captured 
the  "Pegase,"  of  74  guns,  whereupon  he 
was  made  K.  B.  In  1793  he  commanded 
the  naval  part  of  the  successful  expedi- 
tion against  the  French  West  India  Is- 
lands. In  1795,  now  admiral,  he  received 
the  command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet. 
On  Feb.  14,  1797,  with  only  15  sail  of  the 
line  and  seven  frigates,  he  fell  in,  off 
Cape  St.  Vincent,  with  the  Spanish  fleet 
of  27  sail.  Jervis  determined  to  engage 
the  enemy,  and  the  battle  of  St.  Vincent 
was  fought;  but  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  genius  of  Nelson  contributed 
greatly  to  the  success  of  the  day.  For 
this  victory  the  king  created  Jervis  Earl 
St.  Vincent,  and  Parliament  settled  on 
him  a  pension  of  $15,000  a  year.  After 
having,  by  great  firmness,  repressed  a 
mutiny  off  Cadiz  which  threatened  the 
loss  of  the  whole  fleet,  he  was  compelled 
by  ill-health  to  return  home.  He  subdued 
the  spirit  of  sedition  which  had  openly 
manifested  itself  in  the  Channel  fleet; 
held  the  appointment  of  First  Lord  of 
the  Admiralty,  1801-1804;  reformed  in- 
numerable crying  abuses;  having  for  a 
second  time  commanded  the  Channel 
fleet,  he  retired  and  died  March  13, 
1823.  He  was  buried  at  Stone,  in 
Staffordshire. 

ST.  VINCENT  DE  PAUL.     See  VIN- 
CENT de  Paul,  St. 


ST.  VITUS'  DANCE.    See  Chorea. 

SAIONJI,  MARQUIS    KINMOCHI,  a 

Japanese  statesman  and  a  member  of  the  , 
Japanese  peace  delegation  at  the  Paris 
Peace  Conference  in  1919.  He  was  born 
in  Kyoto  in  1849,  and  in  his  youth  took 
part  in  the  political  activities  following 
the  revolution  of  1868.  From  1869  to 
1880  he  studied  in  Paris.  On  his  return 
to  Japan  he  joined  Prince  Ito  and  other 
advocates  of  liberal  reform  ideas.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  commission  which 
studied  foreign  governments,  in  1882.  He 
served  as  Japanese  Minister  at  Vienna 
and  at  Berlin,  and  held  various  impor- 
tant posts  in  the  Japanese  Government, 
becoming,  in  1903,  leader  of  the  Consti- 
tutional Party.  From  1906  to  1908  he 
was  Prime  Minister  and  again  in  1911-12. 

SAIS,  an  ancient  Egyptian  city,  on  th« 
right  bank  of  the  Canopic  branch  of  the 
Nile.  It  gave  its  name  to  two  Egyptian 
dynasties,  the  24th  and  26th,  founded  by 
natives  of  the  city.  Sais  was  important 
as  a  religious  capital,  and  had  a  famous 
temple  of  the  goddess  Neith  and  the  tomb 
of  Osiris.  Toward  the  decline  of  the 
monarchy  it  rose  to  great  splendor.  The 
26th  dynasty  transferred  hither  the  capi- 
tal of  the  kingdom.  It  was  also  a  re- 
nowned seat  of  learning,  and  was  fre- 
quently visited  by  the  sages  of  Greece. 
The  legend  of  the  mysterious  veiled  statue 
in  the  temple  at  Sais  (which  formed  the 
subject  of  Schiller's  ballad  and  of  Nova- 
lis'  romance)  is  the  issue  of  Greek  ini 
vention. 

SAIVAS,  the  name  of  one  of  the  three 
great  divisions  of  Hindu  sects.  The  word 
designates  the  votaries  of  Siva,  and  com- 
prises different  special  sects  which  varied 
in  number  at  different  periods  of  medi- 
aeval Hinduism. 

SAKHALIN  (Japanese  KARAFUTO), 
a  long  island  in  the  North  Pacific,  sepa- 
rated from  Manchuria  by  the  Gulf  of 
Tartary,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the 
Amoor;  area,  about  27,800  square  miles. 
The  center  is  mountainous.  There  are 
three  parallel  ridges  running  from  N.  to 
S.,  from  2,000  to  5,000  feet  above#  sea- 
level,  and  densely  covered  with  conifers. 
Climate,  flora,  and  fauna  are  almost  Si- 
berian. The  island  formerly  belonged  to 
the  Chinese  empire,  but  early  in  the  19th 
century  the  Japanese  took  possession.  In 
1875  the  Russians  obtained  its  cession 
from  Japan.  The  southern  half  of  the 
island  (area,  13,048  square  miles;  pop. 
about  68,000)  was  ceded  to  Japan  by  the 
treaty  of  Portsmouth  (1905).  The  Rus- 
sian portion  has  a  population  of  about 
34,000. 


SAKKARA 


205 


SALAMANCA 


SAKKARA,  a  village  of  Egypt,  where 
Is  the  necropolis  of  ancient  Memphis.  It 
is  remarkable  for  its  ancient  monuments, 
pyramids,  etc. 

SAKI,  a  monkey,  called  also  fox-tailed 
monkey,  belonging  to  the  Cebidx,  genus 
Pithecia.  These  animals  usually  reside 
in  the  outskirts  of  forests,  in  small  so- 
cieties of  10  or  12  individuals.  On  the 
slightest  provocation  they  display  a  mo- 
rose and  savage  temper;  and,  like  the 
howlers,  they  utter  loud  cries  before  sun- 
rise and  after  sunset. 

SAKI,  or  SAKE,  the  native  beer  and 
common  stimulating  drink  of  the  Japa- 
nese. It  is  made  from  rice,  and  is  drunk 
warm,  producing  a  very  speedy  but  tran- 
sient intoxication. 

SAKIEH,  SAKIA,  or  SAKEEYEH,  a 

machine  used  in  Egypt  for  raising  water 
from  the  Nile  for  the  purpose  of  irriga- 
tion. It  is  a  modification  of  the  Persian 
wheel,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  cogged 
wheels,  turned  by  a  buffalo  or  camel,  each 
revolution  of  the  wheel  working  up  a 
series  of  earthen  pitchers  which  empty 
themselves  into  a  trough  or  pool. 

SAKMARA,  a  river  of  Asiatic  Russia, 
rising  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  after 
a  S.  course  of  350  miles,  joining  the  Ural 
river,  20  miles  S.  E.  of  Orenburg. 

SAKYAMUNI,  or  the  "Saint  Sakya," 
a  name  of  the  founder  of  the  Buddhist 
religion.     See  Buddhism. 

SAL  (sal),  one  of  the  most  valuable 
timber  trees  of  India,  Shorea  robusta, 
natural  order  Dipteraceae,  growing  to  the 
height  of  100  feet.  Extensive  forests  of 
it  exist  in  northern  India,  where  it  is 
largely  used  in  carpentry  of  all  kinds, 
the  wood  being  light  brown  in  color,  hard, 
and  uniform  in  texture.  It  yields  a  whit- 
ish, aromatic,  transparent  resin  (some- 
times called  dammar),  used  to  caulk  boats 
and  ships,  and  also  for  incense.  The  sal 
forests  are  now  protected  by  government. 

SALA,  GEORGE  AUGUSTUS  HENRY, 


loo  to  the  Peninsula,"  "My  Life  and  Ad* 
ventures,"  etc.  He  died  in  Brighton, 
England,  Dec.  8,  1895. 

SALADIN,  or  SALAHEDDIN,  a  cele- 
brated Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria;  born 
in  1137.  In  the  time  of  the  Crusades  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  valor.  He 
made  great  conquests  in  Syria,  Arabia, 
Persia,  and  Mesopotamia;  after  which 
he  defeated  the  Christians  with  great 
slaughter  near  Tiberias  and  took  Guy  de 
Lusignan,  King  of  Jei-usalem,  prisoner. 
This  was  followed  by  the  surrender  of 
Jerusalem,  where  he  behaved  with  great 
generosity  to  the  Christians.  In  1189 
Richard  Cceur-de-Lion,  with  his  ally, 
Philip  Augustus,  King  of  France,  laid 
siege  to  Acre,  which,  after  a  two  years' 
struggle,  was  taken  by  them.  The  cru- 
saders subsequently  took  Caesarea  and 
Jaffa,  and  Richard  Cceur-de-Lion  ad- 
vanced to  within  a  short  distance  of  Je- 
rusalem; but  a  truce  was  afterward 
concluded  between  Saladin  and  the  Chris- 
tians; soon  after  which  the  Sultan  died, 
broken  down  by  his  constant  toil.  He 
died  in  Damascus  in  1193. 

SALAL  BERRY,  the  fruit  of  Gaul- 
theria  shallon,  growing  in  the  valley  of 
the  Oregon,  about  the  size  of  a  common 
grape,  of  a  dark-purple  color  and  of 
sweet,  pleasant  flavor. 

SALAMANCA,  a  village  of  New  York, 
in  Cattaraugus  co.  It  is  on  the  Allegheny 
river  and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Erie, 
the  Buffalo,  Rochester,  and  Pittsburgh, 
and  the  Western  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania railroads.  It  is  the  center  of  an 
important  lumber  region  and  has  railroad 
repair  shops,  manufactures  of  furniture, 
lumber,  leather,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  5,792; 
(1920)   9,276. 

SALAMANCA,  a  city  of  Spain;  on 
and  between  three  low  hills  beside  the 
river  Tormes,  110  miles  N.  W.  of  Madrid. 
From  the  middle  of  the  13th  to  the  close 
of  the  17th  century  it  was  the  seat  of  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  universities  in  Eu- 
rope.    In   Salamanca's   palmy   days   her 


an   English  journalist;   born   in   London,     population  reached  50,000.     The  library. 
England,  in  1828 ;  early  became  a  contrib-    founded  in  1254,  contains  over  70,500  vol- 
Words";    was    the    umes  and  870  MSS.    The  city  is  still  sur- 
rounded with  walls,  pierced  by  10  gates, 


to  "Household  Words";  was  the 
founder  and  first  editor  of  the  "Temple 
Bar  Magazine";  visited  the  United  States 
as  a  correspondent  of  the  London  "Daily 
Telegraph"  in  1863;  went  to  Algeria  in 
the  same  capacity  in  1864;  and  was  a  war 
correspondent  during  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian War  in  1870.  For  several  years  he 
edited  "Sala's  Journal."  He  acquired  a  for- 


and  preserves  very  much  of  its  mediaeval 
appearance,  its  houses,  convents,  and 
churches,  its  streets  and  squares  having 
altered  but  little  since  the  university  be- 
gan to  decline.  The  river  is  crossed  by 
a  bridge  of  27  arches,  in  part  of  Roman 
construction.     The   great   square  is   the 


tune  in  journalism,  but  was  extravagant  largest  perhaps  in  Spain;  it  is  surrounded 
and  finally  became  bankrupt.  His  writings  by  an  arcade,  and  has  on  one  side  the  mu- 
mclude:  "Twice  Round  the  Clock,"  "A  nicipal  buildings.  It  was  used  for  bull 
Journey  Due  North,"  "My  Diary  in  Amer-  fights,  and  can  hold  20,000  spectators. 
ion  in  the  Midst  of  War,"  "From  Water-    The  city  possesses  two  cathedrals;  the  old 

N— Cyc  Vol  s 


SALAMANCA 


206 


SAL    AMMONIAC 


cathedral,  cruciform  in  shape,  late  Ro- 
manesque in  style,  and  dating  from  the 
12th  century,  is  richly  decorated  with 
paintings  and  monuments ;  the  new  cathe- 
dral (1513-1734)  is  a  florid  Gothic  pile, 
also  richly  decorated.  Among  the  re- 
maining noteworthy  buildings  are  the 
Jesuit  College  (1614),  Renaissance  in 
style;  the  Old  College,  now  the  gover- 
nor's palace;  the  convents  of  the  Domini- 
cans and  the  Augustinians,  the  churches 
of  which  are  both  elaborately  ornamented. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  Salamanca  was  fa- 
mous for  its  leather  work;  at  the  present 
day  it  has  not  much  industry  save  a  little 
manufacture  of  cloth,  linen,  leather,  and 
pottery.  The  town  was  captured  by  Han- 
nibal in  222  B.  c.  The  Moors  were  ex- 
pelled from  its  walls  in  1055.  During 
the  Peninsular  War  it  was  taken  by  the 
French  (1812),  who  committed  great  de- 
struction in  one  of  its  quarters,  and  in 
the  vicinity  Wellington  defeated  Marmont 
on  July  22,  1812.     Pop.  about  35,000. 

SALAMANCA,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a 
famous  Spanish  university.  It  was  estab- 
lished about  1230  by  Alfonso  IX.  of  Leon 
and  attained  its  greatest  influence  during 
the  period  from  the  15th  to  the  17th  cen- 
tury. While  it  embraced  all  the  chief 
studies  of  the  time,  students  particularly 
sought  there  instruction  in  canon  and 
civil  law.  The  Spanish  monarchs  aided 
it,  particularly  Ferdinand  of  Castile  and 
Alfonso  the  Astronomer.  Its  financial 
condition  was,  however,  not  always  flour- 
ishing and  the  Popes  repeatedly  came  to 
its  aid.  In  the  16th  and  17th  century  it 
shared  almost  the  supremacy  in  Europe 
enjoyed  by  Paris  in  an  earlier  age.  It 
has  since  been  reorganized  and  its  stu- 
dents now  number  about  1,500. 

SALAMANDER,  a  genus  of  reptiles, 
order  Batrachia,  allied  to  the  frog,  from 
which  it  differs  in  having  an  elongated 
body  terminated  by  a  tail,  and  four  feet 
of  equal  length.  There  are  no  gills  in 
the  adult  animal.  Salamanders  are  en- 
dowed with  an  astonishing  power  of 
reproduction;  and,  when  mutilated,  their 
limbs,  tail,  and  even  their  eyes,  are  re- 
stored at  the  end  of  two  or  three  or  six 
months. 

The  common  salamander  of  Europe  has 
been  celebrated  from  antiquity  for  its 
supposed  power  of  braving  fire,  but  this 
is  a  fable. 

It  would  seem  that  the  United  States 
produce  a  greater  variety  of  salamanders 
than  any  other  part  of  the  globe.  We 
shall  particularize  the  following,  among 
the  land  salamanders:  S.  subviolacea,  a 
large  stout  species,  blackish,  with  two 
rows  of  large,  round,  whitish  spots  on  the 
back.  S.  fasciata;  green;  less  than  the 
preceding;  blackish,  with  transverse  blu- 


ish-white bands  on  the  back;  found  from 
New  Jersey  to  South  Carolina,  but  rare. 
S.  glutinosa;  green;  a  more  slender  spe- 
cies, with  the  tail  nearly  twice  the  length 
of  the  body;  blackish,  sprinkled  on  the 
upper  parts  of  the  body  with  white 
specks.  It  is  found  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States,  and  as  far  N.  as  lat.  43°. 
S.  longicauda;  green;  whitish,  with  nu- 
merous black  specks.  It  is  found  in  the 
Atlantic  States,  but  is  more  frequently 
met  with  in  the  limestone  caves  of  the 
West.  S.  bilineata,  green;  a  small  slen- 
der species;  above  brown,  beneath  yellow, 
with  two  or  sometimes  three  indistinct 
black  lines.  It  inhabits  New  England 
and  the  Middle  States.  S.  cirrigera, 
green;  remarkable  for  having  two  short, 
fleshy  cirri  on  the  snout.  It  was  found 
in  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans.  S.  ery- 
thronota  (the  most  common  species) ; 
blackish,  with  a  broad  red  stripe  on  the 
back.  The  young  are  destitute  of  the  red 
stripe.  S.  symmetrica  (Harlan) ;  reddish, 
with  a  row  of  bright  orange  ocellated 
spots  on  each  side;  length  about  three 
inches.  The  skin  of  this  animal  is  rough, 
and  apparently  destitute  of  the  mucous 
secretion  common  to  the  other  species. 

Among  the  aquatic  salamanders  we 
shall  particularize:  S.  dorsalis  (Harlan)  ; 
resembling  the  preceding  in  size  and  the 
general  distribution  of  the  colors;  inhab- 
its South  Carolina.  S.  maculata;  green, 
whitish,  with  numerous  round  specks  of 
a  reddish  brown  color.  S.  ingens;  green; 
by  far  the  largest  species  hitherto  known ; 
nearly  a  foot  in  length.  It  was  discovered 
in  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans. 

SALAMIS,  or  PITYOUSSA  (modern 
name  Koluri),  an  irregularly  shaped, 
mountainous  island  of  ancient  Greece,  off 
the  coast  of  Attica.  Its  area  is  about  30 
square  miles;  chief  town  Koluri.  It  had 
anciently  two  principal  towns,  Old  and 
New  Salamis.  It  is  remembered  chiefly 
on  account  of  the  great  naval  battle  be- 
tween the  Greeks  and  Persians,  which  was 
fought  with  great  bravery  (480  B.  a),  a 
few  days  after  the  battle  of  Thermopylae, 
but  in  which  the  Persians  were  entirely 
defeated. 

SAL  AMMONIAC,  known  also  as 
chloride  of  ammonium,  and  sometimes  as 
hydrochlorate  of  ammonia,  is  used  in  med- 
icine and  in  chemistry  to  a  considerable 
extent.  It  is  obtained  from  the  ammoni- 
acal  liquor  of  the  gas  works.  It  is  used 
as  an  expectorant  in  chronic  bronchitis 
and  pneumonia,  as  a  diuretic,  diaphoretic, 
and  alterative  in  rheumatism,  and  as  an 
alterative  in  neuralgia ;  it  is  also  given  in 
catarrhal  conditions  of  the  gastrointes- 
tinal tract  and  in  various  hepatic  dis- 
eases. In  chemistry  it  is  largely  used 
as  a  test.    See  Ammonia. 


SALANDRA 


207 


SALEM 


SALANDBA,  ANTONIO,  an  Italian 
statesman,  born  in  Troia,  in  1853.  For 
several  years  during  his  earlier  life  he 
was  a  professor  of  law  on  the  faculty  of 
the  University  of  Rome.  He  began  his 
political  career  by  being  elected  to  the 
National  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  his 
native  city.  He  was  closely  associated 
with  Baron  Sonnino,  who  was  the  bitter 
opponent  of  Giolitti.     When   the  World 


ANTONIO   SALANDRA 

War  broke  out,  in  1914,  Salandra  was 
Premier,  and  he,  more  than  any  other 
individual,  was  responsible  for  the  fact 
that  Italy  refused  to  join  the  Germanic 
alliance  against  the  Entente,  holding  that 
the  treaty  which  bound  Italy  to  Austria- 
Hungary  was  purely  for  defensive  pur- 
poses. In  May,  1915,  on  the  issue  of 
whether  the  country  was  to  remain  neu- 
tral or  join  the  Entente,  he  resigned,  to 
test  popular  sentiment.  So  overwhelm- 
ing were  the  demonstrations  for  his  pol- 
icy that  the  King  was  compelled  to  refuse 
to  accept  his  resignation,  and  Italy  defi- 
nitely adopted  her  pro-Entente  policy, 
which  led  to  her  joining  forces  with 
France  and  England.  In  June,  1916,  Pre- 
mier Salandra  resigned. 

SALA WATTY,  an  island  off  the  W. 
extremity  of  New  Guinea,  to  the  Dutch 
portion  of  which  it  is  regarded  as  belong- 
ing; area  about  750  square  miles.  Pop. 
about  5,000. 


SALDANHA  BAY,  a  bay  of  the  At- 
lantic, on  the  W.  coast  of  Cape  Colony  k 
South  Africa,  80  miles  N.  of  Cape  Town. 
It  forms  a  fine  natural  harbor,  with  ex- 
cellent shelter  and  anchorage  at  all  sea- 
sons, but  is  at  present  little  frequented 
on  account  of  scarcity  of  water  and  fuel. 

SALE,  in  law,  that  transaction  by 
which  the  ownership  of  property  is  trans- 
ferred from  one  person  to  another  in 
consideration  of  a  money  payment  made 
by  the  buyer  to  the  seller.  If  it  be  a 
commutation  of  goods  for  goods,  it  is 
more  properly  an  exchange.  In  order  to 
the  validity  of  a  sale,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  parties  act  in  good  faith;  for  it 
is  a  maxim  in  law  that  fraud  vitiates 
all  contracts.  Neither  is  a  sale  valid  if 
the  subject-matter  of  it  is  illegal  or  pro- 
hibited, or  if  an  essential  part  of  it 
involves  an  illegal  act.  In  order  to  con- 
stitute a  sale,  the  consent  of  each  of  the 
parties  is  required;  and  hence  each  must 
be  legally   qualified  to   consent. 

SALE,  SIR  ROBERT  HENRY,  a 
British  military  officer;  born  in  1782.  He 
entered  the  army  at  a  very  early  age,  and 
his  brilliant  military  career  supplies  some 
stirring  pages  in  the  history  of  the  Brit- 
ish Indian  empire  of  the  first  half  of  the 
19th  century.  In  India,  Burma,  Afghan- 
istan, wherever  he  was  employed,  he  dis- 
tinguished himself,  especially  in  Afghan- 
istan, where  he  forced  Dost  Mohammed 
Khan  to  surrender,  and  inflicted  a  crush- 
ing defeat  on  Akbar  Khan  at  Jalalabad 
(1842),  subsequently  assisting  in  the  re- 
capture of  Kabul.     He  died  in  1845. 

SALEM,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  one 
of  the  county-seats  of  Essex  co.,  Mass.; 
on  Massachusetts  Bay  and  on  the  Boston 
and  Maine  railroad;  17  miles  N.  E.  of 
Boston.  It  contains  a  State  Normal 
School  for  Girls,  court  house,  a  reforma- 
tory, custom  house,  an  orphan  asylum, 
hospital,  almshouse,  the  Peabody  Acad- 
emy of  Science,  the  Essex  Institute  (in 
which  are  a  large  library  and  collection 
of  relics  and  portraits)  ;  the  East  Indian 
Marine  Society,  the  Salem  Atheneum, 
Plummer  Hall,  the  Essex  Southern  Dis- 
trict Medical  Society,  the  Essex  Agricul- 
tural Society,  the  Marine  Society,  water- 
works, electric  lights,  several  National 
and  savings  banks,  and  the  first  street 
electric  railroad  laid  in  the  United  States. 
It  has  manufactories  of  glue,  furniture, 
trunks,  shoes,  jewelry,  chemicals,  railroad 
cars,  castings,  white  lead,  lead  pipe,  jute, 
cordage,  leather  machinery,  leather,  and 
cotton  goods.  On  Jan.  25,  1914,  the  city 
was  partially  burned  by  a  great  fire 
which  destroyed  over  one-third  of  its 
most  closely  built  portion,  left  15,000 
homeless,  and  caused  a  loss  of  $15,000,000. 


SALEM 


208 


SALEYER 


It  quickly  recovered,  and  by  1920  prac- 
tically all  the  burned  section  had  been 
rebuilt.  With  the  exception  of  Plymouth, 
Salem  is  the  oldest  settlement  in  New 
England.  It  is  noted  for  its  many  his- 
torical interests.  Its  first  house  was 
erected  by  Roger  Conant  in  1626,  and  two 
years  later  John  Endicott  founded  the 
first  permanent  settlement.  The  frame- 
work of  the  first  church,  built  in  1634,  is 
still  intact.  The  witchcraft  delusion 
arose  here  in  1692,  and  19  persons  were 
executed  because  of  it.  On  Oct.  7,  1774, 
the  Massachusetts  House  of  Representa- 
tives with  John  Hancock  in  the  chair  met 
in  Salem  and  declared  the  independence 
of  that  province.  On  Feb.  14,  1775,  the 
British,  in  their  search  for  war  munitions, 
were  foiled  at  the  North  Bridge  and 
forced  to  withdraw;  During  the  Revolu- 
tionary War  over  150  privateers  sailed 
from  Salem  and  captured  in  all  445  Eng- 
lish vessels.  In  1785  the  first  vessel  from 
the  United  States  to  India  and  China  left 
this  port,  and  for  many  years  Salem 
merchants  had  a  monopoly  of  trade  with 
those  countries.  Salem  is  also  noted  as 
the  birthplace  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 
Pop.    (1910)    43,697;    (1920)   42,529. 

SALEM,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Salem  co.,  N.  J. ;  on  Salem  creek,  and  on 
the  West  Jersey  and  Seashore  railroad; 
32  miles  S.  of  Philadelphia.  Here  are  the 
Tyler  public  library,  a  high  school,  a 
Friends'  meeting  house,  waterworks,  elec- 
tric lights,  National  banks,  and  several 
weekly  newspapers.  The  city  has  an  iron 
foundry,  oil  cloth  factory,  hosiery  mill, 
a  number  of  vegetable  and  fruit  canneries, 
and  several  large  glass  plants.  Pop. 
(1910)    6,614;    (1920)    7,435. 

SALEM,  a  city  of  Ohio,  in  Columbiana 
co.  It  is  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Youngstown  and  Ohio  railroads.  It  is 
the  center  of  an  important  coal  mining 
region  and  has  manufactures  of  steel, 
engines,  pumps,  tools,  motor  boats,  stoves, 
furniture,  etc.  Its  notable  institutions 
include  a  Carnegie  library,  city  hospital, 
a  home  for  aged  women,  a  municipal 
building,  and  a  park.  Pop.  (1910)  8,943; 
(1920)   10,305. 

SALEM,  a  city,  capital  of  the  State  of 
Oregon,  and  county-seat  of  Marion  co. ; 
on  the  Willamette  river,  and  on  the 
Southern  Pacific,  the  Oregon  Electric, 
and  the  Salem  Falls  City  and  Western 
railroads;  50  miles  S.  of  Portland.  Here 
are  the  State  Capitol,  the  State  Institu- 
tion for  Deaf  Mutes,  the  State  Institution 
for  the  Blind,  the  State  Penitentiary,  the 
State  Insane  Asylum,  the  State  Reform 
School,  Willamette  University,  Indian 
Training  School,  public  library,  public 
hospital,    waterworks,     street    railroads, 


electric  lights,  National  and  State  banks, 
and  daily,  weekly  and  monthly  periodi- 
cals. The  city  has  daily  steamer  connec- 
tion with  Portland  during  most  of  the 
year.  It  has  foundries,  lumber  mills, 
machine  shops,  and  manufactories  of 
sashes  and  doors,  woolen  goods,  farm 
tools,  and  leather  goods.  Pop.  (1910) 
14,094;    (1920)    17,679. 

SALEM  WITCHCRAFT.  See  WITCH- 
CRAFT. 

SALERATTJS,  a  salt  intermediate  in 
composition  between  a  carbonate  and  a 
bicarbonate  of  potash,  prepared  from 
pearl-ash  by  exposing  it  to  carbonic  acid 
gas;  much  used  in  making  bread,  to  neu- 
tralize acetic  acid,  or  tartaric  acid,  and 
thus  render  the  bread  light  by  the  escape 
of  the  carbonic  acid  gas. 

SALERNO  (ancient  Salernum),  a  city 
of  southern  Italy ;  on  the  gulf  of  the  same 
name,  33  miles  S.  E.  of  Naples.  A  hill 
behind  the  town  is  crowned  by  an  old 
Norman  castle.  The  beautiful  Gothic 
cathedral  of  St.  Matthew  (whose  bones 
were  brought  from  Paestum  in  954)  was 
erected  by  the  Normans  (1076-1084),  and 
has  in  front  of  it  a  quadrangle  of  por- 
phyry and  granite  pillars  and  inside  it 
monuments  of  Gregory  VII.  and  Margaret 
of  Durazzo.  One  of  its  doors  is  of  bronze, 
Byzantine  work.  The  city  was  celebrated 
in  the  Middle  Ages  for  its  university 
(founded  in  1150,  closed  in  1817),  but 
especially  for  its  school  of  medicine 
(Schola  Salemitana) ,  which  was  long  the 
first  in  Europe.  In  the  neighborhood  are 
the  ruins  of  P^ESTUM  (q.  v.).  There  are 
a  couple  of  small  harbors.  Cotton  is 
spun.  Originally  a  Roman  colony  (194 
B.  C.),  Salerno  figures  little  in  history  till 
after  it  was  taken  by  Robert  Guiscard, 
who  made  it  his  capital.  But  the  removal 
of  the  Norman  court  to  Palermo  and  the 
sack  of  the  city  by  the  Emperor  Henry 
VI.  struck  serious  blows  at  its  prosperity, 
and  a  third  came  from  the  decay  of  the 
medical  school  in  the  14th  century.  Pop. 
about  49,000. 

SALERNO,  GULF  OF,  a  nearly  semi- 
circular indentation,  separated  from  the 
Bay  of  Naples  by  the  promontory  ending 
in  Point  Campanella.  On  its  shores  stand 
Amalfi  and  Salerno. 

SALEYER,  or  SALAYER,  ISLANDS, 
a  group  of  islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean; 
S.  of  Celebes,  from  which  Great  Saleyer 
is  separated  by  the  Saleyer  Strait.  They 
are  about  70  in  number ;  pop.  about  80,000 
Mohammedan  Malays  governed  by  na- 
tive rajahs  under  a  Netherlands  agent. 
Ebony,  tea,  indigo,  coffee,  earth  fruits, 
and  cotton,  are  among  the  products. 


SALIC 


209 


SALISBURY 


SALIC,  a  term  applied  to  a  law  or 
code  of  laws  established  by  the  Salian 
Franks;  specifically  applied  to  one  chap- 
ter of  the  Salian  code  regarding  succes- 
sion to  certain  lands,  which  was  limited 
to  heirs  male,  to  the  exclusion  of  females, 
chiefly  because  certain  military  duties 
were  connected  with  the  holding  of  those 
lands.  In  the  14th  century  females  were 
excluded  from  the  throne  of  France  by 
the  application  of  the  Salic  law  to  the 
succession  of  the  crown. 

SALICYLATE  OF  SODA,  2NaC-H503, 
HoO;  sodium  salicylate,  prepared  by  mix- 
ing 100  parts  of  pure  salicylic  acid  with 
sufficient  water  to  form  a  paste,  and  then 
adding  104  parts  of  pure  sodic  carbonate. 
Like  salicylic  acid  it  is  a  powerful  anti- 
septic, and  is  frequently  added  to  beers, 
(vines,  etc.,  to  preserve  them.  It  is  highly 
recommended  as  a  specific  for  rheuma- 
tism, the  dose  varying  from  10  to  30 
grains. 

SALICYLIC  ACID,  in  chemistry, 

C7H603=(C7h4:°)"    ^  02,  spinoylic  acid, 

ortho-hydroxy-benzoic  acid,  a  dibasic  acid 
existing  ready  formed  in  the  flowers  of 
Spiraea  ulmaria,  and  obtained  syntheti- 
cally by  the  oxidation  of  saligenin,  or  by 
heating  sodium  phenol  to  180°  in  a  stream 
of  carbon  anhydride.  Salicylic  acid  is 
employed  as  an  antiseptic  and  antiputre- 
factive agent.  One  grain  added  to  each 
ounce  of  a  fermenting  liquid  will  at  once 
arrest  fermentation.  It  has  the  power  of 
preserving  for  a  time  milk,  fresh  meat, 
albumin,  etc.,  and  is  used  in  the  surgery, 
either  alone  or  mixed  with  starch,  to 
destroy  the  fetid  odor  of  cancerous  sur- 
faces or  uncleansed  wounds. 

SALICYLITES,  compounds  formed  by 
the  action  of  salicylol  on  metallic  oxides 
and  hydrates,  those  of  the  alkali  metals 
being  moderately  soluble  in  water,  the 
others  insoluble.  (1)  Salicylite  of  am- 
monia, CtH5(NH4)02,  obtained  by  shak- 
ing salicylol  with  strong  ammonia  at  a 
gentle  heat,  crystallizes  in  yellow  needles, 
insoluble  in  alcohol,  and  melting  at  115°. 
(2)  Salicylite  of  copper,  Ci4H1oCu"0.i,  is 
obtained  by  agitating  an  alcoholic  solu- 
tion of  salicylol  with  aqueous  cupric  ace- 
tate. It  crystallizes  in  iridescent  green 
needles,  very  slightly  soluble  in  water 
and  alcohol. 

SALINA,  a  city,  and  county-seat  of 
Salina  co.,  Kan. ;  on  the  Smoky  Hill  river, 
and  on  the  Missouri  Pacific,  the  Union 
Pacific,  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa 
Fe,  and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pa- 
cific railroads;  100  miles  W.  of  Topeka.  It 
contains  the  Kansas  Wesleyan  University 
(M.  E.),  Normal  University,  St.  John's 
School    (P.  E.),  street  railroads,  electric 


lights,  numerous  churches,  public  library, 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  building,  National  and  other 
banks,  and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
Salina  has  a  foundry  and  machine  shops, 
wholesale  stores,  paper,  flour,  and  plan- 
ing mills,  and  several  grain  elevators. 
Near  the  city  are  important  gypsum  quar- 
ries and  salt  springs.  Pop.  (1910)  9,678; 
(1920)    15,085. 

SALINA  FORMATION,  a  name  given 
in  North  America  to  one  of  the  subdivi- 
sions of  the  Silurian  system,  which  ap- 
pears to  be  equivalent  to  the  lower  por- 
tion of  the  Ludlow  rocks  of  the  British 
series. 

SALINAS,  a  river  in  California  which 
enters  Monterey  Bay  about  76  miles  S. 
E.  of  San  Francisco.    It  is  150  miles  long. 

SALINE,  the  name  of  several  rivers 
in  th-  United  States.  (1)  A  river  in 
Arkansas,  whose  source  is  made  up  of  sev- 
eral tributaries  near  the  N.  border  of 
Saline  co.  Its  course  is  S.  E.  and  S.  It 
crosses  Grant  Dorsey,  and  Bradley  coun- 
ties, and  flows  into  the  Ouachita  river 
in  Bradley  co.,  on  its  E.  limit;  length 
about  200  miles.  (2)  A  river  in  the  S. 
part  of  Illinois  which  flows  S.  E.  between 
Gallatin  and  Hardin  counties,  into  the 
Ohio  river,  9  miles  S.  of  Shawneetown. 
Including  its  S.  fork,  it  is  100  miles  long. 
(3)  A  river  in  Kansas,  rising  in  the  W. 
part  of  the  State,  and  flowing  with  an 
E.  course  through  the  counties  of  Trego, 
Ellis,  Russell,  and  Lincoln.  In  Saline  co. 
it  flows  into  the  Smoky  Hill  river  7  miles 
to  the  E.  of  Salina;  length,  nearly  204 
miles. 

SALISBURY,  a  city  of  Maryland,  the 
county-seat  of  Wicomico  co.  It  is  on  the 
Wicomico  river  and  on  the  Baltimore, 
Chesapeake,  and  Atlantic  and  the  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Norfolk  railroads. 
It  has  lumber  mills,  railroad  repair  shops, 
and  canning  factories.  Other  industries 
include  the  manufacture  of  flour,  ferti- 
lizers, shirts  and  underwear,  etc.  Its  in- 
stitutions include  a  hospital  and  a  home 
for  the  aged.  Pop.  (1910)  6,690;  (1920) 
7,553. 

SALISBURY,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Rowan  co.,  N.  C;  on  the  Southern 
railroad;  131  miles  W.  of  Raleigh.  It  is 
in  a  mineral  and  agricultural  section; 
contains  Salisbury  Normal  and  Industrial 
College  for  Women,  Livingstone  College 
for  negro  students,  a  State  Normal  School 
for  Colored  Pupils,  National  and  other 
banks,  and  several  weekly  periodicals.  It 
has  a  woolen  mill,  machine  shops,  tobacco 
factories,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  7,153;  (1920) 
13,884. 

SALISBURY,    or    NEW    SARUM,    a 

cathedral  city  of  England,  the  capital  of 


SALISBURY 


210 


SALISBURY 


Wiltshire,  and  a  Parliamentary  and  mu- 
nicipal borough;  in  a  valley  near  the  con- 
fluence of  the  rivers  Avon,  Bourne,  Wily, 
and  Nadder,  84  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  London. 
The  plan  of  the  city  is  very  regular. 
Water  originally  ran  through  most  of  the 
streets,  but  the  streams  were  covered 
over  after  the  visitation  of  the  cholera 
in  1849.  The  removal  from  Old  Sarum 
took  place  in  1220,  when  the  foundations 
of  the  new  cathedral  were  laid.  It  was 
finally  dedicated  in  1266.  The  cathedral 
consists  of  a  nave  of  10  bays,  choir,  and 
Lady  Chapel,  with  two  aisles,  and  two 
transepts,  each  having  a  single  aisle 
toward  the  E.,  the  ground-plan  being  in 
the  form  of  a  double  cross.  The  whole 
building  is  a  perfect  example  of  pure 
Early  English  style.  The  spire  is  the 
highest  in  England  (406  feet),  and  leans 
27%  inches  toward  the  S.  The  cathedral 
was  restored  by  James  Wyatt  in  1782- 
1791,  and  again,  beginning  in  1863,  by 
Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  Mr.  Street,  and  Sir 
Arthur  Blomfield.  There  is  a  curious 
muniment  room  over  the  vestry  contain- 
ing a  copy  of  the  Magna  Charta  of  King 
John.  The  library,  built  about  1450,  is 
over  the  E.  side  of  the  cloisters,  and  con- 
tains about  5,000  volumes  and  many  val- 
uable MSS.  The  outside  measurements 
of  the  cathedral  are:  Length  473  feet, 
width  111  feet;  the  height  of  the  nave  and 
choir  inside  is  81  feet.  The  cathedral 
stands  apart  from  any  other  building  in 
the  midst  of  a  beautiful  close  within 
which  stand  the  bishop's  palace,  an  ir- 
regular building  begun  by  Bishop  Richard 
Poore  (about  1220)  and  added  to  by  many 
of  his  successors.  The  parish  churches 
are  St.  Martin's,  St.  Thomas  of  Canter- 
bury, a  handsome  Perpendicular  building 
of  the  15th  century,  and  St.  Edmund  of 
Canterbury.  The  other  notable  buildings 
are  the  council  house;  the  county  hall; 
the  infirmary;  the  "Hall  of  John  Halle" 
and  Audley  House,  two  fine  examples  of 
15th-century  domestic  architecture;  St. 
Nicholas'  Hospital;  and  the  Blackmore 
Museum,  which  contains  one  of  the  finest 
collections  of  prehistoric  antiquities  in 
England,  the  collection  from  America 
being  probably  unrivaled  anywhere.  The 
market-place  contains  statues  of  the  late 
Lord  Herbert  of  Lea  (Sidney  Herbert) 
and  Professor  Fawcett,  who  was  a  native 
of  the  city.  Here  the  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham was  beheaded  in  1483,  when  Salis- 
bury was  the  headquarters  of  Richard 
III.  The  city  chiefly  depends  on  its  agri- 
cultural trade,  the  former  manufactures 
of  cutlery  and  woolens  being  extinct.  Pop. 
about  21,500. 

John  of  Salisbury  was  the  confidential 
adviser  of  Becket.  Margaret,  Countess 
of  Salisbury,  was  the  mother  of  Cardinal 
Pole.     The  most  notable  bishops  of  Old 


Sarum  were  St.  Osmund  and  Bishop 
Roger;  of  New  Sarum,  Hallam  (whose 
death  at  the  Council  of  Constance,  1417, 
is  regarded  by  Dean  Milman  as  fatal 
to  many  really  effective  reforms  in  the 
Church),  Cardinal  Campeggio,  Jewell, 
Seth  Ward  (founder  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety), Burnet,  Hoadley,  Sherlock,  Doug- 
las, Burgess,  Denison,  Hamilton,  and 
Moberly.  Pox  the  martyrologist,  Hooker, 
Fuller,  Pearson,  Isaac  Barrow,  Joseph 
Butler,  and  Liddon  have  been  canons  of 
the  cathedral,  where  George  Herbert  was 
a  frequent  worshiper.  Among  distin- 
guished natives  and  residents  have  been 
Massinger,  William  and  Henry  Lawes, 
Chiffinch  (the  chief  agent  in  the  intrigues 
of  Charles  II.),  Harris,  the  philologist, 
Chubb  "the  Deist,"  and  Henry  Fawcett. 
Fielding  resided  at  one  time  in  the  close, 
and  Joseph  Addison  was  educated  at  the 
grammar  school. 

SALISBURY,  ROBERT  ARTHUR 
TALBOT  GASCOYNE- CECIL,  THIRD 
MARQUIS  OF,  an  English  statesman; 
born  in  Hatfield,  Herts,  England,  Feb. 
3,  1830;  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Ox- 
ford. As  Lord  Robert  Cecil  he  entered 
Parliament  as  member  for  Stamford  in 
1853.   and  gradually  made  his   way  till 


MARQUIS  OF  SALISBURY 

in  1866,  on  the  formation  of  Lord  Derby's 
third  administration,  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  for  India.  In  1865  he 
became  Lord  Cranborne  and  heir  to  the 
marquisate  on  the  death  of  his  elder 
brother.  Owing  to  differences  of  opinion 
on  the  subject  of  the  franchise  he  retired 
from  the  ministry,  but  on  the  death  of 
his   father   in   1868   and   his   consequent 


SALISBURY 


211 


SALLUST 


elevation  to  the  House  of  Lords  he  re- 
turned to  his  old  party  associations.  He 
resumed  the  secretaryship  for  India  in  the 
Disraeli  government  of  1874.  He  took 
part  in  the  conference  of  Constantinople, 
which  was  expected  to  settle  the  dispute 
between  Russia  and  Turkey;  and  at  the 
end  of  that  war,  having  become  foreign 
minister,  he  insisted  on  the  treaty  which 
Russia  had  forced  on  Turkey  being  sub- 
mitted to  a  congress  of  the  powers.  In 
1878  he  accompanied  Disraeli  to  the  con- 
gress at  Berlin,  and  on  the  death  of  that 
statesman  became  the  recognized  leader 
of  the  Conservative  party.  He  became 
premier  as  well  as  foreign  secretary  on 
the  fall  of  the  Gladstone  government  in 
1885.  Gladstone  succeeded  again  to  power 
in  the  end  of  the  same  year,  but  in  the 
June  following  was  defeated  on  the  Irish 
bills,  when  Salisbury  again  became  pre- 
mier and  foreign  secretary.  His  party 
maintained  a  majority  by  means  of  the 
adherence  of  the  Liberal  Unionists,  who 
were  represented  in  the  cabinet  by  Mr. 
Goschen.  He  retired  from  office  in  1892; 
was  recalled  on  the  fall  of  the  Rosebery 
ministry  in  1895,  and  again  retired  in 
1902.  He  was  always  a  friend  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty  for  an  Isth- 
mian canal  was  the  last  important  event 
in  which  he  took  an  active  part.  He  was 
for  a  long  time  Chancellor  of  Oxford 
University.     He  died  Aug.  22,  1903. 

SALISBURY,  ROLLIN  D.,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  at  Spring  Prairie, 
Wis.,  in  1858.  He  graduated  from  Beloit 
College  in  1881  and  was  on  the  faculty 
of  that  institution  as  professor  of  biology 
and  geology  from  1884  to  1891.  He  was 
professor  of  general  and  geographic  ge- 
ology at  the  University  of  Wisconsin  in 
1891-2.  In  the  latter  year  he  went  to  the 
University  of  Chicago,  where  in  1899 
he  became  dean  of  the  Ogden  School  of 
Science,  and  in  1903  head  of  the  depart- 
ment of  geography.  He  also  served  as 
assistant  United  States  geologist,  from 
1882  to  1894.  From  1919  he  was  head 
of  the  department  of  geology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago.  His  writings  include 
"The  Physical  Geography  of  New  Jersey" 
(1898)  ;  "The  Elements  of  Geography" 
(1912);  and  "Geology"    (1914). 

SALISBURY  PLAIN,  in  South  Wilt- 
shire, England,  an  undulating  tract  of 
chalky  down  affording  splendid  pasture 
for  sheep. 

SALIVA,  the  transparent  watery  fluid 
secreted  by  glands  connected  with  the 
mouth.  The  quantity  secreted  in  24  hours 
varies;  its  average  amount  is  probably 
from  1  to  3  ounces.  The  purposes  served 
by  saliva  are  mechanical  and  chemical.    It 


keeps  the  mouth  in  a  due  condition  of 
moisture,  and  by  mixing  with  the  food 
during  mastication  it  makes  it  a  soft 
pulpy  mass  such  as  may  be  easily  swal- 
lowed. The  chemical  action  of  saliva  on 
the  food  is  to  convert  the  starchy  elements 
into  some  kind  of  sugar.  The  salivary 
glands  are  compound  tubular  glands 
known  as  the  parotid,  the  sub-maxillary, 
and  the  sub-lingual,  and  numerous  smaller 
bodies  of  similar  structure,  and  with 
separate  ducts,  which  are  scattered  thickly 
beneath  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  lips, 
cheeks,  soft  palate,  and  root  of  the 
tongue.  Salivary  glands  are  absent  in 
some  mammals  and  reptiles,  and  in  most 
fishes. 

SALIVATION,  the  act  or  process  of 
exciting  or  producing  an  unusual  secre- 
tion and  discharge  of  saliva,  generally 
by  the  use  of  mercury;  ptyalism;  an  ab- 
normally abundant  secretion  and  flow  of 
saliva. 

SALIX,  the  willow,  a  genus  of  plants, 
order  Salicacese.  The  species  found  in 
the  United  States  are  numerous,  and  com- 
monly known  as  willows,  osiers,  and  swal- 
lows. Their  timber,  though  wanting  in 
strength  and  durability,  is  applied  to 
many  useful  purposes;  and  the  wood  of 
the  flexible  branches  and  twigs  is  largely 
employed  for  basket-work,  hoops,  etc.  The 
sage  willow,  S.  tristis,  a  small,  downy 
shrub  with  a  profusion  of  aments  in 
spring  appearing  before  the  leaves,  is  the 
most  common  species  in  the  Northern 
and  Middle  States.  A  peculiar  crystal- 
line alkaloid,  resembling  quinine  in  its 
properties,  called  salicine,  has  been  ob- 
tained from  the  bark,  leaves,  or  flowers 
of   about  20   species   of  this   genus. 

SALLEE,  SAL!,  or  SLA,  a  seaport  of 
Morocco;  on  the  Atlantic,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Bu-Ragreb,  on  the  N.  side  of  the 
river,  opposite  Rabat.  It  was  for  cen- 
turies notorious  as  a  haunt  of  pirates, 
and  gave  its  name  to  the  Sallee  Rovers, 
who  carried  the  terror  of  their  name  into 
the  English  Channel,  and  who  are  known 
to  every  reader  of  "Robinson  Crusoe." 
Pop.  about  20,500. 

SALLUST,  GAIUS  SALLUSTIUS 
CRISPUS,  a  Roman  historian;  born  in 
Amiternum  in  86  B.  C.  He  became  trib- 
une in  52  B.  C,  and  in  the  civil  war  sided 
with  Caesar.  In  47  B.  c.  he  was  praetor 
elect,  and  in  the  following  year  accom- 
panied Caesar  to  the  African  War,  where 
he  was  left  as  governor  of  Numidia.  He 
returned  with  immense  wealth,  was  ac- 
cused of  maladministration  and  oppres- 
sion, and  after  Caesar's  death  lived  in 
luxurious  retirement.  Sallust  wrote  sev- 
eral historical  works  in  a  clear  and  con- 
cise style.      His  "Catilinarian  War"  is  a 


SALLY 


212 


SALMON 


history  of  the  Catiline  conspiracy.  The 
"Jugurtha,  or  Jugurthine  War,"  is  a  his- 
tory of  the  war  against  Jugurtha,  King 
of  Numidia,  from  111  B.  C.  to  106  B.  c. 
He  died  in  Rome  in  34  B.  c. 

SALLY,  a  leaping  or  springing  forth. 
Specifically,  a  sudden  issue  or  rushing  out 
of  troops  from  a  beleaguered  place  to  at- 
tack the  besiegers;  a  sortie;  as,  the  gar- 
rison made  a  successful  sally.  Excursion 
from  the  ordinary  track;  range;  devia- 
tion; digression;  as,  to  make  sallies  into 
a  country  district.  A  spring  or  darting 
of  intellect,  fancy,  or  imagination;  flight 
of  liveliness  or  humor;  sprightly  exertion 
of  the  faculties;  as,  sallies  of  wit.  Act  of 
levity  or  extravagance;  unseemly  dis- 
play of  vivacity ;  as,  sallies  of  hot-blooded 
youth. 

SALMON  (Salmo  salar) ,  a  well-known 
fish,  forming  the  type  of  the  family  Sal- 
monidse.  The  salmon  inhabits  both  salt 
and  fresh  waters,  and  ranks  prominent 
among  the  food  fishes  of  the  United  States 
and  other  countries.  It  generally  attains 
a  length  of  from  three  to  four  feet,  and 
an    average   weight    of   from    12    to   30 


SALMON 
A.  Humpback  Salmon.    B.  Quinnat  Salmon. 

pounds.  The  typical  color  of  the  adult 
fish  is  a  steel-blue  on  the  back  and  head, 
becoming  lighter  on  the  sides  and  belly. 
Teeth  are  present  in  the  upper  and  lower 
jaws,  palate,  and  vomer  or  roof  of  the 
mouth;  the  edges  of  the  tongue  are  also 
toothed  or  notched.  The  food  consists 
of  animal  matter,  and  must  vary  with  the 
change  of  habitat  from  salt  to  fresh 
water,  and  vice  versa. 

In  the  autumn  the  salmon  quits  the  sea 
and  ascends  the  rivers  for  the  purpose 
of  spawning,  often  having  to  surmount 
considerable  obstacles,  such  as  falls,  and 
artificial  structures ;  "salmon  ladders"  are 
placed  in  some  streams  to  assist  their 
progress.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  a 
ghallow  trough   or   groove   excavated  in 


the  gravelly  bed  of  the  river.  After 
spawning,  the  salmon,  both  male  and  fe- 
male, return  to  the  sea  under  the  name 
of  spent  fish,  foul  fish,  or  kelts,  the  fe- 
males being  further  distinguished  as 
shedders  or  baggits.  In  from  70  to  150 
days  the  young  fish  emerges  from  the  egg, 
and  in  its  embryo  state  it  is  not  unlike 
a  tadpole,  being  on  the  average  about 
one  and  a  quarter  inches  in  length.  About 
50  days  later  it  assumes  the  appearance 
of  a  fish.  It  usually  continues  in  the  shal- 
lows of  its  native  stream  for  two  years 
after  hatching.  When  the  season  of  its 
migration  arrives,  generally  between 
March  and  June,  the  fins  have  become 
darker  and  the  fish  has  assumed  a  silvery 
hue.  It  is  now  known  as  a  "smolt"  or 
"Salmon  fry."  The  smolts  now  congregate 
into  shoals  and  proceed  leisurely  seaward. 
On  reaching  the  estuary  they  remain  in 
its  brackish  water  for  a  short  time  and 
then  make  for  the  open  sea.  The  salmon 
returns,  as  a  rule,  to  the  river  in  which  it 
passed  its  earlier  existence.  The  fertility 
of  the  fish  is  enormous;  it  has  been  cal- 
culated that  over  150,000,000  of  salmon 
ova  are  annually  deposited  in  the  Scotch 
river  Tay  alone. 

For  purposes  of  commercial  supply, 
salmon  are  taken  in  nets  of  special  con- 
struction and  of  various  forms,  the  fish- 
ings being  regulated  by  law.  Stake  nots 
supported  on  piles  of  wood  and  extending 
out  into  the  sea,  and  "bag"  or  "drift" 
nets  are  the  means  most  frequently  em- 
ployed in  the  British  salmon  fishery.  The 
chief  European  salmon  fisheries  are  those 
of  the  Tweed,  Tay,  North  Esk,  Dee,  Spey, 
Severn,  and  some  Irish  rivers;  there  are 
important  fisheries  in  some  European  and 
North  American  rivers.  Immense  quan- 
tities of  salmon  are  annually  taken  and 
canned  on  the  Columbia  and  Frazer 
rivers. 

Of  the  same  genus  as  the  common 
salmon  is  the  salmon  trout,  the  common 
river  trout,  Lochleven  trout,  etc.  What 
is  known  as  the  "land-locked"  salmon, 
which  is  found  in  Norway,  Sweden,  Maine, 
and  New  Brunswick,  is  so  called  be- 
cause it  remains  in  inland  waters  and 
does  not  descend  to  the  sea.  In  the  waters 
of  Northwestern  America  are  several 
salmon  belonging  to  a  distinct  genus, 
Oncorhynchus,  including  the  quinnat  or 
king  salmon,  blue-black  salmon  or  red 
fish,  silver  salmon,  dog  salmon,  and 
humpback  salmon.  The  quinnat  (O. 
tchaivytscha)  has  an  average  weight  of  22 
pounds.  Both  it  and  the  blue-back  sal- 
mon (O.  nerka)  are  caught  in  immense 
numbers  in  the  Columbia,  Sacramento, 
and  Frazer  (especially  in  spring),  and 
are  preserved  by  canning.  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  introduce  the  quinnat  into 
eastern  North  America  and  Europe.    The 


SALMON    TROUT 


213 


SALSETTE 


salmon  is  one  of  the  fishes  that  are  im- 
portant objects  of  Fish  Culture  (q.  v.). 
In  1918  the  salmon  catch  in  Alaska  was 
6,605,835  cases.  27,969  persons  were  em- 
ployed. In  1919  4,583,688  cases  of  canned 
salmon  were  produced. 

SALMON  TROUT,  the  Salmo  trutta,  a 
north  European  fish,  much  more  common 
in  Scotland  than  in  England.  Its  habits 
are  those  of  the  salmon.  It  attains  a 
length  of  about  three  feet;  upper  parts 
blackish,  usually  with  a  purplish  tinge 
on  the  silvery  sides,  under  part  silvery. 
Called  also  sea  trout,  and  in  Wales  and 
Ireland  white  trout.  The  flesh  is  pink, 
richly  flavored,  and  much  esteemed.  Also 
the  namaycush,  or  large  lake  trout  of 
North  America. 

SALOL,  a  white  crystalline  powder, 
obtained  from  phenol  and  salicylic  acid. 
It  is  slightly  greasy  to  the  touch  and 
tasteless.  It  is  almost  insoluble  in  water, 
but  soluble  in  alcohol.  It  is  a  powerful 
antipyretic  and  antiseptic. 

SALONA,  an  ancient  and  now  ruined 
city  of  Dalmatia ;  at  the  head  of  a  gulf  of 
the  Adriatic,  about  3  miles  N.  E.  of  the 
spot  on  which  Diocletian  afterward  built 
his  gigantic  palace  of  Spalato.  It  was 
made  a  Roman  colony  in  78  B.  c,  and  later 
became  the  capital  of  Dalmatia  and  one 
of  the  most  important  cities  and  seaports 
of  provincial  Rome.  But  it  was  frequently 
captured  by  the  Goths  and  other  bar- 
barians, and  in  639  was  completely  de- 
stroyed by  the  Avars.  The  inhabitants 
who  escaped  took  refuge  in  Hadrian's 
palace.  The  ruins  were  excavated  during 
the  19th  century;  there  are  now  to  be 
seen  remains  of  the  former  walls,  the 
shell  of  the  ancient  Christian  cathedral, 
traces  of  an  amphitheater,  and  other 
structures.  The  city  was  early  made  the 
seat  of  a  bishop,  who  was  soon  advanced 
to  the  dignity  of  archbishop  of  all  Dal- 
matia. After  the  destruction  of  the  city 
the  archbishop  converted  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  at  Spalato  into  his  cathedral. 

SALONICA,  or  SALONIKI  .(ancient 
Thessalonica;  Turkish,  Selanik),  a  large 
seaport,  formerly  belonging  to  Turkey, 
and  awarded  to  Greece  by  the  treaty 
with  Turkey,  following  the  World  War; 
on  a  gulf  of  the  iEgean  Sea,  315  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Constantinople,  rising  from 
the  sea  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheater, 
and  forming  a  mixture  of  squalor  and 
splendor.  In  Salonica  may  still  be  seen 
vestiges  of  Cyclopean  and  Hellenic  walls, 
triumphal  arches,  and  remains  of  Roman 
temples,  Byzantine  structures,  and  Vene- 
tian castles.  Its  harbor  is  excellent  and 
its  roadstead  well  sheltered.  The  prin- 
cipal exports  are  cotton,  corn,  tobacco, 
timber,  and  wool;  imports,  sugar,  coffee, 


indigo,  calicoes,  etc.  The  manufactures 
include  cotton,  silk,  leather,  carpets,  etc. 
Thessalonica  was  founded  on  the  site  of 
an  older  town  in  315  B.  c,  ana  had  a 
somewhat  eventful  history.  St.  Paul 
preached  the  Gospel  here,  and  addressed 
two  of  his  epistles  to  the  Christian  con- 
verts of  the  place.  In  the  first  Balkan 
War  the  Turks  surrendered  the  city  and 
an  army  of  29,000,  to  the  Greeks  on  May 
8,  1912.  During  the  World  War,  Greece, 
having  failed  to  fulfill  the  terms  of  her 
treaty  with  Serbia  against  Bulgaria,  Sa- 
lonica was  occupied  by  the  Allies.  In 
August,  1917,  a  disastrous  fire  ruined 
two-thirds  of  the  city  and  made  100,000 
persons  homeless.  Salonica  became  the 
military  base  for  the  Allies  in  the  Balkans 
for^  their  operations  against  the  Bulgars 
which  culminated  in  the  surrender  of  Bul- 
garia in  1918.  See  World  War.  Pop. 
(1919)   250,000  civilians. 

SALONICA,  GULF  OF  (ancient  Sinus 
Thermaicus),  the  extreme  N.  W.  arm  of 
the  Mgean  Sea,  between  Thessaly  on  the 
W.,  Macedonia  on  the  N.  W.,  and  Chalci- 
dice  on  the  E.  It  is  formed  of  two  dis- 
tinct parts,  one  of  which  is  very  wide, 
and  lies  S.  E.  and  N.  W.;  the  other,  which 
is  narrow,  lies  S.  W.  and  N.  E.,  and  is 
about  60  miles  long. 

SALPA,  a  genus  of  ascidian  or  tuni- 
cate mollusca  forming  the  representative 
example  of  the  family  Salpidse.  These 
animals  are  found  floating  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
ocean,  and  are  protected  by  a  transparent 
gelatinous  coat,  perforated  for  the  pas- 
sage of  water  at  both  extremities.  They 
are  frequently  phosphorescent,  and  are 
met  with  in  two  conditions  known  as 
single  and  chain  salpae.  Each  salpa  is  of 
oval  or  quadrate  form,  and  the  organs  of 
the  body  occupy  a  comparatively  small 
space  within  the  body-cavity  S.  maxima 
is  the  most  familiar  species. 

SALSETTE,  an  island  N.  of  Bombay, 
British  India,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  a  bridge  and  a  causeway.  It  is  a 
beautiful  island,  diversified  by  mountain 
and  hill,  studded  with  the  ruins  of  Portu- 
guese churches,  convents,  and  villas,  and 
rich  in  extensive  rice  fields,  cocoanut 
groves,  and  palm  trees;  area,  240  square 
miles;  pop.  150,000;  chief  town,  Thana. 
Nearly  100  caves  and  cave-temples  exist 
at  Kanhari  or  Keneri,  in  the  middle  of 
the  island,  5  miles  W.  of  Thana.  They 
are  excavated  in  the  face  of  a  single  hill, 
and  contain  elaborate  carvings  chiefly 
representations  of  Buddha,  many  of  colos- 
sal size.  There  are  caves  in  other  locali- 
ties besides  those  at  Kanhari — e.  g.,  at 
Montpezir,  Kanduti,  Amboli,  etc.  It  was 
occupied  by  the  Portuguese  early  in  the 


SALSIFY 


214 


SALT    LAKE    CITY 


16th  century,  and  was  captured  by  the  SALT  CAKE,  sulphate  of  soda,  in  its 
Mahrattas  in  1739  and  by  the  British  in  prepared  form,  for  the  use  of  glass 
1774.  blowers   and  soap   manufacturers. 


SALSIFY,  or  SALSAFY,  the  Trago- 
pogon  Porrifolius,  commonly  called  oyster 
plant,  cultivated  to  a  small  extent  in  Eng- 
land, but  much  more  largely  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe  and  in  the  United  States. 
The  root  is  excellent  when  cooked. 

SAL-SODA  the  commercial  term  for 
impure  carbonate  of  soda. 

SALT,  in  chemistry,  sodium  chloride. 
In  the  plural  it  is  applied  in  a  general 
sense  to  compounds  of  a  metal  and  a  halo- 
gen, as  sodium  chloride,  NaCl;  and  to 
compounds  formed  by  the  union  of  an 
acid  and  a  base,  nitrate  of  silver  AgNOg. 
In  its  fuller  signification  the  term  sug- 
gests a  compound  which  can  suffer  rapid 
double  decomposition  with  another  solu- 
ble substance,  as  when  solutions  of  chlo- 
ride of  sodium  and  nitrate  of  silver  are 
mixed  together  they  at  once  decompose 
each  other  and  form  chloride  of  silver 
and  nitrate  of  sodium.  By  an  extension 
of  meaning  the  name  is  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  compounds,  as  chloride  of  ethyl, 
acetate  of  ethyl,  and  even  to  fats,  as 
stearin,  tristearate  of  glycerin.  Popularly 
and  medicinally  the  term  salts  refers  to 
Epsom  and  Rochelle  salts. 

Salt  as  a  commercial  product  is  a  very 
important  industry  in  the  United  States. 
As  early  as  1620  the  Jamestown  colonists 
of  Virginia  established  salt  works  at  Cape 
Charles.  Rock  salt  is  abundant  in  West 
Virginia  and  Louisiana,  and  salt  "licks" 
and  springs  are  found  in  nearly  all  the 
States  and  Territories.  The  springs  of 
southern  Illinois  were  worked  by  the 
French  and  Indians  in  1720.  The  Ken- 
tucky salt  springs  were  known  and  used 
before  1790. 

Salt  production  in  the  United  States, 
(1918)  7,238,744  short  tons,  valued  at 
$26,940,361.  The  principal  salt-producing 
states  are  New  York,  Michigan,  Kansas, 
Ohio  and  California. 

SALTA,  a  province  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  touching  Chile  and  Bolivia,  and 
nearly  inclosing  the  province  of  Jujuy. 
Minerals  are  abundant,  but  have  been 
neglected  for  agriculture  and  cattle-rais- 
ing. Salta  is  watered  by  the  Salado,  San 
Francisco,  and  Bermejo;  area,  48,302 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1919)  150,796. 
Salta,  the  capital,  on  the  Rio  Arias,  535 
miles  N.  by  W.  of  Cordoba,  was  founded 
in  1582;  it  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop, 
.  and  has  a  seminary  for  priests,  a  national 
college,  and  a  normal  school  for  girls. 
Pop.   (1918)   28,436. 


SALTILLO,  capital  of  the  Mexican 
State  of  Coahuila;  237  miles  S.  W.  of 
Laredo,  Texas,  and  400  N.  by  W.  of 
Mexico  City.  It  contains  several  con- 
vents, a  small  fort,  a  bull  ring,  a  number 
of  cotton  factories  and  pulque  distilleries. 
Pop.  about  35,000. 

SALTIRE,  or  SALTIER,  in  heraldry, 
an  ordinary  in  the  form  of  a  St.  Andrew's 
cross,  or  the  letter  X,  formed  by  two 
bends,  dexter  and  sinister,  crossing  each 
other. 

SALT  LAKE  CITY,  a  city  of  Utah, 
the  capital  of  the  State  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Salt  Lake  co.  It  is  on  the  Great 
Salt  Lake  and  Hot  Springs,  and  on  the 
Oregon  Short  Line,  the  Los  Angeles  and 
Salt  Lake,  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande, 
the  Western  Pacific,  Union  Pacific,  and 
other  railroads.  It  is  built  at  the  base 
of  the  Wasatch  Mountains,  and  has  an 
altitude  of  4,334  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
valley  in  which  the  city  is  located  is  fa- 
mous for  its  beauty,  resources,  climate, 
and  health-giving  properties.  The  city 
has  a  total  area  of  51.53  square  miles. 
Its  streets  are  among  the  widest  and  best 
planned  in  the  world.  Hundreds  of  miles 
of  fine  roads  lead  from  the  city  to  the 
beautiful  canyons  of  the  Wasatch  Moun- 
tains. In  1920  an  extensive  network  of 
boulevards  was  under  construction.  The 
drives  around  the  city  are  among  the 
most  beautiful  in  America. 

The  city  has  over  280  miles  of  sewers, 
161  miles  of  gas  mains,  73  miles  of  paved 
streets,  460  miles  of  graded  streets,  and 
387  miles  of  water  main.  Electric  light 
and  power  are  furnished  by  water  power 
from  the  mountain  streams.  There  are 
within  the  city  limits  13  parks,  compris- 
ing 200  acres. 

The  school  system  is  unusually  efficient. 
There  are  49  public  school  buildings  with 
25,000  children  in  attendance. 

Salt  Lake  City  is  an  important  man- 
ufacturing center.  Its  annual  product 
is  valued  at  about  $75,000,000.  Among 
the  most  important  industries  are  its 
smelters  of  copper,  lead,  and  zinc,  sugar 
refining,  the  manufacture  of  canned 
goods,  candy,  and  chemicals. 

There  were  in  1920  12  banks,  with  a 
capital  of  4,850,000,  deposits  of  $71,000,- 
000  and  a  surplus  of  $2,120,230.  The 
bank  clearings  for  1919  amounted  to 
$825,366,260.  Among  the  most  notable 
buildings  are  the  Mormon  Tabernacle, 
the  State  Capitol,  Federal  Building,  Uni- 
versity of  Utah,  and  many  handsome 
churches,  theaters,  and  clubs. 

The   institutions   for   higher   education 


SALT    LICK 


215 


SALT    RIVER 


include  the  University  of  Utah,  Latter  curred,  and  this  was  closed  in  a  manner 
Day  Saints  University,  and  many  private  similar  to  the  first.  The  successive  flood- 
and  theological  institutions.    The  city  was    ing  and  evaporation  from  this  area  af- 

5 


TABERNACLE  AND  TEMPLE,  SALT  LAKE  CITY 


founded  by  Brigham  Young  in  1847.  Pop. 
(1900)  53,531;  (1910)  92,777;  (1920) 
118,110. 

SALT  LICK,  a  knob  lick;  a  place 
where  salt  is  found  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  tc  which  wild  animals  resort  to 
lick  it  up;  sometimes  near  salt  springs. 

SALT  MARSH,  land  under  pasture 
grasses  or  herbage  plants,  near  the  sea, 
and  liable  to  be  overflowed  by  it,  or  by 
the  waters  of  estuaries,  and  in  conse- 
quence more  or  less  impregnated  with 
salt. 

SALTON  SEA,  a  remarkable  tempo- 
rary lake  formed  in  southern  California, 
in  1905  and  1906,  by  the  overflow  of  water 
from  the  Colorado  river.  The  water  ran 
through  the  water  channel  of  an  irriga- 
tion canal  which  conducted  water  from 
the  Colorado  river  near  Yuma,  Ariz.,  to 
the  Imperial  Valley  region.  The  land 
here  forming  the  Salton  basin  is  below 
sea-level  and  when  the  water  was  de- 
flected from  the  natural  channel  of  the 
river  which  normally  emptied  into  the 
Gulf  of  California,  an  area  of  over  400 
square  miles  was  flooded  and  over  2,000 
square  miles  were  threatened.  Unsuc- 
cessful attempts  were  made  to  restore  the 
Colorado  river  into  its  original  channel, 
but  the  overflow  was  not  controlled  until 
February,  1907,  when  three  trestles  were 
constructed  across  the  break,  from  which 
stones  were  dumped.  By  this  means  the 
lake  was  checked  and  gradually  disap- 
peared.     In    1910    the    second   break    oc- 


forded  unique  opportunity  for  biologists 
and  botanists  to  study  the  effects  under 
such  conditions. 

SALTPETER,  or  SALTPETRE,  in 
chemistry  KNO3,  potassium  nitrate  or 
niter;  found  in  dry  and  hot  countries  as 
a  natural  product,  but  prepared  artifi- 
cially by  exposing  a  mixture  of  calcare- 
ous soil  and  animal  matter  to  the  atmos- 
phere, or  by  decomposing  native  sodium 
nitrate  with  potassium  carbonate.  It  is 
chiefly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder, fireworks,  and  nitric  acid.  When 
fused  and  poured  into  molds,  it  forms 
the  sal  prunella  of  commerce. 

SALT  RANGE,  a  mountain  system  in 
the  Punjab,  India,  consisting  of  two  main 
chains  which  run  E.  and  W.,  and  embrace 
between  them  an  elevated  table-land.  It 
begins  on  the  S.  side  of  the  Jhelum,  runr- 
W.  to  the  Indus,  and  varies  from  3,201 
to  5,000  feet  in  height.  Its  appearance  is 
exceedingly  bleak  and  barren,  but  not 
without  much  savage  grandeur.  The  sys- 
tem gets  its  name  from  the  inexhaustible 
beds  of  rock  salt  that  occur  on  the  edges 
of  the  plateau.  About  60,000  tons  are 
extracted  annually,  four-fifths  from  the 
Mayo  mines,  a  few  miles  N.  E.  of  Pind 
Dadan  Khan.  Coal  and  other  minerals 
also  occur. 

SALT  RIVER,  a  river  in  Kentucky, 
formed  of  three  branches,  the  Rolling 
Fork,  East  Fork,  and  Beech  river.  It  is 
in  the  N.  part  of  the  State  and  joins  the 


SALTTJS 


216 


SALUTES 


Ohio  19  miles  S.  W.  of  Louisville.  The 
first  and  third  branches  unite  about  11 
miles  N.  E.  of  Elizabethtown.  The  source 
of  the  East  Fork,  or  Salt  river  proper, 
is  in  Boyle  co.,  and  its  course  is  N. 
through  Mercer  co.,  turning  to  the  W.  in 
Spencer  co.,  and  continuing  through  Bul- 
litt co.  in  the  same  direction,  uniting  with 
Rolling  Fork  or  Salt  river  9  miles  to  the 
S.  W.  of  Shepherdsville.  The  main  river 
flows  into  the  Ohio  river  at  West  Point, 
about  10  miles  from  the  juncture  of  Roll- 
ing and  East  Forks.  It  is  more  than  100 
miles  long. 

Another  Salt  river  is  in  northeastern 
Missouri,  formed  of  three  branches  or 
forks,  called  North,  Middle,  and  South 
Forks.  The  North  Fork  is  the  main 
river;  its  source  is  in  Schuyler  co.  and 
its  course  is  S.  by  S.  E.  until  it  reaches 
Monroe  co.,  where  it  turns  toward  the 
E.,  then  traverses  Ralls  co.,  and  in  Pike 
co.  flows  into  the  Mississippi  2  miles  above 
the  border  of  Louisiana.  The  source  of 
Middle  Fork  is  in  Macon  co.,  and  it  flows 
S.,  entering  Salt  river,  the  main  fork,  at 
Florida.  The  South  Fork  flows  N.,  inter- 
secting Audrain  co.,  and  unites  with  the 
Middle  Fork  3  miles  S.  W.  of  Florida. 
This  Salt  river  is  200  miles  long. 

SALTTJS,  EDGAR  EVERSTON,  an 
American  novelist;  born  in  New  York, 
June  8,  1858.  He  was  educated  in  Eu- 
rope and  graduated  at  the  Columbia  Law 
School.  Among  his  works  may  be  men- 
tioned: "The  Philosophy  of  Disenchant- 
ment" (1885)  ;  "The  Anatomy  of  Nega- 
tion" (1886)  ;  "Mr.  Incoul's  Misadven- 
ture" (1887)  ;  "The  Truth  about  Tristrem 
Varick"  (1888);  "Eden"  (1888);  "A 
Transaction  in  Hearts"  (1889) ;  "The 
Pace  That  Kills"  (1889)  ;  "A  Transient 
Guest"        (1889);       "Mary       Magdalen" 

(1892)  ;  "Imperial  Purple"  (1892) ; 
"Enthralled"  (1894);  "When  Dreams 
Come  True"    (1895)  ;  "The  Yellow  Fay" 

(1905)  ;  "Daughters  of  the  Rich"  (1909)  ; 
"The  Crimson  Curtain"  (1916)  ;  "The 
Palliser  Case"  (1919). 

SALTWORT,  the  Salsola,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Chenopodia- 
cex,  having  hermaphrodite  flowers,  with 
five-parted  perianth  and  a  transverse 
appendage  at  the  base  of  each  of  its  seg- 
ments, five  stamens  and  two  styles,  the 
seed  with  a  simple  integument.  The  spe- 
cies are  numerous,  mostly  natives  of  salt 
marshes  and  sea-shores,  widely  diffused. 
One  only,  the  prickly  saltwort  (S.  kali), 
is  found  in  Great  Britain.  The  plant  is 
annual,  with  prostrate  much-branched 
stems,  awl-shaped  spine-pointed  leaves, 
and  axillary  solitary  greenish  flowers.  It 
was  formerly  collected  in  considerable 
quantities  on  the  W.  shores  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, to  be  burned  for  the  sake  of  the  soda 


which  it  thus  yields.  S.  sativa  is  the 
chief  barilla  plant  of  the  S.  of  the  coun- 
try of  Spain. 

SALUS,  the  Roman  goddess  of  health, 
public  prosperity,  etc. 

SALUTATION,  a  sign  which  custom 
has  rendered  common,  for  expressing  to 
others,  in  our  intercourse  with  them,  our 
esteem,  love,  submission,  or  good  will. 
Greeting  (in  German,  gruss,  griissen) , 
is  derived  from  the  Low  German  groten, 
to  make  great:  thus  "God  greet  you," 
means,  "God  make  you  great — bless  you." 
Salutation  sometimes  consists  of  certain 
gestures.  Sometimes  an  express  assur- 
ance or  wish  is  added  to  these  mute  signs 
of  feeling.  The  difference  in  the  forms 
of  salutation  often  extends  so  far  that 
one  nation  considers  that  a  mark  of  rude- 
ness which  another  esteems  a  mark  of 
civility. 

The  military  salutations  which  were  in- 
troduced among  the  Germans  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  16th  century  consist  in 
touching  the  hat  or  cap,  lowering  tho 
standards  and  the  sword,  or  raising  the 
musket.  Vessels,  when  meeting,  salute 
each  other  by  a  discharge  of  cannon,  by 
striking  the  flag,  or  by  the  cheers  of  tho 
sailors,  etc. 

SALUTES,  MILITARY.  All  officers 
salute  on  meeting  and  on  making  or  re- 
ceiving official  reports.  Military  courtesy 
requires  the  junior  to  salute  first  or,  when 
the  salute  is  introductory  to  a  report 
made  at  a  military  ceremony  or  formation 
to  the  representative  of  a  common  supe- 
rior, as,  for  example,  to  the  adjutant  or 
officer  of  the  day,  the  officer  making  the 
report,  whatever  his  rank  may  be,  is  re- 
quired to  salute  first;  the  officer  to  whom 
the  report  is  made  will  acknowledge  by 
saluting  that  he  has  received  and  under- 
stood it.  When  under  arms  the  salute  is 
made  with  the  sword  or  saber  if  drawn, 
otherwise  with  the  hand,  and  a  mounted 
officer  always  dismounts  before  address- 
ing a  superior  who  is  not  mounted.  On 
official  occasions  officers,  when  indoors  and 
under  arms,  do  not  uncover,  but  salute 
with  the  sword,  if  drawn,  and  otherwise 
with  the  hand.  If  not  under  arms  they 
uncover  and  stand  at  attention,  but  do 
not  salute  except  when  making  or  receiv- 
ing a  report. 

When  an  enlisted  man  without  arms 
passes  an  officer  he  salutes  with  the  hand 
farthest  from  the  officer,  but  if  mounted 
he  salutes  with  the  right  hand,  and  officers 
are  to  be  saluted  whether  in  uniform  or 
not.  When  armed  with  the  saber  and  out 
of  ranks  an  enlisted  man  salutes  with  the 
saber,  if  drawn,  but  otherwise  with  the 
hand.  If  on  foot  and  armed  with  a  rifle 
or  carbine  he  salutes  with  his  weapon.    A 


SALUTES    WITH    CANNON 


217 


SALVADOR 


mounted  soldier  dismounts  before  ad- 
dressing an  officer  not  mounted.  An  en- 
listed man,  if  seated,  rises  on  the  approach 
of  an  officer,  faces  him  and  salutes;  if 
standing  he  faces  the  officer  for  the  same 
purpose.  If  both  remain  in  the  same 
place  or  on  the  same  ground  such  com- 
pliments need  not  be  repeated,  and  sol- 
diers, if  at  work,  do  not  cease  work  to 
salute  an  officer  unless  addressed  by  him. 
Before  addressing  an  officer  an  enlisted 
man  salutes  as  prescribed,  and  he  also 
makes  the  same  salute  after  receiving  a 
reply.  Indoors  and  unarmed  an  enlisted 
man  uncovers  and  stands  at  attention  on 
the  approach  of  an  officer.  He  does  not 
salute  unless  he  addresses  or  is  addressed 
by  the  officer.  If  armed  he  salutes  as 
though  outdoors. 

When  an  officer  enters  a  room  where 
there  are  soldiers  the  word  "attention"  is 
given  by  someone  who  perceives  him, 
when  all  rise  and  remain  standing  in  the 
position  of  soldier  till  the  officer  leaves 
the  room;  but  soldiers  at  meals  do  not 
rise.  Officers  are  required  at  all  times 
to  acknowledge  courtesies  of  enlisted  men 
by  returning  salutes  given,  and  when  sev- 
eral officers  in  company  are  saluted,  all 
who  are  entitled  to  the  salute  return  it. 

SALUTES  WITH  CANNON.  Salute 
to  the  Union.  This  is  one  gun  for  each 
State,  and  is  commemorative  of  the  Dec- 
claration  of  Independence.  It  is  fired  at 
noon  of  the  Fourth  of  July  at  every  mili- 
tary post  and  on  board  commissioned  na- 
val vessels  belonging  to  the  United  States. 
The  National  Salute,  21  guns.  This  is 
the  salute  for  the  National  flag,  the  Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States,  presidents  of 
foreign  republics  or  sovereigns  of  for- 
eign states  visiting  the  United  States. 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States, 
American  and  foreign  ambassadors,  19 
guns.  The  president  of  the  Senate,  speak- 
er of  the  House  of  Representatives,  mem- 
bers of  the  cabinet,  the  chief -justice,  a 
congressional  committee,  governors  with- 
in their  respective  States  or  Territories, 
viceroy  or  governor-general  of  provinces 
belonging  to  foreign  states,  general  of 
the  army,  admiral  of  the  navy,  and  same 
ranks  in  foreign  armies  and  navies,  17 
guns.  American  or  foreign  envoys,  or 
ministers  plenipotentiary,  assistant  Sec- 
retaries of  the  Navy  or  War,  lieutenant- 
general,  or  a  major-general  commanding 
the  army,  and  corresponding  ranks  in  the 
navy  and  foreign  armies  and  navies,  15 
guns.  Ministers-resident  accredited  to 
the  United  States,  major-general,  rear- 
admiral,  and  corresponding  ranks  of 
foreign  armies  and  navies,  13  guns. 
Charges  d'affaires,  brigadier-general, 
commodore,  and  corresponding  ranks  in 
foreign  armies  and  navies,  11  guns.    Con- 


suls-general accredited  to  the  United 
States,  9  guns. 

Salutes  are  only  fired  between  sunrise 
and  sunset,  and  not  on  Sundays,  except 
in  international  courtesies.  The  national 
colors  are  always  displayed  at  the  time 
of  saluting.  The  salute  to  the  flag  is  the 
only  salute  which  is  returned,  and  this 
must  be  done  within  24  hours.  United 
States  vessels  do  not  return  the  salute  to 
the  flag  in  United  States  waters  if  there 
is  any  fort  or  battery  there  to  do  it.  Nor 
do  United  States  vessels  salute  United 
States  forts  or  posts. 

If  there  are  several  batteries  or  forts 
within  sight  or  6  miles  of  each  other,  one 
of  them  is  designated  as  the  saluting  fort, 
and  returns  all  salutes  of  foreign  men- 
of-war.  In  New  York,  Castle  William, 
on  Governor's  Island,  is  the  saluting  fort. 

SALVADOR,  or  SAN  SALVADOR,  a 

republic  in  Central  America ;  on  the  coast 
of  the  Pacific;  and  bounded  by  Honduras 
on  the  N.  and  E.,  and  by  Guatemala  on 
the  N.  W.;  area,  13,176.  Pop.  (1919), 
estimated,  1,298,621 ;  Spanish-speaking 
Indians  and  half-breeds.  A  range  of  vol- 
canic peaks,  varying  in  height  from  4,600 
to  9,000  feet,  runs  through  the  center  of 
the  country,  dividing  an  interior  valley 
from  the  lowlands  on  the  coast.  The 
largest  river  is  the  Lempe,  which  is  only 
navigable  in  parts.  The  soil  is  remark- 
ably fertile.  Sugar,  tobacco,  cotton,  etc., 
also  thrive.  Cattle-breeding  is  carried 
on,  but  not  extensively.  The  manufac- 
tures are  unimportant.  The  imports  in 
1918  were  valued  at  £1,228,539,  and  the 
exports  £2,479,960.  Trade  is  chiefly  with 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and 
France.  The  chief  articles  of  import  are 
cottons,  hardware,  flour,  drugs  and  chem- 
ical products.  The  chief  exports  are  cof- 
fee, indigo,  and  sugar.  Cotton  growing 
has  been  developed  in  recent  years.  The 
established  religion  is  Roman  Catholicism. 
The  government  is  carried  on  by  a  pres- 
ident and  four  ministers.  There  is  a 
congress  of  70  deputies  elected  by  univer- 
sal suffrage.  The  inhabitants  had  long 
the  reputation  of  being  the  most  indus- 
trious in  Central  America,  and  the  State, 
in  proportion  to  its  size,  is  still  the  most 
densely  peopled.  Salvador  remained  un- 
der Spanish  rule  till  1821,  when  it  as- 
serted its  independence  and  joined  the 
Mexican  Confederation.  In  1823,  how- 
ever, it  seceded  from  the  confederation 
and  subsequently  formed  part  of  the  Re- 
public of  Central  America.  In  1853  it  be- 
came an  independent  republic.  Its  prog- 
ress has  been  much  hindered  by  internal 
dissensions,  revolutions  and  counter-rev- 
olutions following  each  other  without  end. 
The  capital  is  San  Salvador. 

History. — In     1913     President    Aranjo 


SALVADORA 


218 


SALVATION    ARMY 


was  killed  by  an  assassin  and  on  the 
expiration  of  the  term  for  which  he  had 
been  elected,  Carlos  Melendez  was  in  1915 
elected  president  for  the  term  1915  to 
1919.  He  at  once  addressed  himself  to 
improving  the  finances  of  the  country, 
and  in  this  he  met  with  some  success. 
When  the  United  States  entered  the  war 
with  Germany,  the  Government  pro- 
claimed its  neutrality,  but  explained  that 
its  attitude  was  friendly  toward  the 
United  States,  and  in  proof  of  this  offered 
the  use  of  the  ports  of  the  country  to  the 
United  States.  In  March,  1920,  Salvador 
joined  the  League  of  Nations,  and  at  the 
same  time  revived  a  scheme  for  a  central 
federation  or  union  of  the  five  Central 
American  republics  under  one  governor, 
such  a  union  to  take  place  on  Sept.  15, 
1921.  An  exceptional  large  crop  in  1920 
made  the  year  the  most  prosperous  of 
this  country.  The  coffee  harvest  was  es- 
timated at  100,000,000  pounds.  A  mora- 
torium, which  had  been  in  operation  since 
the  beginning  of  the  World  War,  termi- 
nated on  June  28,  1920.  Congress  on 
Aug.  27,  1920,  passed  a  resolution  favor- 
ing the  political  unity  of  the  five  repub- 
lics. 

SALVADORA,  a  genus  of  plants,  type 
of  a  natural  order  (Salvador ace se)  of 
monopetalous  dicotyledons,  allied  to  Olea- 
cese  and  Jasminacese.  They  have  stems 
with  slightly  swollen  joints,  opposite  en- 
tire leaves,  and  loose  branching  panicles 
of  small  flowers.  S.  persica  is  supposed 
to  be  the  mustard  tree  of  Scripture,  which 
has  very  small  seeds  and  grows  into  a 
tree.  Its  fruit  is  succulent  and  tastes  like 
garden  cress.  The  bark  of  the  root  is 
acrid. 

SALVAGE,  the  act  of  saving  a  ship 
or  goods  from  extraordinary  danger,  as 
from  fire,  the  sea,  an  enemy,  pirates,  or 
the  like.  In  commercial  and  maritime  law : 
(1)  A  payment  or  compensation  to  which 
those  persons  are  entitled  who  have  by 
their  voluntary  efforts  saved  ships  or 
goods  from  extraordinary  danger,  as  from 
fire,  the  sea,  an  enemy,  pirates,  or  the 
like.  The  amount  of  salvage  to  be  paid 
is  generally  agreed  on  between  the  salvors 
and  the  owners  of  the  property  salved; 
but  if  they  cannot  agree,  the  sum  to  be 
paid,  and  the  proportions  in  which  it  shall 
be  paid,  are  determined  by  the  Admiralty 
Court.  The  crew  of  a  ship  are  not  en- 
titled to  any  salvage  for  any  extraordi- 
nary efforts  they  may  make  in  saving 
their  own  vessel.  (2)  The  property  saved 
from  extraordinary  danger  by  the  volun- 
tary efforts  of  the  salvors. 

SALVARSAN,  Arseno-benzol,  "606," 
an  organic  compound  containing  arsenic, 
first  prepared  by  Ehrlich  and   Hata  in 


1907,  its  full  chemical  name  being  dioxy- 
diamido-arseno-benzol  dihydrochloride.  It 
is  a  specific  in  the  treatment  of  syphilis 
and  other  diseases.  It  is  administered  in- 
travenously, or  injected  into  the  muscles. 
The  latter  method  is  considered  more  ef- 
fective, but  it  produces  much  pain,  and 
the  intravenous  method  is  that  generally 
adopted.  The  drug  is  very  effective  in 
the  early  stages  of  the  disease,  two  or 
three  doses  usually  affecting  a  cure  with- 
in six  months.  In  the  secondary  stage 
the  disease  can  be  cured  in  from  six 
months  to  a  year,  and  most  cases  even 
further  developed  yield  to  prolonged 
treatment. 

Neo-salvarsan  was  prepared  by  Ehr- 
lich in  1912,  in  consequence  of  occasional 
undesirable  results  following  the  injection 
of  salvarsan.  It  is  a  combination  of  sal- 
varsan  with  sodium  formaldehyde-sulph- 
oxalate,  and  while  less  toxic  than  salvar- 
san is  generally  considered  less  potent, 
although  it  is  claimed  for  it  that  its  ef- 
fects, although  slower,  are  more  lasting. 
It  contains  about  two-thirds  as  much  ar- 
senic as  salvarsan,  and  occurs  as  a  yellow 
powder,  which  is  dissolved  ^  in  distilled 
water  immediately  before  being  injected. 

SALVATION,  the  act  of  saving;  res- 
cue or  preservation  from  danger,  great 
calamity,  or  total  destruction;  as,  marry- 
ing money  was  his  salvation.  In  theology, 
the  deliverance  wrought  out  by  Christ  for 
mankind,  saving  them  from  the  conse- 
quences of  their  sins. 

SALVATION  ARMY,  an  organization, 
formed  on  the  model  of  an  army,  for 
evangelizing  the  masses  in  large  cities; 
originally  known  as  the  Christian  Mis- 
sion; founded  at  Mile  End,  London,  by 
the  Rev.  William  Booth,  July  5,  1865. 
From  1872  to  the  present  the  movement 
has  spread  and  is  now  represented  in  66 
countries.  In  1918  there  were  _  10,591 
corps  and  outposts,  1,246  social  institu- 
tions, 17,476  officers  and  cadets,  68,676 
local  officers,  and  31,400  bandsmen.  The 
organization  issued  76  periodicals  with 
1,210,000  total  copies  per  issue.  The  total 
number  of  its  social  institutions  was 
1,246,  including  food  depots,  shelters,  in- 
dustrial homes,  labor  bureaus,  inebriates' 
homes,  children's  homes,  rescue  homes, 
and  maternity  homes.  Almost  6,500,000 
beds  and  17,500,000  meals  were  supplied. 
The  labor  bureaus  received  82,475  appli- 
cations for  work  and  found  75,730  situa- 
tions. 

In  1919,  in  the  United  States,  there 
were  1,000  corps  and  outposts;  3,000  offi- 
cers and  cadets;  75  hotels;  92  industrial 
homes;  11  slum  posts  and  nurseries;  25 
rescue  homes  and  maternity  hospitals.  In 
1919,  $14,000,000  was  subscribed.  In  all 
the    large    cities    of   the    United    States 


SALVE 


219 


SALZBURG 


Christmas  dinners  are  provided  for  the 
poor  and  needy.  Evangeline  Booth  is  the 
Commander-in-Chief  in  the  United  States. 
The  international  offices  are  in  London, 
England.  William  Bramwell  Booth,  eld- 
est son  of  the  founder,  is  general  of  the 
entire  organization.  During  the  World 
War  the  very  extensive  welfare  work  for 
soldiers  and  sailors  and  their  families, 
undertaken  both  at  the  fronts  and  at 
home,  was  notably  successful.  See  Re- 
lief, War. 

SALVE,  that  which  saves,  mitigates, 
relieves,  or  preserves;  a  help;  a  remedy; 
an  aid;  an  antidote;  as,  heavy  damages 
proved  a  salve  to  his  dishonor.  Also  an 
adhesive  composition ;  a  substance  applied 
to  heal,  mollify,  or  relieve  wounds  or 
sores;  an  unguent;  an  ointment;  a  plas- 
ter. 

SALVIA,  sage;  the  typical  genus  of 
the  Salvidse.  Calyx  two-lipped;  stamens 
two,  forked.  Undershrubs  or  herbs,  wide- 
ly distributed.  Known  speeies  about  400, 
many  of  them  very  showy,  flowering 
plants,  cultivated  in  gardens  or  in  green- 
houses. S.  officinalis,  of  which  there  are 
many  varieties,  is  the  common  sage,  a 
well-known  culinary  herb  (see  Sage).  It 
is  a  feeble  tonic  and  astringent  and  an 
efficient  aromatic.  S.  grandiflora  is  also 
culinary.  The  galls  of  S.  pomifera  are 
eaten  in  Candia,  as  are  the  stalks  of  S. 
moorcroftiana  in  the  Himalayas.  The 
root  is  used  in  cough,  the  seeds  as  an 
emetic,  and  the  leaves  as  a  medicine  in 
guinea-worm  and  itch,  or  as  a  poultice  to 
wounds.  The  seeds  of  S.  plebeia  and  S. 
pumila,  also  Indian  species,  are  given 
in  gonorrhoea,  etc. 

SALVINI,  TOMMASO,  an  Italian 
tragedian;  born  in  Milan,  Jan.  1,  1830. 
His  father  and  mother  were  both  ac- 
tors; he  was  trained  under  Modena,  a 
distinguished  player;  and  became  well 
known  as  a  member  of  Ristori's  com- 
pany. In  1849  he  fought  with  distinction 
in  the  revolutionary  war;  and  returning 
to  the  stage  played  with  eminent  success 
as  (Edipus  in  a  play  written  for  Salvini 
by  Nicolini,  and  as  Saul  in  ,Alfieri's 
drama.  In  Paris  he  played  in  these, 
in  Racine's  plays,  and  as  Shakespeare's 
Othello — the  part  with  which  he  is  iden- 
tified in  the  minds  of  English  playgoers. 
He  scored  successes  in  Brussels  and  Ma- 
drid, and  visited  the  United  States  in  1874, 
England  in  1875,  with  as  great  eclat.  But 
after  another  visit  to  the  United  States  in 
1890,  he  retired  from  the  stage  to  enjoy 
a  life  of  earned  leisure  in  his  villa  near 
Florence.  Among  his  most  striking  parts 
were — besides  Othello — Hamlet,  Macbeth, 
and  Lear.    He  died  in  1916. 


SAL  VOLATILE,  carbonate  of  am- 
monia. The  name  is  also  applied  to  a 
spirituous  solution  of  carbonate  of  am- 
monia flavored  with  aromatics. 

SALWIN,  SALWEEN,  or  SALWEN, 
a  river  of  Burma  with  a  general  N.  and 
S.  course  parallel  to  the  Irrawady,  rising 
in  southwestern  China,  and  falling  into 
the  Indian  Ocean  (Gulf  of  Martaban), 
the  towns  of  Martaban,  Moulmein,  and 
Amherst  being  at  or  near  its  mouth.  The 
river  course  is  interrupted  by  rocks  and 
rapids,  but  vessels  of  the  largest  size  can 
reach  Moulmein.  Vast  quantities  of  teak 
are  annually  floated  down  the  Salwin  and 
shipped  at  Moulmein  for  export.  The 
area  of  the  Salwin  basin  is  62,700  square 
miles;  the  river  is  1,750  miles  in  length, 
and  from  1  to  4  miles  in  breadth. 

SALZBRUNN,  a  group  of  three  vil- 
lages (New,  Lower,  and  Upper  Salz- 
brunn)  in  Silesia;  30  miles  S.  W.  of  Bres- 
lau;  having  eight  mineral  springs,  which 
attract  many  visitors  in  the  season.  The 
water  is  alkalo-saline ;  it  is  extensively 
exported.  There  are  glass  and  porcelain 
factories,  yarn-spinning  works,  brick 
works,  and  coal  mines. 

SALZBURG-,  a  city  of  Austria,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Salzburg,  pictur- 
esquely situated  on  both  banks  of  the 
rapid  Salza,  which  is  here  hemmed  in 
between  two  isolated  hills,  73  miles  S.  E. 
of  Munich.  It  is  partly  walled,  and  has 
several  handsome  squares  and  streets,  or- 
namental grounds,  park,  and  river  prom- 
enades. The  principal  edifices  are  the 
cathedral  (1614-1668)  built  in  imitation 
of  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  several  other 
churches;  the  archbishop's  palace  (now 
belonging  to  the  town),  former  imperial 
palace,  exchange,  museum,  and  several 
benevolent  institutions.  It  was  the  births 
place  of  Mozart,  and  there  is  a  bronze 
statue  of  the  composer  by  Schwanthaler. 
There  is  a  theological  college,  and  other 
high-class  educational  institutions,  exten- 
sive libraries,  etc.  The  manufactures  be- 
fore the  World  War  were  not  individually 
of  importance.  The  town  was  the  see  of 
a  bishop  in  the  7th  century,  which  in  798 
was  raised  to  an  archbishopric.  The 
Bishops  of  Salzburg  were  princes  of  the 
German  empire,  and  held  the  position  of 
sovereigns  over  the  archbishopric  till  it 
was  secularized  in  1802.  Pop.  about  37,- 
300.  The  province  of  Salzburg,  area 
2,767  square  miles,  is  a  mountainous 
country,  intersected  by  numerous  valleys, 
chiefly  pastoral,  but  in  many  of  them 
much  corn  and  fruit  are  raised.  Wood 
is  abundant,  and  the  minerals,  which  are 
very  valuable,  include  gold,  silver,  lead, 
copper,  cobalt,  iron,  salt,  and  marble. 
Pop.  about  219,000. 


SALZKAMMERGUT 


220 


SAMARIA 


SALZKAMMERGUT,  called  the  Aus- 
trian Switzerland,  one  of  the  most  pictur- 
esque districts  of  Europe;  between  the 
Austrian  province  of  Salzburg  on  the  W. 
and  Styria  on  the  E.;  area,  about  250 
square  miles.  The  scenery  combines  in 
rare  beauty  the  features  of  valley,  moun- 
tain, and  lake.  The  highest  peak,  the 
Dachstein,  reaches  an  altitude  of  9,830 
feet.  But  the  district  derives  its  principal 
attraction  from  its  lakes,  the  most  famous 
of  which  are  Hallstatt,  Traun  or  Gmun- 
den,  Atter,  St.  Wolfgang  or  Aber,  Mond, 
and  Zell.  It  derives  its  name  of  "Salt- 
exchequer  Property"  from  its  salt  springs 
and  mines,  which  yield  over  80,000  tons 
of  salt  annually.  The  chief  seats  of  the 
salt  works  are  Ischl,  Hallstatt,  and  Eben- 
see.  Little  or  no  agriculture  is  carried 
on;  the  inhabitants  not  engaged  in  the 
salt  industry  are  employed  in  cattle 
breeding  and  in  the  timber  trade. 

SAMAR,  the  third  largest  of  the 
Philippine  Islands;  S.  E.  of  the  E.  part 
of  the  Island  of  Luzon,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Strait  of  San  Bernar- 
dino; and  the  extreme  E.  of  the  Visayan 
group.  On  the  S.  W.  it  is  separated  from 
the  island  of  Leyte  by  the  Strait  of  San 
Juanico.  The  W.  coast  is  bounded  by  the 
Western  Sea,  and  the  E.  coast  by  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean.  The  island  is  mainly  moun- 
tainous, although  there  are  many  fine 
valleys  under  cultivation.  Samar  ex- 
tends 130  miles  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  50 
miles  from  the  E.  to  W.,  and  has  an  area 
with  adjacent  islands  of  5,031  square 
miles.  Pop.  about  266,237.  Samar  and 
islands  adjoining  were  made  a  province 
under  civil  government  in  1902.  The 
products  of  the  island  are  such  as  are 
found  in  all  the  archipelago.  There  are 
many  fine  kinds  of  woods,  numerous  vari- 
eties of  wild  fruits,  various  kinds  of 
bamboo,  roots  suitable  for  food,  rattan, 
game,  and  fish.  Besides  cocoanuts  there 
is  a  large  production  of  oil,  rice  and 
hemp. 

SAMARA,  a  town  in  Russia,  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  in 
eastern  Russia.  It  is  situated  at  the 
juncture  of  the  rivers  Volga  and  Samara, 
550  miles  southeast  of  Moscow.  It  is  the 
center  of  an  extensive  grain  producing 
region  and  its  chief  industry  before  the 
World  War  was  flour  milling.  Pop.  about 
145,000.  The  province  has  an  area  of 
59,000  square  miles,  and  about  4,000,000 
inhabitants,  many  of  whom  are  descend- 
ants of  German  colonists. 

SAMARANG,  a  seaport  of  Java,  255 
miles  E.  of  Batavia,  the  principal  port 
for  the  trade  of  Middle  Java.  Since  1873 
it  has  been  connected  with  Jokjokarta  and 
Surabaya    by    railway.      The    European 


quarters  have  all  the  appearance  of  a 
typical  Dutch  town.  The  more  important 
buildings  are  a  military  hospital,  the  city 
hall,  and  Christian  churches  and  schools. 
A  fort  and  a  coast  battery  provide  de- 
fense for  the  town.  The  river  is  silted 
up  at  its  mouth;  but  a  canal,  constructed 
in  1879,  serves  as  a  harbor.  The  road- 
stead is  exposed  during  the  W.  monsoon. 
Pop.   (1918)   106,852. 

SAMARCAND,  a  city  of  Turkestan; 
in  the  valley  of  the  Zerafshan;  about  4 
miles  S.  of  that  river,  and  among  the  W. 
spurs  of  the  Tian-Shan  Mountains;  130 
miles  E.  by  S.  of  Bokhara  and  150  miles 
N.  by  E.  of  Balkh  in  Afghanistan.  It  is 
the  ancient  Marcanda,  the  capital  of  Sog- 
diana,  which  was  taken  and  destroyed  by 
Alexander  the  Great.  It  was  again  cap- 
tured in  a.  D.  712  by  the  Arabs,  who  sup- 
planted the  Graeco-Bactrian  civilization, 
of  which  it  was  the  center,  by  the  creed 
and  customs  of  Islam.  Ever  since  that 
time  it  has  been  a  sacred  city  in  the  eyes 
of  the  Moslems,  especially  after  the  con- 
queror Timur  made  it  the  capital  of  his 
kingdom  in  the  14th  century.  It  had, 
however,  suffered  terribly  from  Genghis 
Khan,  who  took  it  (1219)  and  destroyed 
three-fourths  of  its  500,000  inhabitants. 
In  Timur's  time  it  had  a  population  of 
150,000.  The  Ulug-beg,  the  graves  of 
Timur  and  his  wives,  as  well  as  the  tomb 
of  one  of  the  Prophet's  companions,  and 
two  other  colleges,  the  Tilla-Kari  and 
Shir-rar,  both  dating  from  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  century,  are  magnificent 
structures,  grandly  decorated.  In  the 
15th  century  Samarcand  was  renowned 
as  a  school  of  astronomy  and  mathemat- 
ics. After  the  decay  of  Timur's  empire 
the  city  had  a  checkered  history,  figuring 
in  most  of  the  wars  that  raged  in  that 
region  till  at  last  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  emirs  of  Bokhara,  from  whom  it 
was  taken  by  the  Russians  in  1868.  They 
established  themselves  in  the  citadel,  built 
on  a  steep  hill  4  miles  in  circuit,  and  laid 
out  a  new  town,  with  broad  and  handsome 
streets,  to  the  W.  of  it.  On  the  other  side 
of  the  citadel  is  the  old  city,  walled,  with 
dark  and  narrow  streets  and  dirty  houses. 
The  ruins  of  still  more  ancient  Samar- 
cands  extend  for  3  miles  or  more  to  the  W. 
and  N.  of  both  the  Russian  and  the  native 
town.  The  people  carry  on  gardening, 
their  gardens  being  irrigated  by  water 
drawn  off  from  the  Zerafshan,  and  the 
manufacture  of  textiles,  harness,  gold 
and  silver  wares,  leather,  pottery,  boots, 
etc.,  and  conduct  a  brisk  trade  in  cotton, 
silk,  fruits,  wheat,  rice,  salt,  and  horses. 
Pop.  about  98,000. 

SAMARIA,  a  city  and  country  of 
Palestine;  situated  toward  the  N.  of  Ju- 
dea.     Samaria  was  the  country  in  which 


SAMARITANS 


221 


SAMOAN    ISLANDS 


the  10  revolted  tribes  raised  their  inde- 
pendent state  and  formed  the  kingdom 
properly  denominated  Israel,  in  contra- 
distinction to  that  of  Judah,  embracing 
the  two  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
from  which  the  other  10  had  seceded 
when,  refusing  the  authority  of  Reho- 
boam,  they  established  a  dynasty  of  their 
own,  at  the  head  of  which  they  placed 
Jeroboam,  the  first  king  of  the  nation  of 
Israel.  So  deadly  was  the  animosity  and 
so  implacable  the  hatred  that  existed  be- 
tween these  two  nations  of  Jews,  that, 
from  the  time  of  their  severance  to  the 
destruction  of  their  capital  and  the  cap- 
tivity of  Israel,  an  almost  perpetual  state 
of  warfare  existed  between  Judah  and 
Israel;  and  the  term  of  Samaritan  was 
one  of  the  bitterest  contempt  and  re- 
proach that  could  be  applied  to  any  one. 
The  antipathy  borne  by  the  people  of 
Judah  for  those  of  Israel  or  Samaria  was 
not  only  political,  but  religious.  Theolog- 
ical dissensions  were,  however,  in  time 
greatly  modified  by  the  return  of  the 
Samaritans  to  the  ancient  form  of  wor- 
ship, and  by  the  erection  of  a  temple  in 
the  capital,  an  event  that  was  celebrated 
soon  after  the  passage  of  Alexander  the 
Great  through  the  land  of  Syria.  The 
city  of  Samaria,  and  capital  of  the  king- 
dom, was  situated  on  a  hill,  Mount  Same- 
ron,  was  founded  by  Omri,  and  from  that 
time  till  its  overthrow  by  the  Assyrians 
was  the  residence  of  all  the  Kings  of 
Israel.  It  was  subsequently  rebuilt  by 
Herod,  who  called  it  Sebaste  (a  Greek 
word  signifying  Augustus),  in  honor  of 
Augustus  Caesar. 

SAMARITANS,  a  mixed  people,  which 
inhabited  the  region  between  Judea  and 
Galilee,  and  formed  a  sect  among  the 
Jews.  They  consisted  partly  of  the  tribes 
of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  left  in  Sama- 
ria by  the  King  of  Assyria  when  he  had 
carried  their  brethren  away  captive,  and 
partly  of  Assyrian  colonists.  On  the  re- 
turn of  the  Jews  from  captivity  they  de- 
clined to  mix  with  the  Samaritans,  though 
united  with  them  in  religion.  The  latter 
attempted  to  prevent  the  Jews  from  build- 
ing the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  failing 
in  this,  they  built  a  temple  on  Mount  Ge- 
rizim  exclusively  for  their  own  worship. 
A  few  of  the  race  still  exist  scattered  in 
Egypt,  at  Damascus,  and  at  Gaza.  They 
adhere  strictly  to  the  Mosaic  law,  but  are 
regarded  by  the  Jews  as  heretics,  as  they 
accept  only  the  Pentateuch,  of  which  they 
have  a  special  version  of  their  own.  They 
believe  in  the  existence  of  angels,  in  a 
resurrection  and  future  retribution,  and 
expect  the  coming  of  a  Messiah,  in  whom 
they  look  only  for  a  prophet.  In  the  syna- 
gogue the  Aramaic  Samaritan  dialect  is 
used,   but   they   generally   speak   Arabic. 


O— Cyc 


They  avoid  any  connections  with  other 
sects  and  marry  only  among  their  own 
nation. 

SAMBRE,  a  river  of  France  and  Bel- 
gium; a  tributary  of  the  Meuse,  which 
it  enters  at  Namur;  length  110  miles, 
great  part  of  which  is  useful  for  naviga- 
tion. 

SAMNITES,  a  people  of  ancient  Italy, 
that  inhabited  the  country  between  Apulia 
on  the  E.  and  Latium  and  Campania  on 
the  W. ;  a  brave  and  warlike  nation,  they 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  implac- 
able hatred  of  the  Romans,  with  whom 
from  their  earliest  existence  as  a  people 
they  waged  a  perpetual  hostility.  They 
were,  however,  ultimately  compelled  to 
succumb  before  the  growing  power  of 
Rome,  and  after  a  succession  of  disasters 
were  finally  exterminated  about  290  B.  C. 
Their  capital  city  was  called  Samnium, 
or  Samnis.  The  term  Samnites  was  sub- 
sequently applied  to  an  order  of  Roman 
gladiators,  so  named  because  accoutred 
and  armed  in  the  fashion  of  the  ancient 
nation  of  Samnites. 

SAMOAN  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  the 
South  Pacific  Ocean,  formerly  known  as 
the  Navigator's  Islands. 

Location.  —  They  are  located  about 
2,000  miles  S.  and  300  miles  W.  of  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  and  14°  S.  of  the  equa- 
tor. 

The  group  consists  of  12  inhabited  and 
2  uninhabited  islands,  with  an  area  of 
1,700  square  miles;  aggregate  population, 
(1917)  41,128.  The  islands  are  of  vol- 
canic origin,  but  fertile,  producing  cocoa- 
nuts,  cotton,  sugar,  and  coffee,  the  most 
important,  however,  being  cocoanuts,  from 
which  the  copra  of  commerce  is  obtained 
by  drying  the  kernel  of  the  cocoanut,  the 
copra,  which  is  exported  to  Europe  and 
the  United  States,  being  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cocoanut  oil. 

Government. — The  government  of  the 
Samoan  Islands  had  been  from  time  im- 
memorial under  the  two  royal  houses  of 
Malietoa  and  Tupea,  except  on  the  island 
of  Tutuila,  which  was  governed  by  native 
chiefs.  In  1873,  at  the  suggestion  of 
foreign  residents,  a  house  of  nobles  and 
a  house  of  representatives  were  estab- 
lished, with  Malietoa  Laupepa,  and  the 
chief  of  the  royal  house  of  Tupea  as 
joint  kings.  Subsequently  Malietoa  be- 
came sole  king.  In  1887  he  was  deposed 
by  the  German  Government  on  the  claim 
of  unjust  treatment  of  German  subjects, 
who  formed  the  bulk  of  the  foreign  popu- 
lation on  the  island,  and  was  deported 
first  to  German  New  Guinea  and  then  to 
the  Cameruns,  in  Africa,  and  finally  in 
1888  to  Hamburg,  Tamasese,  a  native 
chief,  being  meantime  proclaimed  by  the 


Vol  8 


SAMOLTJS 


222 


SAMOYEDES 


Germans  as  king,  though  against  the  pro- 
test of  the  British  and  American  consuls 
at  Samoa.  Mataafa,  a  near  relative  of 
Malietoa,  made  war  upon  Tamasese  and 
succeeded  to  the  kingship. 

In  1889  a  conference  between  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  American,  British,  and 
German  governments  was  held  at  Berlin, 
at  which  a  treaty  was  signed  by  the 
three  powers  guaranteeing  the  neutrality 
of  the  islands,  in  which  the  citizens  of 
the  three  signatory  powers  would  have 
equal  rights  of  residence,  trade,  and  per- 
sonal protection.  They  agreed  to  recog- 
nize the  independence  of  the  Samoan  Gov- 
ernment and  the  free  rights  of  the  natives 
to  elect  their  chief  or  king  and  choose 
a  form  of  government  according  to  their 
own  laws  and  customs.  A  supreme  court 
was  established,  consisting  of  one  judge, 
styled  the  chief  justice  of  Samoa. 

Malietoa,  who  had  been  deported,  was 
restored  as  king  in  November,  1889,  and 
continued  as  such  till  his  death,  which 
occurred  Aug.  22,  1898,  when  the  consuls 
of  the  three  powers,  with  the  chief  jus- 
tice as  president,  took  charge  of  the  ad- 
ministration pending  the  election  of  a 
successor.  Out  of  the  election  and  recog- 
nition of  this  successor  to  King  Malietoa, 
deceased,  serious  disagreements  between 
the  local  representatives  of  the  three  gov- 
ernments maintaining  the  joint  protec- 
torate over  the  islands  occurred.  These 
were  followed  in  1899  by  a  new  agree- 
ment between  the  three  nations:  the 
United  States,  Germany  and  Great  Bri- 
tain, whereby  each  nation  assumed  con- 
trol over  certain  islands.  Great  Britain 
afterward  ceded  her  share  to  Germany 
for  concessions  in  Africa  and  elsewhere. 
In  the  first  year  of  the  World  War  (1914) , 
German  Samoa  was  captured  by  New  Zea- 
land troops  and  by  the  terms  of  the  Peace 
Treaty  of  1919  New  Zealand  was  awarded 
control  of  this  territory.  A  volcanic  erup- 
tion, begun  in  1905,  in  the  interior  of 
Savaii,  continued  until  1909,  the  greatest 
volcanic  disturbance  in  the  history  of  the 
world. 

SAMOLTJS,  a  genus  of  plants,  order 
Primulacex.  They  are  herbs  with  alter- 
nate leaves,  and  flowers  corymbose  or 
racemose.  S.  valerandi,  the  water  pim- 
pernel, found  in  wet,  gravelly  places 
throughout  the  world,  is  one  foot  high, 
and  has  small,  white  flowers,  the  corolla 
of  which  is  twice  the  length  of  the  calyx. 

SAMOS,  now  SAMO,  an  island  in  the 
Grecian  Archipelago,  near  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor;  45  miles  S.  W.  of  Smyrna, 
formerly  belonging  to  Turkey,  and  now 
a  possession  of  Greece;  area,  180  square 
miles.  It  has  a  mountainous  surface, 
partly  covered  with  pine  forests;  several 
fertile  and  well-watered  valleys ;  produces 


corn,  fruit,  and  excellent  wine;  and  has 
several  valuable  minerals,  including  ar- 
gentiferous lead,  iron,  and  marble.  The 
principal  town  is  Vathy,  with  a  good 
harbor  on  the  N.  E.  side  of  the  island. 
The  principal  exports  are  raisins,  skins, 
wine,  and  oil;  imports,  grain,  colonial 
produce,  and  woven  fabrics.  Samos  was 
inhabited  in  antiquity  by  Ionian  Greeks, 
and  had  an  important  position  among 
the  Greek  communities  as  early  as  the  7th 
century  B.  c.  In  the  latter  half  of  the 
6th  century  it  was  in  a  specially  flourish- 
ing condition  under  Polycrates,  and  sub- 
sequently was  under  the  domination  of 
Athens.  In  84  B.  C.  it  was  united  with 
the  Roman  province  of  Asia.  In  1550 
it  was  conquered  by  the  Turks.  It  now 
occupies  an  exceptional  position,  having 
been  erected  into  a  tributary  principality 
of  the  Sublime  Porte  in  1832,  the  ruler 
being  a  Greek  prince.  During  the  Bal- 
kan War  of  1912  the  Greeks  seized  the 
island.     Pop.  about  69,000. 

SAMOSATA,  the  capital  till  A.  D.  17  of 
the  Syrian  kingdom  of  Commagene,  on 
the  Euphrates,  130  miles  N.  N.  E.  of 
Aleppo.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Lucian 
and  of  Paul  of  Samosata. 

SAMOTHEACE,  or  SAMOTHRAKI, 
an  island  in  the  N.  of  the  iEgean  Sea, 
belonging  to  Turkey,  about  14  miles  long 
by  8  miles  broad.  It  has  a  very  moun- 
tainous surface,  one  of  its  summits  ex- 
ceeding 5,000  feet.  Its  chief  products 
are  corn  and  oil.  The  island  is  of  in- 
terest as  being  in  antiquity  the  prin- 
cipal seat  of  the  worship  of  the  Cabiri, 
and  celebrated  for  its  religious  my&teries. 
It  is  interesting  also  as  being  visited  by 
St.  Paul  in  the  course  of  his  second  mis- 
sionary journey  (Acts  xvi.  11).  Recent 
archaeological  researches  have  produced 
valuable  results. 

SAMOVAR,  a  Russian  tea  apparatus, 
the  water  in  which  is  boiled  by  means  of 
hot  coals  contained  in  an  iron  tube,  and 
then  poured  over  the  tea. 

SAMOYEDES,  or  SAMOIEDES,  a  peo- 
ple of  Ural-Altaic  stock,  inhabiting  the 
shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  both  in  Eu- 
rope and  Asia,  from  the  Yenisei  to  the 
White  Sea.  They  consist  of  two  main 
groups,  a  S.  resembling  the  Tartars,  and 
a  N.  and  more  degraded  group.  They 
are  nomadic,  and  live  chiefly  by  fishing, 
hunting,  and  keeping  reindeer.  They  are 
of  small  stature,  have  a  flat,  round,  and 
broad  face,  thick  lips,  wide  nose,  little 
beard,  black  hair  in  ^  small  quantity. 
Their  religion  is  fetishism,  though  they 
have  an  idea  of  a  great  divinity;  they 
are  extremely  superstitious,  and  generally 
peaceable.     The   reindeer   supplies   them 


SAMP 


223 


SAMSON 


with  food,  clothing,  tents,  utensils,  etc. 
They  number  about  17,000. 

SAMP,  an  article  of  food  consisting  of 
maize,  broken  or  bruised,  which  is  cooked 
by  boiling,  and  often  eaten  with  milk; 
a  dish  borrowed  from  the  aborigines  of 
the  United  States. 

SAMPHIRE,  the  Crithmum  mariti- 
mum,  an  umbelliferous  plant,  very  succu- 
lent, pale  green,  with  bi-triternate  leaves 
and  lanceolate  fleshy  leaflets.  It  grows 
wild  along  the  sea-coast  of  Europe,  and 
where  it  abounds  it  is  used  by  the  inhabi- 
tants as  a  pickle,  or  an  ingredient  in 
salads,  or  as  a  potherb. 

SAMPLER,  a  pattern  or  model  of 
work;  a  specimen;  particularly,  a  piece 
of  needle-work  sewed  by  learners,  con- 
taining specimens  of  various  kinds  of 
stitches.  Also  one  who  apportions  things 
into  samples  for  inspection;  as,  a  tea 
sampler. 

SAMPSON,  WILLIAM  THOMAS,  an 
American  naval  officer;  born  in  Palmyra, 
N.  Y.,  Feb.  9,  1840.  He  attended  the 
public  schools  of  his  native  town,  and  in 
1857  entered  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy,  from  which  he  was  graduated 
in  1861,  and  was  assigned  to  duty  on  the 
frigate  "Potomac."  On  July  16,  1862,  he 
was  promoted  lieutenant  and  assigned  to 
the  practice  ship  "John  Adams."  In  1864 
he  was  appointed  executive  officer  of  the 
ironclad  "Patapsco,"  of  the  South  Atlan- 
tic Blockading  Squadron,  and  which  was 
blown  up  in  Charleston  harbor  Jan.  15, 
1865,  while  he  was  on  board.  After  serv- 
ing on  the  frigate  "Colorado,"  of  the 
European  squadron,  he  was  promoted 
lieutenant-commander  July  25,  1866 ;  com- 
mander Aug.  9,  1874;  and  captain,  March 
26,  1889.  Subsequently  he  was  superin- 
tendent of  the  United  States  Naval  Acad- 
emy; a  member  of  the  International 
Prime  Meridian  and  Time  Conference; 
superintendent  of  the  Torpedo  Station; 
member  of  a  board  on  fortifications  and 
other  defenses;  chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Naval  Ordnance;  superintendent  of  the 
Naval  Observatory;  a  delegate  from  the 
United  States  to  the  International  Mari- 
time Conference  in  Washington;  and 
president  of  the  Board  of  Inquiry  on  the 
"Maine"  disaster.  On  March  24,  1898, 
he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  North 
Atlantic  squadron,  succeeding  Rear-Ad- 
miral  Sicard,  with  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral.  On  June  1  he  joined  Commodore 
Winfield  S.  Schley,  commander  of  the 
"Flying  Squadron,"  off  Santiago  de  Cuba, 
and  took  command  of  the  combined  squad- 
rons, which  included  16  warships.  When 
it  was  known  that  the  Spanish  fleet  under 
command  of  Admiral  Cervera  was  block- 
aded in  the  harbor  of  Santiago,  Admiral 


Sampson  prepared  a  plan  of  operations 
for  his  fleet,  to  check  any  attempt  at  es- 
cape that  Cervera  might  make.  In  as- 
signing places  for  his  different  ships,  he 
stationed  the  "New  York,"  his  own  flag- 
ship, and  the  "Brooklyn,"  on  which  Com- 
modore Schley  was  serving,  on  the  two 
flanks,  as  these  were  the  fastest  ships 
in  the  fleet.  When  the  Spanish  vessels 
made  their  dash  out  of  Santiago  harbor, 


ADMIRAL  WILLIAM  THOMAS   SAMPSON 

Admiral  Sampson  was  absent  from  the 
fleet  with  the  "New  York,"  having  gone 
to  Siboney  for  a  conference  with  General 
Shafter.  The  "New  York"  turned  back 
and  rejoined  the  fleet,  arriving  just  in 
time  to  participate  in  the  last  engagement, 
which  had  thus  been  fought  by  Com- 
modore Schley  as  second  in  command. 
Admiral  Sampson  was  promoted  rear- 
admiral  on  Aug.  12,  1898;  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  Boston  navy  yard  on  Oct. 
14,  1899;  and  was  relieved  of  this  com- 
mand, owing  to  ill  health,  Oct.  1,  1901. 
On  Feb.  9,  1902,  Admiral  Sampson  was 
retired,  and  he  died  the  same  year. 

SAMSON,  in  Scripture,  the  son  of  Ma- 
noah,  of  the  tribe  of  Dan.  He  was  en- 
dowed with  extraordinary   strength  and 


SAMUEL 


224 


SAMURAI 


obtained  several  advantages  over  the 
Philistines.  At  length  his  mistress  be- 
trayed him  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies, 
who  put  out  his  eyes,  and  made  him  work 
at  a  mill.  On  a  public  festival  when  the 
Philistine  lords  were  assembled  in  the 
temple  of  Dagon,  Samson  was  sent  for 
to  show  them  sport.  Laying  hold  of  two 
pillars  of  the  temple  as  if  to  support 
himself,  he  pulled  down  the  building  and 
was  buried  in  the  ruins,  with  more  than 
3,000  Philistines. 

SAMUEL,  in  Scripture,  a  prophet  and 
judge  of  Israel,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  was 
called  in  his  youth,  while  attending  Eli, 
the  high  priest.  He  consecrated  Saul 
King  of  Israel  and  was  afterward  com- 
manded to  anoint  David.  After  govern- 
ing Israel  either  alone  or  in  conjunction 
with  Saul  during  50  years,  he  died  in 
the  90th  year  of  his  age,  1072  B.  c. 

Books  of  Samuel,  two  of  the  historical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  called  after 
the  prophet  Samuel,  their  reputed  author. 
They  were  anciently  reckoned  as  one  book 
by  the  Jews,  the  present  division  into  two 
being  derived  from  the  Septuagint  and 
Vulgate.  Various  attempts  have  been 
made  to  determine  the  age  and  authorship 
of  these  books.  The  common  opinion, 
founded  on  I  Chron.  xxix.  29,  is  that  the 
first  24  chapters  were  written  by  Samuel 
himself,  and  the  remainder  by  Nathan 
and  Gad.  There  is  no  reason  to  believe, 
however,  that  these  documents  were  iden- 
tical with  the  present  Books  of  Samuel. 
From  Samuel  and  Kings  being  sometimes 
called  the  four  Books  of  Kings,  John  is 
of  opinion  that  they  were  all  written 
by  the  same  person,  and  at  a  date  so 
recent  as  the  30th  year  of  the  Babylonish 
captivity.  This  hypothesis,  however,  will 
not  stand  the  test  of  criticism.  The  lan- 
guage and  style  of  the  books  are  very 
different,  denoting  different  periods  and 
different  authors.  The  Books  of  Samuel 
bear  the  impress  of  a  hoary  age  in  their 
language,  allusions,  and  mode  of  com- 
position. With  respect  to  the  person  who 
compiled  and  brought  them  together  in 
their  present  form,  all  that  can  be  af- 
firmed with  probability  is  that  he  lived 
not  long  after  the  time  of   David. 

SAMUEL,  RT.  HON.  HERBERT 
LOUIS,  a  British  statesman;  born  in 
Liverpool  in  1870.  He  was  educated  at 
University  College  School  and  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  graduating  with  first- 
class  honors  in  1893.  In  1895  he  con- 
tested South  Oxfordshire  as  a  liberal  for 
a  seat  in  the  House  of  Commons  and 
also  in  1900.  He  was  elected  to  repre- 
sent the  Cleveland  Division,  N.  Riding, 
Yorkshire,  in  1902,  and  held  the  seat  till 
1918.  In  1905-9  he  was  Parliamentary 
Under-Secretary   of  the   Home    Depart- 


ment, and  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of 
Lancaster,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  in 
1909-10  and  1915-16.  He  was  Postmaster- 
General,  1910-14  and  1915-16;  President 
of  the  Local  Government  Board,  1914-15; 
Secretary  of  State  for  Home  Affairs, 
1916;  Chairman  of  the  Select  Committee 
on  National  Expenditure,  1917-18;  British 


RT.   HON.   HERBERT   LOUIS  SAMUEL 

Special  Commissioner  to  Belgium  in  1919. 
In  1920  he  was  appointed  British  High 
Commissioner  under  the  mandate  over 
Palestine  given  to  Great  Britain  by  the 
Supreme  Council  of  the  Allied  Powers 
at  San  Remo  on  April  25,  1920,  with  the 
object  of  establishing  a  National  Home 
for  the  Jewish  people.  His  published 
works  include :  "Liberalism,  Its  Principles 
and  Proposals";  "The  War  and  Liberty"; 
and  numerous  political  pamphlets  and 
articles. 

SAMURAI,  a  Japanese  chivalric  order 
of  the  feudal  period;  translated  to  its 
nearest  English  equivalent  it  signifies 
"guard."  The  Samurai  were  a  military 
class  or  caste,  prominent  in  early  times 
in  Japan  and  were  termed  individually 
or  collectively,  Samurai,  with  equal  pro- 
priety. Originally,  the  name  Samurai 
applied  only  to  those  soldiers  who  acted 
as  personal  guards  to  the  Mikado  and 
occupied  quarters  in  the  Imperial  Palace. 
In  its  final  usage  it  became  a  descriptive 
term  for  the  entire  military  caste  of  the 


SAMYDACE,ffi 


225 


SAN   ANTONIO 


Imperial  Order,  and  included  in  its  hier- 
archical significance:  the  commander-in- 
chief,  or  "shogun";  the  landed  nobility 
owing  fealty  to  the  Emperor  and  holding 
land  under  military  tenure,  or  the  "dai- 
myos";  and  the  "samurai,"  the  military 
retainers  of  the  feudal  class,  the  privi- 
leged two-sword  men,  the  fighting  men, 
the  caste  of  gentlemen,  and  the  scholars 
of  the  nation.  When,  in  1868,  the  "sho- 
gunate"  was  abolished,  followed  in  1871 
by  the  restoration  of  all  feudal  lands 
to  the  Emperor  by  the  "daimyos,"  the 
"samurai"  ceased  to  have  any  existence 
beyond  a  tradition  in  the  national  life  of 
Japan.  In  1878  the  name  "samurai"  was 
abandoned  and  its  significance  has  been 
largely  lost  in  modern  Japanese  life  ex- 
cept in  so  far  as  it  has  survived  as  an  in- 
spirational code  of  chivalric  conduct  and 
bravery. 

SAMYDACE^ffi,  a  small  order  of 
plarrts,  alliance  Violales,  consisting  of 
trees  and  shrubs  exclusively  tropical  and 
principally  South  American.  Leaves  al- 
ternate simple,  evergreen,  stipulate,  usu- 
ally with  round  or  linear  transparent 
markings.  Flowers  perfect,  calyx  infe- 
rior, 4-5  partite.  Stamens  perigynous, 
two,  three,  or  four  times  as  many  as  the 
segments  of  the  calyx.  Fruit  superior, 
capsular,  leathery,  one-celled.  Seeds 
numerous,  arillate,  with  oily  or  fleshy  al- 
bumen and  large  embryo.  The  plants  are 
of  little  economic  value. 

SANAA,  the  former  capital  of  the 
Imams  of  Yemen;  200  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Aden,  in  a  broad  grassy  valley,  shel- 
tered by  hills  1,200  and  1,500  feet  high; 
is  itself  7,250  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
city  and  its  suburbs  are  surrounded  by 
walls,  and  overlooked  by  a  couple  of 
ruined  fortresses.  Few  of  the  buildings 
are  older  than  the  16th  century,  though 
the  city  has  been  in  existence  from  the 
remotest  ages.  It  was  long  the  capital 
of  the  independent  Imams  of  Yemen,  and 
during  that  period  was  noted  for  its  hand- 
some buildings  and  gardens,  its  palaces, 
mosques,  baths,  etc.  In  1872  it  submitted 
to  Turkish  rule  and  has  since  then  de- 
clined in  commercial  importance  and  been 
allowed  to  fall  into  decay.  Pop.  about 
25,000. 

SAN  ANGELO,  a  city  of  Texas  in  Tom 
Green  co.  It  is  on  the  Concho  river,  and 
on  the  Gulf,  Colorado,  and  Sante  Fe  and 
the  Kansas  City,  Mexico,  and  Orient  rail- 
roads. The  city  is  an  important  shipping 
center  for  cattle  and  is  the  center  of 
an  extensive  farming  region.  The  chief 
industries  are*  connected  with  cattle  rais- 
ing and  agriculture.  Pop.  (1910)  10,321: 
(1920)  10,050. 


SAN  ANTONIO,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Bexar  co.,  Tex. ;  on  the  San  Pedro 
and  San  Antonio  rivers,  and  on  the 
Southern  Pacific,  the  International  and 
Great  Northern,  the  San  Antonio  and 
Gulf  Shore,  and  the  San  Antonio  and 
Aransas  Pass,  and  other  railroads;  80 
miles  S.  W.  of  Austin.  Here  are  the 
headquarters  of  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Department  of  Texas,  a  United 
States  Military  Reservation  covering  200 
acres,  St.  Louis  College  (R.  C),  St. 
Mary's  College  (R.  C),  San  Antonio 
Academy,  Ursuline  Academy,  West  Texas 
Military  Academy,  a  collegiate  institute, 
high  school,  street  railroad  and  electric 
light  plants,  court  house,  United  States 
Government  building,  a  number  of  Na- 
tional and  State  banks,  and  daily,  weekly, 
and  monthly  periodicals.  In  many  lines, 
especially  in  manufacturing,  San  Antonio 
is  the  distributing  point  for  the  entire 
State.  San  Antonio  has  34  beautiful 
parks  and  plazas  scattered  about  the  city, 
comprising  423  acres  and  valued  at  more 
than  $2,000,000.  Notable  among  these  is 
Brackenridge  Park  with  an  area  of  about 
200  acres,  fifteen  minutes  from  the  center 
of  the  city;  and  San  Pedro  with  an  area 
of  about  40  acres,  ten  minutes  from  the 
center  of  the  city.  San  Antonio  is  the 
seat  of  Protestant  Episcopal  and  Roman 
Catholic  bishops.  There  were  in  1919, 
37  public  and  25  private  schools,  with 
24,491  enrolled  in  the  public  schools.  It 
has  an  extensive  trade  in  peanuts,  live- 
stock, hides,  lumber,  cotton,  and  wool, 
and  manufactories  of  flour,  ice,  cars, 
brick  and  tile,  shoes,  etc.,  and  an  assessed 
property  valuation  of  over  $388,000,000. 
San  Antonio  had  in  1919,  28  banks — Na- 
tional, State  and  private.  Their  com- 
bined capital  was  more  than  $8,000,000; 
their  deposits  average  about  $50,000,000 
and  their  loans  over  $36,000,000.  In  1714 
the  Spanish  constructed  Fort  San  Fer- 
nando on  the  right  bank  of  the  San  Pedro, 
and  four  years  later  the  Alamo  mission 
was  founded,  but  afterward  both  were 
removed  to  the  site  of  San  Antonio.  Dur- 
ing the  Spanish  and  Mexican  regimes 
San  Antonio  was  the  capital  of  Texas. 
In  1836  the  massacre  of  the  Alamo  oc- 
curred here,  and  in  1861  the  Union  forces 
under  General  Twiggs  were  forced  to 
capitulate.  In  1873  San  Antonio  received 
a  city  charter.  Pop.  (1910)  96,614; 
(1920)   161,379. 

SAN  ANTONIO,  the  name  of  several 
capes:  (1)  A  cape  at  the  S.  entrance  to 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  in  the  Argentine  Re- 
public. _  (2)  a  cape  in  Spain,  on  the  E. 
coast,  in  the  province  of  Alicante,  and 
extending  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
(3)  A  headland  in  Brazil,  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Bay  of  Bahia,  and  on  which  is  a 


SAN    ANTONIO 


226 


SAND 


lighthouse  at  the  altitude  of  140  feet 
above  the  sea.  (4)  The  N.  E.  rocky 
peak,  or  pointed  headland,  in  the  island 
of  Koonasheer,  one  of  the  Kooril  group. 
(5)   The  W.  point  of  Cuba. 

SAN  ANTONIO,  a  river  in  Texas, 
formed  by  the  union  of  Leon  creek  and 
Medina  river,  in  Bexar  co.  Its  course 
is  east  and  through  Wilson,  Karnes, 
and  Goliad  counties.  It  flows  into  the 
Espiritu  Santo  Bay,  an  indenture  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  is  nearly  200  miles 
long. 

SANATORIUM,  a  place  to  which  peo- 
ple resort  for  the  improvement  of  their 
health. 

SANBENITO,  a  coat  of  sackcloth 
worn  by  penitents  on  their  reconciliation 
to  the  church.  Also  a  loose  cloak  or  up- 
per garment  worn  by  persons  condemned 
to  death  by  the  Inquisition  on  their  way 
to  the  auto  da  fe.  They  were  painted 
over  with  flames,  figures  of  devils,  the 
person's  own  portrait,  etc.;  or  in  the  case 
of  those  who  expressed  repentance  for 
their  errors,  with  flames  directed  down- 
ward. Those  worn  by  Jews,  renegades, 
and  sorcerers  bore  a  St.  Andrew's  cross 
in  red  on  back  and  front. 

SAN  BERNARDINO,  a  mountain 
peak  in  California;  the  highest  point  of 
the  Coast  Range;  elevation  11,600  feet. 

SAN  BERNARDINO,  a  city  and  coun- 
ty-seat of  San  Bernardino  co.,  Cal.;  on 
the  Southern  Pacific,  the  Salt  Lake 
Route,  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa 
Fe  and  the  Pacific  Electric  railroads;  60 
miles  E.  of  Los  Angeles.  It  is  the  center 
of  the  great  San  Bernardino  basin  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  rich  mining,  agricul- 
tural, and  fruit-growing  region.  Within 
view  of  the  city  is  Mount  San  Bernardino, 
the  highest  peak  of  the  Coast  Range. 
Here  are  a  court  house,  public  library, 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  building,  the  Hall  of  Records, 
a  high  school,  churches  and  hotels,  sev- 
eral National  and  State  banks,  and  daily 
and  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1910) 
12,779;   (1920)   18,721. 

SANBORN,  FRANKLIN  BENJA- 
MIN, an  American  journalist;  born  in 
Hampton  Falls,  N.  H.,  Dec.  15,  1831 ;  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1855 
and  early  turned  his  attention  to  jour- 
nalism. He  was  editor  of  the  Boston 
"Commonwealth,"  the  Springfield  "Re- 
publican" and  the  "Journal  of  Social 
Science"  in  1867-1897;  published  20  State 
reports  on  charities,  labor,  etc.;  lectured 
extensively  at  Cornell,  Smith,  and  Wel- 
lesley  Colleges,  and  at  the^  Concord  School 
of  Philosophy;  and  was  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  various  State  and  private 
charitable   organizations.     His    publica- 


tions include  biographies  of  Emerson, 
Thoreau,  Alcott,  John  Brown  and  Dr. 
Earle,  and  numerous  social  and  philo- 
sophical papers  and  lectures.  He  died  in 
1917. 

SAN  CARLOS,  a  town  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  province  of  Pangasinan,  on 
the  Island  of  Luzon.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Agno  River,  about  10  miles  southeast 
of  the  Lingayen  Gulf,  near  the  Daugau- 
pan-Manila  railway.     Pop.  about  28,000. 

SAN  CRISTOBAL,  (1)  Capital  of  the 
State  of  Chiapas,  Mexico;  has  a  hand- 
some capitol,  a  cathedral,  and  a  secondary 
school.  (2)  A  town  of  Venezuela,  in  the 
State  of  Los  Andes,  with  streets  straight, 
but  much  cut  up  by  small  ravines;  an 
important  trade  (especially  in  coffee), 
mainly  in  the  hands  of  Germans  and 
Danes;  deposits  of  coal  beside  the  town, 
and  nearby  copper  mines  and  petroleum 
wells. 

SANCTIFICATION,  a  term  applied  in 
Scripture,  as  well  as  in  theology,  to  de- 
note the  process  by  which  the  effaced 
image  of  God  in  man  is  restored,  and  the 
sinner  becomes  a  saint.  It  is  based  on 
the  holiness  of  God,  who  communicates 
His  purity  to  His  people  by  means  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  Sanctification  is  distin- 
guished from  justification  in  this,  that 
while  justification  changes  the  state  of 
the  sinner  in  law  before  God  as  a  judge, 
sanctification  changes  the  heart  before 
Him  as  a  father.  Justification  precedes 
sanctification ;  the  one  removing  the  guilt, 
the  other  the  power  of  sin.  The  former 
is  an  act  done  at  once,  the  latter  is  a 
gradual  process. 

SANCTUARY,  among  the  ancient 
Jews  the  innermost  chamber  of  the  taber- 
nacle— afterward  of  the  temple,  in  which 
was  kept  the  ark  of  the  Covenant,  and 
was  never  entered,  except  by  the  high 
priest  once  a  year.  It  was  also  called 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  Sanctum  Sanctorum. 
In  the  Christian  Church,  the  bema,  or 
inner  portion  of  the  church,  immedi- 
ately round  the  altar,  was  called  the 
sanctuary.  From  the  sacred  character 
of  the  churches,  and  from  the  rising 
power  of  the  clergy,  they  came  to  be 
resorted  to  as  asylums  by  fugitives  from 
the  hands  of  justice,  and  afterward  cer- 
tain churches  were  set  apart  specially  for 
that  purpose,  and  were  termed  "sanctu- 
aries." The  abuses  to  which  this  system 
gave  rise,  as  tending  entirely  to  defeat 
the  ends  of  justice,  led  to  its  abolition 
in  all  the  Christian  countries. 

SAND,  comminuted  fragments  of  ig- 
neous, metamorphic,  or  volcanic  rocks, 
or  of  chert,  flint,  etc.  They  are  detached 
from  the  parent  rock,  and  as  bowlders 


SAND 


227 


SANDAL    WOOD 


and  pebbles  are  ground  against  each  other 
by  water  on  sea-beaches  or  in  any  similar 
way.  The  colors  of  sand  correspond  to 
those  of  the  minerals  in  the  rocks  from 
which  they  were  detached.  It  may  be 
red,  white,  gray,  or  black,  but  when  quart- 
zose,  as  it  often  is,  it  is  normally  reddish- 
yellow,  from  oxide  of  iron.  Sea-sand  of- 
ten contains  Foraminifera,  spicules  of 
sponges,  minute  fragments  of  shells,  por< 
tions  of  the  body  of  Echinoderms.  (See 
Sandstone.)  In  the  plural,  tracts  of 
land  consisting  of  sand,  as  the  deserts  of 
Arabia  or  Africa ;  also,  tracts  of  sand  left 
exposed  by  the  ebb  of  the  tide. 

SAND,  GEORGE,  best  known  name  of 
Madame  Armantine  Lucile  Aurore  Du- 
pin  Dudevant,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
French  novelists;  born  in  Paris,  July  5, 
1804.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Maurice 
Dupin,  an  officer  of  the  republican  army, 
who  was  descended  from  a  natural  daugh- 
ter of  Marshal  Saxe.  Till  the  age  of 
14  she  was  brought  up  at  the  Chateau 
of  Nohant,  near  La  Chatre  (department 
of  Indre),  mostly  under  the  care  of  her 
grandmother,  afterward  spending  nearly 
three  years  in  an  Augustinian  convent 
in  Paris.  In  1822  she  married  Baron 
Dudevant,  to  whom  she  bore  a  son  and 
a  daughter;  but  in  1831  separated  from 
him,  and  took  up  her  residence  in  Paris. 
In  conjunction  with  Jules  Sandeau,  a 
young  lawyer,  she  wrote  "Rose  and 
White,"  which  was  published  in  1831, 
with  the  pseudonym  Jules  Sand  The  re- 
ception it  met  with  afforded  her  an. op- 
portunity of  publishing  a  novel  solely 
by  herself — "Indiana,"  under  the  name  of 
George  Sand,  which  she  ever  after  re- 
tained. "Indiana"  had  a  brilliant  success, 
but  excited  much  criticism  by  its  extreme 
views  on  social  questions.  This  was  also 
the  case  with  many  others  of  her  works. 
"Valentine,"  "Lelia,"  "Jacques,"  "Andre," 
"Leone  Leoni,"  "Simon,"  "Mauprat," 
"The  Last  Aldine,"  "Lavinia,"  "Metalla," 
and  others,  appeared  within  the  first  few 
years  after  her  debut.  She  visited  Italy 
with  Alfred  de  Musset;  and  lived  eight 
years  with  Frederic  Francois  Chopin,  the 
composer.  These  relations  also  influenced 
or  occasioned  some  of  her  works  (as  "She 
and  He,"  1859).  In  1836  she  obtained  a 
judicial  separation  from  her  husband, 
with  the  care  of  her  children.  She  took 
an  active  interest  in  the  Revolution  of 
1848,  and  contributed  considerably  to 
newspaper  and  other  political  literature. 
In  1854  she  published  "Story  of  My  Life," 
a  psychological  autobiography.  Among 
her  later  novels  are :  "The  Man  of  Snow," 
"Sylvestre,"  "The  Devil's  Pool,"  "Fran- 
cois Champi,"  "Little  Fadette,"  "Jean," 
"Teverino,"  "The  God-daughter,"  "The 
Master  Bellringers."  Her  published  works 


consist  of  upward  of  60  separate  novels, 
a  large  number  of  plays,  and  numerous 
articles  in  literary  journals.  She  died  in 
Nohant,  June  8,  1876. 

SANDAL,  a  protection  for  the  foot, 
worn  in  ancient  times,  and  which,  in  the 
Authorized  Version  of  the  Old  Testament, 
is  usually  denoted  by  the  word  translated 
shoe.  It  was  usually  a  sole  of  hide, 
leather,  or  wood,  bound  on  the  foot  by 
thongs ;  but  it  may  sometimes  denote  such 
shoes  and  buskins  as  eventually  came 
into  use.  In  transferring  a  possession 
or  domain,  it  was  customary  among  the 


SANDALS 

Jews  to  deliver  a  sandal  (Ruth  iv.  7),  as 
in  our  Middle  Ages,  a  glove.  Hence,  the 
action  of  throwing  down  a  shoe  on  a 
region  or  territory  was  a  symbol  of  occu- 
pancy (Ps.  lx.  8).  It  was  undoubtedly 
the  custom  to  take  oft'  the  sandals  on 
holy  ground,  in  the  act  of  worship,  and 
in  the  presence  of  a  superior.  Hence  the 
command  to  take  the  sandals  from  the 
feet  under  such  circumstances  (Exod.  iii. 
5;  Josh.  v.  15).  This  is  still  the  well- 
known  custom  of  the  East — an  Oriental 
taking  off  his  shoe  in  cases  in  which  a 
European  would  remove  his  hat. 

SANDAL  WOOD,  the  wood  of  San 
talum  album,  a  small,  greatly  branched, 
evergreen  tree,  with  leaves  opposite  and 
entire,  which  have  been  compared  to  those 
of  the  myrtle,  as  the  inflorescence,  an 
axillary  and  terminal  thyrsus,  has  been 
to  that  of  the  privet.  The  flowers  are 
at  first  yellowish,  but  afterward  of  a 
deep  ferruginous  hue.  Though  they  are 
inodorous,  the  wood  when  cut,  especially 
near  the  root,  is  highly  fragrant.  It 
grows  in  the  dry  region  of  southern 
India,  and  in  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  It  is  largely  exported  from 
India  to  China  and  Arabia,  and,  to  a 
certain  extent,  to  Europe.  The  heart 
wood  is  used  in  the  East  for  carving,  for 
incense,    and    for    perfume.      The     seeds 


SANDALWOOD    ISLAND 


228 


SAND    CRAB 


yield  by  expression  a  thick  viscid  oil, 
burnt  by  the  poorer  classes  in  India.  An 
essential  oil  is  also  distilled  from  the 
wood.  Hindu  doctors  consider  sandal 
wood  sedative  and  cooling,  and  use  it  in 
gonorrhoea.  The  sandal  wood  of  the  Sand- 
wich Islands  is  derived  from  S.  freycine- 
tianum  and  S.  paniculatum.  Red  sandal 
wood  is  the  wood  of  Pterocarpus  santa- 
linus,  growing  in  Coromandel  and  Ceylon. 
In  occidental  pharmacy  it  is  used  only  to 
color  the  compound  tincture  of  lavender. 
In  India  the  name  is  also  given  to  Ade- 
nanthera  pavonina. 

SANDALWOOD  ISLAND,  or  STJMBA, 
an  island  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  be- 
longing to  the  group  called  Sunda  Islands, 
owned  by  Holland,  and  situated  40  miles 
S.  of  Flores.  Area,  4,510  square  miles. 
It  is  composed  of  a  plateau  3,000  feet 
above  the  sea  level  with  precipitous 
coasts.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
valuable  sandalwood  which,  with  ebony, 
makes  up  a  large  part  of  the  thick  forests. 
Pop.  about  250,000. 

SANDARAC,  or  SANDARACH  RE- 
SIN, a  friable,  dry,  almost  transpar- 
ent, tasteless,  yellowish  white  resin, 
which  is  imported  from  Mogador,  Mo- 
rocco. It  is  completely  soluble  in  oil  of 
turpentine,  but  not  completely  soluble  in 
alcohol.  When  heated,  or  sprinkled  on 
burning  coals,  it  emits  an  agreeable  bal- 
samic smell.  It  exudes  from  the  bark  of 
the  sandarac  tree  (Callitris  quadrivalvis) , 
a  native  of  the  N.  of  Africa,  of  the 
natural  order  Coniferse.  It  is  employed 
in  making  varnish,  and  generally  speak- 
ing for  the  same  purposes  as  mastic.  The 
Australian  species  also  exude  sandarac. 
The  finely  powdered  resin  is  rubbed,  as 
pounce,  on  the  erasures  of  writing  paper, 
after  which  they  may  be  written  on  again 
without  the  ink  spreading.  The  mottled 
butt  wood  of  the  sandarac  is  highly  bal- 
samic and  odoriferous,  extremely  durable 
and  valuable  for  cabinet  makers. 

SANDAY,  one  of  the  Orkneys,  an 
island  of  very  irregular  shape,  generally 
with  a  very  flat  surface  and  a  light  sandy 
soil ;  greatest  length,  13  miles.  There  are 
a  number  of  small  lakes.  There  is  an- 
other small  island  of  the  same  name  in 
the  Inner  Hebrides,  connected  with  Canna 
at  low  water,  4  miles  N.  W.  of  Rum. 

SANDAY,  WILLIAM,  an  English 
theologian  and  scholar,  born  at  Holme 
Pierrepont,  Nottingham,  in  1843.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  Balliol  and  Corpus 
Christi  Colleges,  Oxford.  For  several 
years  he  was  the  principal  of  Hatfield's 
Hall,  Durham,  and  until  1895  was  a  fel- 
low of  Exeter  College,  Oxford.  From 
that  date  he  was  Lady  Margaret  pro- 
fessor  of   divinity   and   canon   of    Christ 


Church.  He  was  appointed  chaplain  to 
the  King  in  1903.  His  published  writings 
include  "The  Gospels  in  the  Second  Cen- 
tury" (1876)  ;  "The  Life  of  Christ  in 
Recent  Research"  (1907)  ;  "The  Primitive 
Church  and  Reunion"  (1913);  "The 
"Deeper  Causes  of  the  War"  (1914)  ;  and 
"Meaning  of  the  War  for  Germany  and 
Great  Britain"   (1915). 

SAND  BLAST,  one  of  the  most  won- 
derful uses  of  sand,  by  means  of  which 
glass,  stone,  metals,  or  any  other  hard 
substance  may  be  cut  or  engraved.  If 
a  stream  of  sharp  sand  be  let  fall  from 
a  high  box  (as  high  as  the  ceiling  of  a 
room)  through  a  tube  on  to  a  plate  of 
glass  held  under  it,  the  sand  will  cut  away 
little  grains  of  the  glass  till  at  length  the 
whole  surface  will  be  cut  or  scratched 
and  it  will  look  like  ground  glass.  If, 
instead  of  cutting  the  glass  all  over,  it 
is  wanted  to  engrave  a  pattern  or  figure 
on  it,  the  workman  has  only  to  cover  the 
parts  of  the  glass  which  he  does  not  want 
cut  with  a  stencil  plate  made  of  leather, 
rubber,  paper,  wax,  etc.,  for  the  sand 
will  not  cut  any  soft  substance.  By  this 
means  only  the  uncovered  parts  are  cut, 
and  when  the  stencil  is  taken  off  the  pat- 
tern will  be  seen.  General  Tilghman  of 
Philadelphia,  who  first  found  out  how 
to  do  this,  made  a  machine  in  which  the 
sand  is  blown  on  to  the  things  to  be  cut 
by  a  blast  of  air  or  steam.  Glass  signs, 
glass  globes  for  lamps  and  gas  burners, 
tumblers,  goblets,  and  other  glassware 
may  be  engraved  in  this  way  very  fast, 
and  with  the  most  beautiful  designs. 
Metals  and  stones  also  may  be  cut  by 
means  of  the  sand  blast,  which  will  not 
only  scratch  the  surface,  but  will  cut  it 
away  to  any  depth.  The  marble  tomb- 
stones put  up  in  the  National  cemeteries 
to  the  memory  of  soldiers  killed  in  the 
war  were  made  in  this  way. 

SANDBURG,  CARL,  an  American 
writer  and  poet,  born  in  Galesburg,  111., 
in  1878.  He  studied  at  Lombard  College 
from  1898  to  1902.  From  1910  to  1912 
he  acted  as  secretary  to  the  mayor  of 
Milwaukee,  Wis.,  and  from  the  latter  date 
was  engaged  in  newspaper  and  editorial 
work.  In  1914  he  was  awarded  the  prize 
given  by  the  Poetry  Magazine.  During 
the  Spanish-American  War  he  served  as 
a  private.  His  volumes  of  poetry  include 
"Chicago  Poems"  (1915);  and  "Corn 
Huskers"  (1918).  He  is  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  talented  of  the  younger  school 
of  American  poets. 

SAND   CRAB,   or  RACING   CRAB,   a 

genus  (Oeypoda)  of  crabs  which  live  in 
holes  in  the  sand  along  the  sea  shores  of 
warm  countries.  O.  cursor  inhabits  the 
Mediterranean,    Red     Sea,    and    Indian 


SAND    EEL 


229 


SAND    LIZARD 


Ocean,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  rapidity 
of  its  motions. 

SAND  EEL,  in  ichthyology,  a  popular 
name  for  the  genus  Ammodytes,  and  espe- 
cially for  A.  lanceolatus,  called  also  the 
greater,  to  distinguish  it  from  A.  tobianus, 
the  lesser  sand  eel.  They  live  in  shoals, 
and  are  much  sought  after  by  fishermen, 
who  discover  their  presence  on  the  sur- 
face by  watching  the  porpoises  which  feed 
on  them. 

SANDEMANIANS,  in  Church  history, 
the  followers  of  Robert  Sandeman,  who 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century 
introduced  into  England  and  America  the 
doctrine  of  the  Glassites  (q.  v.).  The 
body  is  not  numerous.  They  have  a 
weekly  communion,  and  dine  together 
every  Lord's  day,  admit  new  members 
with  a  kiss  of  charity,  abstain  from  blood, 
wash  each  other's  feet,  and  each  member 
is  bound,  to  the  full  extent  of  his  income, 
to  support  his  Church  and  the  poor. 

SANDERLING,  in  ornithology,  Cal- 
lidris  arenaria,  described  by  Saunders  as 
"a  Tringa  without  a  hind  toe,"  a  winter 
visitant,  arriving  about  the  beginning  of 
August  and  leaving  about  April.  The 
adult  male  is  about  eight  inches  long, 
female  slightly  larger.  The  summer 
plumage  is  somber  on  the  upper  surface, 
edged  with  red,  the  whole  becoming  light 
ash  gray  in  winter;  under  surface  pure 
white. 

SANDERS,  LIMAN  VON  (LIMAN 
PASHA),  a  German  general,  sent  to  Tur- 
key in  1913  as  the  head  of  a  mission  to 
reorganize  the  Turkish  Army  on  a  modern 
Prussian  basis,  the  Turks  having  just 
been  badly  beaten  by  the  Bulgarians, 
Greeks  and  Serbians  in  the  Balkan  War. 
In  his  task,  General  Von  Sanders  was 
assisted  by  General  Von  der  Goltz.  In 
May,  1914,  Von  Sanders  issued  sealed 
orders  for  the  mobilization  of  the  Turkish 
reserves  and  had  them  distributed  among 
the  mayors  of  all  communities  through- 
out the  empire.  According  to  instructions 
these  orders  were  opened  on  Aug.  3,  1914, 
with  the  result  that  the  Turkish  Army 
automatically  put  itself  on  a  war  footing 
regardless  of  the  situation  in  Constan- 
tinople. Von  Sanders  had  command  of 
the  defense  of  the  Dardanelles,  and  dur- 
ing the  heavy  fighting  established  his 
headquarters  in  Gallipoli.  In  August, 
1915,  he  took  command  of  the  Turkish 
armies  on  the  Caucasus  front.  When  the 
war  was  ended  he  was  arrested  by  the 
Allies  in  Constantinople,  but  early  in 
1919  was  allowed  to  return  to  Germany. 

SANDERSON,  JULIA,  an  American 
singer  and  actress,  born  in  Springfield, 
Mass.,  in  1887.    She  was  educated  in  the 


public  schools  and  made  her  first  appear- 
ance with  the  Forepaugh  Stock  Company 
in  Philadelphia.  She  afterward  played 
as  star  in  many  operas  and  plays. 

SAND  FLIES  (genus  Simulium),  the 
name  of  certain  flies  found  in  various 
countries,  the  bite  of  which  may  give  rise 
to  painful  swellings.  They  are  included 
in  the  family  Tipulidas,  which  also  in- 
cludes the  well-known  "daddy  long  legs," 
or  crane  flies. 

SAND  GROUSE,  in  ornithology,  the 
family  Pteroclidse,  called  also  rock 
pigeons.  Elegantly  formed  birds,  with 
pointed  tails,  and  plumage  of  beautifully 
varied  protective  tints.  They  are  pre- 
eminently desert  birds,  and  are  found  in 
great  numbers  in  the  most  arid  situations 
and  on  the  most  open  and  barren  plains. 
Their  food  consists  of  hard  seed  and  in- 
sects. Pterocles  setarius  is  the  pin-tailed 
sand  grouse,  and  Syrrhaptes  paradoxus 
Pallas's  sand  grouse. 

SAND  HOPPER,  in  zoology:  (1),  the 
genus  Talitrus,  and  especially  T.  locusta; 
(2)   The  genus  Gammarus. 

SAN  DIEGO,  a  city,  port  of  entry, 
and  county-seat  of  San  Diego  co.,  Cal. ; 
on  San  Diego  Bay,  and  on  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  the  Los  Angeles 
and  San  Diego  Beach,  the  San  Diego  and 
Arizona,  and  the  San  Diego  and  South- 
western railroads;  120  miles  S.  E.  of  Los 
Angeles.  Next  to  San  Francisco,  its  har- 
bor is  considered  the  finest  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  _  No  milder  or  more  uniform  cli- 
mate is  to  be  found,  and  this  has  made 
the  city  one  of  the  most  popular  health 
resorts  in  the  United  States.  Here  are 
a  United  States  custom  house,  public 
library,  Academy  of  Our  Lady  of  Peace 
(R.  C),  street  railroad  and  electric  light 
plants,  National,  State,  and  private  banks, 
and  several  daily,  weekly,  and  monthly 
periodicals.  The  Army  and  Navy  De- 
partments have  large  tracts  on  the  bay 
frontage  for  coaling  stations  and  forti- 
fications. The  city  has  machine  shops, 
foundry,  furniture  factories,  fertilizer 
works,  salt  works,  carriage  and  wagon 
factories,  flour  and  planing  mills,  etc. 
The  first  Mission  in  California  was 
founded  here  in  1769,  and  the  city  was  laid 
out  in  1867.  The  monument  on  the  Mexi- 
can boundary,  La  Jolla  cave,  Sweetwater 
dam,  and  the  San  Diego  Mission  are  ob- 
jects of  interest.  Pop.  (1910)  39,578; 
(1920)    74,683. 

SAND  LIZARD,  in  zoology,  the  La- 
certa  agilis,  about  seven  inches  long,  of 
which  the  tail  is  four;  palatal  teeth. 
Usual  color  sandy-brown,  with  obscure 
longitudinal  bands  of  a  darker  due,  line 
of  round  black  spots  on  side.    The  female 


SAND    MARTIN 


230 


SANDTJSKY 


lays  12  to  14  eggs  in  the  sand,  covers 
them,  and  leaves  them  to  be  hatched  by 
solar  heat.  Common  in  northern  and 
central  Europe. 

SAND  MARTIN,  in  ornithology,  the 
Hirundo  riparia,  called  also  the  bank  mar- 
tin and  bank  swallow;  length  about  six 
inches;  upper  parts  and  a  broad  band 
across  the  breast  grayish  brown,  lower 
parts  brownish  white.  It  makes  its  nest 
in  the  steep  banks  of  rivers,  sand  pits, 
quarries,  and  sea  banks,  and  deposits  four 
or  five  white  eggs.  It  breeds  in  N.  lati- 
tudes, but  goes  S.  in  autumn,  returning 
again  in  spring. 

SAND  MOLE,  in  zoology,  the  Ba- 
thyergus  maritimus,  a  rodent  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  is  about  the  size 
of  a  wild  rabbit,  with  light  grayish-brown 
fur,  rather  variable  in  tint  in  different 
individuals.  The  eyes  are  very  small; 
external  ears  wanting;   tail   short. 

SANDPAPER,  an  abrading  agent 
made  by  coating  paper  or  thin  cotton  cloth 
with  glue  and  dusting  fine  sand  over  it 
with  a  sieve.  Sandpaper  is  intermediate 
between  glass  paper  and  emery  paper  in 
its  action  on  metals,  but  is  less  energetic 
than  glass  paper  in  its  action  on  wood. 

SANDPIPER,  in  ornithology,  a  popu- 
lar name  for  several  wading  birds.  Yar- 
rell  enumerates  the  following:     The  buff 


SANDPIPER 


breasted  sandpiper  (Tringa  rufescens), 
Bartram's  sandpiper  (Bartramia  longi- 
cuuda,  formerly  Totanus  bartramii) ,  the 
common  sandpiper  or  summer  snipe  (To- 
tanus hypoleucus) ,  the  spotted  sandpiper 


(Totanus  macularis),  the  green  sand-  . 
piper  (Totanus  ochropus) ,  and  the  wood 
sandpiper  (Totanus  glareola).  In  ich- 
thyology, the  Petromyzon  branchialis,  the 
larva  of  which  has  been  long  known 
under  the  name  of  Ammoccetes. 

SAND  PIPE,  or  SAND  GALL,  in  geol- 
ogy (plural),  deep  cylindrical  hollows  in 
a  vertical  direction  found  in  England, 
France,  and  elsewhere,  penetrating  the 
white  chalk  and  filled  with  sand  and 
gravel.  One  seen  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell 
at  Norwich  in  1839  was  12  feet  in  diame- 
ter, and  more  than  60  feet  deep.  Mr. 
Trimmer  attributed  them  to  the  action 
of  the  sea  on  a  beach  or  shoal;  Lyell  to 
the  chemical  action  of  water  charged  with 
carbonic  acid,  derived  from  the  vegetable 
soil  and  the  roots  of  trees,  on  the  chalk 
below. 

SANDRINGHAM,  a  Norfolk  estate,  3 
miles  from  the  sea  and  7%  miles  N.  N.  E. 
of  Lynn,  England,  comprising  over  7,000 
acres;  was  purchased  in  1862  by  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  later  Edward  VII.  The 
then  existing  mansion  was  demolished, 
and  the  present  hall  built  in  1869-1871, 
a  red-brick  Elizabethan  country  house, 
standing  in  a  pleasant  park  of  200  acres ; 
special  features  are  the  iron  "Norwich 
gates,"  the  dairy,  and  the  splendid  cot- 
tages. A  fire  on  Nov.  1,  1891,  did  damage 
to  the  amount  of  over  $50,000.  The 
Germans  made  an  aerial  attack  on  the 
place  in  1915. 

SANDSTONE,  any  stone  which  is  an 
agglutination  of  grains  of  sand,  whether 
calcareous,  siliceous,  or  of  any  other 
mineral  nature.  Siliceous  sandstones  are 
the  most  common.  They  vary  in  compact- 
ness from  scarcely  cemented  sand  to  a 
hardness  approaching  that  of  quartz  rock. 
When  very  fine  in  grain,  they  are  called 
freestones;  when  coarse  and  composed  of 
angular  or  subangular  grains  of  sand, 
they  become  grits;  when  pebbly,  pudding 
stones.  Sandstones  occur  in  nearly  every 
geological  formation  from  the  Cambrian 
to  the  Tertiary.  Many  furnish  building 
and  paving  stones. 

SANDUSKY,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Erie  co.,  Ohio;  at  the  mouth  of  the  San- 
dusky river,  on  Sandusky  Bay,  an  arm 
of  Lake  Erie,  and  on  the  Lake  Shore  and 
Michigan  Southern,  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio,  and  other  railroads;  56  miles  W.  of 
Cleveland.  It  contains  a  high  school  build- 
ing, court  house,  the  State  fish  hatchery, 
a  public  library,  waterworks,  street  rail- 
roads, electric  lights,  National  and  other 
banks,  and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
It  has  a  large  export  trade  in  fresh  and 
salted  fish,  lumber,  limestone,  coal,  iron 
ore,  apples,  grapes,  and  wine.  The  city 
is  one  of  the  largest  fresh  fish  markets 


SANDUSKY    BAY 


231 


SANFOIN 


in  the  world,  and  is  in  the  heart  of  a  great 
grape-growing  region.  Its  manufactured 
articles  include  carpenters'  tools,  handles, 
chemicals,  dynamos,  glass,  aeroplane  en- 
gines, cement,  spokes  and  hubs,  thresh- 
ing machines,  boilers,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
19,989;   (1920)   22,897. 

SANDUSKY  BAY,  a  bay  in  Ohio,  pro- 
jects from  Lake  Erie  between  Erie  and 
Ottawa  counties;  constitutes  a  fine  har- 
bor, in  which  vessels  find  safety  during 
storms.  On  its  shore,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Sandusky  river,  is  the  city  of  San- 
dusky. Its  shore  in  places  is  made  attrac- 
tive by  strips  of  forest.  It  is  20  miles 
long  and  5  miles  wide. 

SANDUSKY  RIVER,  a  river  in  Ohio, 
whose  source  is  near  the  W.  border  of 
Richland  co.  Its  course  is  W.  through 
Crawford  co.  till  it  reaches  Upper  San- 
dusky, where  it  turns  N.  and  traverses 
the  counties  of  Seneca  and  Sandusky,  and 
flows  into  the  W.  end  of  Sandusky  Bay, 
at  Sandusky.     It  is  150  miles  long. 

SAND  WASP,  the  common  name  of  a 
family  of  fossorial  hymenopterous  in- 
sects, the  Sphegidse  of  Latreille.  There 
are  numerous  species,  generally  large, 
violet  blue,  sometimes  banded  with  yel- 
low; the  females  have  a  sting;  there  are 
no  neuters,  the  female  making  her  own 
nest  in  the  sand. 

SANDWICH  (so  called  after  John 
Montagu,  4th  Earl  of  Sandwich,  Kent, 
England,  who  used  to  have  sandwiches 
brought  to  him  at  the  gaming  table,  to 
enable  him  to  play  without  leaving  off), 
two  thin  slices  of  bread,  plain  or  buttered, 
with  a  slice  of  meat,  as  ham,  beef,  etc., 
seasoned  with  mustard,  between  them; 
hence,  applied  to  anything  resembling  a 
sandwich,  i.  e.,  consisting  of  a  person  or 
thing  placed  between  two  different  things. 

SANDWICH  TERN,  in  ornithology,  the 
Sterna  cantiaca,  first  observed  in  Eng- 
land at  Sandwich  (whence  its  popular 
name),  in  1784,  by  Boys.  It  is  a  summer 
visitant,  leaving  in  August.  Wings  and 
back  pearl-gray,  breast  white,  head  above 
the  eyes  black.     Length  about  15  inches. 

SANDY  HOOK,  a  low  beach  at  the 
mouth  of  New  York  harbor,  about  5  miles 
long,  and  varying  in  width  from  a  few 
hundred  feet  to  %  of  a  mile.  There  is  a 
beacon  light  at  the  very  extreme  point, 
but  the  Sandy  Hook  lighthouse  is  %  of 
a  mile  to  the  S.  The  National  Govern- 
ment established  Fort  Hancock  and  heavy 
ordnance  proving  grounds  here. 

SANDYS,  EDWIN,  an  English  clergy- 
man; born  in  Hawkshead,  England,  in 
1528,  and  was  educated  at  Cambridge 
University,  where  he  became  master  of 


Catherine  Hall  and  subsequently  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  university.  Being  a 
partisan  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  he  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  Tower;  but  was  liberated 
at  the  end  of  four  months,  and  crossed  to 
Germany.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth 
he  returned  to  England,  and  was  made 
Bishop  of  Worcester  in  1559.  In  1570 
he  was  translated  to  London,  and  thence 
to  York  in  1577.  He  died  in  Southwell, 
July  10,  1588.  His  son,  Sir  Edwin 
Sandys  (born  in  Worcester,  England,  in 
1561),  was  employed  by  James  I.  on  sev- 
eral missions,  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood,  was  connected  with  the  Sec- 
ond Virginia  Company  and  otherwise  with 
American  colonies,  and  published  "Eu- 
rope Speculum,  a  Survey  of  the  State  of 
Religion  in  the  Western  Parts  of  the 
World."  He  died  in  Northborne,  Kent, 
in  October,  1629.  Another  son,  George 
Sandys  (born  in  Bishopsthorp,  England, 
in  1578),  published  a  "Relation  of  Travels 
in  the  East,"  a  metrical  translation  of 
Ovid's  "Metamorphoses,"  metrical  para- 
phrases of  the  Psalms,  Job,  Ecclesiastes, 
Song  of  Solomon,  etc.  His  poetry  is 
praised  by  Dryden  and  Pope.  He  died 
in  Bixley  Abbey  in  March,  1644. 

SAN  FERNANDO,  a  town  in  the 
Philippine  Islands,  on  the  Island  of  Cebu, 
5  miles  southwest  of  the  capital  town, 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  island.  Pop. 
about  19,000. 

SAN  FERNANDO,  a  town  in  the 
Philippine  Islands,  on  the  island  of  Luzon, 
in  Pampango  province.  It  is  a  small 
town,  about  4  miles  N.  E.  of  Bacolor,  with 
a  telegraph  and  railroad  station  on  the 
Manila-Daugaupan  railroad.  It  is  of  con- 
siderable importance  on  account  of  the 
sugar  mills  located  in  the  vicinity  and 
large  amounts  of  sugar  are  shipped  to 
Manila. 

SAN  FERNANDO,  a  town  in  the 
Philippine  Islands,  on  the  W.  coast  of  the 
Island  of  Luzon,  in  the  province  of  La 
Union,  near  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of 
Lingayen.  It  has  a  good  port,  and  con- 
siderable amounts  of  sugar,  indigo,  hemp 
and  rice  are  shipped  to  Manila  by  sea. 
Pop.  about  19,000. 

SANFOIN  (Hedysarum  onobrychis), 
a  perennial  forage  plant;  native  of  Eu- 
rope up  to  lat.  51°;  a  legume  which  has 
the  property  of  binding  light,  dry,  sandy, 
and  chalky  soils  by  its  roots.  English 
and  Continental  writers  agree  as  to  its 
nutritious  qualities  for  stock,  and  also 
to  its  value  as  a  crop  to  shade  the  soil 
and  for  plowing  under.  It  has  been  tried 
from  time  to  time  in  the  United  States, 
both  N.  and  S.,  but  has  not  met  with 
favor.    See  Sainfoin. 


SANFORD 


232 


SAN    FRANCISCO 


SANFORD,  a  city  of  Florida  in  Semi- 
nole co.  It  is  on  St.  John's  river,  and  on 
the  Atlantic  Coast  Line  railroad  and  is 
the  center  of  an  important  truck  farm- 
ing and  fruit  growing  region.  Pop. 
(1910)  3,570;   (1920)  5,588. 

SANFORD.  a  town  of  Maine,  in  York 
co.  It  is  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  rail- 
road and  is  an  important  industrial  center 
having  manufactures  of  shoes,  blankets, 
yarn,  lumber  products,  etc.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  Nasson  School  for  young 
women.  Pop.  (1910)  9,049;  (1920)  10,691. 

SANFORD,     EDMUND     CLARK,     an 

American  educator,  born  in  Oakland,  Cal., 
in  1859.  He  graduated  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  California  in  1883  and  took 
post  graduate  studies  at  Johns  Hopkins 
University.  From  1883  to  1885  he  was 
on  the  faculty  of  Oahu  College,  Hono- 
lulu. Following  a  year  as  instructor  of 
psychology  at  Johns  Hopkins,  he  became, 
in  1889,  assistant  instructor  of  psychology 
at  Clark  University.  He  was  successively 
assistant  professor  and  professor  of  ex- 
perimental and  comparative  psychology. 
In  1909  he  was  appointed  president  of 
Clark  College.  He  was  a  member  of  sev- 
eral learned  societies.  He  wrote  "A 
Course  in  Experimental  Psychology" 
(1898)  ;  and  many  papers  on  psychologi- 
cal subjects. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  a  city  of  Califor- 
nia, on  San  Francisco  Bay  and  on  many 
railroad  lines.  It  is  the  western  terminal 
for  three  trans-continental  systems  and 
three  coast  trunk  lines,  the  Southern  Pa- 
cific, the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe, 
and  the  Western  Pacific.  Its  advan- 
tageous situation  has  made  it  the  chief 
seaport  on  the  W.  coast  of  North  America. 
It  occupies  the  mountainous  peninsula 
bordering  upon  the  Pacific  on  the  W., 
the  Golden  Gate  on  the  N.,  and  the  Bay 
of  San  Francisco  on  the  E.  Since  the 
completion  of  the  Panama  Canal  its 
importance  as  an  ocean  terminus  has 
rapidly  increased.  The  city  has  a  land 
area  of  about  50  square  miles.  It  is  un- 
usually hilly  and  the  hills  cut  in  two 
directions,  rising  steeply  from  sea-level 
to  several  hundred  feet  above  the  sea. 
Southwest  of  the  main  portion  of  the 
city  the  twin  peaks,  Mt.  Sutro  and  Mt. 
Davidson  rise  to  a  height  of  over  900 
feet  above  water-level.  Among  the  best 
known  hills  are  Telegraph  Hill,  Nob  Hill, 
and  Russian  Hill.  Nob  Hill  was  the  site 
of  the  palatial  residences  of  the  early  mil- 
lionaires who  made  their  fortunes  in  the 
gold  mines  of  the  State. 

A  large  part  of  the  site  of  the  city  is 
reclaimed  area,  won  from  the  bay.  The 
streets  of  the  city  are  for  the  most  part 
broad  and  well  paved.     South  of  Market 


Street  the  streets  are  practically  level. 
North  of  the  street,  however,  the  streets 
run  with  a  steep  grade.  Market  Street 
is  the  chief  thoroughfare,  on  which  are 
located  the  leading  banks,  department 
stores,  newspaper  offices,  and  office  build- 
ings. The  junction  of  Market,  Kearny 
and  Geary  streets  is  the  business  center 
of  the  city.  Market  Street  and  the  adja- 
cent streets  form  the  retail  shopping  dis- 
trict. 

The  climate  of  San  Francisco  is  invig- 
orating. The  winters  are  warm  while 
the  summers  are  cool.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  50.8°  to  56.5°.  The 
rainfall  averages  about  21  inches.  Snow 
rarely  falls  in  the  city,  while  it  is  entirely 
free  from  cyclones  and  tornadoes.  There 
are  within  the  city  limits  many  beautiful 
parks  and  boulevards.  Golden  Gate  Park 
has  an  area  of  over  1,000  acres  and  was 
reclaimed  from  the  sand  dunes.  It  con- 
tains playgrounds,  zoological  gardens,  an 
academy  of  sciences,  a  museum,  and  many 
other  attractions.  There  are  in  all  35 
public  parks  and  squares,  embracing 
about  1,400  acres.  The  Presidio,  the 
military  reservation  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment, is  practically  a  part  of  the  park 
system  of  the  city.  The  Marina,  which 
was  the  site  of  the  Panama-Pacific  Intern- 
national  Exposition  contains  the  Palace 
of  Fine  Arts,  the  Column  of  Progress,  and 
the  beautiful  Marina  Boulevard,  which 
skirts  the  Golden  Gate.  Since  the  fire 
of  1906  the  city  has  devoted  much  atten- 
tion to  the  system  of  roads  and  boule- 
vards. The  historic  Mission  Road,  the 
city's  oldest  thoroughfare,  has  been 
modernized  and  forms  a  most  attractive 
boulevard. 

The  city  is  notable  for  its  magnificent 
private  and  public  buildings.  During  the 
last  decade  the  business  district  has  been 
completely  rebuilt  at  an  expenditure  of 
approximately  $350,000,000.  For  many 
blocks  along  Market  Street  and  its  tribu- 
tary thoroughfares  imposing  structures 
stretch  in  unbroken  ranks.  One  of  the 
most  extensive  examples  of  city  planning 
in  the  United  States  is  the  Civic  Center, 
situated  north  of  Market  Street  and  east 
of  Van  Ness  Avenue.  This  includes  the 
city  hall,  erected  at  a  cost  of  $4,000,000 
and  the  Auditorium,  with  a  seating  ca- 
pacity of  12,000,  and  a  public  library. 
These  buildings  are  grouped  about  a  spa- 
cious plaza.  Nearly  all  denominations 
have  handsome  church  edifices.  Notable 
among  these  are  Old  St.  Mary's,  St. 
Luke's,  the  First  Congregational,  the 
First  Presbyterian,  and  St.  Mary's  Cathe- 
dral. 

The  city  has  excellent  educational  fa- 
cilities. In  1919  there  were  66,893  pupils 
enrolled  in  the  public  schools.  The  Uni- 
versity of  California  is  9  miles  E.  of  the 


SAN    FRANCISCO 


233      SAN    FRANCISCO    MOUNTAINS 


city,  and  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  Univer- 
sity is  30  miles  S.  In  the  city  proper 
are  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geans,  St.  Ignatius  College,  San  Fran- 
cisco Institute  of  Art,  and  many  private 
educational  institutions.  The  technical 
schools  include  the  California  School  of 
Mechanical  Arts,  the  Polytechnic  High 
School,  and  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Technical 
School. 

San  Francisco  has  in  recent  years  be- 
come one  of  the  most  important  industrial 
and  commercial  cities  in  the  United 
States.  Its  harbor  is  unsurpassed  and 
has  an  area  of  420  square  miles  with  a 
water  frontage  on  the  bay  of  10  miles. 
In  1918  there  was  a  completed  sea-wall, 
15,000  feet  in  length,  with  39  piers  and 
many  open  wharves.  New  docks  and 
wharves  are  being  built  by  the  State. 
Hunters  Point  Dock  is  the  largest  dry 
dock  on  the  Pacific  coast.  There  are 
direct  steamboat  connections  to  all  ports 
along  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  and 
South  America,  to  Japan,  China,  the 
Philippines,  the  Orient,  Hawaii,  New 
Zealand,  and  Australia,  as  well  as  ser- 
vices to  the  Canal,  to  Atlantic  coast 
points,  and  Europe. 

In  1920  there  were  over  2,500  factories 
in  San  Francisco,  giving  employment  to 
more  than  55,000  wage-earners.  Ship- 
building construction  during  and  follow- 
ing the  World  War  became  one  of  the 
most  important  industries.  In  1919  there 
were  launched  53  vessels,  of  which  50 
were  steel,  2  wood,  and  one  concrete.  At 
the  end  of  that  year  there  were  31  steel 
vessels  under  construction.  During  1919 
there  were  launched  49  naval  craft,  in- 
cluding one  battleship,  4  gunboats,  31 
destroyers,  7  submarines,  and  6  tugs.  At 
the  close  of  that  year  there  were  61  naval 
craft  under  construction.  The  total  ex- 
ports of  the  city  in  1919  amounted  to 
$235,685,879.  The  total  imports  amounted 
to  $238,074,061.  The  leading  industries 
include  the  manufacture  of  boots  and 
shoes,  bread  and  bakery  products,  cloth- 
ing, copper,  tin  and  sheet  iron  products, 
printing  and  publishing  products,  foundry 
and  machine  shop  products,  and  flour  and 
grist  mill  products. 

There  were  in  the  city  in  1920,  37 
banks,  with  19  branches.  The  bank  clear- 
ings amounted  to  $7,286,339,237.  The 
resources  of  the  National  banks  aggre- 
gated $527,780,951,  and  the  deposits 
$359,619,941.  The  assessed  valuation  of 
real  estate  in  1919  was  $297,741,765.  The 
total  valuation  was  $794,459,406.  The 
bonded  indebtedness  was  $44,259,600. 
Pop.  (1900)  342,782;  (1910)  416,912; 
(1920)   506,676. 

History. — As  early  as  1769  a  number 
of  Franciscan  fathers  established  a  mis- 
sion here,  and  seven  years  later  the  Span- 


iards chose  the  place  for  a  military  post. 
In  1835  an  Englishman  erected  the  first 
tent  on  the  site  of  the  present  city,  in 
Yerba  Buena,  3  miles  from  the  mission. 
A  village  which  soon  grew  up  was  united 
with  the  mission  in  1846.  Two  years  later 
when  gold  was  discovered  adventurers 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  entered  Cali- 
fornia and  by  1850  San  Francisco  had 
a  population  of  25,000.  During  the  latter 
year  a  city  charter  was  received,  and  in 
1856  the  county  and  city  were  consolidated. 
Owing  to  corrupt  municipal  management 
in  1850-1851  a  vigilance  committee  was 
organized  by  the  law-abiding  citizens  who 
dealt  severely  with  criminals  and  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  good  government. 
In  1897,  after  four  ineffectual  attempts, 
a  city  charter  was  adopted  by  the  people 
which  contains  a  civil  service  system, 
provides  for  the  initiative  and  referen- 
dum, and  limits  taxes  to  $1  per  $100  for 
municipal  purposes.  April  18,  1906,  the 
city  experienced  a  very  destructive  fire 
with  loss  of  innumerable  buildings,  esti-. 
mated  800  lives  and  $300,000,000  worth 
of  property.  The  rebuilding  of  the  city 
was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  examples 
of  civic  enterprise  ever  known. 

SAN  FRANCISCO  BAY,  a  land-locked 
arm  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  coast  of 
California.  It  is  the  finest  bay  on  the  W. 
coast  of  the  United  States;  i?  connected 
with  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  a  strait  called 
the  Golden  Gate;  extends  S.  by  S.  W.; 
washes  the  shores  of  Alameda  and  Contra 
Costa  counties,  and  reaches  from  Sonoma 
co.  to  Alviso.  Including  San  Pablo  at  its 
N.  point,  it  is  55  miles  long.  It  varies 
in  breadth  from  3  to  12  miles.  The  shores 
of  the  Golden  Gate  are  bold  and  rocky, 
rising  on  the  N.  to  nearly  200  feet;  on 
the  S.  the  hills  are  sand-covered,  300  to 
400  feet  high.  The  bar  has  a  depth  of 
30  feet  of  water  at  low  tide;  within  it 
is  much  deeper.  There  are  several  islands, 
including  Alcatraz,  4  miles  from  the  en- 
trance, Angel,  and  Yerba  Buena,  or  Goat. 
The  entrance  is  defended  by  fortifications 
on  Alcatraz  Island  and  Fort  Point  S.  of 
the  Golden  Gate.  The  bay  is  connected 
N.  by  a  strait,  3  miles  wide,  with  San 
Pablo  Bay  about  10  miles  across,  and 
nearly  circular,  and  this  again  is  con- 
nected by  Carquinez  Strait,  1  mile  wide, 
with  Suisun  Bay,  8  miles  long,  and  4  miles 
wide.  Both  these  bays  are  deep,  but  Car- 
quinez Strait  has  only  16  feet  of  water 
at  low  tide.  This  bay  is  large  enough  to 
float  all  the  navies  of  Europe  at  once. 

SAN  FRANCISCO  CAPE,  a  cape  in 
South  America,  on  the  coast  of  Ecuador. 

SAN  FRANCISCO  MOUNTAINS,  the 
loftiest  mountain  group  in  Arizona,  its 
highest  summit  being  Humphrey's  Peak, 


SANGAMON    RIVER 


234 


SANHEDRIM 


12,794  feet  above  sea-level.  This  peak  is 
85  miles  N.  E.  of  Prescott.  It  is  near 
the  S.  border  of  the  Colorado  plateau, 
and  it  rises  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
this  plateau.  Near  it  are  volcanic  cones 
long  since  extinct. 

SANGAMON  RIVER,  a  river  in  Illi- 
nois formed  by  the  North  and  South 
Forks,  the  former  being  the  main  branch. 
Its  source  is  near  Gibson,  whence  it  tra- 
verses Champaign  co.,  where  it  turns  W. 
and  crosses  Sangamon  co.,  and  forms  the 
N.  boundary  of  Cass  co.  It  flows  into  the 
Illinois  river  about  9  miles  above  Beards- 
town,  and  45  miles  W.N.  W.  of  Spring- 
field. Its  length  is  250  miles,  including 
the  North  Fork.  The  forks  join  6  miles 
E.  of  Springfield. 

SANGER,   WILLIAM    CARY,    an 

American  public  official,  born  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  in  1853.  He  graduated  from 
the  Polytechnic  Institute  of  Brooklyn  in 
1869,  and  from  Harvard  in  1874.  From 
1895  to  1897  he  was  a  member  of  the 
New  York  Assembly.  During  the  Span- 
ish-American War  he  served  as  lieutenant 
colonel  of  the  203d  New  York  Infantry. 
He  was  assistant  secretary  of  war  from 
1901  to  1903.  In  1906  he  was  one  of  the 
American  delegates  to  the  International 
Red  Cross  Conference,  held  in  Geneva,  to 
revise  the  treaty  of  1864.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  war  relief  board  of  the  National 
Red  Cross,  and  during  the  World  War 
was  director  of  military  relief  for  the 
Potomac  Division  of  the  American  Red 
Cross.  He  wrote  several  reports  on  mili- 
tary conditions  in  Europe  and  contributed 
articles  on  military  subjects  to  magazines. 

SANGIR  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  small 
islands  in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  be- 
tween the  N.  E.  extremity  of  Celebes  and 
the  Philippine  isle  of  Mindanao.  Most 
of  them  are  inhabited  and  are  covered 
with  cocoa  palms.  Rice,  pisang,  and 
sago  are  cultivated.  The  islands  are  all 
mountainous  and  partly  volcanic.  In  an 
eruption  of  Aboe,  a  volcano  on  Great 
Sangir,  in  June,  1892,  the  greater  part 
of  the  island  was  devastated,  and  nearly 
10,000  inhabitants  perished.  The  natives 
are  of  the  Malay  race  and  profess 
Christianity.  The  islands  belong  to  the 
Netherlands.     Pop.   about   114,000. 

SANGREALIS,  SANGREAL,  or 
SAINT  GRAIL,  the  Holy  Cup  or  Grail, 
said  to  be  from  Modern  Latin  gradate, 
a  cup;  but  supposed  by  some  to  be  a 
corruption  of  the  Old  French  le  Sang 
Real,  i.  e.,  the  true  blood  of  Christ.  This 
sacred  relic,  preserved  in  an  emerald 
cup,  is  said  in  legendary  history  to  have 
been  brought  to  England  by  Joseph  of 
Arimathea.  According  to  the  romantic 
story  of  King  Arthur  it  could  only  be 


discovered  by  one  possessed  of  perfect 
virtue;  and  the  "Quest  of  the  St.  Grail" 
by  the  Knights  of  the  Round  Table,  of 
whom  the  perfect  champion,  Sir  Galahad 
(in  other  legends  Parsifal),  was  favored 
by  its  discovery,  is  narrated  therein  at 
great  length. 

SANGSTER,  MARGARET  ELIZA- 
BETH (MTJNSON),  an  American  poet; 
born  in  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  22, 
1838.  She  was  editorially  connected  with 
"Hearth  and  Home"  (1871-1873)  and 
"The  Christian  at  Work"  (1873-1879)  ; 
and  in  1889  became  editor  of  "Harper's 
Bazar."  Her  most  noted  poems  are: 
"Our  Own";  "The  Sin  of  Omission"; 
and  "Are  the  Children  at  Home?" 
Among  her  books  for  girls  are:  "May 
Stanhope  and  Her  Friend,"  and  "Mai- 
die's  Problem";  "Little  Knights  and 
Ladies."     She  died  in  1912.  ' 

SANGUINARIA,  a  genus  of  plants, 
order  Papaveracese.  The  most  interest- 
ing species  is  S.  canadensis,  the  puccoon, 
a  native  of  North  America.  Its  root, 
often  called  blood-root,  from  its  con- 
taining a  red  juice,  is  used  internally 
in  large  doses  as  an  emetic  and  purga- 
tive, and  in  small  doses  as  a  diaphoretic 
and  expectorant.  It  is  applied  externally, 
combined  with  chloride  of  zinc,  to  check 
cancerous  growths. 

SANHEDRIM,  or  SANHEDRIN,  the 
supreme  national  tribunal  of  the  Jews, 
established  at  the  time  of  the  Maccabees, 
probably  under  John  Hyrcanus.  It  con- 
sisted of  71  members,  and  was  presided 
over  by  the  Nasi  ("prince"),  at  whose 
side  stood  the  Ab-Beth-Din  ("father  of 
the  tribunal").  Its  members  belonged  to 
the  different  classes  of  society:  there 
were  priests  (Greek,  archiereis),  el- 
ders, that  is,  heads  of  families,  men  of 
age,  and  experience  (Gr.  presbyteroi)  ; 
scribes,  or  doctors  of  the  law  (Gr.  gram- 
mateis)  ;  and  others  exalted  by  eminent 
learning — the  sole  condition  for  admis- 
sion into  this  assembly.  The  president- 
ship was  conferred  on  the  high-priest  in 
preference,  if  he  happened  to  possess  the 
requisite  qualities  of  eminence ;  _  other- 
wise, "he  who  excels  all  others  in  wis- 
dom" was  appointed,  irrespective  of  his 
station.  The  limits  of  its  jurisdiction 
are  not  known  with  certainty;  but  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  supreme  decision 
over  life  and  death  were  exclusively  in 
its  hands. 

By  degrees  the  whole  internal  admin- 
istration of  the  commonwealth  was 
vested  in  this  body,  and  it  became 
necessary  to  establish  minor  courts,  simi- 
larly composed,  all  over  the  country,  and 
Jerusalem  itself.  Thus  we  hear  of  two 
inferior  tribunals  at  Jerusalem,  each  of 


SANITARY    LAWS 


235 


SANITARY    SCIENCE 


them  consisting  of  23  men,  and  others 
consisting  of  three  men  only.  These 
courts  of  23  men  (Lesser  Synedrion), 
however,  as  well  as  those  of  the  three 
men,  probably  represent  only  smaller  or 
larger  committees  chosen  from  the  gen- 
eral body.  Excluded  from  the  office  of 
judge  were:  those  born  in  adultery;  men 
born  of  non-Israelite  parents;  gamblers; 
usurers;  those  who  sold  fruit  grown  in 
the  Sabbatical  year;  and,  in  individual 
cases,  near  relatives.  All  these  were  also 
not  admitted  as  witnesses.  Two  scribes 
were  always  present,  one  registering  the 
condemnatory,  the  other  the  exculpatory 
votes.  The  mode  of  procedure  was  ex- 
ceedingly complicated;  and  such  was  the 
caution  of  the  court,  especially  in  mat- 
ters of  life  and  death,  that  capital  pun- 
ishment was  pronounced  in  the  rarest 
instances  only.  The  Nasi  had  the  su- 
preme direction  of  the  court  and  con- 
voked it  when  necessary.  He  sat  at 
the  head,  and  to  his  right  hand  was  the 
seat  of  the  Ab-Beth-Din. 

The  court  met  on  extraordinary  occa- 
sions in  the  house  of  the  high  priest; 
its  general  place  of  assembly,  however, 
was  a  certain  hall  (Lishcat  Hagaziz), 
probably  situated  at  the  S.  W.  corner  of 
one  of  the  courts  of  the  temple.  With 
the  exception  of  Sabbath  and  feast  days  it 
met  daily.  The  political  troubles  forced 
the  Sanhedrin  (70  B..  c.)  to  change  its 
meeting-place,  which  was  first  trans- 
ferred to  certain  bazaars  (Hannyoth) 
at  the  foot  of  the  temple  mount.  After 
the  destruction  of  the  temple  and  Jeru- 
salem it  finally  established  itself,  after 
many  further  emigrations,  in  Babylon. 

The  question  as  to  the  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  the  Sanhedrin  is  a  difficult 
one.  It  is  said  it  was  intended  to  be  a 
faithful  reproduction  of  the  Mosaic  as- 
sembly of  the  70  (Moses  himself  making 
71),  supposed  to  have  been  re-estab- 
lished by  Ezra  after  the  Exile. 

SANITARY  LAWS,  statutes  or  regu- 
lations for  the  protection  of  the  public 
health.  Sanitary  laws  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes:  first,  those  instituted 
by  legislation,  providing  for  quarantine 
protection,  the  practice  of  medicine  and 
conduct  in  public  places.  Tenement 
house  laws,  regulating  the  construction 
of  habitations,  size  of  rooms  and  cubic 
space  per  member  of  families  domiciled, 
also  come  under  this  head.  The  second 
class  includes  such  ordinances  or  regu- 
lations as  govern  the  disposal  of  sewage, 
the  regulation  or  protection  of  the 
water  supply,  conditions  under  which 
meat  and  other  foods  must  be  stored 
and  distributed,  and  the  erection  of  pub- 
lic sanitaria  and  public  baths.  It  is 
only  within  recent  years  that   the   pro- 


tection of  public  health  has  been  made 
the  object  of  special  legislation,  since 
the  teachings  of  science  have  demon- 
strated the  possibility  of  prevention 
against  contagious  diseases.  It  has  been 
legislation  of  this  kind  which  has  prac- 
tically put  an  end  to  violent  epidemics, 
especially  of  what  are  generally  known 
as  the  dirt  diseases,  such  as  cholera 
and  small   pox. 

SANITARY  SCIENCE,  the  science 
which  deals  with  the  preservation  of 
health  and  the  prevention  of  disease. 
Considered  broadly,  disease  is  due  to 
environmental  conditions  which  cause  in- 
jury of  the  living  body.  The  causes  of 
disease  are  usually  divided  into  the  ex- 
ternal, which  act  from  without,  and  the 
internal,  due  to  imperfection  of  the 
body,  but  these  imperfections  in  the  first 
instance  are  due  to  external  causes. 
Sanitary  science  then  comes  to  be  the 
study  of  the  influence  of  unfavorable 
environmental  conditions  on  the  body 
during  the  entire  course  of  life  from 
conception  to  death.  Public  health,  which 
deals  with  disease  causes,  of  such  a 
character  as  to  produce  an  effect  on 
the  general  population,  personal  hygiene 
or  the  preservation  of  the  health  of  the 
individual,  infectious  diseases  and  the 
measures  of  protection  against  them,  the 
influence  of  age,  climate  and  occupation 
on  health,  water  supplies,  the  nutritive 
values  of  foods  and  the  methods  of 
marketing  and  preserving  foods,  meth- 
ods of  the  disposal  of  waste  material, 
the  construction  of  dwellings  and  fac- 
tories and  the  influence  of  factory  life 
on  the  workers,  vital  statistics  by  means 
of  which  the  state  of  health  of  a  com- 
munity can  be  ascertained,  social  pa- 
thology or  the  influence  of  poverty  and 
social  conditions  in  the  production  of 
disease;  all  these  and  many  more  are 
considered  under  sanitary  science,  and 
for  the  most  part  form  separate  de- 
partments of  it. 

Health  of  its  people  is  considered  the 
most  important  asset  of  a  state,  and 
nothing  contributes  more  to  happiness 
and  well  being.  Sickness  renders  the 
state  not  only  less  efficient  in  produc- 
tion and  less  capable  of  defense,  but 
the  care  of  the  sick  and  indigent,  for 
poverty  and  sickness  go  together,  is  an 
enormous  tax  upon  the  well.  Good 
health  is  not  even  a  matter  of  indi- 
vidual choice,  but  for  the  sake  of  the 
well-being  of  society  the  individual  is 
restrained  from  actions  which  would  be 
injurious  to  himself  or>  to  others.  A 
great  mass  of  laws,  national,  state  and 
local,  designed  for  the  protection  of  tho 
people  against  disease,  have  been  en- 
acted   and    large    sums    of   money   from 


SANITARY    SCIENCE 


236 


SAN    JOAQUIN 


the  public  funds  appropriated  to  fur- 
ther health  measures.  All  conditions 
affecting  health  have  increasingly  be- 
come the  subject  of  intense  study  and  a 
large  amount  of  knowledge  based  upon 
experience  and  experiment  is  now  avail- 
able. As  in  all  matters  which  involve 
consideration  of  living  things  there  is 
still  much  which  is  uncertain,  and  with 
the  scientific  knowledge  there  is  inter- 
mingled much  supposed  knowledge  based 
merely  upon  tradition  and  insufficient 
experience.  Great  changes  are  taking 
place,  such  as  the  increasing  industrial- 
ism bringing  with  it  the  depletion  of  the 
rural  population  and  the  increase  of  the 
urban,  the  greater  facility  of  transpor- 
tation increasing  the  range  of  the  en- 
vironment, and  the  full  effect  of  such 
changes  upon  the  general  health  cannot 
yet  be  fully  ascertained.  There  is  still 
lacking  such  information  of  the  condi- 
tions in  the  past  as  to  afford  a  proper 
basis  for  comparison  with  the  present. 
We  do  not  accurately  know  whether  or 
no  the  general  health  of  the  people  has 
been  affected  by  the  influence  of  mod- 
ern conditions.  From  such  statistics  as 
have  been  gleaned  from  the  medical 
examination  of  large  numbers  of  drafted 
men  in  the  late  war,  the  figures  show  a 
large  percentage  of  individuals  who 
have  become  defective  through  disease. 
These  statistics  represent  the  general 
health  of  the  males  of  military  age  in 
the  state.  In  Great  Britain  the  medical 
examinations  have  shown  that  of  every 
nine  men  there  were  three  perfectly  fit 
and  healthy;  two  were  upon  a  definitely 
infirm  plane  of  health  and  strength, 
whether  from  some  disability  or  failure 
of  development;  three  men  were  incapa- 
ble of  undergoing  more  than  a  very 
moderate  degree  of  physical  exertion, 
and  could  in  justice  to  their  age  be  de- 
scribed as  physical  wrecks,  and  the  re- 
maining man  was  a  chronic  invalid  with 
a  precarious  hold  upon  life.  This  ex- 
amination brought  out  also  the  effect  of 
occupation  upon  health,  the  agricultural 
population  having  the  best  showing, 
with  a  decided  fall  in  the  industrial 
occupations,  culminating  in  the  tailors 
and  barbers.  The  examination  of  the 
drafted  men  in  the  United  States  showed 
that  in  the  total  male  population  of  mili- 
tary age  there  were  four  hundred  and 
sixty-five  defective  individuals  of  every 
thousand  examined.  Although  these  ex- 
aminations were  of  males  only,  there  is 
no  reason  to  think  that  the  females 
would  have  made  a  better  showing,  for 
the  causes  act  upon  all  alike.  Certain 
districts  in  London,  where  overcrowded 
and  bad  hygienic  conditions  notoriously 
exist,  showed  an  enormously  higher  per- 
centage particularly  of  respiratory   dis- 


eases, affording  a  striking  illustration  of 
the  baneful  influence  of  bad  environ- 
mental conditions  in  relation  to  these 
particular  diseases,  and  in  almost  every 
other  disease  these  black  list  districts 
showed  a  higher  percentage  than  did 
the  normal  areas.  The  numerical  regis- 
tration and  tabulation  of  population,  mar- 
riages, births,  diseases  and  deaths,  with 
analysis  of  the  resulting  phenomena  is 
not  of  recent  origin,  but  the  develop- 
ment of  their  present  form  and  the  ac- 
curacy attained  is  comparatively  mod- 
ern. There  is  difficulty  always  in  the 
carrying  out  of  laws,  the  necessity  for 
which  is  not  perfectly  understood.  They 
are  not  efficient  without  the  co-operation 
of  the  people,  and  this  co-operation  can 
be  attained  only  through  education.  For 
this  purpose  the  instruction  of^  school 
children  in  the  elementary  principles 
underlying  health  preservation,  and  in- 
culcating in  them  good  habits  of  life 
is  of  the  utmost  importance.  The  care 
of  these  children  during  school  attend- 
ance is  assumed  by  the  state,  and  their 
education  in  measures  of  health  control 
is  not  less  important  than  the  other 
branches  of  study. 

SANITATION,  that  department  of 
human  knowledge  which  regards  the 
laws  of  the  human  body,  and  of  the 
agents  by  which  it  is  surrounded,  with 
a  view  to  the  preservation  of  health 
and  the  warding  off  of  disease  and 
death.  The  practical  application  of  these 
laws  constitutes  hygiene,  or  the  art  of 
preventing  disease.  See  Sanitary  Sci- 
ence. 

SAN  JACINTO,  BATTLE  OF,  a  nota- 
ble battle  that  decided  the  independence 
of  Texas.  It  was  a  desperate  engage- 
ment between  a  Mexican  force  in  com- 
mand of  Santa  Ana,  1,600  in  the  ranks, 
and  783  Texans  led  by  Sam  Houston, 
April  21,  1836.  The  Mexicans  were 
defeated  and  utterly  routed.  The  scene 
of  this  event  was  on  the  banks  of  the 
San  Jacinto  river,  17  miles  E.  by  S. 
of  the  present  city   of   Houston. 

SANJAK  (Turkish,  a  standard),  the 
name  given  to  a  subdivision  of  an  eyalet 
or  minor  province  of  Turkey,  from  the 
circumstance  that  the  governor  of  such 
district  is  entitled  to  carry  in  war  a 
standard  of  one  horse-tail. 

SAN  JOAQUIN,  a  river  of  California, 
350  miles  long;  rises  in  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada mountains,  in  Fresno  county,  flows 
S.  W.  about  70  miles,  then  N.  W.,  and 
unites  with  the  Sacramento  near  its 
mouth  in  Suisun  Bay.  Tulare  Lake  dis- 
charges into  it  at  high  water.  It  is 
navigable  at  all  seasons  by  vessels  of 
from  150  to  250  tons  to  Stockton,  about 


SAN    JOSE 


237       SAN    JUAN    DE    PORTO    RICO 


50  miles;  in  winter  and  spring  steamers 
ascend  nearly  200  miles  further.  Its 
chief  tributaries  are  the  Fresno,  Mari- 
posa, Merced,  Tuolumne,  Stanislaus,  and 
Calaveras.  The  San  Joaquin  valley  is 
world  famed  for  its  fertility. 

SAN  JOSE,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Santa  Clara  co.,  Cal. ;  on  the  Guadalupe 
and  Coyote  rivers,  and  on  the  Southern 
Pacific  railroad;  51  miles  S.  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. It  contains  the  State  Normal 
School,  the  University  of  the  Pacific 
(M.  E.),  the  College  of  Notre  Dame,  the 
State  Asylum  for  the  Chronic  Insane, 
United  States  Government  building, 
Piatt  Home  for  Old  Ladies,  public  li- 
brary, Hall  of  Justice,  Hall  of  Records, 
parks,  hospitals,  and  court  house.  The 
city  has  electric  street  railroads,  electric 
lights,  National  and  State  banks,  and 
daily,  weekly,  and  monthly  periodicals. 
Its  manufacturing  interest  is  large,  in- 
cluding a  woolen  mill,  silk  factories,  lum- 
ber mills,  tanneries,  iron  foundries,  ma- 
chine shops,  and  canning  establishments. 
It  is  the  center  of  an  important  fruit 
growing  region.  The  city  was  established 
in  1782  by  Spaniards,  and  was  the  capi- 
tal of  California  under  its  first  consti- 
tution. Pop.  (1910)  28,946;  (1920) 
39,642. 

SAN  JOSE,  capital  of  the  republic  of 
Costa  Rica,  Central  America.  It  stands 
on  a  table-land  4,500  feet  above  the  sea- 
level.  The  streets  are  broad,  and  there 
are  few  public  buildings  worthy  of  note. 
It  is  the  center  of  the  trade  of  the  state. 
The  climate  is  healthy,  and  the  town  is 
surrounded  with  coffee  plantations. 
Pop.  about  38,000;  with  suburbs,  52,000. 

SAN  JOSE  SCALE,  in  entomology  the 
Aspidiotus  perniciosus,  a  minute  tree 
louse,  that  is  particularly  destructive  to 
orchards.  It  is  no  larger  than  a  fly 
speck,  and  is  often  mistaken  for  such 
when  appearing  on  fruit,  but  when  ex- 
amined with  a  microscope  it  is  a  most 
formidable  six-legged  insect.  Though 
named  from  an  American  city,  the  San 
Jose  scale  is  a  native  of  Mexico.  It  has 
found  its  way  into  the  United  States 
and  many  parts  of  Europe,  having  been 
carried  from  country  to  country  in  ship- 
ment of  fruit.  It  drains  the  juices  from 
the  trees,  destroying  the  bark  by  sapping 
its  life  away. 

SAN  JUAN,  a  province  of  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  in  the  W.  part;  separated 
from  Chile  on  the  W.  by  the  Andes 
mountains.  It  is  partly  mountainous 
and  partly  covered  by  waterless,  fre- 
quently sandy,  plains.  Besides  the  main 
chain  of  the  Andes,  the  sub-Andean 
chain  of  the  Sierra  del  Tontal,  Sierra  de 
la   Huerta,  6,600   feet  high,   and   others 


P— Cyc 


diversify  the  surface.  In  the  extreme 
S.  E.  sandy  plains  occupy  an  area  of 
965  square  miles,  and  here  also  lies  the 
large  lagoon  of  Guanacache.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  San  Juan,  the  Jachal, 
and  the  Bermejo.  The  country  is  rich 
in  minerals.  Gold,  silver,  and  copper  are 
mined  and  there  are  local  deposits  in  a 
few  places.  The  mineral  springs,  chiefly 
sulphurous,  are  used  in  the  baths  at  Laja, 
at  Pismanta,  and  at  Florida,  near  San 
Juan.  The  dry  climate  is  against  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil,  excepting  near 
the  rivers,  where  artificial  irrigation  is 
used,  and  where  maize,  wheat,  lucerne, 
fruits,  and  grapes  are  grown.  Agricul- 
ture is  a  chief  industry.  The  wine  of 
this  province  is  excellent.  Area  37,865 
square  miles.      Pop.    (1918)    127,713. 

SAN  JUAN,  the  chief  pueblo  of  the 
Tewa  division  of  the  Tanoan  Indians  of 
North  America;  26  miles  N.  W.  of  Santa 
Fe.  These  Indians  occupy  other  pueblos 
in  the  Rio  Grande  valley,  New  Mexico, 
and  have  one  in  Arizona. 

SAN  JUAN,  a  river  in  Bolivia;  a 
tributary  of  the  Pilaya  and  a  sub-tribu- 
tary of  the  Pilcomayo.  It  is  nearly  300 
miles  long.  Another  river  in  this  coun- 
try, in  the  province  of  Chiquitos,  and 
an  affluent  of  the  Aguapehi,  has  the 
same  name;  length,  about  200  miles. 

SAN  JUAN,  a  river  in  the  Argentine 
Republic,  in  the  province  of  San  Juan, 
whose  source  is  in  the  Andes;  flows  into 
the  lagoon  of  Guanacache;  length,  about 
250  miles. 

SAN  JUAN,  the  island  now  known  as 
Porto  Rico;  named  San  Juan  by  Colum- 
bus and  was  so  called  till  the  18th  cen- 
tury. It  was  also  known  as  San  Juan 
de  Porto  Rico,  from  the  name  of  its 
capital. 

SAN  JUAN,  or  SAN  JUAN  DE  LA 
FRONTERA,  a  city  of  the  Argentine 
Republic;  capital  of  the  province  of  San 
Juan;  on  the  San  Juan  river;  92  miles 
N.  of  Mendoza.     Pop.  about  15,000. 

SAN  JUAN  DEL  NORTE,  or  Grey- 
town.  Nicaraguan  seaport.  Pop.  about 
2,500. 

SAN    JUAN    DE    PORTO    RICO,    the 

most  important  city  and  capital  of  the 
island  of  Porto  Rico.  It  is  a  valuable 
seaport  and  is  provided  with  strong  forti- 
fications. The  city  proper  is  on  a  small 
island,  off  the  province  of  Bayamon,  and 
adjacent  to  the  N.  coast.  Its  climate  is 
healthful,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  pros- 
perous cities  in  the  West  Indies.  The 
superior  courts  of  the  island  meet  in 
San  Juan,  and  among  the  important 
buildings   are,   the   bishop's   palace,    the 


Vol  8 


BAN    JUAN    DE    ULUA 


238 


SAN    MARTIN 


old  government  house,  a  large  cathedral, 
custom  house,  the  military  hospital,  a 
seminary,  arsenal  and  jail.  Under  Amer- 
ican supervision  the  city  has  been  great- 
ly improved  in  every  respect.  The  har- 
bor has  been  provided  with  facilities  for 
docking  large  vessels,  and  the  sanitary 
arrangements  of  the  city  have  been  mod- 
ernized.     P^op.  (1920)  70,707. 

SAN  JTJXN  DE  ULUA,  or  SAN  JUAN 
DE  ULLOA,  a  fort  built  on  a  small 
island  of  the  same  name,  in  the  harbor 
of  Vera  Cruz,  Mexico.  It  was  con- 
structed in  the  17th  century  and  was 
the  strongest  fortification  owned  by  the 
country.  It  has  been  conspicuous  in 
Mexican  history. 

SAN  JTJAN  HILL,  BATTLE  OF.     See 

Spanish-American  War. 

SAN  JUAN  ISLANDS,  a  group  of 
islands  now  part  of  the  State  of  Wash- 
ington. They  were  occupied  by  both 
American  and  British  garrisons  in  1859, 
each  nation  claiming  the  right  of  exclu- 
sive possession.  San  Juan,  Oreas,  Lopez, 
and  Shaw  are  the  most  valuable  of  the 
group. 

SAN  JUAN  RANGE,  a  range  of  moun- 
tains in  southern  Colorado;  a  branch  of 
the  Rocky  mountains,  and  a  picturesque 
setting  for  San  Luis  Park.  The  highest 
peaks  reach  an  altitude  of  over  14,000 
feet. 

SANKEY,  IRA  DAVID,  an  American 
evangelist;  born  in  Edinburgh,  Pa.,  Aug. 
28,  1840;  was  associated  with  the  evan- 
gelist, the  late  Dwight  L.  Moody  (q.  v.), 
for  some  years,  attracting  and  holding 
the  attention  of  great  audiences  by  sing- 
ing hymns  composed  by  himself.  His 
religious  music  became  so  popular  that 
he  published  several  hymn  books  under 
different  titles,  which  are  all  included  in 
church  and  Sunday-school  service.  He 
died  Aug.  13,  1908. 

SANKHYA,  in  Brahmanism,  one  of 
the  six  systems  of  Brahmanical  phi- 
losophy.    It  was  founded  by  Kapila. 

SAN  LEANDRO,  a  city  of  California, 
in  Alameda  co.  It  is  on  the  Southern 
Pacific  and  the  Western  Pacific  railroads. 
Its  industries  include  lumber  mills  and 
hay-press  works.  Pop.  (1910)  3,471; 
(1920)    5,703. 

SAN  LUIS  DE  POTOSI,  a  city  of 
Mexico;  capital  of  the  State  of  the  same 
name;  198  miles  N.  W.  of  Mexico,  6,350 
feet  above  sea-level;  regularly  built,  with 
fine  streets.  It  has  a  handsome  cathe- 
dral; manufactures  of  clothing,  shoes, 
hats,  etc.;  railway  work  shops;  and  a 
considerable  trade.  Pop.  about  68,000. 
The  State  has  an  area  of  25,316  square 


miles,  is  generally  fertile,  and  has  rich 
gold  and  silver  mines.  Pop.  about 
630,000. 

SAN  LUIS  OBISPO,  a  city  of  Cali- 
fornia, the  county-seat  of  San  Luis 
Obispo  co.  It  is  on  the  Southern  Pacific 
and  the  Pacific  Coast  railroads.  Its  pub- 
lic institutions  include  thei  California 
Polytechnic  School,  a  Carnegie  library, 
an  Elks  home,  and  a  Masonic  Temple. 
The  city  contains  the  Mission  of  San 
Luis  Obispo,  founded  in  1772.  It  has 
the  city  division  headquarters  and  shops 
of  both  railroads  which  enter  it.  Pop. 
(1910)    5,157;    (1920)    5,895. 

SAN  LUIZ  DE  MARANHAM.  See 
Maranham. 

SAN  MARINO,  the  smallest  republic 
in  Europe,  and  one  of  its  most  ancient 
States;  is  inclosed  by  the  provinces  of 
Forli  and  Pesaro  and  Urbino,  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy;  situated  9  miles  S.  W. 
of  Rimini.  The  legislature  of  the  re- 
public is  a  senate  of  60  members,  elected 
one-third  every  three  years  from  the  no- 
bles, citizens,  and  peasants.  Two  presi- 
dents are  chosen  by  the  senate  every  six 
months,  called  captains  regent.  Two  sec- 
retaries of  state  and  two  legal  func- 
tionaries are  the  other  government  offi- 
cials. This  little  republic  occupies  a 
great,  rocky,  mountainous  site,  about 
2,420  feet  high,  precipitous  on  all  sides, 
with  intervening  dense  forests  and  val- 
leys of  fertile  land.  The  town  is  built 
round  a  hermitage,  founded  in  441,  and 
is  accessible  by  but  one  road.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  great  walls  and  has  three 
forts.  The  wealthier  citizens  reside  in 
the  suburb  of  Borgo.  The  manufacture 
of  silk  is  the  chief  industry  of  the  town. 
Many  of  the  buildings  are  stately  and 
remarkably  massive  in  structure,  includ- 
ing the  governor's  palace,  and  six 
churches,  one  of  which  contains  the  tomb 
and  statue  of  St.  Marino.  There  are 
several  schools,  museums,  a  theatre,  a 
town  hall,  and  two  convents.  Two  im- 
mense cisterns  provide  the  public  with 
water.  The  inhabitants  are  principally 
engaged  in  agriculture.  The  military 
number  950  men.  From  the  10th  to  the 
13th  centuries  the  inhabitants  succeeded 
in  maintaining  their  independence,  which 
was  recognized  by  the  Church  in  1291, 
and  confirmed  by  the  Pope  in  1631.  The 
treaty  with  Italy  of  1907  was  revised 
in  1914.  In  1915  the  republic  declared 
war  on  Austria.  Area  of  the  republic, 
38  square  miles;  pop.   (1919)   11,944. 

SAN  MARTIN,  JOSE  DE,  a  Spanish- 
American  general;  born  in  Yapeyu,  Mi- 
siones,  Argentine  Republic,  Feb.  25,  1778. 
He  was  in  the  Spanish  campaigns  against 
France  from  1793  till  1811,  attaining  the 


SAN    MATEO 


239 


SAN    SEBASTIAN 


rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  resigned 
from  service  and  sailed  for  Buenos  Ayres 
in  1812,  where  he  joined  the  patriot  army. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  their  forces,  serving  in  up- 
per Peru  or  Bolivia.  He  opened  a  line  of 
operations  through  Chile,  abandoning  the 
previous  plan  of  attacking  the  Spanish 
forces  in  Peru  by  way  of  Chuquisaca  and 
Lake  Titicaca.  San  Martin  was  sup- 
ported by  the  supreme  director,  Pueyrre- 
don,  in  his  purpose.  An  army  of  invasion 
was  drilled  for  two  years  at  Men- 
doza,  and  then  San  Martin  in  command 
of  4,000  men  began,  Jan.  17,  1817,  his 
famous  march  over  the  Andes,  leading 
his  force  through  the  Nepallata  Pass, 
12,800  feet  high.  On  Feb.  12,  1817,  he 
gained  the  victory  of  Chacobuco,  which 
was  followed  by  the  capture  and  occupa- 
tion of  Santiago,  Feb.  15.  He  was  de- 
feated on  March  19,  1818,  at  Cancha  Ra- 
yada,  but  gained  a  splendid  victory  on 
April  5  at  the  Maipo,  which  drove  the 
Spaniards  from  Chile.  He  was  offered 
the  supreme  directorship  of  Chile,  but 
declined  it  and  began  preparations  for 
the  invasion  of  Peru.  He  organized  a 
navy,  and  his  small  force  of  4,500  men 
sailed  for  the  Peruvian  coast.  After 
much  adventurous  manceuvering,  this 
army  captured  and  occupied  Lima,  July 
9,  1821,  and  carried  Callao  through  hard 
fighting  soon  after.  On  Aug.  3,  San 
Martin  was  proclaimed  supreme  protec- 
tor of  Peru.  At  this  time  Bolivar  was 
leading  an  army  S.,  and  the  success  of 
the  patriots  was  threatened  by  civil  war. 
San  Martin  gave  way  to  his  rival,  "for 
the  good  of  the  cause,"  so  averting  a 
contest  which  might  have  destroyed  the 
country's  independence.  On  July  26, 
1822,  he  held  an  interview  with  Bolivar, 
after  which  he  resigned  his  office  to  the 
Peruvian  Congress,  Sept.  22,  leaving  Bol- 
ivar to  complete  the  independence  of 
Peru.  San  Martin  retired  from  South 
American  affairs,  went  to  France  and 
lived  there  in  reduced  circumstances  till 
his  death  in  Boulogne,  France,  Aug.  17, 
1850. 

SAN  MATEO,  a  city  of  California,  in 
San  Mateo  co.  It  is  on  San  Francisco 
bay  and  on  the  Southern  Pacific  railroad. 
Its  public  institutions  include  a  library, 
J  city  hall,  clubs,  etc.  It  is  a  residential 
city  and  has  many  beautiful  homes.  It 
has  important  salt,  fishing,  and  agricul- 
tural interests.  Pop.  (1910)  4,384; 
(1920)   5,979. 

SAN  MATIAS,  GULF  OF,  an  inden- 
ture of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  the  E. 
coast  of  Argentina. 

SAN  MIGUEL,  a  city  of  the  republic 
of   Salvador,   about  69   miles   E.   of  San 


Salvador  on  the  slope  of  the  volcano  of 
San  Miguel  or  Jucuapa.  It  is  well  built 
and  is  a  leading  city  of  the  republic,  the 
trade  center  of  a  fertile  agricultural  ter- 
ritory, and  the  capital  of  the  San  Miguel 
department.  It  has  several  fine  churches 
and  open  places  and  has  important  for- 
eign trade  connections.  Pop.  about  30, 
000. 

SAN  PABLO  BAY,  an  arm  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  which  penetrates  Califor- 
nia and  is  connected  with  San  Francisco 
bay.  In  it  is  Mare  Island.  It  washes 
the  shores  of  Sonoma,  Contra  Costa,  and 
Marin  counties.  It  is  united  with  Suisun 
bay  by  the  strait  of  Carquinez,  the  out- 
let of  all  the  water  which  collects  in  the 
great  central  valley  of  the  state.  Length, 
13  miles. 

SAN  PAULO.     See  Sao  Paulo. 

SAN  RAFAEL,  a  city  of  California, 
the  county  seat  of  Marin  co.  It  is  on 
San  Pablo  bay  and  on  the  Northwestern 
Pacific  railroad.  It  is  a  popular  resort 
and  contains  the  Hitchcock  Military 
Academy,  Mount  Tamalpais  Military 
Academy,  a  Dominican  college,  a  high 
school,  baths,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  5,934: 
(1920)    5,512. 

SAN  SALVADOR,  the  capital  of  the 
republic  of  Salvador,  Central  America 
It  is  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  country. 
The  city  is  for  the  most  part  attrac- 
tively built.  Many  of  the  large  buildings 
are  constructed  of  wood,  among  these 
being  the  cathedral.  The  noteworthy  ed- 
ifices are  the  national  palace,  the  presi- 
dent's house,  the  university,  national 
library,  astronomical  observatory,  and 
botanical  garden.  It  is  an  important 
commercial  center,  having  an  extensive 
trade  in  agricultural  products,  especially 
indigo  and  tobacco.     Pop.   (1920)    80,100. 

SAN  SALVADOR,  a  name  given  by 
Columbus  to  the  first  island  he  discov- 
ered in  the  New  World,  Oct.  12,  1492. 
This  island  was  later  identified  with  Cat 
island  and  still  later  with  Watling  island. 

SANS  CULOTTES  (French,  without 
breeches).  (1)  A  fellow  without  breech- 
es; a  rough,  ragged  fellow.  The  name 
was  applied  in  derision  to  the  popular 
party  by  the  aristocrats  in  the  beginning 
of  the  revolution  of  1789,  and  was  after- 
ward assumed  by  the  patriots  as  a  title 
of  honor.  (2)  A  fierce  republican.  (3) 
A  rough. 

SAN  SEBASTIAN,  a  city  and  seaport 
in  the  N.  E.  of  Spain;  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Guipuzcoa,  partly  on  the  side  of 
Mount  Urgull,  which  projects  into  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  and  partly  on  the  isthmus 
connecting  it  with  the  mainland.     It  was 


SANSKRIT 


240 


SANSKRIT 


once  strongly  fortified,  its  fortifications 
including  the  castle  of  Mota  on  the  sum- 
mit of  Urgull,  493  feet  high.  The 
town,  which  was  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1813,  consists  for  the  most  part  of  mod- 
ern houses  arranged  in  spacious  streets 
and  squares.  The  manufactures  consist 
chiefly  of  cordage,  sail  cloth,  leather,  can- 
dles, and  soap.  The  trade  has  greatly 
decayed;  but  the  place  is  much  frequent- 
ed for  sea  bathing.  San  Sebastian  is  of 
considerable  antiquity,  and  having  by  its 
early  fortification  become  the  key  of 
Spain  on  the  side  of  France,  figures  much 
in  all  the  wars  between  the  two  countries. 
In  1813  it  was  stormed  by  the  British. 
Pop.   (1918)    57,282. 

SANSKRIT,  the  name  of  the  ancient 
literary  language  of  India.  It  forms  the 
extreme  branch  of  the  great  Indo-Ger- 
manic  (Indo-European,  Aryan)  stock  of 
languages,  and  the  one  which,  thanks  to 
its  early  literary  cultivation  (from  1500 
B.  C.)  and  grammatical  fixation,  and  its 
consequent  transparency  of  structure  and 
fulness  of  form,  approaches  nearest  to 
the  parent  language.  In  some  respects, 
however,  the  primitive  appearance  of  the 
Sanskrit,  as  of  the  closely  allied  Iranian 
or  Persic  branch,  is  now  generally 
ascribed  to  a  special  Indo-Iranian  de- 
velopment, or  to  a  later  return  to  a 
phonetic  phase  already  outgrown  by  the 
parent  language  at  the  time  of  the  sep- 
aration. While  it  is  admitted  on  all 
hands  that  the  Aryan  dialect,  out  of 
which  the  literary  language  of  India 
has  developed,  cannot  have  been  indige- 
nous to  the  peninsula,  but  must  have  been 
introduced  from  the  N.  E.,  there  is  still 
considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
the  original  home  of  the  primitive  Aryan 
community — whether  it  is  to  be  sought 
for  in  Asia,  as  used  to  be  universally  be- 
lieved, or  whether,  as  many  scholars  are 
now  inclined  to  think,  it  was  from  some 
part  of  Europe  that  the  Asiatic  Aryans 
originally  came.  On  entering  India,  the 
Aryan  tribes  found  the  country  occupied 
by  people  of  different  races;  but,  favored 
by  physical  and  intellectual  superiority, 
they  gradually  succeeded  in  extending 
their  sway,  as  well  as  their  language  and 
their  social  and  religious  institutions, 
over  the  whole  of  northern  India. 

Though  the  term  Sanskrit,  as  the  "per- 
fected" language,  properly  speaking  only 
belongs  to  the  grammatically  fixed  form 
of  the  language  which  was  employed 
from  about  the  4th  or  5th  century  B.  C, 
and  which  came  more  and  more  to  as- 
sume the  character  of  a  mere  literary 
and  learned  idiom,  it  is  usual  to  extend 
the  term  so  as  to  include  an  earlier  form 
of  the  same  language  used  in  the  Vedic 
writings,   and  hence  often  called   Vedic 


Sanskrit.  The  two  phases  of  the  lan- 
guage show  considerable  differences  as 
regards  both  vocabulary  and  grammar. 

In  accordance  with  the  general  devel- 
opment of  the  language,  the  history  of 
the  ancient  literature  of  India  may  con- 
veniently be  divided  into  two  chief  pe- 
riods, the  Vedic  Literature  and  the 
(Classical)   Sanskrit  Literature. 

The  Hindus  possess  two  great  national 
epics,  the  "Mahabharata"  and  the  "Ra- 
mayana."  Along  with  these  may  be 
classed  the  "Puranas,"  which,  though  in 
their  present  form  they  were  doubtless- 
composed  or  recast  for  sectarian  pur- 
poses several  centuries  after  Christ,  seem 
to  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  gen- 
uine old  legendary  matter  akin  to  large 
portions  of  the  Mahabharata.  ThoVigh 
the  final  redaction  of  the  two  epics  can 
scarcely  be  assigned  to  an  earlier  period 
than  about  the  beginning  of  our  era,  it 
can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  vast  mass 
of  legendary  lore  and  complete  epic  lays 
of  which  the  Mahabharata  is  composed, 
at  all  events  must  have  required  cen- 
turies to  grow  and  assume  its  present 
shape.  At  a  subsequent  period,  from 
about  the  5th  or  6th  century  A.  D.  on- 
ward, there  arose  a  second  crop  of  epic 
poems,  artificial  in  style,  product  of  an 
age  when  the  literary  language  had  long 
lost  touch  of  the  popular  mind.  Their 
subject-matter,  such  as  there  is,  is  en- 
tirely derived  from  the  old  legends;  but 
the  form  in  which  it  is  here  presented 
has  nothing  of  the  old  popular  ring  about 
it.  Of  such  poems  (kdvya)  there  ex- 
isted a  considerable  number;  but  the  na- 
tive taste  has  singled  out  six  of  them  as 
mahakavyas  or  great  poems — viz.,  two 
by  Kalidasa,  by  far  the  greatest  poet  of 
this  period,  the  "Raghuvam'sa"  and  the 
"Kumarasambhava";  further  the  "Kirar- 
tarjuniya"  by  Bharav'i  (probably  a  con- 
temporary of  Kalidasa,  500-550  A.  D.) ; 
the  "S'is'upalabadha"  by  Magha,  hence 
also  called  "Mahakavya,"  the  "Ravana- 
badha"  or  "Bhattikavya,"  composed  by 
Bhatti  with  the  view  of  illustrating  the 
less  common  grammatical  forms  of 
speech;  and  the  "Naishadhiya"  of  S'ri 
Harsha    (12th  century). 

While  the  main  body  of  the  Vedic 
hymns  are  the  immediate  outgrowth  of 
a  worship  of  the  elemental  forces  of  na- 
ture, not  a  few  of  the  hymns,  especially 
the  later  ones,  evidence  a  strong  tendency 
toward  metaphysical  speculation.  It  is 
only  in  the  "Upanishads,"  however,  that 
we  meet  with  the  first  attempts  at  some 
kind  of  systematic  treatment  of  the  great 
problems  of  mundane  existence,  and  of 
the  nature  of  the  absolute  spirit  and  its 
relation  to  the  human  mind.  The  drift 
of  speculative  inquiry  in  those  days,  as 
ever   afterward,    is    determined    by    two 


SAN    STEFANO 


241       SANTA    BARBARA    CHANNEL 


cardinal  notions  which  are  never  ques- 
tioned, and  have  assumed  the  force  of 
axioms  in  Hindu  philosophy — viz.,  the 
pantheistic  notion  of  the  spiritual  unity 
of  all  sentient  beings,  and  the  transmi- 
gration of  souls. 

Six  philosophical  systems  are  recog- 
nized by  orthodox  Hindus,  which  fall, 
however,  into  three  pairs  so  closely  con- 
nected that  each  pair  forms  a  common 
school  of  philosophy — viz.,  "Mimamsa" 
and  "Vedanta,"  "Sankhya"  and  "Yoga," 
"Nyaya"  and  "Vai'seshika."  Nothing 
certain  is  as  yet  known  as  to  their  date 
or  order.  The  tenets  of  each  system 
are  propounded  in  a  manual  of  concise 
aphorisms,  ascribed  to  the  respective 
founders,  and  commented  on  by  numerous 
writers. 

The  "Vedanta,"  i.  e.,  "end  of  the  Veda" 
— as  the  "Uttara-Mimamsa"  ("Later 
Inquiry")  is  more  commonly  called — is 
the  system  most  closely  in  accord  with 
the  development  of  religious  thought  in 
Brahmanical  India.  According  to  this 
system,  God  is  the  omniscient  and  omnip- 
otent cause,  efficient  as  well  as  material, 
of  the  world:  He  is  both  creator  and 
nature;  and  at  the  consummation  of 
things  all  are  resolved  into  Him. 

The  individual  soul  is  of  the  same 
essence  as  the  supreme  one;  it  emanates 
from  Him  like  one  of  the  sparks  that 
issue  from  a  blazing  fire,  and  ultimately 
returns  to  Him.  It  is  not  a  free  agent, 
but  ruled  by  God ;  its  activity — the  source 
of  its  suffering — being  solely  due  to  its 
bodily  organs. 

The  "Yoga"  school,  founded  by  Patan- 
jali,  accepts  the  speculative  system  of 
the  Sankhya  witb  its  25  principles;  but 
adds  thereto  a  26th — viz.,  the  "self  de- 
void of  attributes,"  the  supreme  god  of 
the  school,  whence  the  "Yoga"  is  also 
called  the  Theistic  Sankhya. 

SAN  STEFANO,  TREATY  OF,  a 
treaty  which  put  an  end  to  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War;  concluded  March  3,  1878, 
at  San  Stefano,  a  town  W.  of  Constan- 
tinople and  a  port  on  the  Sea  of  Mar- 
mora. By  its  terms  Bulgaria  was  to 
become  a  principality,  extending  from 
the  Danube  to  the  iEgean,  and  Rumania, 
Servia,  and  Montenegro  were  recognized 
as  independent.  Russia  was  to  receive 
a  war  indemnity  of  300,000,000  roubles, 
and  the  Dobrudja,  Kars,  Batum,  and 
other  possessions.  The  congress  held  at 
Berlin,  in  June  and  July,  1878,  greatly 
altered  the  provisions  of  this  treaty,  ef- 
fecting peace  on  somewhat  more  moder- 
ate terms. 

SANTA  ANA,  a  city  of  California, 
the  county-seat  of  Orange  co.  It  is  on 
the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  Atchison, 
Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  railroads,  and  the 


Pacific  Electric  railway.  Its  public  in- 
stitutions include  two  libraries  and  a 
polytechnic  high  school.  It  has  several 
large  beet  sugar  factories.  Pop.  (1910) 
8,429;   (1920)   15,485. 

SANTA  ANA,  or  SANTA  ANNA,  AN- 
TONIO LOPEZ  DE,a  Mexican  president; 
born  in  Jalapa,  Mexico,  Feb.  21,  1795.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  Spaniards  from  Mexico,  and  pro- 
claimed the  Mexican  Republic  in  1822. 
He  was  in  the  front  during  all  the  Mexi- 
can troubles  till  1833  when  he  became 
president.  In  1836  he  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Texans,  but  re- 
turned the  following  year.  He  was  again 
president  in  1846  and  commanded  in  the 
war  with  the  United  States  (1846-1848). 
After  General  Scott's  occupation  of  the 
City  of  Mexico,  in  September,  1847,  he 
resigned  and  left  the  country,  but  was 
president  in  1853-1855.  He  died  in  the 
City  of  Mexico,  June  20,  1876. 

SANTAYANA,  GEORGE,  a  Spanish- 
American  poet  and  educator;  born  in 
Spain  in  1863.  He  was  assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy  at  Harvard,  and 
published:  "Sonnets  and  Other  Poems," 
and  "The  Sense  of  Beauty:  An  Outline 
of  iEsthetic  Theory"  (1896);  "Lucifer: 
A  Theological  Tragedy"  (1899) ;  "In- 
terpretations of  Poetry  and  Religion" 
(1900) ;  "The  Hermit's  Christmas" 
(1901)  ;  "The  Life  of  Reason"  (5  vols. 
1905-1906);  "Three  Philosophical  Poets; 
Lucretius,  Dante  and  Goethe"  (1910) ; 
"Winds  of  Doctrine"  (1913),  etc. 

SANTA  BARBARA,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Santa  Barbara  co.,  Cal.;  an 
Santa  Barbara  channel,  and  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  railroad;  362  miles 
S.  E.  of  San  Francisco.  It  is  located  in 
a  region  of  equable  climate,  which 
makes  it  famous  as  a  midwinter  health 
resort.  It  is  also  in  a  section  rich  in 
agriculture  and  stock  raising,  and  in  the 
production  of  fruit  and  wool.  Here  are 
a  State  Normal  School  of  Manual  Arts, 
St.  Anthony's  College,  City  hall,  Federal 
building,  parks,  a  high  school,  libraries, 
street  railroad  and  electric  light  plants, 
many  mineral  springs,  National  and 
State  banks,  and  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers. There  is  a  fine  harbor,  and 
daily  steamboat  service  N.  and  S.  Santa 
Barbara  exports  English  walnuts,  olive 
oil,  lima  beans,  and  citrus  fruits.  Pop. 
(1910)   11,659;   (1920)  19,441. 

SANTA  BARBARA  CHANNEL,  a 
passage  of  the  sea  between  San  Miguel, 
Santa  Rosa,  Santa  Cruz,  and  Anacapa  i, 
islands  of  the  Santa  Barbara  group,  and 
the  coast  of  California;  its  width  varies 
from  20  to  30  miles. 


SANTA    BARBARA    ISLANDS        242 


SANTANDER 


SANTA      BARBARA      ISLANDS,      a 

group  of  islands  off  the  coast  of  Cali- 
fornia, extending  about  175  miles.  They 
lie  opposite  Santa  Barbara,  Los  Angeles, 
and  San  Diego  counties,  at  a  distance 
varying  from  20  to  65  miles.  They  are 
nine  in  number,  and  consist  of  San 
Miguel,  Santa  Rosa,  Santa  Cruz,  Ana- 
capa,  Santa  Barbara,  Santa  Catalina,  San 
Clemente,  San  Nicholas,  and  San  Juan. 

SANTA  CATHARINA  (-ka-ta-ree'nii), 
a  maritime  state  of  South  Brazil,  bor- 
dering on  the  Atlantic;  area,  28,124 
square  miles;  surface,  mountainous,  ex- 
cept along  the  coast,  which  is  low;  soil, 
generally  fertile;  climate,  mild  and 
healthy;  productions,  rice,  manioc,  millet, 
sugar,  coffee,  and  cochineal.  Chief 
towns:  Desterro  (capital,  on  Santa  Ca- 
tarina  Island),  Sao  Francisco,  and  La- 
guna.     Pop.  about  441,300. 

A  fortified  island  of  Brazil,  off  the 
coast  of  the  above  state,  30  miles  long, 
and  8  broad.  Surface,  mountainous  and 
well  watered. 

SANTA  CLARA,  a  province  of  Cuba, 
in  the  central  part  of  the  island,  with 
an  area  of  8,266  square  miles.  It  is 
partly  mountainous  and  partly  plateau, 
much  devoted  to  culture  of  sugar  cane 
and  tobacco.  The  province  is  traversed 
by  a  railroad  connecting  it  directly  with 
Havana.  The  capital,  a  town  of  the 
same  name,  is  185  miles  east-southeast 
of  Havana.  The  population  of  the  prov- 
ince is    (1919)    657,697. 

SANTA  CLARA,  an  inland  city  of 
Cuba,  in  the  province  of  the  same  name, 
situated  on  the  main  line  of  the  Cuban 
railroad,  about  185  miles  east-southeast 
of  Havana.  It  -is  the  second  largest  city 
in  Cuba,  with  a  population  of  (1919) 
63,151.  It  is  of  considerable  importance 
as  a  shipping  point  of  the  sugar  and 
tobacco  raised  in  that  part  of  the  island. 

SANTA  CLAUS.    See  St.  Nicholas. 

SANTA  CRUZ,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Santa  Cruz  co.,  Cal. ;  on  the  San  Lo- 
renzo river,  Monterey  Bay,  and  the 
Southern  Pacific  railroad  and  several 
steamship  lines ;  76  miles  S.  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. It  is  one  of  the  best  known  water- 
ing-places in  California,  being  situated 
on  a  sheltered  and  beautiful  site  on  the 
N.  shore  of  the  bay.  It  contains  a  high 
school,  public  library,  street  railroad  and 
electric  light  plants,  waterworks,  State 
banks,  and  daily,  weekly,  and  monthly 
periodicals.  Sequoia  National  park,  con- 
taining the  famous  big  trees,  is  a  few 
miles  distant.  It  has  manufactories  of 
soap,  glue,  lime,  leather,  powder,  lumber, 
paper,  bitumen,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  11,- 
146;    (1920)    10,917. 


SANTA  CRUZ,  the  capital  and  chief 
port  of  the  Canary  Islands  on  the  N.  E. 
coast  of  Teneriffe.  The  streets  are  well 
paved,  but  the  houses  are  small  and  the 
public  buildings  few.  There  is  an  ex- 
cellent harbor  protected  by  a  mole,  and 
the  coast  is  defended  by  a  number  of 
forts.  Wine,  brandy,  tobacco,  and  coch- 
ineal are  the  chief  exports.  Pop.  about 
80,000. 

SANTA  CRUZ  ISLANDS,  an  archipel- 
ago in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  between  the 
New  Hebrides  and  the  Solomon  Islands; 
area,  360  square  miles.  It  is  under 
British   protectorate. 

SANTA  FE  a  city,  capital  of  the 
State  of  New  Mexico,  and  county-seat  of 
Santa  Fe  co. ;  on  Santa  Fe  creek,  and  on 
the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande,  the  Atchi- 
son, Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe,  and  the  New 
Mexico  Central  railroads;  20  miles  E. 
of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  275  miles  S.  by 
W.  of  Denver,  Col.  The  city  contains  a 
United  States  Government  building,  the 
Capitol  built  of  cream  sandstone,  court 
house,  the  University  of  New  Mexico, 
St.  Michael's  College  (R.  C),  Loretto 
Academy,  New  Mexico  School  for  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb,  schools  for  Indian  boys 
and  girls,  the  School  of  American  Ar- 
chaeology, penitentiary,  Roman  Catholic 
Orphan  Asylum,  St.  Vincent's  Hospital, 
etc.  There  are  also  waterworks,  electric 
lights,  a  National  bank  and  daily  and 
several  weekly  newspapers.  The  indus- 
tries consist  principally  of  farming,  min- 
ing, and  stock  raising.  The  climate  is 
very  agreeable.  In  the  old  city  the  un- 
paved  streets  are  narrow,  crooked,  and 
ancient  looking,  and  the  buildings  are 
nearly  all  of  adobe  and  one  story  high. 
When  first  visited  by  the  Spaniards, 
about  1542,  the  town  was  a  populous 
pueblo.  Pop.  (1910)  5,072;  (1920) 
7,236. 

SANTA  MONICA,  a  city  of  California, 
in  Los  Angeles  co.  It  is  on  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  on  the  Pacific  Electric  rail- 
road. Its  fine  bathing  and  boating  facili- 
ties make  it  a  popular  summer  resort. 
It  has  a  large  amusement  pier  and  a 
concrete  pier  of  over  1,600  feet  long. 
Its  notable  institutions  include  a  library, 
St.  Catherine's  Hospital,  and  the  Santa 
Monica  Military  Academy.  Several  mo- 
tion picture  concerns  have  their  studios 
here.     Pop.   (1910)   7,847;   (1920)   15,252. 

SANTANDER,  a  seaport  on  the  N. 
coast  of  Spain;  on  an  inlet  of  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  about  equally  distant  from 
Oviedo  on  the  W.  and  San  Sebastian  on 
the  E.;  316  miles  N.  of  Madrid.  The  bay 
on  which  it  stands  is  accessible  to  the 
largest  vessels  at  all  times.  The  town 
occupies  a  picturesque  site,  but  is  quite 


SANTA    ROSA 


243 


SANTIAGO    DE    CUBA 


modern  in  appearance.  Of  its  former 
convents  one  now  serves  as  a  theater,  an- 
other a  cigar  factory.  The  remaining 
industries  are  chiefly  breweries,  cotton, 
paper,  and  flour  mills,  iron  foundries, 
and  ship-building  yards.  The  commerce 
of  the  port  increases  steadily:  the  ex- 
ports— flour,  wine,  foodstuffs,  and  metals 
— have  in  some  years  reached  a  value 
of  about  $5,000,000,  and  the  imports — 
tobacco,  foodstuffs,  codfish,  iron  and 
steel  goods,  textiles,  coal,  petroleum, 
chemicals,  timber,  upward  of  $10,000,000. 
Santander  is  a  favorite  seaside  resort 
in  summer.  It  was  here  Charles  I.  em- 
barked for  England  after  his  trip  to  the 
Spanish  court.  The  town  was  sacked  by 
Soult  in  1808.     Pop.    (1918)    72,700. 

SANTA  ROSA,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Sonoma  co.,  Cal. ;  on  Santa  Rosa 
creek,  and  on  the  Southern  Pacific,  the 
Petaluma  and  Santa  Rosa  and  the  North- 
western Pacific  railroads;  52  miles  N.  by 
W.  of  San  Francisco.  It  is  in  a  fertile 
valley  and  has  a  delightful  climate,  high- 
ly adapted  to  the  culture  of  grapes  and 
other  fruit.  The  experimental  gardens 
of  Luther  Burbank  are  located  here.  It 
contains  several  educational  institutions, 
a  National  bank,  and  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers.  There  are  manufactories 
of  iron,  soap,  carriages;  fruit  canning, 
etc.     Pop.  (1910)  7,817;   (1920)  8,758. 

SANTA  TECLA,  or  NUEVA  SAN 
SALVADOR,  a  city  of  the  Republic  of 
Salvador,  8  miles  S.  W.  of  the  capital, 
San  Salvador.  It  is  a  handsome  town, 
with  modern  buildings,  wide  plazas,  hos- 
pital, schools,  and  interesting  churches. 
It  is  in  the  center  of  a  picturesque  val- 
ley, being  within  view  of  the  volcano  of 
the  same  name,  and  represents  an  at- 
tempt to  establish  a  new  capital  after 
the  destruction  of  San  Salvador  city  by 
an  earthquake  in  1854.  Pop.  (1920) 
23,291. 

SANTIAGO,  a  province  of  Chile,  in- 
closed by  the  Pacific  on  the  W.  and  by 
Argentina  in  the  E.,  with  the  provinces 
of  O'Higgins  and  Colchagua  on  the  S., 
and  those  of  Aconcagua  and  Valparaiso 
on  the  N.  It  is  very  mountainous,  but 
agriculture  is  highly  developed  in  the 
valleys^  aided  by  artificial  irrigation. 
There  is  some  mining  and  salt  is  obtained 
from  the  coastal  lagoons.  The  capital 
is  Santiago.    Pop.   (1919)  640,087. 

SANTIAGO,  or  SANTIAGO  DE 
CHILE,  the  capital  of  Chile  and  of  the 
province  of  Santiago,  situated  near  the 
River  Maipo  in  the  central  valley  be- 
tween the  Andes  and  the  coast  range,  69 
miles  S.  E.  of  Valparaiso.  The  site  is 
picturesque,  with  a  lofty  inclosure  of 
mountains    filling    the    horizon.      In    the 


east  the  white  summit  of  Aconcagua  with 
some  lesser  heights  of  the  Andes  may 
be  seen.  The  city  itself  is  undulating 
and  its  central  part  is  the  red  porphyry 
hillock  of  Santa  Lucia,  the  stronghold 
of  the  first  settlers  besieged  by  the 
Arauconion  Indians.  It  has  magnificent 
streets  and  buildings,  with  highly  de- 
veloped street  railways.  The  great 
apartment  houses  and  private  dwellings 
are  extremely  artistic  and  luxurious  and 
its  boulevards,  among  them  the  Alameda, 
are  among  the  finest  in  America.  The 
Hall  of  Congress,  Exposition  Palace, 
opera  house,  cathedral,  University  build- 
ing, National  library,  National  museum 
are  all  magnificent  buildings.  Pop.  (1918) 
415,641. 

SANTIAGO,  or  SANTIAGO  DE  LOS 
CABALLEROS,  a  town  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo; on  the  Yaqui  river;  is  one  of  the 
most  important  towns  of  the  republic, 
having  large  commercial  interests  and 
an  extensive  tobacco  trade.  Pop.  (1917) 
14,744. 

SANTIAGO  DE  COMPOSTELA,  a  city 
of  Spain;  in  the  province  of  Corunna, 
and  on  the  slope  of  Monte  Pedroso.  It 
is  the  see  of  an  archbishop.  The  cathe- 
dral, begun  1082,  is  in  the  form  of  a 
Latin  cross;  near  it  is  a  large  hostel, 
founded  for  pilgrims.  The  town  was 
built  around  a  chapel,  afterward  made 
the  cathedral,  on  the  site  popularly  be- 
lieved to  be  the  grave  of  the  apostle 
St.  James,  whose  bones  are  said  to  be 
in  the  foundation.  For  several  centuries 
it  was  the  most  frequented  place  of  pil- 
grimage of  western  Europe,  and  it  has 
been  called  the  "Mecca  of  Spain."  The 
cathedral  has  a  modern  front,  but  part 
of  the  interior  was  built  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury and  is  noted  for  its  splendid  pro- 
portions, lofty  outline,  and  beautiful 
Gothic  columns.  There  is  a  large  hos- 
pital founded  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
in  1504,  and  a  university  founded  in 
1504.  There  are  many  ruined  convents 
in  the  city.  It  has  numerous  manufac- 
tures of  hosiery,  linen,  cotton,  silk, 
leather,  paper,  and  wine,  but  its  trade 
has  much  declined  during  the  last  four 
centuries.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

SANTIAGO  DE  CUBA,  a  city,  seaport, 
and  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
Oriente,  Cuba ;  on  a  beautiful  harbor 
opening  through  a  narrow  pass  into  the 
Caribbean  Sea.  It  was  made  famous  in 
the  American-Spanish  War  by  the  splen- 
did victory  achieved  by  the  American 
fleet  outside  of  its  harbor,  and  the  later 
occupation  of  the  city  by  American 
troops  on  the  surrender  of  the  Spanish 
army.  The  Spaniards  claim  that  it  is 
the   oldest   city   in   North   America.     It 


SANTIS 


244 


SANTO  DOMINGO 


was  founded  in  1514  by  Diego  Velasquez, 
the  conqueror.  Among  the  city's  notable 
buildings  are  Morro  Castle  (1640) ;  the 
Cathedral,  Government  House,  the  mili- 
tary barracks  and  hospital.  When  the 
American  Government  assumed  control, 
July  17,  1899,  of  that  portion  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Santiago  included  in  the  sur- 
rendered territory,  industries  were  at  a 
standstill  and  estates  generally  destroyed. 
Under  American  rule  all  was  changed. 
Sanitation  was  introduced,  schools  and 
houses  were  built  in  destroyed  towns, 
while  public  works  supplied  all  willing  to 
work  with  means  for  subsistence.  Trade 
revived,  estates  were  restored  to  a  flour- 
ishing condition  and  prosperity  returned  to 
the  city  and  province.   Pop.  (1919)  70,232. 

SANTIS,  or  SENTIS,  a  mountain  on 
the  borders  of  the  Swiss  cantons  of  St. 
Gall  and  Appenzell,  consists  of  three 
parallel  ridges,  separated  by  deep  val- 
leys and  connected  by  lofty  saddles.  The 
highest  point  is  8,216  feet  above  sea- 
level.  There  are  on  the  mountain,  which 
commands  very  beautiful  views,  an  ob- 
servatory and  a  hotel. 

SANTLEY,  CHARLES,  SIR,  an  Eng- 
lish baritone  singer;  born  in  Liverpool, 
England,  Feb.  28,  1834;  acquired  a  knowl- 
edge of  his  art  in  Italy  under  Gaetano 
Nava,  and  in  London  under  Garcia;  ap- 
peared for  the  first  time  in  1857,  and 
achieved  his  first  great  success  at  the 
Handel  Festival  in  the  Crystal  Palace 
in  1862.  He  visited  Australia  1889-1890 
and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1893,  and 
made  tours  in  Italy,  Spain  and  the 
United  States.  After  that  he  appeared 
constantly  at  oratorios,  concerts,  and 
operas  as  a  baritone  of  great  compass 
and  finished  expression.  He  wrote  "Stu- 
dent and  Singer,"  "The  Art  of  Singing" 

(1906) ;     "Reminiscences    of     My    Life" 

(1909). 

SANTO  DOMINGO,  a  republic  occupy- 
ing the  E.  part  of  the  island  of  Haiti, 
one  of  the  Greater  Antilles,  West  Indies. 
There  are  several  mountain  ranges  run- 
ning E.  and  W.,  between  which  are  large 
and  fertile  plains.  The  country  is  well 
watered,  the  most  important  rivers  being 
the  Yaqui,  Yuna,  and  Ozama.  The  coast 
is  irregular,  having  a  number  of  deep 
indentations  which  afford  excellent  har- 
bors. The  climate  on  the  coast  is  hot 
and  in  some  sections  unhealthful.  In 
the  interior  it  varies,  being  mild  and 
salubrious  in  the  more  elevated  districts. 
Area  19,332  square  miles.  Pop.  (1919) 
about  1,000,000,  mostly  negroes,  and 
over  10,000  whites.  Spanish  is  generally 
spoken  in  the  country,  French  and  Eng- 
lish in  the  towns.  Capital,  Santo  Do- 
mingo. 


Religion  and  Education. — The  State 
religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  though  other 
forms  of  worship  with  certain  restric- 
tions are  tolerated.  There  are  in  all 
54  parishes.  Primary  education  is  free 
and  obligatory.  The  public  or  state 
schools  consist  of  primary,  superior, 
technical,  and  normal  schools,  and  a  pro- 
fessional school  similar  to  a  university. 
In  1920  there  were  972  schools,  26  sec- 
ondary, one  normal,  one  law  and  one  medi- 
cal school. 

Government. — The  Santo  Domingo  Con- 
stitution dates  from  1844.  Its  Congress 
consists  of  a  Senate  of  12  and  Chamber  of 
Deputies  of  24  members.  Each  of  the  12 
provinces  is  represented  by  one  senator 
and  two  deputies.  A  U.  S.  Military  Gov- 
ernor had  supervision  after  1916. 

Commerce.  —  The  imports  in  1919  were 
valued  at  £4,403,825  and  the  exports  at 
£7,920,378.  The  chief  articles  of  import 
were  cotton  goods,  iron  and  steel  manu- 
factures, rice,  vegetable  fibers,  chemical 
products  and  drugs,  leather  and  manu- 
factures, and  agricultural  implements. 
The  greater  part  of  the  sugar  and  cocoa 
are  shipped  directly  to  the  United  States 
and  a  large  part  is  transshipped  to  Eu- 
rope and  Canada.  The  sugar  exports 
in  1919  were  valued  at  £20,697,761. 

Finances. — The  estimated  revenue  in 
1919  was  $7,973,000.  The  figures  for  ex- 
penditures indicated  a  surplus  of  $33,686. 
For  the  year  1920  the  estimated  entire 
revenue  was  $12,000,000.  The  expenditures 
were  not  expected  to  reach  beyond  $8,160,- 
000.  The  Dominican  Republic's  chief 
source  of  revenue  is  the  customs  collec- 
tions. A  treaty  concluded  between  Santo 
Domingo  and  the  United  States  in  1907 
authorized  the  issue  of  $20,000,000  in  5% 
bonds,  secured  by  a  first  lien  on  the 
customs  revenue  of  the  Republic.  By 
the  terms  of  this  treaty  the  President 
of  the  United  States  appointed  a  gen- 
eral receiver  of  Dominican  customs,  and 
a  sinking  fund  was  established  for  the 
service  of  the  loan.  In  1918  bonds 
were  issued  to  the  amount  of  $5,000,- 
000  for  the  purpose  of  settling  claims 
and  indebtedness  accumulated  prior  to 
the  establishment  of  the  military  govern- 
ment. 

History. — The  early  history  of  this 
portion  of  the  island,  which  remained 
Spanish  when  the  W.  part  was  ceded  to 
France  in  1697,  and  which  was  united 
with  the  neighboring  state  in  1795-1808, 
and  in  1822-1843,  properly  belongs  to 
that  of  Haiti  (q.  v.).  In  1843  it  as- 
sumed a  separate  standing  as  the  Santo 
Domingo  republic,  the  anarchy  and  mis- 
rule of  which  it  exchanged  in  1861  for 
the  despotism  of  it3  former  masters.  But 
the    harsh    Spanish    rule    brought    on    a 


SANTONIN 


245 


SAO    PAULO 


revolt  in  1863.  The  Spaniards  were 
driven  out  by  a  force  headed  by  Jose 
Maria  Cabral  in  1865,  and  the  constitu- 
tion of  1844,  with  a  few  changes  was  re- 
affirmed. In  1905  the  President  of  the 
United  States  undertook  to  adjust  all 
the  heavy  financial  obligations  of  the 
Dominican  Government.  In  1914  the 
United  States  sent  a  body  of  Marines 
to  supervise  the  elections  in  Santo  Do- 
mingo, and  later  American  troops  were 
employed  to  put  down  a  revolt  which 
arose  in  connection  with  the  elections. 
Troops  were  retained  in  the  Republic 
and  it  became  virtually  an  American 
protectorate,  and  a  Military  Governor, 
who  in  1920  was  Rear-Admiral  Thomas 
Snowden,  was  virtually  the  executive 
head  of  the  island. 

SANTONIN,  in  chemistry,  Ci5H1803; 
santonic  acid.  The  active  constituent  of 
the  blossoms  and  seeds  of  Artemisia  san- 
tonica,  discovered  by  Kahler  in  1830.  It 
crystallizes  in  lustrous  six-sided  flat 
prisms,  which  melt  at  168°-170° ;  insol- 
uble in  cold  water,  very  soluble  in  alcohol 
and  ether.  It  is  much  esteemed  as  an  an- 
thelmintic. 

SANTORINI'S  CARTILAGES,  in  an- 
atomy, two  small,  yellowish,  conical  car- 
tilaginous nodules,  articulated  with  the 
tips  of  the  arytenoid  cartilages;  named 
from  their  discoverer,  G.  B.  Santorini, 
an  Italian  anatomist   (1681-1736). 

SANTOS,  a  seaport  of  Brazil,  on  the 
N.  of  the  island  of  Engua  Guacu,  34 
miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Sao  Paulo.  Its  harbor 
is  large  and  commodious,  and  it  has  an 
active  trade  in  sugar  and  coffee.  Pop. 
about  90,000. 

SANTOS  -  DUMONT,  ALBERTO,  a 
French  aeronaut;  born  in  Brazil,  South 
America,  about  1874;  was  educated  large- 
ly in  France,  and  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  made  his  home  in  Paris.  He  was 
much  interested  in  the  problem  of  aerial 
navigation  and  devoted  his  time  and  for- 
tune to  the  solution  of  the  question.  In 
1900  he  made  several  partly  successful 
attempts  to  fly  with  his  dirigible  bal- 
loon; but  it  was  not  until  1901  that  he 
succeeded  in  perfectly  controlling  his  ma- 
chine in  the  face  of  a  strong  wind.  In 
September,  1901,  he  won  the  Deutsch 
prize  of  $20,000  for  the  navigation  of  a 
flying  machine  under  certain  conditions. 
In  January,  1902,  he  made  several  suc- 
cessful flights  near  Monte  Carlo.  Cheva- 
lier Legion  of  Honor  1904;  officer  in 
1909. 

SAO-FRANCISCO,  a  river  of  Brazil, 
known  in  its  upper  course  as  the  Parao- 
peba.  It  rises  in  the  S.  W.  of  the  prov- 
ince   of    Minas    Geraes,    flows  N.  N.  E. 


through  that  province  and  the  province 
of  Bahia,  forms  the  boundary  between 
the  latter  province  and  Pernambuco,  and 
falls  into  the  Atlantic  50  miles  N.  N.  E. 
of  the  town  of  Sergipe  del  Rey;  length, 
1,600  miles,  with  numerous  rapids  and 
cataracts,  which  make  its  continuous 
navigation  impossible. 

SAONE,  a  river  of  France,  rising  in 
the  department  of  Vosges.  After  a  S. 
course  of  300  miles,  it  joins  the  Rhone 
at  Lyons.     It  is  navigable  for  232  miles. 

SAONE,  HAUTE  (6t  s5n)  (Upper  Sa- 
one), a  department  in  the  east  of 
France;  area,  2,074  square  miles.  It  is 
drained  by  the  Saone,  the  Ognon,  etc., 
and  there  are  many  small  lakes.  A  part 
of  the  department  belongs  to  the  Vosges 
mountains.  This,  which  comprises  about 
a  fourth  of  the  whole,  is  rugged  and  the 
soil  arid,  but  the  low-lying  basin  is  well 
watered  and  productive.  In  addition  to 
cereals,  flax  and  hemp  are  extensively 
cultivated;  the  ordinary  fruits  generally 
thrive  well,  and  some  districts  are  almost 
covered  with  cherry  plantations.  Iron 
is  extensively  worked,  but  the  main  oc- 
cupations are  agriculture  and  stockrais- 
ing.  Vesoul  is  the  capital.  Pop.  about 
257,000. 

SAONE-ET-LOIRE,  a  department  of 
France;  area,  3,330  square  miles.  It  is 
divided  by  a  mountain  range,  which  be- 
longs to  the  Cevennes,  and  it  takes  its 
name  from  the  two  streams  which  bound 
the  department  on  the  S.,  E.  and  W. 
respectively.  The  soil  on  the  whole  is 
not  of  remarkable  fertility,  the  finest 
part  of  the  department  being  the  valley 
of  the  Saone.  The  vine  is  extensively 
cultivated.  The  most  important  mineral 
is  coal,  of  which  there  is  an  extensive 
field;  iron  is  also  worked.  There  are 
manufactures  of  leather,  glass,  linen  and 
cotton  goods ;  and  the  trade  is  chiefly 
in  agricultural  produce,  coal,  iron,  wine, 
and  leather.  Macon  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
about  605,000. 

SAO  PAULO,  a  state  in  the  republic  of 
Brazil;  area,  112,278  square  miles; 
stretches  from  the  ocean  to  the  Parana 
river,  and  consists  of  a  strip  of  coast 
land  (8  to  80  miles  broad)  and  an  ele- 
vated region,  the  latter  occupying  all 
the  interior,  and  rising  from  1,600  feet; 
all  this  part  is  healthy,  and  the  climate 
pleasant.  The  principal  ranges  are  the 
Serras  da  Mantiqueira  and  do  Mar.  The 
rivers  are  numerous,  and  many  of  them 
of  importance;  regular  steamboat  ser- 
vice is  maintained  on  many.  Its  mineral 
wealth  includes  magnetic  iron,  gold, 
marble,  and  precious  stones.  There  is 
some  cattle  rearing  and  a  few  manu- 
factures; but  the  chief  industry  is  agri- 


SAP 


246 


SAPPHO 


culture.  The  principal  crop  is  coffee; 
next  follow  sugar,  cotton,  tobacco,  ma- 
nioc, maize,  and  grapes.  The  exports  of 
the  state — by  either  Rio  de  Janeiro  or 
its  own  chief  port,  Santos — amount  to 
almost  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  for  the 
republic.     Pop.  (1920)    4,823,100. 

Sao  Paulo,  the  capital,  is  on  a  plain 
bounded  by  low  hills;  4  miles  from  the 
Rio  Tiete  and  210  W.  by  S.  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  It  has  a  handsome  public  gar- 
den, and  tramways  running  out  to  the 
beautiful  suburbs.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  the  old  Jesuit  college,  now  the 
government  palace,  the  bishop's  palace, 
and  a  celebrated  law  school.  Sao  Paulo 
is  the  headquarters  of  the  coffee  trade, 
and  railways  connect  it  with  the  great 
coffee  districts  in  the  interior.  There  are 
cotton-weaving  and  printing  works,  and 
manufactories  of  tobacco,  cigars,  spirits, 
matches,  gloves,  and  hats.  Pop.  (1919) 
504,300. 

SAP,  the  nutrimental  fluid  which  cir- 
culates in  plants.  As  it  rises  in  the  stem 
it  is  of  a  watery  nature  and  contains 
the  various  inorganic  matters  absorbed 
by  the  roots,  also  some  sugar,  dextrine, 
and  other  organic  substances  which  it 
has  dissolved  in  its  upward  course.  In 
its  passage  to  the  leaves  it  becomes  more 
and  more  altered  from  the  state  in  which 
it  was  absorbed  by  the  roots;  but  when 
it  reaches  the  leaves  it  is  still  unfitted 
for  the  requirements  of  the  plant,  and 
is  hence  termed  crude  sap.  Through  the 
action  of  the  light  and  air  it  undergoes 
important  changes  in  the  leaves  and 
other  green  parts,  and  becomes  adapted 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  plant.  In 
this  state  it  is  termed  elaborated  sap. 
In  dicotyledons  this  elaborated  fluid  de- 
scends through  the  internal  bark  and 
cambium  layer  toward  the  root,  and  is 
transmitted  laterally  inward  by  the 
medullary  rays. 

SAPINDACE.ffi,  soapworts;  the  typi- 
cal order  of  Sapindales.  Trees,  shrubs, 
twining  and  with  tendrils,  rarely  climbing 
herbs;  leaves  alternate,  generally  com- 
pound, sometimes  dotted;  flowers  small, 
white  or  pink,  rarely  yellow.  Found  in 
S.  America,  in  India,  and  various  tropi- 
cal   countries;    tribes,    Sapindese,  Hippo- 

.  castanese,      Dodonex,      and      Melismese. 

I  Known  genera,  118;   species,  over  1,000. 

SAPONIN,  senegin;  polygalin;  a  sub- 
stance first  observed  in  the  common  soap- 
wort,  but  now  found  to  be  widely  dif- 
fused through  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
Quillaja  bark,  horse  chestnuts,  and 
senega  root  yield  it  in  considerable  quan- 
tities. The  powdered  substance  is  boiled 
in  strong  alcohol  and  filtered  hot;  the 
saponin    separates   in   flocks    on   cooling 


and  is  purified  by  animal  charcoal.  It 
is  a  white  friable  powder,  having  a  burn- 
ing and  persistently  disagreeable  taste, 
is  more  soluble  in  dilute  than  strong 
alcohol,  and  forms  with  water  a  frothy 
solution.  It  is  often  used  to  give  an 
artificial  froth  to  beer  and  effervescing 
beverages. 

SAPONITE,  an  amorphous  mineral 
occurring  as  nodules,  or  filling  crevices, 
and  forming  amygdules  in  igneous  rocks; 
soft,  but  brittle  when  dry;  color,  various; 
composition:  essentially  a  hydrated  sili- 
cate of  magnesia  and  alumina.  Also  a 
clay  resembling  soap,  occurring  in  the 
granite  of  the  hot  springs  of  Plombieres, 
France. 

SAPOR  I.,  or  SHAHPUR,  a  Persian 
king  who  reigned  A.  D.  240-272.  He 
belonged  to  the  dynasty  of  the  Sas- 
sanidse,  which  ruled  Persia  for  about 
400  years.  Sapor's  most  noteworthy 
achievement  was  his  successful  war  with 
the  Romans,  in  which  he  defeated,  took 
captive,  and  put  to  death  the  Emperor 
Valerian,    (a.  d.  260). 

SAPPER,  in  military  language,  a  term 
applied  in  England  to  officers  and  men 
of  the  Royal  Engineers,  who  were  orig- 
inally organized  as  a  corps  of  "Sappers 
and  Miners."  In  the  United  States  the 
work  of  the  old  sappers  and  miners  is 
now  done  by  the  Engineer  Corps. 

SAPPHIRE,  a  gem  excelled  in  value 
by  no  precious  stone  except  the  diamond, 
and  regarded  as  a  variety  of  corundum, 
highly  transparent  and  brilliant.  It  is 
sometimes  colorless  or  nearly  so.  It 
more  frequently  exhibits  exquisite  color, 
generally  a  bright  red  (i.  e.,  the  ruby) 
or  a  beautiful  blue — the  latter  being  that 
commonly  called  sapphire.  Purplish  or 
greenish  color  indicates  a  flaw;  and 
usual  defects  are  clouds,  milky  spots, 
flakes,  or  stripes.  It  is  found  crystal- 
lized, usually  in  six-sided  prisms,  ter- 
minated by  six-sided  pyramids;  it  is 
sometimes  found  imbedded  in  gneiss,  but 
more  frequently  occurs  in  alluvial  soils. 
It  occurs  in  Bohemia  and  Saxony,  but 
European  sapphires  are  of  no  commer- 
cial importance.  The  finest  are  found 
in  Ceylon;  Kashmir  and  Burma  also 
produce  fine  specimens;  and  sapphires 
are  found  in  Victoria,  New  South  Wales, 
and  parts  of  the  United  States.  The 
value  depends  on  quality  more  than  on 
size,  and  does  not  increase  with  the  size 
as  does  the  ruby. 

SAPPHO  (saf 6),  a  renowned  Greek 
lyric  poet;  born  in  the  island  of  Lesbos 
about  612  B.  c.  She  wrote  nine  books 
of  poems,  but  besides  some  small  frag- 


SAPROPHYTIC  PLANTS 


247 


SARASATE 


ments  of  her  poems  we  have  in  complete 
form  only  a  "Hymn  to  Aphrodite"  and 
an  "Ode  to  a   Beautiful   Girl." 

SAPROPHYTIC  PLANTS,  plants  that 
feed  on  decaying  organic  matter.  In 
common  with  many  of  the  Parasitic 
Plants  (q.  v.),  which  are  plants  that 
live  on  or  in  and  at  the  expense  of  other 
organisms,  they  are  often  devoid  of 
chlorophyll.  The  reason  of  this  pecu- 
liarity is  obvious;  chlorophyll  being  the 
material  used  by  ordinary  plants  for  the 
decomposition  of  the  carbonic  acid  of 
the  air  in  order  that  they  may  retain  the 
carbon,  and  with  it  build  up  all  the  car- 
bon compounds  characteristic  of  organic 
nature,  it  is  plain  that  those  plants  which 
obtain  their  carbon  compounds  ready- 
made  up  to  a  certain  point  do  not  re- 
quire chlorophyll  from  which  to  manu- 
facture them.  If  the  saprophytism  be 
not  complete  or  "pure"  there  will  be  at 
least  some  chlorophyll  remaining,  as  in 
the  flowering  axis  of  the  orchid  Neottia. 
Saprophytes  may  obtain  their  nourish- 
ment and  especially  their  carbon  com- 
pounds either  from  the  remains  of  dead 
organisms  or  from  organic  compounds 
formed  by  living  organisms.  The  Fungi 
that  live  on  the  bark  of  trees  and  the 
leaf -soil  of  forests  and  meadows  (e.  g., 
mushrooms)  are  examples  of  the  former 
case;  those  that  feed  on  the  juice  of 
fruits  and  sugary  solutions  (e.  g.,  molds 
and  yeasts)    of  the  latter  case. 

Fungi  may  be  physiologically  classi- 
fied as  parasites  and  saprophytes;  but 
this  classification  does  not  coincide  with 
a  morphological  one.  Further,  there  are 
certain  species  which  lie  between  the  two 
extremes,  and  these  may  be  described 
as  parasites  which  may  become  wholly 
or  in  part  saprophytic  through  the 
whole  course  of  their  development  or  dur- 
ing certain  stages  of  it;  and  also  there 
are  saprophytes  which,  with  the  same 
variations,   may   become   parasitic. 

The  external  conditions  necessary  for 
the  commencement  of  germination  of 
Fungi  are  the  same  as  those  needful  to 
the  germs  and  seeds  of  other  plants ;  they 
are  a  certain  temperature,  a  supply  of 
oxygen  and  of  water,  in  certain  cases  a 
supply  of  nutrient  substances.  The 
Bpores  of  the  Perennosporeae  and  of  the 
Uredinea?  germinate  on  drops  of  pure 
water;  nutrient  solutions  may  even  be 
a  hindrance.  The  Mucorini,  on  the  other 
hand,  emit  only  rudimentary  germ  tubes 
in  pure  water;  they  require  a  nutrient 
solution  for  germination.  Most  Fungi 
vary  toward  one  extreme  or  other  accord- 
ing to  the  species. 

SAPSTTCKER,  the  popular  American 
name   of   several   small   woodpeckers. 


SAPUCAIA  NUTS,  the  seed  of  Lecy- 
this  ollaria  and  L.  zabucajo  trees,  plenti- 
ful in  the  forests  of  the  N.  of  Brazil, 
and  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Lecy- 
thidacese.  The  fruit  is  urn-shaped,  as 
large  as  a  child's  head.  Each  fruit  con- 
tains a  number  of  seeds  or  nuts,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  allied  Brazil  nut,  but  the 
flavor  is  finer. 

SAPULPA,  a  city  of  Oklahoma,  the 
county-seat  of  Creek  co.  It  is  on  the 
St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco  railroad. 
It  is  an  important  industrial  center,  has 
railroad  shops,  large  oil  refineries,  ma- 
chine shops,  glass,  mattress,  candy  and 
other  factories,  and  is  the  seat  of  an 
Indian  mission  school.  Pop.  (1910) 
8,283;    (1920)    11,634. 

SARACEN,  an  Arabian  or  other  Mus- 
sulman of  the  early  and  proselytizing 
period;  a  propagator  of  Mohammedan- 
ism in  countries  lying  to  the  W.  of  Ara- 
bia. It  was  also  applied  to  any  infidel 
nation  against  which  crusades  were 
preached,  such  as  the  Turks. 

SARAGOSSA  (Spanish,  Zaragoza),  a 
very  old  city  of  Spain,  the  capital  of  the 
old  kingdom  of  Aragon,  now  the  capital 
of  a  province  of  the  same  name  (area, 
6,726  square  miles;  pop.  about  500,000), 
on  the  Ebro  (which  separates  the  city 
from  its  suburbs),  176  miles  N.  E.  from 
Madrid.  Without  being  regularly  forti- 
fied, it  is  surrounded  by  an  earthen  wall 
and  is  built  throughout  of  bricks.  The 
houses  are  seldom  above  three  stories  in 
height;  the  streets  narrow  and  crooked, 
except  one  long  and  wide  one  called  the 
Cozo.  There  are  two  bridges  over  the 
Ebro.  The  public  buildings  are  numer- 
ous— churches,  convents,  and  two  cathe- 
drals celebrated  throughout  Spain.  The 
older  one  is  much  resorted  to  by  pil- 
grims, as  it  contains  a  pillar  on  which 
the  Virgin  is  said  to  have  descended,  and 
her  image  believed  to  have  fallen  from 
heaven.  The  city  has  a  university, 
founded  in  1474;  also  an  academy  of 
fine  arts,  and  other  educational  institu- 
tions. It  is  a  railroad  center  and  its 
commerce  and  industries  are  of  impor- 
tance. It  is  noted  in  history  for  the 
memorable  siege  it  sustained  against  the 
French,  under  Marshals  Mortier  and 
Lannes,  and  which  lasted  with  slight 
intermission  from  July  15,  1808,  to  Feb. 
21,  1809,  when  it  finally  surrendered, 
54,000  of  the  inhabitants  having  died, 
meantime,  chiefly  of  plague.  Pop.  (1918) 
124,998. 

SARASATE,  PABLO  MARTIN  ME- 
LITON  DE  SARASATE  Y  NAVAS- 
CUES,  Spanish  violinist;  born  at  Pam- 
plona, March  10,  1844.  He  went  to  France 
as   a   child   and   entered   the   Paris    Con- 


SARATOFF 


248 


SARCOPHAGUS 


servatoire  in  1856.  He  became  one  of 
the  greatest  concert  violinists  of  his 
time,  and  no  violinist  ever  traveled  more 
extensively.  He  composed  for  the  violin 
romances,  fantasias,  and  transcriptions 
of  Spanish  airs  and  dances.  He  died  in 
Biarritz  in   1908. 

SARATOV,  a  city  of  Russia,  on  the 
Volga;  500  miles  S.  E.  of  Moscow.  It 
is  a  city  of  broad  streets  and  fine  squares, 
and  stands  on  terraces  rising  from  the 
river.  There  are  nearly  30  churches;  a 
handsome  new  cathedral  (1825),  an  old 
cathedral  (1697),  and  Radistcheff's  Mu- 
seum, sheltering  a  fine  art  gallery  and 
a  library.  Prior  to  the  World  War  it 
had  manufactures  of  brandy,  liquors, 
flour,  oil,  and  tobacco.  Fishing  was  pros- 
ecuted in  the  river,  and  market  garden- 
ing (especially  fruit  and  the  sunflower) 
in  the  vicinity.  There  was  an  important 
trade  in  corn,  salt,  iron,  wooden  wares, 
textiles,  and  groceries.  The  city  was 
pillaged  by  Pugatcheff  in  1774  and  suf- 
fered severely  from  fire  several  times 
during  the  19th  century.  Pop.  about 
235,500. 

SARATOGA,  BATTLES  OF,  in  the 
Revolutionary  War,  two  battles  fought 
12  miles  E.  of  Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y. 
Burgoyne  led  the  British  in  the  first, 
while  the  Americans  were  under  com- 
mand of  Gates,  who  had  Morgan  and 
Arnold  as  subordinates.  The  fight  on 
Sept.  19,  1777,  was  indecisive.  On  Oct. 
7,  1777,  the  Americans  achieved  a  splen- 
did victory  over  the  British,  the  com- 
manders of  both  armies  being  the  same 
as  in  the  first  engagement.  The  result 
was  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne  and  his 
army,  numbering  5,752  men,  to  the  Amer- 
icans, Oct.  17,  1777.  These  contests  are 
sometimes  called  in  history  the  battles 
of  Stillwater  and  Bemis'  Heights.  The 
American  victory  came  at  a  critical 
period  of  the  Revolution.  It  frustrated 
the  British  plan  for  cutting  off  New  Eng- 
land from  the  other  states,  enlisted  the 
help  of  France,  altered  the  policy  of 
Parliament  and  the  King  and  saved  the 
cause  of  the  patriots.  Creasy  enumer- 
ates it  in  his  "Fifteen  Decisive  Battles 
of  the  World." 

SARATOGA  LAKE,  a  lake  in  Sara- 
toga co.,  N.  Y.,  4  miles  E.  of  Saratoga 
Springs.  It  is  about  5  miles  long  and 
2  miles  wide. 

SARATOGA  SPRINGS,  a  village  in 
Saratoga  co.,  N.  Y.;  on  the  Boston  and 
Maine  and  the  Delaware  and  Hudson 
railroads;  38  miles  N.  of  Albany.  Be- 
sides being  one  of  the  most  fashionable 
summer  resorts  in  the  world,  Saratoga  is 
visited  by  many  persons  for  its  medici- 
nal advantages.     Here  are  a  large  num- 


ber of  mineral  springs,  now  owned  by 
the  State  of  New  York,  together  with  a 
reservation  of  some  350  acres;  some  of 
these  are  of  great  celebrity,  the  water 
being  used  not  only  for  local  consump- 
tion, but  bottled  in  large  quantities  for 
exportation.  The  village  contains  over 
30  hotels,  some  of  great  elegance  and 
capable  of  accommodating  more  than 
1,000  guests  each.  Here  are  a  Conven- 
tion Hall,  Skidmore  School  of  Arts, 
Athenaeum,  several  private  schools,  hos- 
pital, armory,  National  banks,  and  daily, 
weekly,  and  monthly  periodicals.  There 
are  manufactures  of  paper,  furniture, 
machinery,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  12,693; 
(1920)    13,181. 

SARAWAK,  a  state  of  Borneo,  under 
British  government,  extending  from 
Cape  Datoo  on  the  W.  to  the  Samarahan 
river  on  the  E.  Area  about  42,000  square 
miles.  Coast  line  about  400  miles.  The 
aboriginal  inhabitants,  called  Dyaks, 
consist  of  various  wild  tribes  who  in 
1844  took  for  their  sovereign  an  Eng- 
lishman, Sir  James  Brooke  (q.  v.), 
through  whom  the  country  is  chiefly 
known.  Pop.  (1917)  600,000.  Capital, 
Kuching. 

SARCEY,  FRANCISQUE  (sar-sa'),  a 
French  author;  born  in  Dourdan,  France, 
Oct.  8,  1828.  As  dramatic  critic  for 
Paris  journals  he  was  highly  esteemed 
for  his  independence  of  judgment  and 
his  wide  acquaintance  with  dramatic 
literature.  He  published:  "History  of 
the  Siege  of  Paris";  "The  Word  and  the 
Thing,"  (1862)  ;  "Etienne  Moret," 
(1875)  ;  "Recollections  of  Youth"  (1884) ; 
"Recollections  of  Mature  Age"  (1892)  ; 
"The  Theater"  (1893),  etc.  He  died  in 
Paris,  May  16,  1899. 

SARCINA,  a  plant  of  doubtful  affinity, 
probably  a  fungus,  consisting  of  minute 
quadrilateral  bodies  in  fours,  or  some 
multiple  of  four.  S.  ventriculi  was  first 
observed  by  Goodsir  in  human  vomit. 

SARCOMA,  plural  SARCOMATA,  can- 
cerous growth,  consisting  of  connective 
tissue  cells  retaining  their  embryonic 
condition.  Those  that  remain  in  this  ele- 
mentary condition  are  round  cells;  those 
which  advance  one  stage  further  are 
spindle-shaped;  and  a  third  kind  orig- 
inating in  the  bone,  and  having  large 
nucleated  myeloid  cells,  are  called  mye- 
loid.    The  first  is  the  most  malignant. 

SARCOPHAGUS,  plural  SARCOPH- 
AGI, a  kind  of  stone  used  among  the 
Greeks  for  making  coffins,  and  so  called 
because  it  was  believed  to  have  the  prop- 
erty of  consuming  the  flesh  of  dead 
bodies  deposited  in  it  within  a  few  weeks. 
It  was   also   called   "A.ssos   stone,"  from 


SARD 


249 


SARDINIA 


being  found  at  Assos,  a  city  of  Lyeia, 
in  Asia  Minor. 

Hence  a  coffin  or  tomb  of  stone;  a 
kind  of  stone  chest  used  for  containing 
a  dead  body. 

SARD,  a  semi-precious  stone  of  very 
compact  variety  of  chalcedony  presenting 
on  a  fractured  surface  a  dull  horn-like 
aspect;  color,  pale  yellowish-red,  shades 
of  brown,  transparent  to  translucent. 
It  was  much  esteemed  by  the  ancient 
gem  engravers. 

SARDANAPALUS,  the  name  of  sev- 
eral princes  of  Assyria,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  whom  was  the  last  sovereign 
of  the  first  Assyrian  empire.  His  reign 
dates  from  836  to  817  B.  c,  when  he  was 
dethroned  by  Arbaces  and  Belesis,  at  the 
head  of  a  revolt  of  the  Medes,  Persians, 
and  Babylonians.  In  the  last  extremity, 
Sardanapalus,  who  had  withstood  a  siege 
for  three  years  in  Nineveh,  placed  him- 
self, his  treasures,  his  wives,  and  his 
eunuchs  on  a  funeral  pile,  which  he  fired 
with  his  own  hand.  He  had  ceased  to 
exist  when  the  city  was  taken,  and  that 
event  was  followed  by  the  dismember- 
ment of  the  Assyrian  empire.  The  above 
is  a  Greek  legend  (dates  uncertain)  of  the 
reign   of   Asshur-banipal.     See   Assyria. 

SARDICA,  anciently  a  town  in  Lower 
Dacia,  on  the  site  of  the  modern  Bul- 
garian town  of  Sofia  or  Sophia.  The 
town  is  chiefly  celebrated  as  the  place 
where  an  ecclesiastical  council  was  held 
in  343,  at  which  Athanasius  defended 
himself  against  the  Arians. 

SARDINE,  a  name  applied  to  several 
kinds  of  small  fish  of  the  family  Clu~ 
peidse,  the  true  Mediterranean  sardine. 
The  fishing  season  begins  early  in  June, 
and  is  now  successful  in  places  along 
the  Atlantic  coast  and  on  Puget  Sound. 
The  coasts  of  Norway  and  Brittany,  in 
France,  are  the  scenes  of  the  heaviest 
takes,  and  the  grade  of  sardines  ob- 
tained there  is  superior.  As  soon  as  the 
fishermen  notice  shoals  of  the  porpoise 
or  flocks  of  seagulls  off  shore  sail  is 
made  immediately,  for  the  sardine  is 
there.  In  the  United  States  an  exten- 
sive industry  is  carried  on,  especially  on 
the  New  England  coast,  in  the  way  of 
preserving  small  fish  which  are  sold 
under  the  name  of  sardines.  True  sar- 
dines having  been  discovered  along  the 
coast  of  California,  in  recent  years,  a 
large  business  has  developed  in  canning 
the  fish.  In  1920  there  were  16  fac- 
tories engaged  in  this  work. 

SARDINIA,  an  island  of  Italy,  after 
Sicily  the  largest  in  the  Mediterranean; 
135  miles  W.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber, 
and    immediately    S.    of    Corsica,    being 


separated  from  it  by  the  Strait  of  Boni- 
facio, TV2  miles  wide.  In  shape  it  re- 
sembles an  oblong  set  on  end,  with  a  deep 
wide  bay,  the  Gulf  of  Cagliari,  in  the 
S.,  and  another,  the  Gulf  of  Porto  Torres, 
in  the  N.  Area,  9,299  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  generally  mountainous,  the 
configuration  that  of  a  table-land  run- 
ning up  into  ranges  and  isolated  peaks. 
The  highest  points  occur  along  the  E. 
side  of  the  island,  and  reach  6,365  feet 
in  Gennargentu  in  the  center,  and  4,468 
in  the  mountains  of  Limbara  in  the  N. 
The  W.  side  of  the  island  ranges  at 
about  1,240  feet,  though  the  extinct  vol- 
cano of  Monte  Ferru  reaches  3,400.  The 
S.  W.  corner  is  separated  from  the  main 
mass  of  the  island  by  the  low  alluvial 
plain  of  Campidano,  which  stretches 
from  the  Gulf  of  Cagliari  to  the  Gulf  of 
Oristano,  on  the  W.  coast;  at  both  ex- 
tremities of  it  there  are  extensive  salt 
lagoons. 

Sardinia  is  in  nearly  all  respects  a 
backward  island.  It  has  fine  natural 
resources. — fertile  soil,  valuable  mines, 
extensive  forests,  rich  fisheries,  and  ex- 
cellent facilities  for  manufacturing  in- 
dustry. But  owing  to  the  old-fashioned 
conservatism  of  the  people,  their  apathy, 
their  primitive  methods  of  agriculture, 
lack  of  enterprise  and  capital,  and  want 
of  means  of  communication,  its  resources 
have  not  been  developed  as  they  might 
be.  Feudalism  was  not  finally  abolished 
in  the  island  till  1856.  Of  the  total  area 
about  one-third  is  arable  land,  one-third 
pasture,  and  nearly  one-third  (28  per 
cent.)  forest.  The  principal  produce  is 
wheat,  barley,  beans,  potatoes,  wine, 
olive  oil,  oranges,  lemons,  tobacco,  flax 
and  hemp,  cheese,  butter,  and  wool.  The 
breeding  of  horses  is  an  important  in- 
dustry; and  large  numbers  of  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  and  goats  are  kept.  There 
are  over  4,000  industrial  establishments 
employing  about  34,000  persons.  To- 
bacco and  gunpowder  made  in  large 
quantities    are    government   monopolies. 

Besides  being  in  ancient  times  the 
granary  of  Rome,  Sardinia  was  re- 
nowned for  its  mineral  wealth.  After 
lying  unused  from  the  fall  of  the  Ro- 
man empire  the  mines  were  again 
worked  by  the  Pisans  in  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries;  but  work  was  not  re- 
sumed in  them  with  any  degree  of  en- 
ergy till  toward  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century.  Iron,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  anti- 
mony, manganese,  and  lignite  exist. 
Granite,  marble,  and  clay  for  pottery 
are  quarried.  Salt  is  manufactured  from 
sea  water.  The  center  and  N.  of  the 
island  are  chiefly  covered  with  forests, 
though  they  are  being  all  too  rapidly 
diminished.  The  commonest  as  well  as 
the    most    valuable    trees    are    the    oak. 


SARDINIA 


250 


SARDONYX 


ilex,  cork,  and  wild  olive,  which  yield 
timber,  cork,  bark  for  tanning,  acorns, 
and  charcoal. 

The  seas  yield  large  quantities  of 
tunny,  sardines,  anchovy,  and  coral, 
though  the  fisheries,  except  for  tunny, 
are  not  prosecuted  by  Sardinians,  but 
by  Italians;  the  native  fishermen  pre- 
fer to  catch  trout,  eels,  lobsters,  crabs, 
etc.,  in  the  rivers  and  inland  lagoons. 
Sardinia  has  no  extensive  manufactur- 
ing industries,  though  there  is  some  tan- 
ning and  making  of  cigars,  aerated 
waters,  macaroni,  flour,  and  spirits. 
There  are,  however,  a  variety  of  do- 
mestic industries  for  home  use;  most  of 
the  women  still  ply  the  spinning  wheel. 
Till  the  year  1828  Sardinia  had  no  roads 
for  wheeled  vehicles,  the  Roman  roads 
having  gone  to  ruin  centuries  ago.  Now 
there  are  good  roads  throughout  the 
island;  and  they  are  supplemented  by 
railways. 

The  island  has  numerous  fairly  good 
ports — Cagliari  (the  capital),  Porto  Tor- 
res, Terranova,  Tortoli,  Alghero,  Carlo- 
forte,  and  Bosa — most  of  which  have 
been  improved  by  the  construction  of 
harbor  works.  The  inhabitants  are  for 
the  most  part  of  mixed  race,  Spanish 
and  Italian  elements  predominating. 
Pop.  about  881,000.  Education  is  in  a 
very  backward  state,  about  75  per  cent 
of  the  population  being  unable  to  read 
and  write.  There  are  universities  at 
Cagliari  and  Sassari.  The  practice  of 
the  vendetta  and  brigandage  have  now 
almost  entirely  ceased.  The  language  is 
a  mixture  of  Latin,  Spanish,  and  Italian. 
The  moufflon  or  wild  sheep,  with  red 
deer,  fallow  deer,  wild  boar,  and  an  abun- 
dance of  smaller  game,  such  as  hares, 
partridges,  woodcock,  snipe,  etc.,  are  the 
creatures  chiefly  hunted.  Administra- 
tively the  island  is  divided  into  the  two 
provinces  of  Cagliari  and  Sassari.  There 
are  three  archbishoprics,  Cagliari,  Sas- 
sari, and  Oristano,  and  eight  bishoprics. 

History. — The  aboriginal  inhabitants 
are  believed  to  have  been  of  Iberian 
stock,  though  this  is  by  no  means  cer- 
tain. They  seem  to  have  been  conquered 
by  the  Phoenicians  at  an  early  period; 
but  little  authentic  is  known  before  the 
conquest  by  the  Carthaginians  in  512 
B.  c.  For  two  centuries  and  a  half  this 
people  bitterly  oppressed  the  native  in- 
habitants, so  that  when  the  Romans  came 
in  the  3d  century  they  were  hailed  as  de- 
liverers. But  the  Sardinians  did  not  at 
first  bear  the  Roman  yoke  very  patiently, 
thought  afterward,  from  the  reign  of 
Tiberius  onward,  they  enjoyed  300  years 
of  continuous  peace  and  prospered 
greatly.  After  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
empire  evil  days  again  fell  on  the  island; 
it  was  overrun  by  Vandals  and  Goths, 


and  then  for  many  years  was  incessamtly 
harassed  by  the  Saracens.  During  this 
time  its  nominal  masters  were  the  Byzan- 
tine emperors  (till  774)  and  the  Popes. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  11th  century 
the  Pisans  and  Genoese  undertook  the 
task  of  driving  out  the  Saracens  and 
holding  the  island  against  them ;  but  they 
had  a  hard  task  for  20  years  or  more. 
Then,  the  Moslems  beaten  off,  they  took 
to  quarreling  with  one  another,  and  only 
agreed  to  divide  the  island  between  them 
in  1299,  Genoa  taking  the  N.,  Pisa  the 
S.  But  the  real  internal  government  was 
in  the  hands  of  four  "judges"  or  chiefs, 
each  ruling  a  separate  province;  this 
arrangement  existed  several  centuries 
before  the  Pisans  came,  and  continued 
to  exist  for  several  centuries  longer.  The 
Pope,  who  still  claimed  the  over-lordship, 
at  this  time  gave  Sardinia  to  the  king 
of  Aragon;  and  he  made  himself  defi- 
nitely master  of  it  in  1416.  The  Ara- 
gonese  and  their  sovereign  successors, 
the  Spaniards,  kept  possession  of  it  till 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713);  it  then 
passed  to  Austria,  but  in  1718  was  given 
to  the  House  of  Savoy  in  exchange  for 
Sicily.  ^  United  with  Savoy  and  Pied- 
mont, it  gave  title  to  a  new  kingdom,  the 
kingdom  of  Sardinia.     See   Savoy. 

SARDIS,  the  capital  of  ancient  Lydia 
in  Asia  Minor;  stood  at  the  N.  foot  oi 
Mount  Tmolus  (5,906  feet),  2V2  miles 
S.  of  Hermus.  Through  its  market  place 
flowed  the  Pactolus  over  sands  rich  in 
gold,  an  allusion  in  all  probability  to 
the  wealth  of  the  inhabitants,  who  wove 
woolen  stuffs  and  carpets,  and  organized 
the  traffic  between  the  highlands  of  the 
interior  and  the  coast;  it  was,  moreover, 
the  grand  and  luxurious  capital  of  Croe- 
sus, a  monarch  of  fabulous  wealth.  In 
spite  of  the  strength  of  its  citadel  it  was 
destroyed  by  the  Cimmerian  Gauls  in 
the  7th  century  B.  c,  by  the  Athenians 
in  the  6th,  by  Antiochus  the  Great  in 
215  B.  c,  and  by  Timur  in  1402;  besides 
this  it  was  overwhelmed  by  earthquake* 
in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  Both  Xerxes 
and  Cyrus  the  Great  resided  here  before 
setting  out  on  their  great  expeditiong. 
As  Byzantium  rose  to  importance,  Sar- 
dis  lost  the  advantages  of  its  situation 
on  the  great  land  route  between  Persia 
and  Rome,  and  gradually  declined.  At 
the  present  day  fiere  is  nothing  left  at 
its  site,  Sart,  except  a  small  village  and 
ruin   mounds. 

SARDONYX,  onyx  consisting  of  alter- 
nate layers  of  sard  and  nearly  opaque- 
white  chalcedony.  It  is  the  most  beau- 
tiful and  the  rarest  variety  of  onyx,  and 
that  which  was  held  in  the  greatest  es- 
teem by  the  ancients  for  engraving  into 
cameos. 


SARDOU 


251 


SARGENT 


SARDOU,  VICTORIEN,  a  French 
playwright;  born  at  Paris,  in  1831.  He 
began  his  education  as  a  student  of 
medicine,  abandoned  medical  studies  for 
history  and  taught  for  a  period  during 
which  he  made  his  first  dramatic  ven- 
tures. Later  he  gave  up  teaching  and 
became  a  professional  writer  and  jour- 
nalist. Financially  unsuccessful  and 
overtaken  with  ill  health,  he  met  with 
kindness  and  friendship  from  Mademoi- 
selle Brecourt,  who  later  became  his  wife, 


VICTORIEN    SARDOU 

and,  through  her  influence,  was  intro- 
duced to  Mademoiselle  Dejazet  in  1859. 
Through  the  favor  of  this  noted  actress 
he  achieved  prominence  rapidly;  her 
popularity  became  the  vehicle  for  his 
dramatic  success  and  he  produced  a  se- 
ries of  brilliant  comedies  based  upon  the 
social  life  of  the  day,  among  them  "Les 
Pattes  de  Mouches"  (1861,  from  Poe's 
"Purloined  Letter").  This  play  was  re- 
vived in  New  York  in  1914  under  the 
title  of  "A  Scrap  of  Paper."  As  a  dra- 
matic author  Sardou  was  keenly  respon- 
sive to  the  social  and  political  complexion 
of  the  day  and  the  subjects  of  his  plays 
were  chosen  to  attract  the  attention  of 
the  moment.  His  journalistic  capacity 
to  recognize  and  fill  the  popular  demand 
J  for  drama  of  contemporary  theme  may 
be  said  to  account  for  the  enduring  favor 
which  he  enjoyed  before  the  public  no 
less  than  his  ability  to  oroduca  drama  of 


high  literary  merit.  He  entered  the 
Academy  in  1878.  His  later  work  was 
directed  almost  entirely  toward  sensa- 
tional and  spectacular  productions  in 
which  the  spoken  parts  were  subordi- 
nated to  scenic  splendor  and  the  enter- 
tainment of  action.  "Madame  Sans- 
Gene  (1898),  "La  Sorciere"  (1903),  and 
"Divorcons"  (1881),  illustrate  the  qual- 
ity and  range  of  his  gifts  and  also  the 
tendencies  toward  artificiality  which  his 
later  work  possessed.  In  this  direction 
his  influence  has  been  against  the  best 
dramatic  standard.  Among  his  many 
other  plays  are:  "The  Students'  Inn" 
(1854)  ;  "Monsieur  Garat"  (1860)  ; 
"Saint  Gervais"  (1860)  ;  "Piccolino" 
(1861)  ;  "The  Butterfly"  (1862)  ;  "The 
Black  Devils"  (1863)  ;  "Don  Quixote" 
(1864)  ;  "The  Benoiton  Family"  (1865)  ; 
"The  New  House"  (1866)  ;  "Seraphine" 
(1868) ;  "Fernande"  (1870) ;  "Rabagas" 
(1872);  "Uncle  Sam"  (1873);  "Ferreol" 
(1875);  "Dora"  (1877);  "Daniel  Ro- 
chat"  (1880)  ;  "Odette"  (1881) ;  "Fe- 
dora" (1883);  "Theodora"  (1884); 
"Crocodile"  (1886)  ;  "La  Tosca"  (1887)  ; 
"Mama-in-law"  (1889)  ;  "Cleopatra" 
(1890)  ;  "Thermidor"  (1891)  ;  "Gismon- 
da"  (1894),  etc.     He  died  Nov.  8,  1908. 

SARGASSO  SEA,  a  name  applied  to 
large  areas  of  the  ocean  covered  with 
floating  seaweed,  Sargassum  bacciferwm. 
The  best  known  Sargasso  Sea  lies  in 
the  North  Atlantic  Ocean,  between  the 
Azores  and  Antilles,  its  position  being 
determined  by  the  central  whirl  of  the 
Gulf  Stream.  It  was  noticed  by  Colum- 
bus, who  recorded  on  his  first  voyage  of 
discovery  (1492)  that  his  whole  course 
was  through  masses  of  these  weeds,  from 
Sept.  16  to  Oct.  12.  There  is  a  smaller 
Sargasso  Sea  off  the  coast  of  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Another 
lies  between  Australia  and  the  Falkland 
Islands  in  the  Antarctic  waters. 

SARGASSUM,  a  genus  of  Algx.  S. 
bacciferum  is  the  gulf-weed  of  the  At- 
lantic. Its  stems  are  much  employed  in 
South  America,  under  the  name  of  goitre- 
sticks,  in  the  treatment  of  goitre.  Their 
beneficial  effects  are  due  to  the  large 
proportion  of  iodine  existing  in  the  plant. 

SARGENT,  CHARLES  SPRAGUE,  an 
American  arboriculturist,  born  in  Bos- 
ton in  1841.  He  graduated  from  Har- 
vard in  1862.  He  served  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  in  1872  became  professor  of 
horticulture  at  the  Arnold  Arboretum 
in  Boston.  In  1873  he  was  director  of 
the  arboretum,  and  from  1879  was  pro- 
fessor of  arboriculture  at  Harvard.  He 
was  chairman  of  the  commission  for  the 
preservation  of  the  Adirondack  forests, 
in  1885,  and  also  acted  as  chairman  of 


SARGENT 


252 


SARPI  PIETRO 


the  commission  appointed  by  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Sciences  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  forest  policy  for  the  United 
States.  He  was  an  officer  and  member 
of  many  foreign  and  American  societies 
and  wrote:  "The  Woods  of  the  United 
States";  "The  Forest  Flora  of  Japan"; 
"Manual  of  the  Trees  of  North  America" 
(1905) ;  and  many  reports. 

SARGENT,  DUDLEY  ALLEN,  an 
American  physical  director,  born  at  Bel- 
fast, Me.,  in  1849.  He  graduated  from 
Bowdoin  College  in  1875  and  from  the 
medical  department  of  Yale  in  1878. 
From  1879  he  was  director  of  the  Hem- 
enway  Gymnasium  at  Harvard.  From 
1881  to  1916  he  was  director  of  the  Nor- 
mal School  of  Physical  Training,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  and  from  the  latter  year 
was  president  of  the  Sargent  School  for 
Physical  Education.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  many  pieces  of  modern  gymnasium 
apparatus.  He  wrote  "Health,  Strength 
and   Power"    (1904). 

SARGENT,  EPES,  an  American  au- 
thor; born  in  Gloucester,  Mass.,  Sept.  27, 
1813.  His  works  include:  "Change 
Makes  Change,"  a  comedy;  "The  Priest- 
ess," a  tragedy;  "Wealth  and  Worth" 
(1840),  a  novel;  "Peculiar:  A  Tale  of 
the  Great  Transition"  (1863)  ;  "Life  of 
Henry  Clay."  "Songs  of  the  Sea"  and 
"A  Life  on  the  Ocean  Wave"  are  the 
most  popular  of  his  verses.  His  "Cyclo- 
paedia of  English  and  American  Poetry" 
was  published  in  1883.  He  died  in  Bos- 
ton, Dec.  31,  1880. 

SARGENT,  JOHN  SINGER,  an  Amer- 
ican artist;  born  in  Florence,  Italy,  in 
1856;  studied  art  under  Carolus  Duran; 
received  a  second-class  medal  at  the  Paris 
Salon  in  1881 ;  took  a  medal  of  honor 
at  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1889;  and  was 
elected  an  academician  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  England,  in  1897,  and  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Design  in  New  York 
in  1897.  His  works  include  the  figure 
pieces:  "Fishing  for  Oysters  at  Cancale"; 
"Neapolitan  Children  Bathing,"  and  "El 
Jaleso";  the  portraits:  "Doctor  Pozzi"; 
"Portrait  of  a  Young  Lady";  "Madam 
G.";  "Henry  Marquand";  and  numerous 
sketches,  ideal  figures,  etc.,  portraits  of 
Theodore  Roosevelt,  and  other  eminent 
Americans.  His  mural  decorations  are 
notable,  especially  those  in  the  Public 
Library  of  Boston.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Letters. 

SARK,  or  SERCQ,  one  of  the  Channel 
Islands,  situated  about  6  miles  from 
Guernsey.  It  is  divided  into  Great  Sark 
and  Little  Sark,  the  connection  between 
these  being  a  narrow  neck  of  land  called 
Coupee;    length     about    5,    and    breadth 


about  3  miles.  The  island  is  surrounded 
by  almost  inaccessible  rocks,  and  the 
carriage  roads  are  steep.  Fishing  is  the 
chief  employment;  and  the  manufactures 
are  principally  stockings,  gloves,  etc. 

SARMATIA,  a  name  given  by  the  Ro- 
mans to  all  the  country  in  Europe  and 
Asia  between  the  Vistula  and  the  Cas- 
pian Sea.  The  people  inhabiting  this 
country  were  usually  called  Sauromatae 
by  the  Greeks,  and  Sarmatse  by  the  Ro- 
mans. The  Sarmatians  began  to  threat- 
en the  Roman  empire  in  the  reign  of 
Nero  (54-68).  Since  that  time  they 
figure  promiscuously  among  the  barba- 
rians who  vexed  the  N.  E.  frontier  of 
the  Roman  empire.  They  were  finally 
subdued  by  the  Goths,  with  whom,  in 
process  of  time,  they  were  amalgamated. 

SARMATIANS,  a  people  of  supposed 
Asiatic  race,  who  in  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
mans occupied  the  vast  region  between  the 
Black,  Baltic,  and  Caspian  Seas.  They 
were  a  nomadic  race,  whose  women  went 
to  war  like  the  men,  and  they  were  said 
by  tradition  to  be  descended  from  the 
Amazons  by  Scythian  fathers.  Sarmatia 
coincided  in  part  with  Scythia,  but 
whether  the  people  were  of  the  same 
race  is  doubtful. 

SARONIC  GULF  (Sinus  Saronicus), 
the  ancient  name  of  the  Gulf  of  iEgina, 
on  the  E.  coast  of  Greece. 

SAROS,  an  ancient  Assyrian  astro- 
nomical period,  the  origin  and  exact 
length  of  which  are  unknown,  though 
they  have  been  the  subject  of  much  dis- 
putation. By  some  authors  the  saros 
has  been  confounded  with  the  Metonic 
cycle. 

SARPI,  PAOLO  (surnamed  Servita), 
better  known  by  his  monastic  appella- 
tion, Fra  Paolo;  an  Italian  historian; 
born  in  Venice  Aug.  14,  1552,  embraced 
the  monastic  life,  and  took  the  vows  in 
the  religious  order  of  the  Servites  in 
1565.  Five  years  later  the  Duke  of  Man- 
tua made  him  his  court  theologian;  but 
he  was  soon  after  summoned  to  be  Pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy  in  the  Servite  mon- 
astery at  Venice,  and  there  he  remained 
all  the  rest  of  his  life.  For  nine  years, 
however  (1579-1588),  he  was  absent  in 
Rome  looking  after  affairs  connected 
with  the  reform  of  the  Servite  order. 
In  the  dispute  between  the  republic  of 
Venice  and  Paul  V.  on  the  subject  of 
clerical  immunities  Sarpi  stepped  for- 
ward as  the  valiant  champion  of  the  re- 
public and  of  freedom  of  thought.  On 
the  repeal  (1607)  of  the  edict  of  excom- 
munication launched  against  Venice, 
Sarpi  was  summoned  to  Rome  to  account 
for  his  conduct.     He  refused  to  obey,  and 


SABFLAB 


253 


S  AR  It  IL 


was  excommunicated  as  contumacious; 
and  an  attempt  was  made  on  his  life  by 
a  band  of  assassins.  He  afterward  con- 
fined himself  within  his  monastery, 
where  he  wrote  "History  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,"  a  "History  of  the  Interdict," 
and  other  works.  The  first  named  was 
published  in  London  in  1619  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Pietro  Soave  Polano,  an 
anagram  of  Paolo  Sarpi  Veneto ;  and  it 
almost  immediately  rose  into  popularity 
with  the  adversaries  of  Rome,  as  well 
in  England  as  throughout  the  continent. 
He  diec  Jan.  15,  1623. 

SABPLAB,  a  large  sack  or  bale  of 
wool  containing  80  tods;  a  tod  contains 
2  stone  of  14  pounds  each. 

SABBACENIACE.ffi,  in  botany,  the 
pitcher  plants;  an  order  of  hypogynous 
exogens,  alliance  Ranales;  herbaceous, 
perennial  bog  plants.  Known  genera 
two,  species  seven;  mostly  North  Ameri- 
can; one  is  from  Guiana. 

SABBAIL,  MAUBICE,  a  French  gen- 
eral, the  commander  of  the  Sixth  Army 
Corps  at  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War.  When  hostilities  began  he  was 
sent  to  the  Argonne,  where  he  organized 
the  defense  of  Verdun,  during  the  first 


Xhm, 


GENERAL   SARRAIL 

attacks  made  by  the  army  of  the  Ger- 
man Crown  Prince  at  this  point,  during 
August  and  September,  1914.  In  August, 
1915,  General  Sarrail  was  sent  to  take 
command  of  the  Allied  army  in  Mace- 
donia, with  headquarters  in  Salonika.  It 
was  while  under  his  command  that  the 
Allied  forces  in  this  region  took  from  the 
Bulgarians  the  important  city  of  Monas- 
tir,   in   December,    1915.     In   December, 


Q— Cyc 


1917,  General  Sarrail  was  recalled  and 
returned  to  France. 

SABBE  (German,  Saar),  a  river  ris- 
ing in  the  Vosges  mountains  and  after 
flowing  northwest,  emptying  into  the  Mo- 
selle, a  few  miles  above  Treves.  Of  its 
entire  length  of  152  miles,  about  54  miles 
are  navigable  to  Sarrebruck  and  about 
20  miles  more  to  Sarreguemines  by  means 
of  a  system  of  locks.  The  middle  course 
of  the  river  is  connected  with  the  Rhine- 
Marne  canal  through  the  Sarre  canal. 
The  valley  of  the  Sarre  is  famous  for  its 
wines.  The  adjacent  territory  contains 
extremely  rich  coal  deposits.  The  river 
formerly  was  in  German  territory,  but  as 
a  result  of  the  Peace  Treaty  of  Versailles, 
all  of  it,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  20 
miles,  is  now  under  French  control.  See 
Sarre  Basin. 

SABBE  (German,  Saar)  BASIN,  a 
coal  mining  region  on  both  sides  of  the 
Sarre  river,  forming  part  of  the  Prussian 
province  of  Rhenish  Prussia  and  of  the 
Bavarian  Palatinate.  Its  area  is  approx- 
imately 751  square  miles  and  it  has  a 
population  of  657,870.  The  more  impor- 
tant towns  are  Forbach,  Sarrebruck, 
St.  Ingbert,  Sulzbach,  Neunkirchen,  Putt- 
lingen,  and  Sarrelouis.  The  region  is  of 
great  industrial  importance  on  account  of 
its  rich  coal  mines.  The  political  impor- 
tance of  the  district  is  due  primarily  to 
the  provisions  regarding  it  contained  in 
the  Versailles  Peace  Treaty.  In  payment 
for  the  destruction  of  coal  mines  in  north- 
ern France  and  as  payment  on  account  of 
reparations,  Germany  ceded  the  mines  to 
France,  the  territory  to  be  governed  by  a 
commission  for  fifteen  years.  For  the  pro- 
visions of  the  treaty  see  Treaties  of 
Versailles  and  St.  Germain  ("The 
Sarre"). 

SABBEGUEMINES,  (German  Saarge- 
miind)j  a  town  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Blies  and  the  Sarre.  It 
is  40  miles  E.  of  Metz,  and  60  miles  N.  W. 
of  Strasbourg.  It  is  noted  for  manu- 
factures of  plush,  leather,  velvet,  porce- 
lain, faience,  and  papier-mache  snuff- 
boxes. Sarreguemines  was  originally  a 
Roman  settlement.  Ceded  to  the  Duke 
of  Lorraine  by  the  Count  of  Saarbrucken 
in  1297,  it  went  to  France  in  1766,  re- 
turned to  Germany  in  1871,  and  became 
French  again  with  Alsace-Lorraine  under 
the  Versailles  Treaty  in  1919.  Pop.  about 
15,000. 

SABBETTE,  BERNARD,  founder  of 
the  Conservatoire  de  Musique  of  Paris, 
was  born  in  Bordeaux,  Nov.  27,  1765.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  Revolution  he 
became  an  officer  of  the  Garde  Nationale. 
After  the  fall  of  the  Bastille,  July  14, 
1789,    he    gathered    together    forty-five 


Vol  8 


SARRUSOPHONE 


254 


SARTI 


musicians  and  created  a  corps  de  musique 
for  the  Garde.  The  municipality  of  Paris 
increased  the  body,  and  then  authorized 
Sarrette  to  establish  a  free  school,  which 
became  the  Institut  National  de  Musique, 
and  finally  the  Conservatoire.  Sarrette 
was  for  a  time  director,  but  for  some 
reason,  which  is  not  quite  clear,  he  was 
imprisoned  for  a  month  and  a  half,  just 
before  Robespierre's  triumph.  He  never 
again  resumed  his  functions,  and  he  died 
in  retirement  at  Paris,  April  11,  1858. 

SARRIEN,  JEAN  -  MARIE  -  FERDI- 
NAND, a  French  statesman,  was  born  at 
Bourbon-Lancy,  Saone-et-Loire,  in  1846. 
He  gave  up  the  practice  of  lav/  to  fight 
against  Germany  in  1870.  In  1876  he 
was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
and  held  portfolios  in  the  cabinets  of 
Brisson,  Freycinet,  and  Tirard  from  1885 
to  1888.  In  1889  he  was  minister  of 
justice  under  Brisson.  After  the  fall  of 
Rouvier  through  disturbances  connected 
with  the  operation  of  the  Church  Separa- 
tion Act,  he  became  premier  and  minister 
of  justice  March  14,  1906,  but  the  real 
power  in  the  cabinet  (the  so-called  "minis- 
try of  all  the  talents")  was  Clemenceau 
(q.  v.).     Sarrien  retired  in  October,  1906. 

SARRDSOPHONE,  a  form  of  wind  in- 
strument of  the  horn  class.  They  are 
made  en  suite,  of  sizes  and  compass  to 
take  different  parts  in  concerted  pieces  of 
music,  and  are  kr\own  as  the  cornets  and 
saxhorns  by  names,  as  soprano,  contralto, 
tenor,  baritone,  bass,  etc.;  by  the  pitch, 
as  B  flat,  E  flat,  etc. 

SARSAPARILLA,  name  of  an  order 
of  dictyogens,  the  Smilacese.  In  pharma- 
cy, the  rhizome  of  Smilax  officinalis,  a  na- 
tive of  Central  America.  The  rhizome 
of  sarsaparilla  is  popularly  called  the 
chump;  one  with  roots  and  rootlets,  the 
latter  finely  subdivided,  is  said  to  be 
bearded.  Sarsaparilla  is  supposed  to  be 
diaphoretic,  diuretic,  demulcent,  tonic, 
and  alterative.  It  has  been  given  with 
other  medicines  in  syphilis,  scrofula,  etc. 
Also,  the  sarsaparilla  of  Vera  Cruz,  Smi- 
lax medica,  that  of  Peru  S.  purhampuy, 
that  of  Lisbon  and  Brazil  S.  siphilitica, 
that  of  Australia  S.  glycyphylla.  Many 
Asiatic  species  of  smilax,  as  S.  zeylonica, 
S.  glabra,  S.  perfoliata,  S.  leucophylla, 
and  5.  china,  and  S.  aspera  and  S.  excelsa 
from  the  S.  of  Europe — the  last  two 
sometimes  called  Italian  sarsaparilla — 
furnish  inferior  qualities  of  the  drug. 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  Aralia 
nudicaulis,  which  grows  wild  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada. 

SARTAIN,  JOHN,  an  American  ar- 
tist; born  in  London,  England,  Oct.  24, 
1808;  came  to  the  United  States  in  1830. 


and  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce 
mezzotint  engraving.  In  1843  he  became 
proprietor  and  editor  of  "Campbell's  For- 
eign Semi-Monthly  Magazine,"  and  there- 
after devoted  himself  to  engraving  and 
literary  work.  In  1848  he  purchased  a 
half  interest  in  the  "Union  Magazine," 
afterward  called  "Sartain's  Union  Maga- 
zine," which  he  edited  and  illustrated  dur- 
ing the  four  years  of  its  existence.  Sub- 
sequently he  held  various  offices,  in  the 
Artists'  Fund  Society,  the  School  of  De- 
sign for  Women,  and  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy;  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Society  Artis  et  Amicitias  in  Amsterdam, 
Holland,  in  1862,  and  in  1876  had  charge 
of  the  art  department  at  the  Philadel- 
phia Centennial  Exposition.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  large  number  of  engravings 
for  book  illustration,  and  engraved  many 
historical  paintings,  including  Rother- 
mel's  "Battle  of  Gettysburg"  and  "The 
Iron  Worker  and  King  Solomon";  de- 
signed the  monument  to  Washington  and 
Lafayette  in  Monument  Cemetery,  Phila- 
delphia; and  published  interesting  per- 
sonal reminiscences.  He  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  Oct.  25,  1897. 

SARTHE,  a  department  of  France, 
N.  of  the  Loire;  formed  out  of  the  old 
provinces  of  Anjou  and  Maine;  area,  2,- 
411  square  miles.  The  Sarthe  flows  S. 
through  the  department,  and  the  Loire 
W.  along  the  S.  border.  The  department 
is  fairly  level  and  the  soil  fertile.  Essen- 
tially an  agricultural  department,  it  pro- 
duces wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  potatoes, 
sends  its  geese,  chickens,  eggs,  cattle  and 
swine  to  Paris,  is  famous  for  its  breed  of 
horses  and  for  its  wine  and  cider.  Coal 
is  mined,  and  there  are  manufactures  of 
hemp,  linen,  and  cotton  textiles,  paper, 
glass,  leather,  machinery,  etc.  Capital, 
Le  Mans.     Pop.  420,000. 

SARTI,  GIUSEPPE,  an  Italian  music 
composer;  born  in  Faeiiza,  Italy,  Dec. 
28,  1729.  He  held  the  office  of  organist  to 
the  cathedral  of  Faenza  from  1748  to 
1750.  The  success  of  two  operas,  "Pom- 
pey  in  Armenia"  (1751)  and  "The  Shep- 
herd King"  (1753),  brought  him  a  royal 
invitation  to  Copenhagen  in  1753;  and 
there  he  remained  till  1775.  After  his 
return  to  Italy  he  was  successively  direc- 
tor of  the  conservatory  at  Venice  (till 
1779)  and  chapel  master  of  Milan  cathe- 
dral; in  this  last  post  Cherubini  was  his 
pupil  and  assistant.  During  this  period 
he  composed  some  of  his  most  successful 
operas:  "Rustic  Jealousies"  (1775);  "Giu- 
lio  Sabino"  (1781);  "The  Marriage  of 
Dorina"  (1782)  ;  and  others.  In  1784 
Catharine  II.  invited  him  to  St.  Peters- 
burg. On  his  way  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance »x  Mozart  at  Vienna.  His  most 
notable  productions  while  in  Russia  were 


SARTO 


255 


SASKATCHEWAN 


the   opera  "Armida"    (1786)    and  a   "Te 
Deum."    He  died  in  Berlin,  July  28,  1802. 

SARTO,  ANDREA  DEL,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  painters  of  the  16th 
century;  born  near  Florence,  Italy,  July 
16,  1487.  His  proper  name  was  Andrea 
Vanucchi,  the  appellation  del  Sarto 
(of  the  Tailor)  being:  applied  to  him 
from  the  occupation  of  his  father.  He 
painted  many  frescoes  in  his  nathe  city, 
and  Francis  I.  induced  him  to  go  to 
France  in  1518.  He  soon  returned  to 
Italy,  and  having  appropriated  large  sums 


ANDREA   DEL   SARTO 

which  had  been  given  him  by  his  royal 
patron  to  purchase  the  pictures  of  great 
masters  in  Italy,  he  could  not  go  back  to 
France.  Among  his  most  important  easel 
pictures  are  the  "Sacrifice  of  Abraham" 
and  the  "Marriage  of  St.  Catherine,"  in 
the  gallery  of  Dresden;  "The  Madonna  di 
San  Francesco,"  an  "Annunciation,"  and 
an  "Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  at  Flor- 
ence; a  "Deposition"  from  the  Cross;  a 
portrait  of  himself  and  "Virgin  and  Child 
with  St.  Joseph."  He  is  best  known  in 
galleries  by  his  "Holy  Families."  He 
died  of  the  plague  in  Florence,  Jan.  22, 
1531. 

SARTORITE,  an  orthorhombic  mineral, 
occurring  only  in  crystals  in  cavities  in 
the  dolomite  rock  of  the  Binn  valley, 
Switzerland. 

SARTTM,  an  important  settlement  of 
the  early  Britons,  in  Wiltshire,  about  a 
mile  and  a  half  N  )f  Salisbury,  then  a 
Roman  station,  ana  afterward  the  resi- 
dence of  the  West  axon  kings  till  Eng- 
land became  one  kingdom.  Till  the  time 
of  Henry  III.  it  wa  >  an  important  city, 
but  it  is  now  chiefly  known  for  the  privi- 
lege it  enjoyed  for  more  than  500  years 
of  sending  two  mei.ibers  to  Parliament 
ifter  it  had  ceased  to  be  inhabited.     It 


headed  the  list  of  "rotten  boroughs,"  and 
was  disfranchised  by  the  Reform  Act  of 
1832. 

SASIN,  the  common  Indian  antelope, 
Antilope  bezoartica  (or  cervicapra) :  fe- 
male destitute  of  horns,  those  of  the  male 
spiral,  wrinkled  at  the  base,  annulated  in 
the  middle  and  smooth  at  the  tip;  adult 
males  dark  above,  white  beneath,  the  nose, 
lips,  and  a  circle  round  each  eye  white; 
brushes  of  hair  on  the  knees ;  females  and 
young  males  under  three  years  old  tawny 
above,  white  beneath,  with  a  light  silvery 
band  along  the  sides. 

SASKATCHEWAN,  a  province  of  Can- 
ada which  receives  its  name  from  the 
Saskatchewan  river,  which  flows  through 
the  northern  part.  It  comprises  the  for- 
mer territorial  districts  of  Assiniboya 
East,  Assiniboya  West,  Saskatchewan, 
and  the  eastern  portion  of  Athabaska. 
Prior  to  Sept.  1, 1905,  it  was  a  part  of  the 
Northwest  Territories.  From  that  date  it 
became  a  separate  province.  It  has  an 
area  of  251,700  square  miles.  In  1921  the 
population  was  761,390.  The  area  of  the 
arable  land  is  estimated  at  57,884,160 
acres. 

Production  and  Industry. — Saskatche- 
wan is  the  largest  wheat  producing  coun- 
try in  the  world,  growing  between  117,- 
000,000  and  118,000,000  bushels  annually. 
The  estimated  acreage  of  wheat  in  1919 
was  10,587,363,  of  oats  4,837,747,  of  bar- 
ley 492,596,  of  flax  929,945.  The  value  of 
the  entire  grain  crop  in  1919  was  $305,- 
613,961.  The  total  production  of  grain  in 
the  same  year  was  210,529,016  bushels. 
The  chief  mineral  product  is  coal.  There 
were  in  1919  over  50  coal  mines  in  oper- 
ation, producing  about  400,000  tons.  The 
estimated  coal  resources  of  the  Province 
are  59,812,000,000  metric  tons.  There 
were  in  1917  1,436  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, employing  7,097  persons.  The 
value  of  the  product  was  $40,657,746.  In 
1918-19  the  total  imports  were  valued  at 
$17,388,037,  and  the  exports  at  $20,707,- 
513.  There  were  587  bank  branches  in 
the  Province  in  1919.  There  are  about 
125,000  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools 
and  about  4,000  in  the  high  schools.  Since 
1905  the  government  has  spent  over  $13,- 
000,000  for  educational  purposes.  There 
are  over  6,000  miles  of  railway,  a  longer 
mileage  than  any  other  Canadian  prov- 
ince except  Ontario.  Lumbering  is  one 
of  the  principal  industries.  The  value  of 
the  product  in  1918  was  $2,122,307.  The 
chief  cities  are  Regina,  40,000 ;  Saskatoon, 
30,000;  Moose  Jaw,  22,000;  and  Prince 
Albert,  6,500.  The  provincial  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  Lieutenant-Governor 
and  a  Legislative  Assembly  of  62  mem- 
bers, elected  for  five  years.  Women  were 
given  the  franchise  in  1916. 


SASKATCHEWAN 


256 


SATINET 


SASKATCHEWAN,  a  river  of  the 
Northwest  Territories,  Canada,  formed  by 
two  main  streams,  the  South  Saskatche- 
wan or  South  Branch  (called  also  the  Bow 
river)  and  the  North  Saskatchewan  or 
North  Branch.  The  sources  of  these  two 
streams  are  very  near  each  other  on  the 
E.  slope  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  The 
South  Branch  flows  S.  E.  to  its  junction 
with  the  Belly  river,  then  N.  E.  to  its 
junction  with  the  North  Branch.  The 
North  Branch  flows  N.  past  Mount  Mur- 
chison,  through  Kutanie  plain,  then  E.  to 
its  confluence  with  the  South  Branch. 
The  course  of  the  North  Branch  is  about 
836  miles,  and  of  the  South  Branch,  903 
miles.  From  their  junction  the  river 
course  is  through  the  desert  bed  of 
Lake  Agassiz,  then  E.  to  its  mouth  in 
Lake  Winnipeg.  The  total  length  is  about 
1,200  miles.  From  its  mouth  it  is  navi- 
gable, by  the  North  Branch,  about  800 
miles.  The  river  is  narrow  in  the  greater 
part  of  its  course. 

SASKATOON,  a  city  of  Canada,  the 
capital  of  Saskatoon  District,  on  the 
South  Saskatchewan  river  and  on  the 
Canadian  Pacific,  Canadian  Northern,  and 
Grand  Trunk  Pacific  railways.  It  is  a 
port  of  entry  and  the  wholesale  distrib- 
uting, commercial,  financial  and  educa- 
tional center  for  central  and  western  Sas- 
katchewan. Its  institutions  include  the 
University  of  Saskatchewan,  an  agricul- 
tural college  and  experimental  farm,  and 
a  normal  school.  Its  industries  include 
planing  mills,  iron  foundries,  cold  stor- 
age plants,  etc.  It  has  a  custom  house, 
two  hospitals,  a  court  house,  and  an  opera 
house.    Pop.  about  30,000. 

SASSAFRAS,  in  botany:  (1)  a  genus 
of  Lauraceae;  dioecious,  perianth  six-part- 
ed males  with  nine  fertile  stamens  in 
three  rows,  anthers  four-celled;  females 
with  nine  sterile  stamens;  fruit  fleshy. 
S.  officinale  (Laurus  sassafras)  is  a  large 
tree  with  yellowish  flowers,  growing  in 
the  United  States.  The  dried  leaves  are 
very  mucilaginous  and  are  sometimes  used 
for  thickening  soup.  S.  parthenoxylon, 
Oriental  sassafras,  growing  in  Sumatra, 
has  medicinal  qualities  like  those  of  S. 
officinale.  (2)  The  English  name  of  the 
genus,  and  of  various  trees  more  or  less 
resembling  it  in  properties,  specifically, 
Doryphora  sassafras,  one  of  the  plume 
nutmegs.  The  wood  smells  like  fennel. 
(Australian.)  Brazilian  sassafras  is  Nec- 
tandra  cymbarum.  In  pharmacy,  the 
dried  root  of  Sassafras  officinale.  It  is 
sold  in  branches,  in  pieces,  or  in  chips, 
and  is  given  as  a  stimulant  and  diapho- 
retic in  chronic  rheumatism,  skin  diseases, 
and  syphilis.  The  bark  is  more  powerful 
than  the  wood. 


SASSAFRAS  OIL,  an  oil  obtained  from 
root-bark  of  Lauras  sassafras.  It  has  the 
odor  of  fennel,  a  slight  yellow  color  and 
an  acrid  taste,  sp.  gr.=1.09,  and  is  a  mix- 
ture of  at  least  two  substances,  a  liquid  oil 
and  a  solid  camphor  (C10H10O0). 

SASSANID-ffi,  a  Persian  dynasty  of 
kings,  which  succeeded  the  Parthian  dy- 
nasty of  the  Arsacidae,  and  reigned  from 
A.  D.  226  until  A.  D.  652.  The  dynasty 
began  with  Ardishir  Babigan,  and  owes 
its  name  to  the  grandfather  of  that 
prince,  named  Sassan. 

SASSABJ,  a  city  of  Sardinia,  ranking 
next  after  the  capital,  Cagliari ;  12  miles 
from  the  Gulf  of  Asmara,  where  its  port, 
Porto  Torres,  is  situated,  and  162  miles 
N.  by  W.  of  Cagliari.  A  prosperous-look- 
ing town,  with  both  old  and  new  houses, 
embosomed  in  orange  and  olive  groves,  it 
has  a  cathedral  (1531),  an  old  castle 
(1327-1331),  a  university  (1677,  reopened 
in  1766)  with  about  120  students,  a  mu- 
seum of  Roman  antiquities,  a  natural  his- 
tory collection,  and  a  library  (1556)  of 
over  25,000  volumes,  and  is  the  seat  of  an 
archbishop  and  of  several  of  the  old  Sar- 
dinian nobles.  There  is  a  busy  trade  in 
grain,  olive  oil,  cheese,  and  hides.  Pop. 
about  43,000. 

SASSOON,  SIR  PHILIP  (Albert  Gus- 
tave  David),  a  British  public  official.  He 
was  born  in  1888,  and  after  leaving  school 
entered  the  British  army,  becoming  lieu- 
tenant in  the  Royal  East  Kent  Yeomanry. 
In  1912  he  was  elected  to  represent  the 
Hythe  Division  of  Kent  as  a  Unionist  in 
the  House  of  Commons  and  has  held  the 
seat  since  that  time.  During  the  war  he 
acted  as  private  secretary  to  Field  Mar- 
shal Sir  Douglas  Haig,  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  British  Armies  in  France. 
He  is  a  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
and  Officer  of  the  Order  of  the  Crown  of 
Belgium. 

SATAN.     See  Devil. 

SATELLITE,  a  subordinate  attend- 
ant; an  obsequious  or  subservient  follow- 
er. Hence,  in  astronomy,  a  secondary 
planet  revolving  around  a  primary  one. 
The  moon  is  satellite  to  the  earth.  Mars 
has  two  satellites,  Jupiter  five,  Saturn 
ten,  Uranus  four,  and  Neptune  one. 

SATIN,  a  silken  fabric  with  an  over- 
shot woof  and  a  highly  finished  surface. 
The  woof  is  coarse,  and  hidden  underneath 
the  warp,  which  forms  the  surface.  The 
warp  is  of  organzine,  the  weft  of  tram. 
In  a  full  satin  twill  there  is  an  interval 
of  15  threads. 

SATINET,  a  light  kind  of  satin;  also 
a  glossy  cloth  made  of  a  cotton  warp  and 
woolen  filling,  to  imitate  satin. 


SATIN  WOOD 


257 


SATURN 


SATIN  WOOD,  an  ornamental  cabi- 
net-wood from  the  West  and  East  Indies. 
The  former  is  the  better  kind,  and  is 
chiefly  derived  from  Ferolia  guianesis. 
That  from  the  East  Indies  is  less  white, 
and  is  produced  by  Chloroxylon  sivietenia, 
which  also  yields  wood  oil. 

SATIRE,  keenness  and  severity  of  re- 
mark ;  sarcasm ;  trenchant  wit ;  biting  rid- 
icule; incisive  humor;  pungent  irony;  de- 
nunciation and  exposure  to  derision  or 
reprobation.  In  literature,  the  represen- 
tation of  follies  or  vices  in  a  ridiculous 
form,  either  in  discourse  or  dramatic  ac- 
tion. The  Romans  were  the  first  to  distin- 
guish themselves  in  this  species  of  litera- 
ture. Horace  is  the  great  master  in  this 
art,  whose  humorous  and  playful  raillery 
of  the  follies  and  foibles  of  mankind  are 
ever  fresh  and  ever  true.  Juvenal  is  much 
more  serious  and  declamatory.  He  has 
more  strength  and  fire,  and  more  eleva- 
tion of  style  than  Horace,  but  is  at  the 
same  time  greatly  inferior  to  him  in 
gracefulness  and  ease.  Persius  is  a  nerv- 
ous and  lively  writer,  but  has  more  of  the 
fire  and  force  of  Juvenal  than  of  the 
politeness  of  Horace.  Though  the  name 
satire  usually  is  confined  to  poetical  com- 
positions, prose  works  of  a  satirical  char- 
acter are  frequently  included  under  the 
same  head.  Among  the  French  may  be 
mentioned  Rabelais,  Montaigne,  and  Vol- 
taire; in  England,  Pope,  Swift,  Fielding, 
Byron,  Thackeray,  Carlyle,  Samuel  But- 
ler, and  Shaw;  and  in  the  United  States, 
Irving,  Holmes,  Mark  Twain,  Dunne 
("Mr.  Dooley"),  etc. 

SATOLLI,  FRANCIS,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic delegate;  born  in  Merciano,  Perugia, 
Italy,  July  21,  1831 ;  was  educated  for 
the  Church;  appointed  Professor  of  Dog- 
matic Theology  at  Urban  College  of  the 
Propaganda,  Rome;  and  was  made  arch- 
bishop in  June,  1888.  He  was  created 
president  of  the  Academy  of  Noble  Ec- 
clesiastics; represented  the  Pope  at  the 
centenary  of  the  Roman  Catholic  hierar- 
chy in  the  United  States  in  1889;  and  was 
appointed  the  first  apostolic  delegate  to 
the  United  States  in  1893,  continuing  un- 
til 1896.    He  died  Jan.  8,  1910. 

SATRAPS,  in  the  ancient  Persian  em- 
pire, the  governors  of  the  provinces  which 
were  called  satrapies.  The  power  of  the 
satrap,  so  long  as  he  retained  the  favor 
of  his  sovereign,  was  absolute;  he  levied 
taxes  at  his  pleasure  and  aped  the  capri- 
cious tyranny  of  his  master  unchecked. 

SATSUMA  WARE,  a  fine  kind  of  pot- 
tery or  semi-porcelain  made  in  Japan, 
having  a  felspathic  glaze  of  a  light  straw 
color,  the  surface  of  which  is  covered  with 
a  net-work  of  fine  cracks.  Red  and  green 
colors  and  dulled  gold  are  employed  for 


decorating  the  ware,  a  favorite  ornament 
being  the  chrysanthemum,  and  pheasants 
and  other  fowls  are  also  frequently  in- 
troduced. Fine  old  Satsuma  ware  is 
highly  esteemed  by  collectors. 

SATURATION,  the  act  of  saturating, 
penetrating,  or  impregnating  completely; 
the  state  of  being  saturated.  In  chemis- 
try, that  point  at  which  a  substance 
ceases  to  have  the  power  of  dissolving  or 
combining  with  another. 

SATURDAY  (from  Anglo-Saxon  Sse- 
terdseg,  Sseterndxg — Saeter,  Ssetern,  for 
Saturn,  and  d&g,  a  day — the  day  presided 
over  by  the  planet  Saturn),  the  seventh 
or  last  day  of  the  week;  the  day  of  the 
Jewish  Sabbath. 

SATURN,  in  mythology,  the  youngest 
son  of  Coelus  (Uranus)  and  Gsea,  the  god- 
dess of  the  earth.  Being  banished  by 
Jupiter  from  heaven,  he  fled  to  Latium, 
and  was  received  by  Janus,  King  of  Italy, 
who  made  him  his  partner  on  the  throne. 
Saturn  occupied  himself  in  softening  the 
barbarous  manners  of  the  people  of  Italy, 
and  in  teaching  them  agriculture  and  the 
useful  and  liberal  arts.  His  reign  there 
was  so  mild  and  beneficent  that  mankind 
have  called  it  the  Golden  Age,  to  intimate 
the  happiness  and  tranquillity  which  the 
earth  then  enjoyed.  He  is  generally  iden- 
tified with  the  Greek  Kronos  (Time),  and 
the  festival  in  his  honor,  called  "Satur- 
nalia," corresponded  with  the  Greek  "Kro- 
nia."  He  is  generally  represented  as  an 
old  man,  bent  through  age  and  infirmity, 
holding  a  scythe  in  his  right  hand.  His 
temple  was  the  state  treasury. 

SATURN,  in  astronomy,  the  6th  of  the 
major  planets  in  order  of  distance  from 
the  sun,  and  the  outermost  known  to  the 
ancients.      With    its    ten    satellites    and 


SATURN 

wonderful  ring  system  it  is  to  be  regarded 
as  the  most  remarkable  body  in  the  solar 
system,  as  well  as  the  most  beautiful.  The 
ball  of  the  planet  itself  has  a  density  of 
only  five-sevenths  that  of  water,  rotates 


SATURN 


258 


SATYR 


on  its  axis  (which  is  inclined  about  27° 
to  its  orbit  plane)  in  about  10  hours  14 
minutes,  is  about  73,000  miles  in  mean 
diameter;  but  on  account  of  its  huge  size 
and  rapid  rotation  it  has  an  ellipticity 
of  about  0.10,  its  equatorial  diameter  be- 
ing about  73,000  miles,  and  its  polar  diam- 
eter only  about  68,000  miles.  Its  mean 
apparent  diameter  varies  with  its  vary- 
ing distance  from  the  earth  between  14" 
and  20".  Its  surface  is  marked  by  belts 
parallel  to  its  equator,  the  equatorial  ones 
being  the  brightest  part  of  the  surface, 
but  they  are  not  so  decided  as  those  of 
Jupiter  (q.  v.),  and  they  have  no  perma- 
nent markings.  The  above  rotation  time 
was  determined  by  Prof.  Asaph  Hall  from 
a  bright  spot  which  suddenly  appeared  on 
the  planet  in  1876  and  continued  visible 
for  several  weeks. 

The  ring  system  is  the  most  remarkable 
feature,  having  an  extreme  diameter  of 
about  168,000  miles  and  a  width  of  about 
36,000  or  37,000  miles.  This  width  is  di- 
vided into  three  principal  parts,  the  outer 
ring  about  10,000  miles  wide,  the  middle 
ring  about  16,500  miles  wide,  and  the  in- 
ner or  dusky  ring  about  as  wide  as  the 
outer  one.  The  division  between  the  outer 
ones  is  sharp  and  permanent,  and  about 
1,600  miles  wide.  The  bright  middle  ring 
fades  into  the  dusky  one  without  any 
sharp  boundary  line  between  them.  This 
dusky  ring  comes  within  about  9,000  or 
10,000  miles  of  the  planet's  equator.  It 
was  not  discovered  till  November,  1850, 
and  then  by  G.  P.  Bond,  of  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  and  about  two  weeks  later,  inde- 
pendently, by  Dawes,  of  England.  It  is 
not  at  all  prominent  at  any  time,  and  only 
visible  with  a  good  teleseope. 

Satellites. — The  principal  elements  of 
the  satellite  system  of  Saturn  are  as  fol- 
lows: 


Saturn  as  our  moon  does  toward  the 
earth.  Titan  is  as  bright  as  a  9th  magni- 
tude star,  and  is  by  far  the  largest  of  the 
satellites  of  Saturn.  It  is  probably  3,000 
or  4,000  miles  in  diameter,  and  its  mass  is 
estimated  at  about  1  :  4600  that  of  Saturn. 
Its  large  mass  and  its  nearness  to  Hype- 
rion cause  large  perturbations  in  the  orbit 
of  the  latter,  so  much  so  that  Hyperion's 
motion  has  been  for  a  long  time  a  puzzle 
to  astronomers,  and  it  is  only  lately  that 
it  is  coming  to  be  understood  as  offering 
a  new  case  in  celestial  mechanics,  which 
must  be  attacked  by  new  methods  of  an- 
alysis. The  perturbations  of  Titan  keep 
the  line  of  apsides  of  Hyperion's  orbit  in 
the  line  of  conjunction  with  Titan,  forc- 
ing the  line  to  retrograde  rapidly,  where- 
as it  would  have  a  progressive  motion 
according  to  the  usual  law  of  perturba- 
tions. The  large  outside  orbit  of  Iapetus 
has  an  inclination  of  about  19°  to  the 
plane  of  the  rings,  but  all  the  other  sat- 
ellites move  exactly  in  that  plane,  and  the 
orbits  of  the  five  inner  ones  are  sensibly 
circular. 

The  discovery  of  Phoebe,  the  9th  satel- 
lite of  Saturn,  was  announced  March  18, 
1898,  by  Prof.  William  H.  Pickering,  of 
the  Harvard  Observatory,  Cambridge, 
Mass.  The  satellite  appears  on  four  plates 
taken  at  Harvard's  Arequipa  station, 
South  America,  with  the  Bruce  photo- 
graphic telescope.  Saturn's  new  moon  is 
the  only  one  that  has  been  discovered  by 
means  of  photography.  A  tenth  satellite 
was  discovered  in  1905.  As  to  Saturn's 
physical  condition,  it  is  possible  to  ad- 
vance at  present  only  the  most  uncertain 
conjecture. 

SATURNALIA,  the  feast  in  honor  of 
Saturn,  celebrated  by  the  Romans  in  De- 
cember, and  regarded  as  a  time  of  unre- 


Name. 

Discovery. 

Sidereal  Period 

W.  Herschel,  1789 

D.              H.              M. 
0              22              37 

1                8              53 

Tethvs    

1              21              18 

2               17               41 

Rhea    

1672     

4              12              25 

13              22              41 

W.    H.    Pickering,    1905 

G.   P    Bond,    1848 

20              20              24 

21                6              39 

79                7              54 

W.  H.  Pickering.  1898 

546              12                0 

Hyperion  was  also  independently  dis- 
covered by  Lassel  at  Liverpool  only  two 
days  later  than  Bond's  discovery.  The 
range  of  the  satellite  system  is  enormous. 
The  period  of  Iapetus  is  almost  as  long 
as  that  of  Mercury.  Iapetus  is  also  re- 
markable for  its  variations  in  brightness. 
On  the  W.  side  of  the  planet  it  is  about 
twice  as  bright  as  on  the  E.,  which  shows 
that  it  rotates  once  on  its  axis  during  one 
revolution,  keeping  the  same  face  toward 


strained  license  and  merriment  for  all 
classes,  even  for  the  slaves.  Hence,  any 
time  of  noisy  license  and  revelry;  unre' 
strained,  licentious  revelry. 

SATYR,  in  mythology,  one  of  a  num- 
ber of  rural  deities  of  Greece,  identical 
with  the  Fauni  of  the  Latins.  They  are 
regarded  as  the  attendants  of  Bacchus, 
and  are  represented  as  roaming  through 
the  woods,  dwelling  in  caves,  and  endeav- 


SAUER  KRAUT 


259 


SATJRIA 


oring  to  gain  the  love  of  the  Nymphs. 
They  are  usually  represented  with  the 
feet  and  legs  of  goats,  short  horns  on  the 
head,  and  the  body  covered  with  thick 
hair. 

SAUER    KRAUT,    or  SOUR   KROUT, 

a  favorite  German  dish,  consisting  of  cab- 
bage cut  fine,  pressed  into  a  cask,  with 
alternate  layers  of  salt,  and  suffered  to 
ferment  until  it  becomes  sour. 

SAUGUS,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  in 
Essex  co.,  on  the  Saugus  river  and  Massa- 
chusetts bay  and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
railroad.  It  includes  three  villages. 
Among  its  industries  are  the  manufacture 
of  bricks,  spices,  iron,  rubber  and  woolen 
goods.  Water-power  is  obtained  from  the 
river.    Pop.  (1910)  8,047;  (1920)  10,874. 

SAUL,  King  of  Israel  from  about  1095 
to  1055  B.  c;  the  son  of  Kish,  a  Benjam- 
ite.  Selected  for  this  office  by  Samuel,  he 
obtained,  by  his  personal  courage  and  mil- 
itary capacity,  several  successes  over  the 
Philistines,  Edomites,  Moabites,  and  Am- 
monites, by  means  of  which  he  consoli- 
dated the  tribes  and  confirmed  his  author- 
ity. After  a  long  reign  the  wild  nature 
of  the  king  at  length  showed  itself  in  a 
kind  of  religious  frenzy.  This  frenzy, 
which  is  briefly  described  in  the  Bible  as 
an  "evil  spirit  of  God,"  led  him  to  the 
massacre  of  the  priests  of  Nob  and  vari- 
ous similar  excesses.  Meanwhile  the 
prophet  Samuel,  estranged  by  the  king's 
misdeeds,  had  anointed  David  as  his  suc- 
cessor, and  this  took  effect  when  Saul  was 
slain  on  Mount  Gilboa. 

SAULSBURY,  WILLARD,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  legislator.  He  was  born 
in  Georgetown,  Del.,  in  1861,  and  after 
receiving  his  preliminary  education,  went 
to  the  University  of  Virginia,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1882.  He  then  en- 
gaged in  practice  in  Wilmington,  Del., 
and  became  a  prominent  figure  in  local 
legal  and  business  circles.  Coming  from 
a  family  prominent  in  the  Democratic  pol- 
itics of  Delaware,  he  soon  began  to  have 
weight  in  the  Democratic  councils  of  the 
State,  and  was  delegate-at-large  at  the 
Democratic  National  conventions  in  1896, 
1904,  and  1912.  He  was  United  States 
Senator  in  1913-19,  but  was  defeated  for 
re-election.  He  had  a  large  part  in  the 
consolidation  of  the  street  and  electric 
railways  of  Wilmington,  and  is  director 
of  a  number  of  trust  companies  and  banks. 

SAULT  SAINTE  MARIE,  a  city  of 
Canada,  the  district  town  of  Algoma  Dis- 
trict, Ontario.  It  is  opposite  the  city  of 
the  same  name  in  Michigan,  and  is  on  the 
St.  Marys  river,  the  St.  Marys  Falls  ship 
canal,  and  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  and 
Hudson  Bay  railways.    It  is  the  center  of 


steel,  and  pulp  and  paper  industries,  and 
is  an  inland  port  of  great  importance.  It 
has  also  an  extensive  trade  in  timber,  ag- 
ricultural products,  and  mining  products. 
It  has  federal  and  district  buildings,  a 
public  library,  and  a  technical  school. 
Pop.  about  20,000. 

SAULT  SAINTE  MARIE,  a  city  of 
Michigan,  the  county  seat  of  Chippewa 
co.  It  is  on  the  St.  Marys  river  and  on 
the  Canadian  Pacific,  the  Duluth,  South 
Shore,  and  Atlantic,  and  the  Minneapolis, 
St.  Paul,  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  railroads. 
The  St.  Marys  canal  here  connects  Lake 
Superior  and  Lake  Huron,  over  which  is 
carried  an  immense  traffic.  The  Interna- 
tional Bridge  crosses  the  rapids  of  the  St. 
Marys  river.  The  rapids  near  the  city 
generate  abundant  water  power,  which  is 
used  by  several  important  industries, 
which  include  paper  mills,  lumber  mills, 
carbide  factory,  tanneries,  flour  mills,  etc. 
The  city  has  a  public  library,  high  school, 
armory,  Federal  building,  and  a  park. 
Pop.  (1910)  12,615;  (1920)  12,096. 

SAULT  SAINTE  MARIE  FALLS.  See 
St.  Mary's  River. 

SAUMUR,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Maine-et-Loire ;  on  the 
Loire  river,  and  on  an  island  in  it,  38 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Tours.  The  most  prom- 
inent buildings  are  an  old  castle  (now 
arsenal  and  powder  magazine),  the  16th- 
century  town  house,  some  interesting 
churches,  and  private  houses  of  good 
French  architecture.  There  are  a  town 
museum  and  a  cavalry  school.  Rosaries 
and  articles  in  enamel  are  manufactured. 
Saumur  was  a  stronghold  of  the  Protes- 
tants during  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  Its 
prosperity  was  annihilated  by  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  its  pop- 
ulation reduced  to  a  fourth.  From  1598 
till  1685  it  was  the  seat  of  a  famous 
school  of  Protestant  theology,  the  most 
conspicuous  professors  being  John  Came- 
ron of  Glasgow  (1579-1625)  and  his  pu- 
pils Amyraut  (or  Amyraldus,  1596-1664) 
and  Cappel  (1585-1658).  The  school  was 
noted  for  its  freedom  in  Biblical  criticism 
and  was  denounced  by  the  opposing  school 
of  Sedan  as  heretical.  Saumur  was  bril- 
liantly captured  by  Larochejaquelein  and 
the  Vendeans  in  the  summer  of  1793.  The 
largest  dolmen  in  France  is  IY2  miles  S. 
of  the  town;  and  prehistoric  caves  line 
the  river.     Pop.  about  16,500. 

SAURIA,  or  SAURIANS,  an  order  of 
reptiles,  including  all  those  which,  like  the 
crocodile  and  lizard,  are  covered  with 
scales  and  have  four  legs.  The  most  gi- 
gantic and  remarkable  specimens  of  sau- 
rian reptiles  are  now  extinct,  but  their 
fossil  remains,  immense  in  size  and  won- 
derful as  they  appear,  afford  incontest- 


SAURID.2E 


260 


SAVANNAH 


able  evidence  of  their  similarity  in  struc- 
ture to  the  harmless  little  lizard  of  the 
present  day. 

SAURID.ffi,  the  gar-pike  family,  com- 
prising elongated  fishes  covered  with 
scales  of  stony  hardness,  which  are  ex- 
tended into  imbricated  spines  on  the  first 
rays  of  all  the  fins;  about  25  species,  all 
American,  are  known.  The  genus  Lepi- 
dosteus,  containing  the  gar  fishes  of  the 
Northern  lakes,  Western  and  Southern 
rivers,  is  characterized  by  elongated 
slightly  unequal  jaws,  which  are  fur- 
nished over  their  whole  inner  surface  with 
rasp-like  teeth,  and  a  row  of  long,  pointed 
teeth  along  their  edges. 

SAUROPODA,  according  to  Marsh,  an 
order  of  dinosauria,  which  he  raises  to  a 
class.  Fore  and  hind  limbs  nearly  equal; 
feet  plantigrade,  pentidactyle,  ungulate; 
anterior  vertebrae  opisthoccelian ;  sternal 
bones  paired;  premaxiliaries  with  teeth. 
They  were  herbivorous,  and  attained  their 
greatest  development  in  the  Jurassic. 
Families:  Atlantosauridte,  Diplodocidse, 
and  Morosauridx. 

SAUROPSIDA,  a  primary  group  or 
province  of  vertebrata,  comprising  rep- 
tiles and  birds.  An  epidermic  skeleton, 
in  the  form  of  scales  or  feathers,  is  almost 
always  present.  The  centra  of  the  verte- 
brae are  ossified,  but  have  no  terminal 
epiphyses ;  the  skull  has  a  completely  ossi- 
fied occipital  segment;  mandible  always 
present,  and  each  ramus  consists^  of  an 
articular  ossification,  connected  with  the 
skull  by  quadrate  bone.  The  apparent 
ankle  joint  is  situated  between  the  proxi- 
mal and  distal  divisions  of  the  tarsus,  not 
between  the  tibia  and  the  astragalus,  as 
in  the  mammalia.  The  heart  is  tri-  or 
quadri-locular,  and  some  of  the  blood  cor- 
puscles are  red,  oval,  and  nucleated.  Res- 
piration is  never  effected  by  means  of 
branchiae,  but  after  birth  is  performed  by 
lungs.  The  cerebral  hemispheres  are 
never  united  by  a  corpus  callosum.  The 
reproductive  organs  open  into  the  cloaca; 
the  oviduct  is  a  Fallopian  tube  with  a 
uterine  dilatation  in  the  lower  part.  All 
are  oviparous  or  ovoviviparous ;  there  are 
no  mammary  glands;  the  embryo  has  an 
amnion  and  a  large  respiratory  allantois, 
and  is  nourished  at  the  expense  of  the 
massive  vitellus. 

SAURY,  the  Scomberesox  saurus,  a  fish 
called  also  the  skipper.  It  is  from  12  to  18 
inches  long,  about  an  inch  in  depth,  and 
the  jaw  has  a  hinge  movement  as  in  Be- 
lone.  The  name  is  sometimes  extended  to 
the  whole  genus  Scomberesox. 

SAUSAGE,  an  article  of  food,  consist- 
ing of  chopped  or  minced  meat,  as  pork, 
beef,  or  veal,  seasoned  with  sage,  pepper, 


salt,  etc.,  and  stuffed  into  properly  cleaned 
entrails  of  the  ox,  sheep,  or  pig,  twisted 
at  short  intervals  into  sections. 

SAUTERNE,  a  kind  of  white  Bor- 
deaux wine,  made  from  grapes  grown  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Sauternes,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Gironde,  France. 

SAVAGE,  MINOT  JUDSON,  an  Amer- 
ican clergyman;  born  in  Norridgewock, 
Me.,  June  10,  1841.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  Theological  Seminary  at  Bangor, 
1864;  went  to  California  as  a  Congrega- 
tional home  missionary,  and  preached  at 
San  Mateo  and  at  Grass  Valley.  He  re- 
moved to  Framingham,  Mass. ;  thence  was 
called  to  Indianapolis,  and  afterward  to 
Hannibal,  Mo.  He  accepted  a  call  to  the 
Third  Unitarian  Church  in  Chicago  in 
1873,  and  after  a  year  there  was  installed 
pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Unity,  Bos- 
ton, where  he  remained  for  22  years.  Af- 
ter 1896  he  was  minister  in  the  Church  of 
the  Messiah,  New  York,  in  association 
with  Dr.  Robert  Collyer.  In  his  very 
active  career  he  has  published  over  30 
books  on  religious,  social,  and  moral  ques- 
tions, among  which  may  be  mentioned: 
"The  Religion  of  Evolution"  (1876) ;  "So- 
cial Problems"  (1886) ;  "Jesus  and  Mod- 
ern Life"  (1893)  ;  "A  Man"  (1895) ;  "Re- 
ligion for  Today"  (1897) ;  "Poems" 
(1882) ;  "Our  Unitarian  Gospel,"  "The 
Minister's  Handbook,"  "Psychics,"  "Life 
Beyond  Death,"  and  "Life's  Darkest  Prob- 
lems" (1905),  etc.    He  died  in  1918. 

SAVAGE  ISLAND,  a  small  coral  is- 
land in  the  Pacific  ocean,  between  the 
Samoan  and  Tongan  islands.  It  is  about 
30  miles  in  circuit.  It  was  annexed  by 
Great  Britain  in  1888  and  to  New  Zealand 
in  1901.     Pop.  3,880. 

SAVANNA,  or  SAVANNAH,  an  ex- 
tensive open  plain  or  meadow  in  a  tropical 
region,  yielding  pasturage  in  the  wet  sea- 
son, and  often  having  a  growth  of  under- 
shrubs.  The  word  is  used  chiefly  in  tropi- 
cal America. 

SAVANNA,  a  city  of  Illinois,  in  Car- 
roll co.  It  is  on  the  Mississippi  river  and 
on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul 
and  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy 
railroads.  Its  industries  include  storage 
elevators  and  a  sash  and  door  factory. 
Pop.   (1910)  3,691;    (1920)   5,237. 

SAVANNAH,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Chatham  co.,  Ga.;  on  the  Savannah 
river,  18  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  on  the 
Central  of  Georgia,  the  Atlantic  Coast  ^ 
Line,  the  Seaboard  Air  Line,  and  the 
Southern  railroads;  90  miles  S.  W.  of 
Charleston.  It  is  built  on  a  bluff  of  sand, 
about  40  feet  above  low  water,  and  has  a 
water  frontage  of  about  3  miles,  the  city 
receding  about  2  miles  from  the  river. 


SAVANNAH 


261 


SAVONAROLA 


Business  Interests. — Next  to  New  Or- 
leans, Savannah  is  the  most  important 
commercial  city  in  the  South.  The  largest 
vessels  can  enter  the  harbor,  and  the  river 
is  navigable  as  far  as  Augusta.  There 
is  regular  steamboat  communication  with 
Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Bos- 
ton, Liverpool,  and  the  principal  Southern 
cities.  It  holds  the  second  place  in  the 
United  States  as  a  cotton  emporium,  and 
also  exports  in  large  quantities  rice,  lum- 
ber, fertilizers,  and  naval  stores.  In  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1919,  the  value 
of  imports  aggregated  $16,747,224;  ex- 
ports, $341,171,319.  In  1914  the  invest- 
ment in  industrial  enterprises  was  $10,- 
247,000,  and  the  value  of  the  product  was 
$6,709,000.  There  are  National  and  sev- 
eral other  banks,  and  a  large  number  of 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  The  as- 
sessed property  valuations  exceed  $60,- 
000,000,  and  the  total  bonded  debt  is  about 
$6,700,000. 

Public  Interests. — The  city  has  an  area 
of  6.8  square  miles;  an  excellent  street 
system ;  a  system  of  waterworks  that  cost 
$1,250,000;  and  a  sewer  system  covering 
nearly  25  miles.  The  streets  are  lighted 
by  electrieity.  There  is  a  public  school 
enrollment  of  over  10,000  pupils,  and  an- 
nual expenditures  for  public  education  of 
about  $200,000.  The  city  contains  a  cus- 
tom house,  court  house,  Guard's  Arsenal, 
Chatham  Academy,  Cotton  Exchange,  Tel- 
fair Academy  of  Arts,  a  medical  college, 
Convent  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  St.  Jo- 
seph's Infirmary,  Episcopal  Orphans' 
Home,  and  other  charitable  institutions. 

History. — Savannah  was  founded  in 
1733  by  General  Oglethorpe.  In  1776  a 
British  fleet,  attempting  to  take  the  town, 
was  repulsed  after  a  severe  action;  and 
it  was  taken  in  1778,  and  held  in  October, 
1779,  against  the  combined  American  and 
French  forces.  In  the  latter  action  Count 
Pulaski  was  killed.  Savannah  received  its 
city  charter  in  1789.  During  the  Civil 
War  it  was  blockaded  by  the  Federal 
navy,  and  on  Dec.  12,  1864,  it  was  occu- 
pied by  General  Sherman.  Pop.  (1910) 
65,064;   (1920)  83,252. 

SAVANNAH,  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  which  forms  the  N.  E.  boundary 
of  Georgia,  and  separates  it  from  South 
Carolina.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  Tugaloo  and  Kiowee,  100  miles  by 
the  course  of  the  river  above  Augusta, 
and  is  navigable  to  the  city  of  Savannah 
for  vessels  drawing  over  28  feet. 

SAVARY  (sa-va-re'),  ANNE  JEAN 
MARIE  RENE,  DTJC  DE  ROVIGO,  a 
French  military  officer;  born  in  Marcq, 
France,  April  26,  1774.  He  entered  the 
army  as  a  volunteer  in  1790,  served  with 
distinction  on  the  Rhine,  in  Egypt,  and 
in  the  battle  of  Marengo  (1800).     Napo- 


leon made  him  commander  of  his  body- 
guard and  employed  him  in  diplomatic  af- 
fairs. In  1804,  as  commandant  of  the 
troops  stationed  at  Vincennes,  he  presided 
at  the  execution  of  the  Due  d'Enghien; 
and  in  the  wars  of  1806-1808  he  acquired 
high  military  reputation  at  Jena,  in  the 
capture  of  Hameln,  and  by  his  victory  at 
Ostrolenka  (Feb.  16,  1807).  Created  Duke 
of  Rovigo,  he  was  sent  to  Spain,  and  ne- 
gotiated the  perfidious  arrangement  by 
which  the  Spanish  king  and  his  son  were 
kidnapped.  In  1810  he  superseded  Fou- 
che  as  minister  of  police.  After  the  fall 
of  Napoleon  he  wished  to  accompany  him 
to  St.  Helena;  but  he  was  confined  by  the 
British  Government  at  Malta,  making  his 
escape  finally  to  Smyrna.  He  returned  to 
Paris  in  1818.  In  1831  he  was  appointed 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  army  in  Alge- 
ria; but  ill-health  caused  him  to  resign. 
He  wrote  his  "Memoirs"  in  1828.  He  died 
in  Paris,  June  2,  1833. 

SAVE  (sav),  or  SATJ  (sow),  a  river 
of  Jugoslavia.  It  rises  in  the  Julian 
Alps;  flows  S.  E.  through  Carniola,  sepa- 
rates Carniola  from  Styria,  flows  through 
Croatia,  and  after  a  course  of  about  540 
miles  joins  the  Danube  at  Belgrade.  It 
is  in  great  part  navigable. 

SAVINGS  BANKS.  Savings  banks  in 
the  United  States  are  classified  as  com- 
mercial and  government  or  postal.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  commercial  savings 
banks,  mutual  and  stock.  The  former  are 
found  chiefly  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
country,  while  the  latter  are  most  numer- 
ous in  the  West  and  South.  There  were 
on  June  30,  1919,  622  mutual  and  1,097 
stock  savings  banks.  This  does  not  in- 
clude the  savings  departments  of  national 
banks  and  trust  companies.  The  622  mu- 
tual savings  banks  have  total  resources 
amounting  to  $5,171,551,000.  This  total 
includes  loans  and  discounts  amounting 
to  $2,335,996,000  and  investments  in  bonds 
and  securities  amounting  to  $2,491,607,- 
000.  The  surplus  funds  amount  to  $333,- 
420,000  and  the  undivided  profits  to  $65,- 
013,000.  The  individual  deposits  amount 
to  $4,751,113,000.  The  aggregate  re- 
sources of  the  1,097  stock  savings  banks 
was  $1,281,254,000.  The  loans  and  dis- 
counts amount  to  $777,941,000,  the  capi- 
tal stock  to  $62,740,000,  the  surplus  and 
undivided  profits  to  $47,741,000,  and  the 
individual  deposits  to  $1,151,464,000. 

School  savings  banks  were  established 
in  the  United  States  in  1885. 

SAVONAROLA,  GIROLAMO,  an  Ital- 
ian reformer;  born  of  a  noble  family  in 
Ferrara,  Sept.  21,  1452.  He  was  educated 
at  home,  and  at  a  very  early  age  became 
deeply  versed  in  the  philosophy  of  the 
schools;  but  his  disposition  was  from  the 


SAVONABOLA 


262 


SAVONAROLA 


first  tinged  with  religious  asceticism,  and 
in  1474  he  formally  withdrew  from  secu- 
lar affairs  and  entered  the  Dominican  Or- 
der at  Bologna.  Having  completed  his 
novitiate  and  the  studies  of  the  order,  he 
seems  to  have  made  his  first  public  ap- 
pearance as  a  preacher  in  1482,  at  Flor- 
ence, where  he  had  entered  the  celebrated 
convent  of  his  order,  San  Marco,  and 
where  he  preached  the  Lent  in  that  year. 
His  first  trial,  however,  was  a  failure. 
His  voice  was  harsh  and  he  failed  to  in- 
terest. He  was  later  sent  to  a  convent  in 
Brescia,  where  his  zeal  began  to  attract 
notice,  and  the  disadvantages  of  manner 
and  address  ceased  to  be  felt  under  the 
influence  of  his  sterling  genius  and  irre- 
sistible enthusiasm.  In  1489  he  was  once 
more  recalled  to  the  convent  of  San  Marco 
in  Florence. 

His  second  appearance  in  the  pulpit  of 
San  Marco  was  a  complete  success.  The 
great  subject  of  his  declamation  was  the 
sinfulness  and  apostasy  of  the  time  and 
denunciation  of  the  vices  and  crimes  of  his 
age.  Under  the  rule  of  the  great  head  of 
the  Medici  family,  Lorenzo  the  Magnifi- 
cent, art,  literature,  and  philosophy  had 
all  followed  the  common  direction  of  that 
elegant  but  semi-pagan  revival  which  the 
scholars  of  the  15th  century  had  inaugu- 
rated; and  the  whole  spirit  of  the  social 
as  well  as  intellectual  movement  of  which 
Florence,  under  the  Medici,  was  the  cen- 
ter, was  utterly  at  variance  with  the  lofty 
Christian  spirituality  and  severe  asceti- 
cism in  which  Savonarola  placed  the  very 
first  conditions  of  the  restoration  of  true 
religion  and  morality.  His  preaching, 
therefore,  in  its  spirit,  as  well  as  in  its 
direct  allusions,  was  no  less  antagonistic 
to  the  established  system  of  the  govern- 
ment than  to  the  worldly  and  irreligious 
manners  of  the  age. 

Up  to  this  time  Savonarola's  relations 
with  the  Church  were,  if  not  of  harmony, 
at  least  not  of  antagonism;  and  when,  in 
the  year  1493,  a  reform  of  the  Dominican 
Order  in  Tuscany  was  proposed  under  his 
auspices,  it  was  approved  by  the  Pope, 
and  Savonarola  was  named  the  first  vicar- 
general.  About  this  date,  however,  his 
preaching  had  assumed  a  directly  politi- 
cal character,  and  the  predictions  and  de- 
nunciations which  formed  the  staple  of 
many  of  his  discourses  pointed  plainly  to 
a  political  revolution  in  Florence  and  in 
Italy  as  the  divinely  ordained  means  for 
the  regeneration  of  religion  and  morality. 
In  one  of  his  discourses  he  pointed  plainly 
to  the  advent  of  the  French  under  Charles 
VIII.;  and  when  this  prediction  was  ful- 
filled by  the  triumphant  appearance  of 
the  French  expedition,  Savonarola  was 
one  of  a  deputation  of  Florentines  sent 
to  welcome  Charles  VIII.  as  the  savior  of 
Italy,  and  to  invite  him  to  Florence.  Very 


soon,  however,  the  French  were  compelled 
to  leave  Florence,  and  a  republic  was  es- 
tablished, of  which  Savonarola  became, 
though  without  political  functions,  the 
guiding  and  animating  spirit,  his  party, 
who  were  popularly  called  Piagnoni,  or 
"Weepers,"  from  the  penitential  character 
which  they  professed,  being  completely  in 
the  ascendant. 

It  was  during  this  brief  tenure  of  in- 
fluence that  Savonarola  displayed  to  the 
fullest  extent  both  the  extraordinary  pow- 
ers of  his  genius  and  the  full  extrava- 
gance of  the  theories  to  which  his  en- 
thusiastic asceticism  impelled  him.  The 
republic  of  Florence  was  to  be  the  model 
of  a  Christian  commonwealth,  of  which 
God  Himself  was  the  chief  ruler,  and  His 
Gospel  the  sovereign  law;  and  thus  the 
most  stringent  enactments  were  made  for 
the  repression  of  vice,  and  of  all  the  sinful 
follies  by  which  it  is  fomented  and  main- 
tained. 

The  extremes  of  his  rigorism;  the  vio- 
lence of  his  denunciations,  which  did  not 
spare  even  the  Pope  himself  (Alexander 
VI.)  ;  the  assumption  by  him,  or  attribu- 
tion to  him,  of  a  supernatural  gift  of 
prophecy;  and  the  extravagant  interpre- 
tation of  the  Scriptures,  and  especially  of 
the  Apocalypse,  by  which  he  sought  to 
maintain  his  views,  drew  on  him  the  dis- 
pleasure of  Rome.  He  was  cited,  in  the 
year  1495,  to  answer  a  charge  of  heresy 
at  Rome;  and,  on  his  failing  to  appear, 
he  was  forbidden  to  preach;  the  brief  by 
which  the  Florentine  branch  of  his  order 
had  been  made  independent  was  revoked ; 
he  was  offered  a  cardinal's  hat  on  condi- 
tion of  his  changing  his  style  of  preach- 
ing— an  offer  he  indignantly  refused ;  and 
he  was  again  forbidden  to  preach.  Once 
again  Savonarola  disregarded  this  order. 
But  his  difficulties  at  home  now  began  to 
deepen.  The  measures  of  the  new  repub- 
lic proved  impracticable.  The  party  of 
the  Medici,  called  "Arrabbiati"  ("En- 
raged"), began  to  recover  ground.  A 
conspiracy  for  the  recall  of  the  exiled 
house  was  formed;  and  though,  for  the 
time,  it  failed  of  success,  and  five  of  the 
conspirators  were  condemned  and  execut- 
ed, yet  this  very  rigor  served  to  hasten 
the  reaction. 

At  the  critical  point  of  the  struggle  of 
parties  came,  in  1497,  a  sentence  of  ex- 
communication from  Rome  against  Savo- 
narola. Savonarola  openly  declared  the 
censure  invalid,  because  unjust,  and  re- 
fused to  hold  himself  bound  by  it.  Dur- 
ing the  plague  Savonarola,  precluded  by 
the  excommunication  from  administering 
the  sacred  offices,  devoted  himself  zeal- 
ously to  ministering  to  the  sick  monks. 
A  second  "bonfire  of  vanities"  in  1498  led 
to  riots.  In  the  same  year,  when  the  new 
elections  took  place,  the  party  opposed  to 


SAVOY 


263 


SAW 


Savonarola,  the  Arrabbiati,  came  into 
power.  He  was  ordered  to  desist  from 
preaching;  and  the  struggle  was  brought 
to  a  crisis  by  the  counterdenunciations  of 
a  preacher  of  the  Franciscan  order,  long 
an  antagonist  of  Savonarola,  Francesco 
da  Puglia.  In  the  excited  state  of  the 
popular  mind  thus  produced  an  appeal 
was  made  by  both  of  the  contending  par- 
ties to  the  interposition  of  divine  provi- 
dence by  the  ordeal  of  fire;  and  one  of 
Savonarola's  disciples  agreed  to  make 
trial  of  the  dread  ordeal  along  with  a 
Franciscan  friar.  But  at  the  moment 
when  the  trial  was  to  have  come  off 
(April,  1498)  difficulties  and  debates 
arose,  and  nothing  was  actually  done. 
The  result  of  this  was  to  destroy  with 
the  populace  the  prestige  of  Savonarola's 
reputation,  and  to  produce  a  complete 
revulsion  of  public  feeling. 

In  the  midst  of  this  reaction  he  was 
cited  before  the  council,  and  brought  to 
trial  for  falsely  claiming  to  have  seen 
visions  and  uttered  real  prophecies,  for 
other  religious  errors,  and  for  political 
insubordination.  He  denied  the  charges; 
but,  put  to  the  torture,  he  made  avowals 
which  he  afterward  withdrew.  The  con- 
clusion was  a  foregone  one;  he  was  de- 
clared guilty  of  heresy  and  of  seditious 
teaching,  and  of  being  an  enemy  to  the 
peace  of  the  Church.  The  acts  of  the 
trial  were  sent  to  Rome,  where  the  sen- 
tence was  confirmed;  he,  with  two  disci- 
ples of  his  order,  was  given  up  to  the 
secular  power;  so  on  May  23,  1498,  this 
extraordinary  man  and  his  two  compan- 
ions, brothers  Domenico  and  Silvestro, 
were  strangled,  and  their  bodies  burned 
by  the  executioner. 

SAVOY  (sa-voi'),  a  former  duchy  of 
the  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  now  annexed  to 
France,  and  forming  the  departments  of 
Savoie  and  Haute-Savoie,  having  N.  and 
N.  E.  Switzerland,  S.  E.  and  S.  Piedmont, 
and  W.  the  departments  of  Isere  and 
Ain;  area,  4,162  square  miles.  It  is  the 
most  elevated  country  of  Europe,  consist- 
ing principally  of  mountains,  the  highest 
of  which  is  Mont  Blanc.  The  valleys 
and  low  grounds  are  fertile  and  well  cul- 
tivated. Rivers:  Rhone,  Arve,  Drance, 
and  Isere;  lakes:  Annecy  and  Bourget. 
Products:  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  and 
hemp.  Minerals:  iron,  copper,  silver,  lead, 
coal,  and  salt.  Manufactures,  cotton  and 
woolen  fabrics,  hosiery,  watches,  clocks, 
glass,  earthenware,  etc.  Capital  of  Savoie, 
Chambery;  of  Haute-Savoie,  Annecy.  Sa- 
voy was  anciently  a  part  of  Sapaudia, 
whence  the  name  Saboia,  or  Savoy,  is 
derived.  It  was  erected  into  a  duchy  un- 
der Amadeus  VIII.,  in  1416,  and  was 
ceded  to  France  in  1860.  Pop.  about 
500,000. 


SAVOY,  HOUSE  OF,  one  of  the  most 
ancient  royal  families,  and  also  distin- 
guished for  having  produced  a  remarkable 
number  of  eminent  warriors  and  states- 
men. Its  origin  is  not  historically  es- 
tablished, but  most  genealogists  trace  it 
to  a  German  count,  Humbert,  who,  in  the 
11th  century,  established  himself  on  the 
W.  slope  of  the  Alps  between  Mont  Blanc 
and  Lake  Leman.  In  1111  his  descend- 
ants were  enrolled  among  the  counts  of 
the  Holy  Roman  empire.  Count  Ama- 
deus, in  1383,  founded  a  law  of  primo- 
geniture which  greatly  strengthened  the 
family,  leading  to  the  immediate  acquisi- 
tion of  the  territory  of  Nice.  In  1416 
the  Counts  of  Savoy  adopted  the  title  of 
duke;  and  in  1418  they  acquired  the 
principality  of  Piedmont.  Taking  part 
in  the  great  wars  between  France  and 
the  Holy  Roman  empire,  now  on  the  one 
side  and  then  on  the  other,  as  policy  dic- 
tated, the  Princes  of  Savoy  increased 
their  possessions  in  all  directions,  but 
chiefly  toward  the  S.;  and  at  the  peace 
of  Utrecht  in  1713  they  obtained  the  is- 
land of  Sicily,  with  the  title  of  king. 
Sicily  had  to  be  exchanged,  in  1718,  for 
the  isle  of  Sardinia,  to  which  henceforth 
the  royal  dignity  remained  attached. 
Genoa  and  the  surrounding  territory  were 
added  to  the  Sardinian  crown  at  the 
peace  of  1815.  The  direct  male  line  of 
the  house  of  Savoy  died  out  with  King 
Charles  Felix,  in  1831,  and  the  existing 
Salic  law  prohibiting  the  accession  of 
females,  the  crown  fell  to  Prince  Charles 
Albert,  of  the  House  of  Savoy-Carignan. 
The  latter  branch — taking  its  name  from 
a  small  town  in  the  province  of  Turin, 
was  founded  by  Thomas  Francis,  born  in 
1596,  a  younger  son  of  Duke  Charles 
Emanuel  I.  of  Savoy.  King  Charles  Al- 
bert, the  first  of  the  house  of  Savoy- 
Carignan,  abdicated  the  throne,  March  23, 
1849,  in  favor  of  his  son,  Victor  Em- 
manuel II.,  the  first  King  of  Italy.  See 
Victor  Emmanuel. 

SAVTJ,  SAVOTJ,  or  SAVOE,  an  island 
of  the  Malay  Archipelago  S.  W.  of  Timor ; 
area,  231  square  miles.  It  yields  millet, 
maize,  sugar  cane,  cotton,  tobacco,  etc., 
and  its  Malayan  inhabitants  are  subject 
to  the  Dutch  government  of  Timor.  Pop. 
about  26,000,  principally  Malays. 

SAW,  an  instrument  with  a  serrated 
or  dentated  blade,  the  teeth  of  which  rasp 
or  cut  away  wood  or  other  material,  mak- 
ing a  groove  known  as  a  kerf.  The 
Greeks  claim  the  invention  of  the  saw, 
but  it  occurs  on  the  Egyptian  monu- 
ments. Saws  of  the  bronze  age  have 
been  found  in  Germany  and  Denmark; 
and  in  the  stone  age  rude  saws  of  flint 
were  affixed  to  wooden  handles  by  bitu- 
men.     The    Caribs    formerly    employed 


SAW-BILL 


264 


SAXE 


saws  of  notched  shells,  and  the  Tahitians 
of  sharks'  teeth. 

Modern  saws  vary  in  size  and  form, 
but  may  be  divided  into  handsaws  and 
machine  saws,  of  which  the  first  are  the 
more  numerous.  Of  hand  saws  the  most 
commonly  used  are  the  gang  saw,  the 
crosscut  saw,  the  frame  saw,  the  hand 
saw,  the  panel  saw,  the  keyhole  saw,  the 
bow  saw,  the  ripping  saw,  the  sash  saw, 
the  tenon  saw,  etc.  Machine  saws  are 
divided  into  circular,  reciprocating,  and 
band  saws.  The  circular  saw  is  a  disk 
of  steel  with  teeth  on  its  periphery;  it 


pressed  into  molds  or  dies.  The  sawdust 
of  mahogany  and  rosewood  is  used  in 
dressing  furs,  and  the  small  fragments 
of  some  woods,  such  as  the  pencil  cedar, 
made  by  saw  cuts  or  the  turning  tool, 
yield  perfumes.  Sawdust  sinks  in  water 
though  the  wood  from  which  it  is  cut 
floats. 

SAWFISH,  a  popular  name  for  any 
species  of  the  genus  Pristis,  from  the  saw- 
like weapon  into  which  the  snout  is  pro- 
duced. They  are  common  in  tropical  and 
less  so  in  subtropical  seas,  and  attain  a 


SAWFISH 


is  made  to  revolve  at  great  speed,  while 
the  material  to  be  cut  is  pushed  forward 
against  it  by  means  of  a  traveling  plat- 
form. The  reciprocating  saw  works  like 
a  two-handled  hand  saw,  but  it  is  fixed 
and  the  material  pushed  forward  against 
its  teeth.  The  band  saw  consists  of  a 
thin  endless  saw  placed  over  two  wheels, 
and  strained  on  them.  It  passes  down 
through  a  flat  sawing  table,  upon  which 
the  material  to  be  cut  is  laid. 

SAW-BILL,  a  family  of  birds,  Trini- 
tiaas,  order  Insessores,  comprising  birds 
with  the  bill  as  long  as  the  head,  gently 
decurved  near  the  tip,  but  not  hooked, 
and  the  cutting  edges  dentated;  the  tarsi 
rather  long,  feet  large,  the  middle  and 
outer  toes  connected  for  more  than  half 
their  length.  This  family  is  represented 
in  North  America  by  Monotus  cceruliceps, 
the  saw-bill  of  Mexico. 

SAWDUST,  the  accumulated  particles 
caused  by  sawing  wood,  stone,  etc.  Be- 
sides the  more  common  uses  of  sawdust, 
it  is  commercially  valuable  as  the  basis 
of  various  manufactures.  Oxalic  acid  is 
manufactured  on  a  large  scale  from  wood 
sawdust.  Sawdust  is  also  used  in  the 
;'carbonating"  stage  of  the  process  for 
the  manufacture  of  soda  ash.  The  sub- 
stance called  bois-durci  (hardened  wood), 
of  which  beautiful  ebony-like  medallions 
and  other  ornaments  are  made,  consists 
of  the  fine  sawdust  of  rosewood,  ebony, 
and  other  woods  formed  into  a  paste  and 


considerable  size,  specimens  with  a  saw 
six  feet  long  and  a  foot  broad  at  the  base 
being  far  from  rare.  Their  offensive 
weapon  renders  them  dangerous  to  almost 
all  other  large  inhabitants  of  the  ocean. 
The  sawfish  use  their  rostral  weapon  in 
tearing  off  pieces  of  flesh  from  their  prey 
or  in  ripping  open  the  abdomen,  when 
they  seize  and  devour  the  detached  por- 
tions or  the  protruding  soft  parts. 

SAWFLIES,  a  group  of  insects  belong- 
ing to  the  order  Hymenoptera  and  distin- 
guished by  the  peculiar  conformation  of 
the  ovipositor  of  the  females,  which  is 
composed  of  two  broad  plates,  with  ser- 
rated or  toothed  edges,  by  means  of  which 
they  incise  the  stems  and  leaves  of  plants, 
and  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  slits  thus 
formed.  The  turnip  fly,  Athalia  centifo- 
lise,  and  the  gooseberry  fly,  Nematus 
grossularise,  are  examples. 

SAXE,     MAURICE,     COUNT    DE,     a 

French  military  officer;  a  natural  son  of 
Augustus  II.,  King  of  Poland;  born  in 
Goslar,  Prussia,  Oct.  28,  1696.  He  en- 
tered the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  was 
present  with  Prince  Eugene  at  the  siege 
of  Tournay.  In  1720  he  went  to  Paris. 
After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  get  him- 
self elected  Duke  of  Courland  he  took 
service  in  the  French  army,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  campaign  of  1733-1735, 
and  was  made  lieutenant-general.  In  the 
general  war  which  followed  the  death  of 
the  Emperor   Charles  VI.,   Saxe  took  a 


SAXE 


265 


SAXIFRAGA 


distinguished  part.  He  captured  Prague, 
defended  Alsace,  and  in  1743  was  named 
Marshal  of  France.  In  the  following 
year  he  held  a  command  in  Flanders. 
One  of  his  most  brilliant  achievements 
was  his  victory  over  the  English  and 
Hanoverian  forces  at  Fontenoy  in  May, 
1745.  He  was  at  the  time  "nearly  dead 
of  dropsy;  could  not  sit  on  horseback, 
except  for  a  few  minutes;  was  carried 
about  in  a  wicker  bed;  had  a  lead  bullet 
in  his  mouth  all  day,  to  mitigate  the 
intolerable  thirst."  (Carlyle.)  The  vic- 
tories of  Roucoux  and  Laufeldt,  and  the 
capture  of  Maestricht,  added  to  his  fame 
in  two  following  years.  Saxe  was  a  man 
of  great  size  and  strength,  intrepid,  self- 
possessed,  and  as  a  commander  won 
fame  for  his  ingenuity  and  dash;  but  he 
was  one  of  the  most  dissolute  men  of 
his  age.  George  Sand,  the  eminent  au- 
thor, was  descended  from  an  illegitimate 
daughter  of  his.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
the  art  of  war,  called  "My  Reveries."  He 
died  in  his  palace  of  Chambord,  near 
Blois,  France,  Nov.  30,  1750. 

SAXE,  JOHN  GODFREY,  an  Ameri- 
can humorous  poet;  born  in  Highgate, 
Vt.,  June  2,  1816.  In  1872  he  became 
editorially  connected  with  the  Albany 
"Evening  Journal,"  and  subsequently  con- 
tributed to  "Harper's  Magazine"  and  the 
"Atlantic  Monthly."  He  was  also  well 
known  as  a  lecturer.  His  most  popular 
verses  include  "Rhyme  of  the  Rail"  and 
"The  Proud  Miss  McBride" ;  and  his  pub- 
lished works:  "The  Money  King"  (1859) ; 
"The  Flying  Dutchman;  or,  The  Wrath 
of  Herr  von  Stoppelnose"  (1862) ;  "The 
Masquerade  and  Other  Poems"  (1866)  ; 
"Fables  and  Legends  in  Rhyme"  (1872) ; 
and  "Leisure-Day  Rhymes"  (1875).  He 
died  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  March  31,  1887. 

SAXE  -  ALTENBTJRG,  formerly  a 
Duchy,  but  since  1919  part  of  Thuringia; 
a  state  of  the  German  Republic.  Area 
511  square  miles.  The  eastern  or  Alten- 
burg  division  is  very  fertile,  while  the 
western  or  Saal-Eisenburg  portion  is 
hilly  and  wooded.  The  capital  is  Alten- 
burg.     Pop.  about  216,000. 

SAXE-COBTJRG-GOTHA,  formerly  a 
Duchy,  but  since  1919  a  part  of  Thu- 
ringia, a  state  of  the  German  Republic, 
comprising  the  province  of  Gotha,  lying 
between  Prussia,  Schwarzburg,  Meinin- 
gen,  and  Weimar;  and  the  province  of 
Coburg,  lying  between  Meiningen  and 
Bavaria;  Coburg  218  square  miles,  and 
Gotha  548  square  miles.  The  S.  of  Gotha 
and  the  N.  of  Coburg  are  both  mountain- 
ous. Both  divisions  are  fertile;  the  hills 
are  covered  with  wood,  and  in  Gotha  coal 
and  other  minerals  are  found.  Prior  to 
the  World  War.  the  chief  occupations  of 


the  inhabitants,  particularly  in  Coburg, 
were  cattle  rearing  and  agriculture.  In 
Gotha  there  were  manufactures  of  linen, 
leather,  metal-wares,  etc.  The  population 
profess  the  Lutheran  faith.  The  Prince 
Consort  of  England,  husband  of  Queen 
Victoria,  was  the  younger  brother  of 
Duke  Ernest  II.,  and  Prince  Alfred  of 
Great  Britain,  Duke  of  Edinburgh  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle  in  1893,  dying  in  1900, 
without  a  son.  He  was  succeeded  by 
the  Duke  of  Albany,  nephew  of  King 
Edward  VII  of  England.  He  was  forced 
to  abdicate  in  1918  as  the  result  of  the 
German  revolution.  Gotha  joined  the 
Republic  of  Thuringia,  Coburg  that  of 
Bavaria.  Pop.  of  Gotha  (1919)  433,959; 
of  Coburg,  74,344. 

SAXE-MEININGEN,  under  the  Em- 
pire a  Duchy  but  now  part  of  Thuringia, 
a  state  of  the  German  Republic,  consist- 
ing of  a  main  body  and  several  minor 
isolated  portions;  area,  953  square  miles. 
The  greater  part  of  the  surface  is  hilly, 
and  the  principal  crops  are  oats,  buck- 
wheat, potatoes,  turnips,  hemp,  and  the 
pastures  rear  considerable  numbers  of 
cattle,  sheep,  and  horses.  The  minerals 
include  iron  and  copper,  worked  to  a 
small  extent,  and  the  manufactures  are 
chiefly  ironware,  porcelain,  glass,  etc. 
The  government  under  the  empire  was 
hereditary  and  constitutional  with  a  rep- 
resentative chamber  of  24  members.  The 
capital  is  Meiningen.  Pop.  (1919)  191,491. 

SAXE  -  WEIMAR,  or  SAXE  -  WEI- 
MAR-EISENACH, under  the  Empire  a 
Grand-Duchy,  since  1919  part  of  Thu- 
ringia, a  state  of  the  German  Republic. 
Area,  1,397  square  miles.  The  forests 
are  very  extensive,  and  form  the  prin- 
cipal wealth  of  the  grand-duchy.  The 
minerals  are  unimportant.  In  Eisenach 
woolen,  cotton,  and  linen  tissues,  ribbons, 
and  carpets,  etc.,  are  made.  The  chief 
town  is  Weimar,  and  there  is  a  univer- 
sity at  Jena.     Pop.    (1919)   270,015. 

SAXHORN,  a  brass  wind  instrument, 
invented  by  Adolph  Sax,  constructed  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  large  portion, 
after  passing  under  the  arm  of  the  per- 
former, repasses  over  his  shoulder,  pre- 
senting the  bell  to  the  front.  The  advan- 
tage of  this  shape  is  that  it  avoids  the 
elbows,  which  would  otherwise  impair 
the  progress  of  the  sound.  Saxhorns 
have  great  powers,  more  especially  the 
contra  bassos  in  E  and  B  flat;  the  latter 
of  which  has  48  feet  of  development  in 
its  tube. 

SAXIFRAGA,  in  botany,  saxifrage, 
the  typical  genus  of  Saxifragacese.  Per- 
ennial plants,  rarely  herbs,  with  white 
or  yellow,  or  rarely  red  or  purple,  cy- 
mose  inflorescence.    Known  species,   160. 


SAXIFRAGACE.SJ 


266 


SAXONY 


Not  found  in  Australia,  South  Africa, 
or  the  South  Sea  Islands;  distributed  in 
most  other  regions. 

SAXIFRAGACES,  or  SAXIFRA- 
GES), in  botany,  saxifrages;  the  typical 
order  of  the  alliance  Saxifragales,  herbs 
often  growing  in  patches.  Known  genera 
19,  species  310.  (Lindley.)  Genera  19, 
species  250,  including  the  Ribesieae.  (Sir 
Joseph  Hooker.)  Most  of  the  species  are 
from  the  North  Temperate  and  Arctic 
zones. 

SAXONS,  a  Germanic  people,  whose 
name  is  usually  derived  from  an  old  Teu- 
tonic word  sahs,  meaning  "knife,"  though 
some  authorities  believe  it  to  be  another 
form  of  Sassen,  "The  settled  people,"  are 
first  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  as  dwelling 
in  the  S.  of  the  Cimbrian  Peninsula.  In 
the  3d  century  a  "Saxon  League"  or 
"Confederation,"  to  which  belonged  the 
Cherusci,  the  Angrivarii,  the  Chauci,  and 
other  tribes,  was  established  on  both  sides 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Elbe  and  on  the 
islands  off  the  adjacent  coast.  During 
the  reigns  of  the  Emperors  Julian  and 
Valentinian  they  invaded  the  Roman  ter- 
ritory; but  their  piratical  descents  on 
the  coasts  of  Britain  and  Gaul  are  far 
more  famous.  In  287  Carausius,  a  Belgic 
admiral  in  the  Roman  service,  made  him- 
self "Augustus"  in  Britain  by  their  help ; 
and  about  450  they  in  conjunction  with 
the  Angles  established  themselves  per- 
manently in  the  island  and  founded  the 
Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms.  Before  the  5th 
century  they  had  settled  along  the  North 
Sea  coasts  from  the  Elbe  to  the  Loire, 
a  part  of  what  was  later  Flanders  being 
called  the  "Saxon  shore."  But  these 
Saxon  settlements  soon  became  absorbed 
in  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks.  In  Great 
Britain  too  there  was  a  Saxon  shore  with 
its  count.  In  Roman  times  the  coast 
districts  of  Great  Britain  from  Brighton 
N.  to  the  Wash  were  called  Litus  Saxoni- 
cum,  or  Saxon  shore.  These  localities 
were  particularly  exposed  to  the  attacks 
of  the  Saxons  from  across  the  North 
Sea,  and  were  placed  under  the  authority 
of  a  special  officer,  the  Count  of  the  Saxon 
Shore. 

At  home  the  Old  Saxons  enlarged 
their  territory  by  conquest  till  it  em- 
braced all  the  lands  between  the  Rhine 
and  Elbe,  the  North  Sea  and  the  Harz 
Mountains.  Along  with  the  Franks  they 
destroyed  the  kingdom  of  the  Thurin- 
gians  in  531,  and  obtained  possession  of 
the  land  between  the  Harz  and  the  river 
Unstrut ;  but  this  region  too  was  forced 
to  acknowledge  the  Frankish  sovereignty. 
But  the  Saxons  having  thrown  off  the 
yoke,  wars  between  the  Saxons  and  the 
Franks    were   constant    after    719;    and 


the  latter  after  772  were,  under  the  vig- 
orous leadership  of  Charlemagne,  gen- 
erally successful,  in  spite  of  the  deter- 
mined opposition  offered  by  Wittekind 
(or  Widukind).  The  desperate  resistance 
of  the  Saxons  was  not  finally  broken  till 
804,  though  Wittekind  submitted  in  785. 
After  the  final  submission  the  conquered 
people  accepted  Christianity,  having  be- 
fore defended  their  heathen  faith  in  con- 
junction with  their  freedom.  By  the 
treaty  of  Verden  (843)  the  Saxon  dis- 
tricts fell  to  Austrasia,  the  nucleus  of 
the  German  empire.  The  "Saxons"  of 
Transylvania  are  not  all  of  pure  Saxon 
descent ;  the  name  is  used  rather  as  synon- 
ymous with  "German."  To  the  Celtic 
Britons  the  English  or  Anglo-Saxon  in- 
vaders were  known  only  as  Saxons,  and 
Sassenach,  or  other  Celtic  form  of  the 
word  Saxon,  is  still  the  name  for  Eng- 
lishmen and  their  language  alike  in 
Wales,  the  Scottish  Highlands,  and  Ire- 
land. 

SAXON  SWITZERLAND,  a  name 
given  to  part  of  Saxony,  on  the  Elbe, 
S.  E.  of  Dresden  and  bordering  on  Bo- 
hemia. It  consists  of  a  group  of  moun- 
tains of  sandstone,  with  valleys  and 
streams  of  the  most  picturesque  char- 
acter, in  which  isolated  masses  of  sand- 
stone, large  and  small,  occur  in  very  fan- 
tastic shapes.  It  is  about  24  miles  long 
and  equally  wide. 

SAXONY,  a  state  in  the  German  Re- 
public, formerly  a  kingdom,  now  a  re- 
public; bounded  on  the  N.  W.,  N.  and  E. 
by  Prussia;  S.  E.  and  S.  by  Bohemia; 
S.  W.  by  Bavaria;  and  W.  by  Reuss, 
Saxe-Weimar,  and  Saxe-Altenburg;  area, 
5,787  square  miles.  For  administrative 
purposes  it  is  divided  into  the  five  dis- 
tricts of  Dresden,  Leipsic,  Zwickau, 
Chemnitz,  and  Bautzen.  Pop.  about 
5,000,000. 

General  Features. — With  the  exception 
of  a  very  small  portion  of  the  E.,  which 
sends  its  waters  to  the  Baltic,  Saxony 
belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Elbe,  which 
traverses  it  in  a  N.  W.  direction  for 
about  70  miles.  Of  its  tributaries  the 
most  important  are  the  Mulde  and  the 
Elster.  The  surface,  though  very  much 
broken,  may  be  regarded  as  an  inclined 
plane,  which  commences  in  the  S.,  in  the 
Erzgebirge  chain,  and  slopes  toward  the 
N.  In  the  more  elevated  districts,  the 
scenery  is  wild,  and  on  either  side  of 
the  Elbe,  from  the  Bohemian  frontier  to 
Pirna,  is  a  remarkable  tract  which  has 
received  the  name  of  the  Saxon  Switzer- 
land. On  the  Prussian  frontiers,  where 
the  district  subsides  to  its  lowest  point, 
the  height  above  the  sea  is  only  250  feet. 
The  loftiest  summits  are  generally  com- 


SAXONY 


267 


SAXONY 


posed  of  granite  and  gneiss,  and  are  rich 
in  mineral  products.  The  Erzgebirge  is 
continued  by  the  Riesengebirge,  a  branch 
of  which,  under  the  name  of  the  Lausit- 
zergebirge,  or  Mountains  of  Lusatia, 
covers  a  considerable  portion  of  East 
Saxony.  The  climate  in  the  loftier  moun- 
tain districts  is  very  cold,  but  with  this 
exception  it  is  milder  than  that  of  most 
countries  of  Europe  under  the  same  lati- 
tude. 

Productions,  Industries,  etc. — The  most 
important  crops  are  rye,  oats,  barley, 
wheat,  potatoes;  and  orchard  fruits,  par- 
ticularly apples,  pears,  and  plums,  are 
very  abundant.  Considerable  attention 
is  paid  to  the  culture  of  the  vine.  Large 
numbers  of  horned  cattle  are  exported. 
The  wool  of  Saxony  has  long  been  cele- 
brated for  its  excellence.  Swine  and 
horses  are  of  a  superior  breed.  The  min- 
erals are  of  great  importance  and  in- 
clude silver,  lead,  tin,  iron,  cobalt,  nickel, 
bismuth,  and  arsenic.  Lignite  and  coal 
are  found  in  various  districts.  The  quar- 
ries furnish  in  abundance  granite,  por- 
phyry, basalt,  marble,  serpentine,  and 
sandstone.  Several  mineral  springs  of 
reputation  exist.  Saxony  is  an  impor- 
tant manufacturing  country,  textile  fab- 
rics, such  as  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
linen,  lace  and  ribbons,  being  the  leading 
products.  Other  industries  are  earthen- 
ware, Dresden  ware,  leather,  straw 
weaving,  chemicals,  etc.,  and  the  printing 
establishments  of  Leipsic  are  well  known. 
Saxony  is  connected  with  the  great  trunk 
lines  which  traverse  central  Europe.  The 
chief  towns  are  Dresden  (the  capital), 
Leipsic,  Chemnitz,  Zwickau,  Plauen,  and 
Freiberg. 

History. — The  last  ruling  family  in 
Saxony  claimed  descent  from  Wittekind, 
the  national  hero  who  was  conquered  by 
Charlemagne  and  embraced  Christianity. 
The  territory  became  a  duchy  about  880, 
and  in  the  10th  century  Duke  Henry  was 
elected  German  emperor.  In  1127  the 
duchy  passed  to  the  Bavarian  branch  of 
the  Guelph  family,  and  after  several 
changes  Frederick  the  Warrior,  Mar- 
grave of  Meissen  and  Landgrave  of 
Thuringia,  became  (1423)  Elector  of  Sax- 
ony. His  grandsons,  Ernest  and  Albert, 
in  1485  divided  the  family  posses- 
sions, founding  the  Ernestine  and  Alber- 
tine  lines  respectively,  the  former  re- 
taining che  electoral  dignity.  Ernest  was 
succeeded  by  his  sons  Frederick  III. 
(1486-1525)  and  John  (1525-1532),  but 
in  1548  the  elector  of  the  Ernestine  line 
was  put  under  the  ban  of  the  empire, 
and  the  electorate  transferred  to  Mau- 
rice, who  represented  the  Albertine  line 
which  now  occupies  the  throne.  Maurice 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Augustus 
(1553-1586),  who  made  important  addi- 


tions to  the  Saxon  territories  by  purchase 
and  otherwise.  His  son,  Christian  I., 
died  in  1691,  leaving  the  crown  to  his  son, 
Christian  II.  Christian's  brother  and 
successor,  John  George  I.  (1611-1656), 
joined  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  and  the  Saxon  forces  took 
part  in  Breitenfeld  and  at  Lutzen.  Fred- 
erick Augustus  I.  (1694-1733)  embraced 
the  Catholic  religion  (1697)  to  obtain 
the  crown  of  Poland.  Frederick  Augus- 
tus II.  also  obtained  the  Polish  crown 
(as  Augustus  III.)  after  a  war  with 
France  and  joined  with  Austria  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War.  Frederick  Augustus 
III.  (1763-1827)  reluctantly  took  part 
against  France  when  war  was  declared 
by  the  Imperial  Diet  in  1793,  but  after 
the  battle  of  Jena  the  elector  and  his 
army  fought  side  by  side  with  the  French. 
Napoleon  conferred  on  him  the  title  of 
king,  and  large  additions  were  made  to 
the  Saxon  territory  in  1807  and  1809. 
In  1813  Saxony  was  the  scene  of  Napo- 
leon's struggle  with  the  allies,  and  the 
battles  of  Lutzen,  Bautzen,  Dresden,  and 
Leipsic  were  followed  by  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  (1814),  when  a  large  part  of  the 
dominions  then  under  the  Saxon  monarch 
was  ceded  to  Prussia.  A  period  of  great 
progress  followed,  interrupted  somewhat 
at  the  revolutionary  period  of  1848-1849. 
In  the  Austro-Prussian  War  of  1866,  Sax- 
ony took  part  with  Austria  and  was 
occupied  by  the  Prussian  troops.  Prus- 
sia desired  to  incorporate  the  kingdom, 
but  Austria,  supported  by  France,  op- 
posed this  arrangement,  and  Saxony  was 
admitted  into  the  North  German  Con- 
federation instead.  In  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian War,  Saxony  united  with  the  rest 
of  Germany  against  France;  and  the 
late  King  Albert  (then  crown  prince)  was 
commander  of  the  German  army  of  the 
Meuse.  On  Nov.  9,  1918,  the  King  of 
Saxony  abdicated  and  the  country  was 
declared  a  republic. 

SAXONY,  PRUSSIAN,  a  province  of 
Prussia,  of  irregular  shape,  and  with 
isolated  districts,  almost  in  the  center 
of  Germany,  N.  of  Saxony;  area,  9,756 
square  miles.  Originally  a  part  of  Sax- 
ony, it  was  given  to  Prussia  by  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  (1814).  The  N.  and 
larger  portion  belongs  to  the  north  Ger- 
man plain;  the  S.  and  S.  W.  is  elevated 
or  hilly,  partly  belonging  to  the  Harz 
Mountain  system,  and  containing  the 
Brocken  (3,742  feet).  The  chief  river 
is  the  Elbe.  The  soil  is  generally  pro- 
ductive, about  61  per  cent,  being  under 
the  plow  and  20  per  cent,  forests.  Beet 
sugar  is  largely  produced.  The  mineral 
products  are  valuable,  particularly  lig- 
nite, salt,  kainite,  and  other  potash  salts* 
The  capital  of  the   province  is   Magde- 


SAXOPHONE 


268 


SCAB 


burg;  other  towns  are  Halle  (with  a  uni- 
versity), Erfurt,  and  Halberstadt.  Pop. 
about  3,150,000. 

SAXOPHONE,  the  name  of  a  family 
©f  musical  instruments  invented  by  A. 
Sax  (see  Saxhorn).  They  consist  of  a 
conical  brass  tube,  sounded  by  a  mouth- 
piece furnished  with  a  single  reed  similar 
to  that  of  the  clarinet,  and  are  made  in 
as  many  different  keys  as  the  saxhorn. 
The  contralto  and  baritone  are  mostly 
used  in  Great  Britain;  but  in  France  all 
the  varieties  are  more  or  less  used.  They 
have  20  holes  covered  by  keys  and  studs 
for  the  first  three  fingers  of  each  hand, 
and  are  all  fingered  alike.  They  are 
greatly  valued  in  military  music,  but  are 
not  much  used  in  the  orchestra. 

SAYCE,  ARCHIBALD  HENRY,  an 
English  Orientalist;  born  near  Bristol, 
England,  Sept.  25,  1846.  His  works  ex- 
tend over  various  fields  and  are  of  great 
importance  for  comparative  philology 
and  history.  They  Include:  "Assyrian 
Grammar  for  Comparative  Purposes" 
(1872)  ;  "Lectures  on  the  Assyrian  Lan- 
guage" (1877)  ;  "Babylonian  Literature" 
(1877) ;  "Ancient  Empires  of  the  East" 
(1884);  "Assyria"  (1885);  "The  Hit- 
tites"  (1889);  "Records  of  the  Past" 
(new  series,  1889-1892)  ;  "Life  and  Times 
of  Isaiah"  (1889) ;  "The  Races  of  the  Old 
Testament"  (1891);  "Social  Life  among 
the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians"  (1891) ; 
"The  Higher  Criticism  and  the  Verdict 
of  the  Monuments"  (1894) ;  "The  Egypt 
of  the  Hebrews  and  Herodotus"  (1895) ; 
"Patriarchal  Palestine"  (1895)  ;  "Early 
History  of  the  Hebrews"  (1897) ;  "Israel 
and  the  Surrounding  Nations"  (1898) ; 
"Babylonians  and  Assyrians"  (1900) ; 
etc.  Special  mention  should  be  made  of 
his  "Principles  of  Comparative  Philol- 
ogy" and  "Introduction  to  the  Science 
of  Language,"  which  have  passed  through 
many  editions. 

SAYRE,  LUCIUS  ELMER,  an  Ameri- 
can educator,  born  at  Bridgeton,  N.  J., 
in  1847.  He  studied  at  the  Philadelphia 
College  of  Pharmacy,  and  was  in  busi- 
ness as  a  manufacturing  chemist,  from 
1882  to  1885.  From  1880  to  1885  he  was 
an  instructor  in  the  Philadelphia  Col- 
lege of  Pharmacy,  and  from  1885  was 
dean  of  the  School  of  Pharmacy  at  the 
University  of  Kansas.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Revision  Commission  of  the 
United  States  Pharmacopoeia  from  1890, 
and  from  1907  was  director  of  drug  an- 
alysis for  the  State  Board  of  Health  of 
Kansas.  He  wrote  "Organic  Materia 
Medica  and  Pharmacognosy";  "Essen- 
tials of  Pharmacy,"  and  contributed  ar- 
ticles on  pharmaceutical  subjects  to 
magazines. 


SAYRE,  THEODORE  BURT,  an  Amer- 
ican author  and  playwright,  born  in  New 
York  in  1874.  He  was  educated  in  pri- 
vate schools  in  New  York  and  the  New 
York  College  of  Pharmacy.  From  1899 
to  1914  he  was  a  reader  of  plays  and  a 
critic  for  Charles  Frohman.  His  pub- 
lished movels  include  "Two  Summer  Girls 
and  I"  (1898);  "Tom  Moore"  (1902). 
Among  his  numerous  plays  are  "Tom 
Moore"  (1901)  ;  "O'Neill  of  Derry" 
(1907) ;  "The  Commanding  Officer" 
(1910)  ;  "Love's  Young  Dream"  (1912) ; 
"The  Irish  Dragoon"  (1915) ;  "The  Irish 
Fifteenth"  (1916);  "Lucky  O'Shea" 
(1917). 

SAZONOFF,  SERGI  DIMITRIE- 
VITCH,  a  Russian  statesman,  born  in 
1861.  In  1890  he  was  appointed  second 
secretary  to  the  Russian  Embassy  in 
London,  where  he  obtained  his  first  dip- 
lomatic training.  Here  he  remained  for 
two  years,  then,  after  filling  a  number 
of  posts  in  European  cities,  he  returned 
to  London  in  1904  as  Councillor  of  the 
Embassy.  It  was  shortly  after  that  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  handling 
of  the  Dogger  Bank  incident,  when  the 
Russian  fleet,  bound  for  the  Orient,  fired 
on  a  number  of  fishing  vessels  on  the 
Dogger  Bank,  in  the  belief  that  it  had 
been  attacked  by  a  Japanese  submarine 
As  a  result  of  this  triumph,  Sazonoff  was 
sent  as  Minister  to  the  Vatican,  in  1906. 
Three  years  later  he  was  recalled  to 
Russia  to  assist  Minister  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs Isvolsky,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1910. 
He  was  still  holding  this  post  in  1914, 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War,  and 
had  a  powerful  influence  in  drawing  the 
British  and  Russian  governments  close 
together.  In  1916  he  was  forced  to  re- 
sign, which  was  the  first  incident  to 
arouse  the  suspicion  of  the  Allied  world 
that  the  Russian  Government  was  not 
entirely  sincere  in  its  desire  to  defeat 
Germany  in  the  war.  Since  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1917,  and  especially  after  the 
coming  into  power  of  the  Bolsheviki,  in 
November  of  that  year,  Sazonoff  has 
been  an  exile  abroad,  where  he  has  rep- 
resented certain  anti-Bolshevist  elements 
among  the  Russians. 

SCAB,  in  sheep,  like  itch  in  man,  or 
mange  in  horses  or  dogs,  depends  on  the 
irritation  of  three  varieties  of  minute 
acari,  some  of  which  burrow  in  the  skin, 
especially  if  dirty  and  scurfy,  causing 
much  itching,  roughness,  and  baldness. 
The  parasite  readily  adheres  to  hurdles, 
trees,  or  other  objects  against  which  the 
affected  sheep  happen  to  rub  themselves, 
and  hence  is  apt  to  be  transferred  to  the 
skins  of  sound  sheep.  Chief  among  the 
approved  remedies  are  diluted  mercurial 
ointments,  tobacco    dip,    turpentine    and 


SCABBARD 


269 


SCALE 


oil,  and  arsenical  solutions  such  as  are 
used  for  sheep  dipping. 

SCABBARD,  the  sheath  of  a  sword  or 
bayonet,  made  of  metal,  wood,  leather, 
rawhide,  or  paper. 

SCABBARD  FISH,  the  Lepidopus  cau- 
datus,  fairly  common  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Atlan- 
tic. It  is  probably  a  deep  sea  fish.  Its 
length  is  from  five  to  six  feet,  dorsal  ex- 
tending the  whole  length  of  the  body, 
which  is  much  compressed.  It  is  well 
known  in  New  Zealand,  where  it  is  called 
the  frost  fish  and  is  much  esteemed  for 
food. 

SCABIOSA,  the  scabious;  a  genus  of 
Dipsacese,  involucel,  membranous  or  mi- 
nute; receptacle  hemispherical,  hairy,  or 
with  scaly  floral  bracts;  fruit  with  eight 
depressions;  known  species  about  90, 
from  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  S.  succisa 
yields  a  green  dye,  and  seems  astringent 
enough  to  be  used  in  tanning. 

SCABIOUS  (Scabiosa),  an  extensive 
genus  of  annual  and  perennial  herbs,  be- 
longing to  the  natural  order  Dipsacese. 
They  are  annual  or  perennial  herbs,  with 
entire  or  divided  leaves  and  heads  of 
blue,  pink,  white  or  yellowish  flowers.  S. 
succisa,  devil's  bit,  is  a  common  plant. 
It  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  of  great 
efficacy  in  all  scaly  eruptions,  hence  the 
name. 

SCAD    or  HORSE    MACKEREL    (Ca- 

ranx  trachurus,  or  Trachurus  vulgaris) , 
a  genus  of  fishes  included  in  the  family 
Scomberidse  or  mackerels,  and  found 
around  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain.  It 
appears  in  large  shoals,  and  the  flesh, 
though  coarse,  is  esteemed  and  eaten 
salted  during  the  winter  months. 

SCffiVOLA,  GAIUS  MUCIUS,  an  il- 
lustrious Roman,  who  distinguished  him- 
self when  Porsenna  besieged  Rome,  507 
B.  C.  Mucius  entered  the  camp  of  Por- 
senna to  assassinate  him  and  by  mistake 
stabbed  one  of  his  attendants.  Being 
seized  and  brought  before  Porsenna,  he 
said  that  he  was  one  of  300  who  had  en- 
gaged, by  oath,  to  slay  him;  and  added, 
"This  hand,  which  has  missed  its  pur- 
pose, ought  to  suffer."  On  saying  this, 
he  thrust  it  into  the  coals  which  were 
burning  on  the  altar,  and  suffered  it  to 
\>e  consumed.  Porsenna,  struck  with  his 
intrepidity,  made  peace  with  the  Romans. 
The  name  of  Scsevola,  or  "Left-handed," 
was  given  as  a  mark  of  distinction  to 
Mucius  and  his  family. 

SCAFELL  (ska-feT),  a  double-peaked 
mountain,  the  loftiest  summit  in  Eng- 
land, on  the  Westmoreland  border  of 
Cumberland;  14y2  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Kes 


R— Cyc 


wick.  Of  the  two  peaks,  the  higher,  Sea- 
fell  Pike,  attains  3,210  feet,  the  other 
3,161. 

SCAGLIA,  a  red,  white,  or  gray  argil- 
laceous limestone  occurring  in  the  Vene- 
tian Alps,  and  believed  by  De  Zigno  to 
be  the  age  of  the  chalk.  The  beds  are 
usually  thin,  fragile,  and  almost  schis- 
tose, whence  the  name  of  scaglia. 

SCALE,  a  measure,  consisting  of  a  slip 
of  wood,  ivory,  or  metal,  divided  into 
equal  parts,  usually  main  divisions  and 
subdivisions;  as,  inches  or  octonary  frac- 
tions for  carpenters'  work,  decimal  divi- 
sions and  subdivisions  for  chain  work, 
duodecimal  for  plotting  carpenters'  work, 
which  is  in  feet  and  inches.  The  meter 
and  its  decimal  subdivisions  are  also 
sometimes  employed.  Also  any  instru- 
ment, figure,  or  scheme  graduated  for  the 
purpose  of  measuring  extent  or  propor- 
tions. 

In  music,  the  sounds  in  consecutive 
order  used  by  various  nations  in  differ- 
ent forms  as  the  material  of  music.  In 
a  proper  succession  such  sounds  form 
melody,  in  proper  combinations  they  con- 
stitute harmony.  The  modern  scale,  uni- 
versally used  among  the  more  civilized 
nations,  consists  of  12  divisions,  called 
semitones,  included  in  one  octave.  The 
ancient  Greeks  and  Asiatics,  ancient  and 
modern,  exhibit  the  use  of  less  intervals. 
Such  scales  are  called  enharmonic.  Other 
nations  have  intervals  of  a  third  between 
some  of  the  steps.  This  is  exhibited  in 
the  Chinese  and  ancient  Scotch  scales, 
and  in  the  scales  of  some  savage  nations. 
A  scale  containing  only  five  unequal  di- 
visions of  the  octave  has  been  called  pen- 
taphonic  or,  less  correctly,  pentatonic. 
All  scales  are  purely  arbitrary,  consist- 
ing of  a  selection  of  sounds  produced  by 
the  aliquot  divisions  of  a  monochord. 
When  the  divisions  of  a  monochord  are 
slightly  altered  to  suit  the  required  steps 
in  an  octave,  as  is  the  case  in  the  modern 
scale,  the  scale  is  said  to  be  tempered; 
when  the  harmonic  divisions  of  the  mono- 
chord  are  strictly  followed,  the  scale  is 
said  to  be  in  just  intonation.  The  modern 
scale  when  used  as  a  succession  of  12 
semitones  is  called  chromatic,  when  used 
in  the  ordinary  mixture  of  tones  and 
semitones  it  is  called  diatonic,  when  the 
third  and  sixth  are  flattened  it  is  called 
the  modern  minor  diatonic  scale,  when 
the  third  and  sixth  remain  major,  the 
scale  is  said  to  be  a  major  diatonic  scale. 
The  scale  is  also  called  the  gamut 
(French,  gamme)  from  the  words  gamma 
and  ut,  the  names  of  sol  and  do,  found 
in  the  Guidonian  system  of  overlapping 
hexachords.  The  Italian  names  for  the 
degrees  of  the  scale,  ut,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la, 
are  derived  from  the  initial  syllables  of 


Vol  8 


SCALE    FERN 


270 


SCALLOP 


a  Latin  hymn  quoted  in  all  musical  his- 
tories. Ut  was  afterward  called  do  by 
many  nations,  and  the  name  si  was  given 
to  the  seventh  degree  of  the  scale,  when 
the  ancient  system  of  hexachords  was 
converted  into  the  modern  system  of  oc- 
taves. When  the  scales,  whatever  the 
pitch,  start  from  do,  the  system  is  said 
to  be  that  of  the  movable  do;  when  the 
first  note  of  the  scale  is  called  do,  re,  mi, 
etc.,  according  to  a  stated  pitch  called 
do,  the  system  is  called  that  of  the  fixed 
do. 

In  painting,  a  figure  subdivided  by 
lines  like  a  ladder,  which  is  used  to 
measure  proportions  between  pictures 
and  the  things  represented.  Scale  of  a 
series,  in  algebra,  a  succession  of  terms, 
by  the  aid  of  which  any  term  of  a  recur- 
ring series  may  be  found  when  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  the  preceding  ones  are 
given.  Scale  of  longitudes;  a  scale  used 
for  determining  geographically  the  num- 
ber of  miles  in  a  degree  of  longitude  in 
any  latitude. 

SCALE  FERN,  a  popular  name  for  a 
British  species  of  fern  (Ceterach  offici- 
ncvrum) ,  so  named  from  the  imbricated 
tawny  scales  at  the  back  of  the  fronds. 
To  this  plant  was  formerly  attributed  a 
marvelous  influence  over  the  liver  and 
spleen. 

SCALE  MOSS,  a  popular  name  given 
to  the  Jungermannias,  plants  resembling 
moss,  and  belonging  to  the  order  Hepati- 
cse.  They  grow  on  the  trunks  of  trees, 
in  damp  earth,  and  in  similar  places,  and 
are  so  called  from  the  small  scale-like 
leaves. 

SCALE  TREE,  an  important  tree  ( Lepi- 
dodendron) ,  fossil  remains  of  which  are 
found  in  the  coal-measures,  whose  trunk 
was  very  regularly  marked  with  orna- 
mental patterns  like  the  scales  of  some 
fishes.      The   height  was   60   to   70   feet. 

SCALENE,  in  mathematics,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  a  triangle  whose  sides  are  all 
unequal;  also  a  cone  such  that  a  section 
made  by  a  plane  through  the  axis  per- 
pendicular to  the  plane  of  the  base  is  a 
scalene  triangle.  In  this  latter  case  the 
term  is  equivalent  to  oblique. 

SCALES,  the  imbricated  plates  on  the 
exterior  of  certain  animals,  as  the  pan- 
golins or  scaly  ant  eaters,  serpents  and 
other  reptiles,  and  especially  fishes. 
Fishes  are  sometimes  classed,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  structure  of  their  scales, 
into  Ctenoid,  Ganoid,  Cycloid,  and  Pla- 
coid.  The  term  scale  is  applied  also,  in 
botany,  to  a  small  rudimentary  or  meta- 
morphosed leaf  scale-like  in  form  and 
often  in  arrangement,  constituting  the 
covering  of  the  leaf  buds  of  the  deciduous 


trees  in  cold  climates,  the  involucrum  of 
the  Composite,  the  bracts  of  catkins,  etc. 

SCALES,  ARCHIBALD  HENDER- 
SON, an  American  naval  officer,  born 
in  Greensboro,  N.  C,  in  1868.  He  gradu- 
ated from  the  United  States  Naval  Aca- 
demy in  1887,  and  became  an  ensign  in 
1889.  He  saw  service  in  Korea,  where, 
in  1896,  he  assisted  in  protecting  the  life 
of  the  Emperor  of  Korea,  who  had  sought 
refuge  in  the  Russian  Legation.  During 
the  Spanish-American  War  he  served  on 
the  "Topeka."  He  was  promoted  to  be 
commander  in  1909,  and  captain  in  1914. 
In  1916  he  was  appointed  captain  of  the 
"Delaware,"  and  took  part  in  the  oper- 
ations of  the  Grand  Fleet  in  the  North 
Sea,  following  the  entry  of  the  United 
States  into  the  World  War.  He  com- 
manded the  Great  Lakes  Naval  Train- 
ing Station,  and  in  1919  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy. 

SCALES  OF  NOTATION,  methods  of 
representing  numbers  of  any  magnitude 
by  means  of  a  few  symbols.  We  ordi- 
narily express  numbers  in  terms  of  the 
first  nine  digit  symbols  and  the  symbol 
known  as  the  cipher — i,  e.,  10  in  all.  The 
number  "ten"  is  then  represented  by  10, 
a  combination  of  the  "one"  and  cipher 
symbols,  and  so  on  in  the  familiar  man- 
ner. Mathematically  there  is  no  reason 
why  10  should  be  chosen  in  preference 
to  any  other  number  as  the  radix  of 
our  common  scale  of  notation.  Its  con- 
venience arises  from  the  way  in  which, 
it  suits  our  numeration  or  naming  of 
numbers. 

SCALIGER,  JULIUS  CAESAR  (origi- 
nally Della  Scala),  a  celebrated  Italian 
scholar;  born  near  Lago  di  Garda,  Italy, 
April  23,  1484.  He  went  to  France  in 
1526,  and  there  practiced  medicine.  Ac- 
cording to  some  scholars,  "no  one  of  the 
ancients  could  be  placed  above  him,  and 
the  age  in  which  he  lived  could  not  show 
his  equal"  in  learning  and  talent.  He 
published  an  "Oration  against  Erasmus" 
(1531),  in  reply  to  that  scholar's  "Cicero- 
nianus";  "Poems"  (1533-1574),  in  Latin, 
filling  several  volumes;  "Comic  Meters"; 
and  a  variety  of  dissertations  and  essays 
on  classical  subjects.  He  died  in  Agen, 
France,  Oct.  21,  155&, 

SCALLOP,  a  well-known  bivalve,  one 
of  those  with  a  single  muscle  closing  the 
shell.  The  valves  are  fan-shaped,  the 
left  often  more  or  less  flat,  the  right 
more  arched;  both  are  marked  with  sinu- 
ous radiating  ridges,  to  which  the  name 
Pecten  (Latin,  "a  comb")  refers.  The 
hinge  line  is  without  teeth,  and  is  ex- 
tended laterally  in  two  ears.  The  beau- 
tiful coloring  of  the  shells  is  remarkable 


SCALP 


271 


SCANDINAVIA 


even  among  bivalves.  On  the  margins 
of  the  mantle  there  are  hundreds  of  small 
sparkling  eyes  of  different  degrees  of 
visual  efficiency.  The  small  finger-shaped 
foot  is  usually  marked  with  bright 
orange  or  red  color.  The  scallops  are 
widely  distributed  in  all  seas,  at  depth 
of  3  to  40  fathoms.  When  young  they 
are  active  and  able  to  swim  a  little  by 
rapidly  opening  and  closing  their  valves, 
but  as  they  grow  older  they  become  more 
sedentary.  P.  Jacobasus,  a  native  of  the 
Mediterranean,  is  the  scallop  shell  which 
pilgrims  were  accustomed  to  wear  in 
front  of  their  hat  in  token  of  having 
visited  the  shrine  of  St.  James  at  Com- 
postella.  P.  maximus,  found  on  many 
j>arts  of  the  British  coasts,  is  about  six 
inches  broad.  About  180  living  species 
are  known,  and  over  400  are  recorded  as 
fossils  from   Carboniferous   strata. 

SCALP,  the  term  employed  to  desig- 
nate the  outer  covering  of  the  skull  or 
brain  case.  Except  in  the  fact  that  hair 
in  both  sexes  grows  more  luxuriantly 
on  the  scalp  than  elsewhere,  the  skin  of 
the  scalp  differs  only  slightly  from  ordi- 
nary skin.  Besides  the  skin  the  scalp  is 
composed  of  the  expanded  tendon  of  the 
occipito-frontalis  muscle,  and  of  inter- 
mediate cellular  tissue  and  blood  vessels. 
Injuries  of  the  scalp,  however  slight, 
must  be  watched  with  great  caution,  for 
they  may  be  followed  by  erysipelas,  or 
by  inflammation  and  suppuration  under 
the  occipitofrontal  muscle,  or  within  the 
cranium,  or  by  suppuration  of  the  veins 
of  the  cranial  bones,  and  general  pyaemia 
that  may  easily  prove  fatal.  If  dressed 
antiseptically  at  an  early  stage  the  risk 
of  such  accidents  is  of  course  greatly 
diminished.  Burns  of  the  scalp  are  very 
liable  to  be  followed  by  erysipelas  and 
diffuse  inflammation,  but  the  brain  is 
comparatively  seldom  affected  in  these 
cases.  Tumors  of  the  scalp  are  not  un- 
common. 

SCALPEB,  a  term  applied  in  the 
United  States  to  a  man  who  buys  rail- 
road, theater,  or  steamship  tickets  at  a 
discount  from  people  unable  to  use  them, 
and  sells  them  again  at  an  advance  on  the 
price  he  paid  for  them. 

SCALPING,  the  act  peculiar  to  North 
American  Indian  warfare,  of  partly  cut- 
ting, partly  tearing  off  a  piece  of  the 
skin  of  the  head,  with  the  hair  attached; 
whether  the  victim  is  alive  or  dead  at 
the  time  does  not  affect  the  operation. 
The  Indians,  with  whom  scalps  are  the 
trophies  of  victory,  have  always  left  a 
long  lock  or  tuft  on  the  scalp  as  a  chal- 
lenge. Bounties  have,  in  American  his- 
tory, more  than  once  been  offered  for 
jscalps:   in  1724  £100    (about  $500)    was 


offered  by  Massachusetts  for  Indian 
scalps;  in  1754,  during-  the  French  and 
Indian  War,  a  bounty  was  offered  by  the 
French  for  British  scalps,  and  by  the  col- 
onies for  Indian  scalps;  in  1755  Massa- 
chusetts offered  £40  (about  $200)  for 
every  scalp  of  a  male  Indian  over  12 
years  old,  and  £20  (about  $100)  for 
scalps  of  women  and  children. 

SCAMANDEE,  a  small  stream  in  the 
Troad,  in  northwestern  Asia  Minor;  as- 
sociated with  the  little  river  Simois  in 
the  story  of  the  Trojan  War. 

SCAMMONY,  in  botany,  the  scam- 
mony bindweed.  In  chemistry,  scammo- 
nium,  a  purgative  gum  resin  obtained 
from  the  root  of  Convolvulus  scammonia. 
When  the  root  is  cut  there  exudes  a 
milky  juice,  which  dries  up  to  a  yellow- 
ish-brown, gummy-looking  substance. 
Two  varieties  are  known  in  commerce, 
Aleppo  and  Smyrna,  the  former  being 
considered  the  more  valuable.  It  forms 
flat  irregular  masses,  very  brittle,  and 
having  a  dark  gray  or  blackish  hue. 
Viewed  in  thin  fragments,  it  appears 
translucent  and  of  a  golden  brown  color. 
Genuine  scammony  should  contain  from 
75  to  82  per  cent,  of  resinous  matter, 
soluble  in  alcohol,  the  remainder  "being 
wax,  gum,  starch,  etc.  It  is,  however, 
frequently  adulterated.  Pure  scammony 
is  a  powerful  drastic  purgative  and  an- 
thelmintic. Montpellier  scammony  is  ob- 
tained from  Cynanchum  mouspeliacum. 

SCANDERBEG,  (properly  IsKENDER 
Bey,  or  Prince  Alexander),  an  Albanian 
chief  whose  real  name  was  George 
Castriota;  born  in  Croia,  Albania,  in 
1403.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Christian 
prince,  but  was  brought  up  by  the  Turks 
and  fought  for  some  time  for  Amurath 
II.  Becoming  possessed  of  the  chief  city 
of  his  country,  which  the  Turks  had 
taken,  he  turned  against  them,  abjured 
Mohammedanism,  and  raised  the  whole 
of  Epirus  in  revolt.  For  25  years  he 
withstood  all  the  efforts  of  the  Turks  to 
overcome  him,  defeating  them  in  22  bat- 
tles, even  when  led  by  the  Sultan.  Short- 
ly before  he  died,  he  was  compelled  to 
yield  to  superior  forces.  He  died  in  Ales- 
sio,  Albania,  Jan.  17,  1467. 

SCANDINAVIA,  the  ancient  name  of 
the  region  now  comprehending  the  three 
kingdoms,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Nor- 
way, or  Sweden  and  Norway  alone,  and 
still  frequently  used.  These  countries 
were  inhabited  in  the  earliest  times  by 
people  of  the  Teutonic  stock,  and  100 
B.  c.  the  natives  of  Jutland  and  Schles- 
wig  became  formidable  to  the  Romans 
under  the  name  of  Cimbri.  But  it  was 
chiefly  in  the  9th  century  that  they  made 
their  power  felt  in  western  and  south- 


SCANDIUM 


272 


SCARLATTI 


era  Europe,  where  hordes  of  Northmen, 
or  Vikings,  made  repeated  raids  in  their 
galleys.  The  Old  Norse  or  Scandinavian 
literature,  so  far  as  extant,  is  of  consid- 
erable value.  Among  the  most  important 
remains  are  the  Edda  and  the  Sagas. 
See  Northmen. 

SCANDIUM,  in  chemistry,  an  element 
discovered  by  Nilson  in  1879;  symbol, 
Sc;  at.  wt.  44.91.  It  occurs,  together 
with  the  other  rare  earths,  in  gadolinite 
and  euxenite,  but  the  metal  itself  has 
not  yet  been  isolated.  It  forms  one  ox- 
ide, scandia  or  scandium  oxide,  SC2O3,  a 
white  infusible  powder,  resembling  mag- 
nesia, sp.  gr.  3.8,  insoluble  in  water  and 
acids. 

SCAPE,  in  architecture,  the  shaft  of  a 
column;  also,  the  apophyge  of  a  shaft; 
also,  a  botanical  term  for  a  flower  stalk 
springing  straight  from  the  root,  as  in 
the  primrose,  snow-drop,  etc 

SCAPE  GOAT,  a  term  applied  to  one 
who  is  made  to  bear  the  blame  due  to 
another.  The  idea  is  drawn  from  the 
Jewish  ritual,  in  which  a  scape  goat  was 
a  goat  designed  to  'scape,  i.e.,  escape,  as 
opposed  to  one  killed  and  offered  in  sac- 
rifice. Once  a  year,  on  the  great  day  of 
atonement,  after  Aaron  had  offered  a 
bullock  in  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  him- 
self and  his  house  (Lev.  xvi.  1-8),  he 
was  to  take  two  goats  "for  a  sin  offer- 
ing." Lots  were  to  be  cast,  one  for  the 
Lord,  and  one  for  Azazel.  The  goat  on 
which  Jehovah's  lot  fell  was  to  be  of- 
fered for  a  sin  offering. 

Under  the  later  Judaism  the  goat  was 
thrown  over  a  precipice  about  12  miles 
from  Jerusalem.  The  scape  goat  is  gen- 
erally considered  the  clearest  type  of  the 
substitution  of  Christ  for  sinners,  and 
His  eternal  removal  of  their  transgres- 
sion (Isaiah  liii.  11-12;  I.  John  ii.  2;  Heb. 
ix.  28;  I.  Peter  ii.  24). 

SCAPULA,  in  anatomy,  one  of  the  two 
bones,  the  other  being  the  clavicle,  which 
together  form  the  pectoral  arch  or  shoul' 
der  girdle.  The  scapula  constitutes  its 
posterior  part.  It  is  placed  upon  the 
upper  and  back  part  of  the  thorax,  is 
articulated  with  the  outer  end  of  the 
clavicle,  and  has  suspended  from  it  the 
humerus.  In  zoology,  the  row  of  plates 
in  the  cup  of  crinoids,  giving  origin  to 
the  arms. 

SCAPULAR,  or  SCAPULARY,  a  dress 
originally  worn  over  their  other  dress  by 
the  monks  when  at  manual  labor,  but  now 
forming  part  of  the  habit  of  the  older 
religious  orders;  also  a  miniature  copy  of 
a  monk's  scapular  made  of  two  pieces  of 
cloth,  connected  by  strings,  worn  by  Ro- 


man Catholics  from  motives  of  devotion. 
There  are  four  other  scapulars  in  use: 
that  of  the  Trinity,  of  white  linen  v.-ith 
a  red  cross;  the  Servite  scapular  of  the 
Seven  Dolors,  of  black  stuff;  that  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  of  light  blue 
woolen,  and  the  Red  scapular,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  Passion.  In  ornithol- 
ogy in  the  plural,  a  series  of  feathers 
springing  from  the  base  of  the  humerus, 
and  continued  in  a  longitudinal  stripe  so 
as  to  cover  the  last  series  of  the  quill 
feathers,  with  which  they  are  often  con- 
founded. In  surgery,  a  bandage  for  the 
shoulder  blade. 

SCARAB.ffiUS,  in  entomology,  a  genus 
of  Copridse,  and  the  typical  one  of  Scara- 
bseidse.  The  semicircular  clypeus  is  di- 
vided by  sharp  notches  into  a  series  of 
triangular  teeth;  the  forelegs  are  re- 
tracted. About  70  species  are  known,  all 
from  the  Old  World.  S.  acer,  formerly 
Ateuchus  sacer,  is  the  sacred  beetle  of 
the  Egyptians,  often  represented  on 
Egyptian  monuments,  though  Latreille 
thought  it  was  S.  egifptiorum,  a  golden 
green  species.  Both  deposit  their  eggs  in 
pellets  of  dung,  which  they  roll  with  their 
hind  legs  into  a  hole  dug  for  its  recep- 
tion. 

SCARBOROUGH,  a  port  and  watering 
place  in  England,  much  resorted  to  for 
health  and  pleasure.  It  is  in  Yorkshire, 
on  the  east  coast,  37  miles  N.  E.  of  York, 
and  overlooks  a  crescent  sweep  of  sands 
ornamented  by  a  headland  crowned  by  a 
castle.  Two  bridges  spanning  the  Rams- 
dale  valley  connect  the  modern  with  the 
older  part  of  the  town.  A  promenade 
pier,  spa  and  garden,  aquarium,  and  fa- 
cilities for  bathing  and  boating  are 
among  the  attractions.  The  industries 
include  fisheries,  the  making  of  jet,  and, 
in  the  suburbs,  market  gardening.  The 
town  was  bombarded  by  German  cruis- 
ers in  December,  1914,  and  by  a  German 
submarine  in  September,  1917.  Pop. 
about  40,000. 

SCARLATINA.     See    Scarlet    Fever. 

SCARLATTI,  ALESSANDRO,  an  Ital- 
ian composer,  born  in  1659,  who  was  the 
founder  of  the  Neapolitan  school  of  mu- 
sic, in  which  most  of  the  composers  of 
the  18th  century  were  trained.  _  Scar- 
latti originated  the  overture.  He  is  said 
to  have  written  200  masses,  115  operas, 
and  3,000  cantatas.  His  writings,  though 
they  produced  a  revolution  in  the  style 
of  operatic  music,  are  almost  all  com- 
pletely forgotten.  He  died  in  Naples, 
Oct.  24,  1725.  His  son  Domenico  (1683- 
1757)  was  considered  the  greatest  harp- 
sichord player  (pianist)  of  his  time. 


SCARLET 


273 


SCARRON 


SCARLET,  a  beautiful  bright  red 
color,  brighter  than  crimson.  The  finest 
scarlet  dye  is  obtained  from  cochineal. 

SCARLET  BEAN,  or  SCARLET  RUN- 
NER, a  twining  plant,  the  Phaseolus 
multiflorns,  a  native  of  Mexico,  cultivated 
as  a  green  vegetable  or  as  an  ornamen- 
tal plant. 

SCARLET  FEVER,  or  SCARLATINA, 
a  contagious  febrile  disease,  almost  al- 
ways attended  during  a  part  of  its  course 
by  a  rash  and  by  sore  throat.  Sometimes 
only  one  of  these  features  is  well  marked, 
sometimes  both.  Though  persons  of  all 
ages  are  susceptible  to  it,  it  is  eminently 
a  disease  of  children.  It  is  infectious  and 
contagion  may  be  carried  by  clothing, 
school-books,  etc.  Like  smallpox  or 
measles  it  rarely  attacks  a  person  more 
than  once.  It  usually  comes  on  with 
shiverings  and  a  feeling  of  lassitude,  fol- 
lowed by  more  or  less  of  fever,  restless- 
ness, loss  of  appetite,  headache,  nausea, 
and  occasionally  by  vomiting.  The  erup- 
tion appears  on  the  second  or  third  day 
in  the  form  of  closely  aggregated  points 
about  the  size  of  a  pin's  head.  The  period 
of  desquamation,  owing  to  excessive  pro- 
duction of  new  epidermis,  follows  in  two 
or  three  days.  The  eruption  is  most 
marked  on  the  face.  The  throat  is 
seriously  involved,  the  tonsils  becoming 
swollen  with  catarrhal  pharyngitis,  tena- 
cious mucous  secretion,  and  oedema,  with 
great  difficulty  in  swallowing.  Inflam- 
mation of  the  parotids  and  other  glands 
often  occurs,  with  suppuration  and  ab- 
scess, destroying  the  cell  tissues,  with 
sloughing,  and  occasionally  fatal  hemor- 
rhage. 

Physicians  have  generally  distinguished 
three  different  varieties  of  scarlet  fever; 
viz.,  S.  simplex,  in  which  there  is  a  florid 
rash  and  little  or  no  affection  of  the 
throat;  S.  anginosa,  in  which  both  the 
skin  and  the  throat  are  decidedly  im- 
plicated; and  <S.  'maligna,  in  which  the 
stress  of  the  disease  falls  on  the  throat. 
S.  simplex  is  a  very  mild  form  of  the  dis- 
ease, and  deviates  only  slightly  from  a 
state  of  health.  Scarlatina  is  also  dan- 
gerous from  its  tendency  to  give  rise  to 
other  complaints,  as  boils  or  strumous 
ulcers,  various  forms  of  scrofula,  etc. 
The  kidneys  are  more  affected  in  this  dis- 
ease than  any  other  organ,  nephritis 
being  a  common  accompaniment,  and 
dropsy  a  very  frequent  sequel.  It  is  very 
contagious,  the  infection  persisting  for 
a  long  time,  and  tending  to  attack  every 
member  of  a  family  not  protected  by  a 
previous  attack.  Its  regular  course  is 
from  two  to  three  weeks,  the  period  of 
infection  being  strongest  during  the 
process  of  desquamation,  and  lasting  fof 
about  three  weeks  from  the  commence 


ment  of  that  process.  It  is  most  fatal 
in  the  very  young,  during  pregnancy,  or 
in  adults  suffering  from  organic  diseases, 
or  when  complications  exist.  There  is  no 
known  specific  for  this  formidable  mal- 
ady. 

SCARLET  FISH,  a  name  given  to  the 
telescope  carp,  from  its  brilliant  red  color. 

SCARLET  TANAGER,  in  ornithology, 
the  Pyranga  rubra,  a  summer  visitant  to 
the  United  States,  retiring  S.  in  winter. 
The  popular  name  is  derived  from  the 
prevailing  hue  of  the  summer  plumage 
of  the  male. 

SCARR,  JAMES  HENRY,  an  Ameri- 
can meteorologist,  born  in  Ionia  co.,  Mich., 
in  1867.  From  1887  to  1889  he  was  a 
student  at  the  State  Normal  School  at 
Emporia,  Kan.  For  a  time  he  studied 
law,  and  from  1889  to  1895  was  engaged 
in  teaching  in  the  public  schools.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1892  and  prac- 
ticed law  until  1898,  when  he  entered  the 
employment  of  the  United  States  Weather 
Bureau.  He  was  local  forecaster  at  Sac- 
ramento, Cal.,  from  1901  to  1908;  at 
Tampa,  Fla.,  in  1908-9 ;  and  in  New  York 
City  since  1909. 

SCARRON,  PAUL  (Skiir-ro?^'),  a 
French  author;  born  in  Paris  July,  1610. 
At  the  age  of  30,  in  consequence  of  a 
rheumatic  attack,  in  which  he  was  treated 


PAUL   SCARRON 

by  a  quack  doctor,  he  became  an  invalid 
for  life, — deformed  and  contorted,  and 
suffering  continual  pain.  His  best  work 
is  the  "Comic  Romance"  (2  vols.  1651- 
1657,  but  never  completed),  the  story  of 
a  band  of  strolling  actors.  In  this  novel 
Scarron  draws  on  Spanish  sources,  as  he 
does  also  in  the  comedies  "The  Ridiculous 
Heir";    "Jodelet";    "Don   Japhet   of  Ar- 


SCENIC 


274 


SCHAMYL 


menia";  "The  Scholar  of  Salamanca." 
His  travesty  of  the  iEneid  (1648-1653) 
was  in  its  day  regarded  as  a  masterpiece 
of  genuine  burlesque  humor.  He  married 
in  1652,  Franchise  d'Aubigne,  who  after- 
ward, as  Mme.  de  Maintenon,  became  the 
wife  of  Louis  XIV.  He  died  in  Paris, 
Oct.  6,  1660. 

SCENIC  AND  HISTORIC  PRESER- 
VATION SOCIETY,  American,  a  na- 
tional organization  having  for  its  pur- 
pose the  protection  of  American  scenery. 
The  society  was  incorporated  by  the  leg- 
islature of  New  York  in  1895  and  since 
that  date  has  succeeded  in  safeguarding 
many  valuable  landmarks  in  the  United 
States.  Among  other  things  it  brought 
about  the  purchase  of  the  New  York 
State  park  at  Stony  Point  as  well  as  of 
Washington's  Headquarters  in  New  York 
City.  It  was  through  the  activity  of  the 
society  that  a  state  reservation  was 
brought  into  existence  at  Watkins  Glen, 
and  that  laws  were  passed  to  protect 
Niagara.  It  has  charge  also  of  land- 
marks and  historic  places  such  as  Philipse 
Manor  Hall. 

SCHAFF  (shaf),  PHILIP,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman;  born  in  Chur,  Switzer- 
land, Jan.  1,  1819.  He  studied  at  Tubin- 
gen, Halle,  and  Berlin;  lectured  in  the 
latter  university  in  1842-1844,  and  then 
went  to  America,  where  he  was  professor 
in  the  theological  seminary  of  the  Ger- 
man Reformed  Church  at  Mercersburg, 
Pa.  (1844-1863).  In  1864-1869  he  was 
lecturer  in  several  theological  institu- 
tions, and  after  1870  was  Professor  of 
Sacred  Literature  in  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  New  York.  He  was  a  prolific 
writer,  his  works  including:  "History  of 
the  Apostolic  Church";  "Life  and  Labors 
of  St.  Augustine";  "Through  Bible 
Lands";  "History  of  the  Christian 
Church";  "Creeds  of  Christendom"; 
"Encyclopedia  of  Religious  Knowledge" 
( Schaff-Herzog) ,  etc.  He  was  president 
of  the  American  Committee  on  Bible  Re- 
vision in  1871.  He  died  in  New  York  City, 
Oct.  20, 1893. 

SCHAFFHATJSEN,  capital  of  the 
Swiss  canton  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Rhine,  25  miles  N.  W.  of  Constance,  and 
23  miles  from  Zurich.  It  is  a  place  of 
antiquity,  and  has  a  large  parish  church, 
an  academy,  town  library,  town  hall,  and 
market  house.  The  manufactures  are 
machinery,  iron  and  steel  products,  tex- 
tiles, yarns,  watches,  etc.  The  wine 
raised  in  the  neighborhood  is  exported. 
Two  bridges  here,  thrown  across  the 
Rhine,  form  a  channel  of  communica- 
tion between  this  town  and  the  rest  of 
Switzerland.  The  Falls  of  Schaffhausen 
form  a  cataract  of  the  Rhine,  2  miles 
from  the  town,  with  a  descent  of  about 


60  feet.     It  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
waterfalls  in  Europe. 

SCHAMYL  (I  e.,  Samuel),  chief  of 
the  Lesghians  and  leader  of  the  independ- 
ent tribes  in  the  Caucasus  in  their  30 
years'  struggle  against  Russia;  born  in 
Aul-Himry,  northern  Daghestan  in  1797. 
He  became  a  priest  or  mollah,  and  labored 
with  zeal  and  religious  fervor  to  compose 
the  numerous  feuds  of  the  Caucasian 
tribes  and  unite  them  in  antagonism  to 
their  common  enemy,  the  infidel  Russians. 
He  was  one  of  the  foremost  in  the  defense 
of  Himry  against  the  Russians  in  1831. 
In  the  end  of  1834  he  was  elected  "imam," 
or  head  of  the  Lesghians,  and  soon  made 
himself  absolute  temporal  and  spiritual 
chief  of  the  tribes  of  Daghestan.  He  at 
the  same  time  introduced  a  change  of 
military  tactics,  abandoning  open  war- 
fare for  surprises,  ambuscades,  etc., 
which  brought  numerous,  and  sometimes 
great,  successes  to  the  arms  of  the  moun- 
taineers. In  1839  the  Russians  succeeded 
in  hemming  Schamyl  into  Achulgo  in 
Daghestan,  took  the  fortress  by  storm, 
and  put  every  one  of  the  defenders  to 
the  sword  in  order  to  be  quite  certain 
that  Schamyl  should  not  escape.  But  by 
some  mysterious  means  he  did  escape, 
and  suddenly  appeared  preaching  with 
more  vigor  th*»n  ever  the  "holy  war 
against  the  infidels."  Ten  years  later  he 
again  escaped  from  the  same  stronghold 
after  the  Russians  had  made  themselves 
masters  of  it.  The  Russians  were  com- 
pletely baffled,  their  armies  sometimes  dis- 
astrously beaten  by  their  unconquerable 
foe,  though  he  began  to  lose  ground 
through  the  long  continuance  of  the 
struggle  and  the  exhaustion  it  naturally 
brought  with  it.  During  the  Crimean  War 
he  was  helped  by  the  allies,  who  sup- 
plied him  with  money  and  arms ;  but  after 
peace  was  signed  the  Russians  resumed 
their  attacks  on  the  Caucasian  tribes  with 
more  energy,  opened  a  road  over  the 
mountains,  thus  cutting  off  one  portion 
of  the  patriots,  and  so  compelled  their 
submission.  On  April  12,  1859,  Schamyl's 
chief  stronghold,  Weden,  was  taken  after 
a  seven  weeks'  siege,  and  his  authority, 
except  over  a  small  band  of  personal  fol- 
lowers, was  wholly  destroyed.  For  sev- 
eral months  he  was  hunted  from  fastness 
to  fastness,  till  at  last  (Sept.  6,  1859) 
he  was  surprised  on  the  plateau  of 
Gounib,  and  after  a  desperate  resistance, 
in  which  his  400  followers  were  reduced 
to  47,  he  was  captured.  He  was  assigned 
a  residence  at  Kaluga  in  the  middle  of 
Russia,  with  a  pension  of  $5,000,  and  he 
died  in  Medina,  Arabia,  in  March,  1871, 
having  taken  up  his  residence  in  Mecca 
the  year  previously.  In  faith  he  was  a 
Sufi. 


SCHARNHORST 


275 


SCHEFFEL 


SCHARNHORST,  GERHARD  JO- 
'  HANN  DAVID  VON,  a  Prussian  mili- 
tary officer;  born  in  Bordenau,  Hanover, 
Nov.  12,  1755.  He  entered  the  army  of 
Hanover,  and  took  part  in  the  campaigns 
in  Flanders  of  the  years  1793-1795.  In 
1801  he  transferred  his  services  to  Prus- 
sia and  was  appointed  director  of  the 
training  school  for  Prussian  officers.  Five 
years  later  he  was  wounded  at  Auer- 
stadt  and  taken  prisoner  at  Liibeck,  but 
released  in  time  to  be  present  at  the 
battle  of  Eylau.  In  1807  he  began  the 
great  work  of  his  life;  he  was  put  at  the 
head  of  the  commission  for  reorganizing 
the  armies  of  Prussia.  He  reformed  the 
army,  introduced  the  short  service 
(Krumper)  system,  created  a  better  spirit 
among  both  officers  and  men,  and  so  con- 
verted what  had  been  a  mercenary  force 
into  a  national  army.  It  was  principally 
by  means  of  this  new  weapon  that  Ger- 
many was  able  to  crush  Napoleon  at 
Leipsic  six  years  later  (1813).  Scharn- 
horst  was  wounded  at  Grossgorschen 
while  acting  as  chief  of  the  staff  of  the 
Silesian  army,  and  died  in  Prague,  Bo- 
hemia, June  28,  1813. 

SCHATJFFLER,  ROBERT  HAVEN, 
an  American  writer  and  musician,  born 
at  Briinn,  Austria,  in  1879,  of  American 
parents.  He  graduated  from  Princeton 
in  1902,  and  took  post-graduate  studies 
at  the  University  of  Berlin,  where  he  also 
studied  music.  He  was  musical  editor  of 
several  magazines,  and  contributed  on 
musical  subjects  to  many  periodicals. 
During  the  World  War  he  served  as  regi- 
mental intelligence  officer  for  the  313th 
Infantry,  and  was  severely  wounded  in 
the  Meuse-Argonne  offensive.  His  pub- 
lished writings  include  "Where  Speech 
Ends"  (1906)  ;  "Romantic  Germany" 
(1909);  "Scum  o'  the  Earth  and  Other 
Poems"  (1912)  "Romantic  America" 
(1913);  "The  Joyful  Heart"   (1915). 

SCHATJMBTTRG  -  LIPPE,  a  former 
principality  of  the  German  Empire,  pro- 
claimed a  republic  in  November,  1918. 
Area,  131  square  miles.  In  the  north  it 
is  hilly  and  well  wooded.  The  principal 
article  of  manufacture  is  linen.  In  the 
south  agriculture  and  gardening  are  the 
chief  industries,  while  coal  is  mined  in 
the  east.  Pop.,  about  47,000,  all  of  whom, 
with  the  exception  of  some  750  Catholics 
and  some  250  Jews,  are  Protestant.  The 
capital  is  Buckeburg  (pop.  about  6,000). 
Previous  to  November,  1918,  the  country 
was  ruled  by  a  cadet  branch  of  the  Lippe 
family.  The  state  became  a  principality 
in  1807,  joined  the  North  German  Con- 
federation in  1866,  and  became  a  part 
of  the  German  Empire  in  1871. 

SCHEELITE,  native  calcium  tung- 
state,  CaW04,  an  important  ore  of  tung- 


sten. Occurs  as  a  pale-colored,  stony 
looking  mineral.  Owing  to  its  unusual 
heaviness  it  was  given  the  name  tung- 
sten by  the  Swedes,  meaning  "heavy 
stone."  The  name  was  later  used  to  de- 
scribe the  metal  when  it  was  discovered 
in  1781  by  K.  W.  Scheele,  while  the  ore 
itself  was  given  the  name  scheelerz  or 
scheelite. 

SCHEFF,  FRITZI,  an  Austro-Ameri- 
can  prima  donna,  born  in  Vienna,  Aus- 
tria, in  1882.  She  received  her  musical 
education  at  Frankfort,  Germany,  and 
appeared  on  the  operatic  stage  for  the 
first  time  at  the  Munich  Opera  House, 
in  1900.  In  1902  she  made  her  first  ap- 
pearance at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  New  York,  remaining  a  member 
of  its  company  under  the  management 
of  Maurice  Grau,  from  1900  to  1903.  In 
the  latter  year  she  appeared  in  New 
York  for  the  first  time  in  a  musical  com- 
edy, to  which  work  she  devoted  herself 
until  1913.  From  1913  to  1918  she  ap- 
peared principally  in  vaudeville,  return- 
ing in  the  latter  year  to  the  musical 
opera  stage  in  "Glorianna."  She  was 
married  three  times;  first  to  Baron  von 
Bardeleben  of  the  German  army,  second 
to  John  Fox,  Jr.  (q.  v.),  and  third  to 
George  Anderson,  an  actor. 

SCHEFFEL,  JOSEPH  VICTOR  VON 
(shef'el),  a  German  author;  born  in 
Karlsruhe,  Germany,  Feb.  16,  1826.     In 


JOSEPH  VICTOR  VON   SCHEFFEL 

1854  he  published  his  famous  epic  poem, 
"The  Trumpeter  of  Sackingen."  The  his- 
torical  novel    "Ekkehard"    came    out   in 


SCHEFFER 


276 


SCHEREIv 


1857.  "Gaudeamus"  (1868)  is  a  collec- 
tion of  lyrics,  many  of  which  became  fa- 
vorite student  songs.  "Mountain  Psalms" 
(1870)  is  a  collection  of  poems.  He  died 
April  9,  1886. 

SCHEFFER,  ARY,  a  French  painter, 
son  of  Johann  Baptist  (a  German  his- 
torical painter)  ;  born  in  Dordrecht,  Hol- 
land, Feb.  12,  1795 ;  studied  under  Guerin 
in  Paris,  and  began  his  artistic  career 
as  a  painter  of  genre  pictures.  Under 
the  influence  of  the  romanticism  of  the 
early  19th  century  he  produced  numerous 
pieces  illustrative  of  Goethe's,  Byron's, 
and  Dante's  works,  such  as  "Margaret 
at  the  Well,"  "Faust  in  His  Study,"  and 
"Dante  and  Beatrice  in  Heaven."  Shortly 
after  1835  he  turned  to  religious  subjects, 
and  painted  "Christus  Remunerator," 
"Christus  Consolator,"  "The  Temptation 
of  Christ,"  "St.  Augustine  and  Monica," 
etc.  His  best  portraits  were  of  the 
Duchess  de  Broglie,  Prince  Talleyrand, 
Queen  Amelie,  Liszt,  La  Fayette,  Beran- 
ger,  and  Lamartine.  He  died  in  Argen- 
teuil,  near  Paris,  June  15,  1858. 

SCHELDT  (skelt;  Dutch,  Schelde— 
s/tel'-duh),  one  of  the  most  important 
rivers  of  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands. 
It  rises  in  the  French  department  of  the 
Aisne;  flows  circuitously  through  Bel- 
gium; reaches  Ghent,  where  it  receives 
the  Lys;  at  Antwerp  attains  a  breadth 
of  about  1,600  feet,  and  forms  a  capacious 
and  secure  harbor.  About  15  miles  be- 
low Antwerp,  shortly  after  reaching  the 
Dutch  frontier,  it  divides  into  the  East 
and  West  Scheldt,  thus  forming  a  double 
estuary.  The  whole  course  is  267  miles, 
about  210  of  which  are  navigable.  Until 
1863,  when  navigation  was  made  free  by 
the  Treaty  of  Brussels,  the  Dutch  mo- 
nopolized it  and  levied  tolls  on  foreign 
vessels.  As  a  result  of  the  World  War 
and  the  Peace  Treaty  of  Versailles,  con- 
trol of  the  Scheldt  became  again  a  sub- 
ject of  controversy  between  Holland  and 
Belgium. 

SCHELLENBERG,.a  village  9  miles  S. 
of  Salzburg,  Austria;  was  the  scene  of 
the  first  engagement  in  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession  in  which  the  English 
took  part.  Marlborough's  army  of  40,000 
men  drove  a  Bavarian  corps  of  12,000 
from  the  fortified  heights  above  the  vil- 
lage, after  a  short,  fierce  fight,  on  July 
4,  1704. 

SCHELLING,  FRIEDRICH  WIL- 
HELM  JOSEPH  VON,  a  German  phi- 
losopher; born  in  Leonberg,.Wurttemberg, 
Jan.  27,  1775.  He  studied  first  at  Tubin- 
gen, where  he  and  Hegel  became  inti- 
mate friends,  thence  he  went  to  Leipsic 
and  Jena.  At  Jena  he  studied  under 
Fichte,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the  chair 


of  philosophy  at  that  university  in  1798. 
In  1803  he  was  transferred  to  Wurzburg; 
and  in  1807  to  Munich,  where  he  re- 
mained till  1841,  when  he  accepted  a  chair 
at  Berlin.  This  chair  he  soon  relin- 
quished, and  the  last  years  of  his  life 
were  spent  in  comparative  seclusion. 
Schelling's  place  in  the  great  series  of 
German  philosophers  is  determined  to  be 
between  Fichte  and  Hegel.  His  meta- 
physical theory  is  generally  known  by 
the  name  of  the  "System  of  Identity." 
He  died  in  Ragatz,  Switzerland,  Aug. 
20,  1854. 

SCHENECTADY,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Schenectady  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the 
State  Barge  canal,  the  Mohawk  river, 
and  the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson 
River,  and  the  Delaware  and  Hudson 
railroads;  17  miles  W.  of  Albany.  Here 
are  Union  College  (q.  v.),  Home  for 
the  Friendless,  Children's  Home,  public 
library,  Ellis  Hospital,  court  house,  State 
armory,  city  hall,  waterworks,  street  rail- 
road and  electric  light  plants,  numerous 
churches,  National,  State,  and  savings 
banks,  and  a  number  of  daily,  weekly, 
and  monthly  periodicals.  The  city  has 
manufactories  of  agricultural  implements 
and  machinery,  copper  and  sheet  iron, 
shawls,  knit  goods,  underwear,  stoves, 
steel  springs,  varnish,  sashes,  doors,  and 
blinds,  electrical  apparatus,  fire  engines, 
locomotives,  pumps,  carriages,  brushes 
and  brooms,  flour,  etc.,  and  an  assessed 
property  valuation  exceeding  $142,000,- 
000.  Schenectady  is  one  of  the  oldest 
cities  in  New  York  State.  It  was  settled 
in  1661;  was  burned  and  nearly  all  the 
inhabitants  massacred  by  the  French  and 
Indians  in  1690;  and  was  the  scene  of  a 
second  massacre  in  1748.  It  received  a 
city  charter  in  1798.  Pop.  (1910)  72,- 
826;    (1920)    88,723. 

SCHERER,  JAMES  ATJGTTSTIN 
BROWN,  an  American  educator,  born 
in  Salisbury,  N.  C,  in  1870.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Roanoke  College  in  1890.  In 
1892  he  founded  the  American  Lutheran 
mission  in  Japan,  and  from  1892  to 
1897  was  professor  of  English  at  the 
Imperial  Government  School  at  Japan. 
Returning  to  the  United  States  he  served 
as  pastor  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  from  1898 
to  1904.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  elected 
president  of  Newberry  College,  serving 
until  1908,  when  he  became  president  of 
the  Throop  College  of  Technology.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  National 
Defense  during  the  World  War,  a  mem- 
ber of  many  economic  and  learned  socie- 
ties, and  carried  on  important  investiga- 
tions on  the  question  of  immigration.  He 
wrote  "Four  Princes"  (1902)  ;  "Japan 
To-Day"  (1904)  ;  "What  Is  Japanese 
Morality?"   (1906) ;  "Cotton  as  a  World 


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ORE  STEAMERS  ON   THE  SAULT   STE.   MARIE.      THEY  CARRY  IRON   ORE  BETWEEN 
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3) 


SCHEVENINGEN 


277 


SCHILLER 


Power"    (1916);    and    "The    Nation    at 
War"  (1918). 

SCHEVENINGEN  (ska'veningen),  a 
watering-place  of  Holland,  on  the  W. 
coast,  1  mile  N.  W.  of  The  Hague,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  two  roads;  one, 
the  "Oude  Weg"  ("Old  Road")  of  the 
17th  century,  bordered  by  fine  trees.  Both 
this  and  the  New  Road  are  traversed  by 
tramways.  The  town  is  visited  during 
the  season  by  over  20,000  persons;  its 
beach  is  one  of  the  finest  on  the  North 
Sea.  In  1570  the  W.  part  of  the  town 
was  engulfed  by  an  inundation.  A  naval 
battle,  between  the  Dutch,  under  Van 
Tromp  (who  was  killed  in  the  engage- 
ment), and  the  allied  fleets  of  France 
and  England,  was  fought  off  Schevenin- 
gen  in  1653.     Pop.  about  22,000. 

SCHIAPARELLI  (ske-a-pa-rel'le), 

GIOVANNI  VIRGINIO,  an  Italian 
astronomer;  born  in  Savigliano,  Italy, 
March  14,  1835;  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  "Turin  and  the  observatories  of 
Berlin  and  Pulkowa.  In  1860  he  became 
astronomer  at  the  Milan  observatory,  and 
in  1862  its  director.  He  discovered  the 
planet  Hesperia  in  1861.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  to  discover  the  connection  be- 
tween comets  and  meteor  streams,  and  is 
the  discoverer  of  the  double  canals  bear- 
ing his  name  on  Mars.  Among  his 
works  are:  "The  Relation  Between 
Comets  and  Falling  Stars"  (1871) ;  "The 
Precursors  of  Copernicus  in  Antiquity" 
(1873) ;  "Observations  on  the  Movement 
of  Rotation  and  the  Topography  of  the 
Planet  Mars"  (1878-1899).  He  died  July 
4,  1910. 

SCHIEDAM  (ske-dam'),  a  town  of 
South  Holland,  Netherlands,  on  the  Schie 
river.  Along  the  site  of  the  walls  stand 
corn  and  malt  mills.  The  chief  edifices 
and  institutions  are  the  town  hall,  the 
exchange  (the  finest  building  in  the 
town),  the  Doelen,  or  gathering  place, 
the  Musis  Sacrum,  a  concert  hall,  the 
churches,  Latin,  drawing,  commercial, 
and  other  schools,  a  public  library,  numer- 
ous hospitals  and  other  benevolent  insti- 
tutions. The  industries  include  the  manu- 
facture of  white  lead  and  litharge,  linen 
weaving,  flax  spinning,  copper  and  iron 
castings.  It  is  noted  for  its  production 
of  gin  and  other  liquors.  Schiedam  has 
a  considerable  commerce  in  grain  and 
coals.     Pop.  (1918)  38,191. 

SCHIFF,  JACOB  HENRY,  an  Ameri- 
can financier  and  philanthropist,  born  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Germany,  in  1847. 
He  was  educated  in  the  schools  of  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main, and  in  1865  he  moved 
to  the  United  States,  where,  after  hav- 
ing achieved  success  in  the  banking  busi- 
ness,  he   organized    the    firm    of    Kuhn. 


Loeb  &  Co.,  which  became  one  of  the  most 
important  financial  institutions  in  the 
United  States  and  financed  many  im- 
portant enterprises,  especially  the  con- 
struction of  railroads.  Mr.  Schiff  later 
became  a  director  of  many  large  financial 
and  industrial  companies.  His  work  as 
a  philanthropist  was  done  chiefly  in  con- 
nection  with    Jewish    organizations,   but 


JACOB   H.   SCHIFF 

he  also  gave  liberally  to  other  causes. 
He  was  vice-president  and  trustee  of  the 
Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund,  a  director  of  the 
New  York  Foundation,  of  the  National 
Employment'Exchange,  and  a  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  New  York  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce. He  was  the  founder  of  the  Jewish 
Theological  Seminary  in  New  Yorkj  and 
of  the  Semitic  Museum  at  Harvard.  He 
also  contributed  $100,000  for  a  Technical 
College  at  Hafia,  Palestine.  He  was  ac- 
tively concerned  with  the  improvement  of 
civic  conditions  in  New  York,  and  was 
a  leading  member  of  the  "Committee  of 
70,"  which  secured  the  overthrow  of  the 
Tweed  Ring.  He  did  much  toward  the 
development  of  Jewish  enterprises  in 
Palestine  and  other  countries.  He  died 
in  1920. 

SCHILLER,  JOHANN  CHRISTOPH 
FRIEDRICH  VON,  a  German  poet; 
born  in  Marbach,  Wurttemberg,  Nov.  10, 
1759.    After  having  studied  medicine  and 


SCHILLER 


278 


SCHLEGEL 


become  surgeon  in  a  regiment,  he,  in  his 
22d  year,  wrote  the  tragedy  of  "The  Rob- 
bers," which  at  once  raised  him  to  the 
foremost  rank  among  the  dramatists  of 
his  country.  It  was  performed  at  Mann- 
heim in  1782.  But  some  passages  of  a 
revolutionary  tendency  having  incurred 
1  the  displeasure  of  the  Duke  of  Wurttem- 
berg,  Schiller  left  Stuttgart  by  stealth 
and  made  his  way  to  Mannheim,  where, 
after  various  wanderings  and  many  hard- 
ships, he  got  his  tragedy  of  "Fiesco" 
brought  out  on  the  stage.  The  tragedies 
of  "Cabal  and  Love,"  and  "Don  Carlos," 
were  his  next  productions.  In  1785  he 
went  to  Leipsic  and  Dresden,  where  he 
found  many  admirers.  Here  he  wrote 
his  singular  romance  called  "The  Ghost- 


JOHANN   CHRISTOPH  F.  VON   SCHILLER 

seer"  and  his  "Philosophical  Letters,"  and 
collected  materials  for  a  "History  of  the 
Revolt  of  the  Netherlands  Under  Philip 
II."  In  1787  he  repaired  to  Weimar, 
where  he  was  welcomed  with  great 
warmth  by  Weiland  and  Herder,  under- 
took the  management  of  a  periodical 
called  the  "German  Mercury,"  and  not 
long  afterward  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Goethe,  which  soon  ripened  into  a 
friendship  only  dissolved  by  death.  In 
1789  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
history  in  the  University  of  Jena,  and 
'besides  lecturing  to  crowded  audiences  he 
published  his  "History  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War"  and  engaged  in  various  liter- 
ary enterprises  which  had  great  influence 
on  the  literature  of  Germany.  A  periodi- 
cal called  "The  Hours"  and  the  "Almanac 
of  the  Muses,"  to  which  the  most  eminent 
men  in  Germany  contributed,  belong  to 


this  period.  He  also  produced  "The  Song 
of  the  Bell,"  "Cranes  of  Ibykus,"  and 
wrote  his  "Ballads,"  reckoned  among 
the  finest  compositions  of  their  kind  in 
any  language.  About  1790  he  exhibited 
a  strong  tendency  to  consumption,  which, 
by  precluding  him  from  lecturing,  greatly 
reduced  his  income.  The  Prince  of  Den- 
mark settled  on  him  a  pension  of  $1,000 
for  three  years,  and  thus  enabled  him 
to  pursue  his  studies.  He  soon  after 
settled  at  Weimar,  in  order  to  direct  the 
theater  in  conjunction  with  Goethe;  and 
here  at  intervals  he  published  the  follow- 
ing works:  "Wallenstein,"  "Mary  Stuart," 
"Joan  of  Arc,"  and  "William  Tell."  He 
died  in  Weimar,  Germany,  May  9,  1805. 

SCHINNER,  AUGUSTIN  FRANCIS, 
an  American  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  born 
in  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  in  1863.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  Francis  Seminary,  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  1886.  After  serv- 
ing for  one  year  as  a  pastor,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  faculty  of  St.  Francis 
Seminary  from  1887  to  1893.  From  1893 
to  1905  he  was  chancellor  and  vicar  gen- 
eral of  the  archdiocese  of  Milwaukee.  He 
was  consecrated  first  bishop  of  Superior, 
Wis.,  in  1905,  but  resigned  in  1913,  and 
in  the  following  year  was  appointed  first 
bishop  of  Spokane. 

SCHLANGENBAD  (shlang'en-bat),  a 
watering-place  of  Prussia,  in  Hesse-Nas- 
sau, 6  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Wiesbaden, 
among  wooded  hills.  The  water  has  a 
temperature  of  from  80°  to  88°,  and  is 
beneficial  in  hysteria,  neuralgia,  rheuma- 
tism, gout,  paralysis,  etc. 

SCHLEGEL,  AUGUST  WILHELM 
VON  (schla'gel),  German  author,  born 
in  Hanover,  Prussia,  Sept.  8,  1767.  He 
was  Professor  of  Literature  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Bonn.  His  most  notable  works 
in  literary  and  art  criticism  are:  "Lec- 
tures on  Dramatic  Art  and  Literature" 
(3  vols.  1809-1811),  translated  into  nearly 
all  the  languages  of  western  Europe; 
"On  the  Theory  and  History  of  the  Plas- 
tic Arts"  (1827).  In  the  field  of  Orien- 
talism he  wrote  "Reflections  on  the  Study 
of  the  Asiatic  Languages"  (1832),  and 
prepared  editions  of  several  Indian  clas- 
sics. He  translated  many  of  the  plays 
of  Shakespeare  and  made  the  English 
dramatist  a  German  classic.  He  trans- 
lated Dante,  Calderon,  Camoens,  and 
other  foreign  masters  of  literature.  He 
wrote  sonnets,  an  elegy,  "Rome"  (1812), 
and  other  poems.  He  died  in  Bonn,  Ger- 
many, May  12,  1845. 

SCHLEGEL,     FRIEDRICH     VON,     a 

German  philologist,  born  in  Hanover, 
Prussia,  March  10,  1772.  He  first  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  Greek  an- 
tiquity, and  in  1794  published  his  great 


SCHLESWIG 


279 


SCHLEY 


essay  "On  the  Schools  of  Grecian  Poet- 
ry"; following  it  with  many  others  of  a 
like  tenor,  as  "The  Greeks  and  Romans" 
(1797),  and  "History  of  Greek  and  Ro- 
man Poetry"  (1798).  In  his  "Fragments" 
(1798-1800)  he  essayed  to  establish  the 
theory  of  a  new  romanticism;  in  the 
meantime  writing  the  unfinished  romance 
"Lucinda,"  and  a  volume  of  "Poems." 
He  wrote  also  a  tragedy,  "Alarcos."  His 
work  "language  and  Wisdom  of  the  In- 
dians" (1808)  was  a  valuable  contribu- 
tion to  the  science  of  language.  Among 
his  other  writings  are  lectures  on  "Mod- 
ern History"  (1811)  ;  "History  of  An- 
cient and  Modern  Literature"  (1815)  ; 
"Philosophy  of  Life."  He  died  in  Dres- 
den, Saxony,  Jan.   12,   1829. 

SCHLESWIG,  or  SLESWICK,  former- 
ly a  duchy  of  Denmark;  bounded  N.  by 
Jutland,  from  which  it  is  nearly  separat- 
ed by  the  Konge  Aa  river  and  the  Kolding 
fiord.  Prussia  took  possession  of  it  in 
1867  with  Holstein,  and  the  two  duchies 
formed  the  province  of  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein.  By  a  plebiscite,  provided  for  by 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  north  Schleswig 
in  1920  decided  to  join  with  Denmark, 
while  south  Schleswig  adhered  to  Prus- 
sia. Area,  7,299  square  miles.  Pop. 
N.  Schleswig  (1921)  184,133. 

SCHLESWIG  or  SLESWICK,  a 
seaport  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Schleswig-Holstein ;  situated  on  the  W. 
end  of  the  Schlei,  a  narrow  inlet  of  the 
Baltic  Sea;  70  miles  N.  W.  of  Hamburg. 
It  was  an  important  port  and  seat  of 
trade  as  early  as  800.  It  contains  a 
church  founded  in  850,  the  ducal  castle 
of  Gottorp,  a  fine  cathedral,  and  deaf  and 
dumb  and  lunatic  asylums.  Among  the 
manufactures  are  lace,  woolen  goods, 
earthenware,  leather,  and  sugar.  Seven 
annual  fairs  are  held  here.  In  April, 
1848,  Schleswig  was  occupied  in  turn  by 
the  Danes  and  the  Allies;  in  July,  1850, 
was  regained  by  the  Danes ;  in  February, 
1864,  was  occupied  by  the  Austrians;  and 
in  1867  came  into  possession  of  Prussia. 
Pop.  about  20,000. 

SCHLETTSTADT,  or  SCHLESTADT, 
a  town  of  Alsace-Lorraine ;  27  miles  S.  W. 
of  Strasburg.  It  was  made  a  free  city 
under  the  Hohenstaufen.  In  1634  it  was 
taken  by  the  French,  and  was  fortified 
by  Vauban,  1676;  ceded  to  the  Germans, 
1870;  and  the  fortress  destroyed  by 
them,  1874.  Here  was  discovered,  in  the 
13th  century,  the  art  of  glazing  pottery. 
It  is  the  birthplace  of  the  reformer,  Mar- 
tin Bucer,  1491.  It  has  manufactories  of 
leather,  gloves,  cottons,  linens,  chemicals, 
beer,  spirits,  oil,  and  other  commodities. 
Pop.  about  10,000. 


SCHLEY  (sli),  WINFIELD  SCOTT, 
an  American  naval  officer;  born  in  Fred- 
erick co.,  Md.,  Oct.  9,  1839.  He  entered 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
1854,  served  with  distinction  in  the  Civil 
War;  was  present  at  the  bombardment 
of  Valparaiso  and  Callao  by  the  Span- 
ish fleet,  and  during  the  same  cruise  he 
suppressed  insurrections  at  both  Middle 
Chincha  Island  and  La  Union,  Honduras. 
He  served  on  the  East  India  and  China 
stations  for  several  years,  and  in  1871 


REAR-ADMIRAL    WINFIELD    SCOTT    SCHLEY 

took  part  in  the  attack  on  the  Korean 
fortifications  on  the  Salee  river  by  lead- 
ing the  assaulting  column.  He  com- 
manded the  expedition  which  rescued 
Greely  from  Cape  Sabine  in  1884.  When 
a  war  with  Spain  was  anticipated,  Com- 
modore Schley  was  on  March  25,  1898, 
placed  in  command  of  the  "Flying  Squad- 
ron" at  Hampton  Roads,  comprising  the 
armored  cruiser  "Brooklyn,"  and  the 
battleships  "Massachusetts"  and  "Texas." 
On  May  13,  under  sealed  orders,  he 
steamed  out  to  sea,  presumably  for  the 
purpose  of  intercepting  and  destroying 
the  Spanish  fleet  under  Admiral  Cervera. 
Commodore  Schley  divined  the  probable 
course  the  Spanish  admiral  would  take, 
and  on  May  28  arrived  off  the  harbor  of 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  in  which  the  Spanish 
fleet  had  taken  refuge,  and  by  blockading 
the  entrance  prevented  its  escape.  His 
squadron  was  united  with  Rear-Admiral 


SCHMALKALDEN 


280 


SCHNITZLER 


Sampson's  fleet  on  June  30,  and  on  July 
3  the  combined  fleets,  under  the  personal 
direction  of  Commodore  Schley,  attacked 
and  totally  destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet 
while  endeavoring  to  escape  from  the  har- 
bor. In  August,  1898,  he  was  promoted 
rear-admiral.  Owing  to  the  absence  of 
Rear-Admiral  Sampson,  Schley's  ranking 
officer,  from  the  actual  battle  of  Santiago, 
a  controversy  arose  between  the  friends 
of  the  two  officers  as  to  whom  the  credit 
for  the  victory  belonged.  Schley,  having 
been  accused  of  discreditable  actions, 
asked  for  the  appointment  of  a  court  of 
inquiry  which  convened  Sept.  12,  1901, 
Admiral  Dewey  presiding.  The  majority 
report  found  Schley  guilty  of  vacillation, 
lack  of  enterprise,  and  disobedience; 
while  Dewey's  report  praised  Schley  for 
efficient  service,  and  gave  him  the  credit 
for  the  destruction  of  Cervera's  fleet. 
Schley  filed  with  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  objections  to  the  majority  report, 
but  it  was  nevertheless  approved  by  Sec- 
retary Long,  Dec.  20,  1901.  The  Presi- 
dent when  appealed  to,  also  approved  the 
findings  of  the  court.  He  died  in  New 
York  City,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  2,  1911. 

SCHMALKALDEN,  LEAGUE  OF,  a 
defensive  alliance  concluded  at  Schmal- 
kalden,  April  4,  1531,  between  nine  Prot- 
estant princes  and  11  imperial  cities, 
with  whom  other  princes  and  imperial 
cities  subsequently  made  common  cause. 
The  Elector  of  Saxony  and  the  Landgrave 
of  Hesse  were  appointed  chiefs  of  the 
■league.  The  object  of  this  formidable 
alliance,  which  included  nearly  all  the 
Protestant  States  from  Denmark  to  Swit- 
zerland, was  the  common  defense  of  the 
religion  and  political  freedom  of  the  Prot- 
estants against  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
and  the  Catholic  states.  The  confedera- 
tion was  consolidated  by  the  "Articles  of 
Schmalkalden,"  drawn  up  by  Luther  at 
Wittenberg  in  1536.  A  conflict  was  of 
course  inevitable.  In  the  war  of  Schmal- 
kalden that  ensued  (1546),  when  the  em- 
peror got  leisure  to  turn  his  attention  to 
the  matter,  the  strength  of  the  Protes- 
tants was  crippled  and  dissipated  by  jeal- 
ousies, but  especially  by  the  defection  of 
Duke  Maurice  of  Saxony,  so  that  in  the 
battle  of  Muhlberg  (April  24,  1547)  the 
Elector  of  Saxony  (the  head  of  the  elder 
branch  of  the  Saxon  house,  Duke  Maurice 
being  the  head  of  the  younger  branch), 
Philip  of  Hesse,  and  other  Protestant 
chiefs  were  taken  prisoners  and  their 
army  routed.  This  caused  the  league  to 
break  up.  The  Protestant  cause  was, 
however,  revived  five  years  later  by  Duke 
Maurice,  who  had  in  the  meantime  been 
made  elector  instead  of  his  unfortunate 
kinsman,  and  who,  in  1552,  returned  to 
his  old  allegiance  to  Luther's  teaching. 


SCHMALKALDEN,  an  old  town  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  Prussia;  19  miles  S.  W. 
of  Gotha;  surrounded  with  double  walls; 
contains  a  castle,  a  town  hall,  in  which 
the  historic  "articles"  were  signed;  and 
carries  on  iron  mining  and  hardware 
manufactures.  It  is  the  birthplace  of 
Karl  Wilhelm  (1815-1873),  composer  of 
the  music  of  "The  Watch  on  the  Rhine." 

SCHNEIDEMUHL,  a  town  in  Prussia, 
Germany.  It  is  situated  in  the  province 
of  Posen,  153  miles  by  railway  N.  E.  of 
Berlin.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  some 
interesting  churches,  a  seminary  for 
priests,  hospitals  and  deaf  and  dumb 
asylum.  The  industries  include  glass- 
making.     Pop.  about  27,500. 

SCHNITZER,  EDWARD,  better 
known  as  Emin  Pasha,  an  African  ex- 
plorer; born  in  Oppeln,  Germany,  March 
28,  1840.  Studying  medicine,  he  gradu- 
ated in  1864.  Proceeding  to  Turkey,  he 
practiced  his  profession.  He  adopted  the 
name  of  Emin,  and  Turkish  habits  and 
customs,  entering  the  Egyptian  medical 
service  as  Dr.  Emin  Effendi.  In  1878  he 
was  appointed  by  Gordon  Pasha  governor 
of  the  Equatorial  Province.  He  showed 
himself  an  enlightened  ruler  and  a  bitter 
foe  to  slavery.  He  added  greatly  to  the 
anthropological  knowledge  of  central 
Africa  and  published  valuable  geographi- 
cal papers.  He  entered  the  German  ser- 
vice, 1889,  and  commanded  an  expedition 
to  central  Africa;  made  treaties  with 
the  Arabs  of  Tabora,  and  founded  three 
large  German  stations  on  Victoria  Lake; 
established  a  chain  of  military  posts 
from  Mpwapwa  to  the  interior;  in  1891 
pressed  onward  into  the  heart  of  cen- 
tral Africa,  and  in  1892  S.  toward  the 
equator.  He  was  murdered  by  Arab  slave 
traders  in  the  Kongo  Free  State,  Oct. 
20,  1892. 

SCHNITZLER,  ARTHUR,  an  Aus- 
trian dramatist  and  short-story  writer, 
born  in  Vienna,  in  1862.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  his  native  city  and  in  1885 
received  the  degree  of  M.D.  from  the 
University  of  Vienna.  He  practiced  medi- 
cine until  1893,  when  he  published  with 
great  success,  "Anatole,"  a  sequence  of 
seven  one-act  dramas  of  modern  life  in 
Vienna.  These,  as  well  as  later  creations 
of  his,  have  been  played  successfully,  not 
only  on  Austrian  and  German  stages,  but 
also  in  many  other  countries,  including 
the  United  States.  Among  his  other  dra- 
matic works  were  "Der  Griine  Kakadu" 
(1899);  "Paracelsus"  (1899);  "Leben- 
dige  Stunden"  (1902)  ;  "Der  Einsame 
Weg"  (1904)  ;  "Der  Ruf  des  Lebens" 
(1905)  ;  "Comptess  Mizzi"  (1909) ;  "Das 
Weite  Land"  (1911) ;  "Professor  Bern- 
hardt' (1913) ;  etc.    Among  his  fictional 


SCHOFIELD 


281 


SCHONBERG 


works  should  be  mentioned:  "Sterben" 
(1895) ;  "Der  Weg  ins  Freie"  (1908) ; 
etc.  A  collection  of  his  writings  were 
published  in  seven  volumes  in  Berlin,  in 
1912. 

SCHOFIELD,  JOHN  M'ALLISTER, 
an  American  military  officer;  born  in 
Gerry,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  29,  1831;  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy in  1853;  served  on  garrison  duty  in 
South  Carolina  and  Florida  in  1853-1855; 
was  assistant  Professor  of  Philosophy  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1855-1860,  and  Professor  of  Physics  in 
Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
in  1860-1861.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
served  in  the  Missouri  campaign  under 
General  Lyon;  commanded  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Ohio;  took  part  in  the  At- 
lanta campaign;  and  commanded  at  the 
battle  of  Franklin,  Tenn.,  Nov.  30,  1864, 
for  which  he  was  made  Brigadier-General 
and  brevet  Major-General  in  the  regular 
army.  After  the  war  he  became  com- 
mander of  the  Division  of  the  Pacific; 
was  Secretary  of  War  in  1868-1869;  com- 
manded the  army  of  the  United  States 
as  senior  Major-General;  and  was  pro- 
moted Lieutenant-General  in  1895.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Forty-six  Years  in 
the  Army"  (1897).  He  died  March  4, 
1906. 

SCHOFIELD,     W  (ALTER)      ELMER, 

an  American  painter,  born  at  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  in  1867.  He  studied  in  Paris 
under  Bouguereau,  Ferrier,  and  Aman- 
Jean  and,  returning  to  America,  became  a 
Fellow  of  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  Philadelphia.  He  is  repre- 
sented in  the  National  Collection  of  Ura- 
guay ;  Corcoran  Art  Gallery,  Washington ; 
John  Herron  Art  Gallery,  Indianapolis; 
Art  Museum,  Cincinnati;  Pennsylvania 
Academy  Fine  Arts;  Carnegie  Institute, 
Pittsburgh;  Sebright  Art  Gallery,  Buf- 
falo; Memorial  Gallery,  Washington;  In- 
ternational Exposition,  Buenos  Ayres,  and 
other  permanent  collections.  He  received 
many  prizes  and  gold  medals  and  was  a 
member  of  the  National  Academy,  Na- 
tional Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters,  the 
Royal  Society  of  British  Artists,  etc.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  he  saw  service  with 
the  British  army  in  France. 

SCHOLARSHIP,  a  name  given  in  the 
universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
England,  to  foundations  for  maintaining 
scholars.  A  scholarship  is,  like  a  fellow- 
ship, subject  to  certain  regulations  and 
conditions;  is  inferior  to  the  latter,  but 
superior  to  an  exhibition.  In  the  United 
States  most  of  the  colleges  have  endowed 
scholarships. 

SCHOLASTICISM,  in  philosophy  and 
Church  history,  the  name  given  to  a  move- 


ment which  began  with  the  opening  of 
cloister  schools  by  Charlemagne  (742- 
814),  attained  its  greatest  development 
in  the  early  part  of  the  13th  century 
under  Aquinas  and  Scotus,  and,  after  re- 
ceiving a  check  from  the  labors  of  Roger 
Bacon  (1214-1292)  and  the  criticism  of 
Occam  (died  1349),  gradually  subsided 
at  the  Renaissance.  Scholasticism  was 
the  reproduction  of  ancient  philosophy 
under  the  control  of  ecclesiastical  disci- 
pline, the  former  being  accommodated  to 
the  latter  in  case  of  any  discrepancy  be- 
tween them.  It  had  two  chief  periods: 
In  the  first  period  arose  the  Nominalists 
and  the  Realists;  in  the  second  the  Sco- 
tists  and  the  Thomists. 

SCHOMBURGK,  SIR  ROBERT 
HERMANN,  a  Prussian  traveler;  born 
in  Freiburg,  Prussian  Saxony,  June  5, 
1804.  He  was  trained  for  the  mercan- 
tile profession  and  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1829;  but  in  the  following  year 
he  removed  to  Anegada,  one  of  the  Virgin 
Isles.  Having  surveyed  the  island  and 
laid  a  report  before  the  Royal  Geographi- 
cal Society,  he  was  charged  by  that  body 
to  lead  an  exploring  expedition  to  British 
Guiana  in  1835.  This  enterprise  he  suc- 
cessfully achieved.  It  was  during  this 
exploration,  and  while  he  was  ascending 
the  Berbice  river,  that  he  discovered,  Jan. 
1,  1837,  the  magnificent  aquatic  plant,  the 
"Victoria  Regia,"  described  in  his  "De- 
scription of  British  Guiana"  (Lond. 
1840),  and  his  "Views  in  the  Interior  of 
Guiana"  (1841).  In  1841  he  returned  to 
Guiana  to  survey  the  colony  for  the  gov- 
ernment, and  to  draw  the  long  contro- 
verted "Schomburgk  line"  as  a  provi- 
sional boundary  with  Venezuela  and 
Brazil,  and  was  knighted.  In  1847  he  pub- 
lished an  excellent  and  elaborate  "History 
of  Barbadoes,"  and  in  the  following  year 
he  was  appointed  British  consul  at  Santo 
Domingo,  and  in  1857  British  representa- 
tive at  the  Siamese  court.  Ill-health 
forced  him  to  return  to  Europe  in  1864 
and  he  died  next  year  near  Berlin. 

SCHONHAUSEN,  a  village  of  Prussia, 
province  of  Saxony,  and  district  of  Mag- 
deburg; 2  miles  from  the  Elbe  river;  is 
the  birthplace  of  Prince  Bismarck  (1815), 
and  is  noted  as  the  location  of  his  family 
estates. 

SCHONBERG,  or  MAHRISCH- 
SCHONBERG,  a  town  of  Czecho-Slovakia. 
It  is  situated  on  the  river  Tess,  159  miles 
S.  E.  of  Prague.  The  surroundings  are 
picturesque.  It  is  well  built,  with  a  fine 
church,  agricultural  and  weaving  schools, 
and  textile  industries.  Pop.  (district) 
about  85,000. 

SCHONEBERG,  a  suburb  of  Berlin, 
Germany.     It   is   largely   given   over   to 


SCHOODIC    LAKES 


282 


SCHOPENHAUER 


residences  of  business  people  working  in 
Berlin  and  has  an  aerial  navigation 
bureau  of  the  German  army,  with  hospi- 
tal for  the  insane  and  an  observatory. 
The  industries  include  military  supplies, 
photographic  materials,  paper,  railway 
locomotives.     Pop.  about  175,000. 

SCHOODIC  LAKES,  a  chain  of  lakes 
in  Maine,  forming  a  part  of  the  boundary 
between  the  state  and  the  province  of 
New  Brunswick.  The  two  larger  lakes 
are  Grand  and  First.  The  outlet  of  the 
chain  is  Schoodic  river,  which  flows  into 
the  St.  Croix  river  about  50  miles  from 
its  mouth;  length,  25  miles. 

SCHOOLCRAFT,  HENRY  ROWE,  an 
American  author,  noted  as  an  Indian  au- 
thority; born  in  Albany  co.,  N.  Y.,  March 
28,  1793.  Thirty  years  of  his  life  he 
spent  among  the  Indians,  and  through 
him  many  laws  were  enacted  for  their 
protection.  Among  his  numerous  publi- 
cations are:  "Travels  in  the  Central  Por- 
tions of  the  Mississippi  Valley"  (1825) ; 
"Indian  Melodies,"  a  poem  (1830) ;  "The 
Man  of  Bronze"  (1834)  ;  "Algic  Re- 
searches," a  book  of  Indian  allegories  and 
legends  (1839) ;  and  "The  Indian  and  His 
Wigwam"  (1848).  He  died  in  Washing- 
ton^. C,  Dec.  10,  1864. 

SCHOOL.  See  Common  Schools,  Sec- 
ondary Schools,  Technical  Education, 
etc. 

SCHOOLS,  MEDICAL  INSPECTION 
OF,  a  function  which  has  been  taken  up 
by  municipal  and  state  governments  only 
within  recent  years.  As  has  been  shown 
by  statistics,  many  pupils  are  backward 
in  their  studies  only  because  of  lack  of 
physical  vitality.  In  1920  it  was  shown 
that  so  many  pupils  in  the  schools  of 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  were  compelled  to  pass 
through  the  same  grades  twice  that,  at 
the  average  cost  of  forty  dollars  a  term 
for  each  pupil,  the  borough  lost  $2,000f- 
000.  On  this  basis  various  social  organi- 
zations demanded  an  appropriation  from 
the  city  of  $100,000  for  more  effective 
medical  aid  to  the  school-children,  con- 
tending that  more  than  half  of  the  extra 
expense  could  thus  be  saved.  Medical 
school  inspection  was  first  instituted  in 
France  in  1886;  then,  in  succession,  this 
example  was  followed  by  Belgium,  Hun- 
gary, Chile,  Germany  and  Great  Britain, 
the  latter  in  1908.  In  this  country  it  was 
first  instituted  in  New  York  City,  in 
1892;  then  in  Boston,  in  1894;  in  Chicago, 
in  1895,  and  in  Philadelphia,  in  1898. 
Practically  every  American  city  now  has 
adopted  medical  inspection  and  several 
states  have  made  it  obligatory  in  all 
schools.  In  the  larger  communities  this 
includes  the  services  of  visiting  nurses, 


who  instruct  the  children  in  personal  hy- 
giene. Out  of  252,000  school-children  in- 
spected in  New  York  City,  in  1919,  74 
per  cent  were  found  defective  physically, 
defective  teeth  and  vision  being  the  chief 
faults. 

SCHOONER,  a  vessel  of  two,  three,  or 
more  masts  and  fore-and-aft-sails  —  i.  e., 
extended  on  boom  and  gaff.  The 
masts  have  but  one  splice,  the  topgallant, 
if  any,  forming  part  of  the  topmast  stick. 
When  a  schooner  has  none  but  fore-and- 
aft  sails,  she  is  termed  a  fore-and-aft 
schooner;  if  carrying  a  square  foretop- 
sail  and  fore-topgallant  sail,  a  topsail 
schooner.  This  latter  rig,  formerly 
common,  has  now  become  rare.  Square- 
rigged  vessels  have  also  lower  fore-and- 
aft  sails,  denominated  spencers  or  try- 
sails, but  these  are  small  and  are  brailed 
up  to  the  gaff  when  furled,  instead  of 
being  lowered  like  those  of  a  schooner. 

SCHOPENHAUER,  ARTHUR,  a  Ger- 
man philosopher;  born  in  Danzic,  Feb. 
22,  1788;  son  of  Johanna  Schopenhauer, 
the  popular  novelist  and  litterateur.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen,  attended  the  lec- 
tures of  Fichte  at  Berlin,  spent  some  time 
at  Weimar  and  Dresden,  and  led  a  very 


ARTHUR   SCHOPENHAUER 

restless  life  till  1831,  when  he  settled  at  y 
Frankfort-on-the-Main.  He  despised  his 
countrymen  and  their  philosophies,  and 
studied  French  and  English  literature 
and  latterly  Oriental  religions.  He  be- 
came an  enthusiast  for  Buddha  and  the 
Vedas,  and  enjoyed  tracing  all  Western 
accomplishments  to  Eastern  sources.  The 
principal  work   of   Schopenhauer   is   en* 


SCHOULER 


283 


SCHUMANN-HEINK 


titled  "The  World  as  Will  and  Idea."  It 
appeared  in  1819,  and  after  being  neg- 
lected for  many  years  attracted  a  good 
deal  of  attention  and  received  some  sharp 
criticism.  The  practical  upshot  of  his 
system,  which  makes  will  the  one  sole 
reality,  is  intolerable  melancholy,  taking 
from  man  all  that  constitutes  his  great- 
ness, his  goodness,  or  his  bliss.  God — 
futurity — the  soul — mere  names,  illu- 
sions; and  the  world  of  men  is  to  him 
hopelessly  bad.  The  style  is  brilliant; 
but  the  general  effect  of  the  work  on  the 
average  mind  is  depressing.  He  pub- 
lished several  other  works  of  philosophy, 
of  which  the  most  important  is  "The 
Two  Sound  Problems  of  Ethics."  He  died 
in  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Sept.  21,  1860. 

SCHOULER,  JAMES,  an  American 
lawyer;  born  in  Arlington,  Mass.,  March 
20,  1839;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  1859;  admitted  to  practice  at 
the  Massachusetts  bar  in  1862;  and  in 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
in  1867;  became  Professor  of  Law  in 
Boston  University  and  lecturer  at  Johns 
Hopkins  University.  He  published  "The 
Law  of  Domestic  Relations";  "The  Law 
of  Bailments";  "The  Law  of  Personal 
Property';  "Law  of  Wills";  "Americans 
of  '76"  (1905):  and  "Ideals  of  the  Re- 
public" (1908). 

SCHREINER,  OLIVE,  a  South  Afri- 
can novelist;  born  in  Basutoland,  1863. 
She  is  the  daughter  of  a  Lutheran  min- 
ister, and  was  married  in  1890  to  Mr. 
Cronwright,  an  Englishman  of  the  col- 
ony. She  published  her  first  and  most 
noted  book,  "The  Story  of  an  African 
Farm,"  under  the  pseudonym  "Ralph 
Iron,"  at  the  age  of  20;  "Dreams"  (1890) ; 
"Dream  Life  and  Real  Life"  (1893)  ; 
"Trooper  Peter  Halket"  (1897) ;  "An 
English  South  African's  View  of  the 
Situation"  (1899)  ;  "Women  and  Labour" 
(1911);  etc.     She  died  in  1920. 

SCHREMBS,  JOSEPH,  an  American 
Roman  Catholic  bishop,  born  at  Ratisbon, 
Bavaria,  in  1866.  He  removed  to  the 
United  States  in  1877  and  was  educated 
at  St.  Vincent's  College,  Pa.,  at  the 
Grand  Seminary,  Montreal,  and  at  Laval 
University.  He  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood  in  1889  and  served  as  pastor 
in  several  churches  in  Michigan.  In  1902 
he  was  appointed  vicar  general  of  the 
diocese  of  Grand  Rapids.  He  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Grand  Rapids  in  1911, 
and  in  the  same  year  became  bishop  of 
the  diocese  of  Toledo,  Ohio. 

SCHROEDER,  SEATON,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  at  Washington,  in 
1849.      He   graduated   from   the    United 


States  Naval  Academy  in  1868  and  in 
the  following  year  was  appointed  ensign. 
From  1868  to  1872  he  served  on  the 
"Saginaw,"  "Pensacola,"  and  "Benicia." 
He  tool?  part  in  the  Rodgers'  expedition 
against  the  Korean  forts,  in  1871.  He 
served  in  various  capacities  on  shore  and 
at  sea  and  was  advanced  three  times  in 
rank  for  eminent  and  conspicuous  con- 
duct in  the  Spanish-American  War.  In 
1899-1900  he  was  on  duty  at  the  Navy 
Yard  at  Washington,  and  from  1900  to 
1903  he  was  naval  governor  of  the  Island 
of  Guam.  From  1909  to  1911  he  was 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Atlantic  fleet. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  retired,  but 
continued  on  special  duty  in  the  Navy 
Department  for  three  years.  He  wrote 
"Fall  of  Maximilian's  Empire"  (1887) 
and  many  contributions  to  magazines. 

SCHUBERT,  ERANZ  PETER,  an 
Austrian  composer ;  born  in  Vienna,  Aus- 
tria, Jan.  31,  1797.  He  belonged  to  a 
family  distinguished  for  their  musical 
talents,  and  from  his  earliest  years 
showed  a  strong  bent  to  musical  studies 
and  composition.  At  seven  years  of  age 
he  was  the  pupil  of  Michael  Holzer;  be- 
came a  chorister  in  the  imperial  chapel, 
and  the  pupil  of  the  court  organist  and 
of  Salieri.  He  studied  the  works  of 
Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  and  gave 
lessons  in  music  for  a  living.  The  num- 
ber and  variety  of  his  compositions  is 
extraordinary.  The  most  admired  is  his 
"Songs,"  and  among  them  "The  Erl 
King,"  and  "Ave  Maria"  are  perhaps  the 
best  known.  But  he  wrote  also  operas, 
sonatas,  symphonies,  overtures,  cantatas, 
six  masses,  etc.  He  left  numerous  works 
unpublished  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
Schubert  spent  almost  his  whole  life  at 
Vienna,  and  died  there  Nov.  19,  1828. 

SCHULER,  ANTHONY  J.,  an  Ameri- 
can Roman  Catholic  bishop,  born  in  St. 
Marys,  Pa.,  in  1869.  He  was  educated 
at  St.  Stanislaus  Seminary,  at  St.  Louis 
University,  and  at  Woodstock  College. 
In  1886  he  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus., 
and  was  ordained  priest  in  1901.  For 
several  years  he  was  on  the  faculty  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  College  of  Denver,  and 
from  1907  to  1910  he  was  engaged  in 
parish  work  at  El  Paso,  Tex.  He  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  El  Paso  in  1915. 

SCHUMANN-HEINK,  ERNESTINE, 
an  American  prima  donna,  born  near 
Prague,  Bohemia,  in  1861.  She  was  edu- 
cated at  a  convent  in  her  native  city, 
and  made  her  first  operatic  appearance  as 
a  contralto  at  the  Dresden  Court  Opera, 
in  1878.  Later  she  appeared  in  Ham- 
burg and  Berlin,  and  finally  at  Bayreuth, 
where  she  acquired  an  international  repu- 


SCHUMANN 


284 


SCHURZ 


tation.  Eventually  she  came  to  the 
United  States  and  became  a  member  of 
the  Metropolitan  Opera  Company,  N.  Y., 


MADAME  ERNESTINE  SCHUMANN-HEINK 

for  several  seasons,  after  which  she  ap- 
peared regularly  both  on  the  operatic  and 
on  the  concert  stage  throughout  the 
United  States. 

SCHUMANN,  ROBERT,  a  German 
musical  composer;  born  in  Zwickau  in 
the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  June  8,  1810.  He 
studied  law  at  Leipsic,  but  in  1830  finally 
devoted  himself  to  music  under  the  tui- 
tion of  Friedrich  Wieck  and  Heinrich 
Dorn.  The  daughter  of  the  former,  the 
celebrated  pianiste,  Clara  Wieck  (born 
1819),  became  his  wife  in  1840.  In  1834 
he  commenced  his  "A  New  Musical  Pe- 
riodical," a  journal  which  was  to  herald 
an  ideal  music,  and  which,  for  the  10 
years  of  his  more  intimate  connection 
with  it,  exercised  an  important  influence 
on  the  development  of  the  art  not  incom- 
parable with  that  of  Lessing's  "Hamburg 
Dramaturgy"  in  drama.  Prior  to  1840 
his  principal  works  were  the  "Fantasias," 
the  "Scenes  of  Childhood,"  the  "Etudes 
Symphoniques,"  the  "Kreisleriana,"  the 
"Abegg"  variations,  the  "Papillons,"  the 
"Carnival,"  and  two  sonatas  in  F  sharp 
minor  and  G  minor.  In  the  year  follow- 
ing his  marriage  he  published  nearly  150 
songs,  many  on  Heine's  words.  He  then 
commenced  his  great  series  of  orchestral 
works,  his  symphony  in  B  flat  being  first 
performed  at  the  close  of  1841.  It  was 
followed  by  his  "Overture  Scherzo  and 
Finale,"  his  D  minor  symphony,  three 
quartets,  the  piano  quintet  and  quartet, 
the  cantata     "Paradise    and    the    Peri," 


the  C  major  symphony  (1846),  "Gene-' 
vieve"  (1847);  "Manfred"  (1848);  the 
Faust  music  (1850),  the  E  flat  symphony 
(1851),  and  other  works.  Under  stress 
of  work,  however,  his  reason  failed  him, 
and  after  an  attempt  to  drown  himself 
in  1854  he  was  confined  in  a  lunatic  asy- 
lum, where  he  died  July  29,  1856. 

SCHURMAN,  JACOB  GOULD,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  Freetown, 
Prince  Edward  Island,  May  22,  1854. 
He  won  the  Gilchrist  Dominion  scholar- 
ship, 1875;  was  graduated  at  London 
University,  1877;  was  Professor  of  Phi- 
losophy in  Acadia  College,  1880-1882;  in 
Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  1882-1886. 
He  became  Professor  of  Philosophy  at 
Cornell  University  and  president  in 
1892,  serving  until  1920.  In  1899  he  was 
appointed  president  of  the  first  Philip- 
pine Commission.  He  was  minister  to 
Greece  and  Montenegro  in  1912-13.  He 
has  published:  "Kantian  Ethics"  (1881); 
"The  Ethical  Import  of  Darwinism" 
(1888);  "Agnosticism  and  Religion";  "A 
Generation  of  Cornell"  (1898)  ;  "Report 
of  the  Philippine  Commission";  "The  Bal- 
kan Wars"  (1912-13)  ;  "Why  America  Is 
in  the  War"  (1917).  He  was  also  editor 
of  the  "Philosophical  Review." 

SCHURZ,  CARL,  an  American  states- 
man; born  in  Liblar,  near  Cologne,  Prus- 
sia, March  2,  1829;  he  was  a  student  at 


CARL   SCHURZ 

Bonn  in  1847-1848.  In  the  early  part  of 
1848  he  participated  in  the  revolutionary 
movements  in  the  Palatinate  and  at  Ba- 
den, and  on  the  defeat  of  the  insurrec- 
tion fled  to  Switzerland  to  escape  arrest. 


SCHUSTER 


285 


SCHUYLER 


About  1852  he  came  to  the  United  States, 
and  settled  in  Madison,  Wis.  He  soon 
identified  himself  with  the  Republican 
party.  He  advocated  the  election  of  Fre- 
mont in  1856  by  public  speeches  in  the 
German  language.  He  afterward  made 
political  speeches  in  English,  and  achieved 
a  high  reputation  as  an  orator.  In  1860 
he  addressed  the  people  of  various  States 
advocating  the  election  of  Abraham  Lin- 
coln. In  1861  he  was  appointed  minister 
to  Spain,  but  when  the  Civil  War  broke 
out  he  resigned  that  he  might  return 
and  join  the  Union  army.  He  took  part 
in  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and 
commanded  a  division  at  Chancellorsville, 
May,  1863,  and  a  corps  at  Gettysburg, 
July  1-3  of  that  year.  He  resigned  from 
the  army  in  1865,  and  in  1866  became 
editor  of  the  Detroit  "Post."  In  1868  he 
went  to  St.  Louis,  and  in  1869  was  elected 
United  States  Senator  from  Missouri. 
He  supported  Mr.  Greeley  for  President 
in  1872,  and  Mr.  Hayes  in  1876,  and  was 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  under  the  lat- 
ter, from  1877  to  1881.  In  1881-1884 
he  was  editor  of  the  New  York  "Evening 
Post,"  and  was  conspicuous  in  the  "Mug- 
wump" movement  of  1884.  In  1892  he 
became  president  of  the  National  Civil 
Service  Reform  League.  He  afterward 
wrote  several  books,  among  them  a  "Life 
of  Henry  Clay."     He  died  May  14,  1906. 

SCHUSTER,  ARTHUR,  a  British 
scientist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
in  1851.  He  was  educated  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main,  Geneva,  Owens  College,  Man- 
chester, and  Heidelberg.  He  was  chief 
of  the  "Eclipse"  expedition  to  Siam,  1875. 
In  1892  he  was  president  of  Section  A  of 
the  British  Association  and  later  became 
president  of  the  Manchester  Literary  and 
Philosophical  Society,  and  of  the  Physi- 
cal Society,  London.  He  received  the 
Royal  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1893 
and  became  president  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation in  1915.  His  works  include  "The- 
ory of  Optics";  "Progress  of  Physics"; 
"Britain's  Heritage  of  Science." 

SCHUSTER,  SIR  FELIX,  a  British 
financier,  born  in  1854.  He  was  educated 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Geneva,  and 
Owens  College,  Manchester;  and  then 
went  into  business  in  London.  He  was 
on  the  Royal  Commission  on  London  Traf- 
fic, 1903-5;  Board  of  Trade  Commission 
for  the  Amendment  of  Company  Law, 
1905;  India  Office  Committee  on  Indian 
Railway  Finance  and  Administration, 
1907-8;  and  Treasury  Committee  on  Irish 
Land  Purchase  Finance,  1907-8.  He  was 
chairman  of  the  Council  of  the  Institute 
of  Bankers,  1908-9,  and  of  the  Central 
Association  of  Bankers,  1913-15.  His 
works  include:  "Foreign  Trade  and  the 
Money  Market";  "Our  Gold  Reserves." 


e— r.vc 


SCHUTT,  two  islands  in  the  river 
Danube.  They  are  situated  in  Hungary, 
partly  in  the  districts  of  Komorn  and 
Pressburg.  Great  Schutt  Island  is  58 
miles  long  and  from  10  to  20  miles  wide, 
and  is  fertile,  being  called  the  Golden 
Garden  of  Hungary.  Little  Schutt 
Island  is  28  miles  long.  The  Danube 
borders  the  former  on  the  south  and  the 
latter  on  the  north. 

SCHUYLER,  MONTGOMERY,  an 
American  diplomat,  born  at  Stamford, 
Conn.,  in  1877.  He  graduated  from  Co- 
lumbia University  in  1899  and  took  post- 
graduate studies  at  that  university.  He 
was  appointed  second  secretary  of  the 
American  Embassy  at  Petrograd  in  1902, 
and  in  1904  served  as  secretary  of  lega- 
tion and  consul-general  at  Bangkok, 
Siam.  He  served  as  charge  and  first 
secretary  to  Rumania,  Servia,  Russia, 
Japan,  and  Mexico.  In  1913  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Ecuador.  In  1914-15 
he  served  as  special  agent  of  the  United 
States  to  Russia.  In  1918  he  was  com- 
missioned a  captain  in  the  Officers'  Re- 
serve Corps,  and  served  in  the  Ordnance 
Department.  In  1918-19  he  was  chief 
intelligence  officer  in  Siberia.  In  1919 
he  was  discharged  with  the  rank  of 
major.  He  was  a  member  of  many  his- 
torical societies  and  contributed  articles 
on  Oriental  and  literary  subjects  to  va- 
rious periodicals. 

SCHUYLER,  PHILIP,  an  American 
military  officer;  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in 
November,  1733.  He  served  in  the  war 
against  the  French  and  Indians  in  1756. 
In  June,  1775,  he  was  commissioned  com- 
mander of  an  army  in  New  York  with 
the  rank  of  Major-General.  He  was  about 
to  move  the  army  into  Canada,  but  he 
was  taken  sick,  and  was  succeeded  in 
September  by  General  Montgomery.  He 
was  appointed  delegate  to  the  Continen- 
tal Congress  later  in  the  same  year,  and 
was  again  a  delegate  in  1777.  In  the  lat- 
ter year  also  he  commanded  the  Con- 
tinental forces  against  General  Burgoyne, 
but  was  superseded  by  General  Gates,  ir 
consequence  of  the  jealousy  with  which 
Congress  regarded  him.  His  conduct  was 
vindicated  by  a  court  of  inquiry  .^  Later 
he  rendered  important  services  in  mili- 
tary affairs,  but  he  declined  to  take  com- 
mand of  an  army.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Congress  in  1778,  and  while  holding 
that  post  resigned  from  the  army  in  1779, 
remaining  in  Congress  till  1781.  He  was 
Federalist  United  States  Senator  from 
New  York  in  1789-1791,  and  was  again 
elected  a  Senator,  in  place  of  Aaron  Burr, 
in  1797.  One  of  his  daughters  was  the 
wife  of  Alexander  Hamilton.  He  died 
in  Albany,  Nov.  18,  1804. 


Vol  8 


SCHUYLER    LAKE 


286      SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT 


SCHUYLER  LAKE,  a  small  lake  in 
Otsego  co.,  N.  Y.  Its  outlet  is  the  Sus- 
quehanna river.  It  is  about  8  miles 
N.  W.  of  Cooperstown  and  is  24  miles 
S.  E.  of  Utica;  length  5  miles. 

SCHUYLKILL,  a  river  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, which  rises  in  the  N.  side  of  the 
Blue  Mountains,  runs  S.  E.,  passes 
through  the  confines  of  Philadelphia,  and 
unites  with  the  Delaware  5  miles  below 
that  city.     It  is  120  miles  long. 

SCHUYLKILL  HAVEN,  a  borough 
of  Pennsylvania,  in  Schuylkill  co.,  on  the 
Schuylkill  river,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania, 
the  Philadelphia  and  Reading,  and  the 
Lehigh  Valley  railroads.  Its  industries 
include  car  shops,  underwear  and  shoe 
factories,  rolling  mills,  and  pip  mills. 
Pop.   (1910)   4,747;    (1920)   5,437. 

SCHWAB,  CHARLES  M.,  an  Ameri- 
can capitalist  and  public  official,  born  at 
Williamsburg,  Pa.,  in  1862.  While  still 
a  boy  he  entered  the  employment  of  the 
Carnegie  Company  as  a  stake  driver.  He 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  officials  of 
the  company  by  his  efficiency  and  was 
gradually  promoted  until  he  became  in 
1881  chief  engineer.  He  was  soon  after- 
ward appointed  assistant  manager  and 
from  1889  to  1897  was  general  superin- 
tendent of  the  Edgar  Thompson  Steel 
Works.  During  the  same  period  he  was 
also  superintendent  and  general  superin- 
tendent of  the  Homestead  Steel  Works. 
From  1897  to  1901  he  was  president  of 
the  Carnegie  Steel  Company,  Ltd.,  having 
become  one  of  the  most  trusted  lieuten- 
ants of  Andrew  Carnegie.  He  persuaded 
the  latter  to  accept  the  plans  made  by 
J.  P.  Morgan  for  the  formation  of  the 
United  States  Steel  Corporation  and  on 
the  formation  of  that  organization  was 
elected  its  president.  He  resigned  in 
1903  and  became  president  of  the  Bethle- 
hem Steel  Corporation,  which  was  built 
up  under  his  management,  until  it  be- 
came one  of  the  largest  steel  making 
enterprises  in  the  world.  During  the 
first  years  of  the  World  War  his  com- 
pany had  a  virtual  monopoly  in  contracts 
to  supply  the  Allies  with  certain  kinds  of 
munitions.  Mr.  Schwab  made  many 
visits  to  Europe  in  connection  with  the 
manufacture  and  supply  of  munitions  to 
the  Allied  governments,  during  this  pe- 
riod. When  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment undertook  the  construction  of  ships 
in  1918  and  formed  the  Emergency  Fleet 
Corporation,  Mr.  Schwab  was  appointed 
director-general  of  shipbuilding,  and 
largely  through  his  efforts  the  problem 
of  the  replacing  of  ships  destroyed  by 
submarines  was  solved.  He  served  until 
December,  1918.  Mr.  Schwab  established 
an  industrial  school  at  Homestead,  Pa.; 


gave  an  auditorium  to  the  Pennsylvania 
State  College;  founded  a  home  for  chil- 
dren on  Staten  Island,  N.  Y. ;  and  gave 
to  his  native  town,  Loretta,  Pa.,  a  Catho- 
lic church  costing  $150,000.  He  was  one 
of  the  most  valuable  advisers  of  the 
government  during  the  reconstruction 
period  following  the  World  War. 

SCHWAN,  THEODORE,  an  American 
soldier,  born  at  Hanover,  Germany,  in 
1841.  He  was  educated  in  Germany  and 
removed  to  the  United  States  in  1857. 
He  served  during  the  Civil  War,  rising 
to  the  rank  of  1st  lieutenant.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  enlisted  in  the  Regu- 
lar Army  and  was  appointed  captain.  He 
was  promoted  to  various  grades,  becom- 
ing lieutenant-colonel  in  1895,  and  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers  in  1898.  In 
the  following  year  he  was  honorably  dis- 
charged from  the  volunteer  service,  and 
in  1901  was  appointed  brigadier-general 
in  the  United  States  Army.  After  40 
years  of  service  he  retired  at  his  own 
request  in  1909.  He  was  awarded  a 
medal  of  honor  for  distinguished  service 
in  the  Civil  War.  During  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  he  commanded  the  1st 
Division  of  the  9th  Army  Corps,  and  was 
chief  of  staff  of  the  Division  of  Porto 
Rico.  He  saw  service  also  in  military 
expeditions  in  the  Philippines.  In  1916 
he  was  promoted  to  be  major-general  in 
the  United  States  Army. 

SCHWARTZ,  BERTHOLD,  a  monk  of 
the  order  of  Cordeliers,  at  the  end  of  the 
13th  century,  was  a  native  of  Freiburg, 
in  Germany,  and  an  able  chemist.  It  is 
said  that  as  he  was  making  some  experi- 
ments with  niter  he  was  led  to  his  inven- 
tion of  gunpowder,  which  was  first 
applied  to  warlike  purposes  by  the  Vene- 
tians in  1300.  There  is,  however,  much 
discrepancy  in  the  accounts  of  this  dis- 
covery; and  it  is  certain  that  Roger  Ba- 
con, who  died  in  1292,  was  acquainted 
with  an  inflammable  composition  similar 
to  gunpowder,,  the  knowledge  of  which 
the  Europeans  appear  to  have  derived 
from  the  Orientals. 

SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT,       a 

former  German  principality,  now  part  of 
the  Republic  of  Thuringia  in  the  German 
Republic,  situated  between  Prussian  Sax- 
ony, the  Saxon  duchies,  and  the  princi- 
pality of  Reuss.  It  lies  on  the  N.  side 
of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  and  has  an 
area  of  362  square  miles.  The  surface 
is  rugged,  and  the  soil  by  no  means  fer- 
tile. The  most  important  crop  is  flax, 
the  culture  of  which  is  almost  universal. 
A  great  part  of  the  land  is  devoted  to 
pasture,  and  great  numbers  of  cattle  are 
reared.  The  minerals  include  brown 
coal,  iron,  slate,  and  salt.    The  principal 


•; C  ( W ARZBURG-SONDERSH AUSEN   287 


SCHWEIDNITZ 


manufactures  are  glass  and  porcelain. 
The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Lutherans. 
The  capital  is  Rudolstadt.  Pop.  about 
100,000. 

SCHWARZBTJRQ-SONDERSHAUSEN, 

a  former  German  principality  on  the  N. 
side  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  between 
the  territories  of  Prussian  Saxony  and 
the  Saxon  duchies,  since  1919  a  part  of 
the  Republic  of  Thuringia,  a  state  in  the 
German  Republic ;  area,  333  square  miles. 
It  is  more  fertile  than  Schwarzburg-Ru- 
dolstadt,  producing  corn  for  export.  One 
of  the  principal  sources  of  revenue  _  is 
derived  from  the  forests,  which  furnish 
excellent  timber.  Flax  also  is  extensive- 
ly cultivated,  and  great  numbers  of  cat- 
tle, sheep,  and  swine  are  reared.  The 
only  manufacture  of  any  importance  is 
porcelain.  The  inhabitants  are  almost 
all  Lutherans.  The  capital  is  Sonders- 
hausen.     Pop.  about  90,000. 

SCHWAEZENBERG,  a  princely  family 
of  Germany,  the  head  of  which  was  raised 
(1429)  by  the  Emperor  Sigismund  to  the 
dignity  of  Baron  of  the  Empire.  Three 
of  this  family  have  acquired  a  European 
reputation.  Adam,  Count  of  Schwarzen- 
berg, born  in  1584,  became  (1619)  prime 
minister  and  adviser  of  George  William, 
Elector  of  Brandenburg.  He  was  all  pow- 
erful during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and 
brought  down  terrible  calamities  on 
Brandenburg  by  his  obstinate  refusal  to 
join  the  Protestant  union  and  his  firm 
adherence  to  a  policy  of  neutrality.  He 
died  in  prison,  1641,  shortly  after  the 
death  of  his  master.  Karl  Philipp, 
Prince  of  Schwarzenberg;  born  in  Vi- 
enna, April  15,  1771,  and  first  served 
against  the  Turks.  In  the  war  against 
the  French  republic  he  fought  with  es- 
pecial honor  at  the  battles  of  Cateau- 
Cambresis  (1794),  Wurzburg  (1796), 
and  Hohenlinden  (1800),  and  reached  the 
grade  of  lieutenant  field  marshal.  He 
was  under  the  orders  of  Mack  in  the 
campaign  of  1805 ;  and  when  he  saw  that 
Ulm  was  lost  he  cut  his  way  through  the 
French  army  and  retired  to  Eger.  He 
was  ambassador  at  the  Russian  court  in 
1808  by  the  express  wish  of  the  Emperor 
Alexander,  fought  at  Wagram  in  1809, 
and  conducted  the  negotiations  for  the 
marriage  between  Napoleon  and  Maria 
Louisa.  In  this  capacity  and  as  ambas- 
sador at  Paris  he  so  far  gained  the  es- 
teem of  Napoleon  that  the  latter  express- 
ly demanded  him  as  General-in-Chief  of 
the  Austrian  contingent  which  was  sent 
to  aid  France  in  the  invasion  of  Russia 
in  1812.  Schwarzenberg  passed  the  Bug 
and  achieved  some  slight  successes,  but 
was  driven  into  the  "duchy  of  Warsaw," 
where,  acting  on  8»cret  instructions  from 


Napoleon,  he  took  up  a  position  at  Pul- 
tusk  and  remained  inactive.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  Austrian  army  of  obser- 
vation in  Bohemia;  and,  when  Austria 
joined  the  allied  powers  he  became  gen- 
eralissimo of  the  united  armies  and  won 
the  great  battles  of  Dresden  and  Leip- 
sic.  The  year  after  (1814)  he  marched 
into  France  and  captured  Paris.  He  died 
of  apoplexy  in  Leipsic,  Oct.  15,  1820. 
His  nephew,  Felix  Ludwig  Johann 
Friedrich,  born  Oct.  2,  1800,  was  sent  on 
a  diplomatic  mission  to  London  in  1826, 
was  ambassador  at  Naples  in  1846,  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Italian  cam- 
paign of  1848,  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
affairs  at  Vienna,  called  in  the  aid  of  the 
Russians  against  Hungary,  and  pursued 
a  bold  absolutist  policy,  his  object  being 
to  make  Austria  supreme  among  the 
German  states.  He  died  in  Vienna,  April 
5,  1852. 

SCHWATKA,  FREDERICK,  an 
American  Arctic  explorer;  born  in  Ga- 
lena, 111.,  Sept.  29,  1849;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1871,  and  served  as  a  lieutenant  of 
cavalry  on  the  frontier  till  1877,  mean- 
while being  also  admitted  to  the  Ne- 
braska bar  and  taking  a  medical  degree 
in  New  York.  In  1878-1880  he  com- 
manded an  expedition  to  King  William's 
Land  which  discovered  and  buried  the 
skeletons  of  several  of  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin's party,  and  gathered  information 
which  filled  up  all  gaps  in  the  narratives 
of  Rae  and  McClintock,  besides  perform- 
ing a  notable  sledge  journey  of  3,251 
miles.  After  exploring  the  course  of  the 
Yukon  in  Alaska,  in  1885  he  resigned  his 
commission.  In  1886  he  commanded  the 
New  York  "Times"  Alaskan  expedition, 
and  ascended  Mount  St.  Elias  to  a  height 
of  7,200  feet;  in  1891  he  led  another 
party  to  Alaska  which  opened  up  some 
700  miles  of  new  country  in  the  same 
quarter;  and  in  1889  he  led  an  expedi- 
tion, for  the  journal  "America,"  into  Chi- 
huahua, in  northern  Mexico.  He  pub- 
lished "Along  Alaska's  Great  River" 
(1885)  ;  "Nimrod  in  the  North"  (1885) ; 
"The  Children  of  the  Cold"  (1886)  ;  etc. 
He  died  in  Portland,  Ore.,  Nov.  2,  1892. 

SCHWEIDNITZ,  a  town  of  Prussia, 
in  Silesia,  on  a  height  above  the  Weis- 
tritz,  29  miles  S.  W.  of  Breslau.  Its 
manufactures  include  machinery,  wool- 
ens, linens,  furniture,  earthenware,  car- 
riages, gloves,  beer,  and  spirits.  It  was 
made  a  regular  fortress  by  Frederick  the 
Great,  and  figured  much  during  his  wars. 
During  its  last  siege,  in  1807,  it  was 
taken  in  36  days  by  the  French  and  its 
outworks    were    dismantled.      Its   fortifi- 


SCHWEINFTJRT 


288 


SCIACCA 


cations    were    removed    in    1862.       Pop. 
about  35,000. 

SCHWEINFTJRT,  an  ancient  and 
/  long  an  imperial  free  city  in  Bavaria; 
on  the  Main,  28  miles  N.  E.  of  Wiirzburg. 
It  contains  a  beautiful  market-place,  in 
which  important  cattle  and  wool  markets 
are  held.  Wine  growing,  sugar  refining, 
and  manufactures  of  chemicals,  paper, 
bells,  dyeing  materials,  as  white  lead,  ul- 
tramarine, Schweinfurt  green,  etc.,  and 
numerous  other  articles  are  carried  on. 
Ruckert,  the  poet,  was  born  here;  and  a 
monument  was  erected  in  1890.  Pop. 
about  22,200. 

SCHWENKFELD,  CASPAR  VON,  a 
German  reformer;  born  of  noble  family, 
in  Ossig,  Lower  Silesia,  in  1490;  studied 
two  years  at  Cologne  and  elsewhere,  and, 
before  retiring  into  private  life  in  1521 
to  a  constant  study  of  the  Scriptures, 
served  at  various  courts  with  Duke 
Charles  of  Miinsterberg,  and  as  aulic 
counsellor  with  Duke  Frederick  II.  of 
Liegnitz.  About  1525  he  openly  declared 
for  Luther,  and  went  to  Wittenberg  to 
converse  with  him,  but  found  his  views 
widely  divergent  on  baptism  and  the  eu- 
charist.  Still  further,  he  found  himself 
unable  to  accept  any  confessions  of  faith 
except  such  as  followed  closely  the  let- 
ter of  Scripture.  Schwenkfeld  did  not 
himself  partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
though  he  did  not  forbid  it  to  others. 
He  did  not  approve  of  infant  baptism, 
yet  without  admitting  the  Baptist  view  of 
the  importance  of  the  baptism  of  adults. 

Schwenkfeld's  view  brought  him  the 
hatred  of  the  Lutherans  and  Catholics 
alike.  The  influence  of  the  Emperor  Fer- 
dinand forced  the  Duke  of  Liegnitz  to 
banish  him  in  1529,  and  he  thereafter 
traveled  to  Ulm,  Augsburg,  Nuremberg, 
and  Strasburg,  everywhere  gaining  disci- 
ples. Luther  fiercely  denounced  him,  and 
many  untrue  charges  were  brought 
against  him  by  others.  He  died  in  Ulm, 
Dec.  10,  1561.  Schwenkfeld  wrote  90 
distinct  works,  most  of  which  were 
burned  by  Protestants  and  Catholics.  By 
means  of  personal  teaching  and  his  books 
a  group  of  earnest  disciples  more  than 
4,000  strong  was  formed  all  over  Ger- 
many, but  mostly  in  Swabia  and  Silesia, 
under  the  name  of  Confessors,  or  Fol- 
lowers of  the  Glory  of  Christ.  They 
were  persecuted  in  Silesia  in  his  lifetime, 
and  many  emigrated  to  Holland,  some  to 
England.  The  Jesuit  mission  established 
in  Silesia  in  1719  persecuted  the  rem- 
nant still  further,  and  some  joined  the 
Protestant  churches,  some  fled  to  Saxony, 
where  they  were  protected  by  Count  Zin- 
zendorf.  In  1734  40  families  emigrated 
to  England,  and  finally  thence  to  Penn- 


sylvania, where,  as  Schwenkfeldians,  thoy 
have  maintained  a  distinct  existence  to 
this  day. 

SCHWERIN,  the  capital  of  the  re- 
public of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Ger- 
many. It  is"  situated  on  Lake  Schwerin, 
38  miles  S.  E.  of  Lubeck.  It  has  many 
handsome  buildings,  among  them  a  four- 
teenth century  Gothic  cathedral,  contain- 
ing the  ducal  tombs,  and  the  former 
Grand  Ducal  Palace.  The  manufactures 
are  machinery,  dyes,  pianos,  bricks,  and 
furniture.     Pop.  about  45,000. 

SCHWERTE,  a  town  of  the  province 
of  Westphalia,  Prussia.  It  stands  53 
miles  N.  E.  of  Cologne,  and  has  some  in- 
teresting buildings,  among  them  a  Ro- 
manesque church  with  carved  interior 
and  ancient  stained-glass  windows.  The 
industries  include  iron  wares  and  machin- 
ery.    Pop.  about  14,000. 

SCHWYZ,  a  central  canton  of  Switzer- 
land, bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Lake  of 
Zurich  and  canton  of  St.  Gall,  W.  by  Zug 
and  Lucerne,  S.  by  Lake  Lucerne,  and  E. 
by  Glarus;  area,  351  square  miles.  It 
belongs  to  the  so-called  mountain  can- 
tons, being  traversed  in  all  directions  by 
lofty  peaks,  including  the  Mythen,  the 
Rigi,  the  Rossberg,  the  Drusberg,  etc. 
The  whole  canton  belongs  to  the  basin  of 
the  Rhine,  more  than  two-thirds  of  the 
surface  being  drained  by  the  Sihl  and  the 
Lake  of  Zurich;  a  third,  by  the  Lake  of 
Lucerne,  chiefly  by  means  of  the  Muota; 
and  the  remainder,  forming  only  an  un- 
important portion,  by  the  Lake  of  Zug. 
The  chief  industry  is  the  rearing  of  cat- 
tle, sheep,  and  swine.  The  canton  is  very 
poor  in  minerals.  Manufactures  are  al- 
most confined  to  some  cotton  and  silk 
spinning  and  weaving.  Schwyz  being  the 
most  important  of  the  cantons  which  first 
threw  off  the  yoke  of  Austria,  gave  the 
name  to  the  whole  confederation.  Its 
present  government  is  an  extreme  democ- 
racy, the  whole  power,  legislative  and 
executive,  being  lodged  in  the  male  pop- 
ulation of  legal  age,  who  hold  a  general 
assembly  every  two  years.  The  great 
body  of  the  inhabitants  are  Roman  Cath- 
olics. Pop.  (1920)  59,475.  Schwyz,  the 
capital,  is  a  straggling  and  picturesque 
town  at  tbe  foot  of  the  Mythen,  about 
1,680  feet  above  the  sea,  with  a  hand- 
some parish  church  and  an  interesting 
town  hall.     Pop.  about  8,000. 

SCIACCA,  a  seaport  of  Sicily;  on  a 
cliff  30  miles  N.  W.  of  Girgenti;  has  a 
fine  11th-century  cathedral,  the  ruined 
castles  of  the  Lunas  and  the  Perollos 
(between  whom  there  existed  a  terrible 
feud),  hot  sulphurous  and  saline  springs, 


SCIATICA 


289        SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT 


and  half-way  up  the  adjacent  mountain 
San  Calogero  caves  that  have  been  used 
as  steam  baths  since  Phoenician  times. 
Off  the  coast  very  productive  coral  banks 
were  discovered  in  1875-1880.  Agatho- 
cles,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  was  a  native. 
Pop.  about  25,000. 

SCIATICA,  acute  pain  produced  by 
neuralgia  following  the  course  of  the 
great  sciatic  nerve,  generally  in  only  one 
limb.  It  extends  from  the  sciatic  notch 
down  the  posterior  surface  of  the  thigh 
to  the  popliteal  space,  or  even  to  the  foot, 
and  arises  from  pressure  on  the  nerve  by 
intestinal  accumulations,  or  from  tumors, 
inflammation,  over-fatigue,  exposure  to 
cold  and  wet,  or  rheumatism.  There  are 
often  nocturnal  exacerbations  of  pains. 
It  is  most  common  from  50  to  60  years 
of  age,  and  may  continue  for  weeks  or 
months.  Electricity  has  been  success- 
fully employed. 

SCIDMORE,  ELIZA  RUHAMAH,  an 
American  writer,  born  at  Madison,  Wis., 
in  1856.  She  was  educated  privately  and 
for  many  years  served  as  foreign  secre- 
tary of  the  National  Geographic  Society. 
Her  writings  include  "Guide  to  Alaska 
and  the  Northwest  Coast"  (1890)  ;  "Java, 
the  Garden  of  the  East"  (1897) ;  "China, 
the  Long-Lived  Empire"  (1900)  ;  and 
"As  The  Hague  Ordains"  (1907). 

SCIENCE,  in  its  widest  significance 
the  correlation  of  all  knowledge.  To  know 
a  truth  in  its  relation  to  other  truths  is 
to  know  it  scientifically.  For  example, 
the  recognition  that  the  alternation  of 
day  and  night  depends  on  the  apparent 
daily  motion  of  the  sun  is  a  distinct  sci- 
entific achievement,  being  one  of  those 
elementary  scientific  truths  which  have 
been  the  possession  of  thinking  minds 
from  time  immemorial. 

The  end  of  science  is  the  rational  in- 
terpretation of  the  facts  of  existence  as 
disclosed  to  us  by  our  faculties  and 
senses. 

The  scientific  method  is  essentially  in- 
ductive, i.  e.,  from  particulars  to  gener- 
alities, and  is  to  be  contrasted  with  the 
method  of  philosophy  which  is  deductive, 
i.  e.,  from  general  truths  to  particular 
truths.  This  distinction  was  first  clearly 
indicated  by  Francis  Bacon  and  elabo- 
rated by  Descartes  and  Comte.  No  bet- 
ter instance  of  pure  and  extensive  and 
scientific  research  can  be  cited  than  that 
pursued  by  Darwin  in  his  biological  in- 
vestigations. 

Experiment  is  the  great  aid  to  sci- 
entific inquiry.  In  it  we  arbitrarily 
interfere  with  the  circumstances  of  a 
phenomenon,  or  produce  an  entirely  new 
phenomenon  by  an  appropriate  combina- 
tion of  causes.     Contrasted  with  experi- 


ment is  observation,  in  which  we  simply 
watch  and  record  the  events  as  they  *c- 
cur  in  nature.  But  even  in  astronomy, 
emphatically  an  observational  science, 
experiment  plays  an  important  part.  The 
dynamical  knowledge  which  Newton  de- 
veloped into  the  cosmic  law  of  gravita- 
tion was  founded  on  experiment;  and 
every  time  the  astronomer  points  his  tel- 
escope to  a  celestial  object  he  experi- 
ments by  arbitrarily  interfering  with  the 
course  of  the  rays  of  light.  Meteorology 
again,  which  20  years  ago  could  hardly 
be  called  a  science,  has  made  great  strides 
in  these  days  by  appealing  to  laboratory 
experiments  for  the  elucidation  of  its 
phenomena. 

Sciences  may  be  grouped,  or  science 
partitioned,  on  a  broad  and  intelligible 
principle.  There  are  the  physical  sci- 
ences, which  have  to  do  with  inorganic 
nature — i.  e.,  with  the  laws  and  proper- 
ties of  matter,  energy,  and  ether.  Then 
there  are  the  biological  sciences,  which 
consider  the  laws  of  life.  And  finally 
there  are  the  psychical  sciences,  which 
deal  with  the  phenomena  of  mind. 

Numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to 
give  a  detailed  classification  of  the  sci- 
ences, so  as  to  bring  out  the  natural  re- 
lation of  the  one  to  the  other.  One  of 
the  most  celebrated  is  the  classification 
due  to  Comte,  who  first  explicitly  drew 
the  distinction  between  abstract  and  con- 
crete sciences,  or  what  might  better  be 
termed  fundamental  and  derivative  sci- 
ences (see  Positivism).  From  the  pres- 
ent outlook  of  science  the  existences  of 
the  universe  are  five — namely,  ether, 
matter,  energy,  life,  and  mind.  The  first 
three  are  inseparable  agents  in  the  sim- 
plest phenomenon  that  occurs  in  nature. 
They  may  ultimately  be  reduced  to  two 
or  conceivably  to  one. 

SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  refers 
to  the  administration  of  industrial  and 
other  organizations  according  to  methods 
based  on  laws  deduced  from  facts  accumu- 
lated by  systematic  observation.  Its  aims 
are  many,  among  the  most  important 
being  the  elimination  of  wasted  effort, 
increased  output,  the  utilization  of  the 
special  qualifications  of  every  worker  with 
a  resultant  improvement  in  both  quality 
and  quantity  of  product  and  greater  con- 
tentment of  the  worker.  The  science  may 
be  said  to  be  still  in  its  infancy,  as  it  has 
received  serious  consideration  only  since 
the  latter  party  of  last  century. 

It  seeks  to  eliminate  unnecessary  ef- 
fort by  analyzing  the  movements  made  in 
performing  any  operation.  It  applies 
this  analysis  not  only  to  human  beings, 
but  also  to  machinery  or  groups  of  ma- 
chinery. By  examining  each  motion  sep- 
arately, and  then  in  its  relation  to  the 


SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT 


290 


SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT 


sequence  of  motions  which  result  in  the 
complete  operation,  it  discovers  those  mo- 
tions which  are  unnecessary  and  in  this 
way  is  able  to  build  up  a  system  of  oper- 
ation which  accomplishes  the  necessary 
work  with  the  smallest  loss  of  time  and 
effort. 

The  advocates  of  scientific  manage- 
ment are  strong  believers  in  specializa- 
tion. They  work  on  the  theory  that  every 
man  is  fitted  to  accomplish  one  particu- 
lar task  better  than  any  other;  that  be- 
cause he  can  do  it  better,  he  will  be  hap- 
pier in  doing  it;  and  that  because  he  is 
happy  in  his  work  it  will  be  done  with 
the  greatest  possible  efficiency  and  the 
ieast  amount  of  friction.  It  follows  from 
this  that  it  is  a  fundamental  of  scientific 
management  to  seek  out  the  special  quali- 
fications of  every  individual  worker,  and 
by  training,  teaching  and  encouragement 
to  foster  his  individuality.  The  critics 
of  the  science  protest  that  while  such  a 
system  may  be  theoretically  desirable,  it 
is  a  practical  impossibility.  It  is  stated, 
however,  that  wherever  it  has  been  tried 
by  those  who  have  made  a  real  study  of 
it  and  have  properly  understood  its  prin- 
ciples, it  has  never  been  given  up. 

As  a  necessary  part  of  the  develop- 
ment of  each  worker's  individuality,  more 
responsibility  is  placed  upon  him  than  is 
usual  under  the  older  system.  In  fact, 
Taylor,  one  of  the  leading  exponents  of 
the  science  of  management,  states  that 
there  should  be  an  almost  equal  division 
of  both  work  and  responsibility  between 
management  and  workman.  He  specifies, 
however,  that  this  responsibility  should 
be  clearly  defined — in  other  words,  that 
every  worker  should  know  and  under- 
stand the  exact  nature  of  the  task  he  is 
expected  to  perform  and  that  such  con- 
ditions should  exist  that  the  daily  work 
can  always  be  accomplished.  He  advo- 
cates high  pay  as  a  reward  for  success- 
ful work  with  accompanying  low  pay  in 
case  of  failure,  thereby  apparently  com- 
ing in  sharp  conflict  with  the  advocates 
of  a  uniform  wage.  He  considers  hearty 
co-operation  between  management  and 
men  a  necessity  for  the  successful  work- 
ing of  the  system. 

In  its  details  of  organization,  scientific 
management  differs  from  the  older  type, 
in  that  it  seeks  to  get  away  from  the  mil- 
itary idea  of  management,  which  has  a 
single  man  at  the  head  and  a  number  of 
subordinates  beneath  him  in  a  descend- 
ing order  of  power,  each  man  being  re- 
sponsible to  the  one  above  him  and  in 
command  of  all  those  below  him.  Just 
as  it  aims  to  develop  the  special  talents 
of  each  individual  worker,  so  it  makes 
use  of  the  special  qualifications  of  each 
individual  in  the  executive  staff,  and  di- 
vides the  responsibilitv  among  a   srroup 


of  specialists,  each  in  charge  of  a  depart- 
ment, and  each,  in  his  own  department, 
of  equal  authority  to  the  rest.  A  sharp 
division  is  first  made  between  planning 
and  performing.  Five  specialists  control 
each  division.  On  the  planning  side  there 
is  first  the  superintendent,  whose  task  is 
to  choose  and  advise  the  other  special- 
ists, and  to  see  that  the  right  man  is  in 
charge  of  each  department.  Then  comes 
the  Order  of  Work  and  Route  Man,  who 
organizes  the  order  in  which  work  is 
done,  and  the  route  through  the  factory 
which  an  article  follows  in  the  course  of 
manufacture.  Thirdly,  there  is  the  In- 
struction Card  man,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
see  that  each  workman  is  trained  in  his 
particular  job,  and  to  organize  educa- 
tional work  to  that  end.  Next  comes  the 
Time  and  Cost  Clerk,  who  keeps  records 
of  time  and  money  spent  on  each  manu- 
facturing process  and  so  assists  in  check- 
ing waste  and  promoting  efficiency.  Fi- 
nally, there  is  the  Disciplinarian,  who 
studies,  as  it  were,  the  psychological  side 
of  factory  life,  investigates  the  causes  of 
dissatisfaction  among  the  workers,  or 
of  jealousy  among  the  executives,  who 
smoothes  out  trouble  and  seeks  to  make 
the  work  run  evenly  and  without  friction. 
In  the  Performing  Department  there  is 
the  Gang  Boss  or,  as  some  prefer  to  call 
him,  the  Instructor.  In  co-operation  with 
the  Instruction  Card  man  he  trains  the 
workers  in  their  tasks,  brings  out  the  in- 
dividual talents  in  each  man  and  so  en- 
ables him  to  attain  his  highest  possible 
productive  efficiency.  Next  is  the  Speed 
Boss,  who  controls  the  machinery  of  pro- 
duction, and  takes  care  that  the  manu- 
facturing process  runs  at  the  speed  of 
maximum  efficiency.  Thirdly  comes  the 
Repair  Boss,  whose  duty  it  is  to  keep  the 
machines  in  working  order  so  that  there 
is  a  minimum  loss  of  time  due  to  break- 
downs. Next,  is  the  Inspector  of  Quality, 
who  passes  on  the  quality  of  the  goods 
produced,  and  finally  there  is  the  Individ- 
ual Workman. 

The  supporters  of  such  a  system  of  Sci- 
entific Management  claim  for  it  that  it 
increases  output,  decreases  cost  of  pro- 
duction, raises  wages,  eliminates  waste, 
and  leads  to  a  spirit  of  contentment  and 
co-operation  among  the  workers.  Its  op- 
ponents scoff  at  it  as  Utopian  and  un- 
workable. An  intermediate  opinion  would 
probably  be  nearest  the  truth.  As  stated 
in  the  early  part  of  this  article,  the  sci- 
ence is  still  more  or  less  in  the  experi- 
mental stage.  Many  of  the  details  have 
still  to  be  tried  out,  probably  some  un- 
necessary matter  will  be  eliminated,  and 
much  will  be  added.  It  will  be  found  that 
many,  if  not  most,  large  industries,  to- 
day, display  in  their  working  a  mixture 
of  both  the  older  and  the  newer  scheme 


SCILLY    ISLANDS 


291 


SCINTILLATION 


The  need  for  some  improvement  in  the 
old  rule-of-thumb  methods  is  generally 
recognized,  and  industry  undoubtedly 
owes  a  debt  to  those  who  have  studied 
the  subject  from  the  scientific  viewpoint. 
In  some  cases  it  has  been  quick  to  adopt 
and  profit  by  their  suggestions,  and  even 
in  the  most  conservative  factories,  it  will 
be  found  that  many  of  their  ideas  have 
permeated,  to  the  general  benefit. 

SCILLY  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  islands 
belonging  to  Cornwall,  England;  25  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Land's  End.  They  oc- 
cupy about  30  square  miles  of  sea  room, 
and  consist  of  six  large  islands — St. 
Mary's  (1,528  acres),  Tresco  (697  acres), 
St.  Martin's  (515  acres),  St.  Agnes  (313 
acres),  Bryher  (269  acres),  and  Samson 
(78  acres) — and  some  30  small  ones,  be- 
sides innumerable  rocks  and  ledges,  of 
which  about  100  are  named.  They  are 
composed  entirely  of  a  coarse  type  of 
granite,  a  continuation  of  that  running 
through  Devon  and  Cornwall.  The  name 
Scilly  belongs  strictly  to  a  small,  very 
inaccessible,  double,  rocky  island  in  the 
N.  W.  of  the  group. 

Athelstan  conquered  the  islands  in  938, 
and  established  monks  on  Tresco,  the 
ruins  of  whose  abbey  still  remain.  Olaf 
Trygvason  (995-1000),  who  forced  Chris- 
tianity on  Norway  and  introduced  it  into 
Iceland,  is  said  to  have  been  converted 
by  a  hermit  on  one  of  \.he  islands.  They 
were  handed  over  to  the  wealthy  abbey 
of  Tavistock  by  Henry  I.,  but  reverted  to 
the  crown  upon  the  dissolution  of  the 
monasteries  in  1539.  In  1568  Queen 
Elizabeth  leased  them  to  Sir  Francis  Go- 
dolphin,  who  built  the  Star  Castle  on  St. 
Mary's — over  the  doorway  stands  "E.  R., 
1593."  They  remained  in  his  family  for 
more  than  250  years — hence  the  hamlet 
of  "Dolphin"  town  on  Tresco.  They  shel- 
tered Prince  Charles  in  1645  before  he 
fled  to  Jersey,  and  Cromwell's  Tower  on 
Tresco  was  set  up  by  the  Parliamentary 
forces.  In  1831  they  were  leased  to  Au- 
gustus John  Smith,  a  radical  reformer 
though  somewhat  of  an  autocrat,  and  the 
best  friend  the  islands  have  ever  had.  He 
made  Tresco  his  home  for  38  years,  and 
his  tropical  gardens  there  are  unique  in 
northern  Europe.  He  built  churches  and 
schools,  suppressed  smuggling,  encour- 
aged agriculture. 

The  climate  is  mild,  but  necessarily 
damp,  and  the  weather  is  changeable  and 
frequently  stormy;  but  the  temperature 
is  extremely  equable,  averaging  58°  F.  in 
summer  and  45°  F.  in  winter.  The  lead- 
ing natural  features  of  the  scenery  are 
the  fantastically  weathered  rocks  and 
rock  basins  and  the  bol^  coast-lines. 
There  are  remains  of  cromlechs  and  stone 
circles;  and  a  perfect  kistvaen   (contain- 


ing human  bones  showing  traces  of  fire 
action)  was  opened  on  Samson  in  1862. 
Tresco  Abbey  and  its  gardens  are  con- 
sidered the  leading  objects  of  interest  for 
the  tourist.  There  has  been  a  lighthouse 
on  St.  Agnes  since  1680,  on  Bishop  Rock 
since  1858,  and  on  Rock  Island  since 
1887;  there  are  also  lights  on  the  Wolf, 
the  Seven  Stones  (floating),  and  the 
Longships  off  Land's  End.  Hugh  Town 
on  St.  Mary's,  the  only  town  on  the  is- 
lands, with  plain,  substantial  and  uninter- 
esting houses  (mostly  two-storied),  has  a 
church,  two  chapels,  two  hotels,  banks, 
shops,  schools,  telegraph,  and  Jubilee 
Hall. 

Wrecks  used  to  be  very  numerous  and 
were  a  fruitful  source  of  wealth.  One  of 
the  most  famous  was  that  of  three  ships 
of  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel's  fleet  in  1707, 
when  2,000  men,  including  the  admiral, 
were  drowned.  The  Scillonians  also  lived 
by  pilotage,  but  steam  and  more  light- 
houses now  help  vessels  to  avoid  the  is- 
lands. Smuggling  was  formerly  largely 
indulged  in.  In  the  early  years  of  the 
19th  century,  before  the  days  of  iron 
ships,  there  were  three  shipbuilding-yards 
on  St.  Mary's.  Kelp  making,  introduced 
in  1684,  has  been  given  up.  Farming  is 
practiced,  and  early  potatoes  and  broc- 
coli are  exported;  but  the  principal  in- 
dustry now  is  the  cultivation  of  narcissus 
and  other  lilies — 100  tons  of  flowers  be- 
ing shipped  in  a  single  spring.  Politi- 
cally the  islands  belong  to  the  St.  Ives 
division  of  Cornwall.     Pop.  about  21,000. 

SCINTILLATION,  a  twinkling  of  the 
stars;  a  familiar  phenomenon  to  all  who 
have  directed  their  attention  to  the  firma- 
ment above  us.  Under  ordinary  atmos- 
pheric conditions  this  flickering  is  pos- 
sessed only  by  the  so-called  fixed  stars. 
A  planet  shines  steadily  and  by  this  mark 
can  readily  be  picked  out.  When  near 
the  horizon,  however,  planets  have  been 
observed  to  scintillate  slightly;  while 
stars  at  low  altitudes  invariably  twinkle 
more  vigorously  than  stars  overhead. 
This  at  once  points  to  the  atmosphere 
as  an  important  factor,  since  the  phenom- 
enon is  more  pronounced  when  the  light 
has  to  traverse  a  greater  depth  of  air. 
Again,  when  viewed  through  sufficiently 
large  telescopes  stars  cease  twinkling  al- 
together. The  action  of  the  telescope  is 
to  concentrate  on  the  eye  a  much  larger 
pencil  of  rays  than  could  naturally  enter 
it.  Instead  of  one  slender  ray  the  eye 
receives  the  integral  effect  of  a  great 
number  of  rays,  whose  individual  features 
are  lost  in  the  general  average.  In  the 
case  of  a  planet,  again,  the  rays  which 
fall  on  the  retina  converge  from  all  parts 
of  a  disk  of  sensible  size;  and  in  the  in- 
tegral effect  of  this  pencil  the  individual 


SCIO 


292 


SCIPIO 


features  of  the  component  rays  are  lost. 
But  a  star  is  so  far  distant  as  to  be  vir- 
tually a  point  of  light.  In  this  case  we 
have  an  excessively  slender  ray  infinitely 
narrow  compared  even  to  the  small  pen- 
cil of  light  that  comes  to  us  from  a 
planet.  The  vicissitudes  of  refraction 
which  a  star  ray  experiences  in  passing 
through  the  infinitely  irregular  varia- 
tions of  density,  temperature,  and  humid- 
ity in  our  atmosphere  characterize  its 
integral  effect  on  our  retina,  and  the  re- 
sult is  twinkling.  It  is  possible  indeed 
by  separating  the  images  of  a  star  pro- 
duced in  the  two  eyes  to  observe  two  dif- 
ferent scintillations  at  one  and  the  same 
time.  Scintillation  may  thus  be  said  to 
depend  on  three  factors:  (1)  The  vast 
distance  even  of  the  nearest  stars  re- 
ducing the  largest  of  them  to  mere  points 
of  light.  (2)  The  ever-changing  varia- 
bleness in  condition  of  the  atmosphere 
through  which  the  light  must  come  to  us. 
(3)  The  smallness  of  aperture  of  our  eye, 
which  receives  an  almost  ideal  single  ray 
of  light. 

SCIO.    See  Chios. 

SCION,  a  bud,  or  buds  on  a  branch. 
A  stick  of  buds  ready  for  grafting  is 
called  a  scion. 

SCIOTO,  a  river  of  Ohio;  general 
course,  S.;  length  about  280  miles;  flows 
into  the  Ohio  river  by  a  mouth  150  yards 
wide  at  Portsmouth.  It  is  navigable  for 
boats  for  about  136  miles.  Its  valley  is 
one  of  the  richest  and  best  cultivated  por- 
tions of  the  State. 

SCIPIO,  2EMILIANTJS  AFEJCANUS 
(The  Younger),  Publius  Cornelius, 
conqueror  of  Carthage;  born  about  B.  c. 
185.  He  was  the  youngest  son  of  iEmil- 
ius  Paulus,  and  the  adopted  son  of  Pub- 
lius Scipio,  son  of  Africanus  the  elder. 
In  his  youth  he  had  the  advantage  of  the 
instructions  and  friendship  of  Polybius, 
who,  exiled  from  Greece,  was  permitted 
to  live  in  the  house  of  JEmilius  Paulus. 
He  was  an  industrious  student  of  litera- 
ture. He  began  his  military  service  in 
Spain  in  151;  gained  great  reputation 
soon  after  in  Africa,  in  the  third  Punic 
War;  and  in  147,  though  not  of  fit  age, 
was  chosen  consul.  The  next  year,  ac- 
companied by  Polybius  and  C.  Lselius,  he 
went  to  Africa,  and  at  once  commenced 
the  siege  of  Carthage,  which  was  heroi- 
cally defended.  It  was  entered  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  the  spring  of  146;  desperate 
fighting  took  place  from  street  to  street, 
and  a  disastrous  fire  raged  for  days. 
Scipio,  saddened  by  the  horrors,  forebod- 
ed a  like  fate  for  Rome.  By  order  of  the 
Senate  the  wall  and  houses  were  totally 
destroyed,  and  a  curse  pronounced 
against  whoever  should  rebuild  the  city. 


Scipio  had  a  magnificent  triumph  on  his 
return.  He  led  a  simple  and  frugal  life, 
and  during  his  censorship,  142-141,  tried 
to  effect  reforms  in  the  manner  of  his 
countrymen,  but  without  success.  In  134 
he  was  again  consul,  with  Spain  for  his 
province ;  and  his  great  achievement  there 


SCIPIO,  THE  YOUNGER 

was  the  siege  and  capture  of  Numantia, 
for  which  he  had  the  surname  Numanti- 
nus.  His  marriage  with  Sempronia,  sis- 
ter of  the  Gracchi,  was  not  a  happy  one. 
By  his  bold  resistance  to  the  proposed 
reforms  he  lost  the  favor  of  the  popular 
party;  and  at  last,  in  129,  he  was  found 
dead  in  his  bed.  Suspicion  of  murder  fell 
chiefly  on  Carbo,  a  rash  advocate  of 
Agrarian  reforms. 

SCIPIO,  AFRICANUS  (The  Elder), 
Publius  Cornelius,  one  of  the  greatest 
of  the  Romans,  born  b.  c.  234.  He  is  said 
to  have  saved  his  father's  life  at  the 
battle  of  the  Ticinus,  and  prevented  the 
desertion  of  the  young  nobles  after  the 
defeat  at  Cannae.  At  the  age  of  24  he 
was  chosen  to  command,  as  pro-consul, 
in  Spain,  where  he  laid  siege  to  the  city 
of  Carthago  Nova  and  took  it  the  same 
year.  His  humane  conduct  on  becoming 
master  of  the  city  excited  general  enthu- 
siasm. He  was  even  offered  the  sover- 
eignty of  Spain,  but  declined  to  be  more 
than  general  of  the  Roman  people.    Dur- 


SCIPIO 


293 


fCOPAS 


ing  the  next  three  years  Scipio  made  him- 
self master  of  all  Spain  except  the  town 
of  Gades.  In  order  to  prepare  the  way 
for  the  invasion  of  the  Carthaginian  ter- 
ritory he  made  a  secret  visit  to  the  court 
of  Syphax,  King  of  Numidia,  and  won 
his  alliance.  In  206  he  returned  to  Rome 
and  was  chosen  consul  for  the  next  year. 
Sicily  was  given  to  him  as  his  province, 
and  leading  an  army  of  volunteers,  he 
crossed,  in  204,  into  Africa,  and  began 
the  siege  of  Utica,  but  on  the  approach 
of  Hasdrubal  retired  into  winter  quar- 
ters. In  the  spring  he  burnt  the  camp  of 
the   enemy,   and   destroyed   the   fugitive 


SCIPIO,  THE  ELDER 

forces.  Syphax,  who  had  joined  Hasdru- 
bal, was  captured,  and  Cirta  surrendered 
to  the  conquerors.  Hannibal  was  called 
to  oppose  Scipio  in  Africa,  and  the  sec- 
ond Punic  War  was  terminated  by  the 
total  defeat  of  Hannibal  at  the  battle  of 
Zama,  Oct.  19,  202.  Peace  was  signed 
the  next  year,  and  Scipio,  on  his  return 
home,  had  the  most  splendid  triumph,  and 
received  the  surname  Africanus.  He  de- 
clined other  honors  which  were  offered 
him;  was  subsequently  censor,  consul  a 
second  time,  and  in  193  ambassador  to 
Antiochus,  King  of  Syria,  at  whose  court 
he  is  said  to  have  met  Hannibal.  Hav- 
ing accompanied  his  brother  Lucius  to  the 
Syrian  War  as  lieutenant  in  190,  they 
were  accused  of  misappropriation  of  mon- 
eys received  from  Antiochus.     Cato  was 


the  leader  of  the  party  opposed  to  Scipio, 
and  the  prosecution  of  Lucius  was  suc- 
cessful, but  that  of  Africanus  was 
dropped  by  the  advice  of  Tiberius  Grac- 
chus. The  popularity  of  Scipio  had 
waned,  and  he  left  Rome  never  to  return. 
He  died  at  his  villa,  in  Liternum,  183 
B.  c,  the  same  year  in  which  Hannibal 
died. 

SCIRPUS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
order  Cyperacess.  The  plants  of  this  ge- 
nus are  called  club  rushes,  and  the  com- 
mon bulrush  (S.  lacustris)  of  ponds  and 
sluggish  streams  is  a  familiar  example. 
The  rhizomes  of  S.  diibius  are  eaten  by 
the  natives  of  the  S.  of  India;  as  are  the 
tubers  of  S.  tuberosus  by  the  Chinese,  who 
cultivate  the  plant  in  tanks  and  ponds. 
The  species  of  this  genus,  about  300,  are 
universally  diffused,  though  found  chiefly 
in  temperate  climates.  They  date  from 
the  Lower  Miocene  period. 

SCOLLABD,  CLINTON,  an  American 
poet;  born  in  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  18, 
1860.  In  1888  he  was  made  assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Rhetoric  at  Hamilton  College, 
and  later  Professor  of  English  Litera- 
ture, resigning  in  1896  to  devote  himself 
to  literature.  Among  his  publications 
are:  "Pictures  in  Song"  (1884);  "With 
Reed  and  Lyre"  (1886)  :  "Old  and  New 
World  Lyrics"  (1888)  ;  "Giovio  and  Giu- 
lia"  (1891);  "Songs  of  Sunrise  Lands" 
(1892)  ;  an  edition  of  Ford's  "Broken 
Heart"  (1895) ;  "A  Christmas  Garland" 
(1897) ;  "A  Man  at  Arms"  (1898) ; 
"Lawton"  (1900)  ;  "Poems— Selected" 
(1914);  "Let  the  Flag  Wave"  (1917), 
etc. 

SCONE,  a  parish  in  Perthshire,  Scot- 
land, lying  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tay. 
It  is  famous  as  the  seat  of  one  of  the 
most  venerable  of  Scotch  abbeys.  Scone 
is  first  mentioned  in  the  beginning  of  the 
10th  century,  when  a  council  was  held 
there  in  the  sixth  year  of  the  reign  of 
King  Constantine,  when  it  was  styled  the 
"royal  city."  A  monastery  was  built  at 
Scone  probably  about  the  same  period, 
and  there  w?s  located  the  famous  stone 
on  which  the  kings  of  Scotland  were  in- 
augurated, and  which  was  carried  by 
Edward  I.  of  England  to  Westminster 
Abbey.  Alexander  III.,  the  last  of  the 
ancient  race  of  kings,  and  Robert  Bruce, 
the  founder  of  the  new  dynasty,  were 
crowned  at  Scone.  The  last  coronation 
which  was  celebrated  here  was  that  of 
Charles  II.,  in  1651. 

SCOPAS,  an  ancient  Greek  sculptor, 
founder,  along  with  Praxiteles,  of  the 
later  Attic  school;  a  native  of  the  island 
of  Paros,  and  flourished  during  the  first 


SCORBUTUS 


294 


SCOTCH    FIR 


half  of  the  4th  century  B.  C.  One  of  his 
earliest  works  was  the  temple  of  Athena 
Alea  at  Tegea  in  Arcadia,  on  the  site  of 
a  previous  one  burned  down  in  395  B.  c. 
Some  15  years  or  so  later  he  settled  in 
Athens,  where  for  more  than  a  quarter 
of  a  century  he  labored  at  his  profession. 
Toward  the  end  of  his  life  he  was  asso- 
ciated with  Leochares  and  others  in  pre- 
paring sculpture  for  the  great  mauso- 
leum of  Halicarnassus  in  Asia  Minor.  A 
large  composition,  representing  Achilles 
being  convoyed  to  Leucse  by  Poseidon, 
Thetis,  and  the  Nereids,  preserved  for 
some  time  in  the  temple  of  Neptune  at 
Rome,  was  accounted  one  of  his  master- 
pieces. He  excelled  also  in  statues  of  sin- 
gle gods  and  goddesses. 

SCORBUTUS.     See  Scurvy. 

SCORE,  in  music,  compositions  for 
several  voices  or  instruments,  or  for  an 
orchestra,  so  written  that  each  part  has 
a  separate  staff  for  itself,  these  staves 
being  placed  over  each  other,  bar  corre- 
sponding for  bar. 

SCORI-ffi,  the  cinders  and  slags  of 
volcanoes,  more  or  less  porous  from  the 
expansion  of  the  gases  contained  in  the 
melted  materials. 

SCORPIO,  in  astronomy,  the  eighth 
zodiacal  constellation.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  Ophiuchus  and  Serpens,  on  the 
S.  by  Lupus,  Norma,  and  Ara,  on  the  E. 
by  Sagittarius,  and  on  the  W.  by  Libra. 
It  is  a  small  but  very  brilliant  constella- 
tion, especially  when  seen  from  places  S. 
of  the  equator.  It  contains  Antares  or 
Cor  Scorpii  (Alpha  Scorpii),  of  the  first 
magnitude,  and  Iklil,  or  Beta  Scorpii,  of 
the  second  magnitude.  Also  the  eighth 
sign  of  the  zodiac,  which  the  sun  enters 
about  Oct.  23. 

SCORPION,  in  antiquity,  a  military 
engine,  formerly  used  chiefly  in  the  de- 
fense of  a  castle  or  town.  It  resembled 
the  balista. 

In  Scripture,  a  painful  scourge;  a 
kind  of  whip  armed  with  points  like  a 
scorpion's  tail. 

In  zoology,  any  individual  of  the  fam- 
ily Scorpionides.  The  European  species 
are  three  or  four  inches  long,  and  con- 
fined to  the  S.  parts  of  the  Continent,  but 
scorpions  have  a  wide  geographical  range 
in  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions,  and 
in  Equatorial  Africa  and  South  America 
they  grow  to  a  length  of  9  or  10  inches. 
The  sting  in  the  tropical  species  is  much 
more  formidable  than  that  of  the  Euro- 
pean scorpion.  They  are  nocturnal  in 
habit.  They  prey  on  spiders  and  other 
insects;  and,  seizing  their  prey  in  their 


palpi,  which  are  practically  useless  as 
weapons  of  offense,  sting  it  to  death.  The 
eggs  are  hatched  in  the  enlarged  oviducts, 


CAROLINA  SCORPION 

and  the  young,  usually  from  40  to  60, 
are  carried  about  for  some  time  on  the 
back  of  the  mother. 

SCOT,     REGINALD,     or     REYNOLD, 

one  of  the  first  and  boldest  writers 
against  the  belief  in  witchcraft,  alchemy, 
astrology,  and  other  prevalent  supersti- 
tions of  his  time,  born  in  Kent  early  in 
the  16th  century.  He  studied  at  Oxford, 
and  spent  his  life  in  the  study  of  old  and 
obscure  mystical  authors,  and  in  garden- 
ing. His  reputation  is  founded  on  "The 
Discoverie  of  Witchcraft,"  published  in 
1584.  By  order  of  James  I.  the  first  edi- 
tion of  the  book  was  burned  by  the  com- 
mon hangman,  and  the  king  replied  to  it 
in  his  "Demonology."    He  died  in  1599. 

SCOTCH  FIR,  the  Pinus  sylvestris,  a 
tree  sometimes  50  to  100  feet  in  height, 
and  12  feet  in  girth,  the  wood  constitut- 
ing the  red  or  yellow  deal,  and  its  resin, 
yielding  tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine.  It 
constitutes  vast  natural  forests  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  occurring  also  in 
the  N.  of  Europe,  and  on  the  mountains 
in  its  S.  part,  in  Siberia,  etc.  The  bark 
is  used  for  tanning. 


SCOTER 


295 


SCOTLAND 


SCOTER,  or  SURF  DUCK  (Oidemia), 
a  genus  of  sea  ducks.  The  most  familiar 
species  is  the  common  or  black  scoter  (O. 
nigra),  which  shows  a  deep  black  plum- 
age in  the  male,  the  bill  and  legs  being  of 
the  same  color.  The  upper  mandible  is 
marked  on  its  dorsal  surface  by  a  line  of 
orange  color.  The  females  are  colored 
of  a  dark  brown  hue.  It  occurs  in  the 
Arctic  regions  in  summer.  An  American 
species  of  coot  is  known  as  surf  duck. 

SCOTIA,  the  Latin  name  of  Scotland, 
often  used  by  xier  poets.  The  word  is 
said  to  be  derived  from  Queen  Scota,  the 
wife  of  a  King  of  Ireland,  who  is  thought 
to  have  invaded  Scotland  in  258  A.  D. 
Previous  to  this  event  the  land  was  known 
as  Caledonia  (q.  v.). 

SCOTLAND,  the  northern  division  of 
the  island  of  Great  Britain;  separated 
from  England  substantially  by  the  Sol- 
way,  Cheviots,  and  Tweed,  the  border 
isthmus  being  about  60  miles  across;  but 
the  irregular  boundary  line  measures  fully 
100  miles.  On  all  other  sides  it  is  bound- 
ed by  the  sea.  Area,  29,797  square  miles. 
The  greatest  length,  from  N.  N.  E.  to  S. 
S.  W.,  between  Dunnet  Head  and  the 
Mull  of  Galloway,  is  287  miles.  The 
breadth  varies  from  140  miles  to  less  than 
26,  the  latter  in  the  N.,  between  Dornoch 
Firth  and  Loch  Broom.  Few  points  in 
the  mainland  are  more  than  40  miles  from 
the  sea,  the  country  being  so  much  pene- 
trated by  inlets.  The  country  was  for- 
merly divided  into  a  number  of  districts, 
many  of  the  names  of  which  are  still 
familiar,  such  as  Lothian,  Tweeddale, 
Galloway,  Breadalbane,  etc.,  but  for  po- 
litical purposes  it  is  now  divided  into  33 
shires  or  counties.  The  population  in 
1911  was  4,760,904;  the  estimated  popu- 
lation in  1919  was  4,894,100. 

The  most  important  cities,  with  their 
estimated  population  in  1918,  are:  Glas- 
gow, 1,111,428;  Edinburgh,  333,883;  Dun- 
dee, 181,777;  and  Aberdeen,  166,564. 

Islands  and  Coasts. — The  islands  of 
Scotland  are  said  to  number  altogether 
nearly  800.  On  the  E.  coast  they  are  few 
and  small;  but  on  the  N.  E.  are  the  two 
large  groups  of  the  Orkneys  and  Shet- 
lands,  the  former  numbering  90  islands, 
28  permanently  inhabited;  the  latter  100 
islands,  29  inhabited;  while  on  the  W. 
coast  the  islands  are  large  and  numerous. 
Here  the  Hebrides  extend  for  200  miles 
from  N.  to  S.,  and  are  divided  into  the 
Inner  and  Outer  Hebrides,  the  former 
lying  close  to  the  W.  coast  of  the  main- 
land and  stretching  from  Skye  to  Islay; 
the  latter  parted  from  the  Inner  Hebrides 
by  the  straits  of  the  Minch  and  the  Little 
Minch,  comprise  the  long  chain  of  islands 
from  Lewis  to  Benbecula.  Inclosed  in 
the  Firth  of  Clyde  are  the  islands  of  Ar- 


ran,  Bute,  and  the  Cumbraes,  forming  a 
county  by  themselves.  The  W.  coast  of 
the  mainland  is  generally  a  wild,  deeply 
indented  mountain  wall,  presenting  a  se- 
ries of  inlets  or  sea  lochs,  while  toward 
the  middle  the  coast  is  cleft  by  two  great 
inlets  with  openings  to  the  S.  W.,  the 
Firth  of  Lorn  and  its  continuation  Loch 
Linnhe,  and  the  Firth  of  Clyde  and  its 
ramifications  running  far  inland.  The  E. 
coast  is  sometimes  low  and  sandy,  but  is 
often  formed  of  steep  rocky  cliffs  of  con- 
siderable elevation,  the  chief  inlets  being 
the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Tay,and  the  Mo- 
ray   Firth,    Cromarty    Firth,   etc. 

Surface. — Both  from  the  configuration 
of  the  surface  and  the  geological  struc- 
ture the  country  divides  into  three  divi- 
sions, the  Highlands,  Central  Lowlands, 
and  Southern  Uplands.  The  first  of  these 
divisions  lies  N.  of  a  line  stretching  in  a 
S.  W.  direction  from  the  coast  of  Kin- 
cardineshire to  the  Firth  of  Clyde;  the 
third  is  the  country  S.  of  a  line  drawn 
from  Dunbar  S.  W.  to  Girvan;  the  coun- 
try between  these  lines  forms  the  Central 
Lowlands.  The  Highland  division  is  re- 
markable for  the  number  and  elevation 
of  its  mountain  masses,  many  of  the 
summits  being  over  4,000  feet  high.  The 
mountains  best  known  by  name  are  the 
Grampians,  which  form  a  system  or  se- 
ries of  masses  covering  a  large  area,  and 
culminating  on  the  W.  coast  in  Ben  Ne- 
vis, 4,406  feet  high;  while  55  miles  to  the 
N.  E.  rises  a  remarkable  cluster  of  sum- 
mits reaching  in  Ben  Macdhui  the  height 
of  4,296  feet.  The  Grampians  and  their 
connections  are  separated  from  the  moun- 
tains farther  to  the  N.  by  Glenmore  or 
the  Great  Glen  of  Scotland,  a  remarkable 
depression  stretching  quite  across  the 
country  from  sea  to  sea,  and  forming,  by 
the  series  of  lakes  occupying  it  and  the 
Caledonian  canal  connecting  them,  a  wa- 
terway from  the  W.  coast  to  the  E.  The 
Southern  Uplands  are  also  essentially 
a  mountainous  region,  summits  of  over 
2,000  feet  being  frequent,  though  none 
exceed  3,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  cen- 
tral region,  though  much  less  elevated 
than  the  other  two  divisions,  has  none  of 
the  monotony  usual  in  flat  countries. 
Though  occupying  not  more  than  a  sixth 
of  the  whole  surface,  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  and  its  mineral  treasures  make  this 
part  by  far  the  wealthiest  and  most  pop- 
ulous. The  present  form  of  the  land  sur- 
faces of  Scotland  is  the  effect  of  erosion 
or  denudation.  The  country  was  at  one 
time  an  elevated  table-land,  the  upper 
surface  of  which  is  indicated  by  the  sum- 
mits of  the  mountain  masses,  but  has 
been  deeply  trenched  and  furrowed  in  all 
directions  by  the  erosive  action  of  water, 
ice,  and  frost.  The  slope  of  the  ancient 
plateau  may  be  determined  by  the  direc- 


SCOTLAND 


296 


SCOTLAND 


tion  of  the  principal  rivers;  in  the  N. 
part  it  is  chiefly  toward  the  E.,  in  the 
S.  more  equally  E.  and  W. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  chief  rivers 
flow  (roughly  speaking)  to  the  E.,  and 
enter  the  German  ocean,  the  largest  be- 
ing the  Tweed,  Forth,  Tay,  South  Esk, 
North  Esk,  Dee,  Don,  Deveron,  Spey,  and 
Findhorn;  those  entering  the  sea  on  the 
W.  are  the  Clyde,  Ayr,  Doon,  Dee,  Nith, 
Annan,  and  Esk.  The  Tay  carries  to  the 
sea  a  larger  quantity  of  water  than  any 
river  in  Great  Britain,  but  neither  it  nor 
most  of  the  others,  except  when  they 
form  estuaries,  are  of  much  use  for  navi- 
gation. The  Clyde,  however,  in  its  lower 
course  carries  a  vast  traffic,  this  being 
rendered  possible  chiefly  by  dredging. 
Many  of  the  rivers  are  valuable  from  the 
numbers  of  salmon  they  produce.  A 
striking  feature  of  the  country  is  the 
great  multitude  of  lakes,  varying  in  size 
from  Loch  Lomond  (28  square  miles)  to 
the  pool-like  mountain  tarns.  In  the 
Northern  Highlands  almost  every  glen 
has  its  lake  and  every  mountain  hollow 
is  filled  by  a  stream  or  spring.  Among 
the  more  noted  are  Lochs  Lomond,  Ka- 
trine, Tay,  Earn,  Rannoch,  Awe,  Shiel, 
Laggan,  Lochy,  Ness,  Maree,  Shin,  in  the 
Western  and  Northern  Highlands;  and 
St.  Mary's  Loch,  Lochs  Ken,  Dee,  and 
Doon  in  the  Southern  Uplands. 

Geology. — As  regards  geology  the  older 
or  palaeozoic  rocks  predominate  almost 
everywhere  in  Scotland.  The  Highlands 
are  composed  almost  entirely  of  crystal- 
line schists,  gneiss,  and  quartzites;  the 
Central  Lowlands  of  odd  red  standstone, 
carboniferous,  and  Permian  strata;  the 
Southern  Uplands  mostly  of  rocks  of  Si- 
lurian age.  In  certain  localities  remains 
of  secondary  formations  are  represented 
over  small  spaces,  while  volcanic  rocks 
cover  considerable  areas.  Granite  exists 
in  great  masses  in  many  localities,  and 
in  some  parts  is  extensively  quarried. 
The  most  valuable  mineral  region  is  the 
Central  Lowlands,  where  coal  and  iron 
exist  in  such  quantity  as  to  make  this  one 
of  the  most  important  mineral  fields  of 
Great  Britain. 

For  agriculture,  manufactures  and 
commerce,  see  Great  Britain. 

Political  Constitution. — The  Parliament 
of  Scotland  anciently  comprised  all  who 
held  any  portion  of  land,  however  small, 
from  the  crown  by  tenure  of  military 
service,  till  the  reign  of  James  VI.,  when 
the  small  barons  or  freeholders  were  ex- 
cused from  attendance  in  person,  "two 
or  more  wise  men"  being  deputed  from 
each  county  in  proportion  to  its  size.  Its 
powers  were  nominally  extensive,  but  the 
supreme  power  was  virtually  in  the  king, 
who  by  his  influence  often  entirely  con- 
trolled its  proceedings.     The  Parliament 


in  the  whole  consisted  of  three  estates — ■ 
the  nobility,  the  dignified  clergy  (consist- 
ing of  bishops,  abbots,  and  priors),  and 
the  lesser  barons,  or  representatives  of 
shires  and  burgs.  When  PresbyteriaN- 
ISM  (q.  v.)  was  formally  ratified  by  law 
after  the  revolution  of  1688,  the  ecclesi- 
astical estate  ceased  to  have  a  place  in 
Parliament.  Every  measure  brought  be- 
fore Parliament  was  previously  prepared 
by  a  committee,  styled  the  lords  of  the 
articles,  chosen  from  each  of  the  three  or- 
ders, but  in  effect  little  better  than  royal 
nominees.  Before  the  Union  there  were 
four  great  officers  of  state — the  lord  high- 
chancellor,  the  high-treasurer,  the  lord 
privy-seal,  and  the  secretary;  and  there 
were  also  four  lesser  officers — the  lord 
clerk-register,  the  lord-advocate,  the 
treasurer-depute,  and  the  justice  clerk. 
Previously  to  the  era  of  the  Revolution 
the  privy  council  of  Scotland  assumed 
inquisitorial  powers,  and  even  torture 
was  administered  under  the  sanction  of 
its  authority;  but  it  is  now  entirely 
merged  in  the  privy  council  of  Great 
Britain.  The  number  of  peers  in  the 
Scotch  Parliament  was  formerly  160,  and 
of  commons  155,  and  all  sat  in  one  house 
and  voted  promiscuously.  At  the  union 
of  the  kingdoms  the  political  system  of 
Scotland  was  almost  entirely  incorpo- 
rated with  that  of  England.  (See  Great 
Britain,  Government.) 

The  Court  of  Sessions  is  the  supreme 
civil  court  of  Scotland.  The  Court  of 
Justiciary,  or  criminal  court,  composed 
only  of  judges  of  the  Court  of  Session,  is 
supreme  in  the  highest  sense,  since  its 
decisions  in  criminal  cases  are  not  sub- 
ject to  any  review.  The  principal  sub- 
ordinate judicatories  are  sheriff  courts, 
established  in  each  county  or  stewartry. 
Sheriff-substitutes,  or  judges  ordinary, 
one  or  more  holding  separate  courts  in 
different  districts,  decide  in  the  first  in- 
stance, subject  to  the  review  of  the  prin- 
cipal sheriff  or  sheriff  depute,  whose  de- 
cisions, though  final  within  the  limits  of 
his  jurisdiction,  are  reviewable  by  the 
Court  of  Session,  with  the  exception  of 
classes  of  cases  provided  for  by  special 
statutes.  Besides  the  sheriff  court,  each 
county  or  district  of  a  county  has  its  jus- 
tice of  peace  courts,  in  which  judges,  not 
stipendiary,  decide  on  principles  of  equity 
in  minor  crimes;  and  in  every  town  of 
any  importance  are  bailie,  dean  of  guild, 
and  police  courts,  with  limited  jurisdic- 
tions. 

Education. — Scotland  has  had  the  ad- 
vantage of  a  national  system  of  elemen- 
tary education  for  over  two  centuries,  a 
school  having  been  established  in  every 
parish  by  a  law  of  1697,  according  to  a 
system  proposed  by  John  Knox  long  be- 
fore.    This   scheme  did  effective  service 


SCOTLAND 


297 


SCOTLAND 


for  the  education  of  the  people,  till  the 
great  increase  of  population,  especially  in 
towns,  rendered  it  unequal  to  the  task 
laid  on  it,  and  this  notwithstanding  the 
erection  of  many  schools  by  various  re- 
ligious denominations.  By  the  passing 
of  the  Education  Act  of  1872  board 
schools  have  superseded  the  old  parish 
schools,  there  being  also  numerous  gram- 
mar or  high  schools  and  academies  in 
every  town  of  any  size,  though  no  sys- 
tematic scheme  of  secondary  education. 
Other  institutions  are  the  normal  or 
training  schools  and  colleges  of  the  dif- 
ferent religious  bodies,  and  the  four  uni- 
versities of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aber- 
deen, and  St.  Andrews.  The  first  uni- 
versity was  that  of  St.  Andrews,  dating 
from  1451;  next  came  that  of  Glasgow 
(1450),  then  King's  College  and  Univer- 
sity Aberdeen  (1494),  then  Edinburgh 
University  (1582),  lastly  Marischal  Col- 
lege and  University  Aberdeen  (1593). 
The  two  Aberdeen  universities  were 
united  in  1860. 

History. — Scotland  was  first  visited  by 
the  Roman  troops  under  Agricola,  who 
penetrated  to  the  foot  of  the  Grampian 
mountains.  It  was  afterward  exposed 
to  the  ravages  of  the  Norwegians  and 
Danes,  with  whom  many  bloody  battles 
were  fought.  Various  contests  were  also 
maintained  with  the  Kings  of  England. 
Robert  Bruce,  however,  secured  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  country  and  his  title  to 
the  throne  by  the  decisive  battle  of  Ban- 
nockburn  in  1314.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  nephew,  Robert  Stewart,  and  he  by 
his  eldest  son,  Robert.  He  being  a  weak 
prince,  the  reins  of  government  were 
seized  by  the  Duke  of  Albany,  who  stoned 
to  death  the  eldest  son  of  the  king. 
James,  his  second  son,  to  escape  a  simi- 
lar fate,  fled  to  France;  in  the  year  1424 
he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  having  ex- 
cited the  jealousy  of  the  nobility,  he  was 
assassinated  in  a  monastery  near  Perth. 
James  II.,  his  son,  an  infant  prince,  suc- 
ceeded him  in  1437.  He  was  killed  by 
the  bursting  of  a  cannon  at  the  siege  of 
the  castle  of  Roxburgh.  James  III.  as- 
cended the  throne  at  the  age  of  seven 
years.  His  reign  was  weak  and  inglori- 
ous, and  he  was  murdered  in  the  house 
of  a  miller,  whither  he  had  fled  for  pro- 
tection. James  IV.,  a  generous  and  brave 
prince,  began  his  reign  in  1488.  He  was 
slain  at  the  battle  of  Flodden.  James  V., 
an  infant  of  less  than  two  years  of  age, 
succeeded  to  the  crown.  He  died  in  1542, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  daughter,  the 
celebrated  Queen  Mary,  whose  history 
and  tragical  end  are  well  known.  She 
was  succeeded  by  her  son  James,  who,  in 
1603,  ascended  the  throne  of  England, 
vacant  by  the  death  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
when  the  two  kingdoms  were  united  into 


one  great  monarchy  which  was  legisla- 
tively united  in  1707.  In  1715  and  1745, 
unsuccessful  attempts  were  made  for  the 
restoration  of  the  exiled  Stuarts. 

SCOTLAND,  CHURCH  OF,  the  origi- 
nal Scotch  Church  seems  to  have  been 
that  of  the  Culdees,  then  in  mediaeval 
times  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was, 
to  a  certain  extent,  the  national  church 
in  Scotland,  not  merely  as  having  within 
its  pale  at  least  by  profession  all  the  peo- 
ple, but  as  maintaining  its  independence 
of  its  powerful  S.  neighbor.  The  church 
resisted  the  claims  of  supremacy  over  it 
put  forth  at  one  time  by  the  Archbishop 
of  York,  at  another  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury;  and  in  1176  in  self-defense 
cast  itself  into  the  arms  of  the  Roman 
pontiff.  When  the  Reformation  struggle 
began,  the  crown  remained  adherent  to 
the  old  faith,  while  the  nobility  tended  to 
adopt  the  new.  From  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence Scotland  had  considered  it  good 
policy  to  guard  against  any  aggression 
on  the  part  of  England  by  a  close  alli- 
ance with  France,  and  when  the  Refor- 
mation began  there  were  actually  French 
troops  in  Scotland.  On  these  the  crown 
rested  to  resist  the  religious  movement 
which  had  been  begun,  but  the  Protestant 
"Lords  of  the  Congregation,"  who  had 
taken  up  arms  to  defend  their  cause,  ap- 
plied for  aid  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  who 
sent  troops  to  aid  them  in  expelling  the 
French.  By  a  treaty  signed  on  July  7, 
1560,  it  was  stipulated  that  both  the 
French  and  the  English  troops  should 
withdraw  from  Scotland.  On  Aug.  24 
of  the  same  year  the  Scotch  Parliament 
abolished  the  papal  jurisdiction,  prohib- 
ited the  celebration  of  the  mass,  and  re- 
scinded all  the  laws  made  in  favor  of 
Roman  Catholicism.  The  reformers  adopt- 
ed what  is  now  called  Presbyterian 
Church  (q.  v.)  government,  though  cer- 
tain superintendents  were  appointed, 
with  the  sanction  of  John  Knox,  the  great 
Scotch  reformer,  whose  offices  after  a 
time  were  swept  away.  The  first  General 
Assembly  was  held  on  Dec.  20,  1560. 
When  the  victory  over  the  Church  of 
Rome  was  complete,  the  alliance  between 
the  nobility  and  the  Protestant  preachers 
which  had  effected  the  triumph  showed 
symptoms  of  dissolving,  and  a  large  sec- 
tion of  the  former  viewed  with  distrust, 
and  even  active  hostility,  what  they  re- 
garded as  the  too  democratic  measures 
which  Knox  aimed  at  carrying  out.  But 
one  inestimable  boon  was  gained  before 
they  parted,  the  universal  establishment 
of  parish  schools. 

The  semi-republican  constitution  of  the 
Church,  which  became  more  marked  after 
the  office  of  superintendent  had  been 
swept  away,  and  the  second  book  of  dis* 


SCOTS 


298 


SCOTT 


cipline  published  (the  latter  event  in 
1578),  created  jealousy  in  the  minds  of 
regents  and  of  sovereigns,  and  four  or 
five  generations  of  Stuart  kings  put  forth 
long  and  determined  efforts  to  transform 
Presbyterian  into  Episcopal  government. 
The  project  cost  the  lives  and  liberties  of 
far  more  people  than  the  short,  sharp 
Reformation  struggle  had  done,  and 
ended  at  last  in  failure.  The  Revolution 
settlement  of  1690,  re-established  Presby- 
terianism,  and  the  General  Assembly, 
which  had  been  interrupted  for  nearly  40 
years,  began  again  to  sit  and  has  done  so 
annually  from  that  time  till  now.  Prior 
to  the  union  with  England  in  1707,  an 
Act  of  Security  was  passed,  designed  to 
preserve  the  Scotch  national  Church  from 
being  overthrown  by  S.  votes. 

In  1712  an  Act  of  Parliament  reintro- 
duced patronage  which  had  been  swept 
away.  The  operation  of  this  enactment 
was  one  main  cause  of  these  secessions; 
that  of  the  Secession,  pre-eminently  so- 
called,  in  1733;  the  Relief  in  1752;  and, 
the  greatest  of  all,  that  which  created 
the  Free  Church  in  1843. 

The  Church  of  Scotland  leads  the  Pres- 
byterian denomination  with  a  member- 
ship of  over  700,000.  It  has  missions  in 
India,  Africa,  and  elsewhere.  In  1784 
the  Patronage  Act  of  1712  was  repealed, 
and  each  congregation  now  elects  its  own 
pastor.  Its  chief  rivals,  the  United  Pres- 
byterian and  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land, were  amalgamated  as  the  United 
Free  Church  of  Scotland.  A  small  num- 
ber of  the  old  Free  Church  members  de- 
clined to  join  the  union  and  remain  an 
independent  body.  The  United  Free 
Church  membership  (1919)  was  522,028. 

SCOTS.     See  Picts. 

SCOTT,  EMMETT  JAY,  an  American 
negro  educator,  born  at  Houston,  Tex., 
in  1873.  He  was  educated  at  Wiley  Uni- 
versity, Marshall,  Tex.  After  engaging 
in  newspaper  work  for  several  years,  he 
became  the  secretary  of  Booker  T.  Wash- 
ington, and  from  1912  to  1919  was  secre- 
tary of  the  Tuskegee  institute.  From 
1919  he  was  secretary  and  treasurer  of 
Howard  University.  During  the  World 
War  he  served  as  special  treasurer  of 
secretary  of  War  to  advise  on  matters 
affecting  negro  soldiers.  He  wrote  "Book- 
er T.  Washington,  Builder  of  a  Civiliza- 
tion" (1916)  ;  "The  American  Negro  in 
the  World  War"  (1919).  He  also  con- 
tributed many  articles  to  newspapers  and 
magazines  on  the  negro  question. 

SCOTT,  HUGH  LENOX,  an  American 
military  officer;  born  in  Danville,  Ky., 
Sept.  22,  1853;  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1876, 
and  detailed  to  duty  in  the  West,  where 


he  served  in  numerous  Indian  campaigns 
till  1897,  receiving  honorable  mention 
from  the  War  Department  for  his  gal- 
lantry in  the  "Ghost-dance"  outbreak  in 
1891.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Spanish- 
American  War  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  1st  Army  Corps;  was  appointed 
adjutant-general  of  the  Department  of 
Havana  in  1898,  and  of  the  Department 
of  Cuba  in  1900. 

His  other  assignments  included:  Act- 
ing-Governor of  Cuba,  1900-1902;  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Philippines,  1903-1906;  Su- 
perintendent United  States  Military 
Academy,  1906-1910;  Lieutenant-Colonel 
and  Colonel  of  Cavalry,  1911;  Comman- 
der United  States  troops  on  southern  bor- 
der of  Texas  to  California,  1913-1914; 
assistant  Chief -of-Staff,  1914;  settler  of 
trouble  on  Mexican  border  at  Naco,  Ariz., 
June,  1915;  appointed  Major-General, 
1915;  service  in  Mexico,  1917;  Comman- 
der 78th  Division  of  National  Army,  Camp 
Dix,  1917.  Was  active  at  Arras,  Chalons, 
Passchendael  Ridsre,  1917;  awarded  hon- 
orary degrees  by  Princeton  and  Co- 
lumbia. Besides  a  monograph  "Sign 
Language  of  the  Plains  Indians,"  he 
published  numerous  papers. 

SCOTT,  HUGH  STOWELL,  an  Eng- 
lish novelist,  writing  under  the  pen-nam« 
of  Henry  Seton  Merriman.  He  was  born 
at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1862.  His 
stories  of  adventure  were  widely  read. 
They  include  "Phantom  Future"  (1889)  ; 
"Slave  of  the  Lamp"  (1892)  ;  "With 
Edged  Tools"  (1894)  ;  "Velvet  Glove" 
(1901)  ;  "The  Vultures"  (1902).  He  died 
in  1903. 

SCOTT,  JAMES  BROWN,  an  Ameri- 
can educator  and  lawyer,  born  in  Kincar- 
dine, Ontario,  in  1866.  He  graduated 
from  Harvard  in  1890.  Winning  the  Par- 
ker fellowship  of  that  university,  he 
traveled  in  Europe  and  studied  at  the 
universities  of  Berlin,  Heidelberg,  and 
Paris.  From  1894  to  1899  he  practiced 
law  in  Los  Angeles.  He  founded  and  for 
three  years  was  dean  of  the  law  school 
of  the  University  of  Southern  California. 
From  1899  to  1903  he  was  dean  of  the 
college  of  law  at  the  University  of  Illi- 
nois, and  for  the  three  years  following 
was  professor  of  law  at  Columbia.  From 
1905  to  1906  he  was  professor  of  law  at 
George  Washington  University,  and  from 
the  latter  year  was  professor  of  interna- 
tional law.  From  1906  to  1911  he  served 
as  solicitor  of  the  State  Department  and 
was  counsel  for  the  United  States  on 
many  important  litigations,  including  the 
North  Atlantic  Fisheries  Arbitration  be- 
fore The  Hague.  In  1909  he  became 
lecturer  on  international  law  at  Johns 
Hopkins  University.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  Carnegie  Endowment  for 


SCOTT 


299 


SCOTT 


International  Peace,  was  president  of  the 
American  Institute  of  International  Law, 
and  was  a  delegate  to  many  scientific  and 
political  conferences.  During  the  Span- 
ish-American War  he  served  in  the  7th 
California  Infantry.  He  edited  many 
volumes  dealing  with  international  law, 
and  was  the  author  of  "The  Hague  Peace 
Conferences  of  1899  and  1907"  (1909)  ; 
"An  International  Court  of  Justice" 
(1916)  ;  "Survey  of  International  Rela- 
tions Between  the  United  States  and 
Germany"  (1918). 

SCOTT,  LEROY,  an  American  writer, 
born  at  Fairmount,  Ind.,  in  1875.  He 
graduated  from  the  University  of  Indi- 
ana in  1897  and  until  1900  engaged  in 
newspaper  work.  In  1902-3  he  was  as- 
sistant headworker  of  the  University  set- 
tlement of  New  York.  From  1904  he 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  writing.  His 
books  include  "The  Walking  Delegate" 
(1905) ;  "The  Shears  of  Destiny"  (1910) ; 
"No.  13  Washington  Square"  (1914)  ; 
"Mary  Regan'"  (1918)  ;  and  "A  Daugh- 
ter of  Two  Worlds"   (1919). 

SCOTT,  or  SCOT,  MICHAEL,  a  Scotch 
philosopher  of  the  13th  century.  Of  his 
life  little  is  known.  His  nationality  even 
is  in  doubt:  the  Italians  and  the  Span- 
iards as  well  as  the  Scotch  claimed  him 
as  their  countryman.  His  great  learning 
won  for  him  the  reputation  of  being  a 
magician.  His  writings  treat  of  astrol- 
ogy, alchemy,  and  the  occult  sciences  in 
general;  among  them  are  treatises  "On 
the  Sun  and  Moon,"  "On  Palmistry,"  "On 
Physiognomy  and  Human  Procreati.on." 
According  to  traditions  he  died  in  1230 
and  was  buried  in  Melrose  Abbey. 

SCOTT,  ROEERT  FALCON,  an  Eng- 
lish Antarctic  explorer  and  naval  officer, 
born  in  Devonport,  in  1868.  He  joined 
the  navy,  where  he  became  torpedo  lieu- 
tenant. In  1901  he  was  given  command 
of  the  Royal  Geographical  Antarctic  ex- 
ploration, in  which,  with  a  base  on  Mc- 
Murdo  sound,  he  made  expeditions  which 
resulted  in  important  discoveries,  includ- 
ing King  Edward  VII  Land  and  Victoria 
Land.  On  his  return  he  was  promoted  to 
be  captain  and  received  degrees  from 
Cambridge  and  Manchester  universities. 
He  was  also  awarded  gold  medals  by  sev- 
eral geographical  societies.  In  1910  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  British 
National  expedition,  which  also  operated 
from  McMurdo  sound.  Its  chief  object 
was  to  reach  the  South  Pole,  and  this  was 
accomplished  after  a  continuous  sledge 
journey  of  1,842  miles.  The  pole  was 
reached  on  January  18,  1912.  It  had, 
however,  already  been  reached  by  Amund- 
sen, five  weeks  before.  On  the  return 
journey,  the  entire  party  perished.    Scott 


himself  died  from  starvation  and  expo- 
sure on  Mar.  29,  1912,  within  155  miles  of 
the  home  station.    In  1915  a  bronze  statue 


CAPTAIN  ROBERT  FALCON  SCOTT 

of  Captain  Scott  was  unveiled  in  Water- 
loo Place,  London.  He  wrote  "Voyage  of 
the  Discovery"  (1905).  "Scott's  Last 
Expedition"  was  published  after  his 
death,  in  1913. 

SCOTT,   THOMAS   ALEXANDER,  an 

American  railroad  manager ;  born  in  Lou- 
don, Pa.,  Dec.  28,  1824;  became  connected 
with  the  Pennsylvania  railroad  in  1850; 
was  made  its  general  superintendent  in 
1858,  and  its  vice-president  in-  the  fol- 
lowing year.  When  the  Civil  War  broke 
out  he  was  placed  on  the  staff  of  Gov. 
Andrew  G.  Curtin  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
had  charge  of  the  sending  of  volunteers 
to  the  front.  In  April,  1861,  the  Secre- 
tary of  War  requested  him  to  build  a 
railroad  branch  from  Philadelphia  to 
Washington,  which  he  did  in  a  surpris- 
ingly short  time;  in  May,  1861,  he  was 
commissioned  a  colonel  of  volunteers  and 
placed  in  command  of  all  government  tel- 
egraphs and  railroads.  On  Aug.  1  of  the 
same  year  he  was  appointed  assistant 
Secretary  of  War.  He  resigned  this  post 
in  June,  1862,  to  give  his  time  wholly  to 
railroad  management;  but  re-entered  the 
service  of  the  government  in  September, 
1863,  and  directed  the  movement  of  two 
army  corps  to  Chattanooga  to  relieve 
Gen.  William  S.  Rosecrans.  He  was  pres- 
ident of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Com- 
pany in  1874-1880.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  forced  to  resign  by  ill  health.  He 
died  in  Darby,  Pa.,  May  21,  1881. 


SCOTT 


300 


SCOTT 


SCOTT,  SIR  WALTER,  a  British 
author.  He  was  born  in  Edinburgh  on 
August  15,  1771,  the  son  of  Walter  Scott, 
writer  of  the  Signet,  and  Anne  Ruther- 
ford, daughter  of  a  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  His  family  be- 
longed to  the  border  country  between 
England  and  Scotland,  and  numbered 
among  its  members  many  adventurers 
and  heroes  such  as  figure  in  the  writings 
of  their  illustrious  descendant.  Losing 
the  use  of  his  right  leg  while  an  infant, 
he  was  sent  to  his  grandfather's  farm, 
where  he  recovered  his  general  health 
though  he  remained  lame  for  life.  Here 
he  learned  from  his  grandmother  the 
songs  and  legends  of  the  countryside,  and 
began  to  store  his  memory  with  the  folk- 
lore that  served  him  so  well  when  he  be- 
gan to  write.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Edinburgh  High  School  and  the  Univer- 
sity, but  did  not  graduate.  Before  he 
was  fifteen  he  became  apprentice  to  his 
father,  and  in  1792  he  was  called  to  the 
bar.  His  practice  grew  slowly,  and  he 
used  his  leisure  for  society,  in  which  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  gift  of  story- 
telling, for  excursions  in  which  he  got  to 
know  thoroughly  many  parts  of  Scotland 
and  their  local  legends,  and  for  wide  read- 
ing in  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Gei-- 
man  as  well  as  English.  In  1797,  he 
married  Charlotte  Mary,  daughter  of 
Jean  Charpentier,  a  French  refugee. 

By  this  time  he  had  begun  to  turn  to 
literature  and  was  translating  German 
ballads.  Publication  began  with  versions 
of  "Burger's  Lenore"  and  "The  Wild 
Huntsman"  (1796),  which  were  followed 
in  1799  by  a  translation  of  Goethe's 
"Goetz  von  Berlichingen."  Meantime  he 
had  developed  a  military  enthusiasm  and 
had  organized  a  volunteer  regiment  and 
a  body  of  cavalry;  and  through  the 
friends  made  in  this  connection  he  was 
appointed  sheriff-substitute  of  Selkirk- 
shire. This  increased  his  income,  and  at 
the  same  time  gave  him  opportunity  for 
touring  his  favorite  district.  In  1802  he 
began  the  publication  of  "The  Minstrelsy 
of  the  Scottish  Border,"  in  which  he  gave 
the  public  the  benefit  of  years  of  ballad- 
collectine,  and  in  which  he  included  some 
imitations  by  himself  and  his  friends. 
This  work  led  to  the  composition  of  his 
first  long  poem,  "The  Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel"  (1805),  the  success  of  which 
definitely  decided  him  to  adopt  a  literary 
career.  He  retained  his  office,  however, 
and  went  to  live  at  Ashestiel  on  the 
Tweed,  near  Selkirk.  In  1805  he  became 
a  partner  of  his  printer  Ballantyne,  and 
got  interested  in  publishing  speculations, 
among  which  was  his  own  edition  of  Dry- 
den's  complete  works.  He  also  took  an 
active  interest  in  politics  as  a  warm  Tory 
partisan.     "Marmion"  was   published  in 


1808  and  repeated  the  success  of  the 
"Lay,"  and  the  next  year  he  joined  the 
staff  of  the  new  "Quarterly  Review." 
"The  Lady  of  the  Lake"  followed  in  1810, 
and  sold  20,000  copies.  In  1812  he  bought 
the  estate  and  began  building  the  man- 
sion of  Abbotsf  ord  on  the  Tweed,  and  con- 
tinued his  poetical  work  with  "Rokeby" 
(1812)  and  "The  Bridal  of  Triermain" 
(1813).  These  poems  had  less  success 
than  their  predecessors.  They  were  less 
animated,  his  style  had  lost  its  novelty, 
and  Byron's  romantic  tales  were  begin- 
ning to  rival  Scott's.  He  published  later 
"The  Lord  of  the  Isles"  (1815)  and  "Har- 
old the  Dauntless"  (1817),  but  their  com- 
parative lack  of  success  was  more  than 
redeemed  by  a  new  triumph.  In  1814 
he  took  up  and  completed  a  manuscript 
novel,  "Waverley,"  begun  long  before  and 
laid  aside.  It  was  an  immediate  success, 
and  for  the  next  decade  Scott  poured 
forth  with  amazing  fertility  a  series  of 
novels  of  which  the  most  important  were 
"Guy  Mannering"  (1815),  "The  Anti- 
quary" (1816),  "Old  Mortality"  (1817), 
"Rob  Roy"  (1818),  "The  Bride  of  Lam- 
mermoor"  (1819),  "Ivanhoe"  (1819), 
"The  Monastery"  (1820),  "The  Abbot" 
(1820),  "Kenilworth"  (1821),  "The  For- 
tunes of  Nigel"  (1822),  "Quentin  Dur- 
ward"  (1823),  "St.  Ronan's  Well"  (1824), 
"Red  Gauntlet"  (1824),  "The  Talisman" 
(1825).  In  1827  the  authorship,  hither- 
to a  secret,  was  acknowledged.  In  these 
romances  Scott  availed  himself  of  the 
vast  store  of  history  and  legend  he  had 
been  accumulating  from  childhood,  and 
of  his  extraordinary  power  of  making 
vivid  the  personages,  manners,  and  cus- 
toms of  past  times.  Most  of  the  quali- 
ties of  his  poems  find  in  his  prose  fic- 
tion a  more  favorable  medium,  and  in 
the  latter  he  displayed  a  power  of  draw- 
ing character  of  which  the  poems  gave 
little  sign.  The  novels  were  received  at 
home  with  unexampled  enthusiasm,  and 
their  vogue  extended  over  the  continent 
and  evoked  many  imitations. 

The  enormous  sale  of  the  novels  brought 
Scott  large  sums,  some  £76,000  of  which 
he  spent  on  Abbotsford,  completed  as  a 
baronial  castle  in  1824.  He  entertained 
lavishly,  bought  land  to  enlarge  his  estate, 
and  was  generous  in  his  gifts  to  rela- 
tives and  fellow  authors.  In  1820  he  was 
made  a  baronet.  He  became,  however, 
deeply  involved  in  the  affairs  of  his  print- 
ers and  publishers,  and  when  in  1823 
these  failed,  Scott  was  ruined.  While 
the  publishers  went  into  bankruptcy, 
Scott  personally  assumed  the  liabilities 
of  £117,000  of  Ballantyne  &  Co.,  and  set 
to  work  to  earn  money  to  pay  the  credi- 
tors in  full.  Scarcely  had  he  begun  this 
colossal  task  when  Lady  Scott  died.  His 
life  was  clouded  further  by  fears  for  the 


SCOTT 


301 


SCOTT 


life  of  his  grandson,  John  Hugh  Lock- 
hart,  who  was  suffering  from  a  mortal 
disease.  Nevertheless,  he  kept  heroically 
at  work,  earned  £8,228  with  "Woodstock" 
(1826)  in  three  months,  and  £18,000  with 
his  "Life  of  Napoleon"  in  nine  volumes. 
"Tales  of  a  Grandfather"  (1828-1830) 
followed,  and  with  the  "Chronicles  of  the 
Canon  gate"  (1827)  and  an  edition  of  his 
works  with  autobiographical  prefaces  en- 
abled him  to  raise  nearly  £40,000  in  two 
years.  He  went  on  with  "The  Fair  Maid 
of  Perth"  (1828)  and  "Anne  of  Geier- 
stein"  (1829),  but  in  1830  was  interrupted 
by  a  stroke  of  paralysis.  When  he  re- 
sumed with  "Count  Robert  of  Paris" 
(1831)  a  decline  in  his  powers  was  un- 
mistakable. A  second  and  third  attack 
followed,  but  he  toiled  on,  and  even  found 
time  for  political  activity.  After  finish- 
ing "Castle  Dangerous"  (1831)  he  was 
taken  to  Naples  in  the  hope  of  prolonging 
his  life,  and  there  heard  of  the  death  of 
his  grandson.  In  the  following  spring, 
on  his  return  journey,  he  was  again 
struck  down  by  paralysis,  and  was 
brought  home  half  unconscious.  They 
carried  him  to  Abbotsford,  where  he  died 
within  sound  of  his  beloved  Tweed,  on 
Sept.  21,  1832.  He  was  succeeded  in  the 
baronetcy  by  his  eldest  son  Walter,  on 
whose  death  in  1847  the  title  became  ex- 
tinct. Scott's  life  insurance  and  his  copy- 
rights were  sufficient  to  settle  the  unpaid 
balance  of  his  obligations,  so  he  may  be 
regarded  as  having  won  his  heroic  fight 
to  clear  his  name  and  estate  from  debt. 

Scott's  struggle  to  the  death  to  pay 
what  was  due  to  his  creditors  is  typical 
of  the  most  fundamental  trait  in  his 
character.  From  his  ancestry  or  from 
the  age  of  chivalry  to  which  he  gave  so 
romantic  a  devotion  he  caught  the  spirit 
of  honor  which  he  carried  into  the  mazes 
of  modern  business.  For  the  rest  he  was 
a  loyal  friend,  a  generous  enemy,  a  warm 
partisan  without  personal  rancor,  a  de- 
voted patriot.  In  spite  of  his  romanti- 
cism, his  character  had  a  basis  of  solid 
common  sense,  and  his  broad  sympathy 
and  hearty  humor  made  his  contact  with 
his  fellows  human  and  healthy.  These 
qualities  pervaded  his  work.  His  poetry 
is  vivacious  and  picturesque,  seldom  pas- 
sionate or  lofty;  his  prose  admirably 
suited  to  a  born  story  teller  with  a  keen 
observation  of  the  variety  if  not  the 
subtlety  of  human  nature.  In  his  fiction 
he  professed  no  higher  motives  than  the 


characters.  He  succeeded  best  with 
figures  that  could  be  drawn  in  strong 
colors,  least  with  normal  young  men  and 
women.  He  was  a  great  artist  in  the 
picturesque.  Among  men  of  letters  it  is 
hard  to  find  a  truer  man. 

SCOTT,  WALTER  DILL,  an  Ameri- 
can educator,  born  at  Cooksville,  111.,  in 
1869.  He  graduated  from  the  Illinois 
State  Normal  University  in  1891,  from 
Northwestern  University  in  1895,  and 
took  post-graduate  studies  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Leipzig.  From  1901  to  1908  he 
was  associate  professor  of  psychology  and 
education  and  direction  of  the  psychologi- 
cal laboratory  at  Northwestern  Univer- 
sity, and  from  1908  was  professor  of 
psychology  at  the  same  institution.  In 
1916-17  he  was  director  of  the  Bureau 
of  Salesmanship  Research  at  the  Car- 
negie Institute  of  Technology.  During 
the  World  War  he  devised  and  installed 
a  personnel  system  in  the  United  States 
Army,  for  which  he  received  the  Dis- 
tinguished Service  Medal.  He  was  the 
author  of  "The  Theory  of  Advertising" 
(1903)  ;  "The  Psychology  of  Advertising" 
(1908)  ;  and  "Increasing  Human  Ef- 
ficiency"   (1911). 

SCOTT,  WINFIELD,  an  American 
military  officer;  born  near  Petersburg, 
Va.,    June    13,    1786;    was    educated    at 


^% 


GENERAL  WINFIELD  SCOTT 


providing    of    wholesome    entertainment, 

and  the  awakening  of  patriotism  and  an  William   and   Mary  College,  and  studied 

interest  in  the  past.     These  purposes  he  law.     In  1808  he  was  appointed  captain 

achieved  with  brilliant  success;  for  few  of  light  artillery  in  General  Wilkinson's 

writers  have  given  more  harmless  pleas-  division,  stationed  at  Baton  Rouge,  La.; 

ure,  or  have  aroused  in  more  readers  a  but  was  suspended  for  having  accused  his 

curiosity  about  former  ages,  or  have  ere-  general  of  complicity  with  the  conspiracy 

ated  so  large  a   company  of  imaginary  of  Aaron  Burr.     At  the  commencement 

T — Cyc  Vol  8 


SCOTTDALE 


302 


SCRANTON 


of  the  "War  of  1812  he  was  appointed 
lieutenant-colonel  and  fought  at  Queens- 
town  Heights.  In  1813  he  was  promoted 
adjutant-general;  in  1814,  brigadier- 
general  and  brevet  major-general.  On 
July  3  he  took  Fort  Erie,  on  the  5th 
fought  the  battle  of  Chippewa,  and  20 
days  after,  that  of  Lundy's  Lane.  He 
took  part  in  the  operations  against  the 
Seminoles  and  Creeks  (1835-1837),  in  the 
Nullification  disturbances  in  South  Caro- 
lina, and  in  the  Canadian  revolt  of  1837- 
1838.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  United  States 
Army,  and  in  1846  commanded  in  the 
Mexican  War.  In  1847  he  won  the  vic- 
tories of  Vera  Cruz,  Cerro  Gordo,  Jalapa, 
Perote,  Puebla,  Contreras,  Churubusco, 
Molino  del  Rey  and  Chapultepec,  and 
seized  Mexico,  Sept.  14.  The  same  year 
he  was  brevetted  lieutenant-general.  In 
1859  he  was  a  commissioner  to  settle  the 
San  Juan  dispute  with  Great  Britain; 
and  in  1852  was. the  unsuccessful  candi- 
date of  the  Whig  party  for.  the  presi- 
dency. In  1862  he  retired  from  the  army, 
retaining,  by  special  act  of  Congress,  his 
pay  and  allowance.  General  Scott  com- 
piled the  "General  Regulations  of  the 
Army,"  and  translated  and  adapted  from 
the  French  the  system  of  "Infantry  Tac- 
tics" which  was  used  as  the  textbook  of 
the  army.  In  1864  he  published  his 
"Autobiography."  He  died  in  West 
Point,  N.  Y.,  May  29,  1866. 

SCOTTDALE,  a  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Westmoreland  co.,  on  the  Penn- 
sylvania and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  rail- 
roads. It  is  the  center  of  an  important 
coke  industry,  and  it  has  also  steel  and 
iron  mills,  brass  works,  silver  works,  a 
casket  factory,  machine  shops,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)    5,456;    (1920)    5,768. 

SCOTTI,  ANTONIO,  an  Italian  oper- 
atic baritone,  born  at  Naples,  Italy,  in 
1866.  He  studied  under  Madame  Paga- 
nini  and  made  his  first  appearance  at 
the  Teatro  Reale,  Malta,  in  1889.  After 
singing  for  10  years  on  the  stages  of 
many  Italian  theaters,  as  well  as  in  Ma- 
drid, St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Warsaw, 
and  South  America,  he  sang  in  "Don  Gio- 
vanni" in  London,  in  1899,  under  the 
management  of  Maurice  Grau,  who  imme- 
diately engaged  him  for  his  New  York 
Metropolitan  Opera  Company.  Since 
then  he  has  appeared  regularly  each  sea- 
son in  the  United  States,  where  he  ac- 
quired a  high  reputation  and  where  he 
sang  leading  parts  in  many  of  the  best 
known  operas.     His  home  was  at  Naples. 

SCOTTISH  ACADEMY,  ROYAL,  an 
institution  for  the  promotion  of  the  fine 
arts,  formed  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in 
1826.      Sculpture   and   painting   are   the 


two  arts  receiving  most  attention  and  the 
Academy,  which  was  incorporated  in  1838, 
and  was  organized  on  the  plan  of  the 
English  Royal  Academy,  was  housed  at 
first  in  the  building  of  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution and  there  held  its  annual  exhibi- 
tions. Later  arrangements  were  made  by 
which  the  exhibition  of  painting  and 
sculpture  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy 
were  held  in  the  National  Gallery.  Apart 
from  the  exhibitions,  the  Academy  main- 
tains schools  and  these  also  are  conducted 
in  the  National  Gallery. 

SCOTTJS  ERIGENA,  JOHANNES  (sko' 
tus  e-rij'-ena),  a  renowned  mediaeval  phi- 
losopher of  the  9th  century-  He  was  an 
Irishman,  as  indicated  by  the  surnames 
Scotus  (which  in  that  age  meant  Irish) 
and  Erigena  (of  Irish  extraction).  His 
life  seems  to  have  been  passed  mostly  in 
France.  He  was  a  Platonist  rather  than 
an  Aristotelian.  His  greatest  work  is 
"Of  the  Division  of  Nature,"  in  which 
he  holds  for  the  identity  of  philosophy  and 
religion,  and  repels  the  claim  of  authority 
in  matters  of  religious  belief. 

SCRANTON,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Lackawanna  co.,  Pa. ;  on  the  Lackawanna 
river,  and  on  the  Lackawanna,  the  New 
York,  Ontario,  and  Western,  the  Erie, 
the  Delaware  and  Hudson,  and  the  Cen- 
tral of  New  Jersey  railroads;  18  miles 
N.  E.  of  Wilkes-Barre.  The  city  is  the 
third  largest  in  the  state  in  population, 
and  is  the  heart  of  the  extensive  anthra- 
cite coal  section.  It  is  built  on  a  plateau 
in  the  Lackawanna  valley  amid  beautiful 
scenery. 

Business  Interests. — Scranton  has  a 
large  general  trade,  and  is  one  of  the 
chief  points  for  the  shipment  of  anthra- 
cite coal.  The  manufacture  of  iron  and 
steel  forms  the  principal  industry.  In 
1920  there  were  4  National  banks  in 
operation,  and  many  daily,  weekly,  and 
monthly  periodicals. 

Public  Interests. — The  city  has  an  area 
of  over  20  square  miles;  over  150  miles 
of  streets,  and  an  excellent  sewer  system. 
The  streets  are  lighted  by  electricity. 
There  is  a  public  school  enrollment  of  over 
20,000  pupils,  and  annual  expenditures 
for  public  education  of  about  $500,000. 
The  city  is  laid  out  with  wide  streets; 
and  has  many  driveways,  squares,  and 
parks.  Among  the  public  buildings  are 
a  court  house,  United  States  Government 
building,  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
Moses  Taylor  Hospital,  State  Hospital, 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  building,  International  Cor- 
respondence Schools,  Masonic  Temple, 
public  library,  etc.  There  are  several 
colleges  and  academies.  Besides  the  coal 
industry  there  are  manufactures  of  knit- 
goods,  lace,  locomotives,  silk,  nuts  and 
bolts,  etc. 


SCREAMER 


303 


SCRIBE 


History. — The  city  was  established  in 
1840  by  George  W.  and  Joseph  H.  Scran- 
ton.  It  was  made  a  borough  in  1854, 
and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1866.  Pop. 
(1910)   129,867;    (1920)    137,783. 

SCREAMER,  in  ornithology,  a  popular 
name  for  any  individual  of  the  South 
American  family  Palamedeidss.  They 
have  a  horn  on  the  forehead,  and  strong 


HORNED   SCREAMER 

spurs  on  their  powerful  wings.  They 
are  gentle  and  shy,  and  the  crested 
screamer  (Chauna  chavaria)  is  said  to 
be  domesticated,  and  to  defend  the  poul- 
try of  its  master  from  birds  of  prey. 
Chauna  derbiana  is  the  derbian  screamer, 
and  Palamedea  cornuta  the  horned 
screamer. 

SCREW,  in  mechanics,  a  cylinder  sur- 
rounded by  a  spiral  ridge  or  groove, 
every  part  of  which  forms  an  equal  angle 
with  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  so  that  if 
developed  on  a  plane  surface  it  would 
be  an  inclined  plane.  The  screw  is  con- 
sidered as  one  of  the  six  mechanical 
powers,  but  is  really  only  a  modification 
of  the  inclined  plane.  A  convex  screw 
is  known  as  the  external  or  male  screw, 
a  concave  or  hollow  screw  (generally 
termed  a  nut)  is  an  internal  or  female 
screw.  The  mechanical  effect  of  a  screw 
is  increased  by  lessening  the  distance  be- 
tween the  threads,  or  by  making  them 
finer,  or  by  lengthening  the  lever  to  which 
the  power  is  applied;  this  law  is,  how- 
ever, greatly  modified  by  the  friction, 
which  is  very  great.  The  parts  of  a 
screw  are  the  head,  barrel  or  stem,  thread, 
and  point.  The  head  has  a  slit,  nick, 
or  square.  In  number  screws  vary,  as 
single,  double,  triple;  the  numbers  rep- 
resenting the  individual  threads,  and 
those  above  single  being  known  as  multi- 


plex-threaded. A  right  and  left  screw 
is  one  in  which  the  threads  on  the  oppo- 
site ends  run  in  different  directions. 

SCREW  PROPELLER,  a  spiral  blade 
on  a  cylindrical  axis,  called  the  shaft  or 
spindle,  parallel  with  the  keel  of  vessels, 
made  to  revolve  by  power  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  water,  usually  at  the 
stern,  as  a  means  of  propulsion.  In 
1802,  Shorter,  an  English  mechanician, 
produced  motion  through  the  water  by 
means  of  a  screw,  but  his  discovery  had 
no  practical  value,  and  it  was  not  till 
1837  that  its  practicability  was  demon- 
strated by  the  American  inventor,  Cap- 
tain Ericsson,  since  which  time  the  screw 
has  steadily  gained  in  favor  as  a  means 
of  propulsion  for  vessels  all  over  the 
world.  In  1860  the  first  steamer  operated 
by  twin-screws  was  constructed  by  Messrs. 
Dudgeon  of  London,  England. 

SCRIBE  (Hebrew,  sofer),  among  the 
Jews,  originally  a  kind  of  military  of- 
ficer, whose  business  appears  to  have  been 
the  recruiting  and  organizing  of  troops, 
the  levying  of  war-taxes,  and  the  like. 
Later  the  Hebrew  name  sofer  seems  to 
have  been  especially  bestowed  on  a  copy- 
ist of  the  law  books.  After  the  exile, 
under  Ezra,  apparently  the  copyist  be- 
came more  and  more  an  expounder  of  the 
law.  In  Christ's  time  the  name  had  come 
to  designate  a  learned  man,  a  doctor  of 
the  law.  Christ  himself  recognizes  scribes 
as  a  legal  authority  (Matt,  xxiii.  2) ; 
they  were  the  preservers  of  traditions, 
and  formed  a  kind  of  police  in  the  Temple 
and  synagogues,  together  with  the  high 
priest;  and  the  people  reverenced  them, 
or  were  expected  to  reverence  them,  in 
an  eminent  degree.  They  were  to  be 
found  all  over  the  country  of  Palestine, 
and  occupied  the  rank  and  profession  of 
both  lawyers  and  theologians.  Their  pub- 
lic field  of  action  was  probably  three- 
fold: they  were  either  assessors  of  the 
Sanhedrim,  or  public  teachers,  or  admin- 
istrators and  lawyers.  Many  of  these 
teachers  had  special  class-rooms  some- 
where in  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  where 
the  pupils  destined  to  the  calling  of  a 
rabbi  sat  at  their  feet.  The  calling  of  a 
scribe  being  gratuitous,  it  was  incumbent 
on  every  one  of  them  to  learn  and  to 
exercise  some  trade.  As  a  rule  they  were 
Pharisees  (q.  v.),  and  zealous  to  keep 
the  law  pure  from  any  foreign  influence. 
Among  famous  scribes  are  to  be  reckoned 
Hillel,  Shammai,  and  Gamaliel. 

SCRIBE,  AUGUSTIN  EUGENE 
(skreb),  a  French  dramatist;  born  in 
Paris,  Dec.  24,  1791.  For  nearly  40  years 
he  was  the  most  conspicuous  playwright 
living.  His  collected  "QSuvres"  (76  vols., 
issued  1874-1885)   contain  all  his  works, 


SCBIPTTJBE 


304 


SCTJDDER 


which  include  novels  as  well  as  plays. 
Among  his  best-known  plays  are :  "Valeria" 
(1822);  "The  Glass  of  Water"  (1840); 
"Adrienne  Lecouvreur"  (1849)  ;"The  Queen 
of  Navarre  (1850) ;  "The  Ladies'  Battle" 
(1851)  ;  and  "Fairy  Fingers"  (1858)  :  the 
last  three  with  Legouve.  He  also  wrote 
"Fra  Diavolo,"  "Robert  the  Devil,"  "The 
Huguenots,"  "The  Prophet,"  "La  Favorita," 
and  many  other  well-known  librettos.  He 
died  in  Paris,  Feb.  20,  1861. 

SCBIPTTJBE,  EDWAED  WHEELEB, 
an  American  psychologist;  born  in  Ma- 
son, N.  H.,  May  21,  1864;  was  graduated 
at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York 
in  1884;  pursued  special  studies  abroad; 
returned  to  the  United  States  and  was 
made  director  of  the  psychological  labora- 
tory of  Yale  University.  He  was  lec- 
turer at  Johns  Hopkins  in  1906,  and 
lecturer  on  psychiatry  at  Columbia  in 
1909.  His  investigations  resulted  in  sev- 
eral important  discoveries,  including  a 
method  of  producing  ansesthesia  by  elec- 
tricity, a  method  of  measuring  hallucina- 
tions and  imaginations,  and  the  law  of 
"mediate  association  of  ideas."  He  also 
invented  a  color-sight  tester  by  which 
color-weak  or  color-blind  persons  em- 
ployed in  lamp  batteries,  marine  or  rail- 
road service,  can  be  detected.  His  publi- 
cations include:  "Thinking,  Feeling,  Do- 
ing" (1895);  "The  New  Psychology" 
(1897)  ;  "Introduction  to  Experimental 
Phonetics"  (1906),  etc. 

SCBOFTJLA  ("king's  evil"),  a  tedious 
disease,  tubercular  in  its  nature,  one  of 
the  most  characteristic  marks  of  which 
is  a  tendency  to  swelling  of  the  glandu- 
lar parts,  which  sometimes  suppurate, 
and  discharge  a  curdy,  mixed  matter,  and 
are  very  difficult  to  heal.  The  persons 
in  whom  scrofulous  disease  is  most  apt 
to  manifest  itself  are  marked  during 
childhood  by  pale  and  pasty  complexions, 
large  heads,  narrow  chests,  protuberant 
bellies,  soft  and  flabby  muscles,  and  a 
languid  and  feeble  circulation.  It,  how- 
ever, often  accompanies  a  variety  of  the 
sanguineous  temperament  also,  and  is  in- 
dicated by  light  or  red  hair,  gray  or 
blue  eyes,  with  large  and  sluggish  pupils, 
and  long,  silky  lashes,  a  fair,  transparent 
brilliancy  of  skin,  and  rosy  cheeks.  This 
red  color  is,  however,  easily  changed  by 
cold  to  purple  or  livid,  and  the  extremi- 
ties are  subject  to  chilblains.  It  is  fre- 
quent, also,  though  less  common,  in  what 
is  called  the  melancholic  or  bilious  tem- 
perament, i.  e.,  in  persons  of  dark,  muddy 
complexion  and  harsh  skin,  in  whom  the 
mental  and  bodily  energies  are  more  slug- 
gish and  dull.  It  is  one  of  those  diseases 
that  are  in  a  very  marked  degree  heredi- 
tary. Among  the  exciting  causes  are  in- 
sufficient nutriment,  exposure  to  wet  and 


cold,  impurity  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
want  of  natural  exercise,  and  mental  dis- 
quietude. Climate  exercises  a  very 
marked  influence  upon  it.  A  moist,  cold, 
and  variable  climate  is  particularly  fav- 
orable to  its  development,  while  on  the 
other  hand  a  hot  or  a  very  cold  climate 
protects  against  it. 

It  usually  manifests  itself  in  indolent 
glf  ndular  tumors,  frequently  in  the  neck, 
at  first  free  from  pain  and  inflammation, 
but  proceeding  slowly  to  an  inflammatory 
state,  and  gradually  and  generally,  after 
a  long  time,  forming  an  ulcer,  which  is 
extremely  difficult  to  heal.  In  some  cases 
the  eyes  and  eyelids  are  the  principal  seat 
of  the  disease,  having  constantly  a  very 
inflamed  aspect.  The  bones  of  scrofulous 
persons  are  also  liable  to  disease,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  spine.  The  lungs  are 
particularly  liable  to  attack  in  such  cases, 
giving  rise  to  the  formation  of  tubercles 
in  that  organ  which  is  so  marked  a  fea- 
ture in  phthisis. 

SCTJDDEB,     HOBACE     ELISHA,     an 

American  author;  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Oct.  16,  1838.  From  1890-1898  he  was 
editor  of  the  "Atlantic  Monthly."  He 
published:  "Seven  Little  Peoole  and  Their 
Friends";  "Dream  Children";  "Stories 
from  my  Attic";  "Stories  and  Romances"; 
"Boston  Town";  "Life  of  Noah  Web- 
ster"; "A  Short  History  of  the  United 
States";  "A  History  of  the  United 
States";  "Fables  and  Folk  Stories"; 
"George  Washington:  An  Historical  Bi- 
ography"; "Men  and  Letters";  "The  Bod- 
ley  Books";  "Life  of  Bayard  Taylor"; 
"Recollections  of  Samuel  Breck";  "Litera- 
ture in  School";  "The  Children's  Book," 
etc.     He  died  in  1902. 

SCTJDDEB,  SAMUEL  HTJBBABD,  an 
American  naturalist;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  April  13,  1837;  was  graduated  at 
Williams  College  in  1857  and  at  the  Law- 
rence Scientific  School  in  1862;  was  as- 
sistant to  Prof.  Louis  Agassiz  at  the 
Cambridge  Museum  of  Comparative  Zool- 
ogy in  1862-1864;  secretary  of  the  Boston 
Society  of  Natural  History  in  1862-1870; 
and  its  president  in  1880-1887.  He  was 
palaeontologist  of  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  in  1886-1892.  His  publi- 
cations include:  "A  Century  of  Orthop- 
tera"  (1879)  ;  "Catalogue  of  the  Scientific 
Serials  of  All  Countries"  (1879)  "Butter- 
flies, Their  Structure,  Changes,  and  Life 
Histories"  (1881) ;  "Butterflies  of  the 
Eastern  United  States  and  Canada" 
(1889) ;  "Catalogue  of  the  Described 
Orthoptera  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada"  (1900)  ;  etc.    He  died  in  1911. 

SCTJDDEB,  VIDA  DTJTTON,  an  Amer- 
ican educator  and  writer,  born  in  southern 


SCULPTURE 


305 


SCULPTURE 


India,  in  1861.  She  graduated  from 
Smith  College  in  1884  and  took  post- 
graduate studies  at  Oxford  and  in  Paris. 
From  1882  to  1910  she  was  associate  pro- 
fessor of  English  literature  at  Wellesley 
College,  and  from  1910  was  full  profes- 
sor of  this  branch.  She  wrote  "Social 
Ideals  in  English  Letters"  (1898)  ;  "The 
Disciple  of  a  Saint"  (1907)  ;  "Socialism 
and  Character"  (1912)  ;  "Church  and  the 
Hour"  (1917),  and  edited  many  English 
texts. 

SCULPTURE,  the  art  of  cutting  or 
carving  any  material  so  as  to  represent 
form.  Sculpture  may  be  broadly  divided 
into  relievo  and  round.  In  the  former, 
single  figures  or  groups  are  represented 
as  more  or  less  raised,  but  without  being 
entirely  detached  from  a  background. 
According  to  the  latter  method,  insulated 
figures,  such  as  statues,  or  collections,  or 
groups,  are  made,  so  as  to  be  entirely 
independent  of  a  background. 

The  origin  of  sculpture  is  lost  in  an- 
tiquity. An  admirable  material  for  early 
effort  was  found  in  clay,  so  widely  dif- 
fused in  many  lands,  to  which,  as  knowl- 
edge advanced,  were  added  wax,  gesso, 
marble,  alabaster,  bronze,  etc.  Hence  the 
rudiments  of  sculpture  are  found  among 
all  races  of  mankind.  The  idolatry  of 
the  Old  World  gave  it  a  great  impulse, 
from  the  necessity  which  it  produced  of 
representing  gods.  The  history  of  sculp- 
ture is  almost  the  history  of  religion. 
In  the  inspired  writings,  the  Israelites  are 
repeatedly  exhorted  to  turn  away  from 
the  worship  of  images,  the  sculptured 
works  of  their  own  hands.  Sculptured 
works  have  been  found  in  the  most  ancient 
Hindu  caverns  and  grotto  temples.  In 
the  ruins  of  Persepolis  there  are  many 
examples  attesting  to  the  fact  that  the 
Persians  possessed  many  works  of  sculp- 
ture, yet  they  never  carved  the  semblance 
of  the  human  form.  Sculpture  flourished 
in  Assyria.  The  museums  of  London  and 
Paris  contain  colossal  slabs,  the  dates  of 
which  range  from  the  time  of  Sardan- 
apalus,  930  B.  c,  to  the  destruction  of 
Nineveh,  625  B.  c.  The  Egyptians  were 
the  first  who  elevated  sculpture  almost 
to  pure  art.  In  Greece  the  art  of  sculp- 
ture soon  rose  superior  to  all  those  im- 
pediments which  trammeled  and  restricted 
its  advancement  in  other  countries. 

The  Greeks  had  an  intuitive  sympathy 
with  beauty,  either  in  poetry,  painting, 
or  sculpture.  Sculpture  in  Greece,  as 
elsewhere,  had  its  beginning  in  very  rude 
forms.  At  first  the  symbols  of  divinity 
were  little  more  than  rude  quadrangular 
blocks  of  stone.  Between  the  9th  and  7th 
centuries  B.  c.  the  Greeks  had  frequent 
intercourse  with  the  commercial  Phoeni- 
cians.    From  this  nation  the  Greeks  bor- 


rowed their  Hermae,  or  god  of  roads  and 
travelers;  at  first  mere  stone  pillars.  On 
these  pillars  a  head  was  afterward  carved, 
thus  forming  the  origin  of  busts.  Hands 
and  feet  were  next  added,  a  shield  and 
spear  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
statues;  and  thus  the  first  semblance  of 
Pallas  originated.  Till  the  time  of 
Daedalus  of  Athens,  the  bodies  or  trunks 
of  large  statues  were  a  mere  cylindrical 
pillar,  as  in  the  Colossus  of  the  Amyclean 
Apollo.  Progressing  still  further,  sculp- 
ture was  called  on  to  assist  in  the  deco- 
ration of  temples.  Daedalus  inaugurated 
a  new  era;  and  of  his  divine  genius 
the  Greeks  said  that  he  made  statues 
walk,  see,  and  speak.  After  this  great 
master  it  was  that  all  artists  were  sym- 
bolically termed  Daedalides,  the  sons  of 
Daedalus.  Henceforth,  ancient  Greek  art 
may  be  divided  into  two  styles:  the  Old 
Attic,  and  the  .^Eginetic.  However,  the 
true,  the  ideal  style  of  Greek  art  was 
not  inaugurated  till  the  time  of  Phidias. 
This  great  genius  lived  in  the  time  of 
Pericles,  the  age  of  classic  models.  For 
the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  Phidias  wrought 
the  statue  of  Minerva,  and  at  Elis  he 
set  up  his  other  great  masterpiece,  the 
famous  Olympian  Jupiter.  Both  were 
executed  in  ivory  and  gold.  The  god  Ju- 
piter was  40  feet  high.  This  statue  ex- 
isted till  the  year  475  of  our  era,  when  it 
was  destroyed  by  fire  at  Constantinople. 
Besides  these  great  works  he  made  a 
statue  of  Pallas  in  brass,  for  Athens,  the 
Venus  Urania,  the  Nemesis  in  the  temple 
at  Marathon,  and  an  Amazon,  famed 
throughout  Greece  for  the  beauty  of  her 
limbs.  Alcamenes  of  Africa,  and  Agora- 
critus  of  Paros,  were  his  favorite  dis- 
ciples. The  most  famous  works  of  Alca- 
menes were  his  Mars,  Cupid,  Venus,  and 
Vulcan.  It  was  said  that  Agoracritus 
was  even  superior  to  Alcamenes,  and 
when  he  contended  with  the  latter  in  the 
execution  of  a  statue  of  Venus  the  Athen- 
ians only  adjudged  the  prize  to  Alcame- 
nes out  of  partiality  for  their  fellow-citi- 
zen. According  to  Varro,  the  Venus  of 
Agoracritus  was  the  finest  ever  wrought. 
Polycletus  of  Argos  was  the  author  of  the 
work  deemed  worthy  of  being  ranked  as 
the  companion  to  the  Jupiter  of  Phidias. 
This  was  the  celebrated  statue  of  Juno. 
Myron  of  Eleutherae,  in  Bceotia,  was  the 
great  rival  of  Polycletus.  Despising  the 
soft  and  graceful  forms  which  his  con- 
temporary sculptor  loved  to  represent, 
Myron  sought  his  models  in  the  brawny 
athlete.  He  sculptured  the  ideal  Her- 
cules, the  Discobolus  throwing  the  discus. 
In  one  quality,  however,  he  was  surpassed 
by  Pythagoras  of  Rhegium,  who  executed 
the  ideal  of  Apollo,  who,  as  an  archer, 
has  just  shot  the  serpent  Python.  The 
finest  statue  possessed  by  the  moderns  is 


SCULPTURE 


306 


SCULPTURE 


an  imitation  of  this  great  work,  the 
Apollo  Belvidere. 

With  Socrates,  the  sculptor  of  the 
Draped  Graces,  and  Athenodorus  and 
Nancydes,  commenced  the  third  epoch  of 
Greek  sculpture.  It  is  generally  known 
as  the  beautiful  style,  and  Scopas,  Lysip- 
pus,  and  Praxiteles,  because  they  united 
beauty  and  grace,  brought  the  art  to  its 
highest  perfection.  The  finest  works  of 
Scopas  were  the  Furious  Bacchante,  his 
Venus  (the  original,  perhaps  from  which 
the  Venus  de  Medici  was  copied),  and  the 
Triumph  of  Achilles,  together  with  a  num- 
ber of  charming  combinations  of  Nereids 
and  sea  monsters.  Praxiteles  (q.  v.) 
wrought  in  bronze  and  marble.  Till  this 
sculptor  ventured  to  carve  a  Venus  nude, 
all  statues  of  female  divinities  had  been 
draped.  The  rival  and  contemporary  of 
Praxiteles  was  Lysippus  of  Sicyon,  who 
was  the  great  master  of  portrait  sculp- 
ture. He  is  said  to  have  executed  in 
bronze  exclusively.  Alexander  the  Great 
would  permit  no  other  artist  to  carve  his 
likeness.  He  represented  Alexander  from 
his  childhood  to  his  manhood.  Pliny  de- 
clares that  Lysippus  executed  as  many 
as  610  works.  His  horses  were  very 
beautiful.  The  other  great  sculptors  of 
this  period  were  Euthycrates  and  Bedas, 
sons  of  Lysippus;  Xenocrates,  who  wrote 
a  treatise  on  sculpture;  Chares  of  Lindus, 
who  cast  the  famous  Colossus  of  Rhodes; 
Agesander,  Polydorus  and  Athenodorus  of 
Rhodes,  who  executed  the  celebrated 
group  of  Laocoon;  Glycon  of  Athens,  who 
formed  the  Farnese  Hercules  at  Naples; 
and  Appollonius  and  Tauriscus,  who 
made  the  Farnese  Bull,  also  at  Naples. 
The  beautiful  fragment  known  as  the 
Torso  of  the  Belvidere,  at  Rome,  and  the 
Hermaphrodite  at  Paris,  also  belong  to 
this  era  of  Greek  art.  From  an  early 
period,  and  even  during  the  best  era  of 
Greek  art,  the  age  of  Phidias,  the  Greeks 
were  accustomed  to  combine  different 
marbles  in  the  same  work.  The  Greeks 
also  painted  their  statues.  The  hair  was 
often  gilt,  and  even  colored  sometimes; 
the  backgrounds  of  alti-relievi  were 
painted  in  order  to  heighten  the  effect, 
and  occasionally  eyes  of  glass  or  silver 
were  introduced. 

The  victorious  Romans  destroyed  the 
existence  of  the  arts  in  Greece;  but  all 
the  great  works  in  painting  and  sculp- 
ture were  taken  to  Rome,  and  with  these 
masterpieces  the  artists  emigrated  to  the 
capital  of  their  conquerors.  The  cele- 
brated reclining  statue  of  the  Dying 
Cleopatra  was  executed  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  and  a  son  of  Cleomenes  the 
Athenian  made  a  statue  which  is  held 
by  some  to  be  a  figure  of  Germanicus. 
This  work  is  now  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris. 
Sculpture  flourished  under  the  patronage 


of  Julius  Caesar,  Augustus,  Nero,  Trajan, 
Adrian,  and  the  Antonines.  After  Rcme 
had  been  destroyed  by  the  several  in- 
roads of  the  Northern  nations,  the  finest 
productions  of  ancient  art  were  de- 
molished, and  this  work  of  destruction 
was  consummated  by  the  religious  zeal  of 
the  primitive  Christians,  who  swept  away 
what  remains  there  were  of  the  statues 
of  the  Greek  and  Roman  divinities. 

Sculpture  awoke  to  renewed  life  about 
the  10th  or  11th  century  in  Italy.  Nic- 
colo  Pisano,  who  died  1278,  is  esteemed 
the  "father  of  modern  sculpture."  Two 
of  his  finest  compositions  are  the  "Taking 
down  from  the  Cross,"  in  front  of  the 
Duomo  of  Luca,  and  the  "Last  Judg- 
ment and  Punishment  of  the  Wicked," 
in  the  cathedral  of  Siena.  Luca  della 
Robbia  covered  his  beautiful  terra-cotta 
models  with  a  glaze  which  gave  them 
the  hardness  of  stone.  Lorenzo  Ghiberti 
and  Donato  di  Betto  Bardi  (Donatello) 
were  distinguished  masters  of  sculpture. 
Donatello  (died  1466),  enriched  Florence, 
Genoa,  and  Venice  with  his  works.  Dur- 
ing the  15th  century  Andrea  Verrocchio, 
Andrea  Ferracci,  the  two  Pollajuoli,  and 
Mino  di  Fiesole,  were  great  masters. 
Michelangelo  Buonarotti  was  the  great- 
est sculptor  of  this  period.  Baccio 
Bandinelli,  born  at  Florence  in  1493, 
attempted  to  become  the  rival  of  Michel- 
angelo. A  great  anatomist,  his  style  was 
rude  and  energetic.  He  restored  the  right 
arm  of  the  Laocoon.  Benvenuto  Cellini 
was  a  Florentine  sculptor;  most  of  his 
finest  large  works,  which  were  cast  in 
bronze,  are  preserved  in  his  native  city. 
The  one  celebrated  female  sculptor  is 
Properzia  di  Rossi,  of  Bologna,  who  died 
at  an  early  age  in  1530. 

To  Flaxman,  the  English  are  indebted 
for  founding  on  true  principles  the  British 
school  of  sculpture.  This  great  sculptor 
has  had  worthy  followers  in  Sir  R.  West- 
macott,  Sir  F.  Chantrey,  Bailey,  Carew, 
Gibson,  and  Foley,  Woolner,  and  Boehm. 
Other  important  British  sculptors  are 
Leighton,  Simonds,  Brock,  Thornycroft, 
Ford,  Frith,  Gilbert,  and  Frampton.  In 
France,  Jean  Goujon  (died  1566)  is  the 
first  distinguished  sculptor.  In  the  17th 
century  we  have  the  brothers  Marsy, 
Girardon,  Falconet,  Clodion,  also  Guillain, 
Franqueville,  Anguier,  and  Puget.  Of  18th 
century  masters  are  Jean  Antoine  Houdon, 
Antoine  Chaudet,  J.  Bosio,  Pradier,  Rude, 
Duvet,  etc.  Jean  Baptiste  Pigalle  (died 
1785) ,  executed  a  Mercury  and  a  Venus  for 
the  King  of  Prussia.  David  (d' Angers)  and 
Pradier  belonged  to  the  French  school  of 
the  19th  century,  and,  among  later  sculp- 
tors, Guillaume,  Carpeaux,  Bartholdi,  Du- 
bois, Chapu,  Mercie,  Barge,  Fremiet, 
Dalou,  Falquiere,  Rodin,  Bartholome, 
Delarche  and  Wynant  take  high  rank. 


SCURVY 


307 


SCYLLA 


Among  modern  German  sculptors, 
Christian  Rauch  and  Dannecker  take  high 
rank.  Famous  sculptors  of  more  recent 
times  are  Schadow,  Schilling,  Begas, 
Stuck,  Klinger,  and  Seffner.  As  Canova 
emancipated  modern  Italy  from  those 
false  perceptions  which  had  so  long  di- 
verted the  current  of  pure  taste,  so  Thor- 
waldsen,  the  Danish  sculptor,  was  su- 
perior to  all  his  contemporaries  in  the 
grandeur  of  his  form  and  in  strength 
of  expression.  John  Gibson  was  the  most 
distinguished  pupil  of  both  Canova  and 
Thorwaldsen.  Few  American  sculptures 
worthy  of  note  were  executed  previous 
to  Greenough's  time,  but  since  his  day 
the  names  of  Hiram  Powers,  Crawford, 
Brown,  Clevenger,  Palmer,  Miss  Hosmer, 
Story,  Saint  Gaudens,  Ward,  MacMon- 
nies,  French,  Hartley,  Partridge,  Man- 
ship,  Herbert  Adams,  Bartlett,  Bitter, 
Nichaus,  Proctor,  Barnard,  Borglum, 
Lorado  Taft,  Akin,  Aitken,  French  and 
Werneman  have  been  added  to  the  list  of 
American  sculptors. 

SCURVY,  or  SCORBUTUS,  a  disease 
characterized  by  a  depraved  condition  of 
the  blood.  In  consequence  of  this  mor- 
bid state  of  the  blood  there  is  great  de- 
bility of  the  system  at  large,  with  a  ten- 
dency to  congestion,  hemorrhage,  etc.,  in 
various  parts  of  the  body,  and  especially 
in  the  gums. 

The  first  effect  of  the  disease  is  gen- 
erally a  decline  in  the  general  health,  and 
the  patient  becomes  depressed,  is  easily 
fatigued,  and  has  a  peculiar  sallow  com- 
plexion. After  a  variable  period,  the 
more  characteristic  symptoms  appear,  the 
chief  of  which  are  hemorrhages  and 
sponginess  of  the  gums.  The  hemor- 
rhages closely  resemble  those  of  purpura 
and  occur  into  and  under  the  skin,  where 
they  give  rise  to  red  or  purple  discolora- 
tions  which  change  color  like  the  marks 
of  bruises;  into  the  muscles  and  other 
deeper  tissues,  where  they  cause  brawny 
swellings;  and  into  internal  organs  or 
cavities.  Hemorrhage  also  frequently 
takes  place  from  the  mucous  membranes 
of  the  nose  and  alimentary  canal.  The 
affection  of  the  gums  is  still  more  char- 
acteristic, and  is  rarely  absent,  except 
in  the  very  young  or  very  old  who  are 
without  teeth.  The  gums  are  swollen, 
discolored,  detached  from  the  teeth,  and 
bleed  very  easily,  while  the  breath  be- 
comes very  fetid.  This  combination  some- 
times precedes  but  often  follows  the 
occurrence  of  hemorrhage  in  other  sit- 
uations. 

The  cause  of  scurvy  is  now  well  known 
to  be  an  improper  diet.  The  disease  is 
never  known  to  have  occurred  in  any  one 
who  had  eaten  freely  and  habitually  of 
fresh    vegetable    food.     Even    preserved 


vegetables,  if  kept  in  a  juicy  condition, 
prevent  the  occurrence  of  the  disease. 
Fresh  meat  and,  in  a  less  degree,  milk  are 
antiscorbutic.  An  efficient  protective  is 
lemon  or  lime  juice;  and  the  constant  use 
of  the  latter  during  long  voyages  un- 
doubtedly prevents  the  occurrence  of 
scurvy  when  it  would  otherwise  be  inevi- 
table. 

SCUTARI  (sko'ta-re),  a  town  of  Asi- 
atic Turkey,  situated  opposite  Constan- 
tinople, on  the  banks  of  the  Bosphorus, 
in  Asia  Minor.  Its  site  is  beautiful,  and 
fine  views  of  Constantinople  and  the  sur- 
rounding scenery  are  obtained  from  the 
hills  above.  It  has  a  palace  and  gardens 
belonging  to  the  Sultan,  a  college  of  der- 
vishes, a  college  for  girls  (conducted  by 
Americans),  barracks,  public  baths,  and 
extensive  cemeteries,  used  by  the  Turks 
of  Constantinople,  from  their  belief  that 
the  soil  of  Asia  is  more  sacred  than  that 
of  Europe.  There  is  also  a  densely  filled 
English  burial  ground  containing  Maro- 
chetti's  monument  in  honor  of  8,000  name- 
less British  soldiers  of  the  Crimean  War 
(1854-1856).  Scutari  was  the  scene  of 
Florence  Nightingale's  labors  during  this 
war.  It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade, 
being  a  rendezvous  for  the  caravans 
which  come  from  the  interior  of  Asia. 
Pop.  about  100,000. 

SCUTARI,  a  town  in  Albania,  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  situated 
on  the  river  Drin,  where  it  is  joined  by 
the  Boyana,  and  on  the  Lake  of  Scutari, 
a  sheet  of  water  eight  miles  in  length 
and  six  miles  broad,  connected  with  the 
Adriatic  by  the  Boyana.  Scutari  was  at- 
tacked by  the  Montenegrins  in  the  Bal- 
kan War  of  1912,  and  was  by  them  be- 
sieged during  the  entire  period  of  the 
war,  but  was  heroically  defended  by 
Essad  Pasha.     Pop.  about  32,000. 

SCYLLA  (sil'la),  in  classical  myth- 
ology, a  daughter  of  Nisus,  King  of  Me- 
gara.  When  Minos  came  from  Crete  to 
take  vengeance  for  the  death  of  his  son, 
Androgeos,  his  efforts  to  take  the  city 
were  fruitless  as  long  as  the  purple  lock 
on  the  head  of  Nisus  remained  unshorn. 
Urged  by  her  love  for  Minos,  Scylla  cut 
off  the  fatal  lock,  and  with  it  destroyed 
the  life  of  her  father  and  the  safety  of 
the  city.  According  to  one  version  Minos 
tied  Scylla  to  the  stern  of  his  ship  and 
drowned  her;  but  another  tale  says  that 
she  was  changed  into  a  fish,  which  Nisus, 
transformed  into  an  eagle,  constantly 
pursued.  The  myth  was  localized  in  the 
names  of  the  port  of  Nicaea  and  the 
promontory  Scyllagum.  The  "Odyssey" 
(xii.  73)  speaks  of  another  Scylla,  a 
daughter  of  Crataeis,  as  a  monster  with 


SCYLLA 


308 


SEA 


12  feet,  six  necks,  and  six  mouths,  each 
containing  three  rows  of  teeth.  This  be- 
ing haunted  a  rock  on  the  Italian  coast; 
a  neighboring  rock  being  tenanted  by 
Charybdis,  who  thrice  every  day  swal- 
lowed the  waters  of  the  sea,  and  thrice 
threw  them  up  again.  Like  Medusa, 
Scylla  is  represented  in  some  legends  as 
having  been  beautiful,  and  as  having  been 
changed  into  a  monster  through  the  jeal- 
ousy of  Circe  or  Amphitrite. 

SCYLLA,  and  CHARYBDIS  (kar-ib' 
dis),  the  former  a  famous  promontory 
and  town  of  southern  Italy,  at  the  en- 
trance to  the  narrow  strait  separating 
Italy  from  Sicily.  The  promontory  is 
200  feet  high,  projecting  into  the  sea, 
and  at  its  base  is  the  town.  The  navi- 
gation at  this  place  was  looked  upon  by 
the  ancients  as  attended  with  immense 
danger.  At  the  present  day  the  risk  is 
not  more  than  attends  the  doubling  of 
an  ordinary  cape.  Charybdis  (modern 
name  Galofaro)  is  a  celebrated  whirlpool 
in  the  Straits  of  Messina,  nearly  oppo- 
site the  entrance  to  the  harbor  of  Messina 
in  Sicily,  and  in  ancient  writings  always 
mentioned  in  conjunction  with  Scylla. 
The  navigation  of  this  whirlpool  is,  even 
at  the  present  day,  considered  to  be  very 
dangerous. 

SCYTHE,  an  implement  which  has 
been  known  from  the  earliest  ages.  The 
ancient  form  being  nearly  the  same  as 
the  modern.  It  consists  of  a  curved 
steel  blade  fixed  at  right  angles  to  a  long, 
crooked  handle,  to  which  are  fastened 
two  other  smaller  handles.  One  of  the 
first  American  inventions  was  an  im- 
provement in  the  scythe,  originated  by 
Joseph  Jenks,  who  strengthened  the  back 
edge  of  the  blade  by  welding  to  it  a  strip 
of  iron.  Scythes  are  used  for  cutting 
grass  and  corn;  when  for  the  latter  pur- 
pose, a  piece  of  wickerwork,  called  a 
cradle,  is  attached.  In  antiquity,  the 
curved,  cutting  blade,  which  was  affixed 
to  the  wheels  of  war  chariots,  was  called 
a  scythe.  The  implement  in  its  agri- 
cultural form  was  an  emblem  of  Saturn 
or  Chronos  or  old  "Father  Time." 

SCYTHIANS,  a  name  very  vaguely 
used  by  ancient  writers.  It  was  some- 
times applied  to  all  the  nomadic  tribes 
which  wandered  over  the  regions  to  the 
N.  of  the  Black  and  the  Caspian  Seas, 
and  to  the  E.  of  the  latter.  In  the  time 
of  the  Roman  empire  the  name  Scythia 
extended  over  Asia  from  the  Volga  to 
the  frontiers  of  India. 

SEA,  a  general  name  for  the  great 
body    of    salt    water    which    covers    the 


greater  part  of  the  earth's  surface;  the 
ocean.  In  a  more  limited  sense  the  term 
is  applied  to  a  part  of  the  ocean  which 
from  its  position  or  configuration  is 
looked  upon  as  distinct  and  deserving  of 
a  special  name,  as  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  the  Black  Sea,  etc.  The  term  is  also 
occasionally  applied  to  inland  lakes,  as 
the  Caspian  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  etc. 
Area. — The  waters  of  the  sea  cover 
about  130,000,000  square  miles,  or  about 
two-thirds  of  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  areas  of  the  main  division  of  the 
ocean  are  estimated  as  follows: 

Sq.  miles 
Pacific   (from  Arctic  Circle  to  40° 

S.)    63,986,000 

Atlantic    (from    Arctic    Circle    to 

40°   S.)    31,530,000 

Indian  (S.  boundary  40°  S.)  ....  28,350,000 
Arctic   (within  the  Arctic  Circle)      5,541,000 


129,407,000 


Depth. — The  solid  globe  or  lithosphere, 
viewed  as  to  its  superficial  aspect,  may 
be  regarded  as  divided  into  two  great 
planes;  one  of  these  corresponds  to  the 
dry  land  or  upper  surface  of  the  con- 
tinental masses,  and  occupies  about  two- 
seventh  of  the  earth's  surface;  the  other, 
corresponding  to  the  abysmal  regions  of 
the  ocean,  is  depressed  over  2V2  miles  be- 
low the  general  level  of  the  continental 
plane,  and  occupies  about  four-sevenths 
of  the  earth's  surface.  The  transitional 
area,  uniting  these  two  planes,  forms  the 
sides  or  walls  of  the  ocean  basins,  and 
occupies  about  one-seventh  of  the  earth's 
surface.  The  depressed  regions  of  the 
globe,  represented  by  the  ocean  basins, 
are  filled  with  sea  water  up  to  within 
about  375  fathoms  (2,250  feet)  of  the 
general  level  of  the  continents,  the  aver- 
age depth  of  the  water  in  the  ocean 
basins  being  on  the  other  hand  about 
2,080  fathoms  (12,480  feet).  The  aver- 
age depths  of  the  main  divisions  of  the 
ocean  are: 

Pacific  Ocean    13.43S   feet 

Atlantic   Ocean    13,654      " 

Indian   Ocean    12,887      " 

Arctic  Ocean    3,837     " 

The  greatest  depth  hitherto  recorded  is 
5,269  fathoms  or  31,614  feet  in  the  Pa- 
cific near  the  island  of  Guam.  In  the 
Atlantic  the  greatest  depth  is  4,561 
fathoms,  off  Porto  Rico.  Ross  records  a 
sounding  in  the  Antarctic  ocean  where 
he  found  no  bottom  at  4,000  fathoms.  By 
far  the  larger  portion  of  the  sea  floor 
lies  between  the  depths  of  1,000  and 
3,000  fathoms,  equal  to  nearly  78  per 
cent.,  while  about  17%  per  cent,  is  found 
in  depths  less  than  1,000  fathoms,  and 
about  4  y2  per  cent,  in  depths  greater  than 
3,000  fathoms.     The  bulk  of  water  in  the 


SEA                                   309  SEA 

whole  ocean  is  estimated  at  315,000,000  composition  of  1,000  cubic  centimeters  of 

cubic  miles.  sea  water: 

Temperature. — The      temperature      of  •        ■.          ,_,     aj                                OD  _nc. 

the   surface  waters   of   the  ocean  varies  Sg^SKwSriK  V.'. .WW:     "'obIs 

from  28     F.  in  the  polar  regions  to  85  Magnesium  sulphate  1.7  (5«5 

or   86°    in   equatorial  regions.     In  many         Calcium  sulphate 1.34 25 

places  the  surface  layers  are  subject  to  Malnls^  Sbrom!dI   W.  .V.'..'.       0.8809 

great  annual  changes  due  to  the  seasons        Calcium  carbonate  0.1287 

and  the  direction  of  the  wind.     The  tern-        Water    989.7073 

perature  of  the  water  at  the  bottom  of  1027.0000 
the  ocean  over  the  abysmal  areas  ranges 

from  32.7°  F.  to  36.8°  F.  The  great  Each  base  is  probably  in  combination 
mass  of  the  ocean  consists  of  cold  water  with  each  acid,  so  that  there  are  really 
— i.  e.,  of  water  below  40°  or  45°  F.;  at  16  salts  altogether  from  the  mixture  of 
a  depth  of  little  over  half  a  mile  the  the  four  bases  and  four  acids.  The  total 
water  in  the  tropics  has  generally  a  amount  of  sea  salts  may  vary  greatly  in 
temperature  below  40°  F.  In  the  open  different  samples  of  sea  water,  but  it  has 
ocean  the  temperature  usually  decreases  been  shown  by  hundreds  of  carefully  con- 
as  the  depth  increases,  the  coldest  water  ducted  experiments  that  the  ratio  of  the 
being  found  at  the  bottom.  In  inclosed  constituents  of  sea  salts  is  nearly  every- 
or  partially  inclosed  seas,  cut  off  by  bar-  where  constant,  with  one  significant  ex- 
riers  from  the  great  ocean  basins,  the  ception,  that  of  lime,  which  is  in  slightly 
temperature  remains  uniform  from  the  greater  proportion  in  the  water  from  the 
height  of  the  barrier  down  to  the  bottom;  deeper  parts  of  the  ocean  basins.  Nitro- 
for  instance,  in  the  Mediterranean  the  gen  remains  at  all  times  and  places  nearly 
temperature  is  about  56°  from  200  constant;  not  infrequently  the  propor- 
fathoms  down  to  2,000  fathoms.  tion  of  oxygen  is  much  reduced  in  deep 

Circulation. — The  circulation  of  oceanic  water,  owing  to  the  process  of  oxidation 
waters  is  maintained  by  the  action  of  the  and  respiration.  Carbonic  acid  free  or 
prevailing  winds  and  by  other  causes,  loosely  combined  is  abundant,  and  plays 
In  the  oceanic  areas  the  prevailing  winds  a  most  important  role  in  the  economy 
are  governed  by  the  large  anticyclonic  of  the  ocean,  combining  with  and  render- 
areas  situated  toward  the  centers  of  the  ing  soluble  normal  carbonates  of  lime 
north  and  south  Atlantic  and  north  and  and  magnesia  to  solution  in  the  form  of 
south  Pacific.  The  winds  blow  out  from  bicarbonates.  Water,  as  is  well  known, 
and  around  these  anticyclonic  areas.  For  is  but  slightly  compressible,  and  almost 
instance,  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  the  any  substance  that  will  fall  to  the  bot- 
warm  salt  water  of  the  tropical  regions  torn  of  a  tumbler  of  water  will  in  time 
is  driven  to  the  S.  along  the  E.  coasts  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  deep  ocean, 
of  South  America,  Africa,  and  Australia,  Still  the  compressibility  of  water  must 
till  on  reaching  a  latitude  of  between  50°  not  be  neglected  in  oceanographical  ques- 
and  55°  S.  it  sinks  on  being  cooled  and  tions.  In  the  deeper  parts  of  the  ocean 
spreads  slowly  over  the  floor  of  the  ocean  the  pressure  amounts  to  four  or  five  tons 
to  the  N.  and  S.  A  similar  circulation  per  square  inch;  hence,  in  an  ocean  with 
takes  place  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  a  depth  of  5  miles,  were  the  action  of 
though  much  modified  by  the  peculiar  gravity  suddenly  to  cease,  the  ocean 
configuration  of  the  land  masses;  for  in-  waters  would  rise  500  feet  above  their 
stance,  the  cold  salt  water  at  30°  F.  present  level  from  expansion, 
which  occupies  the  deeper  parts  of  the  Life. — The  color  of  pure  sea  water  is 
Arctic  basin  is  largely  made  up  of  the  a  light  shade  of  blue;  it  has,  however, 
dense  Gulf  Stream  water,  which  sinks  frequently  various  shades  of  green  and 
to  the  bottom  on  being  cooled  in  the  Nor-  brown,  owing  to  the  presence  of  organisms 
wegian  Sea.  The  water  evaporated  from  and  matters  in  suspension.  It  has  been 
the  sea  surface  is  borne  to  the  land  masses  definitely  established  that  life  in  some 
and  condensed  on  the  mountain  slopes,  of  its  many  forms  is  universally  distrib- 
The  saltiest  waters  are  found  in  the  re-  uted  throughout  the  ocean.  It  has  long 
gions  of  greatest  evaporation;  for  in-  been  known  that  marine  plants  and  ani- 
stance,  in  the  Red  Sea,  Mediterranean,  mals  abound  in  the  shallow  waters  sur- 
and  in  the  trade-wind  regions  of  the  rounding  continents  and  islands.  Algse 
great  ocean  basins.  disappear    from    the    sea-bed    at    depths 

Composition  of  Sea  Water.— It  is  prob-  between  100  and  200  fathoms,  but  a  great 
able  that  every  element  is  in  solution  in  abundance  of  animals  have  been  procured 
sea  water,  the  great  majority,  however,  in  the  greater  depths.  The  term  'Ben- 
present  only  in  exceedingly  minute  traces,  thos"  is  now  used  for  all  the  animals  and 
If  the  average  density  of  sea  water  be  plants  which  live  attached  to  or  creep 
taken  at  1,027,  pure  water  being  1,000,  over  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  "Plankton 
then  the  following  would  represent  the  being  the  term  for  all  the  plants  and  am- 


SEA 


310 


SEA 


mals  which  live  in,  and  are  carried  along 
by  the  currents  of  the  ocean.  In  the 
great  body  of  oceanic  waters  life  is  most 
abundant  in  the  surface  and  sub-surface 
waters  down  to  about  100  fathoms. 
Pelagic  algae,  such  as  diatoms  and  oscil- 
latoria,  are  abundant  in  this  region,  and 
are  the  principal  and  original  source  of 
food  for  many  pelagic  and  nearly  all 
deep-sea  animals.  In  the  intermediate 
depths  of  the  ocean  life  though  present  is 
less  abundant. 

Deposits. — All  marine  deposits  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes — viz.,  those  made 
up  principally  of  the  debris  from  the 
solid  land  of  the  globe,  laid  down  in 
greater  or  less  proximity  to  the  shores 
of  continents  and  islands,  called  "terri- 
genous" deposits,  and  those  in  which  this 
continental  debris  is  nearly  or  quite  ab- 
sent, laid  down  in  the  abysmal  regions 
of  the  ocean,  called  "pelagic"  deposits. 
Commencing  with  the  former,  there  are 
first  the  littoral  and  shallow-water  de- 
posits, forming  around  the  land  masses 
from  the  shore  down  to  a  depth  of  about 
100  fathoms,  consisting  of  sands,  gravels, 
and  muds  derived  almost  entirely  from 
the  disintegration  of  the  neighboring 
lands.  The  littoral  deposits,  laid  down 
between  tide  marks,  cover  about  63,000 
square  miles,  and  the  shallow-water  de- 
posits, between  low-water  mark  and  100 
fathoms,  about  10,000,000  square  miles. 
Proceeding  seaward  from  an  average 
depth  of  about  100  fathoms,  the  deposits 
gradually  change  in  character,  the  pro- 
portion of  land  detritus  decreasing,  while 
the  remains  of  oceanic  organisms  increase 
in  abundance  till  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  land  and  in  comparatively 
deep  water  the  terrigenous  deposits  pass 
insensibly  into  truly  pelagic  deposits.  The 
terrigenous  deep-sea  deposits — i.  e.,  those 
formed  at  depths  greater  than  100 
fathoms — may  be  briefly  summarized  as 
follows : 

Blue  mud,  the  most  extensive,  is  gray- 
ish or  bluish  in  color,  with  usually  a 
thin  reddish  upper  layer,  and  is  char- 
acterized by  the  presence  of  fragments 
of  rocks  and  mineral  particles  coming 
from  the  disintegration  of  the  land.  Blue 
mud  is  found  along  the  coasts  of  con- 
tinents and  continental  islands,  and  in 
all  inclosed  and  partially  inclosed  seas. 
Blue  mud  is  estimated  to  cover  about 
14,500,000  square  miles  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face—4,000,000  in  the  Arctic,  3,000,000  in 
the  Pacific,  2,500,000  in  the  Antarctic, 
2,000,000  in  the  Atlantic,  1,500,000  in  the 
Indian,  and  1,500,000  in  the  Southern 
ocean.  Red  mud  covers  about  100,000 
square  miles  off  the  coast  of  Brazil. 

Green  mud  and  sand  are  similar  to  the 
blue  muds,  but  are  characterized  by  the 
presence    of    the    mineral    glauconite    in 


isolated  grains  or  in  small  concretions; 
the  dead  shells  of  calcareous  organisms 
are  usually  filled  with  the  glauconite, 
which  gives  the  green  color  to  the  de- 
posits. Green  mud  and  sand  cover  about 
850,000  square  miles — 300,000  in  the  At- 
lantic, 250,000  in  the  Pacific,  150,000  in 
the  Indian,  90,000  in  the  Southern,  and 
60,000  in  the  Antarctic. 

Volcanic  mud  and  sand  are  deposited 
around  the  oceanic  islands  of  volcanic 
origin  and  the  name  is  derived  from  the 
presence  of  fragments  and  particles  of 
volcanic  rocks  and  minerals,  which  are 
larger  and  more  numerous  nearer  the 
islands,  when  the  deposit  is  called  a  sand. 
Volcanic  mud  and  sand  cover  about  600,- 
000  square  miles— 300,000  in  the  Pacific, 
200,000  in  the  Atlantic,  and  100,000  in 
the  Indian  ocean. 

Coral  mud  and  sand  occur  similarly 
around  the  oceanic  coral  islands  and  off 
those  coasts  and  islands  fringed  by  coral 
reefs.  Coral  mud  and  sand  cover  about 
2,557,000  square  miles— 1,417,000  in  the 
Pacific,  760,000  in  the  Atlantic,  and  380,- 
000  in  the  Indian  ocean. 

Of  pelagic  deposits  there  are  five  types, 
four  of  organic  origin,  receiving  their 
designations  from  the  distinctive  presence 
of  the  remains  of  calcareous  or  siliceous 
organisms,  the  fifth  and  most  extensive 
being  of  inorganic  origin. 

Globigerina  ooze  is  so  called  from  the 
presence  of  the  dead  shells  of  pelagic 
Foraminifera,  those  belonging  to  the 
genus  Globigerina  predominating,  which 
live  in  the  surface  and  sub-surface  waters 
of  the  ocean,  being  especially  abundant 
in  tropical  regions,  and  the  shells  of  which 
after  death  fall  to  the  bottom  and  there 
accumulate  in  moderate  depths.  The 
depth  at  which  Globigerina  ooze  is  found 
varies  from  less  than  500  to  over  2,500 
fathoms,  the  average  depth  being  about 
2,000  fathoms.  Globigerina  ooze  covers 
about  49,520,000  square  miles— 17,940,000 
in  the  Atlantic,  11,300,000  in  the  Pacific, 
10,560,000  in  the  Southern,  and  9,720,000 
in  the  Indian  ocean. 

Pteropod  ooze  resembles  Globigerina 
ooze  in  all  respects,  except  that  there  is 
a  greater  abundance  of  the  dead  shells 
of  pelagic  mollusca,  such  as  pteropoda 
and  heteropods;  it  is  usually  found  in 
lesser  depths  than  the  Globigerina  ooze. 
Pteropod  ooze  covers  about  400,000  square 
miles  in  the  Atlantic. 

Diatom  ooze  is  distinguished  by  the 
presence  of  numerous  remains  of  siliceous 
organisms,  principally  Diatoms,  though 
fragments  of  siliceous  sponge  spicules  and 
Radiolaria  and  Foraminifera  are  rarely 
absent.  It  is  found  in  the  Antarctic  and 
Southern  oceans  and  also  in  the  north- 
west Pacific.  Diatom  ooze  covers  about 
10.880,000  square  miles— 10,000,000  in  the 


SEA    ANEMONE 


311 


SEA    EAGLE 


Southern,  840,000  in  the  Antarctic,  and 
40,000  in  the  Pacific. 

Radiolarian  ooze  in  like  manner  con- 
tains a  varying  proportion  of  siliceous 
remains,  in  this  case  principally  Radio- 
laria  and  their  fragments.  Calcareous 
organisms  and  mineral  particles  are 
nearly  always  present  in  both  these  oozes, 
being  usually  more  numerous  and  the 
mineral  particles  larger  in  the  diatom 
ooze  than  in  the  radiolarian  ooze,  which 
latter  generally  occurs  in  greater  depths 
than  the  former.  Radiolarian  ooze  covers 
about  2,290,000  square  miles— 1,161,000  in 
the  Pacific,  and  1,129,000  in  the  Indian 
ocean. 

Red  clay  occupies  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  deeper  abysses  of  the  ocean,  occurring 
in  its  most  characteristic  form  in  the 
central  regions  of  the  Pacific,  far  re- 
moved from  continental  land.  It  is  of  a 
reddish  or  chocolate  color,  due  to  the 
presence  of  the  oxides  of  manganese  and 
iron.  Mineral  particles  of  secondary  ori- 
gin, arising  from  the  decomposition  of 
volcanic  debris,  are  associated  with  the 
red  clay,  and  in  some  regions  of  the 
central  Pacific  isolated  crystals  and 
spheroidal  groups  of  phillipsite  of  secon- 
dary origin  formed  in  situ  make  up  a 
considerable  quantity  of  the  deposit.  The 
presence  of  the  remains  of  vertebrates, 
some  of  them  belonging  to  extinct  species 
lying  alongside  others  belonging  to  exist- 
ing species,  as  well  as  the  formation  of 
manganese  nodules  and  zeolitic  crystals 
in  situ,  and  the  presence  of  metallic  and 
chondritic  spherules  of  cosmic  origin,  ap- 
pear to  indicate  that  the  red  clay  accu- 
mulates at  a  very  slow  rate.  Red  clay 
covers  about  51,500,000  square  miles — 
37,230,000  in  the  Pacific,  5,800,000  in  the 
Atlantic,  4,350,000  in  the  Southern,  and 
4,120,000  in  the  Indian  ocean. 

SEA  ANEMONE,  the  popular  name 
given  to  a  number  of  animals  of  the  sub- 
kingdom  Ccelenterata  and  class  Actino- 
zoa,  including  the  genus  Actinia  and 
other  genera.  All  sea  anemones,  however 
varied  in  coloration  or  form,  present  the 
essential  structure  and  appearance  of  a 
fleshy  cylinder,  attached  by  its  base  to  a 
rock  or  stone,  and  presenting  at  its  free 
extremity  the  mouth,  surrounded  by  a 
circlet  of  arms  or  tentacles.  With  these 
tentacles,  which  may  be  very  numerous, 
in  some  cases  exceeding  200  in  number, 
they  seize  and  secure  their  food — small 
Crustacea,  mollusks,  such  as  whelks,  etc. 
— which  they  paralyze  by  means  of  the 
thread  cells  common  to  them  with  all 
Ccelenterata.  The  mouth  leads  into  a 
stomach  sac.  When  fully  expanded,  the 
appearance  of  the  anemones  in  all  their 
varieties  of  color  is  exceedingly  beautiful. 
But  on  the  slightest  touch  the  tentacles 


can  be  quickly  retracted  within  the  mouth 
aperture,  the  fluids  of  the  body  are  ex- 
pelled by  the  mouth,  and  the  animal,  from 
presenting  the  appearance  of  a  fully 
expanded  flower,  becomes  a  conical  mass 
of  jelly-like  matter.  They  are,  most  of 
them,  dioecious,  that  is,  having  the  sexes 
situated  in  different  individuals.  The 
young  are  developed  within  the  parent 
body,  and  appear  in  their  embryo  state 
as  free  swimming  ciliated  bodies  of  an 
oval  shape.  The  sea  anemones  resemble 
the  Hydrse  in  their  marvelous  powers  of 
resisting  injuries  and  mutilation.  They 
are  eaten  as  food  in  Italy,  Greece  and  on 
various  coasts. 

SEABTJBY,  SAMUEL,  an  American 
clergyman;  born  in  Groton,  Conn.,  Nov. 
30,  1729;  was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1748; 
studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh;  and  re- 
ceived deacon's  and  priest's  orders  in 
England  in  1753.  For  some  time  he  was 
a  missionary  of  the  S.  P.  G. ;  in  1757  he 
was  promoted  to  the  "living"  of  Jamaica, 
Long  Island,  and  10  years  later  to  that 
of  Westchester,  N.  Y.  The  Whigs,  how- 
ever, prevented  his  ministering,  and  once 
imprisoned  him  for  six  weeks  at  New 
Haven.  He  removed  to  New  York,  where 
he  made  his  medical  knowledge  contribute 
to  his  support,  acted  as  chaplain  of  the 
King's  American  regiment,  and  wrote  a 
series  of  pamphlets  which  earned  for  him 
the  special  hostility  of  the  patriots.  On 
March  25,  1783,  the  clergy  of  Connecti- 
cut met  at  Woodbury  and  elected  Sea- 
bury  bishop;  and  for  16  months  he  waited 
vainly  in  London  for  consecration,  the 
archbishops  being  indisposed  to  move 
without  the  sanction  of  the  civil  author- 
ity. On  Nov.  14, 1784,  he  was  consecrated 
at  Aberdeen  by  bishops  of  the  Scotch 
Episcopal  Church.  Bishop  Seabury's 
jurisdiction  embraced  Rhode  Island  as 
well  as  Connecticut,  and  he  acted  also 
as  rector  of  St.  James'  Church,  New 
London.  In  1792  he  joined  with  three 
bishops  of  the  English  succession  in  con- 
secrating a  fifth,  Bishop  Claggett,  through 
whom  every  American  bishop  derives 
from  Seabury  and  the  Scotch  Church. 
Seabury  secured  to  the  episcopate  its 
proper  share  in  the  government  of  the 
Church,  and  the  restoration  of  the  obla- 
tion and  invocation  to  the  Communion 
Office  (from  the  Scotch  Office).  He  died 
Feb.  25,  1796. 

SEA  EAGLE,  a  name  applied  to  one 
or  two  members  of  the  eagle  family;  but  , 
probably  with  most  distinctive  value  to 
the  cinereous  or  white-tailed  eagle  or 
erne,  Haliaetus  albicilla,  found  in  all 
parts  of  Europe.  It  is  generally  found 
inhabiting  the  seacoasts,  and  though  liv- 
ing mainly  on  fish,  yet  makes  inland  jour- 


SEA    ELEPHANT 


312 


SEAL 


neys  in  search  of  food,  and  seizes  lambs, 
hares,  and  other  animals.  The  head  is 
covered  with  long  drooping  feathers  of 
ashy  brown  color,  while  the  body  is  of  a 
dark-brown  hue,  streaked  in  some  places 


SEA  EAGLE 

with  lighter  tints,  and  having  the  pri- 
mary feathers  of  the  wing  mostly  black. 
The  tail  is  rounded,  and  is  of  white 
color  in  the  adult,  but  brown  in  the  young 
bird.  The  bird  feeds  in  Shetland  and 
in  the  Hebrides.  The  American  bald- 
headed  eagle,  Haliaetus  leucocephalus, 
from  its  frequenting  the  seacoasts  is  also 
named  the  sea  eagle.     See  Eagle. 

SEA  ELEPHANT,  a  large  seal,  called 
also  bottle-nosed  seal  and  seal  elephant. 
It  is  the  largest  of  the  seal  family,  being 
larger  than  an  elephant.  The  average 
length  of  the  male  is  12  to  14  feet,  but 
some  of  20  and  25  feet  are  mentioned. 


SEA  ELEPHANT 

The  female  is  generally  about  10  feet 
long.  It  gets  its  name  from  its  size  and 
from  its  proboscis,  which  stretches  out 
a  foot  or  more,  somewhat  like  the  trunk 
of  an  elephant.  The  males  are  slaty -blue 
or  brown,  the  female  olive-brown  above 
and  yellowish  below.  Their  hair  is  coarse 
and  useless,  but  their  thick  skin  makes 
good  harness  leather.  The  blubber  yields 
a  fine  clear  oil  as  good  as  sperm  oil,  with- 
out bad  smell  or  taste.  In  England  it  is 
used  for  softening  wool  and  in  making 
cloth.  The  sea  elephant  was  once  found 
in  abundance  at  Heard's  Island  in  the 
southern  Indian  ocean,  and  at  the  Falk- 


land and  South  Shetland  Islands  and 
other  islands  in  the  south  Atlantic,  and 
the  coast  of  California.     It  is  now  rare. 

SEAGER,  HENRY  ROGERS,  an 
American  economist,  born  at  Lansing, 
Mich.,  in  1870.  He  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Michigan  in  1890,  and  took 
post-graduate  studies  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  at  Johns  Hopkins,  and 
in  Germany  and  Austria.  From  1897  to 
1902  he  was  assistant  professor  of  poli- 
tical economy  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  in  1905  became  professor 
of  the  same  branch  at  Columbia  Univer- 
sity. He  wrote  "Introduction  to  Eco- 
nomics" (1904);  "Social  Insurance" 
(1910) ;  "Principles  of  Economics" 
(1917).  From  1917  to  1919  he  was 
secretary  of  the  Shipbuilding  Labor 
Adjustment  Board  in  Washington. 

SEA  HARE,  Aplysia,  the  name  of  a 
genus  of  gasteropodous  mollusca.  These 
animals  are  slug-like  in  appearance,  and 
derive  their  popular  name  from  the 
prominent  character  of  the  front  pair  of 
tentacles,  which  somewhat  resemble  the 
ears  of  a  hare.  The  shell  is  either  absent 
or  is  of  very  rudimentary  character,  and 
is  concealed  by  the  mantle.  Four  tenta- 
cles exist,  and  the  eyes  are  situated  at 
the  base  of  the  hinder  tentacles.  The  sea 
hares  are  widely  distributed  throughout 
most  seas,  and  generally  inhabit  muddy 
or  sandy  tracts.  They  emit  a  fluid  of  a 
rich  purple  hue.  They  are  also  known 
to  discharge  an  acrid  fluid  of  milky  ap- 
pearance, which  has  an  irritant  effect  on 
the  human  skin.  A.  hybrida  is  the  com- 
mon British  species. 

SEA  KALE,  Cram.be  maritima,  a  per- 
ennial cruciferous  herb,  a  species  of  cole- 
wort,  called  also  sea  cabbage.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  seacoasts  of  Europe,  and 
is  much  cultivated  in  gardens  as  a  table 
vegetable. 

SEAL,  an  impression  made  on  paper, 
clay,  wax,  or  other  substance,  by  means 
of  a  die  of  metal,  stone,  or  other  hard 
material.  The  stamp  which  yields  the 
impression  is  frequently  itself  called  the 
seal.  The  use  of  seals  may  be  traced 
to  the  remotest  antiquity.  The  Bible  con- 
tains frequent  allusions  to  them,  and  their 
use  has  been  common  in  all  the  Euro- 
pean states  from  the  earliest  historical 
periods.  It  is  affixed  to  legal  instruments 
so  as  to  furnish  evidence  of  their  authen- 
ticity. 

SEAL,  in  zoology,  the  family  Phocidse 
or  seal  tribe,  are,  of  all  four-limbed  mam- 
miferous  animals,  those  which  display 
the  most  complete  adaptation  to  residence 
in  the  water.  The  head  is  round,  and  th<s 
nose,  which  is  broad,  resembles  that  of 


SEAL 


313 


SEA    LION 


a  dog,  with  the  same  look  of  intelligence 
and  mild  and  expressive  physiognomy. 
It  has  large  whiskers,  oblong  nostrils,  and 
great  black  sparkling  eyes.  It  has  no 
external  ears,  but  a  valve  exists  in  the 
orifices,  which  can  be  closed  at  will,  so 
as  to  keep  out  the  water;  the  nostrils 
have  a  similar  valve;  and  the  clothing 
of  the  body  consists  of  stiff  glossy  hairs, 
very  closely  set  against  the  skin.  The 
body  is  elongated  and  conical,  gradually 
tapering  from  the  shoulders  to  the  tail. 
The  spine  is  provided  with  strong 
muscles,  which  bend  it  with  considerable 
force;  and  this  movement  is  of  great 
assistance  to  the  propulsion  of  the  body. 
Though  furnished  with  the  same  number 
of  bones  as  in  quadrupeds,  they  are  united 
to  the  body  in  such  a  singular  manner, 
and  so  covered  with  a  membrane,  that 
they  would  rather  resemble  fins  than  feet, 
did  not  the  sharp  strong  claws  with  which 
they  are  pointed  show  their  proper  anal- 
ogy. The  limbs,  in  fact,  are  converted 
into  oars  and  paddles.  The  anterior  pair 
have  the  arm  and  forearm  so  short,  that 
little  more  than  the  paw  advances  from 
the  body.  The  hinder  limbs  are  directed 
backward,  so  as  almost  to  seem  like  a 
continuation  of  the  body;  the  thigh  and 
leg  are  very  short,  and  the  foot  is  formed 
on  the  same  plan  as  the  forepaw,  the 
toes  being  in  contact,  however,  and  the 
web  folded,  when  it  is  not  in  use  as  a 
paddle,  but  being  spread  out  when  the 
animal  is  swimming.  When  on  land,  or 
on  masses  of  ice,  the  movements  of  the 
seal  are  particularly  awkward,  its  body 
being  forced  onward  by  the  action  of  the 
forelimbs  only,  and  the  wriggling  mo- 
tion of  the  abdominal  muscles.  The  seals 
live  in  herds,  more  or  less  numerous, 
along  the  shores  of  the  sea ;  and  on  unin- 
habited coasts  they  bring  forth  and 
suckle  their  young,  and  exhibit  the  most 
tendar  solicitude  for  their  welfare.  They 
are  easily  tamed,  become  strongly  at- 
tached to  their  keepers,  recognize  them 
at  a  distance,  and  seem  to  be  endowed 
with  a  very  considerable  share  of  intelli- 
gence. The  form  of  their  teeth  and  jaws 
shows  them  to  be  carnivorous;  and  their 
food  consists  of  fish,  crabs,  and  sea  birds, 
which  they  are  enabled  to  surprise  while 
swimming.  Seals  swim  with  great  rapid- 
ity and  ease.  They  can  remain  under 
water  for  a  considerable  time. 

These  animals  produce  two  or  three 
young  at  a  time;  and  they  suckle  them 
for  six  or  seven  weeks,  generally  in  the 
cavernous  recesses  of  rocks,  after  which 
they  take  to  the  sea.  The  young  are  re- 
markably docile;  they  recognize  and  are 
obedient  to  the  voice  of  their  dams  amid 
the  numerous  clamors  of  the  flock,  and 
mutually  assist  each  other  when  in  dan- 
ger or  distress.    They  continue  to  live  in 


society,  hunt  and  herd  together,  and  have 
a  variety  of  cries  by  which  they  encour- 
age or  pursue,  express  apprehension  or 
success.  When  incited  by  natural  desire, 
however,  their  social  spirit  seems  to  for- 
sake them;  they  then  fight  most  desper- 
ately; and  the  victorious  male  always 
keeps  a  watchful  eye  over  those  females 
whom  his  prowess  has  secured. 

The  common  seal,  Phoca  vitulina, 
abundant  in  the  cool  and  frigid  regions, 
is  three  to  five  feet  long,  and  is  much 
hunted  for  its  skins,  and  for  its  oil  and 
flesh.  The  skins  though  their  covering 
is  hair,  not  fur,  are  much  valued.  The 
harp  seal  (P.  groenlandica)  is  abundant 
on  the  Arctic  coasts  of  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, and  is  killed  in  great  numbers  for 
its  oil  and  skins.  There  are  several  other 
species  in  the  North  Atlantic,  while  some 
species  extend  to  the  tropics.  There  is 
a  second  family  of  the  Pinnipedia,  known 
as  the  Otariidas,  or  sea  lions  and  sea 
bears,  the  former  having  only  long  coarse 
hair,  while  the  latter  have  in  addition  a 
short,  soft,  and  delicate  fur,  which,  under 
the  name  of  seal  skin,  is  highly  valued 
in  commerce.  The  Sea  Lion  (q.  v.)  is 
found  on  both  coasts  of  the  Pacific  from 
California  and  Japan  N.,  and  there  is 
an  Antarctic  species.  The  celebrated  N. 
species  Callorhinus  ursinus,  which  yields 
the  valuable  sealskin  of  commerce,  is  con- 
fined to  the  north  Pacific,  breeding  only 
on  two  of  the  Pribilof  Islands,  in  Bering 
Sea,  and  two  of  the  Commander  Islands, 
further  W.  In  1919  there  were  524,264 
fur  seals;  25,381  were  taken.  See  Fur: 
Bering  Sea:  Sea  Elephant. 

SEALING  WAX,  a  composition  for 
sealing  or  securely  fastening  letters  or 
packets.  Sealing  wax  made  of  resin,  and 
colored  with  vermilion,  lamp-black,  white 
lead,  or  orpiment,  was  made  in  the  16th 
century. 

SEA  LION,  a  popular  name  for  the 
genus   Otaria;     specifically,    0.    (Eume- 


sea  lion 


topias,  Gray)  stelleri,  the  hair  seal  of  the 
Pribiloffs,  or  Steller's  sea  lion.  The  male 
attains  a  length  of  11  or  12  feet,  and  a 


SEAMAN 


314 


SEA    MOUSE 


weight  of  about  1,000  pounds.  Color 
golden  rufous,  darker  behind,  limbs 
approaching  black.  It  is  destitute  of  fur, 
and  its  skin  therefore  is  of  little  value, 
but  the  hide,  fat,  flesh,  sinews,  and  intes- 
tines are  all  useful  to  the  Aleutian  island- 
ers. The  hides  yield  excellent  leather,  oil 
vessels  are  made  from  the  stomachs,  the 
sinews  are  used  for  threads  for  binding 
skin  canoes,  and  the  flesh  is  considered 
a  delicacy.  Sea  lions  are  found  round 
Kamchatka  and  the  Asiatic  coast  to  the 
Kurile  islands,  and  there  is  a  colony  of 
them  at  San  Francisco  protected  by  the 
National  government.  In  heraldry,  a 
monster  consisting  of  the  upper  part  of 
a  lion  combined  with  the  tail  of  a  fish. 

SEAMAN,  LOUIS  LIVINGSTON,  an 
American  surgeon,  born  at  Newburgh, 
N.  Y.,  in  1851.  He  graduated  from  Jef- 
ferson Medical  College,  Philadelphia,  in 
1876,  and  from  the  University  Medical 
College,  New  York,  in  1877.  He  engaged 
in  hospital  work  in  the  latter  city,  and  in 
1886  made  a  tour  around  the  world.  He 
served  as  surgeon  of  the  First  Regiment 
of  the  United  States  Volunteer  Engi- 
neers, in  the  Spanish-American  War,  and 
during  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  was  with 
the  Japanese  Army  in  Manchuria.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  he  served 
in  the  hospitals  of  the  Belgian  Army. 
He  made  a  special  study  of  the  sanitary 
arrangement  of  armies,  and  was  con- 
sidered an  authority  on  that  subject.  He 
wrote  "The  Crucifixion  of  Belgium"; 
"Military  Preparedness,"  and  many  ar- 
ticles on  medical  and  military  subjects. 

SEAMAN,  SIR  OWEN,  an  English 
writer  and  editor,  born  in  1861.  He  was 
educated  at  Shrewsbury  School  and  at 
Cambridge  University.  After  teaching 
for  about  10  years,  he  began  writing  for 
"Punch"  and  other  periodicals,  in  1894. 
In  1897  he  was  called  to  the  Inner  Temple 
and  in  the  same  year  he  joined  the  edi- 
torial staff  of  "Punch,"  becoming  assis- 
tant editor  in  1902,  and  editor  in  1906. 
In  1909  he  was  made  honorary  fellow 
of  Clair  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1914 
he  was  knighted.  He  was  especially  well 
known  for  his  poetical  work  in  the  field 
of  parody.  He  published  "(Edipus,  the 
Wreck"  (1888)  ;  "Horace  at  Cambridge" 
(1894);  "Tillers  of  the  Sand"  (1895); 
"The  Battle  of  the  Bays"  (1896);  "In 
Cap  and  Bells"  (1899);  "Borrowed 
Plumes"  (1902)  ;  "Harvest  of  Chaff" 
(1904) ;  "Salvage"  (1908) ;  "War  Time" 
(1915);  "Made  in  England"   (1916),  etc. 

SEAMEN,  LAWS  RELATING  TO. 
Because  of  their  isolation  from  the  juris- 
diction of  regular  courts  for  long  periods 
and  their  absence  in  foreign  countries  in 


the  regular  course  of  their  employment, 
it  has  been  found  necessary  in  all  coun- 
tries to  pass  special  legislation  regulat- 
ing the  relations  of  seamen  and  their  em- 
ployers. England  was  the  first  to  do 
this,  in  1854,  when  its  Merchant  Shipping 
Act  was  passed.  The  provisions  of  this 
Act,  several  times  revised,  are  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  British  Board  of 
Trade.  Various  laws  for  the  regulation 
of  the  employment  of  merchant  seamen 
have  since  been  passed  in  this  country, 
being  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Ad- 
miralty Court  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment. The  most  recent  of  these  was  that 
known  as  the  La  Follette  Seamen's  Act, 
passed  in  1915,  which  compels  every  ship 
to  carry  a  crew  of  which  at  least  seventy- 
five  per  cent  must  be  able  to  understand 
orders  given  in  English.  As  a  whole, 
however,  laws  for  the  protection  of  sea- 
men on  American  ships  have  been  few  in 
number,  and  those  few  have  been  almost 
entirely  disregarded  by  shipowners. 
American  ships  have  been  so  notorious 
for  the  ill  treatment  of  their  seamen  that 
until  very  recently  the  majority  of  Amer- 
ican seamen  have  been  found  on  British 
ships.  The  "bucko"  mate  and  skipper  is 
still  a  feature  of  the  American  sailing 
ship.  In  consequence  of  this  state  of  af- 
fairs the  crews  of  American  ships  have 
often  been  "shanghaied,"  being  inexpe- 
rienced foreigners  who  have  been  ab- 
ducted by  force,  usually  while  under  the 
influence  of  drugged  liquors.  The  recent 
development  of  seamen's  labor  organiza- 
tions, rather  than  legislation,  has  been 
the  element  counteracting  these  condi- 
tions. Under  existing  laws,  however,  a 
seaman  may  not  be  discharged  in  a  for- 
eign port  without  his  own  consent,  unless 
he  has  signed  a  special  contract  to  that 
effect.  On  the  other  hand,  he  may  not 
leave  his  employment,  unless  specified  in 
his  contract,  and  if  he  does  so  may  be 
arrested  and  imprisoned  until  the  depart- 
ure of  the  ship,  when  he  is  brought  for- 
cibly aboard.  Flogging  is  forbidden,  but 
physical  violence  is,  nevertheless,  a  fre- 
quent form  of  punishment  aboard  Ameri- 
can ships.  The  laws  relating  to  seamen, 
in  foreign  ports,  are  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  American  consuls,  who  act  as 
judges  in  cases  brought  before  them  by 
shipmasters. 

SEA  MOUSE,  Aphrodite,  a  genus  of 
dorsi-branchiate  Annelids  or  marine 
worms.  The  most  notable  feature  in  con- 
nection with  the  sea  mouse  consists  in 
the  beautiful  iridescent  hues  exhibited  by 
the  hairs  or  bristles  which  fringe  the 
sides  of  the  body.  The  sea  mouse  inhab- 
its deep  water,  and  may  be  obtained  by 
dredging.  The^  common  species,  A.  acu~ 
leata  of  the  British  and  French  coasts,  is 


SEANCE 


315 


SEASIDE    GBAPE 


six  or  eight  inches  long  and  two  or  three 
inches  in  width. 

SEANCE,  a  sitting;  a  session,  as  of 
some  public  body;  specifically  applied  by 
spiritualists  to  a  sitting  with  the  view  of 
evoking  spiritual  manifestations  or  of 
holding  communication  with  spirits. 

SEA  OF  TIBERIAS.  See  Galilee, 
Sea  of. 

SEAPLANE.     See  Aeronautics. 

SEARCH  LIGHT,  an  electric  arc  light 
the  rays  of  which  are  collected  in  a  par- 
allel beam  that  may  be  projected  to  a 
great  distance  and  turned  in  any  direc- 
tion. Search  lights  are  used  on  naval 
vessels  to  show  at  night  the  approach  of 
hostile  vessels,  and  to  detect  floating 
mines  or  torpedo  boats;  also  for  illumi- 
nating signal  flags  and  for  signaling  by 
long  and  short  flashes.  This  system  of 
signaling  is  used  in  the  army  also.  Mes- 
sages may  be  sent  20  miles  or  more. 
Search  lights  are,  broadly  speaking,  of 
two  kinds:  concentrated  beams  and  dis- 
persed beams.  The  latter  were  extensive- 
ly used  in  the  World  War  to  illuminate 
large  areas  of  water  that  had  been  laid 
with  mines.  The  light  is  also  used  in  the 
commercial  marine,  by  liners,  etc. 

SEARCH,  RIGHT  OF,  in  international 
law,  the  right  of  belligerents,  during  war, 
to  visit  and  search  the  vessels  of  neutrals 
for  contraband  of  war.  Some  powerful 
nations  have,  at  different  times,  refused 
to  submit  to  this  search ;  but  all  the  high- 
est authorities  upon  the  law  of  nations 
acknowledge  the  right  in  time  of  war  as 
resting  on  sound  principles  of  public  juris- 
prudence, and  upon  the  institutes  and 
practices  of  all  great  maritime  powers. 
The  duty  of  self-preservation  gives  bellig- 
erent nations  this  right;  and  as  the  law 
now  stands,  a  neutral  vessel  refusing  to 
be  searched  would  from  that  proceeding 
alone  be  condemned  as  a  lawful  prize. 
The  right  of  search,  however,  is  confined 
to  private  merchant  vessels,  and  does  not 
apply  to  public  ships  of  war.  The  exer- 
cise of  this  right  must  also  be  conducted 
with  due  care  and  regard  to  the  rights 
and  safety  of  vessels.  A  neutral  is  bound 
not  only  to  submit  to  search,  but  to  have 
his  vessel  duly  furnished  with  the  neces- 
sary documents  to  support  her  neutral 
character,  the  want  of  which  is  a  strong 
presumptive  evidence  against  the  ship's 
neutrality,  and  the  spoliation  of  them  is 
still  stronger  presumption.  There  may 
be  cases  in  which  the  master  of  a  neutral 
ship  may  be  warranted  in  defending  him- 
self against  extreme  violence  threatened 
by  a  cruiser  grossly  abusing  his  commis- 
sion; but,  except  in  extreme  cases,  no 
merchant  vessel  has  a  right  to  say  for 


itself,  nor  any  armed  vessel  for  it,  that 
it  will  not  submit  to  visitation  or  search, 
or  be  carried  into  a  proximate  court  for 
judicial  inquiry.  If,  on  making  the 
search,  the  vessel  be  found  employed  in 
contraband  trade,  or  in  carrying  enemies' 
property,  or  troops  or  dispatches,  she  is 
liable  to  be  taken  and  brought  in  for 
adjudication  before  a  prize-court.  The 
above  doctrine  has  been  fully  admitted  in 
England ;  -  but  the  Government  of  the 
United  States  has  energetically  refused 
to  submit  to  the  right  assumed  by  the 
English  of  searching  neutral  vessels  on 
the  high  seas  for  deserters,  and  other 
persons  liable  to  military  and  naval  serv- 
ice. This  question,  yet  not  specifically 
settled,  was  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the 
War  of  1812.  In  1914,  1915  and  1916, 
during  the  World  War,  American  ship- 
ping interests  contested  the  right  of 
Great  Britain  to  stop  neutral  ships  and 
take  them  into  British  ports.  The  con- 
troversy was  not  settled  when  the  United 
States  entered  the  war. 

SEARCH  WARRANT,  in  law,  a  war- 
rant granted  by  a  justice  of  the  peace  to 
enter  the  premises  of  a  person  suspected 
of  secreting  stolen  goods,  in  order  to  dis- 
cover and  seize  the  goods  if  found.  Sim- 
ilar warrants  are  granted  to  search  for 
property  or  articles  in  respect  of  which 
other  offenses  are  committed,  as  base 
coin,  coiners'  tools,  arms,  gunpowder,  ni- 
troglycerin, liquors,  etc.,  kept  contrary 
to  law. 

SEA    SERPENT,    the   name    given   to 

gigantic  animals,  presumedly  of  serpen-  ■ 
tine   form,   which   have   been    frequently 
described  by  sailors  and  others. 

Gigantic  cuttlefishes,  now  proved  to 
have  a  veritable  existence,  might  in  many 
cases  imitate  an  elongated  marine  form, 
swimming  near  the  surface  of  the  sea. 
It  is  by  far  the  most  plausible  theory  of 
sea  serpent  existence  to  suppose  that  most 
of  the  animals  described  are  really  giant 
cuttlefishes  of  the  Loligo  or  squid  type. 
The  marine  snakes  or  hydrophidse  of  the 
Indian  ocean  would  also  serve  to  person- 
ate the  "great  unknown"  if  unusually 
large. 

SEA  SICKNESS,  a  nausea,  or  tendency 
to  vomit,  which  varies,  in  respect  of  dura- 
tion, in  different  persons  upon  their  first 
going  to  sea.  The  immediate  or  exciting 
cause  of  sea  sickness  is  variably  attrib- 
uted to  the  motion  of  the  vessel,  or  to  the 
effect  produced  on  the  eye  by  moving  ob- 
jects, and  by  that  sense  conveyed  to  the 
Drain. 

SEASIDE  GRAPE,  a  small  tree  of  the 
genus  Coccolobea  (C.  uvifera),  natural 
order  Polygonacese,  which  grows  on  the 
sea  coasts  of  Florida  and  the  West  In- 


SEA    SLUG 


316 


SEATTLE 


dies.  It  has  clusters  of  edible  fruit  some- 
what resembling  the  currant  in  appear- 
ance, a  beautiful  hard  wood  which  pro- 
duces a  red  dye,  and  yields  the  extract 
known  as  Jamaica  kino. 

SEA  SLUG,  in  zoology,  any  individual 
of  the  Opisthobranchiata.  The  name  is 
sometimes  confined  to  the  Nudibranchi- 
ates. 

SEA  SNAKE,  any  individual  of  the 
family  Hydrophidse.  They  have  depressed 
heads,  dilated  behind  and  covered  with 
shields.  Their  bodies  are  covered  with 
square  plates;  their  tails  are  very  much 
compressed  and  raised  vertically,  so  as 
to  aid  them  in  swimming.  They  are  very 
venomous.  They  are  found  off  the  coast 
of  India,  in  the  salt  water  channels  of 
the  Sunderbunds,  in  the  seas  around  the 
Indian  islands,  and  in  the  Pacific.  They 
are  eaten  in  Tahiti. 

SEA  SNIPE,  the  popular  name  of  a 
fish,  Centriscus  scolopax. 

SEASONS,  the  alterations  in  the  rela- 
tive length  of  day  and  night,  heat  and 
cold,  etc.,  which  take  place  each  year.  In 
the  United  States  there  are  four  seasons, 
spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter.  The 
Anglo-Saxons  reckoned  only  three,  spring, 
summer,  and  winter,  the  words  for  which 
are  all  from  Anglo-Saxon;  Autumn 
(q.  v.)  was  borrowed  from  the  Romans. 
In  India  there  are  but  three  well-marked 
seasons  of  four  months  each,  the  hot 
(February-May),  the  rainy  (June-Sep- 
tember), and  the  cold  (October- January). 
The  essential  astronomical  fact  on  which 
the  recurrence  of  the  successive  seasons 
depends  is  that  the  axis  of  the^  earth  al- 
ways points  in  the  same  direction,  what- 
ever portion  of  the  orbit  the  earth  may 
at  the  time  be  traversing.  The  inclina- 
tion of  the  equator  to  the  ecliptic  is  23° 
27'.  On  June  21,  when  the  sun  is  at  the 
highest  point  of  the  ecliptic,  the  North 
Pole  necessarily  inclines  toward  the  sun, 
and  is  as  much  irradiated  as  it  ever  can 
be  by  his  beams,  while  the  South  Pole,  on 
the  contrary,  is  as  little.  It  is  therefore 
midsummer  in  the  Northern  and  midwin- 
ter in  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  Six 
months  later,  Dec.  21,  the  South  Pole 
points  toward  the  sun.  It  is  therefore 
now  midwinter  in  the  Northern  and  mid- 
summer in  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  At 
the  intermediate  periods  (March  21  and 
Sept.  21),  the  axis  of  the  earth  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  sun; 
hence,  in  both  hemispheres  it  is  the  equi- 
nox, the  vernal  at  the  former  date  in  the 
Northern  and  at  the  latter  in  the  South- 
ern Hemisphere. 

SEA   SPIDER,   or  SPIDER    CRAB,   a 

marine  crab  of  the  genus  Maia  (M.  squi- 


nado).  Its  body  is  somewhat  triangular 
in  shape,  and  its  legs  are  slender  and 
generally  long.  It  lives  in  deep  water, 
and  is  seldom  seen  on  the  shore. 

SEA  SURGEON,  or  SURGEON  FISH 

(Acanthnrus  chirurgus) ,  a  fish  belonging 
to  the  teleostean  section  of  Acanthop- 
teri,  so  named  from  the  presence  of  a 
sharp  spine  on  the  side  and  near  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  tail,  bearing  a  resemblance 
to  a  surgeon's  lancet.  It  occurs  on  the 
Atlantic  coasts  of  South  America  and 
Africa,  and  in  the  Caribbean  seas.  Its 
average  length  is  from  12  to  19  inches. 

SEATTLE,  the  largest  city  of  Wash- 
iMgton,  and  the  county-seat  of  King  co. 
It  is  a  port  of  entry  and  is  on  the  E. 
shore  of  Puget  sound.  It  is  the  terminus 
of  8  transcontinental  railways,  four  of 
which,  the  Great  Northern,  the  Northern 
Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St. 
Paul,  and  the  Union  Pacific-Oregon- 
Washington  railroads,  enter  the  city  on 
their  own  tracks.  The  Canadian  Pacific 
and  Grand  Trunk  make  connections  by 
water.  The  Canadian  Pacific  also  has 
connection  by  rail.  There  were  in  1919 
within  the  city  limits,  269  miles  of  street 
railway.  There  is  steamship  connection 
with  all  parts  of  the  world  by  trans-Pa- 
cific lines  and  by  the  Panama  canal. 

The  city  is  located  between  the  Cascade 
and  Olympic  mountain  ranges,  with  Pu- 
get sound  on  the  W.  and  Lake  Washing- 
ton on  the  E.  The  business  and  man- 
ufacturing sections  of  the  city  occupy 
levels  nearer  the  sea,  while  the  residential 
districts  are  on  the  hills.  In  recent  years 
regrading  operations  of  great  magni- 
tude have  resulted  in  reducing  the  eleva- 
tion of  many  of  the  streets.  Within  the 
limits  of  the  city  are  two  large  lakes, 
one  of  which  is  faced  by  a  public  park. 
The  climate  is  healthful,  with  a  tempera- 
ture ranging  from  96  to  11°.  Severe 
cold  is  practically  unknown.  The  pre- 
cipitation averages  33.9  inches  per  year. 
Seattle  is  the  ocean  gateway  through 
which  lumber,  wheat,  fruit,  copper,  lead, 
and  other  raw  products  of  the  N.  W.  part 
of  the  United  States  make  their  way  to 
tidewater  and  thence  by  ships  to  the  At- 
lantic, to  Europe  and  to  world  markets. 
Elliott  bay,  the  main  harbor,  is  a  broad 
sheltered  indentation  in  the  E.  shore  of 
Puget  sound.  The  mouth  of  the  bay  is 
more  than  6  miles  across.  Between  this 
outer  harbor  and  the  main  water  front 
stretch  approximately  5  miles  of  deep 
water  which  is  nearly  3  miles  across  at 
its  narrowest  point.  The  water  front  is 
well  supplied  with  piers.  One  completed 
in  1920  has  a  capacity  for  berthing  eleven 
9,000-ton  ocean  ships  at  one  time.  It  is 
310  feet  wide  and  half  a  mile  long.  The 
ship   canal   provides   facilities   for   ships 


SEATTLE 


317 


SEA-WATER    THERAPY 


780  feet  in  length.  The  outer  and  inner 
harbors  together  have  a  total  frontage  of 
194  miles.  The  cargo  handling  facilities 
represent  an  investment  of  over  $20,000,- 
000,  of  which  $7,000,000  have  been  spent 
by  the  municipal  port  of  Seattle.  Out  of 
the  city  operate  ship  services  to  Alaska, 
Yokohama,  Shanghai,  Hongkong,  Man- 
churia, Batavia,  Calcutta  and  other  Ori- 
ental ports. 

The  park  and  boulevard  system  of  the 
city  comprises  nearly  200  acres.  There 
are  over  20  improved  playgrounds  and 
about  25  miles  of  scenic  boulevards,  an 
observation  pier,  and  a  bathing  pavilion. 
The  most  important  parks  are  Woodland, 
Ravenna,  Kinniar,  Madrona,  Volunteer, 
Washington,  and  Jefferson.  The  Univer- 
sity of  Washington  covers,  with  its  cam- 
pus, 355  acres  within  the  city  limits.  The 
notable  buildings  include  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  James,  Providence  Hospital,  Fed- 
eral building,  Y.  W.  C.  A.  building,  Rai- 
nier Club,  and  a  public  library.  There 
are  many  business  building,  clubs  and 
theaters.  The  city  has  excellent  educa- 
tional facilities  including  libraries  and 
musical  and  art  institutions.  The  public 
library  has  9  branches  and  circulates 
more  than  1,500,000  volumes  annually. 
Practically  every  religious  denomination 
is  represented  by  churches.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  Catholic  diocese  of  Washington. 

Seattle  has  developed  greatly  in  recent 
years  as  a  commercial  city.  The  total 
imports  for  the  fiscal  year  1920  amounted 
to  $173,527,650,  and  the  exports  to  $228,- 
186,694.  A  large  commerce  is  carried  on 
with  China  and  Japan  and  it  has  trade 
relations  with  practically  every  country 
in  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa,  as  well  as 
Australia.  Practically  all  the  trade  with 
Alaska  is  carried  on  through  Seattle. 

It  is  the  center  of  a  great  agricultural 
and  stock  raising  area  which  includes 
practically  the  States  of  Washington, 
Oregon,  Idaho,  Montana  and  Wyoming. 
It  is  also  the  principal  headquarters  of 
the  great  lumbering  industry  of  Wash- 
ington. Its  business  in  fish  exceeds  $73,- 
000,000  per  annum. 

The  industrial  importance  of  the  city 
has  greatly  increased  in  recent  years. 
This  has  especially  followed  the  opening 
of  the  Panama  canal.  During  the  World 
War  it  was  an  important  shipbuilding 
center  and  nearly  20%  of  all  the  mer- 
chant ships  secured  by  the  government 
during  the  first  12  months  of  the  war 
were  launched  in  the  yards  of  the  city. 
In  1920  there  were  over  40,000  workers 
in  shipyards,  metal  working  plants,  and 
in  the  1,300  industrial  establishments. 
The  annual  payroll  amounts  to  over 
$200,000,000.  Lumber  and  flour  manu- 
facturing rank  after  shipbuilding  in  im- 
portance.    Industries  connected  with  the 


U— Cyc 


steel  and  iron  industry  made  great  head- 
way in  the  five  years  dating  from  1915. 
Among  other  important  industries  are 
rolling  mills,  car  shops,  meat  packing 
plants,  manufactures  of  logging  and  min- 
ing machinery,  wireless  apparatus,  wood 
pipe,  gas  engines,  airplanes,  stoves,  shoes, 
cans,  bags  and  rope.  Power  is  furnished 
by  hydro-electric  plants,  and  it  has  been 
developed  on  a  low  basis  of  cost. 

There  were  in  1919  seven  National  and 
many  private  banks.  The  saving  deposits 
amounted  to  $61,416,305.  The  bank  clear- 
ings in  that  year  were  $2,021,004,351. 

In  1909  the  Alaska-Yukon-Pacific  Ex- 
position was  held  in  Seattle.  It  was  at- 
tended by  nearly  8,000,000  persons.  Pop. 
(1900)  80,671;  (1910)  237,194;  (1920) 
315,312. 

SEA  UNICORN,  a  popular  name  given 
to  the  narwhal. 

SEA  URCHIN,  one  of  the  Echinoids, 
or  Echinidse,  an  order  of  Echinodermata. 
They  have  the  body  covered  with  a  cal- 
careous crust  or  shell,  of  an  extremely 
porous  structure,  in  polygonal  plates  nice- 
ly adapted  to  each  other,  and  increasing 
by  additions  to  the  edges  of  each  plate, 
so  that  the  shell  may  enlarge  with  the 
enlargement  of  the  animal,  while  new 
plates  are  also  added  around  the  superior 
orifice.  The  shell  is  pierced  with  rows  of 
holes  for  the  ambulacra,  and  is  externally 
covered  in  a  living  state  with  a  mem- 
brane, sometimes  very  delicate,  sometimes 
thick  and  spongy,  and  unites  the  bases  of 
all  the  spines.  The  spines  differ  very 
much  in  the  different  genera  and  species. 
They  are  attached  to  tubercles  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  shell  by  cup-like  bases  capable 
of  working  upon  the  tubercles  in  the 
manner  of  a  ball-and-socket  joint;  and 
they  are  moved  by  means  of  the  connect- 
ing membrane  so  as  to  be  employed  in 
locomotion.  By  means  of  the  spines,  some 
can  walk  even  on  dry  ground;  others  em- 
ploy them  in  burying  themselves  in  the 
sand.  The  mouth  of  the  Echinidw  is  sit- 
uated at  the  lower  orifice  of  the  shell, 
and  is  generally  furnished  with  five  flat 
calcareous  teeth  moved  by  a  very  com- 
plex apparatus  of  bony  sockets  and  mus- 
cles. Their  food  is  supposed  to  consist 
of  small  crustaceans  and  mollusks.  They 
abound  in  all  seas. 

SEA-WATER  THERAPY,  or  THA- 
LASSOTHERAPY. Sea  water  is  used  in 
the  treatment  of  diseased  or  unhealthy 
conditions  by  two  different  methods,  first- 
ly by  external  bathing,  secondly  by  injec- 
tions into  the  tissues.  The  first  is,  of 
course,  by  far  the  most  common.  The 
tonic  effects  of  sea-bathing,  even  upon 
the  healthy,  have  long  been  recognized, 
but  it  has  been  found  especially  beneficial 


Vol  6 


SEAWEED 


318 


SEA    WOLF 


in  the  treatment  of  certain  morbid  condi- 
tions. In  some  nervous  disorders,  and  in 
the  treatment  of  muscular  rheumatism, 
arthritis  and  scrofula,  considerable  suc- 
cess has  been  experienced.  Those  suffer- 
ing from  profuse  perspiration  may  also 
derive  benefit  from  it,  and  it  seems  to  in- 
crease the  resistance  of  those  unduly  sub- 
ject to  colds.  It  is  advisable,  however, 
to  exercise  caution  as  regards  the  extent 
of  indulgence  in  sea-bathing.  In  certain 
diseased  conditions  it  should  be  avoided 
altogether.  Those,  for  instance,  suffering 
from  heart  disease  or  disease  of  the  blood 
vessels,  from  organic  affections  of  the 
nervous  system,  from  epilepsy  and  from 
some  other  diseases,  should  not  bathe  in 
cold  sea-water  except  under  medical  ad- 
vice. Those  whose  constitutions  are  not 
strong  and  in  whom  violent  shivering  fol- 
lows immersion  in  cold  water  should  not 
remain  in  the  water  for  more  than  two 
to  five  minutes,  and  hot  drinks  should  be 
taJcen  to  bring  about  a  quick  reaction.  In 
some  cases,  where  bathing  in  the  open  is 
inadvisable,  beneficial  effects  can  be  pro- 
duced by  taking  warm  sea-water  baths  in 
the  house.  Those  living  at  considerable 
distances  from  the  seashore  can  obtain 
the  desired  results  by  dissolving  the  nec- 
essary quantity  of  sea-salts  in  fresh 
water. 

Injections  of  sea-water  into  the  tissues 
is  looked  upon  with  disfavor  by  American 
physicians,  but  in  France  much  has  been 
claimed  for  this  method  of  application. 
The  water  is  taken  far  out  to  sea  and 
sterilized.  Injections  are  made  into  the 
loose  abdominal  tissues  or  into  the  but- 
tocks. It  is  claimed  that  good  effects  are 
produced  in  infantile  diarrhoea. 

SEAWEED,  a  plant  growing  wholly 
in  water,  fresh  or  salt.  Some  are  so  small 
and  delicate  that  they  can  be  sees  only 
with  a  microscope,  and  others  are  of  such 
immense  growths  that  they  almost  fill  up 
the  seas  in  which  they  live.  The  great 
seaweeds  called  sea  aprons  are  often  sev- 
eral hundred  feet  long.  Seaweeds  are 
not  much  like  the  plants  that  grow  on 
land.  They  have  no  roots  and  therefore 
do  not  get  any  of  their  food  from  the 
earth,  but  live  entirely  from  the  water. 
Many  float  around  in  the  water  and  many 
are  fastened  to  rocks  at  the  bottom  of 
the  sea,  to  which  they  are  made  fast  by 
a  kind  of  stem  with  a  sticky  surface. 
They  have  no  real  leaves,  but  have  parts 
which  answer  for  leaves.  Sometimes 
these  are  like  wavy  thongs,  sometimes 
like  crumpled  threads;  others  are  like 
fans,  balloons,  belts,  delicate  ribbons,  or 
shreds  of  jelly.  Some  are  thick  and 
tough,  others  thin  and  tender;  and  they 
are  of  many  colors.  Those  in  deep  water 
are  mostly  brown,  of  different  shades,  and 


those  nearer  the  surface  and  often  float- 
ing are  mostly  green;  the  pinks  and  reds 
are  found  chiefly  in  shallow  water  near 
the  shore. 

In  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  the  seaweeds 
form  great  groves  and  woods  which  lace 
their  branches  together  and  make  grot- 
toes and  galleries.  Many  are  larger  than 
any  trees  on  land,  and  as  they  are  many- 
colored  they  are  probably  far  more  beau- 
tiful than  our  forests.  The  seaweeds  that 
float  often  form  islands  which  drift  about 
in  the  currents.  Not  far  from  the  Azores 
is  an  immense  bank  of  seaweed  called  the 
Sargasso  Sea  from  the  kind  of  weed  (sar- 
gassum)  of  which  it  is  made  up. 

Many  of  the  seaweeds  are  very  useful 
to  man.  In  eastern  Europe  they  are 
dried  for  fuel  and  put  on  land  for  ma- 
nure. The  seaweed  called  bladder  wrack 
and  knobbed  rack  were  once  much  used 
for  making  kelp.  In  northern  Europe 
these  are  fed  to  pigs,  and  when  food  is 
scarce  even  horses  and  cattle  thrive  on 
them.^  In  Holland  a  kind  of  seaweed  is 
used  in  building  dykes  or  banks  to  keep 
the  sea  from  flowing  on  to  the  land,  and 
the  same  kind  is  also  used  for  stuffing 
mattresses  and  cushions  and  for  packing 
goods.  The  Sandwich  Islanders,  the  Chi- 
nese and  Japanese,  the  Icelanders,  and 
many  other  people  eat  various  kinds  of 
seaweeds.  The  edible  birds'  nests  of  the 
Chinese  are  said  to  be  built  by  swallows 
out  of  a  kind  of  seaweed  which  has  much 
gelatine  in  it.  Another  kind  in  China 
contains  so  much  gelatine  that  it  is 
largely  used  for  making  glue  and  varnish. 
Among  the  most  useful  of  the  seaweeds 
is  that  commonly  called  Irish  moss  or 
carrageen,  which  takes  the  place  of  isin- 
glass in  making  blancmange  and  jellies, 
and  is  used  also  in  making  sizing  and 
lager  beer.  Dulse,  a  purple  seaweed, 
called  dillesk  by  the  Irish,  is  also  collected 
and  used  for  food. 

Seaweeds  belong  to  the  lowest  class  of 
flowerless  plants.  They  do  not  have  seeds, 
but  grow  from  spores,  as  do  lichens. 

The  word  seaweed  is  made  up  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  sse,  the  sea,  and  weod,  weed. 

SEAWELL,      MOLLY      ELLIOT,      an 

American  author;  born  in  Gloucester  co., 
Va.,  Oct.  23,  1860.  She  published:  "The 
Sprightly  Romance  of  Marsac";  "Hale 
Weston";  "Twelve  Naval  Captains" 
(1897) ;  "A  Virginia  Cavalier"  (1896) ; 
"The  House  of  Egremont"  (1901);  "The 
Jugglers,"  "Fifi,"  "The  Lady's  Battle," 
"Franceska,"  "The  Diary  of  a  Beauty," 
etc.     She  died  in  1916. 

SEA  WOLF,  a  fish,  Anarrhicas  lupus, 
about  seven  or  eight  feet  in  length;  gray 
or  brown,  with  transverse  black  or  brown 
stripes.    Its  formidable  aspect  and  sharp, 


SEBACEOUS    GLANDS 


319 


SEBASTOPOL 


effective  teeth  constitute  its  chief  resem- 
blance to  a  wolf. 

SEBACEOUS  GLANDS,  glands  having 
small  ducts  which  open  within  the  mouth 
of  hair  follicles  and  supply  them  with 
sebaceous  matter.  The  largest  are  on  the 
sides  of  the  nose. 

SEBACIC  ACID,  in  chemistry, 
POTTO 

CgHic  <qqjjq   pyroleic  acid  or  sebic  acid; 

an  acid  of  the  oxalic  series,  obtained  from 
fats  containinig  oleic  acid  by  dry  distilla- 
tion or  action  of  nitric  acid,  and  from 
castor  oil  by  heating  with  potash.  It 
crystallizes  in  white  very  light  needles, 
has  an  acid  taste,  melts  at  127°,  and  dis- 
solves easily  in  hot  water,  alcohol,  and 
ether.  It  forms  acid  and  neutral  salts, 
which  are  mostly  soluble  in  water,  and 
crystallizable. 

SEBAGO  LAKE,  a  lake  in  Cumberland 
co.,  Me.;  about  18  miles  N.  W.  of  Port- 
land, with  which  it  is  connected  by  the 
Cumberland  and  Oxford  canal;  outlet  in 
Casco  bay;  length,  12  miles;  width,  8 
miles. 

SEBASTES,  in  ichthyology,  a  genus  of 
Scorpsenoidse,  with  about  20  species,  widely 

distributed  in  temperate  seas.  In  general 
appearance  they  resemble  the  Sea  Perches, 

and  are  esteemed  as  food. 

SEBASTIAN,  DOM,  King  of  Portugal; 
born  in  Lisbon  in  1554;  ascended  the 
throne  at  three  years  of  age,  on  the  death 
of  his  grandfather,  John  III.  Possessed 
of  a  romantic  and  venturesome  disposi- 
tion, he  determined  to  carry  on  war 
against  the  Moors  in  Africa,  hoping 
thereby  to  effect  something  for  Christian- 
ity and  the  fame  of  Portugal.  He  ac- 
cordingly equipped  a  fleet  and  an  army, 
which  comprised  the  flower  of  the  Portu- 
guese nobility,  and  sailed  for  Africa  in 
1578,  at  the  age  of  23  years.  A  general 
engagement  soon  took  place  at  Alcacer-el- 
Xebir,  and  the  ardor  of  the  young  king 
bore  him  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy. 
Though  Sebastian  fought  with  the  most 
determined  bravery,  so  complete  was  the 
slaughter  that  not  more  than  50  Portu- 
guese are  said  to  have  survived.  Sebas- 
tian disappeared.  The  mystery  surround- 
ing his  fate  led  several  adventurers  to 
assume  his  person,  but  there  seems  to  be 
no  doubt  that  he  died  on  the  field  of  bat- 
tle. His  death  is  supposed  to  have  oc- 
curred August  4,  1578. 

SEBASTOPOL  or  SEVASTOPOL,  a 

fortified  town  and  seaport  of  European 
Russia,  on  the  W.  coast  of  the  Crimea. 
It  stands  on  a  creek  on  the  S.  side  of  one 
of  the  finest  bays  in  the  world,  the  Etenus 
of  Strabo,  which  is  defended  by  strong 
forts  on  both  sides.     In  1853  Russia  de- 


manded  from   the    Turkish    Government 
guarantees  for  the  rights   of  the  Greek 
Christians    of   Turkey,   which   the   Porte 
believed  to  involve  an  actual  abdication 
of    its    sovereign    rights,    and    which    it 
therefore  refused  to  concede.     This  led, 
in  the  same  year,  to  the  beginning  of  the 
Eastern     or     Crimean     War,     in    which 
France,  England  and  Sardinia  took  sides 
with  Turkey,  on  the  ground  that  the  ex- 
istence of  the  latter  empire,  and  the  equi- 
librium of  political  power  in  Europe,  were 
endangered  by  Russia.    The  armies  of  the 
allies   effected   a  landing  at  the   Bay  of 
Eupatoria,  Sept.  14,  1854.  On  their  south- 
ern march  toward  Sebastopol  they  encoun- 
tered the  Russian  forces,  commanded  by 
Prince    Menzikoff,    on    the   banks    of   the 
Alma.    A  bloody  battle  was  fought  (Sept. 
20),   in   which   the    Russians   were   com- 
pelled to  retreat.     On  Sept.  25  the  Brit- 
ish forces  seized  Balaklava,  and  on  Oct.  9 
the  regular  siege  of  the  southern  portion 
of    Sebastopol   commenced,   the   Russians 
having  sunk  vessels  in  the  entrance  to  the 
harbor  and  thus  rendered  the  city  unas- 
sailable by  maritime  force.     On  Oct.  25 
and  Nov.  5,  the  Russians  vainly  attempt- 
ed to  annihilate  the  besieging  forces  in 
the  battles  of  Balaklava  and  Inkermann, 
but  afterward  confined  themselves  mainly 
to  the  defensive,  though  making  frequent 
sorties.     Among  these  conflicts  some  as- 
sumed almost  the  character   of  regular 
field  battles;  for  instance,  an  unsuccess- 
ful attack  of  the  French  on  a  new  redoubt 
(Feb.  23,  1855),  their  first  assault  on  the 
Malakoff  and  Redan   (June  18),  and  the 
battle   of   the   Tchernaya    (Aug.   16),   in 
which  the  Russians,  numbering  50,000  in- 
fantry and  6,000  cavalry,  made  a  last  ef- 
fort to  break  the  aggressive  force  of  the 
enemy.     The  trenches  having  been  driven 
so  near  the  Russian  defensive  works  that 
another   assault   could    not   be   ventured, 
the  final  bombardment  was  opened  Sept. 
5,  and  lasted  for  three  days.     On  Sept.  8 
the  Malakoff  and  Redan  were  stormed  and 
taken    by    the    allies    after    a    desperate 
struggle.      The    Russians,    after    having 
blown  up  their  extensive  fortifications  on 
the  S.  shore  of  the  harbor,  retreated  to 
the  N.  side,  which  the  allies  never  seri- 
ously attempted  to  conquer.     The  latter, 
having  destroyed  the  costly  docks,  arse- 
nals,   and    shipyards    of    Sebastopol,    re- 
mained inactive  in  their  camps,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  the  capture  and  sack  of 
Kertch,  on  the  Strait  of  Yenikale,  no  fur- 
ther  feats    of    arms   were   accomplished. 
The  forces  of  the  allies  were  withdrawn 
in    the    summer    and    autumn    of    1856. 
Though  the  allies  did  not  obtain  any  de- 
cided   success,    Russia    suffered    immense 
loss  of  military  prestige,  and  any  further 
aggression  on  her  part  in  S.  Europe  was 
for  a  time  prevented.     By  the  peace  of 


SECANT 


320 


SxjCK1i*j\i 


Paris  (1856)  Russia  lost  the  right  of 
navigation  on  the  Danube,  besides  a  strip 
of  territory  to  the  N.  of  that  river,  and, 
also,  the  unrestricted  navigation  of  the 
Black  sea.  In  November,  1870,  Russia, 
availing  herself  of  the  Franco-Prussian 
imbroglio,  demanded  and  obtained  from 
the  Western  Powers  a  revision  of  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  in  so  far  as  it  affected 
the  restrictions  placed  on  her  in  the  Black 
sea.  The  Bolshevist  army  in  November, 
1920,  occupied  Sebastopol  after  defeating 
the  anti-Red  forces  under  General  Wran- 
gel.     Pop.  about  77,000. 

SECANT,  in  geometry,  a  straight  line 
cutting  a  curve  in  two  or  more  points.  If 
a  secant  line  be  revolved  about  one  of  its 
points  of  secancy  till  the  other  point  of 
secancy  coincides  with  it,  the  secant  be- 
comes a  tangent.  If  it  be  still  further 
revolved,  it  again  becomes  a  secant  on  the 
other  side;  hence,  a  tangent  to  a  curve, 
at  any  point,  is  a  limit  of  all  secants 
through  that  point.  A  secant  plane  is 
one  which  intersects  a  surface  or  solid. 
In  trigonometry,  a  straight  line  drawn 
from  the  center  of  a  circle  through  the 
second  extremity  of  an  arc,  and  termi- 
nating in  a  tangent  to  the  first  extremity 
of  the  arc. 

SECATJCUS,  a  borough  of  New  Jersey, 
in  Hudson  co.  It  is  on  the  Delaware, 
Lackawanna,  and  Western  railroad.  It  is 
the  center  of  an  important  farming  and 
stock-raising  region.  Its  notable  build- 
ings include  a  public  library,  borough 
hall,  and  the  county  institutions.  Pop. 
(1910)  4,740;  (1920)  5,423. 

SECESSION.  Whenever  a  State  has 
claimed  the  right  to  withdraw  from  the 
Union,  it  has  based  its  claim  on  the  doc- 
trine of  State  sovereignty.  This  claim 
must  be  considered  as  emphatically  dis- 
tinct from  the  right  of  revolution,  insur- 
rection, or  violent  revolts,  in  all  of  which 
there  is  no  claim  of  legal  right,  and  the 
appeal  of  which  is  to  force  instead  of  to 
reason.  In  its  turn,  nearly  every  State 
in  the  Union  has  advanced  the  right  of 
secession,  and  usually  each  has  been  con- 
demned by  the  others  as  treasonable. 
This  claim  was  specifically  brought  for- 
ward or  involved  in  the  Kentucky  "Reso- 
lutions," the  Hartford  "Convention,"  and 
the  "Nullification  Ordinance."  In  the  dis- 
cussion preceding  the  annexation  of  Texas 
there  were  arguments  that  led  to  threats 
of  secession  in  the  South  if  the  refusal 
ito  annex  should  be  passed,  and  in  the 
North  if  permission  to  annex  should  be 
granted.  This  demonstrates  that  before 
these  cases  materialized,  the  doctrine  of 
State  sovereignty  had  been  understood, 
both  in  the  North  and  South.    Among  the 


Southern  States  there  had  been  some  talk 
of  co-operation  for  the  purpose  of  effect- 
ing a  secession  programme,  for  no  State 
would  have  made  the  attempt  indepen- 
dently, but  such  discussion  had  resulted 
in  nothing.  Nevertheless,  State  sover- 
eignty and  slavery  had  been  bound  up  to- 
gether since  about  1835,  and  the  logical 
consequence  was  secession.  Though  no 
such  issue  had  actually  been  instituted, 
the  feeling  between  non-slave-holding  sec- 
tions and  slave-holding  sections,  and  be- 
tween the  North  and  South,  had  become 
more  and  more  strained.  The  election  of 
Abraham  Lincoln,  when  the  political  sit- 
uation was  flanked  with  sectional  differ- 
ences resting  on  State  claims,  was  all 
that  was  necessary  to  change  the  theory 
of  secession  in  the  South  into  an  attempt 
to  effect  the  reality.  South  Carolina  took 
the  lead  by  issuing  a  circular  to  all  the 
Southern  States,  in  which  she  declared 
her  readiness  to  unite  with  any  other 
States  in  the  act  of  secession,  or  to  secede 
alone,  provided  any  other  State  would 
agree  to  follow.  No  single  State  was  pre- 
pared or  willing  to  secede  alone,  but  Flor- 
ida, Mississippi  and  Alabama  agreed  to 
secede  with  any  other  State.  Again  South 
Carolina  was  leader  in  calling  a  State 
convention,  and  on  Dec.  20,  1860,  the  Act 
of  1788,  ratifying  the  National  Constitu- 
tion, was  repealed,  and  it  was  declared 
"that  the  union  now  subsisting  between 
South  Carolina  and  other  States,  under 
the  name  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica, is  hereby  dissolved."  A  declaration 
of  the  causes  for  this  act  was  formulated, 
and  on  the  24th  was  adopted.  The  gov- 
ernor proclaimed  "the  secession  of  South 
Carolina"  the  same  day.  Mississippi  was 
the  first  to  follow  this  example,  Jan.  9, 
1861,  then  in  succession  came  Florida, 
Jan.  10;  Alabama,  Jan.  11;  Georgia,  Jan. 
19;  Louisiana,  Jan.  26;  and  Texas,  Feb. 
1,  though  in  the  case  of  this  last  State 
the  proceedings  were  decidedly  irregular. 
Virginia  followed  in  April;  Arkansas  and 
North  Carolina  in  May;  and  Tennessee 
in  June.  The  Civil  War  was  the  conse- 
quence. 

The  final  issue  was  the  victory  of  the 
government,  the  surrender  of  the  Con- 
federate to  the  Federal  army,  and  the  full 
union  of  the  United  States  of  America. 
See  Confederate  States. 

SECKER,  THOMAS,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury;  born  in  Sibthorpe,  Notting- 
hamshire, in  1693;  son  of  a  Dissenter  of 
independent  means,  who  wished  him  to 
enter  the  ministry  of  his  own  communion. 
In  1716,  however,  the  son  turned  to  medi- 
cine, taking  his  doctorate  in  physic  at 
Ley  den  in  1721.  Meanwhile,  urged  by  his 
old  schoolfellow,  Joseph  Butler,  he  had 
decided  to  take  Anglican  orders;  in  1722 


SECOND 


321 


SECRETARY    BIRD 


he  graduated  B.A.  at  Oxford,  and  in  that 
and  the  following  year  he  was  ordained 
deacon  and  priest.  His  preferments  were 
Houghton-le-Spring  (1724),  Ryton  and  a 
prebend  at  Durham  (1727),  chaplain  to 
the  king  (1732),  St.  James's,  London 
(1733),  Bishop  of  Bristol  (1735),  of  Ox- 
ford (1737),  Dean  of  St.  Paul's,  for 
which  he  resigned  the  living  of  St. 
James's  (1750),  and  the  primacy  (1758). 
He  died  Aug.  3,  1768. 

SECOND,  the  60th  part  of  a  minute 
of  time  or  of  a  minute  of  a  degree.  In 
music,  the  interval  of  a  second  is  the 
difference  between  any  sound  and  the 
next  nearest  sound  above  or  below  it. 
There  are  three  kinds — the  minor  second 
or  semitone,  the  major  second,  and  the 
extreme  sharp  second.  Also  a  lower  part 
added  to  a  melody  when  arranged  for 
two  voices  or  instruments. 

SECOND  ADVENTISTS,  a  religious 
organization  having  six  slightly  differing 
branches  in  the  United  States.  They  are 
Protestants  and  their  belief  is  character- 
ized by  faith  that  at  some  time  in  the 
future  there  will  be  a  visible  reappear- 
ance of  Christ.  They  do  not  agree  among 
themselves  whether  this  "divine  return" 
will  be  visible  to  all  the  Church,  or  to 
the  whole  world,  or  to  certain  elect  "first- 
fruits"  of  the  Church.  The  original  Ad- 
ventists  were  called  Millerites,  and  were 
followers  of  William  Miller  (1782-1849). 
Miller  promulgated  a  belief  that  the 
world  would  end  and  that  the  millennium 
would  begin  in  October,  1843.  Many  peo- 
ple had  such  implicit  faith  in  his  proph- 
ecy that  they  did  not  "plant  or  reap" 
crops,  neglected  their  business,  and  spent 
months  of  time  before  the  appointed  hour 
in  religious  exercises  so  as  to  be  in  readi- 
ness to  ascend  to  heaven.  When  Miller's 
prediction  proved  a  failure,  some  of  his 
followers  lost  faith  in  the  doctrine,  while 
others  decided  that  an  error  in  calcula- 
tion had  been  made.  Other  predictions 
have  been  made  since  that  time.  Disap- 
pointment, however,  has  not  materially 
lessened  the  number  of  Adventists,  since 
from  50,000  in  1843  they  increased  to  60,- 
000  in  1890,  and  in  1900  attained  a  fol- 
lowing of  over  125,000.  In  1919  there 
were  4,181  churches  with  a  membership 
of  162,667,  and  5,610  Sunday  schools  with 
171,914  members.  _  All  sects  of  Advent- 
ists are  congregational  in  church  govern- 
ment. They  are  very  orthodox  and  strict 
to  an  extreme  in  their  mode  of  living. 
Many  kinds  of  amusements  are  prohib- 
ited. The  denominations  are:  Evangeli- 
cal Adventists,  Seventh  Day  Adventists, 
Church  of  God,  Life  and  Advent  Union, 
Age  to  Come  Adventists,  and  the  Advent- 
Christians. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS,  educational 
institutions  in  the  United  States  higher  in 
grade  than  the  Common  Schools  (g.  v.) 
and  next  below  the  grade  of  colleges. 
Under  this  head  are  classed  all  public 
high  schools,  academies,  etc.  Under  spe- 
cial secondary  schools  are  included  all 
preparatory,  normal  and  manual  training 
schools.  The  increase  and  development 
of  public  secondary  schools  has  been  very 
rapid.  In  1918  there  were  678,469  pu- 
pils enrolled  in  the  high  schools  of  the 
United  States. 

SECOND  SIGHT,  a  gift  of  prophetic 
vision,  long  supposed  in  the  Scotch  High- 
lands and  elsewhere  to  belong  to  particu- 
lar persons.  The  most  common  form  it 
took  was  to  see  the  wraith,  fetch,  or 
shadowy  second  self  of  some  person  soon 
to  die,  often  wrapped  in  a  shroud,  or 
attended  with  some  other  of  the  special 
circumstances  of  death  or  burial. 

SECRETARY  BIRD,  the  SerpentarU 
us  secretarius,  from  South  Africa,  a  bird 
protected  by  the  native  and  English  au- 
thorities for  the  service  it  renders  in  de- 
stroying venomous  serpents,  which  it  kills 


SECRETARY  BIRD 

by  blows  from  its  powerful  feet  and  bill. 
The  secretary  bird  stands  about  four  feet 
high;  upper  surface  grayish-blue,  shaded 
with  reddish-brown  on  wing  coverts; 
throat  white,  thighs  black,  tail  feathers 
very  long,  black  at  base  paling  into  gray, 
tipped  with  white ;  two  long  central  feath- 
ers bluish-gray  tipped  with  black  and 
white.  Crest  of  10  feathers  black  or  gray 
tipped  with  black.    From  the  fancied  re- 


SECRETION 


322 


SECRET    SOCIETIES 


semblance  of  this  crest  to  a  pen  behind  a 
clerk's  ear,  the  bird  derived  its  specific 
Latin   and   popular   English  name. 

SECRETION,  in  physiology,  the  proc- 
ess by  which  materials  are  separated 
from  the  blood,  and  from  the  organs  in 
which  they  are  formed,  for  the  purpose 
either  of  serving  some  ulterior  office  in 
the  animal  economy,  or  being  discharged 
from  the  body  as  excrement.  Secretion 
is  one  of  the  natural  functions  of  the  liv- 
ing body,  and  is  as  necessary  to  health 
as  nutrition.  Where  the  secreted  mate- 
rials have  some  ulterior  purpose  to  serve, 
they  are  known  as  secretions ;  where  they 
are  discharged  from  the  body,  excretions. 
Most  of  the  secretions  seem  to  consist  of 
substances  not  pre-existing  in  the  same 
form  in  the  blood,  but  requiring  special 
organs  and  process  of  elaboration  for 
their  formation.  Excretions,  on  the  other 
hand,  commonly  or  chiefly  consist  of  sub- 
stances existing  ready  formed  in  the 
blood,  and  are  merely  extracted  there- 
from. In  general,  however,  the  structure 
of  the  parts  engaged  in  eliminating  ex- 
cretions is  as  complex  as  that  of  the  parts 
concerned  in  the  formation  of  secretions. 
The  secretions  may  be  arranged  into 
three  sorts:  (1)  exhalations;  (2)  follic- 
ular secretion;  and  (3)  glandular  secre- 
tion. The  exhalations  take  place  as  well 
within  the  body  as  at  the  skin  or  in  the 
mucous  membranes,  and  are  thus  divided 
into  external  and  internal.  The  follicles 
are  divided  into  mucous  and  cutaneous, 
and  into  simple  and  compound.  In  al- 
most all  the  points  of  the  skin  little  open- 
ings exist  which  are  the  orifices  of  small 
hollow  organs  with  membranous  sides, 
generally  filled  with  an  albuminous  and 
fatty  matter.  The  small  organs  are 
called  the  follicles  of  the  skin.  The 
glands,  however,  are  the  principal  organs 
to  which  the  office  of  secreting  is  more  es- 
pecially ascribed,  and  the  number  of  them 
is  considerable.  The  glandular  secretions 
are  of  seven  different  sorts,  namely,  tears, 
saliva,  bile,  pancreatic  fluid,  urine,  se- 
men, and  milk. 

In  botany,  in  consequence  of  the  action 
of  air  and  light  on  the  watery  contents 
of  the  green  leaves  of  plants,  the  mate- 
rials within  them  are  subjected  to  a  very 
active  chemical  condition,  by  which  vari- 
ous substances  are  formed, — as  protein 
matters,  gum,  sugar,  starch,  etc.,  all  of 
which  are  essentially  necessary  to  the 
growth  of  the  plant.  Besides  these  are 
other  matters,  such  as  coloring  sub- 
stances, numerous  acids,  various  alka- 
loids, etc.,  which,  after  their  production, 
perform  no  further  active  part  in  the 
plant,  and  are  hence  removed  from  the 
young  and  vitally  active  parts  to  be  stored 
up  in  the  older  tissues  of  the  plants  as 


secretions,   or   removed   altogether   from 
them  as  excretions. 

SECRET  SERVICE,  UNITED 
STATES,  a  bureau  connected  with  the 
Treasury  Department,  whose  chief  and 
almost  sole  object  is  to  guard  against  the 
counterfeiting  of  the  money  of  the  United 
States  and  the  detection  and  punishment 
of  the  counterfeiters.  It  is  presided  over 
by  a  chief,  who  has  under  him  a  number 
of  skilful  detectives,  who  are  stationed 
in  various  parts  of  the  country  or  as- 
signed to  special  fields  of  operation  on 
occasions  of  emergency. 

SECRET  SOCIETIES,  organizations 
that  in  some  form  or  other  have  existed 
in  all  ages  of  the  world's  history.  _  In  the 
ancient  world  many  of  the  more  influen- 
tial religions  had  their  mysteries,  the 
ceremonies  connected  with  which  were 
generally  performed  in  secret  and  only  in 
the  presence  of  those  who  had  been  duly 
initiated.  These  inner  and  more  secret 
groups  of  priests  and  initiated  worship- 
ers existed  in  association  with  the  wor- 
ship of  Mithras  in  Persia,  of  Orpheus  and 
Dionysus  in  Greece,  at  Eleusis  and  else- 
where, or  Osiris  and  Serapis  in  Egypt, 
and  of  the  Great  Mother  (Cybele)  in 
Phrygia.  The  followers  of  Pythagoras 
formed  what  was  in  many  respects  a  se- 
cret religious  society,  though  philosophy 
and  political  doctrine  took  a  foremost 
place  in  their  teachings.  Among  the 
Jews  there  proceeded  from  out  of  the 
Pharisees  the  puritanical  Essenes  (Cha- 
sidim),  forerunners  of  the  Jewish  Ca- 
balists,  who  professed  a  secret  system  of 
theology  and  philosophy  associated  with 
mystic  practices,  and  of  Christian  Gnos- 
tics, and  formed  exclusive  sects  based  on 
initiation  and  esoteric  teaching.  The  lin- 
eal successors  of  these  last  were  the  vari- 
ous mediaeval  sects  of  Cathari,  most  of 
whom  invested  their  teaching  and  their 
worship  with  many  features  of  mystery. 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  office 
of  the  Inquisition  deserves  to  be  called 
a  secret  society,  and  so  does  the  order  of 
the  Jesuits;  though  in  both  cases  the  se- 
crecy was  due  to  political  rather  than  to 
strictly  religious  causes.  The  Knights 
Templar  toward  the  close  of  their  history 
as  a  distinct  order  seem  in  several  cases 
to  have  lapsed  into  the  practice  of  secret 
rites  and  belief  in  certain  secret  doc- 
trines. 

The  Freemasons  and  the  Odd  Fellows 
are  perhaps  the  best  known  of  the  secret 
societies  in  the  United  States  that  have 
cultivated  social  aims.  The  Rosierucians 
had  their  origin  in  the  17th  century,  and 
directed  their  attention  to  the  discovery 
of  such  things  as  the  philosopher's  stone 
and  the  elixir  of  life,  to  the  exorcism  of 
spirits,   and   such   like   pursuits.      Specu- 


SECRET    SOCIETIES 


323 


SECULAR 


lative  Freemasonry  does  not  go  further 
back  than  the  18th  century;  its  objects 
are  philanthropic  and  moral.  There  are 
associations  similar  in  character  to  it  jn 
Tahiti  and  others  of  the  Pacific  islands, 
and  among  the  Foulah  and  the  Negroes 
of  Sierra  Leone  and  the  adjacent  parts 
of  Africa.  The  celebrated  "Vehmgerich- 
te"  or  secret  courts  of  Westphalia  arose 
in  a  time  of  great  public  confusion,  and 
made  it  their  business  to  maintain  that 
order  and  respect  for  the  law  which  it 
should  have  been  the  concern  of  the  em- 
peror and  his  associates  to  have  secured 
and  preserved.  There  existed  in  Sicily 
from  the  12th  to  the  18th  century  an  or- 
ganization (the  Beati  Paoli)  very  similar 
to  the  "Vehmgerichte."  On  the  other 
hand,  there  have  been  numerous  associa- 
tions of  a  secret  kind  formed  for  criminal 
purposes,  and  for  mutual  assistance 
against  and  in  defiance  of  the  laws  of  the 
land;  the  Assassins  in  Persia  and  Syria, 
the  Thugs  in  India,  the  Camorra,  the  Ma- 
fia, and  the  Decisi  (1815)  in  Italy,  the 
Chauffeurs  in  France  (who  arose  during 
the  religious  wars  and  were  not  sup- 
pressed till  the  Revolution),  and  the  Gar- 
duna  in  Spain  (formed  after  the  wars 
against  the  Moors;  suppressed  in  1822) 
may  be  instanced. 

The  Illuminati,  the  authors  of  a  move- 
ment that  grew  up  in  Germany  in  the 
end  of  the  18th  century,  united  political 
and  religious  ends,  and  may  be  said,  sum- 
marily, to  have  aimed  at  realizing  the 
ideals  of  the  French  Revolution.  The 
following  century  was  wonderfully  pro- 
lific in  political  secret  societies.  Italy 
was  literally  honeycombed  with  them  dur- 
ing the  years  she  was  struggling  for  her 
independence;  the  best  known  was  that 
of  the  Carbonari.  At  the  same  time  there 
were  similar  societies  in  other  countries 
of  Europe,  as  the  Burschenschaft  and 
Landsmannschaft  societies  in  Germany, 
the  Associated  Patriots  in  France,  the 
Communeros  in  Spain,  the  Hetairia  in 
Greece,  the  Society  of  United  Slavonians 
and  the  Decabrists  in  Russia,  the  Polish 
Templars,  and  the  associations  known  as 
Young  Germany,  Young  Italy,  Young  Po- 
land, Young  Switzerland.  Nearly  all  the 
political  revolutions  that  took  place  in 
France  during  the  course  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury were  greatly  fomented  by  secret  so- 
cieties, especially  the  revolution  of  1848. 
The  most  momentous  movements  of  a  so- 
cio-political tendency  that  have  sprung 
up  on  the  Continent,  and  spread  to  some 
extent  to  England,  are  those  of  the  Nihil- 
ists, the  Anarchists,  and  various  sects  of 
extreme  Socialists.  The  murder  of  the 
Archduke  Ferdinand  which  precipitated 
the  World  War  was  claimed  by  the  Aus- 
trian Government  to  have  been  plotted  by 
a  Serbian  secret  society. 


There  are  perhaps  no  people  in  the 
world  who  favor  secret  societies  more 
than  the  Chinese  and  the  inhabitants  of 
the  United  States.  The  most  powerful 
organization  of  this  nature  in  China  is 
the  Tien-ti  Hwuy  (Union  of  Heaven  and 
Earth),  which  presents  many  features 
analogous  to  Freemasonry.  Its  principal 
object  was  the  overthrow  of  the  Manchu 
dynasty  and  the  restoration  of  the  last 
Chinese  dynasty  of  the  Myng.  But  about 
the  real  purposes  of  this,  as  of  most  other 
secret  societies  that  exist  among  the  Chi- 
nese, our  information  is  exceedingly 
scanty.  The  Society  of  the  Elder  Breth- 
ren, which  is,  generally  speaking,  a  com- 
bination of  the  most  lawless  elements  of 
the  population  in  the  central  provinces 
(Honan  to  Hunan),  proclaims  a  fanati- 
cal hatred  to  all  foreigners,  including  the 
Manchus.  Secret  societies  of  all  kinds, 
and  for  nearly  all  conceivable  purposes, 
are  found  in  the  United  States. 

SECTOR,  in  geometry,  that  portion  of 
the  area  of  a  circle  included  between  two 
radii  and  an  arc.  The  area  of  a  sector 
is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  arc  of  the 
sector  by  half  of  the  radius.  If  the  angle 
at  the  center  is  given,  the  length  of  the 
arc  of  the  sector  may  be  found,  since  it 
is  equal  to  x  multiplied  by  the  radius  into 
the  ratio  of  180°  to  the  number  of  de- 
grees of  the  sector.  A  spherical  sector 
or  the  sector  of  a  sphere  is  a  volume  or 
solid  that  may  be  generated  by  revolving 
a  sector  of  a  circle  about  a  straight  line 
drawn  through  the  vertex  of  the  sector 
as  an  axis,  or  it  is  the  conic  solid  whose 
vertex  coincides  with  the  center  of  the 
sphere,  and  whose  base  is  a  segment  of 
the  same  sphere.  In  mathematics  and 
surveying,  a  mathematical  instrument 
used  for  laying  down  plans,  measuring 
angles,  etc.  It  has  two  legs,  united  by  a 
rule-joint,  and  graduated.  The  scales 
put  on  sectors  are  divided  into  single  and 
double;  the  former  has  a  line  with  inches 
divided  into  eighths  or  tenths;  a  second, 
into  decimals  containing  100  parts;  a 
third,  into  chords;  the  fourth  has  sines; 
the  fifth,  tangents ;  the  sixth,  rhombs ;  the 
seventh  and  eighth  have  latitudes,  hours, 
etc.  The  double  scale  contains  a  line  of 
lines;  second,  a  line  of  chords;  third,  a 
line  of  sines;  fourth,  tangents  to  45°; 
fifth,  secants;  sixth,  tangents  above  45°; 
seventh,  polygons.  In  surveying,  the  in- 
strument is  mounted  on  a  leg  or  tripod, 
and  the  bob  depending  from  the  axis  of 
the  rule-joint  indicates  the  station  ex- 
actly. 

SECULAR,  occurring  or  observed  once 
in  an  age,  century,  or  cycle;  as  a  secular 
year.  Also  pertaining  or  relating  to  an 
age,  generation,  or  period  of  time;  as 
secular  inequality.    Or  pertaining  or  hav- 


SECT7LAB    GAMES 


324 


SEDGWICK 


ing  reference  to  this  present  world,  or  to 
things  not  spiritual  or  holy;  relating  to 
things  not  primarily  or  immediately  af- 
fecting the  soul;  worldly;  temporal;  as, 
secular  power,  secular  affairs.  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  not  regular,  not 
bound  by  monastic  vows  or  rules ;  not  con- 
fined to  a  religious  house  or  subject  to  the 
rules  of  a  clerical  community;  as,  a  secu- 
lar priest;  an  ecclesiastic  not  bound  by 
monastic  rules;  hence  a  layman. 

SECULAR  GAMES,  a  great  festival, 
probably  of  Etruscan  origin,  anciently 
celebrated  at  Rome  to  mark  the  com- 
mencement of  a  new  sseculum  or  genera- 
tion. In  249  B.  c.  it  was  decreed  that  the 
secular  games  should  be  celebrated  every 
hundredth  year  after  that  date;  but  this 
decree  was  frequently  disregarded,  and 
they  were  celebrated  at  very  irregular  in- 
tervals. 

SECULARISM,  the  name  given,  about 
1846,  by  George  J.  Holyoake  to  an  ethical 
system  founded  on  natural  morality. 

SEDALIA,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Pettis  co.,  Mo.;  on  the  Missouri  Pacific, 
and  the  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas  rail- 
roads; 95  miles  E.  of  Kansas  City.  Here 
are  the  Convent  of  St.  Joseph,  United 
States  government  building,  hospital, 
Convention  Hall,  street  railroad  and  elec- 
tric light  plants,  National  and  State 
banks,  and  daily,  weekly,  and  monthly 
periodicals.  The  city  has  besides  large 
locomotive  and  car  shops,  flouring  mills, 
grain  elevators,  iron  foundries,  manufac- 
tories of  farming  implements,  etc.  Dur- 
ing most  of  the  Civil  War  the  city  was 
a  United  States  military  post.  Pop. 
(1910)   17,822;    (1920)   21,144. 

SEDAN,  a  fortified  town  of  France,  de- 
partment of  Ardennes,  on  the  Meuse,  10 
miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Mezieres.  Sedan  has 
been  long  celebrated  for  its  woolen  manu- 
factures, consisting  principally  of  fine 
black  cloths  and  cassimeres.  Here,  Sept. 
1-2,  1870,  a  battle  was  fought  between 
the  French,  under  Napoleon  III.,  and  the 
Prussians,  under  King  William  and  the 
crown  prince,  in  which  the  former  being 
defeated,  the  emperor,  while  still  at  the 
head  of  an  army  of  more  than  100,000 
men,  surrendered  himself  and  his  troops, 
along  with  the  strong  and  well-appointed 
fortress  of  Sedan  to  the  Prussians.  In 
the  World  War  the  Germans  occupied 
Sedan  until  the  closing  days  of  the  Meuse- 
Argonne  offensive,  when  it  was  occupied 
by  French  troops.     Pop.  about  22,000. 

SEDAN  CHAIR,  a  portable  covered 
vehicle  for  carrying  a  single  person, 
borne  on  two  poles  by  two  men.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  town  of  Sedan, 
where  this  species  of  conveyance  is  said 


to  have  been  invented.  The  Duke  of 
Buckingham  used  one  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  a  proceeding  which  gave  gen- 
eral offense,  it  being  made  matter  of  pub- 
lic remark  that  this  loyal  favorite  used 
his  fellow-countryman  to  do  the  work  of 
beasts.  In  September,  1634,  Sir  Francis 
Duncombe  got  a  letter  patent,  granting 
him  the  sole  right  and  privilege  for  14 
years  to  use  and  let  for  hire  within  Lon- 
don and  Westminster  "covered  chairs"  to 
prevent  the  unnecessary  use  of  coaches; 
according  to  Evelyn  he  got  the  notion 
from  Naples.  Sedan  chairs  were  largely 
used  during  the  greater  part  of  the  18th 
century,  being  found  very  well  adapted 
for  transporting  persons  in  full  dress  to 
public  and  private  entertainments. 

SEDATIVE,  in  medicine  a  remedy 
which  allays  irritability  and  irritation, 
and  which  assuages  pain.  Sedatives  are 
divided  according  to  the  parts  on  which 
they  act  into  external  or  local. 

SEDDON,  RICHARD  JOHN,  a  New 
Zealand  public  official,  born  at  Eccleston, 
England,  in  1845.  He  went  to  Australia 
as  a  mechanical  engineer  in  1863,  and 
thereafter  removed  to  New  Zealand, 
where  he  took  an  active  part  in  politics. 
He  entered  the  colonial  parliament  in 
1879,  and  was  Minister  of  Mines  from 
1891  to  1893.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
appointed  Premier.  He  retained  that  of- 
fice until  his  death,  in  1906.  He  was  a 
strong  advocate  of  the  policy  of  state  so- 
cialism. 

SEDGE  (Car ex;  natural  order,  Cy- 
peracese),  an  extensive  genus  of  grass- 
like plants  containing  thousands  of  spe- 
cies, mostly  inhabiting  the  N.  and  tem- 
perate parts  of  the  globe.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  species  are  marsh  plants. 
They  furnish  coarse  fodder,  which  is  re- 
jected by  most  of  the  domestic  quadru- 
peds. 

SEDGEMOOR,  a  marshy  tract  in 
Somersetshire,  England,  about  5  miles 
S.  E.  of  Bridgewater.  In  1685  it  was  the 
scene  of  the  battle  in  which  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth  was  defeated  by  the  troops  of 
James  II. 

SEDGE  WARBLER,  the  Acrocephalus 
schsenobsenus,  a  small  European  singing 
bird.  Its  total  length  is  rather  less  than 
five  inches;  tail  comparatively  short;  up- 
per surface  rufous-brown,  clouded  with 
a  darker  shade;  breast,  belly,  and  lower 
tail  coverts  pale  buff.  The  eggs  are  five 
or  six  in  number,  pale  yellowish-brown. 

SEDGWICK,  ADAM,  an  English 
geologist;  born  in  Dent,  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, in  1785.  He  was  educated  at  Sed- 
berg  and  at  Cambridge  University  and  in 


SEDGWICK 


325 


SEED 


1818  was  appointed  Woodwardian  Pro- 
fessor of  Geology  in  the  latter;  this  chair 
he  held  till  within  a  short  time  of  his 
death.  His  chief  services  to  geology  con- 
sisted in  the  determination  of  the  geologi- 
cal relations  of  the  palaeozoic  strata  of 
Devon  and  Cornwall,  and  of  those  strata 
afterward  called  Permian  in  the  N.  E. 
and  N.  W.  of  England,  in  the  explanation 
of  the  geological  character  of  north 
Wales,  and  not  less  in  the  enlargement 
of  the  geological  museum  at  Cambridge. 
The  only  considerable  work  of  Professor 
Sedgwick's  is  a  "Discourse  on  the  Studies 
of  the  University  of  Cambridge,"  which 
had  a  wide  circulation.  He  died  in  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge,  Jan.  27,  1873. 

SEDGWICK,  ANNE  DOUGLAS  (Mrs. 
Basil  de  Selincourt),  an  American  nov- 
elist, born  in  Englewood,  N.  J.,  in  1873. 
While  still  a  child,  she  was  taken  abroad 
by  her  parents,  where  she  remained  for 
the  greater  part  of  her  life.  For  several 
years  she  was  a  student  of  painting,  and 
her  pictures  were  shown  at  several  exhi- 
bitions. Her  novels  include  "The  Dull 
Miss  Archinard"  (1898)  ;  "The  Rescue" 
(1902)  ;  "Franklin  Winslow  Kane" 
(1910) ;  "Tante"  (1911) ;  "The  Encoun- 
ter" (1914).  She  contributed  many 
short  stories  to  magazines. 

SEDGWICK,  ELLERY,  an  American 
Editor,  born  in  New  York  in  1872.  He 
graduated  from  Harvard  in  1894,  and  for 
a  time  taught  at  Groton  School.  From 
1896  to  1900  he  was  assistant  editor  of 
"The  Youth's  Companion,"  and  subse- 
quently became  editor  of  "Leslie's  Maga- 
zine," and  the  "American  Magazine."  He 
purchased  and  became  the  editor  of  the 
"Atlantic  Monthly."  He  was  a  member 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Letters,  and  of  several  historical  societies. 

SEDGWICK,   HENRY    DWIGHT,    an 

American  author,  born  at  Stockbridge, 
Mass.,  in  1861.  He  studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1884  and  until 
1898  practiced  in  New  York.  He  wrote 
"Life  of  Father  Hecker"  (1897) ;  "Life  of 
Samuel  Champ  lain"  (1901) ;  "Essays  on 
Great  Writers"  (1902)  ;  "Life  of  Francis 
Parkman"  (1904)  ;  "Italy  in  the  Thir- 
teenth Century"  (1912)  ;  "Dante"  (1919). 
He  was  a  member  of  the  National  Insti- 
tute of  Arts  and  Letters. 

SEDITION,  a  factious  rising  or  com- 
motion in  a  state,  not  amounting  to  in- 
surrection; the  stirring  up  or  fomenting 
of  such  a  commotion;  the  stirring  up  or 
fomenting  of  discontent  against  govern- 
ment, and  disturbance  of  public  tranquil- 
lity, as,  by  inflammatory  speeches  or  writ- 
ings; acts  or  language  inciting  to  a 
breach  of  the  public  peace;  excitement  of 
resistance  to  lawful  authority.     Sedition 


comprises  sueh  offenses  of  this  class  as 
do  not  amount  to  treason,  being  withoul 
the  overt  acts  which  are  essential  to  the 
latter. 

SEDLEY,  SIR  CHARLES,  an  English 
dramatist;  born  in  Aylesford,  Kent,  Eng- 
land, in  1639.  He  is  author  of  the  fa- 
vorite song  "Phyllis."  He  wrote  four 
comedies,  among  them  "The  Mulberry 
Garden"  (1686)  and  two  tragedies.  He 
died  Aug.  20,  1701. 

SEE,  a  diocese;  the  seat  of  episcopal 
authority;  the  jurisdiction;  as,  an  episco- 
pal see;  the  province  or  jurisdiction  of 
an  archbishop;  as,  an  archiepiscopal  see; 
the  seat  place,  or  office  of  the  Pope  or 
Roman  pontiff;  as,  the  Papal  See;  the 
authority  of  the  Po^e  or  court  of  Rome; 
as,  he  was  delegated  by  the  See  of  Rome. 

SEE,  THOMAS  JEFFERSON  JACK- 
SON, an  American  astronomer ;  born  near 
Montgomery  City,  Mo.,  Feb.  19,  1866;  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Missouri 
in  1889,  and  at  the  University  of  Berlin 
in  1892 ;  was  in  charge  of  the  observatory 
of  the  University  of  Missouri  in  1887- 
1889;  had  charge  of  and  aided  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Yerkes  Observatory  of 
the  University  of  Chicago  in  1893-1896; 
was  astronomer  of  the  Lowell  Observa- 
tory during  the  survey  of  the  Southern 
heavens  in  1896-1898;  became  Professor 
of  Mathematics  in  the  United  States  Na- 
val Academy  in  1899;  and  in  December 
of  that  year  took  charge  of  the  26-inch 
equatorial  telescope  of  the  United  States 
Naval  Observatory,  Naval  Academy  1899- 
1902.  From  1903  he  was  in  charge  of  the 
Naval  Observatory,  Mare  Island,  Cal. 
He  completed  about  45  orbits  of  double 
stars;  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Astro- 
nomical Society;  member  of  the  Ameri- 
can Philosophical  Society;  the  American 
Mathematical  Society,  the  Astronomische 
Gesellschaft,  etc.;  and  was  the  author  of 
numerous  astronomical  papers  and  books, 
including  "Researches  on  the  Evolution 
of  the  Stellar  Systems,"  and  "The  Evo- 
lution of  the  Double-star  Systems." 

SEED,  consists  essentially  of  the 
young  plant  or  embryo,  inclosed  in  integ- 
uments, of  which  there  are  usually  two. 
It  varies  much  in  form.  The  outer  integ- 
ument, or  seed  coat,  is  termed  the  testa 
or  episperm.  It  is  usually  of  a  brown  or 
somewhat  similar  hue,  but  it  frequently 
assumes  other  colors.  The  inner  integu- 
ment is  called  the  tegmen,  or  endos- 
pleura;  it  is  generally  of  a  soft  and  deli- 
cate nature.  A  third  integument,  more 
or  less  complete,  is  occasionally  found  on 
the  surface  of  the  others.  The  inner  por- 
tion of  the  seed,  called  the  nucleus,  or 
kernel,  may  either  consist  of  the  embryo 


SEEDING 


326 


SEGOVIA 


alone,  as  in  the  wallflower  and  the  Dean, 
or  of  the  embryo  inclosed  in  albumen  or 
perisperm,  as  in  the  morning-glory. 
When  the  nourishing  matter,  called  al- 
bumen, is  present,  the  seed  is  said  to  be 
albuminous;  when  it  is  absent,  to  be  ex- 
albuminous.  The  duration  of  the  vitality 
of  seeds  is  a  much  discussed  question. 
Few  seeds  germinate  after  three  or  four 
years.  See  Albumen:  Embryo:  Ovary: 
Placenta. 

SEEDING,  sowing  either  in  drills  or 
broadcast,  an  operation  formerly  conduct- 
ed altogether  by  hand.  Machines  are  now 
in  use  adapted  to  sowing  the  finest  grass 
seeds  or  the  most  bulky  grains  and  seeds. 

SEEGER,  ALAN,  an  American  poet, 
born  in  New  York  in  1888.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  University  and  began 
writing  while  still  an  undergraduate  stu- 
dent, although  little  of  his  work  became 
known  then.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1912. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  he 
enlisted  in  the  Foreign  Legion.  He  con- 
tinued to  write  while  serving  in  the 
French  army  and  some  of  his  poems,  sent 
to  friends  in  America,  gradually  found 
their  way  into  print.  The  best  known  of 
his  poems,  perhaps,  was  "I  Have  a  Ren- 
dezvous with  Death."  He  died  during  an 
engagement  at  Belloi-en-Santerre,  on  July 
3,  1916.  The  comparatively  small  num- 
ber of  his  writings  which  he  left  were 
published  after  his  death  in  two  volumes, 
"Poems"  (1917),  and  "Letters  and  Di- 
ary"  (1917). 

SEELY,  JOHN  EDWARD  BER- 
NARD, a  British  public  official,  born 
1868.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow,  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar,  Inner  Temple,  in  1897. 
He  joined  the  army  and  commanded  as 
colonel  the  Hampshire  Carabineers,  serv- 
ing with  the  Imperial  Yeomanry  in  South 
Africa  in  1900-1.  He  represented  in  par- 
liament the  Isle  of  Wight,  1900-6,  the 
Abercromby  Division  of  Liverpool,  1906- 
10,  and  since  1910  the  Ilkeston  Division 
of  Derby.  He  was  Under-Secretary  for 
the  colonies  1908-1910;  Secretary  of 
State  for  War  1912-1914,  and  in  1919 
Under-Secretary  of  State  for  Air  and 
President  of  the  Air  Council. 

SEELYE,  LATJRENTJS  CLARK,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  Bethel, Conn., 
Sept.  20,  1837;  was  graduated  at  Union 
College  in  1857;  studied  in  the  Universi- 
ties of  Berlin  and  Heidelberg;  became 
pastor  of  the  North  Congregational 
Church,  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1863;  and 
Professor  of  Rhetoric  and  English  Lit- 
erature in  Amherst  College  in  1865.  He 
was  chosen  president  of  Smith  College  in 
1873  and  president  emeritus  in  1910. 


SEER,  a  weight  in  India,  formerly 
varying  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
but  by  an  act  of  the  Anglo-Indian  Gov- 
ernment (Oct.  31,  1871),  the  seer  was 
adopted  as  the  primary  standard  of 
weight,  and  made  equivalent  to  a  kilo- 
gramme. 

SEGESTA,  in  antiquity  a  city  of 
Sicily;  situated  near  the  coast,  27  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Palermo.  It  was  an  ally  of 
Athens  in  the  Peloponnesian  War,  became 
a  dependent  of  Carthage  about  400  B.  c, 
and  passed  under  Roman  supremacy  at 
the  time  of  the  first  Punic  War.  There 
still  remain  the  ruins  of  a  Greek  theater 
and  a  Greek  temple,  the  latter  being  one 
of  the  most  complete  examples  extant  of 
Greek  architecture.  Near  the  ancient 
site  of  Segesta  is  now  the  modern  town 
of  Catalafimi. 

SEGMENT,  in  comparative  anatomy, 
one  of  the  divisions  or  rings  in  the  body 
of  an  insect,  an  annelid,  a  decapod,  crus- 
tacean, etc.  In  geometry,  a  segment  is  a 
part  cut  off  from  any  figure  by  a  line 
or  plane.  The  segment  of  a  circle  is  a 
part  of  the  area  of  a  circle  included  be- 
tween a  chord  and  the  arc  which  it  sub- 
tends. An  angle  in  a  segment  is  the  angle 
contained  by  any  two  straight  lines  drawn 
from  any  point  in  the  arc  and  terminat- 
ing in  the  extremities  of  the  chord.  Sim- 
ilar segments  of  circles  are  those  which 
contain  equal  angles,  or  whose  arcs  con- 
tain the  same  number  of  degrees.  A 
spherical  segment  is  a  portion  of  a  sphere 
bounded  by  a  secant  line  and  a  zone  of 
the  surface.  If  a  circular  segment  be 
revolved  about  a  radius  drawn  perpendic- 
ular to  the  chord  of  the  segment,  the  vol- 
ume generated  is  a  spherical  segment. 

SEGNO  (sa'nyo),  in  music,  a  sign  or 
mark  used  in  notation  in  connection  with 
repetition.  Al  segno  (to  the  sign),  a  di- 
rection to  return  to  the  sign;  dal  segno 
(from  the  sign),  a  direction  to  repeat 
from  the  sign. 

SEGOVIA,  an  old  city  of  Spain;  at 
the  N.  foot  of  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama ; 
32  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Madrid.  It  occupies 
a  rocky  eminence  3,300  feet  above  sea- 
level,  is  surrounded  by  ruinous  walls  with 
round  towers,  and  consists  of  narrow  un- 
even streets,  with  old,  quaint,  and  stately 
houses,  and  numerous  parish  churches 
and  convents.  The  fortress  or  castle  is 
perched  on  the  W.  extremity  of  the  rocky 
height,  and  was  originally  Moorish,  but 
has  been  gradually  restored  since  its  de- 
struction by  fire  in  1862;  its  towers  and 
windows  command  magnificent  views. 
The  cathedral  (1521-1577)  is  one  of  the 
finest  specimens  of  late  Gothic  in  Spain. 
The  grand  aqueduct,  built  in  the  time  of 
Trajan,  is  a  very  fine  example  of  Roman 


SEGREGATION 


327 


SEINE 


architectural  work.  It  consists  of  two 
rows  of  arches,  the  one  resting  on  the 
other,  some  2,600  feet  long  and  102  feet 
high.  Wool  scouring  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  paper,  pottery,  and  cloth  are  car- 
ried on.  Segovia  was  a  place  of  impor- 
tance during  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and 
was  frequently  the  residence  of  the  kings 
of  Castile  and  Leon.  The  unresisting 
town  was  sacked  in  1808  by  the  French. 
Pop.  about  15,000. 

SEGREGATION,  in  geology,  that  pro- 
cess in  nature  by  which,  when  a  mixed 
mineral  mass  has  been  deposited  or  accu- 
mulated, and  left  to  the  influence  of  the 
chemical  forces  always  operating,  certain 
minerals  tend  to  separate  themselves  from 
the  mass,  and  collect  into  natural  cracks 
or  blisters,  either  previously  existing  or 
formed  during  the  operation. 

SEICHEPREY,  a  small  village  in 
France  which  gave  its  name  to  the  first 
serious  engagement  between  the  Ameri- 
can troops  and  the  Germans  during  the 
World  War.  Various  minor  engagements 
had  already  taken  place,  in  which  small 
forces  of  Americans  had  distinguished 
themselves,  to  the  cost  of  the  German 
military  reputation,  and  it  was,  there- 
fore, decided  by  the  German  higher  mili- 
tary authorities  that  the  Americans  must 
be  dealt  a  blow  of  considerable  magni- 
tude, to  retrieve  the  bad  impression  al- 
ready made  among  the  German  public. 
The  American  sector  running  eastward 
of  the  famous  St.  Mihiel  salient  was 
chosen  as  the  location  of  the  punishment. 
Here  lay  the  village  of  Seicheprey,  among 
the  rolling  hills.  The  assault  came  on 
the  Americans  at  this  point  at  sunrise, 
on  April  20,  1918.  The  Germans  were  at 
first  successful,  in  that  they  drove  the 
Americans  out  of  the  village,  but  on  the 
following  day  the  Americans  counter- 
attacked, supported  by  the  French,  and 
drove  the  Germans  back,  the  net  result 
being  a  decided  defeat  for  the  Germans. 

SEIDEL,  EMIL,  an  American  socialist 
leader,  born  in  Ashland,  Pa.,  in  1864. 
From  1885  to  1893  he  learned  wood  carv- 
ing in  Germany.  Upon  his  return  he  set- 
tled in  Milwaukee,  Wis.  He  became  one 
of  the  organizers  of  the  wood  carvers' 
union  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  local 
socialist  party  organization.  In  1902  he 
was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the 
governorship  of  Wisconsin;  from  1904  to 
1909  he  served  as  alderman  of  Milwaukee. 
In  1910  he  was  elected  Mayor  of  Milwau- 
kee, being  the  first  socialist  holding  this 
office  in  any  city  of  importance  in  the 
United  States.  He  was  defeated  for  re- 
election in  1912.  He  was  unsuccessful 
as  the  socialist  candidate  for  the  United 
States  Vice-Presidency  in  1916. 


SEIDL,  ANTON,  a  Hungarian  or, 
chestra  conductor;  born  in  Budapest, 
Hungary,  May  6,  1850;  educated  in  Bu- 
dapest and  in  Leipsic  and  Beyreuth,  un- 
der Richter  and  Wagner.  In  1876,  on  the 
production  of  the  "Nibelungen"  drama  in 
Beyreuth,  he  was  stage  director.  He  ob- 
tained the  position  of  conductor  at  the 
Leipsic  Opera  House  in  1879  through 
Wagner's  influence.  In  1882  he  made  a 
tour  of  Europe  as  conductor  of  the  Ni- 
belungen Opera  Troupe.  In  1883  he  was 
appointed  conductor  of  the  Bremen  Opera 
House,  where  he  remained  till  1885 ;  when 
he  became  conductor  of  German  opera  in 
New  York  City,  succeeding  Dr.  Leopold 
Damrosch.  He  afterward  directed  the  con- 
certs of  the  Philharmonic  Society  in  that 
city,  succeeding  Theodore  Thomas.  He 
died  in  New  York  City,  March  28,  1898. 

SEIDLITZ  POWDER,  a  mild,  cooling 
aperient,  made  up  in  two  powders,  one, 
usually  in  blue  paper,  consisting  of  a  mix- 
ture of  Rochelle  salt  and  bicarbonate  of 
soda,  and  the  other,  in  white  paper,  of 
finely  powdered  tartaric  acid.  The  pow- 
ders are  dissolved  separately  in  water, 
then  mixed,  and  the  mixture  taken  while 
effervescing.  It  is  intended  to  produce 
the  same  effect  as  Seidlitz  water. 

SEIGNIORAGE,  an  ancient  royalty  or 
prerogative  of  the  crown,  whereby  it 
claimed  a  percentage  upon  the  bullion 
brought  to  the  mint  to  be  coined  or  to  be 
exchanged  for  coin.  No  seigniorage  is 
now  charged  for  coining  gold  in  Great 
Britain,  but  a  considerable  seigniorage  is 
levied  on  the  silver  and  copper  currencies. 
As  used  in  the  United  States,  the  term 
seigniorage  means  the  profit  arising  from 
the  coinage  of  bullion. 

SEINE  (sen),  a  large  net  for  catching 
such  fish  as  mackerel  and  pilchard.  It  is 
often  160  to  200  fathoms  long,  and  6  to 
10  broad,  and  is  buoyed  by  corks  and 
weighted  so  as  to  float  perpendicularly. 

SEINE  (sain),  a  river  of  France,  ris- 
ing in  the  department  of  Cote  d'Or;  20 
miles  N.  W.  of  Dijon,  running  N.  through 
Champagne  to  Troyes,  where  it  receives 
the  Aube,  and,  turning  W.  is  joined  by  the 
Yonne,  and  before  reaching  Paris,  by  the 
Marne,  becomes  a  larger  stream,  flowing 
from  the  W.  At  Paris  the  Seine  varies 
from  300  to  500  feet  in  width,  and  it  soon 
after  receives  an  addition  by  the  influx  of 
the  Oise,  when,  pursuing  a  winding  course 
to  the  N.  W.,  it  passes  Rouen,  and  dis- 
charges itself  into  the  sea  at  Havre-de- 
Grace.  Length,  482  miles,  for  350  of 
which  it  is  navigable. 

SEINE,  the  smallest,  but  most  impor- 
tant and  wealthiest  department  of  France, 
entirely   surrounded   by   the   department 


SEINE-ET-MARNE 


328 


SEJANUS 


Seine-et-Oise;;  area,  185  square  miles. 
The  surface  is  generally  level,  with  few 
hills — Mount  Valerien,  450  feet  (strongly- 
fortified),  and  Montmartre,  344  feet,  be- 
ing the  highest.  The  soil  is  calcareous, 
but  rendered  productive  by  manure  sup- 
plied from  the  capital.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  river  Seine.  Products,  principally 
vegetables  and  fruits  for  the  Paris  mar- 
kets; capital,  Paris.  Pop.  about  4,150,000. 

SEINE-ET-MARNE,  a  department  in 
the  N.  E.  of  France,  comprising  a  part 
of  the  old  province 'of  Ile-de-France,  hav- 
ing N.  the  departments  Oise  and  Aisne, 
E.  Aube  and  Marne,  S.  Yonne  and  Loiret, 
and  W.  Loiret  and  Seine-et-Oise;  area, 
2,275  square  miles.  The  surface  is  un- 
dulating, and  the  soil  fertile.  Rivers, 
Seine,  Marne,  Yonne,  and  Ourcq.  Pro- 
ducts, wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  potatoes, 
etc.  Numerous  cattle  and  sheep  are 
raised.  Manufactures  before  the  World 
War,  cotton  and  linen  fabrics,  hardware 
and  cutlery,  earthenware,  leather  and 
paper.  Chief  towns,  Melun,  the  capital, 
Coulommiers,  Fontainebleau,  Meaux,  and 
Provins.  The  department  suffered  se- 
verely in  the  German  invasion  of 
France  in  1914.  Meaux  was  the  point 
nearest  to  Paris  reached  by  the  German 
armies.     Pop.  about  363,500. 

SEINE-ET-OISE,  a  department  of  the 
N.  of  France,  having  N.  the  department 
of  Oise,  E.  Seine-et-Marne,  S.  Loiret,  and 
W.  Eure  and  Eure-et-Loire;  area,  2,184 
square  miles.  The  surface  is  undulating, 
and  the  soil  generally  fertile.  Rivers, 
Seine,  Marne,  and  Oise.  Products,  wheat, 
oats,  fruit,  vegetables,  and  cattle.  Manu- 
factures, woolens  and  printed  fabrics, 
Sevres  porcelain,  leather,  chemicals,  and 
hardware.  Chief  towns,  Versailles,  the 
capital,  Mantes,  Pontoise,  Rambouillet, 
Etampes,  and  Corbeil.  Pop.  about 
818,000. 

SEINE-INFERIEURE,  a  maritime 
department  of  the  N.  of  France,  former- 
ly comprising  most  of  the  province  of 
Normandy,  having  N.  and  W.  the  British 
Channel,  E.  the  departments  of  Somme 
and  Oise,  S.  Eure  and  Calvados;  area, 
2,448  square  miles.  The  surface  is  hilly 
and  well  wooded.  The  soil  is  generally 
fertile.  Rivers,  the  Seine  and  its  afflu- 
ents. Products,  wheats,  oats,  barley,  rye, 
flax,  hemp,  hops,  and  fruits.  Manufac- 
tures, woolens  and  cottons,  shipbuilding. 
Chief  towns,  Rouen,  the  capital,  Dieppe, 
Havre,  Yvetot.     Fop.  about  877,000. 

SEIR  FISH,  or  SEER  FISH,  the  Cybi- 
um  gutatum,  one  of  the  Scombridse  from 
East  Indian  seas.  In  form  and  size  it 
resembles  a  salmon,  and  its  flesh,  though 
white,  is  firm,  and  very  similar  to  salmon 
in  flavor. 


SEISIN,  or  SEIZIN,  a  right  to  lands 
and  tenements.  In  common  law  seisin 
signifies  possession,  as  to  seize  is  to  take 
possession  of  a  thing.  Seisin  is  properly 
applied  to  estates  of  freehold  only,  so 
that  a  man  is  said  to  be  seized  of  an 
estate  of  inheritance,  but  to  be  possessed 
of  a  chattel  interest.  There  is  a  seisin 
in  deed,  or  in  fact,  when  an  actual  pos- 
session is  taken,  and  a  seisin  in  law 
where  the  lands  have  descended  to  a  per- 
son but  he  has  not  yet  actually  taken 
possession  of  them.  Seisin  in  deed  is 
obtained  by  actually  entering  into  the 
lands.  In  some  of  the  States,  as  Penn- 
sylvania, Massachusetts,  Ohio,  and  Con- 
necticut, seisin  means  merely  ownership; 
and  the  distinction  between  seisin  in  deed 
or  in  law  is  not  known  in  practice. 

SEISMOLOGY,  the  study  of  earth- 
quakes. Though  seismology  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  have  existed  before  the  early 
part  of  the  19th  century,  it  has  a  rapidly 
growing  bibliography,  and  is  accumulat- 
ing a  store  of  facts  and  observations  on 
which  generalizations  may  be  based.  See 
Earthquake. 

SEISMOGRAPH,  a  seismometer;  an 
instrument  for  recording  the  period,  ex- 
tent, and  direction  of  each  of  the  vibra- 
tions which  constitute  an  earthquake. 
For  a  complete  seismography,  three  dis- 
tinct sets  of  apparatus  are  required:  (1) 
To  record  horizontal  motion;  (2)  to  re- 
cord vertical  motion;  and  (3)  to  record 
time.  The  horizontal  and  vertical  mo- 
tions must  be  written  on  the  same  re- 
ceiver, and  if  possible  side  by  side,  while 
at  the  instant  at  which  the  time  is  re- 
corded a  mark  must  be  made  on  the 
diagram  which  is  being  drawn  by  the 
seismograph.  The  first  instruments  were 
merely  modifications  of  the  seismoscope, 
but  successive  improvements  have  been 
introduced,  and  the  seismograph  has  been 
brought  to  a  high  pitch  of  perfection. 
Some  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best  forms 
known  are  in  use  in  the  Imperial  Ob- 
servatory at  Tokio,  Japan. 

SEISTAN,  or  HAMOON,  LAKE,  a 
large,  irregularly  shaped,  shallow  lake  or 
swamp  in  the  W.  of  Afghanistan,  close 
to  the  frontier  of  the  Persian  province 
of  Khorassan,  a  division  of  which  prov- 
ince (mainly  steppe)  is  named  Seistan 
after  it.  The  lake  is  not  a  single  expanse 
of  water,  but  is  divided  into  three  de- 
pressions. A  great  part  of  the  area  is 
generally  dry;  but,  as  the  basin  has  no 
outlet,  when  the  Helmund  and  its  other 
feeders  are  in  flood  this  lake  regularly 
overflows  its  boundaries,  fertilizing  large 
tracts  of  country. 

SEJANUS,  .ffiLIUS,  the  son  of  a  Ro- 
man knight,  and  noted  as  the  favorite  of 


SEL    D'OR 


329 


SELETJCIDiE 


Tiberius,  was  born  at  Vulsinii  in  Etruria. 
He  was  commander  of  the  praetorian 
bands,  acquired  the  confidence  of  Tibe- 
rius, and  aimed  at  the  supreme  power. 
He  contrived  to  remove  all  the  members 
of  the  imperial  family  who  stood  between 
him  and  power,  but  having  awakened 
the  suspicion  of  Tiberius  he  was  exe- 
cuted in  A.  D.  31. 

SEL  D'OR,  a  double  hyposulphite  of 
gold  and  sodium,  used  in  photography 
for  toning  positive  paper-proofs. 

SELECTIVE  DRAFT  LAW,  a  dis- 
tinctive name  given  to  the  measures 
passed  by  the  United  States  Congress  in 
1917,  providing  for  the  drafting  of  men 
of  military  age  into  the  armed  forces, 
for  service  in  the  World  War.  See  United 
States,  section,  United  States  in  the 
World  War. 

SELENITE,  a  name  used  by  some 
mineralogists  for  all  species  of  gypsum, 
by  others  applied  to  the  crystallized  forms 
only. 

SELENIUM,  a  non-metallic  hexad 
element  occupying  an  intermediate  place 
between  sulphur  and  tellurium:  Symbol 
Se;  at.  wt.  79.5.  It  was  discovered  by 
Berzelius  in  1817.  Though  not  very 
abundant  in  nature,  it  enters  into  the 
composition  of  many  minerals,  and  has 
been  found  in  the  free  state  in  certain 
parts  of  Mexico.  It  is  prepared  from 
cuproplumbic  selenide  by  heating  the  pul- 
verized ore  with  hydrochloric  acid,  ignit- 
ing the  insoluble  residue  with  an  equal 
weight  of  black  flux  and  dissolving  out 
the  selenide  of  potassium  with  boiling 
water.  By  exposing  this  solution  to  the 
air  selenium  is  deposited  as  a  gray  pow- 
der. Like  sulphur,  it  occurs  in  the  amor- 
phus  and  crystalline  states.  _  In  the 
former  it  may  be  drawn  out  into  ruby- 
colored  threads,  and  when  melted  and 
quickly  cooled  becomes  vitreous  with  a 
Bp.  gr.  of  4:3,  and  nearly  insoluble  in 
bisulphide  of  carbon.  In  the  crystalline 
condition  it  forms  monoclinic  prisms  of 
sp.  gr.=4.5-4.7.  It  boils  below  a  red 
heat  and  gives  off  a  deep  yellow  vapor 
which  condenses  in  scarlet  flowers,  and 
when  thoroughly  heated  burns  with  a 
blue  flame  forming  selenious  anhydride. 
It  is  oxidized  and  dissolved  by  nitric 
acid,  yielding  selenious  acid.  It  is  used 
in  certain  electric  contrivances  on  ac- 
count of  the  changes  its^  electric  resis- 
tance undergoes  when  it  is  subjected  to 
light. 

SELETJCIA,  the  name  of  several  an- 
cient cities  of  Asia,  situated  in  Assyria, 
Margiana,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Cilicia, 
Pamphylia,  Pisidia,  Caria,  and  other 
cnuntries,  of  which  the  following  are  the 


most  important.  (1)  Seleucia  on  the 
Tigris  was  founded  by  Seleucus  I.  of 
Syria,  on  the  left  bank  of  that  river,  near 
its  junction  with  the  royal  canal  of  Baby- 
lonia, and  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Delas  (now  Diala)  river,  a  little  S.  of 
the  modern  city  of  Bagdad.  Commanding 
the  plains  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
and  the  principal  caravan  roads  of  As- 
syria and  Babylonia,  on  the  confines  of 
which  it  was  situated,  and  peopled  by 
settlers  from  various  countries  of  wes- 
tern Asia,  it  rapidly  rose  in  wealth  and 
splendor,  and,  eclipsing  Babylon,  became 
the  capital  of  that  part  of  Asia,  till  it 
was  in  its  turn  eclipsed  by  Ctesiphon, 
built  by  the  Parthians  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  Tigris.  The  later  wars  of 
the  Romans  against  that  people  proved 
destructive  to  Seleucia.  A  city  of  up- 
ward of  500,000  inhabitants  in  the  1st 
century,  in  the  following  it  was  burned 
by  Trajan  and  Lucius  Aurelius  Verus, 
and  captured  by  Septimius  Severus,  and 
in  the  expedition  of  Julian  against  the 
Persians,  in  the  4th  century,  was  found 
deserted.  (2)  Seleucia  Pieria,  a  strong 
fortress  of  northern  Syria,  also  founded 
by  Seleucus  I.,  whose  remains  were  pre- 
served there  in  a  mausoleum,  was  built 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Pieria,  on  a  rock 
overhanging  the  Mediterranean  a  few 
miles  N.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orontes,  and 
W.  of  Antioch,  with  which  it  was  simul- 
taneously founded,  and  of  which  it  formed 
the  seaport.  It  surrendered  to  Ptolemy 
III.  of  Egypt,  was  recovered  by  An- 
tiochus  the  Great,  and  in  the  latter  pe- 
riod of  the  Syrian  kingdom  became  inde- 
pendent. Under  the  Romans  it  rapidly 
decayed.  Considerable  ruins  of  its  har- 
bor, fortifications,  and  necropolis  are  still 
to  be  seen. 

SELEUCID-ffi,  a  dynasty  of  kings  who 
succeeded  to  that  portion  of  the  empire 
of  Alexander  the  Great  which  embraced 
the  Asiatic  provinces,  and  is  generally 
known  as  Syria.  Seleucus  I.,  surnamed 
Nicator,  the  founder  of  the  line,  born 
about  358  B.  c,  was  a  general  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  shortly  after  whose 
death  (323  B.  c.)  he  obtained  the  satrapy 
of  Babylon.  Subsequently  Antigonus 
forced  him  to  withdraw  into  Egypt  (316 
B.  c),  but  having  induced  Ptolemy,  the 
governor  of  Egypt,  along  with  Lysi- 
machus  and  Cassander,  to  take  the  field 
against  Antigonus,  he  was  enabled  to  re- 
turn to  Babylon  in  312  B.  C.  He  grad- 
ually extended  his  possessions  from  the 
Euphrates  to  the  Indus,  assumed  the  title 
of  king  in  306,  and  latterly  acquired 
Syria  and  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor,  but 
was  assassinated  in  280  B.  C  He  is  said 
to  have  been  the  most  upright  of  Alex- 
ander's successors,  and  was  the  founder 


SELF-DENYING    ORDINANCE 


330 


SELIM 


of  Antioch  and  other  cities.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Antiochus  I.  and  by  a 
number  of  monarchs  of  the  name  of  Se- 
leucus  and  Antiochus,  the  most  distin- 
guished being  Antiochus  the  Great.  The 
power  of  the  Seleucidae  began  to  decline 
as  early  as  the  reign  of  Seleucus  II.  (246- 
226  B.  a),  and  they  successively  lost, 
through  revolts  and  otherwise,  Bactria, 
Parthia,  Armenia,  Judea,  etc.,  and  what 
subsequently  remained  was  converted  into 
a  Roman  province  in  65  B.  c.  See  An- 
tiochus. 

SELF-DENYING  ORDINANCE,  a 
measure  carried  through  the  British  Par- 
liament in  1645  by  the  influence  of  Crom- 
well and  the  Independents,  by  means  of 
which  generals  who  were  either  less  ef- 
ficient or  but  half-hearted  in  the  cause 
were  removed  from  the  command  of  the 
army.  After  Manchester's  lack  of  energy 
at  the  second  battle  of  Newbury  (Oct. 
27,  1645),  Cromwell  had  determined  on 
a  change  of  tactics,  and  attacked  Man- 
chester in  Parliament,  but  he  soon  found 
the  more  sweeping  measure  a  better 
means  toward  his  ends.  The  lords  threw 
out  the  measure,  whereupon  the  Com- 
mons proceeded  to  form  a  new  army 
under  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  as  general-in- 
chief.  The  lords  now  passed  the  measure 
with  some  alterations  and  called  on  all 
existing  officers  to  resign.  Thus  Essex, 
Waller,  and  Manchester  were  got  rid  of, 
while  Cromwell  was  specially  reappointed 
to  the  command  of  the  cavalry  as  lieu- 
tenant-general. 

SELFRIDGE,  H(ARRY)  GORDON, 
an  American  merchant,  born  in  Ripon, 
Wis.,  in  1858.  He  received  a  public  school 
education  and,  entering  the  employ  of 
Field,  Leiter  &  Co.  in  1879,  he  was  ad- 
vanced until  he  became  a  partner  of 
Marshall  Field  &  Co.,  and  manager  of  the 
retail  store.  In  1904  he  sold  his  inter- 
ests and  retired,  and  afterward  engaged 
in  business  in  Chicago  under  the  firm 
name  of  H.  G.  Selfridge  &  Co.  In  1906 
he  organized  in  London,  Selfridge  &  Co., 
Ltd.,  and  in  1909  built  and  opened  one 
of  the  largest  retail  stores  in  Europe. 
He  wrote  "The  Romance  of  Commerce." 

SELFRIDGE,  THOMAS  OLIVER,  an 
American  naval  officer;  born  in  Charles- 
town,  Mass.,  Feb.  6,  1836;  son  of  rear- 
admiral  of  same  name,  graduated  at 
U.  S.  Naval  Academy  in  1854,  and  pro- 
moted lieutenant  in  1860.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  was  serving  on  board  the 
^Cumberland"  when  she  was  sunk  by  the 
"Merrimac"  in  Hampton  Roads  in  1862; 
commanded  the  ironclad  "Cairo,"  which 
was  blown  up  on  the  Yazoo  river;  had 
charge  of  a  battery  at  the  capture  of 
Vicksburg;   participated  in  both  attacks 


on  Fort  Fisher,  and  commanded  several 
vessels  in  the  Mississippi  fleet.  He  was 
promoted  commander  in  1869  and  had 
charge  of  the  surveys  for  the  canal  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Darien  in  1869-1874;  was 
a  member  of  the  International  Congress 
at  Paris  in  1876  and  in  1896  was  pro- 
moted rear  admiral.  He  was  retired, 
Feb.  6,  1898. 

SELIGMAN,  EDWIN  ROBERT  AN- 
DERSON, an  American  educator;  born 
in  New  York  City,  April  25,  1861;  was 
graduated  at  Columbia  University  in 
1879;  then  studied  abroad;  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Political  Economy  and  Finance 
at  Columbia  University  in  1891 ;  editor  of 
the  Political  Science  Quarterly.  He  was 
a  member  of  New  York  Mayor's  Tax  and 
Finance  Committee,  1905;  President  of 
Roosevelt's  Committee  on  Statistics  and 
Reorganization,  1908;  Chairman  of  trus- 
tees, Bureau  of  Municipal  Research,  1905- 
1910:  President,  Am.  Science  Ass'n  and 
of  National  Tax  Association.  His  publi- 
cations include  "Railway  Tariffs"  (1887)  ; 
"Finance  Statistics  of  American  Com- 
monwealths" (1889) ;  "The  Shifting  and 
Incidence  of  Taxation"  (1899) ;  "Progres- 
sive Taxation  in  Theory  and  Practice" 
(1894)  ;  "Essays  in  Taxation"  (1900)  ; 
"Principles  of  Economics"   (1919). 

SELIM,  the  name  of  three  emperors 
of  the  Turks.  Selim  I.,  son  of  Bajazet 
II.;  born  1467;  dethroned  his  father  and 
killed  his  two  brothers,  1512;  defeated  the 
Shah  of  Persia  1514;  conquered  Syria 
and  Egypt  1516-1517;  died  1520.  Selim 
II.,  succeeded  his  father,  Soliman  II.,  in 
1566;    took   Cyprus   from   the   Venetians 

1570,  and  Tunis  from  the  Spaniards  in 

1571.  In  the  same  year  he  lost  the  great 
naval  battle  of  Lepanto;  died  1574.  Se- 
lim III.,  son  of  Mustapha  III.;  born  1761, 
succeeded  his  uncle,  Abdul-hamed,  1789. 
He  was  ambitious  to  become  a  reformer, 
but  the  ill  fortune  of  the  Turks  in  the 
wars  with  Russia  and  Austria,  and  the 
numerous  rebellions  and  insurrections  in 
the  empire,  long  prevented  his  attempt- 
ing the  task.  War  with  France  fol- 
lowed, and  Egypt  was  conquered,  but  it 
was  recovered  by  the  English  and  restored 
to  Selim.  In  1800  he  became  protector 
to  the  Ionian  Islands.  The  organization 
and  discipline  of  the  army,  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  divan,  and  the  system  of  tax- 
ation were  the  matters  which  he  sought 
to  regulate.  War  with  Russia  again 
broke  out  in  1806,  the  new  army  organ- 
ization, Nizam  Jedid,  excited  immense 
dissatisfaction,  and  in  May,  1807,  the 
Janizaries  revolted,  and  Selim  was  de- 
posed, imprisoned,  and  in  the  following 
year  strangled  in  Constantinople,  July 
28,  1808. 


SELINUS 


331 


SELKIRK 


SELINTJS,  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  Greek  colonies  in  Sicily,  founded 
probably  about  628  B.  c.  on  the  S.  W.  coast 
of  that  island.  Thucydides  mentions  its 
great  power  and  wealth,  and  the  rich 
treasures  of  its  temples.  It  was  con- 
quered by  the  Carthaginians  in  409,  and 
in  249  destroyed  by  them.  There  are  still 
important  ruins  of  ancient  Greek  temples 
here. 

SELJUKS,  a  division  of  the  Ghuzz  con- 
federacy of  the  Turkish  tribes,  who  were 
settled  on  the  Jaxartes  and  in  Transox- 
iana  in  the  11th  century,  when  they  be- 
came converts  to  Islam.  Togrul  Beg, 
grandson  of  a  chief  named  Seljuk 
(whence  the  name  of  the  several  succes- 
sive dynasties),  severely  crippled  the  em- 
pire of  Ghazni  (1040)  ;  then  turning  W. 
conquered  all  Persia,  and  10  years  later 
he  marched  on  Bagdad,  to  the  assistance 
of  the  Abbasside  Caliph,  a  mere  "do- 
nothing"  sovereign,  who  existed  by  the 
favor  and  protection  of  a  powerful  fam- 
ily of  the  Shiite  faith.  The  head  of  this 
family  (the  Bowides)  was,  however,  the 
master  rather  than  the  protector  of  the 
caliph.  Togrul  seized  and  supplanted 
him  and  being  of  the  orthodox  Sunnite 
faith,  was  nominated  by  the  caliph  "Com- 
mander of  the  Faithful."  Dying  in  1063, 
Togrul  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Alp 
Arslan.  This  sovereign  wrested  Syria 
and  Palestine  from  the  rival  Fatimite 
caliph  of  Egypt,  and  in  1071  defeated  the 
Byzantine  emperor  Romanus  Diogenes, 
and  captured  him.  The  price  of  his  re- 
lease was  a  heavy  ransom  and  the  ces- 
sion of  great  part  of  Anatolia  or  Asia 
Minor  to  the  Seljuk.  Alp  Arslan  was 
stabbed  by  a  captive  enemy  in  distant 
Turkestan  (1072),  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Malik  Shah.  His  reign  is  chiefly 
remarkable  for  the  enlightened  rule  of 
his  grand  vizier,  Nizam  ul-Mulk,  the 
schoolfellow  of  Omar  Khayyam,  the  poet, 
and  of  Hassan  ben  Sabbah,  the  founder 
of  the  Assassins  (q.  v.).  This  statesman 
founded  a  university  at  Bagdad,  an  ob- 
servatory, and  numerous  schools  and 
mosques,  and  with  the  help  of  his  old 
friend  Omar  Khayyam  revised  the  astro- 
nomical tables  and  introduced  a  new  era, 
the  Jelalian. 

After  the  death  of  Malik  (1092)  the  ex- 
tensive empire  began  to  break  up  into 
smaller  kingdoms.  But  already  during 
his  lifetime,  and  even  that  of  his  prede- 
cessors, powerful  tributary  princes  had 
ruled  over  separate  provinces  in  Syria, 
in  Kerman  (beside  the  Persian  Gulf),  and 
in  Asia  Minor.  During  the  first  half  of 
the  12th  century  the  most  powerful  of 
these  provincial  rulers  was  Sin  jar,  who 
governed  Khorassan,  with  Merv  for  his 
capital.    He  spent  his  life  fighting  against 


the  Ghaznevids,  against  the  Turkestan 
chiefs,  and  latterly  against  the  Mongols. 
But  a  stronger  and  more  immediate  in- 
terest attaches  to  the  province  of  Syria 
and  that  of  Asia  Minor,  or  Rum,  as  the 
Seljuks  preferred  to  call  it.  It  was  the 
rulers  of  these  two  provinces  or  kingdoms 
who  persecuted  the  Christian  pilgrims 
and  so  provoked  the  Crusades  (q.  v.), 
and  it  was  the  rulers  of  the  same  two 
kingdoms  against  whom  the  crusaders 
of  Europe  principally  fought.  The  capi- 
tal of  Rum  was  fixed  at  Iconium  (Konieh) 
in  the  first  half  of  the  12th  century.  This 
dynasty  reached  the  acme  of  its  power 
under  Kaikavus  (1211-1234),  who  ruled 
over  nearly  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  and 
extensive  territories  in  Mesopotamia  and 
northern  Persia. 

During  the  reign  of  his  son  Kaikhos- 
rau  II.  the  poet  Jelad-ed-Din  Rumi  flour- 
ished and  the  various  orders  of  dervishes 
arose;  and  at  the  same  time  the  Mon- 
gols began  to  threaten  the  E.  borders  of 
the  state.  Indeed  from  about  1243  the 
real  sovereign  power  of  that  part  of 
Asia  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Mongol 
chiefs,  Hulagu  and  his  successors,  till 
the  rise  of  the  Ottoman  princes.  These 
last,  Turks  like  the  Seljuks,  had  re- 
treated W.  before  the  all-conquering  Mon- 
gols about  the  middle  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury, and  at  the  end  of  it  they  entered 
the  service  of  the  Seljuk  ruler  of  Asia 
Minor.  After  that  the  name  Osmanli  or 
Ottoman  soon  superseded  that  of  Seljuk 
as  the  appellative  of  the  Turkish  rulers 
and  ruling  classes  in  Asia  Minor.  And 
out  of  the  Ottoman  supremacy  grew  the 
empire  of  Turkey.  The  Seljuks,  however, 
had  centuries  before,  while  they  were  still 
settled  in  Transoxiana,  lost  a  good  many 
of  their  peculiarly  Turkish  characteristics 
and  had  become  "Turkomans,"  i.  e.,  "Like 
the  Turks";  and  with  their  conversion 
to  Islam  they  also  adopted  the  Perso- 
Arabian  civilization  and  customs,  though 
still  retaining  their  own  language  as  well 
as  using  those  of  the  peoples  they  had 
conquered. 

SELKIRK,  ALEXANDER,  a  Scotch 
adventurer;  born  in  Largo,  Scotland,  in 
1676.  He  was  a  skilful  seaman,  and  made 
several  voyages  to  the  South  Sea,  in  one 
of  which,  having  quarreled  with  his  com- 
mander, he  was  put  ashore  on  the  island 
of  Juan  Fernandez,  with  a  few  neces- 
saries, a  fowling-piece,  gunpowder,  and 
shot.  Here  he  lived  alone  during  four 
years  and  four  months,  and  was  then 
rescued  by  Captain  Woodes  Rogers.  Dur- 
ing the  time  of  his  remaining  on  the 
island  he  had  nearly  forgotten  his  native 
language.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1711,  and  is  said  to  have  given  his  papers 
to  Defoe,  who  took  from  them  his  story 


SELKIRK    MOUNTAINS 


332 


SELWYN 


of  "Robinson  Crusoe."     He  died  on  the 
ship  "Weymouth,"  in  1723. 

SELKIRK  MOUNTAINS,  an  outlying 
range  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  in  British 
Columbia,  extending  S.  from  about  lat. 
52°  N.  to  near  the  United  States  fron- 
tier. The  Canadian  Pacific  railway 
climbs  over  the  mountains  at  a  point 
4,300  feet  above  the  sea. 

SELKIRKSHIRE,  a  county  of  south- 
east Scotland.  Area,  267  square  miles. 
Pop.  about  25,000.  Almost  its  entire  area 
is  occupied  by  two  parallel  valleys  of  the 
rivers  Ettrick  and  Yarrow.  The  county 
is  mountainous.  The  various  mountains, 
the  highest  of  which  is  Dun  Rig  (2,433 
feet),  have  round,  instead  of  peaked 
tops,  and  the  mountain  sides  are  cov- 
ered with  a  high  quality  grass,  pro- 
viding excellent  pasturage.  Formerly 
there  were  extensive  woods,  which,  how- 
ever, have  now  disappeared.  Capital, 
Selkirk,  with  a  population  (1918)  of 
5,946. 

SELLAR,  WILLIAM  YOUNG,  an 
English  critic;  born  in  Morvich,  Suther- 
land, Feb.  22,  1825;  was  educated  at 
Edinburgh  Academy  and  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity, from  which  he  passed  to  Balliol 
College,  Oxford.  In  1850  he  was  elected 
to  a  fellowship  at  Oriel;  next  acted  as 
assistant  professor  at  Durham,  Glasgow 
(1851-1853),  and  St.  Andrews  (1853- 
1859)  ;  filled  for  six  years  the  Greek 
chair  at  St.  Andrews;  and  was  elected 
in  1863  to  the  Latin  chair  at  Edinburgh, 
which  he  retained  till  his  death  near 
Dairy,  Galloway,  Oct.  12,  1890.  _  He  made 
his  name  widely  known  by  his  learned 
and  brilliant  book,  "The  Roman  Poets  of 
the  Republic"  (1863;  revised  and  en- 
larged, 1881),  which  was  followed  by 
"The  Roman  Poets  of  the  Augustan  Age 
—Vergil"  (1877),  and  "Horace  and  the 
Elegiac  Poets"  (1892),  the  latter  edited 
from  his  papers  by  his  nephew,  Andrew 
Lang,  with  a  brief  memoir  prefixed. 

SELLS,  CATO,  an  American  public 
official,  born  at  Vinton,  Iowa.  He  studied 
at  Cornell  College,  Mount  Vernon,  Iowa. 
In  1884  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He 
practiced  at  Laporte  City,  served  as  its 
mayor,  and  in  1891  was  elected  state's 
attorney.  From  1894  to  1899  he  was 
United  States  district  attorney.  In  1907 
he  removed  to  Cleburne,  Tex.,  where  he 
engaged  in  the  banking  business.  He  was 
appointed  commissioner  of  Indian  Af- 
fairs by   President  Wilson  in   1913. 

SELMA,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Dallas  co.,  Ala.;  on  the  Alabama  river, 
and  on  the  Western  of  Alabama,  and  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville  and  other  rail- 
roads; 50  miles  W.  of  Montgomery.  Here 


are  Dallas  Academy,  Alabama  Methodist 
Orphanage,  public  library,  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
Alabama  Baptist  Colored  University,  and 
other  public  buildings,  electric  lights, 
National  and  State  banks,  and  several 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  There  is 
regular  steamboat  connection  with  Mo- 
bile. The  city  has  an  ice  factory,  cotton- 
seed oil  mill,  railroad  machine  and  car- 
wheel  shops,  a  planing  mill,  iron  works, 
engine  works,  extensive  cotton  factories, 
etc.  During  the  Civil  War  the  city  con- 
tained an  arsenal,  extensive  powder 
works,  and  a  gun  foundry.  It  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Union  forces  a  few 
days  before  the  surrender  of  General  Lee. 
Pop.    (1910)    13,649;    (1920)    15,589. 

SELOUS,  FREDERICK  COURTE- 
NAY,  an  English  explorer;  born  in 
London,  Dec.  31,  1851.  He  made  a  name 
as  a  gold  prospector,  explorer,  and  ele- 
phant hunter  in  South  Africa,  where  he 
spent  many  years;  and  during  the  Mata- 
bele  campaign  fought  on  the  side  of  the 
colonists.  In  1909-1910  he  organized  and 
conducted  the  Roosevelt  hunting  expedi- 
tion in  E.  Africa.  Though  over  60  when 
the  World  War  broke  out  he  obtained  in 
1915  a  commission  as  lieutenant  of  Fusi- 
leers.  Promoted  captain  D.  S.  O.  1916. 
Killed  in  action  in  E.  Africa  in  1917.  He 
wrote:  "A  Hunter's  Wanderings  in 
Africa"  (1881);  "Travel  and  Adventure 
in  Southeast  Africa"  (1893) ;  and  "Sun- 
shine and  Storm  in  Rhodesia"  (1896), 
etc. 

SELTZER  WATER,  a  carbonated 
mineral  water  imported  from  Lower  Set- 
ters, in  the  duchy  of  Nassau.  It  contains 
common  salt  and  the  carbonates  of  soda, 
magnesia,  and  lime,  and  is  recommended 
as  a  mild  stimulant  and  diuretic.  An 
artificial  seltzer  for  domestic  use  is  pre- 
pared by  adding  minute  quantities  of 
common  salt  and  carbonate  of  soda  to 
distilled  water,  and  highly  impregnating 
with  carbonic  acid  gas. 

SELWYN,  GEORGE  AUGUSTUS,  an 
English  bishop;  born  April  5,  1809;  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  at  Cambridge; 
rowed  in  the  first  inter-university  boat 
race  (1829) ;  and  was  a  great  pedestrian 
and  swimmer,  athletic  powers  found  very 
serviceable  in  after  life.  In  1841,  while 
curate  of  Windsor,  he  was  consecrated 
first  and  only  Bishop  of  New  Zealand 
and  Melanesia — now  divided  into  seven 
sees.  On  the  voyage  out  he  studied 
Maori  and  navigation.  He  visited  every 
portion  of  his  huge  diocese  before  setting 
about  his  great  work  of  organizing  it. 
A  visit  to  England  in  1854  brought  back 
John  Coleridge  Patteson,  afterward  the 
martyred  Bishop  of  Melanesia,  to  whose 
see  Bishop  Selwyn's  second  son  was  con- 


SEMAPHORE 


333 


SEMI-PELAGIANISM 


secrated  in  1877.  In  1867  Bishop  Selwyn 
attended  the  first  Pan-Anglican  Synod 
at  Lambeth,  and  against  his  own  inclina- 
tions was  appointed  Bishop  of  Lichfield 
— the  see  of  the  Black  Country — where 
on  his  initiative  the  first  Diocesan  Con- 
ference in  which  the  laity  were  duly  rep- 
resented met  in  1868,  and  where  he  died, 
April  11,  1878. 

SEMAPHORE,  a  kind  of  telegraph  or 
apparatus  for  conveying  information  by 
visible  signs,  such  as  oscillating  arms 
or  flags  by  daylight,  and  by  the  disposi- 
tion of  lanterns  by  night.  The  various 
combinations  may  serve  to  indicate  the 
numbers  corresponding  to  certain  expres- 
sions in  a  tabulated  code,  or  may  be  em- 
ployed to  represent  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet.  A  simple  form  is  used  on  rail- 
roads. 

SEMBRICH,  MARCELLA,  an  Aus- 
trian opera  singer;  born  in  Lemberg,  Po- 
land, Feb.  18,  1858;  received  her  first 
instruction  on  the  piano  and  soon  after- 
ward took  up  the  study  of  the  violin.  In 
1876  she  gave  up  her  instrumental  work 
to  study  singing,  and  went  to  Milan, 
where  for  nearly  three  years,  she  was  a 
pupil  of  Lamberti.  Her  first  appearance 
was  in  "I  Puritani,"  at  Athens,  where 
her  singing  attracted  considerable  atten- 
tion. Subsequently  she  appeared  in  all 
the  large  cities  of  Europe  with  great 
success,  and  in  1883  came  to  the  United 
States.  She  reappeared  in  concerts  in 
the  United  States  in  1897-1898,  in  1898- 
1899  was  a  member  of  the  Grau  Opera 
Company  and  the  principal  coloratura 
soprano  of  the  New  York  Metropolitan 
Opera  Company,  1903-1909.  She  retired 
from  the  operatic  stage  in  1909  but  con- 
tinued to  give  concerts  and  recitals.  She 
worked  for  the  relief  of  the  suffering  in 
Poland  during  the  World  War. 

SEMELE,  in  classical  mythology,  a 
daughter  of  Cadmus  by  Hermione.  She 
was  beloved  by  Jupiter;  but  Juno,  deter- 
mining to  punish  her  rival,  visited  the 
house  of  Semele  in  the  guise  of  her  nurse, 
and  persuaded  her  to  entreat  her  lover 
to  come  to  her  with  the  same  majesty 
as  he  approached  Juno.  Jupiter  had 
sworn  by  the  Styx  to  grant  Semele  what- 
ever she  required;  he  therefore  came  at- 
tended by  the  clouds,  the  lightning,  and 
thunder-bolts.  Semele,  unable  to  endure 
so  much  majesty,  was  instantly  consumed 
by  fire.  Her  child  was,  however,  saved 
from  the  flames  by  Mercury.  This  child 
f/as  called  Bacchus,  or  Dionysius. 

SEMICOLON,  in  grammar  and  punctu- 
ation, the  point  ( ; ) ,  marking  a  greater 
distinction  of  sense  than  a  comma,  but 
less  than  a  colon.  It  is  used  to  distin- 
guish the  conjunct  members  of  a  sentence. 

V- 


SEMINOLES,  a  tribe  of  American 
Indians,  originally  a  vagrant  branch  of 
the  Creeks,  whose  name,  Seminole,  signi- 
fies "wild"  or  "reckless."  In  1805,  they 
aided  in  driving  the  Appalaches  from 
Florida;  and  in  1817,  they  joined  with 
the  Creeks  and  some  negroes  who  had 
taken  refuge  with  them,  ravaged  the 
white  settlements  in  Georgia,  plundering 
plantations,  and  carrying  off  slaves,  whom 
they  refused  to  surrender.  General  Jack- 
son, sent  to  punish  them,  took  at  the  same 
time  several  Spanish  forts,  and  hastened 
the  negotiations  which  ended  in  the  ces- 
sion of  Florida  to  the  United  States. 
By  this  cession,  in  1823,  the  Seminoles 
engaged  to  retire  into  the  interior  and 
not  molest  the  settlers;  but  as  the  ne- 
groes continued  to  take  refuge  with  them, 
a  treaty  was  made  with  some  of  the 
chiefs,  in  1832,  for  the  removal  of  the 
whole  tribe  W.  of  the  Mississippi.  This 
treaty  was  repudiated  by  the  tribe,  at 
the  instigation  of  Osceola  (q.  v.),  one 
of  their  chiefs.  A  war  commenced,  in 
which  battles  and  skirmishes  were  of  con- 
stant occurrence,  and  with  various  re- 
sults. This  war,  which  lasted  seven 
years,  and  cost  the  government  about 
$10,000,000  and  the  loss  of  1,466  lives, 
ended  in  1842,  when  the  Seminoles,  ex- 
cept some  200  who  took  refuge  in  remote 
places,  were  removed  to  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory, where  nearly  all  the  members  of  the 
tribe  are  now  settled.  They  number 
(1920)  about  3,000,  receive  an  annuity, 
have  churches,  and  are  under  the  train- 
ing of  missionaries  of  the  Presbyterian 
denomination.  The  remnants  in  Florida 
number  about  700. 

SEMIPALATINSK,  a  territory  of 
Central  Asia.  It  belongs  to  Russia  and 
is  an  administrative  division  of  the 
Steppes.  Its  area  is  184,626  square  miles, 
the  principal  river  being  the  Irtysh. 
There  are  many  lakes  and  the  minerals 
include  gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  and  coal. 
Agriculture  is  being  developed,  but  is 
hindered  by  storms  and  lack  of  irriga- 
tion. The  population  is  made  up  largely 
of  the  nomadic  Kirghizes,  who  engage 
chiefly  in  stock  raising.  Pop.  (1915) 
874,900.  The  capital  is  Semipalatinsk, 
which  has  mosques,  library  and  cathe- 
dral, and  nearby  the  Tongus  ruins.  Pop. 
about  35,000. 

SEMI-PELAGIANISM,  in  Church  his- 
tory, a  modification  of  the  doctrines  of 
the  Pelagians,  consisting  chiefly  in  main- 
taining the  sufficiency  of  man's  natural 
power,  only  so  far  as  regards  the  first 
act  of  conversion  to  God,  and  the  initial 
act  of  man's  repentance  for  sin.  Semi- 
Pelagianism  took  its  rise  in  428,  from 
John  Cassian,  a  pupil  of  Chrysostom  at 
Marseilles.  The  Council  of  Orange,  July 
Cyc  Vol  8 


SEMIQUAVER 


334 


SEMITES 


3,  529,  established  the  Augustinian  doc- 
trines in  opposition  to  those  of  the  Pela- 
gians and  Semi-Pelagians,  as  did  that  of 
Valencia,  in  July  or  August,  530;  and 
Pope  Boniface  II.  confirmed  the  decree 
in  530. 

SEMIQUAVER,  in  music,  a  note  half 
the  length  of  the  quaver. 

SEMIRAMIS,  a  queen  of  Assyria, 
whose  history  is  enveloped  in  fable.  As 
the  story  goes,  she  was  a  daughter  of 
the  fish  goddess  Derceto  of  Ascalon,  in 
Syria,  by  a  Syrian  youth.  Being  ex- 
posed by  her  mother,  she  was  miracu- 
lously fed  by  doves  till  discovered  by  the 
chief  of  the  royal  shepherds,  who  adopted 
her.  Attracted  by  her  beauty,  Onnes, 
governor  of  Nineveh,  married  her.  She 
accompanied  him  to  the  siege  of  Bactria, 
where,  by  her  advice,  she  assisted  the 
king's  operations.  She  became  endeared 
to  Ninus,  the  founder  of  Nineveh  (about 
2182  B.  a),  but  Onnes  refused  to  yield 
her,  and  being  threatened  by  Ninus, 
hanged  himself.  Ninus  resigned  the 
crown  of  Semiramis,  and  had  her  pro- 
claimed Queen  of  Assyria.  She  built 
Babylon,  and  rendered  it  the  mightiest 
city  in  the  world.  She  was  distinguished 
as  a  warrior,  and  conquered  many  of  the 
adjacent  countries.  Having  been  com- 
pletely defeated  on  the  Indus,  she  was 
either  killed  or  compelled  to  abdicate  by 
her  son  Ninyas,  after  reigning  42  years. 
According  to  popular  legend,  she  disap- 
peared or  was  changed  into  a  dove,  and 
was  worshiped  as  a  divinity.  Her  whole 
history  resembles  an  Oriental  tale,  and 
even  her  existence  has  been  questioned. 
She  is  probably  a  mythological  being  cor- 
responding to  Astarte,  or  the  Greek 
Aphrodite. 

SEMITES,  a  name  given  by  J.  G. 
Eichhorn  in  1787  to  a  group  of  nations 
closely  allied  in  language,  religion,  man- 
ners, and  physical  features,  who  are  rep- 
resented in  Gen.  x.  as  descended  chiefly 
from  Shem,  a  son  of  Noah.  Their  habitat 
was  Abyssinia,  Arabia,  Palestine,  Phoeni- 
cia, Syria,  and  the  countries  of  the  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris.  Into  those  lands, 
according  to  one  theory  which  is  sup- 
ported by  Lenormant  and  others,  there 
had  preceded  them  an  immigration  of 
Cushites  of  the  Hamitic  race,  who,  pro- 
ceeding from  Central  Asia,  occupied  not 
only  the  lands  that  afterward  became 
Semitic,  but  also  the  Nile  valley.  Their 
Hamitic  language  and  civilization,  the 
Semites  are  said  to  have  adopted.  In 
language  the  Semites  do  show  some  af- 
finity with  the  Berbers  and  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Nile  valley.  The  increasingly 
prevalent   theory   is   that   not   less   than 


4000  B.  c.  the  Semites  migrated  as  no- 
madic tribes,  probably  from  Arabia,  inta 
Mesopotamia.  There  they  found  a  Tu- 
ranian population  dwelling  in  cities  built 
of  brick,  under  the  regular  government 
of  priest  kings,  skilled  in  the  use  of 
metals,  using  the  cuneiform  mode  of 
writing,  and  comparatively  far  advanced 
in  literature  and  culture.  In  3800  B.  c. 
the  Semitic  adventurer  Sharrukin  usurped 
the  kingdom  of  Accad.  In  Elam  also 
the  Turanian  population  was  early  over^ 
powered  by  the  intruding  Semites,  who 
came  to  form  the  upper  strata  of  society. 
In  2280  B.  c.  the  Semite  Khudur-Nank- 
hundi  of  Elam  invaded  and  conquered 
Shumir  and  Accad,  founding  the  Elamite 
line  of  princes;  and  about  2200  B.  c.  one 
of  his  successors,  Khudur-Lagamar 
(Chedorlaomer),  carried  his  conquests 
as  far  as   Palestine    (Gen.   xiv.). 

These  painful  and  oppressive  impulses 
seem  to  have  occasioned  emigrations  of 
many  Semites.  Some  proceeded  toward 
the  N.  W.,  reached  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  founded  Sidon,  Tyre,  and  other  cities? 
and  became  known  afterward  as  Canaan- 
ites  or  Phoenicians.  Later,  from  Ur  went 
others  in  the  same  direction,  settled  be- 
hind the  Phoenicians,  and  were  afterward 
known  as  Israel.  Others  went  N.  and 
built  cities  which  developed  into  the  em- 
pire of  Assyria.  While  the  Semites  were 
in  Mesopotamia  they  used  the  Turanian 
language  in  their  public  documents  till 
they  attained  the  ascendant  in  political 
power;  and  when  afterward  they  used 
their  own  language  they  continued  to 
use  the  Turanian  cuneiform  mode  of  writ- 
ing. The  Turanian  religion  also  was 
adopted  by  the  Semites,  and  mixed  with 
what  religion  their  own  primeval  tribal 
religion  or  totemism  had  developed  into. 
This  amalgamation  was  consummated  by 
Sharrukin  II.  of  Accad  about  2000  B.  c. 

The  Semites  as  a  race  have  a  fine  physi- 
cal organization,  are  mentally  quick, 
clever,  but  not  inclined  to  change,  and 
not  persistent  in  progress.  Their  litera- 
ture has  neither  epic  nor  dramatic  poetry 
worth  notice.  Almost  their  only  arts  are 
the  sculpture  of  Assyria,  the  exquisite 
glass  and  pottery,  and  the  textile  fabrics 
and  embroidery  of  the  Phoenicians.  They 
have  made  their  mark  on  the  world  in 
the  Phoenician  commerce,  which  visited 
even  the  Atlantic  shores  of  Spain  and 
France  and  drew  tin  from  Britain;  in 
the  Phoenician  colonies,  which,  dotting  all 
the  coasts  and  many  islands  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  as  far  as  Cadiz,  and  the 
coast  of  Asia  as  far  as  India,  dispensed 
manufactures  in  the  Carthaginian  em- 
pire within  Europe  and  Africa;  in  the 
exploits  of  Hannibal;  in  the  dissemina- 
tion of  alphabetic  writing,  whereof  the 
Phoenician  form  was  the  mother  of  the 


SEMITIC    LANGUAGES 


335 


SEMMERING 


European  and  of  most  Asiatic  alphabets, 
while  the  alphabet  of  the  great  Sabaean 
kingdom,  or  of  the  great  and  still  more 
ancient  Minaean  kingdom  in  Arabia,  is 
apparently  the  oldest  of  all  alphabets 
hitherto  discovered;  in  the  Babylonian 
and  Assyrian  empires;  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible  and  the  Jewish  religion ;  in  the  New 
Testament  and  the  Christian  religion; 
in  the  Koran  and  the  Mohammedan  re- 
ligion; in  the  Mohammedan  conquests 
and  empire;  and  in  the  preservation  of 
culture  thereby  during  the  Dark  Ages 
and  the  Middle  Ages. 

SEMITIC  LANGUAGES,  the  languages 
spoken  by  the  Semitic  nations.  One  char- 
acteristic feature  of  them  is  triconsonan- 
tal  roots  from  which  by  prefixed  or  af- 
fixed letters,  but  mostly  by  internal  vowel 
changes,  the  other  words  are  formed. 
Thus  in  Arabic  kataba—"b.e  wrote,"  bdtib 
=  "a  scribe,"  kitdb="a  book,"  maktub — 
"an  epistle."  Another  characteristic  fea- 
ture is  that,  though  personal  pronouns 
are  affixed  to  nouns,  verbs,  and  prepo- 
sitions, there  is  an  almost  total  absence 
of  derivative  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs. 
Thus,  while  in  Arabic  beiti — "my  house," 
qatalahu="he  killed  him,"  minh&= 
"from  her,"  there  are  no  such  derivatives 
as  pro-motion,  dread-ful,  frati-fy.  The 
most  highly  developed,  and  on  the  whole 
the  most  characteristic  (probably  also 
the  oldest  of  the  group ) ,  is  Arabic,  which, 
with  its  ancient  Sabaean,  and  Minsean 
dialects  of  southern,  western,  and 
northern  Arabia,  and  with  Ethiopic, 
forms  the  S.  division  of  Semitic  lan- 
guages, marked  by  the  use  of  "broken 
plurals,"  in  which  the  consonants  of  the 
singular  are  presented,  while  the  vowels 
are  as  much  altered  as  possible.  Thus 
from  the  Arabic  kitdb,  "a  book,"  comes 
the  plural  kutub.  Another  mark  is  the 
universal  use  of  a  before  the  third  radi- 
cal letter  of  the  active  preterites;  thus 
Arabic  has  qdttala,  dqtala,  for  which 
Hebrew  has  qittel  and  hiqtil. 

Hebrew,  though  a  characteristically 
Semitic  speech,  shows  many  marks  of 
linguistic  decadence;  ancient  Hebrew  is 
a  more  modern  type  of  language  than 
modern  Arabic.  Phoenician  differs  little 
in  grammar  and  dictionary  from  Hebrew. 
In  the  African  territory  of  Carthage  this 
language  was  spoken  400  years  after  the 
Christian  era;  a  century  before  that  era 
in  Phoenicia  itself  it  yielded  to  Aramaean 
or  to  Greek.  Moabitic,  as  the  Moabite 
Stone  of  the  9th  century  b.  c.  shows,  was 
Hebrew.  Aramaean  had  its  home  in  Aram 
of  Damascus  and  Aram  of  Mesopotamia. 
It  was  the  language  of  Assyria  from  early 
times,  as  we  may  see  in  II  Kings  xviii., 
and  of  Babylonia,  even  while  Assyrian 
was  used  there  for  official  purposes.     It 


was  the  official  language  of  the  province* 
of  the  Persian  empire  W.  of  the  Eu- 
phrates. Its  W.  branch  was  the  language 
of  Palmyra  and  of  the  N.  part  of  the 
Arabian  kingdom  of  the  Nabatheans,  and 
is  seen  in  the  Biblical  books  of  Ezra  and 
Daniel,  where  it  has  been  erroneously 
named  Chaldee.  Later  developments  of 
this  branch  are  the  officially  recognized 
"Targums"  by  Onkelos  on  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  Jonathan  on  the  Prophets, 
which  were  finally  edited  and  fixed  in  the 
4th  or  5th  century  a.  d.  in  Babylonia. 
Somewhat  later  are  some  "Midrashes," 
the  Jerusalem  "Targums,"  and  the  Jeru- 
salem "Talmud."  Of  the  4th  or  5th  cen- 
tury are  Palestinian  translations  of  the 
Gospel.  Samaritan  is  another  branch  of 
western  Aramaean,  written  in  a  Hebrew 
alphabet  older  than  the  Captivity,  and 
spoken  about  432  B.  c.  by  an  Aramaean 
people  with  Israelitish  blood  in  them,  who 
were  desirous  of  conforming  in  speech 
as  in  religion  to  the  Hebrew  usage  of 
northern  Palestine,  Arabic  soon  expelled 
western  Aramaean  after  the  Mohamme- 
dan conquest,  though  a  faint  echo  of  it 
still  lingers  in  the  Anti-Libanus.  The 
Babylonian  Talmud  shows  the  common 
eastern  Aramaean  of  Babylonia  from  the 
4th  to  the  6th  century.  The  language 
of  the  Mandsean  sect  resembles  it.  In 
the  2d  century  the  Edessan  dialect  of 
Aramaean,  which  we  call  Syriac,  began 
to  be  the  language  of  eastern  Christen- 
dom for  all  purposes;  but  for  popular 
use  it  was  slowly  supplanted  by  Arabic 
after  the  Mohammedan  conquest,  becom- 
ing a  dead  and  almost  entirely  ecclesias- 
tical language.  In  the  mountain  regions 
of  ancient  Assyria  Aramaean  is  still  rep- 
resented by  several  local  dialects  among 
Christians  and  even  Jews.  Assyrian,  so 
called  by  us  moderns  because  discovered 
by  us  in  Assyria,  is  more  correctly  named 
Babylonian.  It  is  written  in  the  dif- 
ficult, cumbrous,  and  inadequate  cunei- 
form character  received  from  the  Tu- 
ranian natives.  It  shows  scarcely  any 
sign  of  a  preterite  tense.  In  popular 
use  it  early  gave  way  to  Aramaean. 
Ethiopic,  a  sister  tongue  to  Arabic,  in 
some  respects  resembles  more  closely  He- 
brew and  Aramaean  even  in  the  most 
ancient  form  of  the  language  known  to 
us. 

SEMMERING,  a  mountain  of  Austria, 
4,575  feet  high,  on  the  borders  of  Styria 
and  lower  Austria,  44  miles  S.  W.  of 
Vienna.  It  is  crossed  by  the  Semmering 
railway,  the  first  of  the  mountain  rail- 
ways in  Europe.  The  railway  is  carried 
along  the  face  of  precipices,  through  15 
tunnels,  and  over  16  viaducts,  the  sur- 
rounding scenery  being  magnificent.  It 
was  constructed  at  a   cost  of  $5,000,000 


SEMMES 


336 


SENATE 


for    the    Austrian    Government    between 
1848  and  1853. 

SEMMES,    RAPHAEL,    an    American 
naval   officer;   born  in   Charles   co.,   Md., 
Sept.  27,  1809;  was  appointed,  in  1828, 
a  midshipman  on  board  the  "Lexington," 
and  rose  by  successive  steps  to  the  rank 
of  commander   in   1855.     He   was   nomi- 
nated, in   1858,   secretary   to   the   Light- 
house   Board,    which    situation    he    held 
when  the  war  broke  out.     He  then  joined 
the  Confederate  service,  March  26,  1861, 
and   was   made   commander    of   the   war 
steamer  "Sumter."     With  this  vessel  he 
caused  considerable  damage  to  the  United 
States  merchant  navy,  and  having  been 
driven  into  the  port  of  Gibraltar  by  stress 
of  weather,  sold  her  to  a  "neutral."     He 
was  then  ordered  to  take  the  command 
of  a  vessel  built  in  England,  and  known 
at  first  as  "290,"  which  afterward  became 
famous  as  the  "Alabama."     His  exploits 
while  commander  of  this  vessel,  though 
not  so  dashing  as  those  of   Paul  Jones 
during  the  first  American  war,  were  far 
more  destructive.     After  having  inflicted 
an  enormous  amount  of  loss  on  the  Na- 
tional commerce,  the   "Alabama,"  which 
had  been  into  Cherbourg,  France,  for  re- 
pairs, encountered  outside  the  harbor   a 
United   States  war   steamer,  the  "Kear- 
sarge,"  Capt.  John  A.  Winslow,  June  10, 
1864.    A  French  man-of-war  followed  her 
to  prevent  any  violation  of  international 
law.     The  fight  took  place  about  9  miles 
from  Cherbourg,  and  was  both  short  and 
decisive.     The   "Kearsarge,"   a   powerful 
ship,  was  defended  by  iron  chains  slung 
over  the  bulwarks,  on  which  the  shot  of 
the  "Alabama"  could  make  but  little  im- 
pression;   and   in   rather   more    than   an 
hour  from  the  beginning  of  the  fight  the 
"Alabama"  was  completely  disabled.    The 
crew  tried  to  reach  the  French  coast  with 
her,  but  failed  in  the  attempt,  and  she 
began  to  sink.     Commander  Semmes,  and 
some  of  the  sailors,  including  13  officers, 
were  saved  by  the  boats  of  an   English 
steam  yacht,  the  "Deerhound,"  which  had 
accompanied  the  "Alabama"  from  Cher- 
bourg  to   be   a    spectator    of   the    fight. 
Semmes  succeeded,  after  some  difficulty, 
in  making  his  way  back  to  the  Southern 
States ;  but  the  effectual  blockade  of  their 
ports  deprived  him  of  any  further  chance 
of    continuing    his    adventurous     career. 
He   wrote   the   "Cruise   of   the    Alabama 
and  Sumter,"  and  the  "Log  of  the  Ala- 
bama"    (1864)  ;     "Memoirs     of     Service 
Afloat"  (1869).     He  died  in  Mobile,  Ala., 
Aug.  30,  1877. 

SEMOLINA,  a  term  applied  to  a  kind 
of  wheat  meal  in  large,  hard  grains,  used 
for  making  puddings,  thickening  soup,  etc. 


SEMPACH,  a  village  of  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  and  8  miles  N.  W.  of  Lu- 
cerne, on  Lake  Sempach.  It  is  remark- 
able as  being  the  scene  of  a  great  victory 
which  the  Swiss  gained  over  the  Aus- 
trians  under  Duke  Leopold  who  was 
slain,  together  with  600  nobies  and  up- 
ward of  2,000  troops.  The  victory  was 
attributed  to  the  heroism  of  Arnold  of 
Winkelried. 

SENATE,  in   ancient   history,   the   de- 
liberative assembly  of  the  Roman  people; 
but  the  term  has  been   applied  to  very 
different  powers  and  constitutions  in  dif- 
ferent countries.     In  the  Greek  republics, 
as  well  as  among  the  Romans,  the  num- 
ber   of    senators   was    regulated    by    the 
number    of   tribes    into   which    the   state 
was  divided.     Accordingly,  while  Attica 
was  divided  into  four  tribes,  the  number 
of  senators  was  400)  and  when  the  num- 
ber  of   tribes  was   increased   to   10,   the 
number  of  senators  was  also  enlarged  to 
500.      The    Roman    Senate,    during    the 
primitive  days   of   the  city,  participated 
in  the  judicial  and  executive  powers  of 
the  king,  and  even  in  the  management  of 
military   affairs.      Romulus   was   said   to 
have  originated  the  Senate;  but  in  doing 
this,   he    only    imitated    all   the    civilized 
nations   dwelling   on   the    shores   of   the 
Mediterranean,  who  all  deemed  it  neces- 
sary to  have  an  assembly  of  the  elder 
citizens   of  the   state,  besides   a   popular 
assembly.    Under  Tarquinius  Priscus,  the 
number  of  senators  was  increased  to  300, 
each  of  the  300  houses    (gentes),  which 
composed  the  three  tribes,  having  its  de- 
curio,  or  representative  head,  in  the  Sen- 
ate.     Subsequently,    the   election    of    the 
senators  was  made  by  the  censor  reading 
aloud  once  in  every  luster  (five  years)  the 
names  of  the  senators,  the  worthiest  first ; 
the  one  first  named  being  styled  princeps 
senatus.      Those   who   were    deemed    un- 
worthy of  the  dignity  were  degraded  by 
the  omission  of  their  names.     The  sena- 
tors were  chiefly  drawn  from  the  ranks 
of  the  equestrian  order.     In  the  days  of 
the  republic,  a   senator  was  required  to 
possess  property  to  the  value  of  about 
$22,500,  and  in  the  days  of  Augustus  of 
about  $32,500.    The  Senate  was  assembled 
by   the   supreme   officers   of   government, 
deciding  the   propositions  laid  before  it, 
article  by  article,  by  a  majority  of  voices. 
A  decree  of  the  Senate  was  called  senatus 
consultum.    If  the  decree  was  opposed  by 
the  tribune,  or  if  the  Senate  was  not  full, 
the   act  was   termed   senatus   auctoritas, 
and  was  submitted  to  the  people,  whose 
tribunes    could    reject    every    proposition 
by  their  vote.    The  Senate  had  within  its 
jurisdiction  all  matters  of  public  admin- 
istration, questions  of  peace  or  war,  the 
choice  of  public  officers,  and  the  financial 


SENATE 


337 


SENECA    RIVER 


concerns  of  the  republic.  Under  the  em- 
pire, the  Senate  gradually  lost  its  political 
consideration,  but  till  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine  the  Great  many  of  its  decrees 
took  the  place  of  the  laws  enacted  by  the 
people. 

In  France  the  upper  legislative  cham- 
ber under  Napoleon  I.  and  Napoleon  III. 
was  called  the  Senate,  and  the  name  is 
still  in  use  in  the  French  republic.  The 
Senate  is  composed  of  314  members;  they 
are  elected  indirectly  for  a  term  of  nine 
years. 

SENATE,  UNITED  STATES,  the 
higher  branch  of  Congress;  composed  of 
two  senators  from  each  State,  irrespec- 
tive of  the  population  therein.  Up  to 
May  31,  1913,  they  were  elected  by  the 
State  legislatures.  On  that  date  the  17th 
amendment  to  the  United  States  Con- 
stitution providing  for  the  election  of 
senators  by  direct  popular  vote  and  for 
the  filling  of  vacancies  by  appointment 
from  the  Governors  of  the  States,  went 
into  effect.  Some  of  the  most  important 
functions  of  the  Senate,  as  distinct  from 
the  House,  are  the  supervision  of  the 
presidential  appointments  of  the  highest 
grade  of  public  officers,  the  passing  of 
judgment  on  all  treaties  contracted  with 
foreign  powers,  and  the  sole  power  to 
try  all  impeachments.  In  the  latter  case 
impeachment  proceedings  must  originate 
in  the  House,  which  presents  the  charges 
to  the  Senate;  this,  in  turn,  acts  as  the 
court.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States  is  president  of  the  Senate,  but  has 
no  vote  therein  excepting  in  the  case  of 
a  tie,  and  is  really  an  officer  with  very 
limited  power.  It  is  customary  after  the 
Vice-President  has  been  installed  as  pre- 
siding officer  of  the  Senate,  for  him  to 
preside  over  a  few  sessions  of  that  body 
and  then  ask  for  a  leave  of  absence,  when 
the  Senate  elects  one  of  its  own  members 
as  president  pro  tern.,  and  the  member 
so  chosen  acts  as  presiding  officer  when- 
ever the  Vice-President  does  not  wish  to 
exercise  that  privilege. 

SENECA,  a  lake  in  the  W.  part  of 
New  York  State;  25  miles  S.  of  Lake 
Ontario,  into  which  its  waters  flow.  It 
is  about  37  miles  long,  from  2  to  4  miles 
broad,  and  630  feet  deep.  It  communi- 
cates with  the  Erie  canal,  and  steamers 
ply  on  it. 

SENECA,  LUCIUS  ANNJEUS,  a  Ro- 
man philosopher,  son  of  M.  Annaaus 
Seneca,  an  eminent  rhetorician;  was  born 
in  Cordoba,  Spain,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era.  Taken  early  to 
Rome,  he  became  an  advocate,  gained 
some  distinction,  and  was  made  quaestor. 
But  under  Claudius,  an  accusation 
brought    against    him    by    the    infamous 


Messalina,  led  to  his  being  banished  to 
Corsica.  Returning  after  an  exile  of 
eight  years,  he  was  intrusted  by  Agrip- 
pina  with  the  education  of  her  son  Nero. 
He  acquired  over  the  youth  an  influence 
as  strong  as  it  was  salutary,  and,  having 
already  at  Agrippina's  instance  become 
praetor,  he  was,  at  that  of  Nero  (now 
emperor),  made  consul,  A.  D.  57.  His 
high  moral  aims  and  intellectual  gifts 
incurred  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  the 
emperor,  while  his  wealth  excited  Nero's 
rapacity.  An  attempt  on  Nero's  part  to 
poison  him  having  failed,  he  was  drawn 
into  the  Pisonian  conspiracy,  accused, 
convicted,  and  condemned.  Left  free  to 
choose  his  mode  of  death,  he  opened  his 
veins,  and  gradually  succumbed  to  syn- 
cope, A.  D.  65.  His  writings  were  very 
numerous,  and  many  are  still  extant; 
among  them  are  treatises  on  "Anger";  on 
"Consolation";  on  "Providence";  on 
"Tranquillity  of  Mind";  "The  Blessed 
Life";  124  letters  to  Lucilius;  10  trage- 
dies, and  a  remarkable  work  entitled 
"Speculations  on  Natural  Phenomena." 
Seneca  attached  himself  chiefly  to  the 
Stoic  school  but  adopted  elso  principles 
from  other  systems. 

SENECA,  MARCUS  ANH^JUS,  a  Ro- 
man rhetorician;  father  of  the  preceding; 
a  native  of  Cordoba,  in  Spain ;  born  about 
61  B.  C.  He  went  to  Rome  during  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  and  there  taught 
rhetoric  with  great  success  for  several 
years.  He  died  in  Rome  toward  the  close 
of  the  reign  of  Tiberius  (a.  d.  37).  He 
was  the  author  of  a  collection  of  extracts 
showing  the  treatment  of  school  themes 
by  contemporary  rhetoricians. 

SENECA  FALLS,  a  village  in  Seneca 
co.,  N.  Y.;  on  the  Seneca  river,  near 
Cayuga  Lake,  and  on  the  New  York 
Central  and  Hudson  River  railroad;  16 
miles  N.  of  Auburn.  It  contains  a  public 
library,  the  Convent  of  St.  Patrick,  Na- 
tional and  other  banks,  and  several  news- 
papers. The  river  here  falls  50  feet  and 
furnishes  motive  power  for  flouring, 
woolen  and  knitting  mills,  foundries,  and 
manufactories  of  steam  fire  engines, 
pumps,  and  agricultural  implements.  Pop. 
(1910)    6,588;    (1920)    6,389. 

SENECA  INDIANS,  a  tribe  of  North 
American  Indians  belonging  to  the  Iro- 
quois, and  formerly  occupying  western 
New  York  and  a  portion  of  northwestern 
Pennsylvania.  They  were  once  powerful; 
and  their  most  famous  chief  was  Sagoye- 
watha,  or  "Red  Jacket."  They  mostly  re- 
side in  New  York  State  still,  numbering 
between  3,000  and  4,000. 

SENECA  RIVER,  a  river  of  New 
York  State;  flows  E.  from  the  N.  end 
of  Seneca  Lake  to  the  N.  end  of  Lake 
Cayuga,  then  turns  N.  and  is  joined  on 


SENECIO 


338 


SENNA 


the  left  by  the  outlet  of  Lake  Canan- 
daigua,  then  turns  again  E.f  and  receives 
in  succession  the  drainage  of  the  other 
parallel  "finger  lakes"  to  the  E.  (Owasco, 
Skaneateles,  and  Onondaga),  then  turns 
N.  W.,  taking  the  name  of  Oswego  river, 
and  enters  Lake  Ontario  at  Oswego. 
Length  (including  the  Oswego)  nearly 
100  miles. 

SENECIO,  the  groundsel,  a  genus  of 
plants,  order  Asteracese,  remarkable  as 
being  probably  the  most  extensive  in 
point  of  species  in  the  whole  vegetable 
kingdom.  They  are  spread  over  all  parts 
of  the  globe,  fully  1,000  different  kinds 
being  known  to  botanists.  The  ground- 
sel (Senecio  vulgaris)  and  the  ragwort 
(S.  Jacobsea),  afford  a  good  idea  of  the 
appearance  of  the  European  species,  the 
most  noteworthy  of  which  is,  perhaps,  the 
well-known  <S.  cineraria,  better  known  in 
gardens  as  Cineraria  maritima,  exten- 
sively used  for  planting  in  flower  beds 
for  the  sake  of  contrast  with  scarlet  and 
other  colors,  its  beautiful  foliage  being 
clothed  with  short  white  down.  The 
golden  senecio,  S.  aureus,  an  American 
species  found  in  all  the  states,  in  meadows, 
woods,  etc.,  is  a  handsome  plant,  with 
golden-yellow  flowers. 

SENEFELDER,  ALOYS,  the  inventor 
of  lithography;  born  in  Prague,  Bohemia, 
Nov.  6,  1771;  died  in  Munich,  Bavaria, 
Feb.  26,  1834.     See  Lithography. 

SENEGAL,  a  river  of  western  Africa, 
which  rises  in  the  interior  not  far  from 
some  of  the  Niger  sources,  and  after  a 
course  of  some  1,000  miles  falls  into  the 
Atlantic  near  lat.  16°  N.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  flat-bottomed  boats,  for  about 
740  miles  from  its  mouth;  as  far  as  the 
cataracts  of  Felou,  and  for  steamers 
(during  certain  months)  about  650  miles. 

SENEGAL,  a  colony  of  French  West 
Africa ;  between  the  Sahara  and  the  Gam- 
bia river;  extends  from  the  Atlantic  on 
the  W.  to  the  French  Sudan  on  the  E.; 
area,  74,112  square  miles.  The  name 
Senegambia,  which  is  not  used  by  the 
French,  has  been  applied  to  this  region, 
being  compounded  from  the  names  of  the 
rivers,  Senegal  and  Gambia,  between 
which  it  lies.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  and 
quicksilver  are  found.  Much  of  the  soil 
is  rich.  The  natives  cultivate  millet, 
maize,  and  rice ;  other  products  are  gums, 
castor-beans,  ground  nuts,  cocoanuts,  rub- 
ber, and  kola.  The  native  industries  are 
weaving  and  the  making  of  bricks,  pot- 
tery, and  jewelry.  A  railway  connects 
the  coast  towns  of  Dakar  and  St.  Louis; 
another  line  runs  from  Kayes  on  the 
coast,  toward  the  upper  Niger. 

Government. — For  administrative  pur- 
poses the  colony  is  divided  into  four  com- 


munes; St.  Louis  (the  capital  and  resi- 
dence of  the  governor  of  West  Africa ) , 
Dakar  (chief  port,  pop.  25,468),  Gorec, 
and  Rufisque.  In  October,  1899,  a  portion 
of  the  West  Sudan  was  placed  under  the 
same  administration  as  Senegal.  The 
imports  in  1919  were  valued  at  about 
$16,000,000,  and  the  exports  at  about 
$14,000,000. 

History. — The  French  first  settled 
Senegal  in  1626.  It  was  taken  by  the 
English  in  1758,  retaken  by  the  French 
in  1779,  and  subsequently  held  by  the 
English  till  the  peace  of  1814.  The  settle- 
ments languished  till  the  appointment  of 
General  Faidherbe  as  governor  in  1854. 
He  began  a  most  vigorous  line  of  action, 
subdued  the  Berber  chiefs  who  prevented 
the  French  advance  inland,  and  annexed 
their  territories.  This  policy  was  pur- 
sued in  the  same  spirit  by  subsequent 
governors;  districts  were  annexed  and 
protectorates  proclaimed  with  extraordi- 
nary celerity,  though  the  two  powerful 
chiefs  Ahmadou  and  Samory  occasioned 
them  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  1887-1890. 
Pop.  (1919)   1,204,113. 

SENESCHAL,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  an 
officer  in  the  house  of  princes  and  high 
dignitaries,  who  had  the  superintendence 
of  feasts  and  domestic  ceremonies;  a 
steward.  In  some  instances  he  had  the 
dispensing  of  justice. 

SENN,  NICHOLAS,  an  American  sur- 
geon; born  in  Buchs,  Switzerland,  Oct. 
31,  1844;  removed  with  his  parents  to 
Ashford,  Wis.,  in  1853;  was  graduated 
at  the  Chicago  Medical  College  in  1868; 
followed  his  profession  in  Fond  du  Lac, 
Wis.,  in  1869-1874,  and  removed  to  Mil- 
waukee, Wis.,  in  1874.  In  1885  became 
a  professor  in  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons,  Chicago;  Professor  of  the 
Principles  of  Surgery  and  Surgical  Pa- 
thology in  Rush  Medical  College  in  1888, 
and  removed  to  Chicago  in  1891.  He  was 
made  surgeon-general  of  Wisconsin  be- 
fore his  removal,  and  served  in  the  field 
during  the  Spanish-American  War.  His 
publications  include  "Experimental  Sur- 
gery"; "Surgical  Bacteriology";  "Intes- 
tinal Surgery";  "Pathology  and  Surgical 
Treatment  of  Tumors";  "Tuberculosis  of 
Bones  and  Joints";  "Tuberculosis  of  the 
Genito-Urinary  Organs";  "Medico-Surgi- 
cal Aspects  of  the  American-Spanish 
War";  etc.    He  died  Jan.  2,  1908. 

SENNA,  in  botany,  various  species  of 
cassia.  The  leaf  of  C.  elongata  consti- 
tutes Tinnevelly  senna.  Other  Indian 
species  furnishing  the  drug  are  C.  Obo- 
vata,  C.  Lanceolata,  and  C.  absus.  Alex- 
andrian or  Nubian  senna  is  the  leaf  of 
C.  lanceolata  and  C.  obovata.  It  is  often 
adulterated,  accidentally  or  intentionally, 


SENNACHERIB 


339 


SENSATION 


with  the  bladder  senna  (Colutea  arbores- 
cens),  as  other  kinds  sometimes  are  with 
Solenostemma  argel,  which  is  bitter  and 
irritating.  Tripoli  senna  is  from  C.  sethi- 
opica;  and  that  of  Chile  from  Myoschilos 
oblongus.  A  confection,  a  compound  mix- 
ture, a  tincture,  and  a  syrup  of  senna  are 
employed  in  pharmacy. 

SENNACHERIB,  an  Assyrian  king, 
son  of  Sargon,  whom  he  succeeded  705 
B.  c.  He  suppressed  the  revolt  of  Baby- 
lonia, and  marched  against  the  Aramaean 
tribes  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  of 
whom  he  took  200,000  captive.  He  then 
reduced  part  of  Media ;  rendered  tributary 
Tyre,  Aradus,  and  other  Phoenician  cities ; 
advanced  on  Philistia  and  Egypt,  and 
finally  proceeded  against  Hezekiah,  King 
of  Judah,  who  had  revolted.  Yielding 
to  panic,  Hezekiah  paid  the  tribute  ex- 
acted of  300  talents  of  silver  and  30  tal- 
ents of  gold.  On  his  return  to  Assyria 
Sennacherib  again  attacked  Babylonia 
and  afterward  reinvaded  Judah.  Having 
marched  through  Palestine  he  besieged 
Libnah  and  Lachish,  and  wrote  a  threat- 
ening letter  to  Hezekiah;  but  in  conse- 
quence of  a  miraculous  visitation,  which 
caused  the  death  of  185,000  of  his  troops, 
Sennecherib  returned  to  Nineveh  and 
troubled  Judah  no  more.  His  own  ac- 
count of  this  campaign  has  been  dis- 
covered, and  it  acknowledges  his  failure. 
From  Herodotus  we  learn  an  Egyptian 
tradition  regarding  the  destruction  of 
Sennacherib's  host,  but  no  mention  of  it 
is  found  in  the  monuments  of  Sennache- 
rib. The  greatest  architectural  work  of 
Sennacherib  was  the  palace  of  Koyunjik, 
which  covered  fully  eight  acres.  He  was 
murdered  by  his  own  sons,  Adrammelech 
and  Sharezer,  681  B.  C. 

SENSATION,  the  change  in  conscious- 
ness which  results  from  the  transmission 
of  nervous  impulses  to  the  brain.  Such 
impulses  may  be  generated  within  the 
nerves  themselves  (but  only  in  diseased 
conditions),  or  may  be  produced  by 
stimuli  applied  to  such  parts  of  the  body 
as  are  provided  with  nerves.  Such  nerves 
are  often  styled  sensory  or  afferent.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  af- 
ferent impulses  are  constantly  being  car- 
ried to  the  brain  from  all  parts  of  the 
body,  resulting  in  motor  and  other  acts 
necessary  to  our  life,  without  exciting 
any  sensation  at  all.  It  is  through  our 
sensations  that  we  gain  our  knowledge 
of  the  external  world,  and  of  the  state 
of  our  body.  The  means  by  which  these 
are  produced  are  the  elaborate  nervous 
mechanisms  developed  in  connection  with 
the  various  senses  of  smell,  sight,  hear- 
ing, taste,  touch,  temperature  (or  heat 
and  cold),  pain  or  general  sensibility,  the 
muscular  sense,  and  those  of  hunger  and 


thirst.  For  each  special  sense  there  is 
a  particular  nerve  center  (see  Brain)  ; 
and  each  special  sense  has  its  own  pecu- 
liar end  organ;  the  special  endings  of  the 
olfactory  nerves  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
septum  of  the  nose  for  that  of  smell;  the 
retina  in  the  eyeball  for  sight ;  the  rods  of 
Corti  in  the  cochlea  for  hearing;  the  taste 
bulbs  and  the  fibrils  in  the  fungiform 
papilla?  in  the  tongue  for  taste;  and  the 
Pacinian  coz*puscles  and  the  special  rami- 
fications of  the  cutaneous  nerves  in  the 
epidermis  for  touch.  The  integrity  of 
these  and  of  the  special  non-nervous  ap- 
paratus with  which  they  are  connected 
is  necessary  for  the  production  of  a  sen- 
sation. Thus,  the  transparent  media  of 
the  eyeball,  and  the  rods  and  cones  of  the 
retina  are  all  essential  to  the  production 
of  a  visual  sensation.  In  proportion  as 
they  are  abnormal,  the  sensation  is  im- 
perfect. Further,  each  end  organ  can  be 
thrown  into  action  only  by  certain  kinds 
of  stimuli,  and  the  nerves  in  connection 
with  them  convey  those  impulses  only 
which  give  rise  to  their  own  special  va- 
rieties of  sensation.  The  retina  can  only 
be  stimulated  by  waves  of  light,  never 
by  those  of  sound,  and  the  optic  nerve 
if  stimulated  directly  can  give  rise  to 
visual  sensations  only. 

The  muscular  sense  is  that  by  which 
we  are  made  aware  of  the  position  of  any 
part  of  the  body,  by  which  we  gauge  the 
amount  of  movement  necessary  to  af- 
fect any  object  or  to  overcome  any  resis- 
tance. It  would  appear  likely  that  the 
nerve  endings  connected  with  this  sense 
are  situated  in  the  muscles,  tendons,  and 
joints,  and  that  these  are  stimulated  by 
changes  in  movement  and  mutual  pres- 
sure in  these  structures. 

The  sensation  of  pain  (or  general  sen- 
sibility) is  produced  when  pressure  on 
a  part,  or  when  the  temperature  of  a  body 
applied,  exceeds  certain  limits.  Painful 
sensations  may  result  from  excessive 
stimulation  of  a  sensory  nerve  at  any 
part  of  its  course,  which  would  seem  to 
point  in  favor  of  the  non-existence  of 
special  end  organs.  With  regard  to  the 
paths  by  which  these  various  impulses 
reach  the  brain,  we  know  (if  we  except 
the  fifth  cranial  and  the  vagus  nerves) 
that  they  reach  the  spinal  cord  by  the 
posterior  roots  of  the  spinal  nerves,  and 
that  those  impulses  which  produce  tac- 
tile, thermal,  and  painful  sensations  for 
the  most  part  (though  this  has  recently 
been  questioned)  travel  up  the  side  of 
the  cord  opposite  to  that  at  which  they 
entered,  but  their  exact  course  is  not  cer- 
tainly determined.  The  path  for  the  mus- 
cular sense-impulses  is  by  many  regarded 
as  lying  in  the  posterior  columns  of  the 
same  side. 

Within  the  medulla  oblongata  the  ob- 


SENUSSI 


340 


SEPTARIA 


scurity  as  to  the  upward  sensory  con- 
ducting tracts  is  even  greater  than  in 
the  cord,  not  only  in  the  case  of  the  senses 
above  mentioned,  but  also  of  the  sense 
of  hearing  and  taste. 

SENUSSI,  MOHAMED  IBN  ALI  EL, 
founder  of  the  religious  order  which  bears 
his  name;  born  near  Mostaganem,  Al- 
geria; died  in  1851.  He  organized  the 
secret  brotherhood  in  1837,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  purifying  the  Mohammedan  re- 
ligion. Eventually  it  spread  all  over 
the  world  of  Islam  and  centers  were 
established  in  Damascus,  Constantinople 
and  the  big  cities  of  India.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded as  the  head  of  the  order  by  his 
son,  Sidi  el  Mahdi,  who  died  in  1902  and 
who  was  succeeded  by  the  present  head, 
Sidi  Ahmed  el  Sherif. 

SEOUL,  the  capital  of  Korea;  about 
3  miles  N.  of  the  Han  river,  75  miles 
from  its  entrance  into  the  Yellow  Sea, 
and  about  20  miles  from  its  port  Che- 
mulpo, with  which  it  has  been  connected 
by  rail  since  July,  1900.  It  lies  in  a 
natural  basin,  among  granite  hill  ranges, 
and  is  surrounded  with  walls.  The  streets 
are  very  narrow  and  very  dirty,  and  the 
houses  beggarly  in  the  extreme.  The 
city  includes  several  wide,  desolate 
squares.  The  royal  palace  and  its  ad- 
juncts cover  600  acres  of  ground.  Silk, 
paper,  tobacco,  mats,  fans,  and  similar 
commodities  are  the  principal  products 
of  native  industry.  There  are  schools 
for  the  teaching  of  Japanese,  French,  Chi- 
nese, Korean,  Russian,  and  English,  and 
an  American  Mission  School,  which  is 
subsidized.  There  are  also  an  electric 
light  plant,  an  electric  street  railway, 
railways  to  Fusan  and  Wiju,  and  tele- 
graph. Pop.  including  extensive  suburbs, 
about  303,000. 

SEPARATIST,  a  small  sect  calling 
themselves  Separatists  or  Protestant 
Separatists,  and  holding  aloof  from  the 
Church  of  England,  believing  it  not  suf- 
ficient to  maintain  its  Protestant  char- 
acter. 

SEPARATOR,  the  name  commonly 
applied  to  machines  which  separate  the 
component  parts  of  emulsions  or  suspen- 
sions, especially  to  the  apparatus  used 
in  the  separation  of  cream  from  milk. 
All  these  machines  work  by  centrifugal 
action.  The  simplest  form  consists  of  a 
number  of  buckets  (usually  two  or  four) 
suspended  around  a  central  shaft  which 
can  be  caused  to  revolve  at  high  speed 
by  means  of  gears  turned  either  by  hand 
or  by  machinery.  As  the  buckets  revolve, 
they  assume  a  horizontal  position,  the 
heavier  portion  of  the  mixture  being 
forced  to  the  bottom.  Modern  machines 
consist  of  a  bowl  cr  drum,  frequently  con- 


taining a  number  of  conical  plates.  They 
are  continuous  in  action.  For  instance, 
in  the  De  Laval  separator,  commonly 
used  in  dairies  for  separating  cream,  a 
steady  stream  of  milk  is  introduced  into 
the  machine,  while  a  stream  of  skim 
milk  flows  from  one  point  and  a  smaller 
stream  of  cream  from  another.  These 
machines  are  highly  efficient  and,  when 
properly  used,  leave  less  than  one-tenth 
of  a  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk.  An- 
other type  of  centrifugal  separator  is 
largely  used  in  the  sugar  industry.  This 
type  consists  of  a  cylindrical  basket 
which  can  be  made  to  revolve  at  high 
speed.  The  sides  of  the  basket  are  of 
fine  wire  screens  or  of  cloth.  Wet  sugar 
is  introduced  into  the  basket  and  is  flung, 
by  centrifugal  action,  against  the  sides. 
The  water  is  forced  through  the  fine 
mesh,  while  the  dry  sugar  is  retained. 

SEPIA,  in  zoology,  the  typical  and 
only  recent  genus  of  Sepiidse;  body  ob- 
long (varying  in  length  from  3  to  28 
inches),  with  lateral  fins  as  long  as  it- 
self; arms  with  four  rows  of  suckers; 
mantle  supported  by  tubercles  fitting  into 
sockets  on  neck  and  funnel;  shell  broad 
and  thick  in  front,  laminated,  and  ter- 
minating in  a  permanent  mucro.  Wood- 
ward puts  the  species  at  30,  universally 
distributed.  In  palaeontology;  fossil  spe- 
cies 10,  from  the  Jurassic  to  the  Eocene 
Tertiary.  Several  species  have  been  based 
on  mucrones  from  the  London  Clay.  In 
comparative  anatomy:  the  black  secretion 
of  the  cuttlefish.  In  chemistry  and  art: 
a  dark  brown  pigment  prepared  from  the 
black  secretion  of  the  cuttlefish,  S.  offi- 
cinalis. 

SEPOY,  a  slight  alteration  of  the 
ordinary  word  used  for  centuries  by  the 
natives  of  India  for  a  soldier  in  general, 
but  confined  by  Anglo-Indians  to  the 
Hindu  and  Mohammedan  troops,  espe- 
cially to  those  in  British  pay. 

SEPTARIA,  ovate  flattened  nodules 
of  argillaceous  limestone  or  ironstone, 
internally  divided  into  numerous  angular 
fragments  by  reticulating  fissures  which 
radiate  from  the  center  to  the  circum- 
ference, and  are  filled  with  some  mineral 
substance,  as  carbonate  of  lime  or  sul- 
phate of  barytes,  that  has  been  infiltrated 
subsequent  to  their  formation.  The  radi- 
ating figure  and  the  striking  contrast 
between  the  dark  body  of  argillaceous 
limestone  or  ironstone  and  the  more  or 
less  transparent  sparry  veins  when  the 
nodule  is  cut  and  polished  have  caused 
them  to  be  manufactured  into  small  tables 
and  similar  objects. 

Calcareous  septarian  nodules  are  ex- 
tensively employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
what  is  known   commercially   as   Roman 


SEPTEMBER 


341 


SEQUOIA 


cement,  because  of  its  properties  being 
the  same  as  a  famous  hydraulic  cement 
made  of  ferruginous  volcanic  ash  brought 
from  Rome.  Such  septaria  occur  in 
layers  in  clay  deposits,  and  are  quarried 
for  economical  purposes  in  the  clays  of 
the  London  basin. 

The  septarian  nodules  of  the  Carboni- 
ferous strata  consist  generally  of  clay 
ironstone,  and  are  sometimes  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  iron. 

SEPTEMBER  (from  the  Latin  sep- 
tem,  seven),  the  ninth  month  of  our  year, 
but  the  seventh  of  the  old  Roman  year, 
which  began  in  March.  It  has  always 
contained  30  days. 

SEPTEMBRISTS,  in  French  history, 
the  name  given  to  the  agents  in  the  mas- 
sacre which  took  place  in  Paris  on  Sept. 
2,    1792,   during  the   French   Revolution. 

SEPTICEMIA,  or  SEPTEMIA,  in 
pathology,  a  state  of  the  blood  without 
secondary  abscesses,  a  kind  of  pyaemia 
with  intense  fever,  and  great  constitu- 
tional disturbance  from  blood  poisoning. 
The  antiseptic  researches  of  Lister  and 
of  Pasteur  have  done  much  to  counteract 
septicaemia. 

SEPTUAGESIMA,  the  third  Sunday 
before  Lent,  so  called  because  it  is  about 
70  days  before  Easter. 

SEPTUAGINT,  a  Greek  version  of  the 
Hebrew  or  Old  Testament  Scriptures, 
the  oldest  one  made  into  any  language. 
A  still  extant  letter  referred  to  by  Jo- 
sephus,  Jerome,  and  Eusebius,  purports 
to  be  from  a  certain  Aristeas,  officer  at 
the  court  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  It 
states  that  after  the  king  had  founded  the 
great  Alexandrian  library,  he  wished  to 
have  a  copy  of  the  Jewish  sacred  books. 
By  the  advice  of  his  chief  librarian, 
Demetrius  Phalareus,  he  sent  to  the  high 
priest  at  Jerusalem,  requesting  him  to 
send  six  translators  from  each  tribe,  72 
in  all.  The  request  was  complied  with; 
the  translators  came  and  completed  their 
work  in  72  days.  _  From  their  number, 
and  perhaps  the  time  they  occupied,  the 
name  Septuagint  arose.  But  the  letter 
of  Aristeas  is  not  now  believed  to  be 
genuine,  and  Coptic  words  in  the  work 
show  that  the  translators  were  from 
Egypt,  and  not  from  Jerusalem.  The 
version  was  apparently  made  at  Alex- 
andria, and  was  commenced  about  280 
B.  c,  the  Pentateuch  being  the  only  part 
translated  at  first.  It  is  well  done.  Next 
in  value  is  the  book  of  Proverbs.  Job 
was  translated  from  the  Hebrew  text,  dif- 
fering both  by  excess  and  defect  from 
that  now  recognized.  Esther,  the  Psalms, 
and  the  Prophets  followed,  seemingly  be- 
tween   180    and    170   B.   c.      Jeremiah    is 


the  best  translated,  and  Daniel  is  exe- 
cuted so  badly  that  Theodotian,  in  the 
2d  century  a.  d.,  had  to  do  the  work  again. 
Jesus  and  His  Apostles  frequently  quoted 
the  Septuagint  in  place  of  the  Hebrew. 
The  Jews  had  a  high  opinion  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint, but  on  finding  the  Messianic  pas- 
sages used  effectively  by  the  Christians 
in  controversy  with  them,  they  estab- 
lished a  fast  to  mourn  that  the  Septua- 
gint had  ever  been  issued,  and  had  a  new 
translation  by  Aquila  brought  out  for  the 
use  of  the  synagogues.  Three  Christian 
recensions  took  place  late  in  the  3rd  or 
early  in  the  4th  century.  The  first  mod- 
ern edition  was  the  Complutensian  in 
1514-1517;  since  then  others  have  ap- 
peared. 

SEQUENCE,  a  series  of  things  follow- 
ing in  a  certain  order  or  succession;  spe- 
cifically, a  set  of  cards  immediately  fol- 
lowing each  other  in  the  same  suit,  as 
an  ace,  two,  three  and  four.  In  music, 
the  recurrence  of  a  harmonic  progression 
or  melodic  figure  at  a  different  pitch  or 
in  a  different  key  to  that  in  which  it 
was  first  given.  A  tonal  or  diatonic  se- 
quence is  when  no  modulation  takes  place. 
A  chromatic  or  real  sequence  takes  place 
when  the  recurrence  of  a  phrase  at  an 
exact  interval  causes  a  change  of  key. 
In  the  Roman  ritual,  a  rhythm  sometimes 
sung  between  the  Epistle  and  the  Gos- 
pel. At  first  it  was  merely  a  prolonga- 
tion of  the  last  note  of  the  Alleluia,  but 
afterward  appropriate  words  were  sub- 
stituted. Wnen  the  Roman  Missal  was 
revised  in  the  16th  century,  only  four  of 
the  existing  sequences  were  retained:  Vic- 
tinse  Paschali,  for  Easter;  Veni,  Sancte 
Spiritus,  for  Pentecost;  Lauda,  Sion,  for 
Corpus  Christi;  and  the  Dies  Irse,  for 
Masses  of  the  Dead.  The  Stabat  Mater, 
for  the  Feast  of  the  Seven  Dolors,  is  of 
later  date. 

SEQUOIA,  a  genus  of  coniferous  trees. 
It  is  closely  allied  to  the  cypress,  and 
two  species  are  noted,  the  big  tree 
(gigantea)  and  the  redwood  (semper- 
virens).  The  big  tree  species  is  one  of 
the  largest  in  the  world  and  is  the 
largest  in  America.  In  California,  where 
the  two  species  are  found,  it  rises  to  an 
average  height  of  275  feet.  The  largest 
exceed  320  feet,  with  a  trunk  diameter 
of  from  30  to  35  feet.  It  is  found  on 
the  west  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas, 
at  average  elevations  of  6,000  feet, 
appearing  in  scattered  clusters.  The 
Mariposa  and  Calaveras  groves  contain 
the  highest  trees.  The  tallest  standing 
is  the  Keystone  State,  which  is  325  feet 
in  height,  while  another  magnificent 
specimen  is  the  Empire  State,  having  a 
circumference  of  94  feet.  The  Father  of 
the    Forest,    a    fallen    specimen,    has    a 


SEQUOIA    NATIONAL    PARK 


342 


SERBIA 


length  of  over  400  feet.  These  great 
trees  are  in  the  Calaveras  grove.  The 
Mariposa  grove  has  about  500  trees  of 
various  sizes,  of  which  about  100  are  of 
the  tall  variety.  A  hunter  named  Dowd 
discovered  the  big  trees  in  1850.  Some 
of  the  trees  are  supposed  to  be  nearly 
2,000  years  old. 

SEQUOIA  NATIONAL  PARK,  a  re- 
gion made  public  property  in  1890  in 
order  to  safeguard  the  splendid  groves 
of  sequoia  trees  which  are  there  found. 
The  number  of  groves  in  this  park  are 
twelve,  and  the  number  of  large  trees 
exceed  12,000,  having  a  minimum  diam- 
eter of  10  feet.  The  park  was  estab- 
lished by  the  acts  of  Sept.  25  and  Oct.  1, 
1890.  The  area  includes  161,597  acres. 
The  valleys,  rivers,  and  forested  slopes 
in  this  park  combine  to  make  up  a  pic- 
ture of  great  beauty.  Tourists  in  great 
number  visit  it  each  year,  coming  by 
way  of  Visalia,  on  the  Southern  Pacific 
and  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  rail- 
roads, and  then  to  Lemon  Cove,  going  40 
miles  by  stage  coach  to  the  park.  The 
trees  belong  to  the  Sequoia  genus  that 
showed  themselves  first  in  the  cretaceous 
beds  of  Greenland  and  in  the  American 
Potomac  group,  as  well  as  later  in  the 
Tertiary  of  Europe  and  America,  re- 
sembling those  still  extant  in  California. 
They  are  collaterally  related  to  the 
Swedenborgia  of  the  Jurassic,  which 
grew  to  great  heights  in  earlier  ages. 

SERAJEVO,  a  city  in  Jugo-Slavia, 
formerly  the  capital  of  the  Austrian 
province  of  Bosnia,  situated  on  both 
banks  of  the  Miljaka,  122  miles  S.  W. 
of  Belgrade.  The  principal  industries  of 
the  town  consist  of  textile  mills  and 
metal  ware  factories.  Iron  mines  and 
mineral  springs  are  found  in  the  vicin- 
ity. The  name  of  the  city,  however,  is 
generally  associated  with  the  assassina- 
tion of  the  heir  apparent  to  the  throne 
of  Austria-Hungary,  the  Archduke  Fran- 
cis Ferdinand,  which  took  place  there  on 
June  28,  1914.    Pop.  (1919)  50,000. 

SERAPIS,  or  SARAPIS  (also  found 
as  Osarapis),  the  Greek  name  of  an 
Egyptian  deity,  introduced  into  Egypt  in 
the  time  of  Ptolemy  I.  or  Soter,  and 
really  a  combination  of  the  Greek  Hades 
and  Egyptian  Osiris.  He  was  not  an 
Egyptian,  but  the  Greek  deity,  with  some 
Egyptian  characters  superadded;  and  his 
temple  was  not  admitted  into  the  pre- 
cincts of  Egyptian  cities,  finding  favor 
only  in  the  Greek  cities  founded  in 
Egypt.  It  is  said  that  42  temples  were 
erected  under  the  Ptolemies  and  Romans 
to  this  god  in  Egypt.  His  resemblance 
to  Osiris  consisted  in  his  chthonic  or 
infernal  character,  as  judge  of  the  dead 


and  ruler  of  Hades.  The  god  had  a 
magnificent  temple,  the  famed  Serapeum 
at  Alexandria,  to  which  was  attached  the 
celebrated  library;  another  at  Memphis, 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  cemetery  of  the 
mummies  of  the  Apis,  which  was  exca- 
vated by  Mariette  in  1850;  and  another 
temple  at  Canopus.  It  appears  that  he 
represented  or  was  identified  with  the 
Hesiri  Api,  or  Osorapis,  the  "Osirified" 
or  "dead  Apis,"  who  was  also  invested 
with  many  of  the  attributes  of  Osiris. 
The  worship  of  Serapis,  introduced  into 
Egypt  by  the  Ptolemies,  subsequently 
became  greatly  extended  in  Asia  Minor; 
and  his  image,  in  alliance  with  that  of 
Isis  and  other  deities,  appears  on  many 
of  the  coins  of  the  imperial  days  of 
Rome.  In  A.  D.  146  the  worship  of  the 
god  was  introduced  into  the  city  of  Rome 
by  Antoninus  Pius;  but  it  was  not  long 
after  abolished  by  the  senate,  on  account 
of  its  licentious  character.  A  celebrated 
temple  of  Serapis  also  existed  at  Puteoli, 
near  Naples,  and  the  remains  of  it  are 
still  seen.  In  Egypt  itself  the  worship 
of  the  deity  subsisted  till  the  fall  of 
paganism,  the  image  at  Alexandria  con- 
tinuing to  be  worshiped  till  destroyed, 
A.  D.  398,  by  Theophilus,  archbishop  of 
that  city. 

SERBIA  (Jugoslavia),  formerly  an 
independent  kingdom  of  eastern  Europe; 
bounded  N.  by  Austria-Hungary,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Save  and 
the  Danube;  E.  by  Bulgaria;  W.  by 
Albania  and  Montenegro;  S.  by  Greece; 
area,  42,098  square  miles;  pop.  about 
5,000,000.  Capital,  Belgrade;  pop.  (1919) 
120,000.  The  surface  of  Serbia  is  ele- 
vated and  is  traversed  by  ramifications 
of  the  Carpathians  in  the  N.  E.,  of  the 
Balkans  in  the  S.  E.,  and  of  the  Dinaric 
Alps  in  the  W.  The  summits  seldom 
exceed  3,000  feet,  though  the  highest 
reaches  6,325.  The  whole  surface  be- 
longs to  the  basin  of  the  Danube,  which 
receives  the  drainage  partly  directly, 
and  partly  by  the  frontier  rivers  Save, 
augmented  by  the  Drin  and  the  Timok, 
but  chiefly  by  the  Morava,  which  flows 
through  the  center  of  the  kingdom.  The 
climate  is  somewhat  rigorous  in  the  ele- 
vated districts,  but  mild  in  the  valleys 
and  plains.  There  are  extensive  forests 
and  uncultivated  wastes,  the  forest  area 
being  42  per  cent,  of  the  total  area. 

Serbia  is  essentially  an  agricultural 
country,  and  each  peasant  cultivates  his 
own  freehold.  These  holdings  range  in 
size  from  10  to  30  acres.  Of  the  entire 
area  of  land,  about  21  per  cent,  is  un- 
der cultivation.  The  chief  agricultural 
products  are  wheat,  barley,  oats,  maize, 
rye  and  beetroot.  Tobacco  is  also  grown 
and  the  product  in  1919  was  15.000  tons. 


SERBIA 


34£ 


SERBIA 


Silk  culture  is  also  carried  on  exten- 
sively, and  before  the  World  War  about 
35,000  persons  were  employed  in  this 
industry.  The  total  production  of  wheat 
is  about  25,000,000  cwt.  annually.  The 
mineral  resources  are  considerable,  al- 
though they  have  not  been  developed. 
They  include  coal,  iron,  copper,  ore,  gold 
and  cement.  In  Idria  are  well-known 
quicksilver  mines  which  produce  about 
130,000  tons  yearly.  The  milling  of 
flour  is  one  of  the  most  important  in- 
dustries, and  before  the  World  War 
there  were  50  large  flour  mills  in  the 
country.  Other  industries  are  the  brew- 
ing and  distilling  of  liquors,  weaving, 
tanning,  boot  making,  carpet  weaving, 
pottery  and  iron  work.  Statistics  of 
commerce  are  not  available  for  recent 
dates.  Before  the  World  War  the  im- 
ports were  about  £4,000,000  and  the  ex- 
ports about  £3,000,000  annually.  There 
are  about  1,000  miles  of  railway.  The 
railway  systems  were  practically  de- 
stroyed during  the  war.  The  chief  bank 
is  the  National  Bank  of  the  Kingdom  of 
the  Serbs,  Croats  and  Slovenes,  with  a 
nominal  capital  of  50,000,000  dinars. 

The  State  religion  is  the  Serbian- 
Orthodox.  There  are  also  a  large  num- 
ber of  Roman  Catholics,  especially  in 
the  newly  acquired  territories. 

Education  is  compulsory  and,  in  pri- 
mary schools,  free.  There  are  about  20 
secondary  schools  and  a  number  of 
theological,  normal  and  special  schools. 
Belgrade  University,  founded  in  1838, 
had  in  1920  7,250  students  and  80  in- 
structors. In  the  same  year  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  Serbs,  Croats  and  Slo- 
venes was  established  at  Lioublina.  The 
government  has  a  military  academy  and 
5  schools  for  non-commissioned  officers. 

The  army  was  reorganized  in  1916, 
following  the  invasion  of  Serbia.  Dur- 
ing the  war  over  750,000  men  served  in 
the  armies,  exclusive  of  70,000  Jugo-Slav 
volunteers.  The  total  losses  in  killed 
and  missing  amounted  to  about  370,000. 
The  army  was  demobilized  following  the 
armistice  of  1919,  and  was  succeeded 
by  the  new  army  of  Jugoslavia.  Mili- 
tary service  is  compulsory  and  universal. 
The  Serbian  language,  formerly  often 
called  the  Illyrian,  is  a  melodious  Sla- 
vonic dialect  closely  allied  to  the  Bul- 
garian and  Slovenian,  and  forms  with 
them  the  southern  Slavonic  group.  Sev- 
eral collections  of  patriotic  Serbian  songs 
have  been  published,  and  both  Goethe 
and  Grimm  have  acknowledged  the  ex- 
cellence of  Serbian  poetry.  In  prose 
literature,  however,  little  has  been  pro- 
duced besides  theological  and  religious 
works.  The  present  constitution  of 
Serbia  dates  from  1903.  The  Slovenes, 
Croats,    Dalmatians    and    Bosnians     de- 


clared their  independence  in  1918,  after 
the  Austrian  revolution.  On  Dec.  29, 
1918,  the  kingdom  of  Serbs,  Croats  and 
Slovenes  was  formed,  with  Crown  Prince 
Alexander  as  regent.  The  government 
was  an  hereditary  monarchy,  and  the 
people  were  represented  by  an  elected 
legislative  assembly  called  the  skwp- 
shtina. 

History. — Serbia  was  anciently  inhabi- 
ted by  Thracian  tribes;  subsequently  it 
formed  part  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Mcesia.  It  was  afterward  occupied  in 
succession  by  Huns,  Ostrogoths,  Lom- 
bards, Avares,  and  other  tribes.  The 
Serbians  entered  it  in  the  7th  century, 
and  were  converted  to  Christianity  in  the 
next  century.  They  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  the  Byzantine  emperors, 
but  latterly  made  themselves  independent, 
and  under  Stephen  Dushan  (1331-1355) 
the  kingdom  of  Serbia  included  all  Mace- 
donia, Albania,  Thessaly,  northern  Greece, 
and  Bulgaria.  About  1374  a  new  dynasty 
ascended  the  throne  in  the  person  of 
Lazar  I.,  who  was  captured  by  the  Turks 
at  the  battle  of  Kossovo  (in  Albania) 
in  1389,  and  put  to  death.  Serbia  now 
became  tributary  to  Turkey.  About  the 
middle  of  the  15th  century  it  became  a 
Turkish  province,  and  so  remained  for 
nearly  200  years.  By  the  peace  of  Pas- 
sarowitz  in  1718  Austria  received  the 
greater  part  of  Serbia,  with  the  capital, 
Belgrade.  But  by  the  peace  of  Belgrade 
in  1739  this  territory  was  transferred  to 
Turkey.  The  barbarity  of  the  Turks  led 
to  several  insurrections.  Early  in  the 
19th  century  Czerny  George  placed  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  malcontents,  and, 
aided  by  Russia,  succeeded  after  eight 
years  of  fighting  in  securing  the  inde- 
pendence of  his  country  by  the  peace  of 
Bucharest,  May  28,  1812.  The  war  was 
renewed  in  1813,  and  the  Turks  pre- 
vailed. In  1815  all  Serbia  rose  in  arms 
under  Milosh,  and  after  a  successful  war 
obtained  complete  self-government,  Mi- 
losh being  elected  hereditary  prince  of 
the  land.  Milosh  was  compelled  to  abdi- 
cate in  1839,  and  was  nominally  succeeded 
by  his  son  Milan,  who  died  immediately, 
leaving  the  throne  vacant  to  his  brother 
Michael.  In  1842  this  prince  was  com- 
pelled to  follow  the  example  of  his  father 
and  quit  the  country.  Alexander  Kara- 
Georgevitch,  son  of  Czerny  George,  was 
elected  in  his  room;  but  in  December, 
1858,  he  also  was  forced  to  abdicate. 
Milosh  was  then  recalled,  but  survived 
his  restoration  little  more  than  a  year. 
His  son  Michael  succeeded  him  (I860), 
but  was  assassinated  by  the  partisans  of 
Prince  Alexander  July  10,  1868.  The 
princely  dignity  was  then  conferred  on 
Milan  (Obrenovitch),  grand-nephew  of 
Milosh.     After  the  fall  of  Plevna  in  the 


SERBIA 


344 


SERFS 


Russo-Turkish  War  of  1877-1878  Serbia 
took  up  arms  against  Turkey,  and  ob- 
tained full  recognition  of  its  independence. 
It  was  erected  into  a  kingdom  in  1882. 
In  1889  Milan  abdicated  in  favor  of  his 
son  Prince  Alexander,  born  Aug.  14,  1876, 
who  became  the  ruler  of  the  country  as 
Alexander  I. 

Alexander  married  Countess  Draga, 
who  was  unpopular  with  the  people.  On 
June  11,  1903,  soldiers  forced  their  way 
into  the  palace  and  bayoneted  King  Alex- 
ander, Queen  Draga,  and  her  two  brothers. 
Prince  Peter  Karageorgevitch  was  then 
proclaimed  King  of  Serbia,  under  the 
name  Peter  I.  Following  the  accession 
of  King  Peter,  the  idea  of  a  Greater  Ser- 
bia, which  had  long  been  cherished  by 
the  Serbian  people,  became  intensified. 
The  hostile  feeling  toward  Austria-Hun- 
gary was  increased  by  the  tariff  policy 
adopted  by  the  dual  monarchy.  Bitter- 
ness of  feeling  increased  by  Austria's 
annexation  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  in 
1908.  The  Serbian  Government  retaliated 
by  passing  restrictive  tariff  measures 
and  encouraged  war-like  preparations. 
Through  the  offices  of  Russia,  however, 
the  tension  was  relieved.  In  1912  Serbia 
entered  the  Balkan  alliance  with  Bulgaria, 
Greece  and  Montenegro  and  helped  to 
precipitate  the  Balkan  War  (q.  v.)  of 
1912  and  1913.  As  a  result  of  the  vic- 
tory over  Turkey  in  this  war,  Serbia 
nearly  doubled  her  territory  and  increased 
her  population  by  more  than  one-half. 
These  gains  were  chiefly  at  the  expense 
of  Bulgaria  and  the  dissatisfaction  of 
that  country  led  to  the  second  Balkan 
War.  Bitterness  toward  Austria  was  re- 
vived by  the  action  of  the  latter  in  com- 
pelling the  Serbs  to  surrender  Durazzo 
and  other  territory  to  the  newly  created 
principality  of  Albania.  This  hatred 
of  Austria  came  to  a  crisis  when  the 
Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand,  heir  to  the 
Hapsburg  throne,  was  assassinated  on 
June  28,  1914,  at  Sarajevo,  the  capital 
of  Bosnia,  by  a  Serbian  patriot.  This 
act  was  the  direct  cause  of  the  World 
War. 

The  first  military  operation  in  the  war 
was  the  attempted  invasion  by  Austria 
undertaken  in  the  last  days  of  July,  1914. 
This  ended  in  disaster  to  the  Austrian 
forces,  as  did  a  second  attempt  at  in- 
vasion undertaken  in  September.  The 
Serbian  troops  fought  with  great  heroism 
and  forced  back  the  Austrians  with  great 
losses.  The  final  invasion  of  Serbia  was 
accomplished  only  by  the  combined  force 
of  Austrian,  German,  and  Bulgarian 
troops  and  this  was  not  undertaken  until 
September,  1915.  The  Serbian  Army  was 
overwhelmed  and  was  compelled  to  re- 
treat, although  it  fought  with  the  greatest 
bravery  as  long  as  there  was  a  possibility 


of  resistance.  The  army  escaped,  al- 
though with  great  losses,  and  Serbia  was 
overrun  by  hostile  armies.  Over  700,000 
civilians  fled  before  the  advancing  armies 
of  the  enemy,  and  of  these  a  large  por- 
tion died  during  their  flight.  The  Ser- 
bians reached  Avlona  or  Durazzo  and 
were  taken  to  the  island  of  Corfu,  where 
after  reorganization,  they  again  took 
their  place  in  the  battle  line  and  ren- 
dered most  brilliant  and  effective  service. 
For  more  detailed  account  of  Serbia  in 
the  war,  see  World  War.  The  active 
command  of  the  Serbian  Army  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Prince  Regent.  For 
the  history  of  Serbia  following  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Jugoslavian  State,  see  Jugo- 
slavia. 

SERENADE,  music  performed  in  the 
open  air  at  night;  often,  an  entertainment 
of  music  given  in  the  night  by  a  lover 
to  his  mistress  under  her  window;  or 
music  performed  as  a  mark  of  esteem 
and  good-will  toward  distinguished  per- 
sons. The  name  is  also  given  to  a  piece 
of  music  characterized  by  the  soft  repose 
which  is  supposed  to  be  in  harmony  with 
the  stillness  of  night.  The  Italian  name 
Serenata  is  now  applied  to  a  cantata  hav- 
ing a  pastoral  subject,  and  to  a  work  of 
large  proportions,  in  the  form  to  some 
extent  of  a  symphony. 

SERES,  a  town  of  Greece,  in  the  for- 
mer vilayet  of  Saloniki;  on  a  tributary  of 
the  Struma  or  Karassu;  45  miles  N.  E, 
of  Saloniki;  lies  in  a  wide  and  fertile 
plain  containing  upward  of  300  villages; 
is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  archbishop;  and 
is  the  most  important  trading  town  in 
the  interior  of  Macedonia.  It  has  a  castle, 
numerous  mosques,  Greek  churches,  baths, 
benevolent  institutions,  manufactures 
woolen  and  cotton  goods,  gourd-shaped 
water  flasks,  and  exports  cotton,  rice,  to- 
bacco, and  grain. 

SERETH,  an  important  affluent  of  the 
Danube.  It  rises  in  the  Carpathians  in 
Bukowina,  flows  through  Rumania,  and 
joins  the  Danube  5  miles  above  Galatz 
after  a  course  of  300  miles.  Parts  of  the 
regions  through  which  it  flows  saw  much 
fighting  between  the  Russian  and  Austro- 
German  armies  during  the  World  War. 

SERFS,  a  term  applied  to  a  class  of 
laborers  existing  under  the  feudal  sys- 
tem, and  whose  condition,  though  not 
exactly  that  of  slaves,  was  little  removed 
from  it.  Under  this  system,  from  the 
vassals  of  the  king  downward,  the  whole 
community  was  subject  to  certain  de- 
grees of  servitude,  and  it  was  only  on 
condition  of  specific  services  to  be  ren- 
dered to  his  superior  that  any  individual 
held  his  fief.  In  the  case  of  the  lower 
classes  this  servitude  amounted  to  an  al- 


SERGEANT 


345 


SERIES 


most  complete  surrender  of  their  personal 
liberty.  There  were  two  classes  of  la- 
borers, the  villeins  and  the  serfs  proper. 
The  former  occupied  a  middle  position 
between  the  serfs  and  the  freemen.  A 
serf  could  not  be  sold,  but  could  be  trans- 
ferred along  with  the  property  to  which 
he  was  attached.  The  revival  of  the  cus- 
tom of  manumission  counteracted  the 
rapid  increase  of  serfs.  A  serf  could  also 
obtain  his  freedom  by  purchase,  or  by 
residing  for  a  year  and  a  day  in  a  bor- 
ough, or  by  military  service.  By  these 
various  means  the  serf  population  grad- 
ually decreased.  In  most  parts  of  the 
Continent  they  had  disappeared  by  the 
15th  century.  The  extinction  of  serfdom 
in  England  and  Scotland  was  very 
gradual.  Serfdom  in  Russia  was  abol- 
ished by  a  manifesto  of  Alexander  II. 
on  March  17,  1861. 

SERGEANT,  THOMAS,  an  American 
jurist;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Jan. 
14,  1782;  was  graduated  at  Princeton 
College  in  1798,  and  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1802.  He  was  made  associate  justice 
of  the  Philadelphia  District  Court  in 
1814;  was  Secretary  of  State  in  1817- 
1819,  and  associate  justice  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Supreme  Court  in  1834-1846.  He 
resumed  practice  in  1847.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Treatise  upon  the  Law  of 
Pennsylvania  Relative  to  the  Proceedings 
of  Foreign  Attachment"  (1811)  ;  "Reports 
of  Cases  adjudged  in  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Pennsylvania"  (with  William  Rawle, 
Jr.,  17  vols.,  1814-1829)  ;  "Sketch  of  the 
National  Judiciary  Powers  exercised  in 
the  United  States  Prior  to  the  Adoption 
of  the  Present  Federal  Constitution" 
(1838)  ;  etc.  He  died  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  May  8,  1860. 

SERGEANT,  or  SERJEANT,  a  sher- 
iff's officer,  a  bailiff;  a  title  given  to  cer- 
tain officers  of  the  British  sovereign's 
household,  serjeant;  a  police  officer  of 
superior  rank  to  a  private.  Sergeant-at- 
arms,  an  officer  appointed  by  a  legisla- 
tive body,  whose  duties  are  to  enforce  the 
orders  given  by  such  bodies,  generally 
under  the  warrant  of  its  presiding  officer. 
In  military  language,  the  second  perma- 
nent grade  in  the  non-commissioned  ranks 
of  the  army.  In  the  United  States  ser- 
vice there  are  regimental  as  well  as  com- 
pany sergeants.  Their  duties  are  mainly 
indicated  by  the  title,  which  is  a  com- 
pound of  sergeant  with  the  superior  of- 
ficer or  the  department  they  are  intended 
to  serve;  as,  sergeant-major,  quarter- 
master-sergeant, color-sergeant,  commis- 
sary-sergeant,   ordnance-sergeant. 

SERGINSK,  Upper  and  Lower,  indus- 
trial settlements  in  the  government  of 
Perm,  east  Russia.     Both  were  founded 


by  Demidoff  in  the  middle  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  and  are  situated  43  miles 
S.  W.  of  Ekaterinburg.  There  are  large 
iron  ore  mines  in  the  vicinity  and  these 
with  the  iron  works,  give  occupation  to 
most  of  the  inhabitants.  Annual  produc- 
tion of  iron  and  steel  quoted  at  20,000 
tons.  Pop.  (Upper  Serginsk)  about 
17,000;  (Lower  Serginsk)  about  14,0uu. 

SERGITJS,  the  name  of  several  popes. 

Sergius  I.;  born  in  Syria,  about  630, 
succeeded  Conova  in  687.  He  opposed  the 
canons  of  the  Council  of  Constantinople, 
whereupon  Justinian  II.  sent  his  general- 
in-chief  to  arrest  Sergius;  but  the  exarch 
of  Ravenna  protected  the  Pope,  who  hu- 
manely interposed  to  save  the  life  of  Jus- 
tinian's _  envoy.  He  instituted  several 
ceremonies  and  established  various 
churches  at  Rome.  He  died  in  Rome  in 
701. 

Sergius  II.,  was  a  native  of  Rome,  and 
succeeded  Gregory  IV.  in  844.  He  was 
elected  without  the  authorization  of  the 
Emperor  Lothaire,  who  dispatched  an 
army  into  Italy,  under  the  command  of 
his  son  Louis.  But  the  Pope  succeeded 
in  inducing  that  prince  to  retire,  after 
having  crowned  him  King  of  Italy. 
Shortly  afterward,  the  Saracens  from 
Africa  ascended  the  Tiber,  and  ravaged 
the  environs  of  Rome,  but  were  unable 
to  enter  the  city.     He  died  in  847. 

Sergius  III.,  became  Pope  in  904, 
through  the  influence  of  the  Marquis  of 
Tuscany  and  of  the  notorious  Roman 
lady,  Marozia.  These  personages  were  at 
the  head  of  a  powerful  party  which  had 
deposed  Christopher.  A  son  of  Sergius, 
by  Marozia,  afterward  became  Pope  by 
the  title  of  John  X.  The  character  of 
this  pontiff  has  been  variously  repre- 
sented.    He  died  in  911. 

Sergius  IV.  was  elected  Pope  in  suc- 
cession to  John  XVIII. ,  in  1009.  Under 
his  rule,  and  in  consequence  of  his  ex- 
hortation, the  Italian  princes  combined 
to  drive  out  the  Saracens  from  the  coun- 
try. In  his  time,  also,  the  Normans  began 
to  enter  Italy.     He  died  in  1012. 

SERIEMA  (Dicholophus  cristatiis) ,  a 
grallatorial  bird  of  the  size  of  a  heron 
inhabiting  the  open  grassy  plains  of  Bra- 
zil and  other  parts  of  South  America. 
Its  feathers  are  of  a  gray  color,  and  a 
kind  of  crest  rises  from  the  root  of  the 
beak,  consisting  of  two  rows  of  fine 
feathers  curving  backward.  The  eye  is 
sulphur-yellow,  the  beak  and  feet  red. 
The  seriema  is  protected  in  Brazil  on 
account  of  its  serpent-killing  habits  and 
is  often  domesticated. 

SERIES,  a  continued  or  connected 
succession  of  things  in  the  same  order, 
and   bearing   the   same   relation   to   each 


SERINGAPATAM 


346 


SERPENT 


other;  a  sequence.  In  mathematics,  a 
number  of  arithmetical  or  algebraic  terms 
in  succession,  increasing  or  diminishing 
according  to  a  certain  law.  Series  derive 
their  names  from  the  laws  which  govern 
the  formation  of  their  respective  terms. 
Thus,  an  arithmetical  series  is  one  whose 
consecutive  terms  have  a  common  differ- 
ence; a  harmonic  series  one  of  which 
every  three  successive  terms  are  in  a 
harmonic  proportion.  A  geometric  series 
is  one  every  term  of  which  has  a  constant 
ratio  to  the  preceding  one;  it  belongs  to 
the  family  of  recurring  series,  in  which 
each  term  is  a  constant  function  of  one 
or  more  preceding  terms. 

In  botany,  a  row  or  layer;  in  botanical 
classification,  a  grade  intermediate  be- 
tween a  class  and  an  order.  In  chemistry, 
a  group  of  compounds,  each  containing 
the  same  radical.  Thus  the  hydrocarbon, 
CH4,  methane,  may  take  up  any  number 
of  the  molecules  of  the  radical  CHo, 
thereby  giving  rise  to  the  series  C^Ho, 
ethane,  C3H8,  propane,  C4H10,  quartane, 
etc.  In  geology  a  term  for  subdivisions 
of  sedimentary  strata. 

SERINGAPATAM  (properly,  Sri- 
ranga-pa-tana,  "city  of  Vishnu"),  a 
celebrated  town  and  fortress  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Mysore,  Madras  presidency,  India. 
It  is  on  an  island  formed  by  two  branches 
of  the  Kaveri,  245  miles  S.  W.  of  Madras, 
and  is  generally  ill-built,  with  narrow, 
dirty  streets.  It  was  once  the  capital  of 
Mysore.  The  palace,  formerly  extensive, 
is  now  in  ruins.  Other  notable  public 
buildings  are  the  great  mosque,  and  the 
pagoda  of  Sri  Ranga,  the  arsenal  and 
the  cannon  foundry.  The  massive  forti- 
fications were  the  work  of  Tippoo,  the 
son  of  Hyder  Ali,  assisted  by  French 
engineers,  and  the  fortress  was  three 
times  besieged  by  the  British,  first  in 
1791,  and  afterward  in  1792  and  1799. 
On  the  last  occasion  it  was  carried  by 
assault,  Tippoo  himself  being  slain  while 
fighting  desperately,  together  with  8,000 
men.     Pop.  about  12,500. 

SEROUS  FLUIDS,  a  name  given  to 
the  lymph-like  pellucid  fluids  secreted  by 
certain  membranes  and  contained  in  cer- 
tain cavities  of  the  body.  An  excess  of 
this  secretion  constitutes  a  diseased  and 
often  a  dropsical  condition. 

SEROUS  MEMBRANE,  in  anatomy, 
a  membrane  having  its  surface  moistened 
by  serum.  They  line  the  cavities  of  the 
body  from  which  there  is  no  outlet.  The 
chief  are  the  peritoneum,  the  two  pleurae, 
the  pericardium,  and  the  arachnoid  mem- 
brane. Serous  membranes  differ  from 
mucous  membranes  in  having  thinner 
layers,  finer  fiber,  and  an  epithelium  with 
only  a  single  layer  of  polygonal  cells. 


SERPENT,  in  zoology,  the  ophidia,  an 
order  of  reptiles  popularly  distinguished 
from  the  rest  of  the  class  by  having  a 
very  elongated  body  and  no  external 
limbs.  They  are  very  widely  distributed, 
abounding  in  the  tropics,  where  they  at- 
tain their  greatest  size,  absent  only  from 
the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions,  and 
they  are  mentioned  in  the  earliest  records 
of  the  human  race.  The  length  of  the 
body  is  a  marked  feature.  The  number 
of  vertebra?  varies  greatly,  more  than  400 
occurring  in  some  of  the  great  pythons. 
No  sacrum  exists,  and  there  is  no  dis- 
tinction between  or  divisions  of  the  spine 
into  cervical,  dorsal,  and  lumbar  verte- 
bra?. A  notable  feature  is  the  large  num- 
ber of  ribs;  almost  all  the  vertebrae,  with 
the  exception  of  the  atlas  or  first,  bear- 
ing these.  The  ribs  articulate  with  the 
transverse  processes  of  the  vertebra?,  and 
are  not  attached  inferiorly  to  any  breast- 
bone, but  are  imbedded  in  cartilages  which 
are  in  turn  connected  with  the  great 
scales  or  scuta  that  cover  the  ventral 
surface  of  the  body.  The  premaxillae  are 
represented  usually  by  a  single  small 
bone,  which  rarely  has  teeth,  and  is  joined 
to  the  maxilla?  by  fibrous  tissue  only.  The 
floor  of  the  skull  is  flat,  while  in  front 
it  diminishes  greatly  in  height.  The  hyoid 
is  very  rudimentary,  and  is  represented 
by  two  cartilaginous  filaments,  uncon- 
nected in  any  way  with  the  skull.  In  the 
pythons  a  pair  of  rudimentary  hind  limbs 
exists,  and  traces  of  a  pelvis  are  also 
found. 

Locomotion  is  effected  by  the  muscular 
contractions  of  the  body,  the  animals 
moving  literally  on  the  ends  of  their  ribs. 
Teeth  are  borne  by  the  premaxillary 
bones,  by  the  maxillaries,  palatine,  and 
pterygoid  bones,  and  by  the  dentary  part 
of  the  mandible.  One  of  the  most  singu- 
lar developments  of  teeth  in  serpents  and 
indeed  in  the  entire  animal  kingdom,  oc- 
curs in  a  little  African  snake — Rachiodon. 
In  this  snake,  the  ordinary  teeth  are  very 
small,  but  the  lower  or  inferior  spines 
of  some  eight  or  nine  vertebra?  of  the 
neck  are  long,  and  their  enameled  tips 
project  into  the  interior  of  the  gullet,  se 
that  when  the  snake  swallows  an  egg,  the 
brittle  morsel  passes  entire  into  the  gul- 
let, and  is  broken  only  when  fairly  on  its 
way  into  the  stomach.  The  teeth  of  ser- 
pents are  not  implanted  in  sockets,  but 
become  ossified  to  the  surfaces  of  the 
bones  which  bear  them.  They  are  re- 
placed when  worn  away  or  injured  by 
new  teeth  developed  at  the  bases  of  the 
former  ones.  In  the  typically  poisonous 
serpent  (e.g.,  the  rattlesnake)  the  upper 
jaw  bears  two  largely  developed  teeth 
termed  fangs.  Each  fang  has  a  very 
deep  groove  running  down  its  anterior 
aspect,  and  the  margins   of  this  groove 


SERPENTINE 


347 


SERRANTTS 


are  opposed  so  as  to  convert  it  into  a 
canal — hence  the  fangs  are  said  to  be 
canaliculated.  This  canal  opens  by  a  wide 
aperture  above  into  the  poison  gland,  so 
that  by  the  compression,  muscular  and 
friable,  of  the  gland,  the  poison  flows 
down  the  canal  and  is  ejected,  through  the 
lower  minute  aperture,  into  the  wound 
made  by  the  fang. 

The  poison  of  different  serpents  varies 
in  intensity  and  virulence,  but  appears 
to  take  effect  on  the  blood.  The  most 
effective  treatment  for  snake-bite  is  to 
tie  a  ligature  tightly  round  the  limb, 
above  the  wound,  and  to  excise  the  part 
freely,  and  then  to  suck  the  blood  re- 
peatedly, and  cauterize  the  parts  deeply 
before  removing  the  ligature.  In  suck- 
ing a  poisoned  wound,  the  danger  con- 
sists in  there  being  a  crack  or  wound  in 
the  mouth  by  which  the  poison  may  be 
absorbed. 

The  digestive  system  of  serpents  pre- 
sents nothing  worthy  of  special  remark, 
save  that  the  intestine  ends  in  a  cloaca 
opening  transversely.  There  is  no  urinary 
bladder,  and  the  heart  (as  in  all  reptiles 
save  the  Crocodilia)   is  three-chambered. 

Serpents  are  divided  into  three  groups: 
innocuous,  venomous  colubrine,  and  viper- 
ine,  the  last  two  groups  possessing  poi- 
son fangs,  the  boas,  which  kill  their  prey 
by  constriction,  belonging  to  the  first. 
Broadly  speaking,  the  innocuous  sei'pents 
are  oviparous,  the  venomous  are  ovovivi- 
parous.  Most  of  the  former  deposit  the 
eggs  in  a  long  string  in  some  heap  of 
decaying  vegetable  matter,  and  leave 
them;  while  some  of  the  larger  serpents 
coil  round  their  eggs,  and  hatch  them 
by  the  heat  o2  their  bodies.  Some  of  the 
innocuous  kinds  are  capable  of  being 
tamed;  the  rat  snake  (Ptyas  mucosus) 
is  often  kept  in  houses  in  India  for  the 
purpose  of  destroying  rats  and  mice. 

SERPENTINE,  rra  abundant  mineral 
occurring  in  one  or  other  of  its  numerous 
varieties  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Crys- 
tallization, probably  orthorhombic,  but 
when  found  in  distinct  crystals  always 
pseudo-morphous.  Occurs  usually  mas- 
sive, but  sometimes  fibrous,  foliated,  fine 
granular  to  cryptocrystalline.  Color 
shows  many  shades  of  green,  yellow; 
streak,  white,  shining;  translucent  to 
opaque;  feel,  greasy;  fracture,  either  con- 
choidal  or  splintery.  Composition:  Silica, 
44.14;  magnesia,  42.97;  water,  12.89= 
100,  corresponding  with  the  usually-ac- 
cepted   formula,     2MgOSi02-f  MgO,2HO. 

In  petrology,  a  rock,  consisting  essen- 
tially of  a  hydrated  silicate  of  magnesia, 
resulting  from  the  alteration  of  magne- 
sian  rocks,  of  all  geological  ages,  espe- 
cially those  of  olivine.  It  contains  also 
some  protoxide  of  iron,  and  other  impuri- 


ties which  cause  a  great  variation  in 
color,  which  is  often  of  a  dull  green,  but 
is  also  marbled  and  mottled  with  red  and 
purple.  _  It  takes  a  high  polish,  and  is 
turned  into  ornamental  articles.  The  ac- 
cessory minerals  are  numerous,  the  most 
frequent  being  pyrope,  bronzite,  magne- 
tite, and  chromite.  In  geology,  serpen- 
tine is  considered  an  altered  intrusive 
rock,  originally  a  trap  or  dolerite  with 
olivine. 

SERPUKOFF,  an  ancient  Russian 
town,  57  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Moscow,  on 
the  Nara,  3  miles  from  its  confluence  with 
the  Oka.  It  contains  a  cathedral  (1380), 
and  was  before  the  World  War,  a  place 
of  considerable  commercial  and  industrial 
importance,  manufacturing  chiefly  cot- 
tons, woolens,  leather,  paper,  furniture, 
and  earthenware.  Pop.  about  31,000.  It 
was  formerly  a  fortress  protecting  Mos- 
cow on  the  S. 

SERPULA,  a  genus  and  family  of 
Annelidse,  whose  organs  of  respiration  are 
in  tufts  attached  to  the  head  and  anterior 
part  of  the  body.  In  most  cases,  they 
live  in  tubes,  and  hence  are  often  called 
tubicolse.  In  some  the  tubes  are  calca- 
reous, in  others  horny,  the  result  of  tran- 
sudation; others,  still,  are  formed  of 
grains  of  sand,  or  other  particles,  bound 
together  by  a  membrane,  also  transuded. 
The  genus  serpula  has  the  anterior  por- 
tion spread  out  in  the  form  of  a  disk 
armed  on  each  side  with  bundles  of  coarse 
hairs,  and  on  each  side  of  the  mouth  is 
a  tuft  of  branchiae,  shaped  like  a  fan,  and 
generally  tinged  with  bright  colors.  At 
the  base  of  each  tuft  is  a  fleshy  filament, 
one  of  which  is  ever  elongated,  and  ex- 
panded at  its  extremity  into  a  disk,  which 
serves  as  an  operculum,  and  seals  up  the 
opening  to  the  tube,  when  the  animal  is 
withdrawn  into  it.  The  calcareous  tubes 
of  the  Serpulse  cover  submarine  bodies. 

SERRA  DA  ESTRELLA,  a  lofty  range 
of  granite  mountains  near  the  middle  of 
Portugal,  highest  summit  6,460  feet.  The 
range  contains  some  remarkable  lakes, 
part  of  which  are  tepid. 

SERRANTJS,  sea  perches;  a  genus  of 
Percoidse;  found  on  the  shores  of  all  tem- 
perate seas,  and  abound  in  the  tropics, 
some  of  the  latter  species  entering  brack- 
ish and  even  fresh  water,  but  all  spawn 
in  the  sea.  Body  oblong,  compressed, 
with  small  scales;  teeth  villiform,  with 
distinct  canines  in  each  jaw,  teeth  on 
vomer  and  palatine  bones;  one  dorsal, 
mostly  with  9  or  11  spines,  anal  with  3. 
Two  species,  S.  cabrilla,  the  smooth  ser- 
ranus,  and  S.  gigas,  the  dusky  perch,  are 
met  with  in  the  British  Channel,  and  are 
common  in  the  Mediterranean. 


SERTORIUS    QUINTUS 


348 


SERVAL 


SERTORIUS  QUINTUS,  a  Roman 
general;  a  native  of  Nursia,  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  Sabines.  He  served  under 
Marius  in  the  Cimbric  War,  afterward 
in  Spain,  and  was  made  quaestor  91  B.  C. 
He  joined  the  party  of  Marius  in  the  Civil 
War,  and  commanded  the  Cinna  at  the 
siege  of  Rome  87  B.  c.  The  license  and 
cruelty  of  the  slaves  led  him  to  slay  sev- 
eral thousand.  Appointed  praetor  in  83, 
he  went  soon  after  to  Spain,  but  was 
forced  to  retire  before  the  forces  of  Sulla, 
and  went  to  Africa ;  but  on  the  invitation 
of  the  Lusitanians,  returned  and  put 
himself  at  their  head  to  fight  for  inde- 
pendence. He  made  himself  master  of 
the  greater  part  of  Spain,  established  a 
senate,  founded  a  school  at  Osca  for  the 
education  of  young  Spaniards  in  Greek 
and  Roman  learning,  and  to  increase  the 
superstitious  reverence  of  the  people  for 
his  person,  gave  out  that  he  had  com- 
munications with  the  gods  through  the 
white  fawn  which  always  accompanied 
him.  Metellus  Pius  was  sent  against  him 
in  79,  but  could  effect  nothing;  two  years 
later  Pompey  joined  Metellus,  but  Ser- 
torius,  reinforced  by  Perperna,  held  out 
against  both  till  72.  He  entered  into 
negotiations  with  Mithridates,  which 
caused  fresh  alarm  at  Rome.  But  his 
influence  and  popularity  were  shaken  by 
his  despotic  acts,  and  especially  by  the 
massacre  of  all  the  scholars  at  Osca;  and 
he  was  assassinated  by  Perperna,  his  ally, 
at  a  banquet  72  B.  c. 

SERUM,  in  anatomy,  a  pale  yellowish 
liquid  obtained  by  drawing  blood  from 
the  vessels  and  allowing  it  to  separate 
into  a  thicker  and  a  thinner  portion.  The 
thinner  one  is  the  serum.  It  consists  of 
proteid  substances,  fats,  extractives,  and 
saline  matter.  The  solid  contents  of  the 
serum  is  9.22  in  males,  and  8.29  in  fe- 
males; the  rest  is  water.  There  is  also 
a  serum  of  chyle  and  one  of  lymph.  In 
chemistry,  the  opalescent  liquid,  contain- 
ing milk-sugar  and  various  salts,  which 
separates  when  milk  is  curdled  by  the 
action  of  acids,  rennet,  etc. 

SERUM  THERAPY,  the  practice  of 
treating  diseases  by  injecting  into  the 
blood,  fluid  obtained  from  animals  pre- 
viously rendered  immune  against  these 
diseases.  This  system  of  treatment  is 
based  upon  the  theory  that  bacteria  pro- 
duce disease  by  the  formation  in  the 
blood,  of  poisonous  bodies  known  as  tox- 
ins. The  blood  of  a  healthy  animal  has 
the  power  of  combating  the  effect  of  these 
toxins  by  the  production  of  other  bodies 
known  as  antitoxins.  These  antitoxins 
not  only  check  the  course  of  the  disease, 
but  to  a  large  extent  render  the  person 
who  has  suffered  from  any  particular 
disease  immune   against  subsequent   at- 


tacks. The  object  of  serum  therapy  is  to 
produce  an  artificial  resistance  to  disease 
by  introducing  into  the  blood  antitoxins 
from  an  outside  source. 

The  most  successful  application  of  the 
theory  has  been  in  the  treatment  of  diph- 
theria, and  a  description  of  the  method 
of  preparing  the  serum  used  in  this  dis- 
ease may  be  taken  as  an  example.  A  cul- 
ture of  the  bacillus  which  causes  diph- 
theria is  made  in  broth,  and  the  toxin  is 
thereby  produced.  The  bacilli  are  then 
killed  by  a  weak  antiseptic  solution  and 
removed  by  filtration.  The  filtrate  con- 
tains the  toxins  in  solution,  and  small 
doses  are  injected  into  the  blood  of  a 
healthy  horse.  More  and  more  doses  are 
injected  at  intervals,  in  ever-increasing 
quantities.  The  blood  of  the  horse  com- 
bats the  poison  by  producing  antitoxins, 
and  the  serum  is  tested,  from  time  to  time, 
by  injecting  into  guinea-pigs,  previously 
inoculated  with  diphtheria  bacilli.  When 
the  serum  has  reached  the  required 
strength,  the  horse  is  bled,  the  serum  is 
separated  from  the  blood,  treated  with 
a  preservative  and  measured  into  stand- 
ard doses.  By  introducing  this  serum 
into  the  blood  of  persons  suffering  from 
diphtheria  the  resistance  to  the  disease  is 
greatly  increased. 

Several  attempts  to  cure  other  diseases 
by  the  use  of  serums  have  met  with 
failure.  For  instance,  serums  for  the 
treatment  of  pneumonia,  scarlet  fever, 
rheumatism,  dysentery,  cholera,  and  an- 
thrax have  met  with  little  or  no  success. 
On  the  other  hand,  tetanus,  meningitis, 
plague  and  snake  poisons  have  all  been 
successfully  treated  by  this  method.  An 
antitoxin  for  the  cure  of  hay  fever  has 
been  used  with  partial  success.  It  is  pre- 
pared from  animals  which  have  become 
immune  against  the  effect  of  pollen  from 
plants  or  grasses.  It  is  found,  however, 
that  there  are  so  many  varieties  of  pollen 
that  no  animal  can  be  immune  against 
all  of  them.  In  consequence,  the  serums 
are  frequently  found  useless  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  sufferer  from  the  disease 
may  come  into  contact  with  pollen  dif- 
ferent from  that  encountered  by  the  ani- 
mal from  which  the  serum  was  prepared. 

Another  use  of  serum  is  in  the  control 
of  persistent  bleeding,  the  normal  serum 
of  the  horse  being  found  valuable  for  this 
purpose.  Convalescent  serums,  prepared 
from  the  blood  of  convalescents  from  va- 
rious fevers,  are  also  used. 

SERVAL,  the  Felis  serval.  the  bush 
cat,  or  African  tiger-cat,  distributed  over 
Africa,  abounding  in  the  S.  Its  body  is 
proportionately  longer,  and  its  tail  shorter 
than  those  of  the  true  cats,  in  this  re- 
spect approaching  the  lynxes,  from  which 
it  is  differentiated  by  the  absence  of  ear 


SERVETUS 


349 


SERVICE    MEDALS 


tufts.  Body  about  40  inches,  tail  16 
inches,  fur  tawny,  spotted  with  black. 
It  is  found  in  the  extensive  grassy  plains, 
where  it  preys  on  antelopes  and  other 
small  game. 

SERVETUS,  MICHAEL  (properly 
Miguel  Servede),  a  learned  Spaniard, 
memorable  as  a  victim  of  religious  intol- 
erance; born  in  Villa  Nueva,  Arragon, 
Spain,  in  1511 ;  was  the  son  of  a  notary, 
who  sent  him  to  Toulouse  to  study  civil 
law.  Here  he  began  to  give  his  attention 
to  theology,  and  having  formed  views  of 
the  Trinity  antagonistic  to  the  orthodox 
doctrine  he  removed  to  Germany,  where 


-/fK 


MICHAEL    SERVETUS 

he  printed  a  tract  entitled  "On  the  Errors 
of  the  Trinity"  (1531),  followed  a  year 
later  by  his  "Dialogues  on  the  Trinity." 
Finding  that  his  opinions  were  obnoxious 
to  Germany,  he  escaped  to  France  under 
the  name  of  Michael  of  Villa  Nueva.  He 
graduated  as  a  doctor  of  medicine  in 
Paris  and  here  met  Calvin.  An  arrange- 
ment was  made  for  a  theological  discus- 
sion between  them;  but  Servetus  failed 
to  appear.  In  1538  he  quarrelled  with 
the  medical  faculty  at  Paris,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  Charlieu,  near  Lyons,  where 
he  practiced  three  years,  subsequently 
moving  to  Vienne.  Here,  in  1553,  he  pub- 
lished "Restoration  of  Christianity."  He 
was  arrested  for  heresy  and  imprisoned, 
but  contrived  to  escape.  He  was,  how- 
ever, apprehended  at  Geneva  on  a  charge 
of  blasphemy  and  heresy.  The  divines  of 
all  the  Protestant  Swiss  cantons  unani- 
mously declared  for  his  punishment,  and 

\v- 


Calvin  was  especially  urgent  and  emphatic 
as  to  the  necessity  of  putting  him  to 
death.  As  he  refused  to  retract  his  opin- 
ions he  was  burnt  at  the  stake  in  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  Oct.  27,  1553.  Servetus  is 
numbered  among  the  anatomists  who 
made  the  nearest  approach  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

SERVICE,  ROBERT  WILLIAM,  a 
Canadian  author,  born  at  Preston,  Eng- 
land, in  1874.  He  was  educated  at  Hill- 
head  Public  School,  Glasgow,  and  served 
apprenticeship  with  the  Commercial  Bank 
of  Scotland,  Glasgow.  Later  he  emigrated 
to  Canada  and  settled  on  Vancouver 
Island  He  engaged  in  farming  and 
traveled  up  and  down  the  Pacific  coast 
experiencing  many  vicissitudes  and  fol- 
lowing many  occupations.  In  1905  he 
joined  the  Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce 
in  Victoria,  B.  C,  and  then  went  to  Yu- 
kon Territory  and  Dawson,  traveling  in 
sub-arctic  regions.  Later  he  started  re- 
lating his  experiences.  His  works  in- 
clude: "Songs  of  a  Sourdough";  "Ballads 
of  a  Cheechako";  "Trail  of  '98";  "Rhymes 
of  a  Rolling  Stone";  "The  Pretender"; 
"Rhymes  of  a  Red  Cross  Man." 

SERVICE  MEDALS  and  DECORA- 
TIONS. The  most  important  decora- 
tions and  service  medals  issued  to  those 
who  served  in  the  army  of  the  United 
States,  are  the  following :  Civil  War  Cam- 
paign Medal,  Indian  Campaign  Medal, 
Spanish  Campaign  Medal,  Philippines 
Campaign  Medal,  China  Campaign  Medal, 
Cuban  Occupation  Medal,  Cuban  Pacifica- 
tion Medal,  Mexican  Service  Medal,  Phi- 
lippines Congressional  Medal,  Spanish 
War   Service   Medal. 

For  service  in  the  World  War  there 
was  designed  the  Victory  Medal,  which 
was  issued  free  to  officers,  surgeons,  field 
clerks,  army  nurses,  and  enlisted  men  who 
served  on  active  duty  in  the  army  of  the 
United  States  at  any  time  between  April 
6,  1917,  and  November  11,  1918,  and 
whose  service  was  honorable;  also  to  all 
persons  who  entered  the  service  subse- 
quent to  Nov.  11,  1918,  and  served  as  a 
member  of  the  American  Expeditionary 
Force  in  Siberia  or  European  Russia,  and 
whose  service  was  honorable.  A  Victory 
Button  was  also  issued  to  those  who 
served  in  the  World  War.  This  is  for 
wear  on  civilian  clothing  only.  It  is  of 
silver  for  those  who  were  wounded  in 
action,  and  of  bronze  for  all  others. 

The  Congressional  Medal  of  Honor,  the 
Distinguished  Service  Cross,  and  the  Dis- 
tinguished Service  Medal  are  awarded  for 
special  service.  The  Medal  of  Honor  is 
awarded  to  those  who,  while  officers  or 
enlisted  men  of  the  army,  conspicuously 
distinguished  themselves  in  action  involv- 
ing actual  conflict  with  an  enemy,  by 
•Cyc  Vol  8 


SERVICE    TBEE 


350 


SERVIUS    TULLIUS 


gallantry  and  intrepidity  at  the  risk  of 
life,  above  and  beyond  the  call  of  duty. 
The  Distinguished  Service  Cross  is 
awarded  to  persons  who  have  distin- 
guished themselves  by  extraordinary  hero- 
ism in  connection  with  military  operations 
against  an  armed  enemy.  The  Distin- 
guished Service  Medal  is  awarded  to  those 
who  distinguished  themselves  by  excep- 
tionally meritorious  service  with  the 
Government  in  a  duty  of  great  responsi- 
bility. 

Not  more  than  one  Medal  of  Honor, 
Distinguished  Service  Cross,  or  Distin- 
guished Service  Medal  may  be  issued  to 
any  one  person,  but  for  each  succeeding 
act  sufficient  to  justify  the  award  of  any 
of  these,  a  bar  or  other  device  is  worn, 
and  for  each  citation  of  an  officer  or  en- 
listed man  for  gallantry  in  action,  he  is 
entitled  to  wear  a  silver  star  with  the 
medal,  service  cross,  or  service  medal. 

The  total  number  of  Congressional 
Medals  of  Honor  awarded  during  the 
World  War  was  78.  Awards  were  made 
of  1,292  Distinguished  Service  Medals, 
and  of  Distinguished  Service  Crosses, 
5,709.  Of  the  latter,  5,200  were  awarded 
by  the  Commanding  General  of  the  Ex- 
peditionary Forces,  487  by  the  War  De- 
partment, and  22  by  the  Commanding 
General  of  the  American  Forces  in  Si- 
beria. These  totals  include  the  awards 
up  to  December  20,  1920. 

The  medals  awarded  for  distinguished 
service  in  the  navy  include  three,  the 
Medal  of  Honor,  the  Distinguished  Ser- 
vice Medal,  and  the  Navy  Cross.  The 
medal  known  as  the  Victory  Medal,  to- 
gether with  an  appropriate  clasp,  is  issued 
to  any  person  who  performed  honorable 
duty  in  the  navy  or  naval  reserves,  be- 
tween April  6,  1917,  and  Nov.  11,  1918. 
This  is  equivalent  to  the  Victory  Medal 
noted  above.  The  Medal  of  Honor  is 
awarded  to  those  who  distinguished  them- 
selves by  gallantry  and  intrepidity  at  the 
risk  of  life,  above  and  beyond  the  call  of 
duty.  The  Distinguished  Service  Medal 
is  bestowed  for  exceptionally  meritorious 
service  to  the  Government,  in  a  duty  of 
great  responsibility.  The  Navy  Cross  is 
awarded  for  extraordinary  heroism  or 
distinguished  service  in  the  line  of  pro- 
fessional duty,  when  such  service  is  not 
sufficient  to  justify  the  award  of  the 
Medal  of  Honor  or  the  Distinguished  Ser- 
vice Medal. 

SERVICE  TREE,  the  Pyras  sorbus  or 
domestica,  a  native  of  Continental  Eu- 
rope and  western  Asia.  It  has  serrate 
leaves,  unequally  pinnate,  and  cream- 
colored  flowers.  It  is  from  20  to  60  feet 
high.  Two  varieties,  the  pear-shaped, 
P.  S.  pyriformis,  and  the  apple-shaped, 
P.  S.  maliformis,  are  cultivated  in  parts 


of  France  and  near  Genoa  for  their  fruit. 
Also  Pyrus  (sorbus)  torminalis,  the  wild 
service  tree.  It  is  a  small  tree  growing 
in  woods  and  hedges,  but  rare  and  local. 
Flowers  numerous,  white,  appearing  in 
April  and  May.  The  fruit  pyriform  or 
sub-globose,  greenish-brown,  dotted.  It 
is  eatable,  and  is  sold  in  parts  of  Europe. 

SERVISS,  GARRETT  PUTMAN,  an 
American  writer,  born  at  Sharon  Springs, 
N.  Y.,  in  1851.  He  graduated  from  Cor- 
nell University  in  1872  and  from  the 
Columbia  School  of  Law  in  1874.  Until 
1892  he  was  an  editorial  writer  on  the 
New  York  "Sun,"  and  from  that  time 
lectured  on  travel,  history  and  astronomy. 
His  books  include  "Astronomy  with  an 
Opera  Glass"  (1888)  ;  "Pleasures  of  the 
Telescope"  (1901);  "Other  Worlds" 
(1902) ;  "Astronomy  with  the  Naked  Eye" 
(1908) ;  "Round  the  Year  with  the  Stars" 
(1910) ;  "The  Moon  Maiden,"  a  story, 
(1915). 

SERVITES,  the  name  commonly  given 
to  a  monastic  order,  the  Religious  Ser- 
vants of  the  Holy  Virgin,  founded  in  1233 
by  seven  Florentine  merchants  at  Mount 
Senario,  near  Florence.  St.  Philip  Benoit, 
the  fifth  general,  saved  the  order  from 
suppression  in  1276,  and  in  1487  Pope 
Innocent  VIII.  bestowed  on  the  Servites 
the  privileges  of  the  four  great  mendicant 
orders.  The  life  is  one  of  austerity  and 
continual  prayer;  the  habit  is  black,  with 
a  leather  girdle,  a  scapular,  and  a  cloak, 
and  the  rule  is  a  modification  of  that  of 
St.  Augustine.  The  strength  of  the  order 
lay  chiefly  in  Italy  and  Germany.  Since 
the  French  Revolution  many  houses  havfc 
been  founded  in  different  countries.  There 
are  several  houses  of  the  order  in  the 
United  States. 

SERVITUDE,  a  state  or  condition  of  a 
serf,  slave,  or  bondman;  state  of  volun- 
tary or  involuntary  subjection  to  a  mas- 
ter or  employer;  service;  slavery;  bond- 
age; position  in  life  of  a  servant; — hence, 
a  state  or  condition  of  slavish  or  help- 
less dependence.  In  civil  law,  the  right 
to  the  use  of  a  thing,  without  property 
in  the  same,  for  all  or  for  some  particular 
purposes.  It  consists  either  in  the  right 
to  do  some  act,  as  to  gather  fruit  from 
the  estate,  or  to  prevent  the  owner  of 
the  property  from  doing  certain  acts,  as 
building  walls  beyond  a  certain  height, 
blocking  up  a  window,  etc. 

SERVITJS  TULLIUS,  the  6th  king  of 
Rome.  According  to  the  tradition  he  was 
the  son  of  a  slave  given  by  the  elder  Tar- 
quin  to  Tanaquil,  his  wife.  He  married 
Tarquin's  daughter,  and  on  the  death  of 
his  father-in-law  (578  B.  c.  according  to 
the  usual  chronology)  he  was  raised  to 
the  throne.     He  defeated  the  Veientines 


SESAME 


351 


SESTERCE 


and  the  Etruscans,  and  divided  the  popu- 
lation of  Rome  into  tribes,  instituting  at 
the  same  time  the  comitia  centuriata  and 
tributa;  he  also  beautified  the  city,  and 
built  several  temples.  According  to  the 
common  story  Servius  married  his  two 
daughters  to  the  grandsons  of  his  father- 
in-law;  the  elder  to  Tarquin,  and  the 
younger  to  Aruns.  The  wife  of  Aruns 
murdered  her  own  husband  to  unite  her- 
self to  Tarquin,  who  had  assassinated  his 
wife.  Servius  was  murdered  by  Tarquin, 
and  his  own  daughter  Tullia  ordered  her 
chariot  to  be  driven  over  the  mangled 
body  of  her  father    (534  B.  a). 

SESAME,  an  annual  herbaceous  plant 
of  the  genus  Sesamum,  natural  order 
Bignoniacese,  sub-order  Pedaliacese  a  sub- 
order characterized  by  wingless  seeds, 
and  placenta?  with  woody  lobes  attached 
to  the  inner  wall  of  the  fruit.  The  spe- 
cies most  noteworthy  of  notice  is  S.  indi- 
cum,  sometimes  identified  with  and  some- 
times distinguished  from  S.  orientate,  a 
native  of  India.  Sesame  is  cultivated 
throughout  the  East  from  Egypt  to  Japan 
for  the  sake  of  the  seeds,  which  yield 
by  expression  gingili  oil.  The  oil  is  used 
in  cookery — as  a  substitute  for  butter 
in  the  same  way  as  olive  oil — for  lighting, 
and  for  the  purposes  of  lubrication.  It 
is  inodorous,  has  a  sweet  taste,  and  keeps 
for  years  without  becoming  rancid.  In 
Egypt  and  Arabia  it  is  preferred  to  olive 
oil.  It  is  used  in  connection  with  medi- 
cine. Egyptian  women  consider  it  the 
best  of  cosmetics.  The  oil  cake,  mixed 
with  honey  and  preserved  citron,  is  an 
Oriental  luxury.  The  leaves  of  sesame 
abound  in  a  gummy  substance,  which  they 
readily  impart  to  water,  making  a  rich 
bland  mucilage,  which  is  used  in  the  S. 
parts  of  the  United  States  (where  it  is 
grown  a  little)  as  a  demulcent  drink.  Se- 
same is  sometimes  called  til  seed. 

SESAMOID  BONES,  the  name  given 
to  certain  rounded  bodies,  at  first  car- 
tilaginous and  then  bony,  found  in  the 
tendons  of  muscles.  The  patella  or  knee 
cap  is  a  sesamoid  bone.  Another  is  de- 
veloped in  the  upper  joint  of  the  thumb, 
and  at  the  corresponding  joint  of  the 
great  toe.  These  bones  are  said  to  occur 
most  frequently  in  males,  and  in  persons 
of  robust  and  muscular  build. 

SESHA,  in  Hindu  mythology,  the  king 
of  the  serpent  race,  on  which  Vishnu  re- 
clines on  the  primeval  waters.  It  has 
1,000  heads,  on  one  of  which  the  world 
rests.  The  coiled-up  Sesha  is  the  emblem 
of  eternity. 

SESOSTRIS,  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  early  kings  of  Egypt.  According  to 
the  legend,  which  evidently  confounds  the 
military  exploits  of  several  monarchs,  he, 


on  succeeding  to  the  throne,  became  am- 
bitious of  military  fame,  and  marched 
at  the  head  of  a  numerous  army  to  make 
the  conquest  of  the  world.  Libya,  Ethio- 
pia, Arabia,  with  all  the  islands  of  the 
Red  Sea,  were  conquered;  and  the  vic- 
torious monarch  marched  through  Asia, 
and  penetrated  farther  into  the  East  than 
the  conqueror  of  Darius.  He  also  in- 
vaded Europe,  defeated  the  Thracians,  and 
placed  columns  in  the  several  provinces 
he  had  subdued,  bearing  the  pompous  in- 
scription, "Sesostris,  the  king  of  kings, 
has  conquered  this  territory  by  his  arms." 
After  his  return,  he  employed  himself  in 
encouraging  the  fine  arts,  and  in  improv- 
ing the  revenues  of  his  kingdom.  In  his 
old  age,  Sesostris,  having  grown  infirm 
and  blind,  destroyed  himself.  The  time 
of  Sesostris  is  placed  from  1400  to  1250 
B.  c.  Sesostris,  so  called  by  the  Greeks, 
is  identical  with  Rameses  II.,  one  of  the 
most  famous  of  the  Pharaohs. 

SESSA  (the  ancient  Suessa  Aurunca), 
a  town  of  southern  Italy  in  the  province 
of  Caserta;  on  the  crater  of  an  extinct 
volcano,  and  on  the  road  from  Gaeta  to 
Capua;  16  miles  N.  W.  of  the  latter.  It 
contains  the  ruins  of  an  amphitheater, 
and  ancient  medals  and  bronzes  have  been 
found. 

SESSION,  the  sitting  together  of  a 
body  of  individuals  for  the  transaction  of 
business;  the  sitting  of  a  court,  council, 
legislature,  academic  body,  or  the  like,  or 
the  actual  assembly  of  the  members  of 
such  or  like  bodies  for  the  transaction  of 
business.  Also  the  time,  space  or  term 
during  which  a  court,  council,  legislature, 
or  the  like  meets  for  business,  or  trans- 
acts business  regularly  without  breaking 
up  or  dissolving.  The  session  of  a  judicial 
court  is  called  a  term.  Sessions  is  used 
as  the  title  of  some  courts  of  criminal 
jurisdiction  in  the  United  States  and  Eng- 
land. 

SESTERCE,  a  Roman  coin,  the  fourth 
part  of  the  Denarius,  and  thus  containing 
at  first  two  asses  or  librse.  The  name  is 
an  abbreviation  of  the  Latin  semis-tertius, 
which  was  their  mode  of  expressing  two, 
and  their  custom  was  to  derive  the  names 
of  all  their  coins  from  the  foundation  of 
their  money  system,  the  As.  The  sym- 
bols for  it  were  indifferently  HS  or  IIS, 
the  former  being  only  a  modification  of 
the  latter,  which  expresses  two  units, 
and  S  for  the  additional  half -unit  (semis). 
In  the  Latin  classics,  the  phrase  sester~ 
tius-nummus,  or  merely  minimus,  is  fre- 
quently employed  to  denote  this  coin. 
When  the  Denarius  was  made  to  contain 
16  asses,  the  relation  between  it  and  the 
sestertius  was  preserved  and  the  latter 
from  that  time  contained  4  asses,  though 


SETHITES 


352 


SEVEN    PINES 


the  name,  which  was  now  no  longer  sig- 
nificant, was  preserved.  The  sum  of 
1,000  sestertii  was  called  sestertium, 
which,  after  Augustus,  was  equal  to 
about  $43,  and  was  the  "money  of  ac- 
count" (never  a  "coin")  used  in  the 
reckoning  of  large  sums  of  money. 

SETHITES,  a  Gnostic  sect  that  ex- 
isted in  Egypt  in  the  2d  century  and  bore 
some  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Ophites. 
They  worshiped  Seth,  the  son  of  Adam, 
as  the  son  of  God,  but  not  of  the  creator 
of  Adam  and  Eve,  and  maintained  that 
he  had  reappeared  in  the  person  of  Jesus 
Christ.  They  pretended  to  have  several 
books  written  by  him. 

SETHOS  I.,  or  SETI,  an  Egyptian 
monarch,  the  second  Pharaoh  of  the  XIX. 
dynasty;  which  lasted  from  1326  B.  c. 
to  1203  B.  c.  He  seems  to  have  been  one 
of  the  shepherd  race  in  the  E.  part  of 
Delta.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  builder 
and  a  warrior,  erecting  the  temples  of 
Osiris  at  Abydos,  the  "hall  of  columns" 
in  his  palace  at  Karnak,  and  establishing 
the  power  of  Egypt  over  western  Asia. 
He  reigned  about  30  years. 

SETON,  ERNEST  THOMPSON.  See 
Thompson-Seton. 

SETON,  ROBERT,  an  American  Ro- 
man Catholic  archbishop,  born  in  Pisa, 
Italy,  in  1839.  He  graduated  from  the 
Ecclesiastical  Academy  of  Rome,  in  1867, 
having  been  appointed  the  year  previous 
private  chamberlain  to  Pope  Pius  IX. 
From  1876  he  was  rector  of  St.  Joseph's 
Church,  Jersey  City.  In  1903  he  was  ap- 
pointed archbishop  of  Heliopolis.  He  was 
lecturer  at  the  Catholic  University  of 
Washington,  and  at  Seton  Hall  College. 
He  wrote  "Memoir,  Letters  and  Journal  of 
Elizabeth  Seton"  (1869) ;  "Roman  Es- 
says" (1882);  and  "An  Old  Family" 
(1899). 

SETON  HALL  COLLEGE,  a  Roman 
Catholic  institution  for  higher  education, 
at  South  Orange,  N.  J.  It  was  founded 
at  Madison,  N.  J.,  in  1856,  and  was  re- 
moved to  South  Orange  in  1860.  There 
were,  in  1919,  21  instructors  and  321 
students.     President,  J.  F.  Mooney. 

SETTER,  a  breed  of  dog  employed  in 
shooting,  where  he  fills  the  same  vocation 
as  the  pointer.  The  setter  is  divided  into 
three  varieties — the  English  setter,  the 
Gordon  setter,  which  is  native  to  Scotland, 
and  the  Irish  setter.  There  was  also  at 
one  time  a  variety  known  as  the  Welsh 
setter,  but  it  is  now  extinct.  As  early 
as  the  16th  century  the  then  Duke  of 
Northumberland  owned  a  dog  trained  by 
himself  to  set  game,  an  idea  soon  fol- 
lowed by  others.  For  many  years,  how- 
ever, the  spaniel  or   any  other   suitable 


dog  was  selected  to  train  to  the  habit 
of  setting  game;  and  it  is  not  till  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century  that  any 
reliable  record  of  a  distinct  breed  of  set- 
ting dogs  can  be  found.  The  English 
setter  is  bred  from  the  spaniel  probably 
by  crossing  with  the  pointer.  Though 
at  one  time  setters  were  known  of  nearly 
all  colors,  at  the  present  time  the  English 
setter  is  generally  white  with  red  mark- 
ings, or  ticked  with  black  spots  known 
as  a  "blue  Belton."  The  Gordon  setter 
was  founded  by  the  Duke  of  Gordon  about 
1800,  by  crossing  the  existing  setter  with 
a  collie  bitch  which  had  been  trained  to 
set.  The  Gordon  was  originally  a  black, 
tan,  and  white  dog,  though  white  has 
gradually  disappeared  from  the  breed. 
The  Gordon  setter  should  now  be  a  rich 
and  glossy  black  marked  with  tan  on 
face,  chest,  and  legs.  The  origin  of  the 
Irish  setter  is  unknown. 

SETTLEMENT,  in  ecclesiology,  a  sum 
of  money  or  other  property  granted  to 
a  clergyman  on  his  ordination,  exclusive 
of  his  salary ;  or,  a  homestead  of  a  pastor, 
as  furnished  sometimes  by  donation  of 
land  with  or  without  buildings,  sometimes 
by  the  pastor's  applying  funds  granted 
for  the  purpose.  In  law,  the  act  of  set- 
tling property  upon  a  person  or  persons: 
a  deed  by  which  property  is  settled;  the 
general  will  or  disposition  by  which  a 
person  regulates  the  disposal  of  his  prop- 
erty, usually  through  the  medium  of  trus- 
tees, and  for  the  benefit  of  a  wife,  chil- 
dren, or  other  relatives;  disposition  of 
property  at  marriage  in  favor  of  a  wife; 
jointure. 

SETTLEMENT,  ACT  OF,  in  English 
history,  an  act  passed  in  1702,  by  which 
the  succession  of  the  crown  was  settled 
on  the  death  of  Queen  Anne  on  Sophia, 
granddaughter  of  James  I.,  and  wife  of 
the  Elector  of  Hanover,  and  the  heirs 
of  her  body,  being  Protestants. 

SETUBAL,  or  ST.  UBES,  a  seaport 
of  Portugal;  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Bay 
of  Setubal;  17  miles  S.  E.  of  Lisbon.  The 
harbor  is  protected  by  five  forts.  The 
town  owes  its  importance  chiefly  to  its 
trade  in  wine,  sea-salt,  and  oranges, 
though  fishing  is  carried  on  with  con- 
siderable activity.  Setubal  is  the  old 
Roman  Cetobriga.  In  1755  it  suffered 
severely  from  the  earthquake  that  devas- 
tated Lisbon.  Pilgrimages  are  made  to 
the  monastery  of  Arrabida,  with  its  neigh- 
boring stalactite  cave.  The  poet  Bocage 
was  born  in  Setubal.     Pop.  about  30,000. 

SEVEN  PINES,  the  name  of  a  locality 
in  Virginia,  6  miles  from  Richmond, 
where,  May  31,  1862,  the  Confederates, 
commanded  by  Generals  Longstreet  and 
Stuart,  defeated  the  Federals  under  Gen- 


SEVENTEEN-YEAR    LOCUST 


353 


SEVEN    YEARS'    WAR 


eral  Casey.  The  battle  received  its  name 
from  seven  solitary  pine  trees  at  the 
spot  where  the  fiercest  fighting  took  place. 
This  battle  may  be  considered  as  the 
beginning  of  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks. 

SEVENTEEN-YEAR  LOCUST,  the 
Cicada  septendecim.  There  is  no  insect 
known  to  science  which  affords  such  an 
interesting  study  as  does  the  seventeen- 
year  locust.  He  begins  and  ends  life  in 
the  bright  sunshine,  but  spends  17  years 
in  the  dark,  cold  earth.  Safely  hidden 
from  sight  he  gnaws  away  at  the  roots 
of  trees,  does  his  best  to  kill  them,  and 
then,  emerging  into  the  light,  completes 
the  death  dealing  operation  by  making 
as  vicious  an  attack  on  the  branches  as 
was  made  on  the  roots.  He  is  of  a  coal- 
black  color,  marked  with  bright  orange 
yellow,  and  there  is  a  white  spot  on  the 
head  just  behind  the  eyes.  There  are  four 
glassy  wings,  and  the  eyes  are  red. 

When  the  insect  emerges  from  the 
ground  after  its  17  years'  burial  it  works 
its  body  rapidly  backward  and  forward 
like  a  man  trying  to  put  on  an  extremely 
tight  coat.  The  result  of  the  movement 
is  the  breaking  of  the  shell  and  the  imme- 
diate appearance  of  its  wings.  It  makes 
instantly  for  the  nearest  tree.  The  lo- 
custs pair  at  once.  They  then  congregate 
on  the  branches  of  the  trees  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  bend  and  at  times  break 
them  by  their  weight. 

The  females  prepare  the  nest  by  clasp- 
ing a  branch  of  moderate  size  and  per- 
forating it  with  holes _  by  means  of  an 
awl-shaped  piercing  instrument  with 
which  they  are  provided.  They  repeatedly 
thrust  this  piercer  obliquely  into  the  bark 
and  wood  in  the  direction  of  the  fibers, 
at  the  same  time  putting  in  motion  the 
lateral  saws  which  detach  little  splinters 
of  wood  and  make  a  fibrous  lid  over  the 
whole.  In  each  fissure  made  by  the 
piercer  the  female  deposits  from  10  to 
20  eggs  in  pairs.  It  takes  her  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  to  prepare  one  nest  and  fill 
it  with  eggs  and  she  usually  makes  be- 
tween 15  to  20  fissures  in  one  limb.  She 
lays  between  400  and  500  eggs  and  then 
soon  dies. 

The  perfox'ations  made  in  the  limbs 
cause  their  death,  and  an  orchard  visited 
by  seventeen-year  locusts  is  ruined.  Six 
weeks  after  the  eggs  are  laid  they  hatch. 
The  young  when  it  bursts  the  shell  is  of 
a  yellowish  white  color  except  the  eyes 
and  the  fore  claws,  which  are  reddish. 
It  is  grublike  in  form  and  has  six  legs. 
On  the  shoulders,  where  17  years  later 
the  wings  appear,  are  little  protuberances 
and  directly  under  the  breast  is  a  long 
beak  for  suction.  After  being  hatched 
the  young  locusts  loosen  their  hold  on  the 
limb   and    fall    to    the    earth.      They   in- 


stantly dig  their  way  into  the  ground 
where  they  seek  out  the  tender  roots  of 
plants  and  trees.  These  they  cut  with 
their  beaks  and  draw  out  the  vegetable 
juices  which  constitute  their  sole  nourish- 
ment— and  thus  it  is  for  17  long  years. 

The  drums  of  the  male  locust,  on  which 
they  perform  during  their  short  lives 
above  ground,  are  formed  of  convex  pieces 
of  parchment  gathered  into  numerous  fine 
plaits  and  are  lodged  in  cavities  behind 
the  thorax.  The  insects  play  on  these 
drums  by  the  means  of  muscles  which 
contract  and  relax  with  great  rapidity. 

SEVEN  WEEKS'  WAR,  the  great 
conflict  in  1866  for  German  supremacy 
between  Prussia  and  Italy  on  one  side 
and  Austria  on  the  other,  in  which  the 
allies  were  victorious. 

SEVEN  WISE  MASTERS,  the  most 
common  title  given  to  a  famous  mediaeval 
collection  of  stories,  grouped  round  a 
central  story,  the  history  of  which  is 
almost  the  most  important  among  the 
problems  of  storiology. 

Of  variant  versions  there  are  two  prin- 
cipal groups,  the  Eastern  and  the  West- 
ern, the  first  including  all  the  texts  in 
Eastern  languages,  and  some  more  or 
less  free  translations  from  Oriental  texts ; 
the  other  including  the  "Dolopathos,"  the 
"Historia  Septem  Sapientum,"  the  "Eras- 
to,"  and  many  others.  The  Oriental  texts 
have  so  many  elements  in  common  that 
they  obviously  spring  from  one  book.  The 
Western  texts,  though  derivable  from  the 
Eastern,  show  great  divergencies  alike 
in  the  fundamental  story  and  in  the  tales 
inserted  in  it.  The  real  cause  of  this  is 
that  in  the  Western  cases  oral  tradition 
has  transmuted  the  contents. 

SEVEN  WONDERS  OF  THE  WORLD, 

in  ancient  times,  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt, 
the  Hanging  Gardens  of  Semiramis  at 
Babylon,  the  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus, 
the  Statue  of  Jupiter  at  Athens  by  Phid- 
ias, the  Mausoleum,  the  Colossus  at 
Rhodes,  and  the  Pharos  of  Alexandria. 
This  cycle  of  seven  wonders  originated 
among  the  Greeks  after  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  and  they  were  described 
in  a  special  work  by  Philo  of  Byzantium. 

SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR,  a  famous 
European  war  which  lasted  from  1756  to 
1763.  As  the  result  of  a  war  with  Prus- 
sia (q.  v.)  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria  had 
to  cede  Silesia  to  Frederick  the  Great. 
With  a  view  to  recover  her  lost  territory 
she  concluded  an  alliance  with  Russia, 
secured  the  support  of  Poland  and  Sax- 
ony, and  attempted  to  form  a  closer  union 
with  France.  In  the  meantime  war  broke 
out  between  France  and  England  (1755), 
and  George  II.,  in  order  to  protect  his 
German  states,  concluded  an  alliance  with 


SEVEN    YEARS'    WAR 


354 


SEVERN 


Prussia,  while  France  agreed  to  aid  Aus- 
tria against  Frederick.  Being  informed 
of  these  negotiations  Frederick  resolved 
to  anticipate  his  enemies.  In  August, 
1756,  he  invaded  Saxony,  occupied  the 
chief  towns,  and  compelled  the  Saxon 
army  to  surrender.  This  step  created  a 
stir  in  the  European  courts,  and  hi  1757 
Austria,  Russia,  France,  Sweden,  and  the 
German  empire  were  in  arms  against 
Frederick,  while  he  had  no  ally  but  Eng- 
land and  a  few  German  states.  In  1757 
Frederick  marched  into  Bohemia  and 
gained  a  bloody  battle  at  Prague  (May 
6).  Soon  after,  however,  the  Austrians 
under  Daun  defeated  Frederick  at  Kollin 
(June  18),  relieved  Prague,  and  forced 
the  Prussians  to  retreat  to  Saxony  and 
Lusatia.  The  French  army,  after  defeat- 
ing Frederick's  German  allies  (under  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland)  at  Hastenbeck, 
united  with  the  imperial  forces;  Freder- 
ick met  them  at  Rossbach  and  routed 
both  armies  on  Nov.  5.  He  then  hurried 
back  to  Silesia,  which  was  occupied  by 
the  Austrians,  and  vanquished  a  supe- 
rior army  under  Daun  at  Leuthen  (Dec. 
5),  thus  recovering  Silesia.  While  Fred- 
erick was  thus  occupied  in  the  S.  and 
W.,  his  General  Lehwald  had  successfully 
repelled  the  Swedes  and  Russians  on  the 
N.  and  E. 

The  next  campaign  was  opened  in 
February,  1758,  by  Ferdinand,  Duke  of 
Brunswick,  who,  at  the  head  of  Fred- 
erick's allies,  opposed  the  French  in  Lower 
Saxony  and  Westphalia.  He  defeated  the 
French  at  Krefeld  in  June,  and  ultimately 
drove  the  enemy  behind  the  Rhine.  Fred- 
erick, driven  out  of  Moravia,  defeated 
the  Russians,  who  had  advanced  to  Zorn- 
dorf,  in  Brandenburg,  was  defeated  in 
turn  by  Daun  at  Hofkirchen,  but  before 
the  end  of  the  year  drove  the  Austrians 
from  Silesia  and  Saxony.  Louis  XV.  and 
his  mistress,  the  Marchioness  de  Pompa- 
dour, were  bent  on  continuing  the  war, 
and  concluded  a  new  alliance  with  Aus- 
tria, Dec.  30,  1758.  Frederick,  however, 
had  also  obtained  a  new  treaty  with 
Great  Britain,  which  promised  him  a  large 
yearly  subsidy.  The  new  campaign  was 
opened  in  March,  1759,  Prince  Henry, 
Frederick's  brother,  marched  into  Bo- 
hemia, where  he  dispersed  the  hostile 
forces,  and  captured  immense  quantities 
of  military  stores.  The  Russians,  having 
defeated  the  Prussian  General  Wedel  near 
Ziillichau  (July  23),  advanced  to  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder.  Frederick  hastened  to 
meet  them  in  person,  and  had  already 
defeated  them  at  Kunersdorf  (Aug.  12) 
when  his  victory  was  snatched  from  him 
by  the  Austrians  under  Laudon,  who  in- 
flicted on  him  a  defeat  such  as  he  had 
never  sustained  before,  Frederick's  posi- 
tion was  now  extremely  precarious.     The 


Russians  were  victorious  in  his  heredi- 
tary states,  Daun  was  in  Lusatia  with 
a  large  army,  and  Saxony  was  overrun 
by  the  imperial  troops.  In  the  W.  Fred- 
erick's allies  had  been  more  successful. 
On  Aug.  1  Ferdinand  gained  a  splendid 
victory  at  Minden  over  the  French  troops 
under  Contades  and  Brogiie.  On  the 
same  day  his  nephew  defeated  the  French 
at  Gohfeld,  and  they  were  driven  over 
the  Lahn  on  one  side  and  over  the  Rhine 
on  the  other.  The  Swedes,  also,  who, 
after  the  battle  of  Kunersdorf  invaded 
Prussian  Pomerania,  were  driven  by 
Manteuffel  and  Platen  under  the  cannon 
of  Stralsund.  The  campaign  of  1760 
seemed  at  first  to  forebode  ill  success  to 
Frederick.  While  he  himself  was  en- 
gaged in  Saxony  Fouque  suffered  a  defeat 
in  Silesia,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
Austrians  occupied  the  whole  country. 
Frederick  thereupon  gave  up  Saxony  in 
order  to  recover  Silesia.  On  Aug.  15 
he  defeated  Laudon  at  Liegnitz,  by  which 
he  effected  his  purpose  of  recovering  Si- 
lesia. He  then  returned  to  Saxony  and 
attacked  the  imperial  forces  at  Torgau, 
on  the  Elbe  (Nov.  3),  defeated  them  in 
a  bloody  engagement  and  went  into  winter 
quarters  in  Saxony.  The  Russians  also 
were  forced  to  retire  to  Poland,  and  Fer- 
dinand defeated  the  French  at  Warburg 
(July  31). 

In  the  campaign  of  1761  the  operations 
of  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  and  the 
French  on  the  Rhine  consisted  of  alter- 
nate advances  and  retreats,  and  the  Rus- 
sians and  Austrians  were  so  enfeebled 
that  they  failed  to  make  any  impression 
on  Frederick's  remnant  of  an  army.  In 
the  campaign  of  1762  the  French  were 
defeated  (June  24)  at  Wilhelmsthal,  and 
Cassel  surrendered  to  the  allies  on  Nov. 
1.  Two  days  after  this  the  preliminaries 
of  peace  between  Great  Britain  and 
France  were  signed,  and  the  peace  itself 
was  confirmed  at  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763. 
After  a  short  negotiation  Frederick  con- 
cluded a  peace  with  Austria  and  Sajcony 
at  Hubertsburg  (Feb.  15),  by  whi«h  he 
retained  Silesia.  The  war  in  Europe  was 
accompanied  by  war  by  sea  and  land  be- 
tween the  French  and  British  abroad,  the 
result  of  which  was  to  give  Great  Britain 
a  decided  superiority  over  France  both 
in  America  and  India. 

SEVERN,  the  second  largest  river  in 
England,  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
small  streams  which  rise  in  Mount  Plin- 
limmon,  Montgomeryshire.  It  flows 
through  Montgomeryshire,  Shropshire, 
Worcestershire,  and  Gloucestershire,  pass- 
ing the  towns  of  Newtown,  Welshpool, 
Shrewsbury,  Worcester,  Tewkesbury, 
Gloucester,  and  Bristol,  and  after  a  cir- 
cuitous S.  course  of  about  210  miles  falls 


SEVERUS    LUCIUS    SEPTIMIUS      355 


SEVILLE 


into  the  Bristol  Channel.  It  receives  the 
Tern,  Upper  Avon,  and  Lower  Avon  on 
the  left,  and  the  Teme  and  Wye  on  the 
right.  Its  basin  has  an  area  of  8,580 
square  miles.  It  is  navigable  to  Welsh- 
pool, about  178  miles  above  its  mouth  and 
225  feet  above  sea-level.  Below  Gloucester 
its  navigation  is  much  impeded,  but  this 
has  been  obviated  by  a  canal  from  this 
city  to  a  point  on  the  estuary  2  miles 
from  Berkeley,  capable  of  carrying  ves- 
sels of  350  tons.  Below  Gloucester  the 
banks  become  so  low  that  destructive 
inundations  have  not  infrequently  oc- 
curred. These  have  been  partly  caused 
by  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features 
of  the  river,  its  bore,  or  by  the  height 
of  the  tides,  which  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Avon  sometimes  exceed  48  feet,  and  at 
Chepstow  attain  even  60  feet.  A  railway 
tunnel  4%  miles  long  has  been  driven 
below  the  river  from  near  Avonmouth, 
in  Gloucestershire,  across  to  Monmouth- 
shire, and  a  railway  bridge,  3,581  feet 
long,  crossing  the  river  at  Sharpness 
higher  up. 

SEVERUS  LUCIUS  SEPTIMIUS,  a 
Roman  emperor ;  born  near  Leptis  Magna, 
on  the  coast  of  Africa,  April  4,  146.  After 
holding  the  highest  offices  under  Marcus 
Aurelius  and  Commodus,  he  obtained 
command  of  the  legions  in  Gaul,  and  when 
in  193  news  came  of  the  murder  of  Per- 
tinax,  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  and 
immediately  marched  on  Rome.  Julianus, 
to  whom  the  praetorian  guard  had  sold 
the  imperial  purple,  was  deposed  and  exe- 
cuted. Meanwhile  the  Roman  legions  in 
Asia  had  proclaimed  their  general,  Pes- 
cennius  Niger,  emperor.  Severus  over- 
threw him  at  Issus  in  194.  After  a  suc- 
cessful campaign  against  the  Parthians, 
he  returned  to  Rome,  but  was  soon  en- 
gaged in  a  struggle  with  another  rival, 
Clodius  Albinus,  whom  he  conquered  at 
Lugdunum  in  197.  New  campaigns  in  the 
E.  were  ended  by  the  capture  of  Ctesiphon, 
the  Parthian  capital.  Severus  then  spent 
several  years  (202-208)  at  Rome,  gratify- 
ing the  people  by  his  magnificence,  and 
distributing  large  donations  to  the  troops. 
In  208,  he  hastened  to  Britain  to  quell 
a  rebellion  there.  He  died  in  Eboracum 
(York),  Feb.  4,  211. 

SEVERUS,  WALL  OF,  the  name  given 
to  the  wall  or  barrier  formed  at  the  boun- 
dary of  the  Roman  empire  in  Britain 
between  the  Solway  and  the  Tyne  by  the 
Roman  emperor  Severus  about  A.  D.  210, 
following  the  line  of  a  similar  structure 
made  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian  (a.  d.  120), 
and  usually  called  Hadrian's  Wall.  It 
was  more  than  70  miles  long;  on  the  N. 
toward  Scotland  was  a  great  ditch,  on 
the  S.  edge  of  this  was  a  stone  wall  vary- 
ing from  6  to  9  feet  in  breadth  and  about 


16  feet  high,  with  towers  between  50  and 
60  feet  square  at  intervals  of  about  a 
Roman  mile.  Remains  of  it  are  still  to 
be  seen  over  long  ranges  of  country. 

SEVIGNE,  MARIE  DE  RABUTIN- 
CHANTAL,  MARQUISE  DE  (sav-en- 
ya'),  a  French  letter-writer;  born  in 
Paris,  France,  Feb.  6,  1626.  Left  an  or- 
phan young,  she  was  reared  by  a  maternal 
uncle,  receiving  an  excellent  education 
and  having  access  to  the  court.  In  1644 
she  married  Henri,  Marquis  de  Sevigne, 
who  fell  in  a  duel  in  1651.  It  was  to 
her  daughter,  Mme.  de  Grignan,  that  she 
wrote  her  letters,  which  are  of  value  both 
from  an  historical  point  of  view  and  for 
their  charm  of  style.  She  died  in  the 
Castle  of  Grignan,  Dauphiny,  April  17, 
1696. 

SEVILLE  (Spanish,  Sevilla),  a  fa- 
mous city  of  Spain;  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name;  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Guadalquivir,  80  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  353%  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Ma- 
drid. The  river  is  crossed  by  a  fine  iron 
bridge  connecting  Seville  with  Triana 
(the  gipsy  quarter),  one  of  its  suburbs. 
The  city  proper,  which  is  surrounded  by 
old  Moorish  walls,  5  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, with  66  towers  and  15  gates,  con- 
tains a  labyrinth  of  narrow  crooked 
streets.  The  houses  are  mostly  built  in 
the  Moorish  style,  and  are  seldom  more 
than  two  stories  high,  with  flat  roofs,  and 
an  inner  square  court  surrounded  with 
colonnades  and  adorned  with  flowers  and 
fountains.  The  windows  generally  look 
into  this  court ;  to  the  street  there  is  most 
frequently  only  a  balcony.  The  city  has 
many  fine  promenades,  of  which  the  most 
frequented  are  the  Alameda  Vieja,  El 
Passeo  de  Christina  and  Las  Delicias. 
Of  its  111  squares,  the  largest  are  Plaza 
de  San  Francisco,  Plaza  de  la  Encarna- 
cion,  Plaza  del  Duque,  and  the  Quemadero 
— the  scene  of  the  autos-da-fe;  while  of 
its  numerous  streets,  the  chief  are  Calle 
de  la  Sierpe  and  Calle  Francos.  Most 
of  the  more  notable  public  edifices  are 
at  the  S.  extremity  near  the  river,  and 
within  a  short  distance  from  each  other. 
Here  are  the  Cathedral  (Santa  Maria  de 
la  Sede),  the  Giralda,  the  Alcazar,  the 
Lonja,  and  (outside  the  wall),  the  royal 
Fabrica  de  Tabacos. 

The  Cathedral  (1401-1519),  on  the  site 
of  the  grand  mosque  of  the  Moors,  is 
one  of  the  most  imposing  Gothic  edifices 
in  Europe.  It  is  431  feet  long,  315  feet 
wide,  145  feet  high  under  the  transept 
dome,  has  seven  aisles,  93  windows,  sev- 
eral of  which  are  beautifully  painted,  and 
an  organ  with  5,400  pipes.  It  contains 
the  "Biblioteca  Columbiana"  of  42,000 
volumes,  bequeathed  by  Ferdinand  Colum- 


SEVRE 


356 


SEWAGE 


bus,  and  is  rich  in  paintings  by  Murillo, 
Campana,  the  Herreras,  and  other  mas- 
ters of  the  school  of  Seville.  The  Giralda 
is  a  square  Moorish  steeple,  consisting  of 
three  towers  with  galleries  and  balconies, 
350  feet  high,  the  ascent  of  which  is  by 
a  spiral  inclined  plane.  On  the  top  is  a 
bronze  statue  of  Faith,  14  feet  high,  and 
weighing  2,800  pounds,  which  yet  turns 
like  a  weathercock.  The  Alcazar  was  the 
ancient  Moorish  palace.  Some  parts  of 
its  interior  are  as  fine  as  the  Alhambra. 
The  Lonja,  or  Exchange,  is  a  square  build- 
ing, each  side  100  feet  long,  in  which  all 
the  American  archives  are  preserved.  The 
Fabrica  de  Tabacos,  or  tobacco  factory, 
in  which  several  thousand  persons  are 
employed,  was  erected  in  1757.  Other 
buildings  are  the  Torre  del  Oro,  a  12- 
sided  tower  on  the  river,  so  called  from 
its  having  received  the  cargoes  of  the 
American  treasure  ships;  the  palace  San 
Telmo,  built  by  Ferdinand  Columbus,  af- 
terward owned  by  the  Duke  of  Montpen- 
sier;  Casa  de  Ayuntamiento  (town 
house),  a  fine  Renaissance  structure ;  the 
Casa  de  Pilatos,  or  palace  of  the  Dukes 
of  Alcala ;  the  Museo,  rich  in  paintings  by 
Murillo,  Zurbaran,  Torrigiano,  Roelas, 
and  the  elder  Herrera;  and  the  great 
amphitheater,  capable  of  accommodating, 
as  a  Plaza  de  Toros,  18,000  people. 

One  of  the  greatest  monuments  of  an- 
tiquity is  the  Canos  de  Carmona,  an 
aqueduct  on  410  high  arches,  which  con- 
veys water  from  Alcala  de  Guadaira.  It 
was  built  by  the  Romans  and  repaired 
by  the  Moors.  Seville  has  a  university, 
founded  1502,  with  a  library  of  more 
than  20,000  volumes;  12  picture  galleries 
(including  the  Musco) ,  two  theaters,  sev- 
eral upper  schools  and  learned  societies. 
The  city  is  visited  by  large  numbers  of 
strangers  during  the  Santa  Semana 
("holy  week"),  which  commences  about 
the  middle  of  April.  Seville  has  a  great 
export  of  oranges,  and  large  manufac- 
tures of  tobacco,  hardware,  porcelain,  and 
silk.     Pop.    (1918)    164,046. 

Seville  was  the  Hispalis  of  the  Ro- 
mans, in  whose  time  it  was  a  place  of 
great  commercial  importance.  Under  the 
Vandals  and  Visigoths  it  became  the  capi- 
tal of  southern  Spain.  Within  its  walls 
were  held  the  Concilia  Hispalensia,  590 
and  619.  In  the  8th  century,  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Moors,  by  whom  it  was 
called  Ischbilia,  and  made  the  capital  of 
a  caliphate.  It  now  became  the  most 
flourishing  city  in  the  peninsula,  having 
a  population  of  400,000.  In  1248  it  was 
taken,  after  a  siege  of  18  months,  by  Fer- 
dinand III.  of  Castile,  and  has  ever  since 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Christians. 

SEVRE  (savr),  the  name  of  two  rivers 
in  France.     The  Sevre  Nantaise  rises  in 


the  department  of  Deux-Sevres,  and  flows 
into  the  Loire  opposite  Nantes  after  a 
course  of  86  miles.  The  Sevres  Niortaise 
rises  31  miles  more  to  the  S.  E.,  in  the 
same  department,  and  flows  into  the  At- 
lantic 10  miles  N.  of  La  Rochelle  after 
a  course  of  89  miles.  The  department 
of  Deux-Sevres  takes  its  name  from  these 
two  rivers. 

SEVRES,  DEUX  ("two  Sevres"),  a  de 
partment  in  France,  bounded  by  Maine- 
et-Loire,  Vienne,  Charente,  Charente-In- 
ferieure,  and  Vendee;  area,  2,337  square 
miles;  pop.  about  340,000.  A  branch  of 
the  Cevennes  traverses  the  department 
from  S.  E.  to  N.  W.  Cereals,  leguminous 
crops,  and  hops  are  grown.  The  vine, 
though  extensively  cultivated,  yields  only 
an  inferior  wine.  The  forests  are  chiefly 
of  hard  wood.  The  minerals  include  iron, 
millstones,  pavement,  and  limestone  in 
abundance.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  linen  and  cotton  goods,  serge,  flannel, 
woolen  hosiery,  and  gloves.  Capital, 
Niort. 

SEWAGE,  the  matter  which  passes 
through  the  drains,  conduits,  or  sewers 
leading  away  from  human  habitations 
singly,  or  from  houses  collected  into  vil- 
lages, towns,  and  cities.  It  is  made  up 
of  excreted  matter,  solid  and  liquid,  the 
water  necessary  to  carry  such  away,  and 
the  waste  water  of  domestic  operations; 
but  to  these  are  added  the  liquid  waste 
products  of  manufacturing  operations, 
and  generally  much  of  the  surface  drain- 
age water  of  the  area  in  which  the  con- 
veying sewers  are  situated. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  pesti- 
lence and  plagues  which  at  frequent  in- 
tervals devastated  ancient  and  mediaeval 
cities  were  almost  invariably  caused,  and 
always  intensified,  by  the  entire  absence 
of  any  system  for  treating  or  removing 
excreta  and  other  decaying  organic  mat- 
ter; and  even  yet,  notwithstanding  the 
assiduous  regard  paid  to  sanitary  science 
in  most  well-governed  towns,  many  dis- 
eases are  directly  traceable  to  the  noxious 
influence  of  decomposing  sewage  matter. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  ef- 
ficient and  economical  treatment  of  towns' 
sewage  is  the  greatest  and  most  urgent 
social  problem  of  our  times. 

The  question  presents  itself  in  a  two- 
fold aspect:  (1)  the  necessity  for  the 
prompt  and  complete  removal  of  sewage 
from  the  neighborhood  of  human  dwell- 
ings, and  its  disposal  in  a  way  the  least  of- 
fensive and  injurious  to  health;  (2)  the 
desirability  of  saving,  for  agricultural 
purposes,  the  rich  and  essential  ^  fertiliz- 
ing agents  which  sewage  contains.  To 
the  sanitary  officer  the  former  is  the 
question  of  greatest  moment,  to  the  agri- 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL 


357 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL 


culturist  the  latter;  while  the  mass  of 
the  population  has  an  equal  interest  in 
both. 

The  composition  of  sewage  as  it  passes 
outward,  varies  greatly,  as  regards 
amount  and  condition  of  organic  matter 
it  contains,  and  the  season  of  the  year — 
hot  or  cold — affects  very  considerably  the 
activity  of  chemical  action.  But  at  all 
times  sewer  gases  are  given  off  which  are 
fetid  and  offensive  to  smell,  containing 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  light  carburetted 
hydrogen,  free  nitrogen,  and  carbonic 
acid.  To  prevent  sewer  gases  from  pene- 
trating into  houses  by  means  of  the 
drains  and  pipes,  and  to  keep  the  sewage 
from  saturating  the  surrounding  soil,  and 
from  contaminating  any  water  supply, 
are  objects  of  prime  importance.  To  ac- 
complish these,  the  pipes  leading  from 
dwellings  into  main  drains  and  sewers 
require  to  be  trapped,  and  the  sewers 
themselves  ventilated,  drain  pipes  and 
tubes  made  of  glazed  earthenware  or 
other  non-absorbent  material  must  be 
carefully  fitted,  and  the  main  sewers 
made  either  of  pipes  of  large  diameter 
or  of  hard  bricks  bedded  in  Portland  ce- 
ment. Sewers  are  properly  built  in  cross 
section;  they  should  have  a  uniform 
gradient,  and  be  as  far  as  possible  built 
free  of  curves,  so  that  the  sewage  matter 
may  be  carried  forward  without  any 
tendency  to  silt  or  deposit  at  particular 
spots.  It  is  also  essential  that  there  be 
ready  access  to  the  sewers,  as  well  as  to 
the  smaller  drains  leading  into  them. 

The  entrance  of  sewer  gas  into  houses 
is  provided  against  by  external  ventila- 
tion of  the  pipes  and  by  trapping  the 
pipes  either  by  a  syphon  arrangement,  a 
midfeather,  or  a  flap  trap.  The  mid- 
feather  is  a  modified  kind  of  syphon,  con- 
sisting of  a  trough  having  an  inlet  and 
discharge  pipe  at  the  same  level  on  op- 
posite sides,  but  between  them  a  partition 
passes  down  into  the  water  with  which 
the  trough  is  always  filled  up  to  the  level 
of  the  two  pipes.  Such  traps  are  usually 
put  upon  sinks.  The  flap  trap  consists 
simply  of  a  hinged  valve  which  opens  out- 
ward to  allow  the  escape  of  sewage,  etc., 
but  which  closes  against  the  resurge  of 
water  or  the  inward  pressure  of  gases. 
Modified  forms  of  these  varieties  are 
numerous. 

SEWAGE  DISPOSAL.  The  problem 
of  the  disposal  of  sewage  becomes  one 
of  immense  importance  in  all  thickly 
populated  districts.  In  the  country,  a 
properly  constructed  cesspool  in  favorable 
soil  forms  a  simple  and  satisfactory  means 
of  disposing  of  domestic  waste,  but  in 
cities  the  cesspool  becomes  utterly  inade- 
quate and  some  means  of  removing  sew- 
age wholesale  has  to  be  devised.    No  sys- 


tem at  present  in  common  use  can  be 
considered  perfect.  Sewage  contains 
much  material  of  value,  and  its  destruc- 
tion involves  a  great  economic  waste. 
Owing  to  the  large  quantities  of  humus 
and  nitrogenous  matter  which  it  contains, 
its  fertilizing  properties  are  great,  and 
there  are  in  it  considerable  amounts  of 
grease  and  fat  which  only  need  extract- 
ing and  purifying  to  find  industrial  ap- 
plication. At  the  present  time,  however, 
most  cities  are  concerned  only  with  the 
disposal  of  the  sewage  in  an  economical, 
sanitary  and  inoffensive  manner  and  do 
not  concern  themselves  with  the  recov- 
ery of  by-products.  There  are  several 
methods  of  sewage  disposal,  but  one  fea- 
ture, common  to  them  all,  is  the  gewer. 
These  sewers  almost  invariably  carry  off 
rain  as  well  as  domestic  and  industrial 
sewage,  but  in  some  cities  an  arrange- 
ment is  made  by  which  the  ordinary  rain- 
fall goes  into  the  sewer,  while  heavier 
rains  are  diverted  into  special  channels. 
The  purpose  of  this  is  to  avoid  having  to 
deal  with  large  volumes  of  dilute  sewage, 
a  point  which  is  of  importance  in  some 
systems,  as  will  be  seen  later. 

It  is  clear  that  the  sewer  does  not  solve 
the  problem  of  sewage  disposal.  It  re- 
moves the  sewage  from  the  city,  but 
sooner  or  later  there  must  arise  the  prob- 
lem of  dealing  with  the  effluent  from  the 
sewer.  In  cities  located  near  the  coast, 
it  is  common  to  lead  the  sewer  into  the 
sea  to  a  point  well  beyond  low  tide.  Those 
with  a  river  running  through,  or  near, 
them,  frequently  turn  their  sewage  into 
the  river — a  practice  with  many  obvious 
objections  and  dangers.  Inland  towns  far 
from  rivers  or  large  bodies  of  water  have 
no  such  easy  solution  of  their  difficulties. 
So-called  "sewage  farms"  are  frequently 
resorted  to.  The  sewage  is  treated  in 
settling  tanks  with  lime,  or  with  mixtures 
of  lime  and  sulphate  of  iron  or  alumina, 
by  which  means  the  solids  are  precipi- 
tated, leaving  the  supernatant  liquor  com- 
paratively pure.  The  sludge  is  spread 
over  the  land  which  is  cultivated.  This 
system  comes  nearest  to  Nature's  method 
of  purification,  and  it  has  the  good  fea- 
ture of  utilizing  the  fertilizing  proper- 
ties of  the  sewage.  It  is,  however,  sel- 
dom entirely  inoffensive.  Sometimes  the 
sludge  is  treated  in  filter  presses,  and  the 
comparatively  dry  cake  dug  into  the 
earth  or  even  burned.  The  septic  tank 
treatment  is  one  which  has  met  with  suc- 
cess in  some  cases.  The  sewage  is  caused 
to  flow  into  tanks  where  it  receives  suc- 
cessive treatment  with  anaerobic  and 
aerobic  bacteria.  Theoretically,  solid 
matter  should  become  liquified  and  the 
final  effluent  be  harmless  and  inoffensive. 
Many  industrial  effluents,  however,  con- 
tain matter  which  poisons  the  bacteria, 


SEWARD 


358 


SEWING    MACHINE 


when,  of  course,  the  whole  system  breaks 
down. 

SEWARD,  FREDERICK  WILLIAM, 
an  American  lawyer;  born  in  Auburn, 
N.  Y.,  July  8,  1830;  was  graduated  at 
Union  College  in  1849;  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1851;  and  for  10  years  was  one 
of  the  editors  and  owners  of  the  Albany 
"Evening  Journal."  He  was  sent  to  warn 
Abraham  Lincoln  of  the  plot  to  assassi- 
nate him  in  Baltimore  in  1861 ;  was  assis- 
tant Secretary  of  State  in  1861-1869  and 
1877-1881;  accompanied  Admiral  Porter 
on  the  special  mission  to  negotiate  We3t 
India  treaties  in  1867;  participated  in 
the  purchase  of  Alaska;  was  a  member 
of  the  New  York  Legislature  in  1875; 
State  Commissioner  at  the  Yorktown  Cen- 
tennial Celebration  in  1881;  and  author 
of  "Life  and  Letters  of  William  H.  Sew- 
ard"; "A  West  Indian  Cruise";  and 
numerous  lectures,  magazine  articles,  etc. 
He  died  in  1915. 

SEWARD,  WILLIAM  HENRY,  an 
American  statesman;  born  in  Florida, 
Orange  co.,  N.  Y.,  May  16,  1801.  He 
studied  for  the  bar,  and  began  practicing 
in  Auburn  in  1823,  but  gradually  drifted 
into  politics,  and  in  1830  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  New  York  Senate.  Dis- 
playing marked  abilities  as  a  politician, 
he  was  in  1838  and  1840  chosen  governor 
of  his  native  State,  and  in  1849  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  He 
was  the  friend  and  adviser  of  President 
Taylor,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
firm  resistance  to  the  extension  of  slavery. 
In  1860  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  presi- 
dency, but  being  defeated  in  the  conven- 
tion by  Abraham  Lincoln  he  exerted  him- 
self to  secure  Lincoln's  election.  Lincoln 
afterward  appointed  Seward  Secretary  of 
State,  in  which  post  he  discharged  his 
duties  with  great  ability,  showing  notable 
tact  in  dealing  with  Great  Britain  in  the 
"Trent  Affair,"  inducing  France  to  with- 
draw her  troops  from  Mexico,  and  effect- 
ing the  cession  to  the  United  States  by 
Russia  of  Alaska  (1867).  He  was  dan- 
gerously wounded  in  April,  1865,  when 
President  Lincoln  was  assassinated,  but 
recovered  and  filled  the  same  office  under 
Lincoln's  successor,  Andrew  Johnson.  He 
resigned  his  post  on  the  accession  of 
President  Grant  in  1869.  He  wrote  a 
"Life  of  John  Quincy  Adams";  his 
"Speeches,  Correspondence,  etc.,"  ap- 
peared in  1869 ;  and  an  "Autobiography," 
with  continuation,  in  1877.  He  died  in 
Auburn,  Cayuga  co.,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  10,  1872. 

SEWARD,  MOUNT,  a  mountain  in 
Franklin  co.,  N.  Y. ;  is  a  summit  of  the 
Adirondacks,  14  miles  W.  of  Mount 
Marcy,  and  was  named  for  William  H. 
Seward;  height,  4,384  feet. 


SEWARD  PENINSULA,  the  most 
western  part  of  Alaska.  It  has  an  area 
of  about  22,700  square  miles.  The  coast 
is  low,  but  there  are  hills  in  the  interior 
which  are  covered  with  forests  of  spruce. 
It  includes  an  important  gold  mining  re- 
gion, including  Nome,  Anvil  Creek,  and 
Ophir  Creek.  The  gold  is  obtained  almost 
entirely  from  placer  mining  and  over 
$70,000,000  worth  has  been  taken  from 
the  district.  The  production  in  1919  was 
near  $6,000,000.  The  peninsula  is  divided 
into  five  mining  districts,  Nome,  Council, 
Kougarok,  Fairhaven,  and  Port  Clarence. 
In  recent  years  gold  lodes  have  been  dis- 
covered, and  placer  mining  is  being  super- 
ceded. Tin  is  found  in  the  Cape  York 
region.  Coal  also  exists  but  has  not  yet 
been  mined.  Nome  is  the  chief  settlement. 
Others  are  Candle,  Deering,  Teller,  Wales, 
and  Sinuk. 

SEWELLEL,  the  Haplodon  rufus,  a 
small  rodent  from  the  W.  coast  of  Amer- 
ica. It  is  about  a  foot  long,  with  a  tail 
of  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half,  brownish 
above,  lighter  below.  Its  habits  are  ap- 
proximately those  of  the  Prairie  Dog 
(q.  v.).  It  constitutes  the  genus  Anis onyx 
of  Rannesque,  Aplodontia  of  Richardson, 
and  Haplodon  or  Haploodon  of  later 
writers.  Lilleborg  makes  it  the  type  of 
a  family  Haploddontidx. 

SEWING  MACHINE,  a  machine  fot 
sewing  or  stitching  cloth,  leather,  etc. 
The  various  forms  of  this  now  well-known 
and  almost  universally  used  machine  are 
all  of  quite  recent  introduction.  The  in- 
vention of  the  double-pointed  needle  with 
an  eye  in  the  center,  in  the  year  1755, 
marked  a  distinct  advance  toward  the 
invention  of  the  sewing  machine,  and  it 
was  itself  used  in  a  form  of  machine  for 
producing  the  "shoemaker's  stitch."  In 
the  eye  of  the  double-pointed  needle  the 
sewing  thread  was  fastened,  and  by  a 
pair  of  grippers  or  mechanical  fingers 
the  needle  was  pushed  and  pulled  alter- 
nately from  the  opposite  sides  of  two 
folds  of  the  material  to  be  sewed. 

In  1830  Barthelemy  Thimonier,  a 
Frenchman,  obtained  in  his  native  coun- 
try a  patent  for  a  form  of  sewing  machine 
which  was  for  some  time  successfully 
worked,  and  which  was  in  effect  the  par- 
ent of  the  single-thread  machines  now  in 
use.  In  Thimonier's  apparatus,  which 
was  constructed  largely  of  wood,  the 
thread  carrier  was  placed  under  the  table 
whereon  the  fabric  to  be  sewed  was  laid. 
The  needle  was  in  the  form  of  a  crochet 
hook,  and  having  a  descending  and  ascend- 
ing motion,  it  passed  through  the  cloth, 
brought  up  a  loop  of  thread,  which  was 
caught  and  retained  by  a  nipple  till  the 
hooked  needle  brought  up  a  second  loop. 
The  second  loop  passed  through  loop  No. 


SEWING    MACHINE 


359 


SEWING    MACHINE 


1,  which  thereupon  was  released  and 
drawn  tight,  a  chain  stitch  was  thus 
formed,  and  the  cloth  being  moved  for- 
ward the  length  of  a  stitch,  the  process 
was  repeated  and  continued. 

Between  1832  and  1834,  Walter  Hunt, 
a  New  York  mechanician,  invented  and 
sold  several  sewing  machines  which  made 
a  practical  lock  stitch.  He,  however,  ne- 
glected to  apply  for  a  patent. 

The  invention  of  the  eye-pointed  needle 
by  Newton  &  Archibald,  patented  in  1841, 
and  applied  by  them  to  the  stitching  and 
tamboring  of  the  back  of  gloves,  formed 
the  most  important  step  in  the  progress 
of  developing  the  sewing  machine,  and 
in  no  essential  principle  did  their  machine 
differ  from  the  single-thread  machines 
now  in  use.  In  1844  an  invention  by  John 
Fisher  was  patented  jointly  with  James 
Gibbons,  in  which  a  shuttle  and  needle 
were  used  for  producing  a  lock  stitch, 
and  by  a  different  combination  the  patent 
covered  the  production  of  what  subse- 
quently was  known  as  the  Grover  & 
Baker,  or  knotted  stitch.^  Elias  Howe's 
invention  was  patented  in  the  United 
States  by  himself,  and  in  England  by 
William  Thomas  in  1846.  Howe,  after 
several  years'  labor  and  study,  worked 
out  the  idea  of  his  sewing  machine  with- 
out any  guidance  from  or  knowledge  of 
what  had  been  previously  accomplished; 
and  he  moreover  secured  such  effective 
combinations  of  parts  as  made  the  Howe 
machine  in  reality  the  acknowledged  par- 
ent of  all  the  forms  since  introduced. 

His  patent-right  for  Great  Britain  was 
sold  for  $1,250  to  Mr.  Thomas,  in  whose 
employment  Mr.  Howe  worked  for  about 
two  years.  On  returning  to  the  United 
States  in  1849,  Howe  found  that  notwith- 
standing his  patent  right,  several  indi- 
viduals had  made,  exhibited,  and  used 
sewing  machines,  though  not  a  single 
machine  had  yet  been  made  in  the  United 
States  under  his  patent.  He  had,  there- 
fore, to  face  the  task  of  vindicating  his 
rights.  It  was  not  till  the  end  of  1850 
that  the  manufacture  of  his  machine  ac- 
tually began,  and  it  was  1854  before  a 
decision  in  his  favor  against  I.  M.  Singer 
was  obtained. 

The  modifications,  improvements,  and 
additions  made  to  the  sewing  machine 
since  its  introduction  are  innumerable. 
It  has  now  been  adapted  to  produce  al- 
most all  kinds  of  stitching  which  can  be 
done  by  the  hand;  and  every  variety  of 
work  required  on  garments.  The  leading 
classes  of  machines  are:  (1)  Single- 
thread  machines,  (2)  machines  with  two 
or  more  threads,  and  (3)  overhead  or 
glove-stitch  machines. 

Single-thread  Machines. — The  stitch 
made  by  the  ordinary  form  of  single 
thread  machine  is  precisely  what  is  known 


as  the  crochet  stitch,  and  when  the  thread 
is  broken  at  any  point  the  whole  work 
readily  undoes.  Ordinary  single-thread 
machines,  unless  for  limited  applications, 
such  as  glove  embroidery,  are  passing  out 
of  general  use.  It  is  different,  however, 
from  the  Wilcox  &  Gibbs  single-thread 
machine,  in  which  a  revolving  double  hook 
or  looper  is  employed  which  gives  each 
loop  a  twist  and  produces  thereby  the 
twisted  chain  stitch,  combining  a  solid 
fastening  with  great  elasticity  and 
smoothness. 

Two-thread  Machines. — Of  these  ma- 
chines two  subdivisions  may  be  recognized 
— the  lock  stitch,  and  the  knotted  or 
double  chain  stitch,  commonly  called  the 
Grover  &  Baker  machines.  Of  these,  the 
lock  stitch  machines  are  by  far  the  most 
common,  and  for  general  purposes  are 
in  almost  universal  use.  For  producing 
the  lock  stitch  there  are  two  forms  of 
apparatus:  (1)  the  reciprocating  shuttle 
which  carries  a  thread  through  the  loop 
made  by  the  needle,  and  (2)  the  lenticu- 
lar spool  or  thread  case  over  which  the 
loop  is  passed  by  a  revolving  hook.  Of 
the  first  kind — shuttle  machines — the 
Howe,  the  Singer,  the  Wanzer,  and  others 
are  familiar  forms;  the  second,  or  spool 
and  hook  appliance,  is  a  peculiarity  of 
the  Wheeler  &  Wilson  alone.  The  needle 
was  originally  fixed  at  the  end  of  a  vi- 
brating arm,  and,  describing  the  arc  of 
a  circle,  it  required  to  be  curved.  Singer 
first  introduced  the  straight  needle  car- 
ried by  a  slide,  and  it  now  is  in  general 
use.  Next  to  the  invention  of  the  eye- 
pointed  needle  the  designing  of  an  efficient 
feed  motion  was  the  most  important  im- 
provement made  in  the  sewing  machine. 
Singer  introduced  what  is  called  the 
wheel  feed,  but  the  plan  now  adopted  is 
one  of  the  many  ingenious  and  beautiful 
mechanical  devices  introduced  by  A.  B. 
Wilson,  of  Wheeler  &  Wilson.  It  is  called 
the  four-motion  feed,  and  consists  of  a 
serrated  plate  to  which  a  forward,  down, 
backward,  and  upward  motion  is  com- 
municated, the  forward  and  backward 
motion  being  varied  according  to  the 
length  of  stitch.  The  tension  of  the 
thread  in  the  shuttle  is  maintained  by  a 
small  nipping  spring  which  presses 
against  the  thread.  In  the  Wheeler  & 
Wilson  machine  the  use  of  the  shuttle  is 
entirely  avoided,  and  the  lock  stitch  is 
formed  by  carrying  the  loop  from  the  up- 
per thread  over  and  around  the  under 
thread,  which  is  contained  within  a  small 
lenticular  spool,  which  fits  snugly  but 
free  in  a  recess  in  the  side  of  the  revolv- 
ing hook.  This  exceedingly  ingenious  de- 
vice, together  with  the  four-motion  feed 
above  alluded  to,  place  Mr.  Wilson,  their 
inventor,  in  the  front  rank  of  improvers 
of  the  sewing  machine.     The  Wheeler  & 


SEWING    MACHINE 


360 


SEXTANT 


Wilson  machine  works  with  great  ease 
and  smoothness,  and  as  the  machine  can 
be  noiselessly  worked  at  a  high  speed, 
it  is  a  great  favorite  for  general  domestic 
and  light  manufacturing  vises.  The  or- 
dinary Grover  &  Baker  machine  makes  a 
knotted  or  double  loop  chain  stitch  of  a 
complex  character.  For  general  pur- 
poses it  is  not  now  in  great  favor,  owing 


from  end  to  end  to  the  sack  seam,  draw- 
ing the  thread  through  with  it. 

SEXAGESIMA  SUNDAY,  the  second 
Sunday  before  Lent,  the  one  immediately 
before  Shrove  Tuesday,  so  called  because 
it  falls  about  60  days  before  Easter. 

SEXTANS  ("the  Sextant"),  one  of 
the   10   new  constellations  added  to  the 


1.  Mirror. 

2.  Telescope. 

3.  Handle. 

4.  Shade  Glasses. 

5.  Horizon  Glasses. 


6.  Adjusting  Screw. 

7.  Black  Shade  Glasses. 

8.  Arc. 

9.  Index  Tangent  Screw. 
10.  Sliding  Limb. 


11.  Reading  Glass. 

12.  Vernier  Shade. 

13.  Vernier. 

14.  Mirror  Adjusting  Screw. 


to  the  ridged  nature  of  the  seam  it  makes, 
and  to  the  considerable  waste  of  thread 
the  peculiar  nature  of  the  stitch  involves. 
Overhead  Machines.  —  In  overhead 
stitching  two  edges  are  sewed  together 
by  the  thread  passing  over  and  binding 
in  their  outer  extremities,  a  style  of  sew- 
ing generally  seen  in  gloves  and  invaria- 
bly used  for  sacks.  In  order  to  effect  the 
sewing  of  sacks  with  this  stitch  by  ma- 
chinery, many  attempts  have  been  made, 
and  some  of  them  have  attained  a  degree 
of  practical  success.  In  Laing's  over- 
head machine,  invented  and  manufactured 
in  Dundee,  a  helical  needle  is  employed, 
which  in  its  motion  of  rotation  passes 


heavens  by  Hevelius  in  his  "Prodromus 
Astronomiae"  (Forerunner  of  Astrono- 
my), in  1690,  of  which  eight  have  sur- 
vived to  the  present  day.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  Leo,  Crater,  and  Hydra.  Not 
having  been  known  as  a  constellation  in 
Bayer's  time,  it  has  gone  without  Greek 
letters  attached  to  its  stars  till  recently, 
when  Gould  assigned  them  to  five  of  #  its 
brightest  stars.  It  is  a  very  inconspicu- 
ous constellation,  the  brightest  star  being 
only  of  the  4.9  magnitude. 

SEXTANT,  an  instrument  for  measur- 
ing the  angular  distance  of  objects  by 
means  of  reflection.    The  principle  of  its 


SEXTON 


361 


SEXUAL    SELECTION 


construction  depends  on  the  theorem  that 
if  a  ray  of  light  suffer  double  reflection 
the  angle  between  the  original  ray  and 
its  direction  after  the  second  reflection 
is  double  the  angle  made  by  the  reflecting 
surfaces.  The  instrument  of  which  this 
theorem  is  the  principle  is  a  brass  sector 
of  a  circle  in  outline,  the  sector  being 
the  sixth  part  of  a  complete  circle,  for 
which  reason  the  instrument  is  called  a 
sextant.  It  consists  of  a  graduated  limb, 
forming  about  the  sixth  part  of  a  circle. 
Two  mirrors,  the  index  mirror  (1)  and 
the  lower  part  of  the  horizon  glass  at  5, 
have  for  object  the  reflection  of  the  rays 
of  light  coming  from  the  object  under 
observation.  The  telescope  (2)  collects 
and  transmits  to  the  eye  the  rays  of  light 
emanating  from  the  horizon  glasses.  An 
index  and  a  vernier  (13)  permit  the  read- 
ing, on  the  graduated  limb,  of  the  quan- 
tity of  light  which  the  mirror  has  turned. 
When  observing  altitudes,  the  instru- 
ment is  held  perpendicularly  to  the  hori- 
zon in  the  plane  of  the  line  joining  the 
two  objects.  In  taking  noon  observations 
at  sea,  to  determine  the  latitude,  the  ob- 
server takes  his  place  shortly  before 
meridian,  and  turning  down  one  or  sev- 
eral of  the  shades,  to  prevent  his  eye 
being  injured  by  the  glare,  directs  the 
telescope  or  site  tube  to  the  sun,  moving 
the  index  so  as  to  bring  its  reflected 
image  to  coincide  with  the  sea  horizon; 
as  the  sun  rises,  he  gradually  advances 
the  limb,  clamping  it  and  using  the  regu- 
lating screw  for  this  purpose,  as  the  sun's 
path  becomes  more  nearly  horizontal,  and 
slightly  rocking  the  instrument  from  side 
to  side  to  insure  that  it  is  in  a  vertical 
plane  at  the  moment  when  the  sun  at- 
tains its  greatest  height.  The  reading  of 
the  limb  at  the  moment  when  the  sun 
begins  to  dip  is  noted,  and  a  very  simple 
calculation,  adding  his  declination  de- 
rived from  the  "Nautical  Almanac"  to 
the  true  zenith  distance  obtained  by  ob- 
servation, gives  the  latitude. 

SEXTON,  an  under  officer  of  the 
church,  whose  duty  is  to  take  care  of  the 
vessels,  vestments,  etc.,  belonging  to  the 
church,  to  attend  on  the  officiating  min- 
ister, and  perform  other  duties  pertain- 
ing to  the  church,  to  which  is,  in  England, 
added  the  duty  of  digging  and  filling  up 
graves  in  the  churchyard. 

SEXUAL  SELECTION,  a  term  applied 
by  Darwin  to  the  process  of  favoring  and 
eliminating  which  to  some  extent  occurs 
in  the  mating  of  many  animals.  It  is  a 
special  case  of  natural  selection,  depend- 
ing on  a  competition  between  rival  males, 
in  which  a  premium  is  set  on  those  quali- 
ties which  favor  their  possessors  in  se- 
curing mates.  This  competition  takes 
two  forms:  On  the  one  hand,  rival  mates, 


for  instance  stags  and  gamecocks,  fight 
with  one  another,  and  the  conquerors  have 
naturally  the  preference  in  mating;  on 
the  other  hand,  rival  males  sometimes 
seem  to  vie  with  one  another  in  display- 
ing their  attractive  qualities  before  their 
desired  mates,  who,  according  to  Darwin, 
choose  those  that  please  them  best. 

Where  there  is  direct  competition  be- 
tween males,  the  weakest  will  tend  to  be 
eliminated,  either  directly  by  death  or  in- 
jury in  the  struggle,  or  indirectly  by 
diminished  success  in  reproduction.  In 
the  same  way,  if  a  male  be  lacking  in  the 
qualities  necessary  to  find  a  mate — e.  g., 
in  senses  acute  enough  to  find  out  her 
whereabouts — that  male  may  remain  un- 
reproductive. 

In  regard  to  the  second  aspect  of  sexual 
selection,  in  which  the  females  are  be- 
lieved to  exercise  some  choice,  giving  the 
preference  to  those  suitors  which  have 
brighter  colors,  more  graceful  forms, 
sweeter  voices,  or  greater  charms  of  some 
kind,  there  is  no  little  difference  of  opin- 
ion. Darwin  indeed  believed  strongly 
in  the  female's  choice,  and  referred  to 
this  process  of  selection  many  of  the 
qualities  which  distinguish  male  animals. 
On  the  other  hand,  Alfred  Russel  Wal- 
lace maintains  a  very  different  position. 
"There  is,"  he  says,  "a  total  absence  of 
any  evidence  that  the  females  admire  or 
even  notice  the  display  of  the  males. 
Among  butterflies  there  is  literally  not 
one  particle  of  evidence  that  the  female 
is  influenced  by  color  or  even  that  she 
has  any  power  of  choice,  while  there  is 
much  direct  evidence  to  the  contrary." 

The  theory  of  sexual  selection  is  of  con- 
siderable importance  in  a  general  theory 
of  evolution.  This  may  be  illustrated 
in  reference  to  the  bright  plumage  of 
many  birds.  If  we  believe  that  the  fe- 
males are  sensitive  to  the  slight  excel- 
lences which  distinguished  one  suitor  from 
another  and  that  their  choice  of  mates 
is  determined  by  these  excellences  (which 
Wallace  emphatically  denies),  then  we 
may  say  that  the  greater  brightness  of 
male  birds  may  have  been  evolved  by 
sexual  selection.  This  was  Darwin's 
opinion. 

Before  we  can  believe  that  attractively 
bright  ornaments  could  become  charac- 
teristic of  males  by  sexual  selection,  or 
that  protectively  plain  coloring  could  be- 
come characteristic  of  females  by  natural 
selection,  we  must  assume  that  the  quali- 
ties of  brightness  can  be  entailed  in  in- 
heritance on  the  males  only,  and  the 
qualities  of  plainness  on  the  females  only. 
But  this  fundamental  assumption  has  not 
yet  been  justified  by  a  sufficiently  strong 
body  of  facts. 

Wallace  has  also  in  his  work  on  "Dar- 
winism"   (1889)    worked    toward     a    ra- 


SEYCHELLES 


362 


SEYMOUR 


tional  interpretation  of  the  variations 
which  he  was  previously  content  to  pos- 
tulate as  facts.  For  he  says  that  "orna- 
ment is  the  natural  outcome  and  direct 
product  of  superabundant  health  and 
vigor,"  and  is  "due  to  the  general  laws 
of  growth  and  development."  It  seems 
to  some  that  this  mode  of  interpreting 
characters  is  of  far-reaching  importance, 
and  that  it  affects  not  only  the  theory  of 
sexual  selection  but  that  of  natural  se- 
lection as  well. 

To  sum  up,  the  problems  involved  in 
sexual  selection  are  (1)  what  physio- 
logical conditions  explain  the  secondary 
sexual  characters  which  so  often  distin- 
guish males  and  females;  (2)  to  what 
extent  and  in  what  degree  of  refinement 
does  preferential  mating  occur;  and  (3) 
to  what  extent  has  sexual  selection 
guided  the  differentiation  of  the  sexes 
alike  in  distinctive  qualities  and  in  aes- 
thetic sensitiveness?  Before  these  prob- 
lems can  be  adequately  solved  many  more 
facts  must  be  accumulated. 

SEYCHELLES  (sa-shel'),  a  group  of 
about  90  islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean ; 
between  lat.  3°  40'  and  5°  35'  S.,  and  Ion. 
556  15'  and  56°  E.  They  were  first  occu- 
pied by  the  French,  and  were  ceded 
to  the  British  in  1814.  The  settlers  are 
mostly  of  French  extraction.  The  largest 
island  is  Mahe,  the  majority  of  the  others 
being  mere  rocks.  With  the  exception  of 
two  consisting  of  coral,  they  are  composed 
of  granite  piled  up  in  huge  masses,  and 
terminating  in  peaks.  Most  of  them  are 
covered  with  verdure,  and  yield  good  tim- 
ber. Cotton,  coffee,  cocoa,  spices,  tobacco, 
maize,  rice,  and  tropical  fruits  are  cul- 
tivated; and  cocoanut  oil,  soap,  vanilla, 
etc.,  exported.     Pop.    (1918)    24,572. 

SEYCHELLES  COCOANUT,  the  Lodo- 
icea  Sechellarum,  a  remarkable  palm 
found  only  on  two  or  three  small  rocky 
islands  of  the  Seychelles  group.  The 
fruit  takes  several  years  to  come  to  ma- 
turity, when  it  attains  a  gigantic  size, 
weighing  often  40  to  50  pounds,  and  con- 
sists of  a  thick  fibrous  rind  inclosing  one 
or  more  nuts  divided  half-way  down  into 
two  lobes.  The  unripe  fruit  is  eaten,  and 
the  hard  black  shell  of  the  nut  is  carved 
into  ornaments  and  fakirs'  drinking  cups. 
The  leaves  when  young  yield  a  beautiful 
material  for  basket  and  plaited  work; 
hats,  fans,  etc.,  are  made  from  them; 
when  full  grown  they  are  used  for  par- 
titions and  roofs  of  houses.     See  Palm. 

SEYMOUR,  a  town  of  Connecticut,  in 
New  Haven  co.  It  is  on  the  Naugatuck 
river,  and  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven, 
and  Hartford  railroad.  It  is  an  impor- 
tant industrial  city  and  has  manufactures 
of  paper,  iron  castings,  wire,  tools,  sub- 


marine cables,  copper,  fountain  pens,  etc. 
Pop.   (1910)   4,786;    (1920)   6,781. 

SEYMOUR,  a  city  of  Indiana,  in  Jack- 
son co.  It  is  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Southwestern,  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago,  and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Chicago, 
Terre  Haute,  and  Southeastern  railroads. 
Its  industries  include  woolen  mills,  flour 
mills,  printing  houses,  saw  mills,  furni- 
ture factories,  carriage  factories,  etc.  It 
has  the  repair  shops  of  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Southwestern  railroad.  Its  public 
buildings  include  a  public  library  and  a 
farmer's  club  building.  Pop.  (1910) 
6,305;  (1920)  7,348. 

SEYMOUR,  an  historic  family,  origi- 
nally settled  in  Normandy  at  St.  Maur — 
whence  the  name.  Going  over  to  Eng- 
land, they  obtained  lands  in  Monmouth- 
shire as  early  as  the  13th  century,  and 
in  the  14th  at  Hatch  Beauchamp,  Somer- 
setshire, by  marriage  with  an  heiress  of 
the  Beauchamps.  In  1497  Sir  John  Sey- 
mour helped  to  suppress  the  insurrection 
of  Lord  Audley  and  the  Cornish  rebels, 
and  subsequently  he  accompanied  Henry 
VIII.  to  his  wars  in  France,  and  to  the 
Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  For  his 
daughter,  see  Seymour,  Lady  Jane;  his 
fourth  son,  Thomas,  created  Lord  Sey- 
mour of  Sudeley,  became  Lord  High  Ad- 
miral of  England  and  the  second  husband 
of  Henry's  widow  (Catharine  Parr),  but 
ended  his  life  on  the  scaffold  (1549).  Sir 
John's  eldest  son,  Edward,  was  succes- 
sively created  Viscount  Beauchamp,  Earl 
of  Hertford,  and  Duke  of  Somerset,  and 
as  Protector  played  the  leading  part  in 
the  first  half  of  the  reign  of  Edward 
VI.  (q.  v.).  The  Protector's  eldest  son 
by  his  second  marriage,  being  created  by 
Elizabeth  Earl  of  Hertford,  married  the 
Lady  Catharine  Grey,  a  grand-niece  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and  sister  of  the  unfortu- 
nate Lady  Jane  Grey — a  marriage  which 
entailed  on  him  a  nine  years'  imprison- 
ment and  a  fine  of  $75,000.  His  grand- 
son, who  in  1621,  succeeded  him  in  the 
earldom  of  Hertford,  also  fell  into  dis- 
grace for  attempting  to  marry  the  Lady 
Arabella  Stuart,  cousin  of  James  I.,  but 
subsequently,  playing  a  conspicuous  part 
in  the  royalist  cause  in  the  Great  Rebel- 
lion, obtained  a  reversal  of  the  Protector's 
attainder,  and  in  1660  took  his  seat  in 
the  House  of  Peers  as  3d  Duke  of  Somer- 
set, though  the  descendants  of  the  first 
duke,  by  his  first  marriage,  were  then 
in  existence.  He  died  unmarried  in  1671, 
and  the  ducal  title  ultimately  passed  to 
a  cousin,  on  whose  death  it  was  inherited 
by  Charles  Seymour  (1661-1748),  known 
in  history  as  the  "Proud  Duke  of  Somer- 
set," a  nobleman  whose  style  of  living 
was  ostentatious  and  haughty  in  the  ex- 
treme, and  who  filled  several  high  posts 


SEYMOUR 


363 


SHACKLETON 


in  the  courts  of  Charles  II.,  William  III., 
and  Anne.  He  married  the  heiress  of 
the  Percies,  by  whom  he  had  a  son,  Alger- 
non, 7th  duke,  who  in  1749  was  created 
Earl  of  Northumberland,  with  remainder 
to  his  son-in-law,  Sir  Hugh  Smithson,  the 
ancestor  of  the  present  Percy  line.  On 
the  death  of  this  duke  in  1750  a  curious 
peerage  case  arose,  the  title  being  claimed 
by  the  descendants  of  the  1st  duke  by 
his  first  marriage;  and  the  attorney-gen- 
eral having  reported  in  favor  of  the  claim, 
Sir  Edward  Seymour  took  his  seat  in 
the  House  of  Peers  as  8th  duke.  The 
earldom  of  Hertford,  which  became  ex- 
tinct in  1750,  was  in  that  same  year  con- 
ferred on  this  8th  duke's  first  cousin, 
Francis,  who  in  1793  was  advanced  to 
the  dignity  of  marquis. 

SEYMOUR,  SIR  EDWARD  HOBART, 

a  British  admiral,  born  1840.  He  was 
educated  at  Radley  and  entered  the  navy 
in  1852.  He  became  commander  in  1866, 
reaching  the  grade  of  admiral  in  1901. 
He  served  in  the  Black  Sea  during  the 
Crimean  War  and  was  present  at  the 
bombardment  of  Odessa,  Sebastopol,  and 
Kinburn  in  1854-5.  He  was  in  the  China 
War,  was  present  at  the  capture  of  Can- 
ton, and  was  wounded  on  the  coast  of 
Africa  in  1870.  He  wTas  commander-in- 
chief  at  Devonport  in  1903-5  and  repre- 
sented England  at  New  York  for  the 
Hudson  Fulton  celebration  in  1909.  He 
wrote:  "My  Naval  Career  and  Travels." 

SEYMOUR,  HORATIO,  an  American 
statesman;  born  in  Pompey  Hill,  Onon- 
daga co.,  N.  Y.,  May  31,  1810.  After 
serving  three  terms,  with  marked  ability, 
in  the  New  York  Legislature,  in  1852  he 
was  elected  governor  on  the  Democratic 
ticket.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
he  was  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  supre- 
macy of  the  Constitution,  and  as  governor 
a  second  time  (1863-1865)  showed  con- 
spicuous energy  and  ability  in  raising 
troops.  His  second  incumbency  of  the 
governorship  was  marked  by  the  draft 
riots  in  1863.  In  1868  he  was  defeated 
for  the  presidency  by  General  Grant.  As 
an  orator,  Mr.  Seymour  was  easy,  agree- 
able, and  powerful,  rising  often  into  true 
eloquence.  He  died  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Feb. 
12,  1886. 

SEYMOUR,  LADY  JANE,  the  third 
wife  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  the  mother  of 
Edward  VI.;  born  in  England,  about  1510. 
She  was  at  first  maid  of  honor  to  Anne 
Boleyn,  whom  she  supplanted  in  1536. 
She  died  Oct.  24,  1537,  a  few  days  after 
giving  birth  to  her  son. 

SFAX,  a  town  on  the  E.  coast  of 
Tunis,  situated  in  the  midst  of  fruit  gar- 
dens. It  is  surrounded  by  walls  and  bas- 
tions, and  has  a   strong  citadel.     It  ex- 


ports large  quantities  of  fruit,  wool, 
sponges,  alfa,  etc.  Sfax  was  captured 
by  the  French  after  a  two  days'  bom- 
bardment on  July  16,  1881.  Pop.  about 
45,000. 

SGRAFFITO,  or  SCRATCHED  WORK, 
the  name  given  to  a  mode  of  external 
wall  decoration  practiced  in  Italy,  and 
of  which  examples  have  been  found  in 
Pozzuoli  near  Naples,  of  the  date  of  about 
200  B.  c.  The  process  is  accomplished  by 
means  of  superimposed  layers  of  plaster 
applied  and  operated  on  in  the  following 
manner:  First,  the  wall  having  been 
thoroughly  moistened  to  insure  adhesion, 
a  %-inch  coat  of  plaster  is  floated  on, 
and  before  it  is  perfectly  dry  a  ^-inch 
skin  of  black,  red,  or  any  other  colored 
plaster  that  will  not  fade  is  applied; 
when  this  is  set  and  while  it  is  still  wet, 
a  finishing  coat  of  white  plaster  is  added. 
A  full-sized  drawing  of  the  design  that 
is  to  be  realized  is  then  transferred  to 
this  outer  coating,  and  the  outline  cut 
through  to  the  second  coat  with  a  sharp 
instrument,  and  made  broad  or  narrow 
according  to  the  effect  desired,  and  where 
necessary  these  incisions  are  enforced  by 
additional  lines  as  shading.  Examples 
of  the  system  are  to  be  found  in  the  choir 
boys'  school  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  the 
inner  court  of  the  Science  Schools  at 
South  Kensington,  and  the  interiors  of 
some  churches  in  England.  There  are 
15th-century  specimens  of  sgraffito  pot- 
tery in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 
The  examples  of  house  decoration  in  Italy 
are  of  the  15th,  16th,  and  17th  centuries. 

SHACKLETON,  SIR  ERNEST  HEN- 
RY, a  British  Antarctic  explorer,  born 
m  1874,  at  Kilkee,  Ireland.  He  served 
for  a  time  in  the  commercial  marine 
and  as  an  officer  of  the  Royal  Naval 
Reserve,  serving  as  a  lieutenant  under 
Captain  R.  F.  Scott,  on  the  British  Na- 
tional Antarctic  expedition,  from  1901  to 
1904.  In  1907  he  organized  and  com- 
manded an  expedition  during  which  he 
made  valuable  explorations,  reaching  the 
south  magnetic  pole  for  the  first  time. 
He  personally  led  a  party  which  reached 
the  latitude  of  88°  27',  within  97  miles 
of  the  pole.  This  passed  all  previous 
records  by  366  geographical  miles.  He 
discovered  the  pole  and  an  enormous  gla- 
cier, and  mountain  ranges.  The  journey 
ended  in  a  vast  polar  plateau,  about 
11,000  feet  above  sea-level.  He  was  en- 
gaged, in  1914-16,  in  an  attempt  to  cross 
the  continent  of  Antarctica  from  Coats 
Land  to  McMurdoo  Sound.  The  expedi- 
tion ended  by  the  destruction  of  its  ship, 
the  "Endurance."  The  crew,  after  many 
dangerous  adventures,  reached  Elephant 
Island,  and  Shackleton,  leaving  23  men 
on  the  island,  made  a  voyage  with  five   • 


SHACKLETON 


364 


SHAFTER 


others  in  a  whale  boat,  to  South  Georgia, 
800  miles  distant.  After  three  failures, 
he  finally  succeeded  in  reaching  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  party.  Three,  however,  had 
perished.  During  this  expedition  new 
land,  named  Kaird  Coast,  was  discovered. 
Shackleton  was  knighted  in  1909.  He 
wrote  "The  Heart  of  the  Antarctic,"  and 
"The  Diary  of  a  Troopship." 

SHACKLETON,  ROBERT,  an  Ameri- 
can writer,  born  at  Mazomanie,  Wis.,  in 
I860.  He  was  educated  in  the  schools  of 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  studied  law  at  the 
University  of  Michigan,  being  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1881.  He  was  engaged  in 
newspaper  work  in  New  York  for  several 
years  and  from  1900  to  1902  was  asso- 
ciate editor  of  "The  Saturday  Evening 
Post."  He  wrote  many  books  in  col- 
laboration with  his  wife  on  antique  fur- 
niture, and  also  books  on  miscellaneous 
subjects.  Among  these  are  "The  Great 
Adventurer"  (1904) ;  "The  Quest  of  the 
Colonial"  (1907) ;  "Adventures  in  Home- 
Making"  (1910)  ;  "The  Charm  of  the  An- 
tique" (1914)  ;  "Touring  Great  Britain" 
(1914);  "The  Book  of  Philadelphia" 
(1919):  "The  Book  of  New  York" 
(1917);  "The  Book  of  Chicago"   (1920). 

SHAD,  the  popular  name  of  three 
anadromous  fishes  of  the  genus  Clupea: 
(1)  The  allice  or  European  shad.  (2) 
The  American  shad,  C.  sapidissima,  an 
important  food  fish,  abundant  on  the  At- 


SHAD 

lantic  coast  of  America,  and  in  some  of 
the  American  rivers.  It  spawns  in  fresh 
water.  Great  quantities  are  salted.  (3) 
The  Twaite  shad,  C.  finta,  from  12  to  16 
inches  long,  with  21-27  stout  osseous  gill- 
rakers  on  the  horizontal  part  of  the  outer 
branchial  arch.  Common  on  the  coasts 
of  Europe,  ascending  rivers;  abundant 
in  the  Nile.  The  flesh  is  coarser  than 
that  of  the  allice  shad. 

SHADDOCK  (Citnts  decumana) ,  some- 
times called  pompelmoose,  a  large  species 
of  orange,  attaining  the  diameter  of  seven 
or  eight  inches,  with  a  white,  thick, 
spongy,  and  bitter  rind,  and  a  red  or 
white  pulp  of  a  sweet  taste,  mingled  with 
acidity.  It  is  a  native  of  China  and 
Japan,  and  was  brought  to  the  West  In- 
dies by  a  Captain  Shaddock,  from  whom 
it  derived  its  name.    In  the  United  States 


they  are  grown  for  the  market  in  Florida 
and  California.  Grapefruit  or  pomelo  is  a 
variety  of  shaddock. 

SHADOW.  (1)  Shade  within  defined 
limits;  the  figure  of  a  body  projected  on 
the  ground,  etc.,  by  the  interception  of 
light;  obscurity  or  deprivation  of  ligblt, 
apparent  on  a  surface  or  plane,  and  rep- 
resenting the  form  of  the  body  which 
intercepts  the  rays  of  light.  (2)  Dark- 
ness, gloom,  shade,  obscurity.  (3)  The 
dark  part  of  a  picture;  the  representa- 
tion of  comparative  deficiency  or  depri- 
vation of  light;  shade.  (4)  A  reflected 
image,  as  in  a  mirror  or  water,  hence,  any 
image  or  portrait. 

In  optics,  shadows  are,  theoretically 
considered,  of  two  kinds,  geometrical  and 
physical.  If  a  shadow  be  supposed  to  be 
produced  by  the  interception  of  light  pro- 
ceeding from  a  single  mathematical  point, 
it  will  be  well  defined  by  straight  lines 
proceeding  from  the  point,  and  grazing 
the  intervening  object.  But  as  every 
luminous  body  is  possessed  of  some  mag- 
nitude, and,  therefore,  emits  light  from 
many  points,  the  shadow  is  not  precisely 
defined,  but  consists  of  a  portion  in  per- 
fect shadow,  or  to  which  no  luminous  rays 
have  access,  and  penumbra,  to  which 
some  rays  have  access.  In  the  former 
case  the  theoretical  shadow  is  a  geometric 
one,  in  the  latter  physical,  i.  e.,  such  as 
actually  occurs  in  nature. 

SHADWELL,  THOMAS,  an  English 
dramatist;  born  in  Stanton  Hall,  Nor- 
folk, England,  about  1640.  His  comedy 
"The  Sullen  Lovers,"  produced  in  1668, 
brought  him  reputation.  Among  many 
other  plays,  he  was  the  author  of  "The 
Virtuoso"  (1676);  "Lancashire  Witches" 
(1682)  ;  "The  Squire  of  Alsatia"  (1688)  ; 
and  "Volunteers;  or,  The  Stock -Jobbers" 
(1693).  He  became  poet-laureate  and 
historiographer  royal  in  1688,  succeeding 
Dryden  in  both  positions.  ("Works,"  4 
vols.  1720.)     He  died  Nov.  20,  1692. 

SHAFROTH,  JOHN  FRANKLIN,  a 
United  States  Senator  from  Colorado, 
born  at  Fayette,  Mo.,  in  1854.  He  grad- 
uated from  the  University  of  Michigan 
in  1875  and  in  the  following  year  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  After  practicing  in 
Fayette,  Mo.,  he  removed  to  Denver.  He 
was  city  attorney  of  that  city  from  1887 
to  1891.  In  1895  he  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress, and  was  re-elected  until  1905.  He 
was  governor  of  Colorado  from  1909  to 
1911,  and  again  from  1911  to  1913.  In 
the  latter  year  he  became  United  States 
Senator,  serving  until  1919. 

SHAFTER,  WILLIAM  RTJFUS,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in  Gales- 
burg,  Mich.,  Oct.  16,  1835;  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  he  entered  the 


SHAFTESBURY 


365 


SHAFTESBURY 


7th  Michigan  Infantry  as  a  1st  lieuten- 
ant, Aug.  22,  1861;  engaged  in  the  battles 
of  Fair  Oaks,  Savage  Station,  Glendale, 
and  Malvern  Hill;  became  major  of  the 
19th  Michigan  Infantry,  Sept.  5,  1862; 
was  in  the  action  at  Thompson  Station, 
Tenn.  (taken  prisoner  in  March,  1863, 
and  exchanged  in  May,  1863)  ;  became 
lieutenant-colonel  of  the  19th  Michigan 
Infantry,  June  5,  1863;  colonel  of  the 
17th  United  States  colored  troops,  April 


WILLIAM    RUFUS   SHAFTER 

19,  1864;  brevet  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers for  gallant  and  meritorious  ser- 
vices during  the  war;  and  was  mustered 
out  of  the  volunteer  service  Nov.  2,  1865. 
He  entered  the  regular  army  and  became 
lieutenant-colonel  of  the  41st  Infantry, 
Jan.  26,  1867;  assigned  to  the  24th  In- 
fantry, April  14,  1869;  colonel  of  1st  In- 
fantry, March  4,  1879;  and  brigadier- 
general  May  3,  1897.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Spanish-American  War  he  was 
given  command  of  the  army  mobilized 
for  the  invasion  of  Cuba;  his  first  de- 
cisive move  was  the  landing  of  16,000 
men  in  Cuba  in  about  12  hours  without 
an  accident.  For  details  of  this  cam- 
paign see  Spanish-American  War.  He 
commanded  the  Department  of  California 
in  1899-1901,  and  was  retired  June  30, 
1901.     He   died  Nov.   12,   1906. 

SHAFTESBURY,    ANTHONY     ASS- 
LEY    COOPER,    FIRST    EARL    OF,    an 

English  statesman ;  born  in  Wimborne,  St. 

X— Cyc 


Giles,  Dorsetshire,  England,  July  22, 
1621.  He  succeeded  to  a  baronetcy  on 
the  death  of  his  father  in  1631.  After 
leaving  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  he  stud- 
ied law  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was  chosen 
representative  for  Tewkesbury  in  1640. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  Civil  War 
he  supported  the  royal  cause,  but  advised 
mutual  concession.  Finding  that  in  con- 
sequence of  this  opinion  he  was  distrusted 
by  the  court  he  joined  the ,  Parliament, 
and  received  command  of  its  forces  in 
Dorsetshire.  When  Cromwell  turned  out 
the  Long  Parliament,  Sir  Anthony  was 
one  of  the  members  of  the  convention 
which  succeeded,  nevertheless  he  signed 
the  protestation  charging  the  Protector 
with  arbitrary  government,  which  did  not, 
however,  prevent  him  from  becoming  one 
of  his  privy-council.  After  the  deposi- 
tion of  Richard  Cromwell  he  aided  the 
restoration  of  Charles  II.  with  all  his 
influence,  and  in  1661  was  created  Baron 
Ashley,  and  appointed  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  and  a  lord  of  the  treasury. 
Yet  he  strongly  opposed  the  Corporation 
Act  (1661)  and  the  Act  of  Uniformity 
(1662),  both  measures  favored  by  the 
crown.  He  afterward  became  a  member 
of  the  obnoxious  cabal.  In  1672  he  was 
created  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  and  lord 
high  chancellor.  His  conduct  on  the  bench 
was  able  and  impartial,  but  he  was  de- 
prived of  office,  probably  through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Duke  of  York;  and  he  at 
once  became  one  of  the  most  powerful 
leaders  of  the  opposition.  For  his  warmth 
in  asserting  that  a  prorogation  of  15 
months  amounted  to  a  dissolution  of  Par- 
liament he  was  confined  in  the  Tower 
from  February,  1677,  to  February,  1678. 
After  his  liberation  he  took  a  prominnent 
part  in  the  attacks  on  Catholics  during 
the  popish-plot  scare.  In  1679  he  became 
president  of  the  council  and  the  same 
year  was  instrumental  in  passing  the  Ha- 
beas Corpus  Act.  In  1681  he  was  in- 
dicted for  high  treason  but  acquitted.  He 
entered  into  the  plots  of  the  Monmouth 
party  and  had  to  fly  to  Holland,  where 
he  died  in  Amsterdam,  Jan.  21,  1683.  He 
is  the  Achitophel  of  Dryden's  famous 
satire. 

SHAFTESBURY,     ANTHONY     ASH- 
LEY   COOPER,   THIRD    EARL   OF,   an 

English  philosophical  and  moral  writer, 
grandson  of  the  preceding;  born  in  Exe- 
ter House,  London,  England,  Feb.  26, 
1671.  When  only  11  years  of  age  he 
could  read  Greek  and  Latin  with  ease. 
In  1695  he  became  the  representative  in 
Parliament  of  Poole,  in  Dorsetshire,  and 
strongly  supported  measures  favorable 
to  public  liberty.  In  consequence  of  ill 
health  he  resigned  his  seat  in  1698,  and 


visited  Holland  as  a  student  of  physic. 


SHAG 


366 


SHAKERS 


In  1708-1709  he  published  several  works 
of  a  philosophical  character,  among  others 
a  "Letter  on  Enthusiasm"  and  an  "In- 
quiry concerning  Virtue  or  Merit."  In 
1710  his  rapidly  declining  health  led  him 
to  fix  his  residence  at  Naples.  His  writ- 
ings were  collected  and  published  together 
under  the  title  of  "Characteristics  of  Men, 
Manners,  Opinions,  and  Times."  In  1716 
and  1721  collections  of  his  correspondence 
were  published.  He  died  in  Naples,  Italy, 
Feb.  15,  1713. 

SHAG,  coarse  hair  or  nap;  rough 
woolly  hair;  a  kind  of  cloth  having  a 
long  coarse  nap;  a  kind  of  tobacco  cut 
into  fine  shreds;  a  shred;  roughness, 
coarseness;  in  ornithology,  the  Phalacro- 
j;orax  graculus,  the  scart,  or  crested  cor- 
morant. It  is  smaller  than  the  common 
cormorant  (P.  carbo) ,  from  which  it  is 
distinguished  also  by  its  rich  dark  green 
plumage,  with  purple  and  bronze  reflec- 
tions.    Sexes  colored  alike. 

SHAGREEN,  a  species  of  leather,  or 
rather  parchment,  prepared  without  tan- 
ning, from  the  skins  of  horses,  asses,  and 
camels.  Shagreen  is  also  made  of  the 
skins  of  otters,  seals,  sharks,  etc.  It  was 
formerly  much  used  for  cases  for  spec- 
tacles, instruments,  watches,  etc. 

SHAH,  the  title  given  by  European 
writers  to  the  sovereign  of  Persia;  in 
his  own  country  he  is  known  by  the 
compound  title  Padishah.  Also  a  chief- 
tain or  prince. 

SHAHAN,     THOMAS     JOSEPH,     an 

American  educator;  born  in  Manchester, 
N.  H.,  Sept.  11, 1857;  was  educated  at  the 
American  College  of  Rome  and  at  the 
Roman  Seminary;  studied  history  at  the 
University  of  Berlin  in  1889-1891;  and 
was  ordained  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  1882.  He  became  Professor 
of  Church  History  and  Patrology  at  the 
Catholic  University  of  America  in  1891. 
From  1905-1915  he  was  associate  editor 
of  the  Catholic  Encyclopaedia.  His  pub- 
lications include  "The  Blessed  Virgin  in 
the  Catacombs"  (1892)  ;  "Giovanni  Bap- 
tista  de  Rossi"  (1900) ;  "The  Beginnings 
of  Christianity"  (1903)  ;  "St.  Patrick  in 
History"  (1905)  ;  etc.,  and  special  articles 
on  church  history  and  archaeology  in 
periodicals. 

SHAH  JEHAN,  the  5th  Mogul  Em- 
peror of  Delhi,  reigned  from  1627  to  1658, 
when  he  was  deposed  by  his  son  Aurung- 
zebe.  During  his  reign  the  Mogul  em- 
pire attained  a  great  magnificence;  he 
founded  Delhi,  where  he  erected  the  cele- 
brated peacock  throne,  valued  at  $32,500,- 
000;  built  the  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra,  a 
mausoleum  to  his  favorite  wife,  and  sev- 


eral other  buildings  which  have  become 
architecturally  famous.  He  died  in  Agra, 
in  1666. 

SHAHJAHANPTJR,  a  town  in  India, 
in  the  Northwest  Provinces;  95  miles 
N.  W.  of  Lucknow,  in  the  executive 
district  of  the  same  name.  There  is  a 
cantonment  at  the  place,  an  American 
Methodist  mission  station  with  churches 
and  schools;  and  sugar  works  in  the 
neighborhood.      Pop.    about   71,000. 

SHAIRP,  JOHN  CAMPBELL,  known 
as  Principal  Shairp,  a  Scotch  poet,  critic, 
and  essayist;  born  in  Houstoun,  Linlith- 
gowshire, Scotland,  July  30,  1819.  He 
became  principal  of  the  United  College, 
St.  Andrews.  Among  his  works  are: 
"Kilmahoe,  a  Highland  Pastoral,  and 
Other  Poems"  (1864);  "Studies  in  Poet- 
ry and  Philosophy"  (1868)  ;  "Culture  and 
Religion"  (1870)  ;  "Poetic  Interpretation 
of  Nature"  (1877) ;  "Aspects  of  Poetry" 
(1881);  and,  published  posthumously, 
"Sketches  in  History  and  Poetry"  (1887)  ; 
"Glen  Desseray  and  Other  Poems" 
(1888).  He  died  in  Ormsary,  Argyll- 
shire, Sept.  18,  1885. 

SHAKERS,  a  name  given  to  an  Ameri- 
can sect  of  celibates  of  both  sexes, 
founded  by  Ann  Lee,  an  English  emi- 
grant, about  1776,  from  their  using  a 
kind  of  dance  in  their  religious  exercises, 
but  who  call  themselves  the  United  So- 
ciety of  Believers  in  Christ's  Second  Ap- 
pearing. The  chief  settlement  is  at 
Mount  Lebanon,  N.  Y.  There  are  now 
less  than  1,000  members.  Their  founder 
was  called  the  Elect  Lady,  and  Mother 
of  all  the  Elect,  and  claimed  to  be  the 
woman  mentioned  in  Rev.  xii.  The  Shak- 
ers profess  to  have  passed  through  death 
and  the  resurrection  into  a  state  of  grace 
— the  resurrection  order,  in  which  the 
love  which  leads  to  marriage  is  not  al- 
lowed, and  are  known  as  brothers  and 
sisters.  They  abstain  from  wine  and 
pork,  live  on  the  land  and  shun  towns. 
They  cultivate  the  virtues  of  sobriety, 
prudence,  and  meekness,  take  no  oaths, 
deprecate  law,  avoid  contention,  and  re- 
pudiate war.  They  affect  to  hold  com- 
munion with  the  dead,  and  believe  in 
angels  and  spirits,  not  as  a  theological 
dogma,  but  as  a  practical  fact.  Their 
Church  is  based  on  these  grand  ideas: 
The  kingdom  of  heaven  has  come,  Christ 
has  actually  appeared  on  earth;  the  per- 
sonal rule  of  God  has  been  restored;  the 
old  law  is  abolished;  the  command  to 
multiply  has  ceased;  Adam's  sin  has  been 
atoned;  the  intercourse  of  heaven  and 
earth  has  been  restored;  the  curse  is 
taken  away  from  labor;  the  earth,  and 
all  that  is  on  it,  will  be  redeemed;  angels 


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and  spirits  have  become,  as  of  old,  the 
familiars  and  ministers  of  men. 

The  name  was  also  applied  to  an  Eng- 
lish Millenarian  sect  founded  by  Mrs. 
Mary  Anne  Girling,  who  gave  out  that 
she  was  a  new  incarnation  of  the  Deity, 
and  could  never  die.  Her  followers  es- 
tablished a  community  on  the  borders  of 
the  New  Forest;  but  Mrs.  Girling  died 
on  Sept.  18,  1886,  and  her  followers  dis- 
persed. 

SHAKESPEARE,  WILLIAM  (1564- 
1616),  was  the  son  of  John  Shakespeare, 
a  dealer  in  agricultural  products  in  the 
town  of  Stratford-on-Avon,  in  Warwick- 
shire, England.  John,  at  the  height  of 
his  fortune,  which  was  probably  improved 
by  his  marriage  with  Mary  Arden,  the 
daughter  of  a  well-to-do  squire,  rose  to 
be  bailiff  or  mayor  of  the  town;  but  later 
he  seems  to  have  had  business  reverses. 
The  birth  of  William  was  presumably  a 
few  days  previous  to  April  26,  1564,  on 
which  day  his  baptism  was  registered  in 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in  Strat- 
ford; and  this  presumption  is  strength- 
ened by  the  statement  on  the  monument 
over  his  tomb  that  at  his  death  on  April 
23,  1616,  he  was  fifty-two  years  of  age. 
We  have  no  documentary  evidence  as  to 
his  education,  but  we  know  that  there  was 
a  free  grammar  school  in  the  town,  and 
it  is  safe  to  infer  that  the  bailiff's  son 
would  be  sent  to  it,  and  would  study  there 
the  usual  Latin  authors.  There  is  a 
tradition  that  he  left  school  to  help  his 
father  at  about  the  age  of  thirteen.  When 
he  was  a  little  over  eighteen  he  married 
Anne  Hathaway,  who  was  eight  years 
his  senior,  and  who  bore  to  him  a  daugh- 
ter, Susanna,  baptized  May  26,  1583,  and 
Hamnet  and  Judith,  twins,  baptized  in 
February,  1585. 

The  statement  that  he  went  to  London 
in  1586  is  only  conjecture,  and  the  stories 
of  his  acting  as  call-boy  in  a  theater  and 
holding  horses  at  the  door  are  uncertain 
traditions.  We  know,  however,  that  by 
1592  he  had  become  a  playwright  of 
sufficient  importance  to  be  attacked  by  a 
rival,  Robert  Greene,  for  plagiarism. 
The  language  of  Greene's  attack,  which 
occurs  in  Greene's  "Groatsworth  of 
Witte,"  implies  that  Shakespeare  was  by 
this  time  actor  as  well  as  author.  Henry 
Chettle,  who  prepared  Greene's  book  for 
the  press,  in  the  preface  to  his  own 
"Kind-Harts  Dreame,"  expresses  regret 
for  not  having  removed  the  offensive  pas- 
sages from  Greene's  posthumous  book,  and 
seems  to  refer  to  Shakespeare  when  he 
speaks  of  one  of  the  victims  of  Greene's 
spleen  as  in  "demeanour  no  lesse  civill, 
than  he  exclent  in  the  qualitie  [i.  e.,  pro- 
fession of  acting]  he  professes.  Besides 
divers  of  worship  have  reported  his  up- 


rightnes  of  dealing,  which  argues  his  hon- 
esty, and  his  facetious  grace  in  writing, 
that  aprooves  his  Art." 

In  1593,  Shakespeare  issued  the  first 
publication  bearing  his  name,  the  poem 
"Venus  and  Adonis,"  dedicated  to  the 
Earl  of  Southampton.  This  was  followed 
by  "Lucrece"  in  1594,  dedicated  to  the 
same  nobleman.  Seven  editions  of  the 
first  poem  and  five  of  the  second  were 
published  during  the  poet's  lifetime,  and 
complimentary  references  to  them  are 
frequent  in  the  writing  of  the  time. 
They  are  highly  wrought  re-tellings  of  the 


WILLIAM    SHAKESPEARE 

familiar  classical  stories,  vivid  and  sen- 
suous in  description,  and  fluent  and  melo- 
dious in  style.  It  was  through  them 
rather  than  through  his  plays  that 
Shakespeare  achieved  a  literary  reputa- 
tion among  his  contemporaries. 

Meantime  he  had  become  a  member  of 
the  Lord  Chamberlain's  Company  of  Ac- 
tors, and  at  Christmas,  1594,  he  was  one 
of  those  chosen  to  play  before  Queen 
Elizabeth  at  Greenwich. 

The  Stratford  documents  again  con- 
tribute to  his  family  history  with  the 
record  of  the  death  of  his  son  Hamnet 
on  Aug.  11,  1596.  In  the  same  year 
John  Shakespeare  applied  for  a  grant  of 
arms  to  the  College  of  Heralds,  and  a 
renewed  application  in  1599  was  suc- 
cessful. 

In  1597,  the  poet  bought  for  sixty 
pounds,  New  Place,  the  largest  house  in 
his  native  town,  and  there  is  documen- 
tary evidence  of  a  series  of  real  estate 


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368 


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and  other  investments  in  Stratford  and 
London  from  this  time  till  1615.  He  not 
infrequently  engaged  in  lawsuits,  and  let- 
ters of  townsmen  in  the  Stratford  ar- 
chives contain  allusions  to  him  as  a  man 
of  means  with  money  to  lend.  The  source 
of  this  money  was  the  theater  with  which 
he  was  connected  not  only  as  author  and 
actor,  but  also  as  shareholder.  In  1598 
two  plays  were  issued  with  his  name  on 
the  title  page,  and  in  the  same  year  Fran- 
cis Meres  published  his  "Palladis  Tamia," 
in  which  he  speaks  of  the  "mellifluous 
and  honey-tongued  Shakespeare"  whom 
he  compares  to  Ovid,  Plautus,  and  Sen- 
eca, mentioning  the  two  poems  already 
described,  and  the  titles  of  twelve  plays. 
Meres  is  only  one  of  many  contempo- 
raries to  praise  the  sweetness  of  Shake- 
speare's verse,  and  to  show  by  reference 
or  quotation  the  growing  popularity  of 
his  dramas.  Writing  alone,  however, 
would  never  have  made  him  a  rich  man. 
During  his  first  decade  of  playwriting 
be  turned  out  about  two  plays  a  year  on 
the  average,  for  which  at  current  rates 
he  would  receive  about  £10  each,  equiva- 
lent to  some  $400  in  modern  values. 
Prices  rose  later,  so  that  in  his  second 
decade  it  is  calculated  he  gained  from 
this  source  about  the  equivalent  of  $1,600 
a  year.  From  what  is  known  of  the  pay 
of  actors  at  that  time,  Shakespeare  would 
earn  about  £100  a  year,  and  a  single 
share  in  the  theater  brought  in  more 
than  £200.  It  is  therefore  easy  to  see 
how  a  keen  business  man,  such  as  the 
dramatist  is  shown  to  have  been  from 
the  records  of  his  lawsuits,  could  acquire 
the  comfortable  fortune  which  Shake- 
speare possessed  at  his  death. 

We  do  not  know  when  Shakespeare 
withdrew  from  his  theatrical  activities 
in  London,  but  there  is  evidence  that  he 
sold  out  his  shares  in  the  theater  and 
retired  to  his  native  town  several  years 
before  his  death.  We  have  records  of  the 
marriage  of  his  daughter  Susanna  to  a 
Stratford  physician,  John  Hall,  of  that 
of  Judith  to  Thomas  Quiney,  and  of  the 
burial  of  his  mother  in  1608.  His  father 
was  already  dead.  In  January,  1616,  he 
made  his  will,  and  on  April  23  of  the 
same  year  died  and  was  buried  in  the 
chancel  of  Stratford  Church.  Seven  years 
later,  two  of  his  fellow  actors,  Heminge 
and  Condell,  collected  his  plays  and  pub- 
lished them  with  much  prefatory  lauda- 
tory matter  in  the  famous  "First  Folio." 
About  half  of  them  had  previously  been 
issued  in  separate  small  quarto  volumes. 

No  autograph  of  any  of  his  works  is 
preserved,  but  we  have  six  authentic  sig- 
natures. Our  impression  of  his  personal 
appearance  is  to  be  gathered  from  the 
crude  bust  over  his  grave,  and  the  en- 
graving prefixed  to  the  First  Folio.    Nu- 


merous oil  paintings  have  been  claimed 
as  authentic  likeness,  with  varying  de- 
grees of  evidence. 

These  are  the  main  established  facts 
with  reference  to  the  life  of  the  greatest 
of  English  writers,  and  considering  the 
status  of  authorship  in  his  time,  they  are 
surprisingly  numerous.  In  the  century 
of  his  death,  many  of  these  facts  appear, 
along  with  much  that  is  merely  tradi- 
tional or  legendary,  in  biographical  and 
critical  collections  such  as  those  of  Fuller, 
Aubrey,  Phillips,  and  Langbaine.  Among 
the  most  important  corroborations  are 
the  passage  in  "Timber"  by  his  friend 
and  fellow-dramatist,  Ben  Jonson,  who 
makes  some  discriminating  criticisms  but 
protests  his  friendliness,  "for  I  loved  the 
man,  and  do  honor  his  memory,  on  this 
side  idolatry,  as  well  as  any";  and  the 
splendid  eulogy  from  the  same  hand  in 
the  First  Folio.  In  the  light  of  all 
this,  it  is  hard  to  see  how  men  could 
have  doubted  the  identity  of  the  author 
of  the  plays. 

To  the  poems  already  mentioned  are  to 
be  added  his  collection  of  sonnets.  No 
part  of  his  work  has  been  subjected  to 
so  severe  a  scrutiny  in  the  hope  of  ex- 
tracting additional  biographical  facts. 
These  poems  are  written  in  the  first  per- 
son and  contain  many  allusions  to  a 
young  friend  of  high  station  and  a  "dark 
lady,"  but  no  general  agreement  has  been 
arrived  at  about  the  identity  of  either. 
Indeed,  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that 
the  allusions  in  the  poems  are  to  be 
taken  in  a  strictly  historical  sense  at  all, 
since  many  of  them  follow  conventions 
rife  in  the  numerous  sonnet  sequences 
produced  in  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury in  France  and  England.  This 
search  for  biographical  data  has  tended 
to  distract  attention  from  the  high  poeti- 
cal value  of  the  sonnets,  their  superb  and 
concentrated  diction,  and  their  splendid 
imaginative  passion. 

Shakespeare  began  his  career  as  a 
dramatist  with  collaboration,  and  the  re- 
vision and  rewriting  of  other  men's  work. 
The  result  is  found  in  the  three  parts  of 
"Henry  VI.,"  in  "Richard  III.,"  "King 
John,"  and  in  "Titus  Andronicus,"  all  of 
which  were  completed  by  1594.  To  the 
same  period  belong  his  first  experiments 
in  comedy,  "Love's  Labour's  Lost,"  "The 
Comedy  of  Errors,"  and  "The  Two  Gentle- 
men of  Verona."  Of  these,  the  first  is 
a  light  piece,  full  of  verbal  fantasies, 
with  a  good  deal  of  social  satire.  The 
second  is  based  upon  two  comedies  of 
situation  by  Plautus;  and  the  third  is  a 
romantic  play,  the  plot  of  which  is 
founded  upon  an  incident  in  the  Spanish 
novel  of  "Diana"  by  George  of  Monte- 
mayor.  Thus  in  the  first  few  years  he 
tried  his  hand  at  all  three  kinds  of  drama, 


SHAKESPEARE 


369 


SHAKESPEARE 


— history,  tragedy,  and  comedy,  not  hesi- 
tating to  make  use  of  what  he  could 
learn  from  predecessors  like  Marlowe, 
Greene,  and  Kyd. 

The  second  period  of  his  dramatic  ac- 
tivity may  be  regarded  as  extending  from 
1594  to  1601,  and  in  it  he  carried  to  the 
height  his  achievement  in  history  and 
comedy.  The  only  tragedies  are  "Romeo 
and  Juliet,"  at  the  beginning  of  the  pe- 
riod, and  "Julius  Caesar"  at  the  end.  The 
former  has  much  in  common  with  his 
comedies,  and  in  it  he  rises  to  a  height  of 
lyric  fervor  hardly  equalled  elsewhere. 
The  latter  is  in  comparison  lacking  in 
passion,  but  from  the  point  of  view  of 
characterization,  is  one  of  his  great  plays. 

The  comedies  of  this  period  begin  with 
the  poetic  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream" 
(1594-5)  with  its  tangled  love  plot  and 
abundance  of  delightful  fancy  and  hu- 
mor; followed  by  "The  Merchant  of  Ven- 
ice" (1595-6),  in  which  the  building  of 
the  plot,  the  drawing  of  the  characters, 
and  the  richness  of  the  dialogue  show 
for  the  first  time  almost  equal  mastery. 
"The  Taming  of  the  Shrew"  (1596-7),  is 
a  hilarious  farce  based  on  an  older  play. 
In  "The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor"  (1598) 
he  deals  with  English  provincial  middle- 
class  life  for  the  only  time  in  his  come- 
dies, and  uses  as  the  central  figure  the 
Falstaff  of  the  historical  plays.  In  the 
three  comedies  written  between  1599  and 
1601,  "Much  Ado  About  Nothing,"  "As 
You  Like  It,"  and  "Twelfth  Night,"  Eng- 
lish romantic  comedy  is  found  in  its  most 
brilliant  and  delightful  form.  It  is  hard 
to  find  in  any  literature  so  high  a  tech- 
nical mastery  of  verse  and  characteriza- 
tion yielding  so  much  imaginative  and 
intellectual  pleasure. 

At  the  same  time  as  these  plays  were 
being  written,  he  carried  to  its  highest 
point  the  chronicle  history.  From  "Rich- 
ard II."  (1595)  he  went  on  to  the  two 
parts  of  "Henry  IV."  (1597-8),  glorified 
by  the  scenes  which  gather  round  Sir 
John  Falstaff,  the  greatest  of  comic  crea- 
tions. In  "Henry  V."  (1599)  he  pro- 
duced a  play  abounding  in  national  spirit, 
and  made  of  the  King  the  embodiment 
of  the  English  heroic  ideal. 

The  third  period  is  mainly  occupied  by 
tragedy.  It  opens  with  the  most  famous 
of  his  works,  "Hamlet"  (1602-3).  With 
no  abatement  in  constructive  skill,  he 
concentrates  his  power  on  the  delineation 
of  the  prince,  and  gives  us  a  picture  per- 
haps unparalleled  in  its  combination  of 
subtlety  and  sympathetic  appeal.  No 
single  work  has  so  roused  the  interest  of 
men,  and  about  none  has  so  much  been 
written,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
Goethe's  "Faust."  The  level  reached  in 
"Hamlet"  is  all  but  maintained  through- 
out   the    traeredies    which    followed.      In 


"Othello"  (1604)  he  took  a  sordid  Italian 
tale  and  raised  it  to  a  high  level  of  pity 
and  terror;  in  "King  Lear"  (1605-6)  the 
most  terrible  of  his  plays,  the  forces  of 
nature  form  a  lurid  background  to  a  spec- 
tacle of  ultimate  human  suffering,  folly, 
and  wickedness;  and  in  "Macbeth"  (1606) 
a  fragment  of  a  Scottish  chronicle  is 
made  to  yield  an  appalling  picture  of  the 
degradation  of  a  human  soul  which  sur- 
renders to  unlawful  ambition.  The  trans- 
lation of  Plutarch's  "Lives,"  which  sup- 
plied material  for  "Julius  Caesar,"  was 
drawn  on  again  in  "Anthony  and  Cleo- 
patra" (1607-8),  in  some  respects  the 
most  amazing  of  his  plays  in  its  brilliance 
and  daring  and  the  splendor  of  its  style, 
and  in  "Coriolanus"  (1609)  the  somber 
tragedy  of  the  downfall  of  a  powerful 
leader  through  patrician  arrogance. 
"Timon  of  Athens"  (1607),  from  tho 
same  source,  is  only  Shakespeare's  in 
part,  but  is  not  lacking  in  passages  of 
grandeur. 

The  so-called  comedies  of  this  period 
lack  the  gaiety  of  their  predecessors. 
"Troilus  and  Cressida"  (1601-2)  is 
weighed  down  by  a  cynical  humor,  and 
"All's  Well  That  Ends  Well"  (1602?) 
suffers  from  its  plot,  in  which  a  capable 
woman  pursues  and  wins  a  worthless  and 
unworthy  youth.  "Measure  for  Measure" 
(1603)  and  "Pericles"  (1607-8)  both  con- 
tain backgrounds  of  a  debauched  society 
against  which  are  placed  in  relief  two  oi 
the  finest  and  purest  of  Shakespeare's 
female  creations.  "Pericles,"  like  "Ti- 
mon," is  in  part  by  another  hand. 

The  fourth  and  last  period  contains 
an  historical  play,  "Henry  VIII."  (1612), 
written  in  collaborator  with  John  Flet- 
cher, and  three  "dramatic  romances," 
serious  comedies  in  which  crime  and  sepa- 
ration are  followed  by  forgiveness  and 
reunion.  They  lack  the  high  spirits  of 
the  plays  of  the  great  period  of  comedy, 
but  are  full  of  noble  poetry  and  lofty 
wisdom.  "Cymbeline"  (1610)  is  in  plot 
a  combination  of  a  story  from  Boccaccio 
and  a  fragment  of  British  history;  "The 
Winter's  Tale"  (1611)  is  based  on  an 
English  novel;  and  "The  Tempest"  is  fab- 
ricated from  elements  of  familiar  folk- 
tales of  princesses,  magicians,  and  en- 
chanted islands.  This,  probably  the  last 
play  Shakespeare  wrote  alone,  and  his 
first  comedy,  "Love's  Labour's  Lost,"  are 
apparently  his  only  dramas  of  which  the 
plot  is  not  borrowed — so  careless  was  the 
greatest  of  English  imaginative  artists 
of  mere  inventive  originality. 

This  enumeration,  in  the  order  in  which 
modern  scholarship  has  arranged  them 
on  a  great  variety  of  kinds  of  evidence 
as  to  date,  gives  some  idea  of  the  im- 
mense body  of  work  of  the  highest  class 
produced   by    Shakespeare;    and   gives   a 


SHAKESPEARE    CONTROVERSY      370 


SHALLOT 


basis  for  the  study  of  his  development 
as  an  artist.  No  short  statement  can 
do  justice  to  the  many-sidedness  of  his 
achievement,  the  musical  quality  of  his 
verse,  his  mastery  of  language,  the  bril- 
liance of  his  dialogue,  the  variety  and 
profundity  of  his  knowledge  of  human 
nature  as  exhibited  in  his  characters.  His 
work  stands  unsurpassed  among  the  few 
greatest  expressions  of  the  genius  of  the 
race. 

SHAKESPEARE-BACON  CONTRO- 
VERSY, a  controversy  resulting  from  the 
contention  that  William  Shakespeare  (q. 
v.)  did  not  write  the  plays  which  are  at- 
tributed to  him.  The  beginning  of  this 
controversy  dates  back  to  1848,  and  since 
that  time  there  have  appeared  a  compara- 
tively large  number  of  books,  articles,  and 
pamphlets  on  the  subject.  Most  of  these, 
at  least  as  far  as  they  deny  Shakespeare's 
authorship,  attempt  to  prove  that  the 
real  author  of  Shakespeare's  plays  was 
Francis  Bacon  (q.  v.).  The  question  in- 
volved has  never  been  solved,  and  it  is 
doubtful  if  it  ever  will  be.  There  are 
only  two  principal  points  on  which  the 
contention,  that  Shakespeare  did  not 
write  the  plays,  is  based.  Neither  one 
of  these  points  is  subject  to  definite 
proof.  For,  while  it  is  claimed  that  it 
is  most  unlikely  that  a  country  boy  with 
as  moderate  an  education  as  we  know 
Shakespeare  to  have  possessed,  could  have 
developed  the  genius  and  could  have  dis- 
played the  learning  which  his  plays  show, 
it  is  just  as  likely  that  Shakespeare 
should  have  succeeded  in  this  as  any  other 
English  boy.  A  second  point  which  makes 
much  of  the  fact  that,  as  compared  with 
Shakespeare's  literary  importance,  we 
know  very  little  regarding  his  life,  is 
equally  slight  evidence.  For  the  truth 
is  that  we  know  more  about  Shakespeare's 
life  than  about  the  life  of  any  other 
Elizabethan  dramatist,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  Ben  Jonson,  and  furthermore 
what  we  do  know  regarding  Shakespeare's 
life  indicates  more  or  less  clearly  that 
the  former  country  boy  from  Stratford 
and  the  author  of  the  famous  plays  were 
one  and  the  same.  The  positive  evidence 
that  Bacon  wrote  the  plays  is  equally 
slight.  The  similarities  which  are  pointed 
out  between  Shakespeare's  plays  and  Ba- 
con's works  are  chiefly  phrases  of  com- 
mon usage,  and  they  are  to  be  found 
with  equal  frequency  in  the  works  of 
many  other  writers  than  Bacon.  The 
cryptograms,  which  are  claimed  to  be  se- 
cret signatures  of  Bacon,  prove  nothing, 
if  considered  with  a  fair  amount  of  rea- 
son and  logic.  For,  if  they  really  meant 
what  their  supporters  claim  for  them, 
they  could  be  used  with  equal  facility  to 
prove  Bacon's  authorship  of  works  which 


were  definitely  known  to  have  been  writ- 
ten both  before  and  after  his  death.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  controversy  has  not 
been  supported  by  any  scholar  definitely 
trained  for  literary  investigation,  and  it 
is  reasonably  sure  that  the  theoretical 
limits  within  which  the  controversy  has 
been  carried  on  will  never  be  passed. 

SHALE,  a  cod  or  pod;  a  shell;  a  husk; 
as  the  shale  of  a  bean.  In  geology,  an 
indurated  clay,  which  often  forms  beds 
in  the  coal  measures.  It  is  chiefly  com- 
posed of  silica  and  alumina,  in  variable 
proportions,  but  also  frequently  contains 
a  considerable  amount  of  carbonate  of 
lime  and  oxide  of  iron.  It  is  of  a  gray 
or  grayish-black  color,  or  brownish-red 
when  containing  much  iron.  Its  structure 
is  more  or  less  slaty.  It  is  soft,  and 
easily  reduced  to  powder.  It  is  used  for 
making  slate  pencils.  When  free  from 
lime  and  iron,  it  is  reduced  to  powder, 
and  used  for  making  fire  bricks,  for 
which  it  affords  an  excellent  material. 
Shale  very  often  contains  a  notable  quan- 
tity of  bitumen  and  is  then  known  as 
bituminous  shale,  and  from  it  may  be 
distilled  an  oil  known  as  shale  oil,  used 
for  illuminating  purposes. 

SHALER,  NATHANIEL  SOUTH- 
GATE,  an  American  geologist;  born 
near  Newport,  Ky.,  Feb.  22,  1841.  He 
served  two  years  as  an  artillery  officer 
in  the  Union  army  during  the  Civil  War; 
was  instructor  in  zoology  and  geology  at 
the  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  Harvard, 
in  1868-1872;  Professor  of  Palaeontology 
in  1868-1887;  then  Professor  of  Geology; 
dean  of  Lawrence  Scientific  School;  and 
after  1884  geologist  in  charge  of  Atlantic 
Division  United  States  Geological  Survey. 
Among  his  works  are  the  "Kentucky  Geo- 
logical Reports  and  Memoirs"  (7  vols., 
1876-1882)  ;  "On  the  Nature  of  Intellec- 
tual Property  and  its  Importance  to  the 
State"  (1878)  ;  "Aspects  of  the  Earth" 
(1889);  "The  Story  of  our  Continent" 
(1892) ;  "Nature  and  Man  in  North 
America"  (1892);  "The  Interpretation 
of  Nature"  (1895) ;  "Sea  and  Land" 
(1894) ;  "The  United  States  of  America" 
(2  vols.,  1893);  "The  Individual:  Study 
of  Life  and  Death"  (1900);  "The  Citi- 
zen," "The  Neighbor"  (1904)  ;  "Man  and 
the  Earth"  (1905) ;  and  reports  of  United 
States  Geological  Survey  on  Marine 
Marshes,  Fresh-Water  Swamps,  Soils, 
Harbors,  etc.     He  died  in  1906. 

SHALLOP,  a  light  fishing-vessel  with 
two  masts  and  carrying  lug  or  fore-and- 
aft  sails;  also  a  sloop  or  a  boat  for  one 
or  two  rowers. 

SHALLOT,  a  plant,  the  Allium  asca- 
lonicum,  a  species  of  garlic,  the  mildest 
cultivated.    It  is  sufficiently  hardy  to  en- 


SHAMANISM 


371 


SHANNON 


dure  the  severest  winters.  The  shallot 
is  used  to  season  soups  and  made  dishes, 
and  makes  a  good  addition  in  sauces, 
salads,  and  pickles. 

SHAMANISM,  a  form  of  religion  prac- 
ticed in  Siberia.  There  is  no  system  of 
belief,  and  the  only  religious  ceremonies 
consist  in  the  Shamans  working  them- 
selves into  a  fury,  and  supposing  or  pre- 
tending that  they  are  inspired  by  the 
spirit  in  whose  name  they  speak,  and 
through  whose  inspiration  they  are  en- 
abled to  answer  questions  and  foretell 
the  future. 

SHAMOKIN,  a  borough  in  Northum- 
berland co.,  Pa.;  on  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading,  and  Pennsylvania  railroads;  18 
miles  S.  E.  of  Sunbury.  It  is  located  in 
the  anthracite  coal  section.  Here  are 
electric  lights,  electric  railroads,  water- 
works, National  and  State  banks,  and 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  The  bor- 
ough has  machine  shops,  foundries,  and 
a  number  of  mines.  Pop.  (1910)  19,588; 
(1920)    21,204. 

SHAMPOOING,  the  name  given  in  the 
East  Indies  to  a  process  connected  with 
bathing,  in  which  the  whole  body  is 
pressed  and  kneaded  by  the  hands  of  the 
attendants.  In  the  United  States  the 
term  is  applied  to  the  thorough  cleansing 
of  the  scalp  by  lathering,  rubbing  and 
washing. 

SHAMROCK,  a  ternate-leaved  plant, 
adopted  by  the  Irish  as  their  national 
emblem.  Many  and  warm  have  been  the 
disputes  to  determine  the  veritable  sham- 
rock. Some  writers  contend  for  the  Ox- 
alis  acetosella,  or  wood  sorrel,  the  leaves 
of  which  unfold  about  St.  Patrick's  day; 
while  others  maintain  that  the  Trifolium 
repens,  or  white  clover,  is  the  favored 
plant.  Legends  make  out  that  St.  Pat- 
rick, when  preaching  the  Gospel  to  the 
benighted  inhabitants  of  Ireland,  illus- 
trated the  great  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
by  the  triple  leaf  of  the  shamrock. 
Whether  he  plucked  the  bright,  green 
leaf  of  the  wood  sorrel,  or  the  more  fa- 
miliar herbage  of  the  white  clover,  can- 
not now  be  determined.  The  latter  is, 
however,  now  generally  worn  by  Irish- 
men on  St.  Patrick's  day. 

SHANGHAI  (shang-hr),  a  city  and 
seaport  of  China,  in  the  province  of  Ki- 
angsu;  near  the  junction  of  the  Hwang- 
pu  and  the  Wu-sung  rivers.  The  Chinese 
city  proper  is  inclosed  within  walls  24 
feet  high,  the  streets  being  narrow  and 
dirty,  and  the  buildings  low,  crowded, 
and  for  the  most  part  unimportant.  In 
1843  Shanghai  was  opened  as  one  of  the 
five  treaty  ports,  and  an  important  for- 
eign settlement  is  now  established   (with 


a  separate  government)  outside  the  city 
walls.  The  Wu-sung  here  is  about  % 
mile  wide,  and  increases  to  over  1  mile 
at  its  outlet  into  the  Yang-tsze,  at  the 
port  of  Wu-sung.  Along  the  bank  of  the 
river  extends  a  wide  "bund"  or  quay, 
with  a  bulwark  of  stone  and  numerous 
stone  jetties,  for  landing  and  loading 
cargo.  A  municipal  council  is  elected  by 
the  English  and  Americans,  and  another 
by  the  French,  whose  quarter  is  sepa- 
rately administered.  The  subjects  and 
citizens  of  each  nationality  are  under  the 
protection  of  their  respective  consuls,  and 
a  complete  judicial  staff  has  been  estab- 
lished, forming  at  Shanghai  a  supreme 
court,  with  jurisdiction  over  all  British 
subjects  in  China  and  Japan.  The  Chi- 
nese authorities  retain  complete  control 
over  all  shipping  dues,  duties  on  imports 
and  exports,  etc.  The  chief  imports  are 
cottons,  yarns,  woolens,  kerosene,  dyes, 
sugar,  cotton  machinery  and  metals;  and 
the  exports,  hides,  cotton  yarn,  wool,  silk, 
tea,  rice,  and  raw  cotton.  Most  of  the 
foreign  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  British 
merchants.     Pop.    (1918)    1,000,000. 

SHANHAIKWAN,  a  town  of  the 
province  of  Chihli,  China.  It  has  forti- 
fications and  is  situated  at  the  E.  end  of 
the  Great  Wall,  on  the  Gulf  of  Pechili. 
It  is  divided  into  three  different  quarters 
by  thick  walls,  the  three  quarters  being 
inclosed  by  another  wall.  Business  is 
transacted  in  the  central  town,  the  others 
being  given  over  to  officials  and  residents. 
Pop.   about  38,000. 

SHANXLIN,     WILLIAM     ARNOLD, 

an  American  educator,  born  at  Carroll- 
ton,  Mo.,  in  1862.  He  graduated  from 
Hamilton  College,  in  1883,  and  afterward 
studied  at  the  Garrett  Biblical  Institute. 
He  was  ordained  to  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal ministry  in  1889,  and  served  as 
pastor  in  churches  in  Kansas,  Washing- 
ton, Iowa,  and  Pennsylvania.  From  1905 
to  1909  he  was  president  of  the  Upper 
Iowa  University,  and  in  the  latter  year 
was  chosen  president  of  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity. 

SHANNON,  a  large  river  in  the  W.  of 
Ireland,  and  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
British  Islands.  It  has  a  length  of  220 
miles,  and  is  divided  into  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Shannon.  The  Upper  Shannon, 
by  far  the  longest  and  narrowest  part  of 
the  river,  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Ul- 
ster, at  the  N.  W.  extremity  of  the  county 
of  Cavan  from  the  Cuilcagh  Mountains, 
and  flowing  S.  enters  and  passes  through 
Lough  Allen,  till,  quitting  the  county  of 
Leitrim,  it  flows  S.  and  E.  and  S.  W.  to 
the  town  of  Banagher,  forming  from  this 
portion  of  its  course  the  boundary  be- 
tween   Connaught   and    Leinster.     From 


SHANNY 


372 


SHARK 


Banagher  the  river  has  first  a  S.  W.  and 
then  a  S.  course,  till,  a  little  above  the 
city  of  Limerick,  it  divides  into  two 
branches,  which,  flowing  round  King's 
Island,  the  most  ancient  part  of  the  city, 
unite  below  to  form  the  Lower  Shannon. 
From  its  rise  in  Cavan  to  its  encircling 
the  King's  Island,  the  river  has  a  length 
of  180  miles.  In  this  course  the  river 
is  greatly  interrupted  by  shallows,  falls, 
and  rocks.  The  Lower  Shannon,  from 
Limerick  to  the  mouth  of  its  estuary  in 
the  Atlantic,  has  a  length  of  40  miles 
and  a  breadth  of  from  1  to  7  miles; 
though  the  channel  in  places  is  obstructed 
by  islands,  rocks,  and  shoals.  It  has, 
however,  good  anchorage  everywhere,  and 
forms  a  harbor  of  refuge  for  ships 
against  the  force  of  W.  gales. 

SHANNY,  or  SHAN,  a  fish,  the  Blen- 
nhi8  pholius,  sometimes  called  the  smooth 
blenny.  It  is  about  four  inches  long, 
olive-green,  with  irregular  black  spots. 
There  is  no  crest-like  appendage  on  the 
head,  and  the  notched  dorsal  is  not  con- 
tinuous with  the  caudal  fin.  The  incisors 
are  long,  and  serve  to  detach  limpets  and 
mussels  from  the  rocks.  The  shanny 
will  endure  fresh  water  for  a  short  time, 
and  will  live  for  many  days  out  of  water 
in  places  if  the  ground  is  moist. 

SHANSI,  an  inland  province  of  north- 
ern China;  area,  81,830  square  miles; 
pop.  about  10,000,000.  It  is  the  original 
seat  of  the  Chinese  people,  and  in  its 
lowland  parts  is  well  cultivated.  The 
rivers,  which  are  almost  all  tributaries 
of  the  Yellow  river,  are  numerous,  but 
not  large.  The  chief  grain  crops  are 
wheat  and  millet,  and  there  are  coal,  iron, 
copper,  and  other  minerals.  Capital, 
Tai-yuen-foo. 

SHAN  STATES,  a  number  of  tributary 
States  in  Indo-China,  between  Munnipur 
on  the  W.  and  Yunnan  on  the  E.,  and 
from  the  parallel  of  lat.  24°  N.  S.  to 
Bangkok  and  Cambodia.  Of  these  the 
Northern  States  are  tributary  to  Burma, 
and  the  Southern  to  Siam.  A  great  por- 
tion of  the  mountainous  region  of  these 
States  is  called  the  Laos  Country,  and  is 
inhabited  toward  the  N.  by  the  Black- 
bellies,  so  called  from  the  circumstance 
that  they  tattoo  themselves  with  figures 
in  ink,  and  in  the  S.  by  the  White-bellies, 
who  do  not  tattoo.  Xiengmai,  the  capital 
of  Laos,  stands  on  a  wide  plain  on  the 
Meinam,  500  miles  N.  of  Bangkok,  and 
is  said  to  contain  50,000  inhabitants.  The 
number  of  Laocians  included  in  Siam 
alone  is  estimated  at  1,000,000.  They  are 
meek,  gentle,  unwarlike,  and  superstitious. 
Their  chief  employment  is  agriculture; 
and  in  religion  they  are  Buddhists. 


SHANTUNG,  a  maritime  province  of 
China;  on  the  Yellow  Sea;  area,  55,970 
square  miles;  pop.  25,810,000.  The  chief 
river  is  the  Yellow  river,  which,  after 
traversing  the  province  in  a  N.  E.  direc- 
tion, flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Peh-chih-li. 
Wheat,  millet,  and  indigo  are  the  chief 
products,  and  the  manufactures  include 
silk,  hempen  cloths,  felt,  etc.  It  was  in 
this  province  that  Confucius  was  born. 
This  province  contains  the  important  har- 
bors of  Chef oo  and  Wei-hai-wei.  See 
China. 

SHAPINSHAY,  one  of  the  Orkney 
Islands  of  Scotland,  between  the  islands 
of  Stronsay  and  Pomona.  It  is  about 
4%  miles  long  and  4  miles  broad;  area, 
6,733  acres,  of  which  nine-tenths  are  under 
cultivation,  and  yield  excellent  crops  of 
grain.  The  surface  is  generally  flat,  but 
at  one  point  rises  to  the  height  of  162 
feet. 

SHABI,  a  large  river  in  Central  Afri- 
ca, which  enters  the  S.  side  of  Lake 
Tchad  by  several  mouths  after  a  course 
of  about  1,400  miles  from  the  S.  E.  See 
Tchad,  Lake. 

SHARK,  an  English  popular  name  for 
any  individual  of  the  group  Selachoidei. 
The  body  is  generally  elongated;  the 
muzzle,  on  the  under  side  of  which  the 
nostrils   are    placed,   projects    over     the 


BLUE   SHARK 

mouth,  and  the  males  have  claspers  (with 
the  function  of  intermittent  organs)  at- 
tached to  the  ventral  fins.  The  ova  are 
large  and  few  in  number,  impregnated, 
and  in  some  genera  developed,  within  an 
uterine  cavity;  in  others  deposited  in  a 
tough,  horny  case,  from  which  the  young 
fish,  carrying  a  yolk-bag,  for  its  nourish- 
ment till  it  is  able  to  seek  food,  is  dis- 
charged; in  this  stage  the  gill-laminae  are 
prolonged  into  filaments  projecting  be- 
yond the  gill-cavities,  but  these  are  soon 
absorbed.     The  teeth  are  generally  large, 


SHABON 


373 


SHARP 


sharp,  and  formed  for  cutting,  often  with 
serrated  edges,  but  in  some  genera  they 
form  a  solid  pavement-like  mass.  Sharks 
are  scaleless,  and  the  skin  is  usually  very 
rough  (see  Shagreen).  They  are  most 
numerous  in  tropical  seas.  The  larger 
sharks,  are  exclusively  carnivorous,  and 
some  of  them  extremely  dangerous  to 
man      The  smaller  sharks  are  popularly 


SHARP,  DALLAS  LORE,  an  Ameri- 
can writer  and  educator,  born  at  Haley- 
ville,  N.  J.,  in  1870.  He  graduated  from 
Brown  University,  in  1895,  and  studied 
theology  at  the  Boston  University.  He 
was  ordained  to  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal ministry  in  1895,  and  served  as  pas- 
tor of  a  church  in  Massachusetts  until 
1899,  when  he  was  appointed  assistant 


HAMMERHEAD    SHARK 


known  as  dog  fishes  or  hounds,  and  do 
great  damage  to  fishermen's  lines  and 
nets.  The  flesh  of  sharks  is  coarse,  but 
it  is  sometimes  eaten;  the  Chinese  use 
sharks'  fins  for  making  thick  gelatinous 
soups,  and  the  liver  yields  an  oil.  The 
rough  skin  is  employed  by  joiners  to  pol- 
ish fine-grained  wood,  and  by  cutlers  to 
cover  the  hilts  of  swords  to  make  them 
firmer  in  the  grasp.  Figurately,  a  greedy, 
artful  fellow;  one  who  fills  his  pocket  by 
sly  tricks. 

SHARON,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania, 
in  Mercer  co.  It  is  on  the  Shenango 
river,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Lake 
Shore,  and  Michigan  Southern,  the  Pitts- 
burgh and  Lake  Erie,  and  the  Erie  rail- 
roads. It  is  the  center  of  an  important 
steel  and  iron  industry,  and  has  rolling 
mills,  furnaces,  boiler  shops,  ordnance 
works,  and  manufactures  of  explosives, 
nails,  chains,  stoves,  and  lumber  products. 
It  has  also  important  coal  mining  inter- 
ests.   Pop.  (1910)  15,270;  (1920)  21,747. 

SHARP,  a  part  of  a  stream  where  the 
current  runs  very  rapidly ;  as,  sharps  and 
eddies.  In  music,  a  sign,  which,  when 
prefixed  to  a  note,  elevates  it  by  a  semi- 
tone in  the  scale.  When  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  a  piece  of  music,  it  denotes 
that  all  the  notes  on  the  line  or  space 
on  which  it  is  placed,  and  their  octaves 
above  and  below,  are  to  be  played  sharp. 
A  double  sharp  X  raises  a  note  two  semi- 
tones. To  brace  sharp,  in  nautical  lan- 
guage to  brace  the  yards  as  obliquely  as 
possible,  in  order  to  bring  a  ship  well 
up  to  the  wind. 


librarian  of  the  Boston  University.  In 
1902  he  became  assistant  professor  of 
English  at  that  institute,  and  full  pro- 
fessor in  1909.  His  books  and  articles  on 
nature  subjects  obtained  a  wide  popu- 
larity. They  include  "Wild  Life  Near 
Home"  (1901) ;  "The  Face  of  the  Fields" 
(1911);  "Winter"  (1912);  "Beyond  the 
Pasture  Bars"  (1913);  "The  Hills  of 
Hingham"  (1916). 

SHARP,  ELIZABETH  AMELIA  (Mrs. 
William  Sharp),  an  English  art  critic, 
born  at  London  in  1856.  She  was  edu- 
cated privately  and  at  University  College, 
London,  and  in  1884  married  the  late 
William  Sharp  (Fiona  Macleod).  Her 
works  include:  "Women  Poets";  "Sea-Mu- 
sic"; "Heine's  Italian  Travel  Sketches"; 
"Heine's  Art  and  Letters";  "Lyra  Cel- 
tica,  an  Anthology  of  the  Poetry  of  the 
Celt";  "A  Monograph  on  Rembrandt"; 
"William  Sharp,  a  Memoir";  "Collected 
Writings  of  Fiona  Macleod"  (7  vols.) ; 
"Selected  Writings  of  William  Sharp"  (5 
vols.). 

SHARP,  ROBEBT,  an  American  edu- 
cator, born  at  Lawrenceville,  Va.,  in  1851. 
He  graduated  from  the  Randolph-Macon 
College,  in  1876,  and  took  post-graduate 
studies  at  the  University  of  Leipzig.  He 
was  professor  of  English  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Louisiana  from  1880  to  1884,  and 
from  1884  to  1913  at  Tulane  University 
of  Louisiana.  From  that  year  to  1918 
he  was  president  of  the  latter  institution, 
and  president  emeritus  from  October, 
1918.  He  edited  several  old  English  texts 
and  wrote  on  Anglo-Saxon  literature. 


SHARP 


374 


SHATTGHNESSY 


SHARP,  WILLIAM,  a  British  critic 
and  man  of  letters;  born  in  Renfrew- 
shire, Scotland,  Sept.  12,  1856;  was  edu- 
cated at  Glasgow  University.  He  traveled 
extensively,  and  contributed  to  leading 
publications  throughout  the  world.  His 
works  include  "Humanity  and  Man,"  a 
poem;  "The  Conqueror's  Dream,  and 
Other  Poems";  "Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti," 
a  biography;  "Shakespeare's  Songs, 
Poems  and  Sonnets";  "Sonnets  of  this 
Century";  "Shelley,"  a  biography;  "Ro- 
mantic Ballads";  "Lyrical  Poems" 
(1899) ;  in  fiction,  "Children  of  Tomor- 
row," etc.  He  also  wrote  under  the  name 
of  Fiona  Macleod,  (q.  v.).  He  died 
Dec.  14,  1905. 

SHARP,  WILLIAM  GRAVES,  an 
American  diplomatist,  born  at  Mt.  Gilead, 
Ohio,  in  1859.  He  graduated  from  the 
Law  Department  of  the  University  of 
Michigan,  in  1881,  and  for  several  years 
practiced  law  at  Elyria,  Ohio.  From 
1885  to  1888  he  was  prosecuting  attorney 
of  Lorain  co.,  Ohio.     He  was  active  in 

Eolitics  and  was  a  delegate  to  several 
lemocratic  conventions.  In  1909  he  was 
elected  to  Congress,  and  was  re-elected 
successively  until  1914,  when  he  resigned 
on  his  appointment  as  ambassador  to 
France.  He  served  in  this  capacity  from 
December,  1914,  to  April,  1919. 

SHARPE,  HENRY  GRANVILLE,  an 

American  soldier,  born  at  Kingston,  N. 
Y.,  in  1858.  He  graduated  from  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1880, 
and  was  appointed  2nd  lieutenant  in  the 
same  year.  He  resigned  in  1882,  but  was 
reappointed  as  a  captain  in  1883.  He  was 
promoted  major  in  1895,  colonel  in  1901, 
and  commissary-general  in  1905.  In  1912 
he  was  made  brigadier  general  in  the 
Quartermaster  Corps,  and  in  1916  was 
made  major-general  and  quartermaster 
general.  In  1918  he  became  major  gen- 
eral of  the  line  of  the  army.  He  super- 
intended relief  work  during  several  floods 
in  the  south,  and  had  charge  of  the  com- 
missary of  the  1st  Army  Corps,  and  of 
the  Department  of  Porto  Rico  during  the 
Spanish-American  War.  He  was  chief 
commissary  of  the  Philippines  from  1902 
to  1904,  and  in  1918-19  commanded  the 
Southeastern  Department.  He  served  in 
France  in  the  latter  year.  He  was  the 
author  of  "The  Art  of  Subsisting  Armies 
in  War,"  and  "The  Provisioning  of  the 
Modern  Army  in  the  Field." 

SHARPSBURG,  a  borough  in  Alle- 
gheny co.,  Pa.;  on  the  Allegheny  river, 
and  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Pitts- 
burgh, Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis 
railroads;  5  miles  N.  E.  of  Pittsburgh. 
Here  are  public  and  private  schools, 
banks,   and   a   number   of  weekly   news- 


papers. The  borough  contains  numerous 
coal  mines,  foundries  and  iron  furnaces. 
Pop.  (1910)  8,153;   (1920)  8,921. 

SHASTA,  MOUNT,  a  peak  of  volcanic 
origin  in  Siskiyou  co.,  Cal.,  at  the  N.  end 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  14,350  feet  above 
sea-level.  On  its  summit  are  three  gla- 
ciers, one  of  which,  the  Whitney  glacier, 
is  3  miles  long.  On  its  slopes  are  some 
gigantic  trees  over  300  feet  high.  The 
mountain  is  almost  a  perfect  cone,  and 
is  a  dormant  volcano. 

SHASTER,  or  SHASTRA,  in  Brahman- 
ism,  that  by  which  faith  and  practice  are 
governed,  an  institute  of  letters,  law,  or 
religion  considered  as  of  divine  authority. 
Used  of  the  Vedas  and  other  books  of 
the  Brahmanic  scriptures. 

SHATJGHNESSY,  THOMAS  GEORGE, 
1st  Baron,  born  at  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  in 
1853.  He  was  educated  in  the  Catholic 
public  schools  and  in  1882  became  general 


THOMAS  GEORGE  SHAUGHNESSY 

purchasing  agent  on  the  Canadian  Pa- 
cific railway,  subsequently  becoming  as- 
sistant general  manager  and  president- 
He  was  also  president  and  director  of  a 
number  of  railway  companies,  all  of 
which    were    directly    or    indirectly    con- 


SHAW 


"375 


SHAW 


nected  with  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway. 
In  1901  he  was  knighted  and  in  1907  was 
made  a  baron. 

SHAW,  ALBERT,  an  American  editor; 
born  in  Shandon,  Butler  co.,  Ohio,  July 
23,  1857;  was  educated  at  Iowa  College 
and  Johns  Hopkins  University.  After 
1891  he  was  the  editor  of  the  American 
"Review  of  Reviews."  Included  in  his 
publications  are:  "Icaria:  a  Chapter  in 
the  History  of  Communism"  (1884)  ; 
"Co-operation  in  a  Western  City"  (1886)  ; 
"The  National  Revenue"  (1888)  ;  "Mu- 
nicipal Government  in  Great  Britain"; 
"Municipal  Government  in  Continental 
Europe";  "Outlook  of  the  Average  Man" 
(1907);  "Cartoon  History  of  Roosevelt's 
Career"   (1910),  etc. 

SHAW,  ANNA  HOWARD,  an  Ameri- 
tan  woman  suffragist  and  publicist,  born 
in  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  England,  in  1847. 
She  was  brought  to  the  United  States 
in  her  childhood  and  graduated  from  the 
Boston  Theological  School,  in  1878.  She 
was  ordained  to  the  Methodist  ministry, 
but  was  not  allowed  to  preach  on  account 


ANNA   HOWARD   SHAW 

of  her  sex,  and  in  1880  she  was  ordained 
by  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church,  be- 
ing the  first  woman  ordained  in  that  body. 
She  became  active  as  a  suffrage  lecturer 
in  1885,  and  continued  to  lecture  on  be- 
half of  the  movement  for  the  remainder 
of  her  life.  From  1904  to  1915  she  was 
president  of  the  National  American 
Woman  Suffrage  Association,  and  from 
1915  was  honorary  president.     She  was 


one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  effective 
of  American  workers  for  suffrage.  She 
wrote  "The  Story  of  a  Pioneer."  She 
died  in  1919. 

SHAW,  GEORGE  BERNARD,  a  Brit- 
ish playwright,  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland, 
in  1856.  He  attended  school  until  he  was 
fifteen,  when  he  became  a  clerk  in  a  real 
estate  office,  which  position  he  held  for 
five  years,  until  he  left  his  native  city  to 
seek  a  career  as  a  journalist  in  London. 
For  more  than   ten  years  he   gained   a 


GEORGE   BERNARD    SHAW 

precarious  livelihood  as  a  "free  lance" 
journalist,  meanwhile  devoting  his  spare 
time  to  writing  novels.  Most  of  these 
early  works  were  published  serially  in 
Socialist  papers  and  magazines,  and  at- 
tracted little  general  attention.  Among 
them  are  "Cashel  Byron's  Profession"  (in 
book  form,  1886) ;  "An  Unsocial  Social- 
ist" (1899)  ;  and  "Love  Among  the  Art- 
ists" (1900).  In  1885  Shaw  became 
dramatic  critic  of  the  "Pall  Mall  Gazette" 
and,  later,  of  "The  Saturday  Review," 
and  began  immediately  to  attract  public 
attention  by  his  masterly  reviews.  From 
this  first  association  with  the  stage,  he 
began  to  write  plays  himself,  the  first 
few  of  which  were  produced  and  gained 
him  considerable  reputation,  but  did  not 
prove  financially  successful.  Among  these 
were  "Widowers'  Houses"  (produced  at 
the  Independent  Theater,  1892) ;  and 
"Arms  and  the  Man"  (1894).  The  turn- 
ing point  in  his  favor  came  in  1904,  when 


SHAW 


376 


SHAW 


his  "John  Bull's  Other  Island"  was  pro- 
duced and  immediately  became  popular. 
Many  of  his  plays  have  been  presented 
m  this  country  and  have  been  appreciated 
by  select  audiences,  but  Shaw's  plays  are 
of  too  subtle  a  style  ever  to  attain  broad 
popularity.  He  has  also  been  prominent 
as  a  Socialist  speaker  and  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Fabian  Society.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  Shaw  showed  himself 
strongly  in  favor  of  the  Allied  cause, 
but  at  the  same  time  his  scathing  de- 
nouncement of  many  of  the  inefficiencies 
at  home  made  him  strongly  disliked  by 
those  who  believed  that  war-time  was  no 
time  for  criticism.  Among  his  most  re- 
cent plays  are:  "The  Inca  of  Perusalem" 
(1915) ;  "Heartbreak  House"  (1917) ;  and 
"O'Flaherty  V.  C."  (1919). 

SHAW,  HENRY  WHEELER,  an 
American  humorist;  born  in  Lanesbor- 
ough,  Mass.,  April  21,  1818;  early  went 
West  and  tried  his  hand  at  various  occu- 
pations, working  on  a  steamboat  on  the 
Ohio  river,  farming,  and  engaging  in  auc- 
tioneering. In  1859  he  began  to  write 
and  in  1860  sent  "An  Essa  on  the  Muel, 
bi  Josh  Billings"  to  a  New  York  paper. 
It  was  extensively  copied.  His  most  suc- 
cessful literary  venture,  however,  was  a 
travesty  on  the  "Old  Farmer's  Almanac," 
127,000  copies  of  which  were  sold  in  its 
second  year.  He  began  to  lecture  in  1863, 
and  for  20  years  previous  to  his  death 
contributed  regularly  to  the  New  York 
"World."  He  also  published  "Josh  Bil- 
lings, His  Sayings,"  "Josh  Billings  On 
Ice,"  "Everyboddy's  Friend,"  "Josh  Bil- 
ling's Spice  Box,"  etc.  He  died  in  Mon- 
terey, Cal.,  Oct.  14,  1885. 

SHAW,  JOHN,  an  American  naval 
officer;  born  in  Mount  Mellick,  Ireland, 
in  1773;  removed  to  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
in  1790;  and  received  employment  on  a 
merchant  vessel.  When  war  with  France 
became  probable,  he  joined  the  United 
States  navy  as  a  lieutenant;  and  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  schooner  "En- 
terprise" in  December,  1799.  During  an 
eight  months'  cruise  with  this  vessel  he 
engaged  in  five  severe  actions,  recaptured 
11  American  prizes  and  took  5  French 
privateers.  His  most  severe  battle  oc- 
curred with  the  "Flambeau,"  a  vessel  of 
100  men  and  14  guns.  He  forced  her  to 
surrender  in  less  than  an  hour  after  about 
50  of  her  crew  were  either  killed  or 
wounded,  while  the  loss  to  the  "Enter- 
prise" was  10.  He  was  promoted  captain 
in  August,  1807,  and  commanded  the  fleet 
which  was  blockaded  by  the  British  in 
the  Thames  river  in  1814.  He  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  17,  1823. 

SHAW,  JOHN  BALCOM,  an  American 
educator,  born  at  Bellport,  N.  Y.,  in  1860. 


He  graduated  from  Lafayette  College  in 
1885,  and  from  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary  in  1888.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  minis- 
try and  was  pastor  of  the  West  End 
Church,  from  1888  to  1904,  and  of  the 
Second  Church  of  Chicago,  from  1904  to 
1913.  From  the  latter  year  to  1915  he 
was  pastor  of  Immanuel  Church,  Los  An- 
geles. In  1915  he  was  elected  president 
of  Elmira  College  for  Women,  serving 
until  1917.  He  contributed  extensively 
to  magazines  and  religious  papers,  and 
wrote  "Four  Great  Questions"  (1898)  ; 
"One  Step  at  a  Time"  (1904) ;  "The  Work 
That  Wins"  (1905);  "The  Angel  in  the 
Sun."  He  was  a  delegate  to  many  inter- 
national meetings  and  conventions. 

SHAW,  JOHN  WILLIAM,  an  Ameri- 
can  Roman  Catholic  archbishop,  born  in 
Mobile,  Ala.,  in  1863.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Academy  of  the  Brothers  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  in  Mobile,  and  took  post- 
graduate studies  in  Ireland  and  in  Rome. 
He  was  ordained  priest  in  1888.  After 
serving  as  missionary  in  Montgomery, 
Ala.,  he  became  rector  of  the  Cathedral 
of  Mobile,  and  chancellor  of  the  diocese, 
in  1891.  In  1910,  he  was  appointed  co- 
adjutor bishop  of  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  and 
became  bishop  of  San  Antonio  in  1911. 
In  1918  he  became  archbishop  of  New  Or- 
leans. 

SHAW,  LEMUEL,  an  American  ju- 
rist; born  in  Barnstable,  Mass.,  Jan.  9, 
1781;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  1800  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1804.  He  followed  his  profession 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  where  he  attained  emi- 
nence; was  a  member  of  the  State  Senate 
in  1821-1822  and  1828-1829;  and  chief- 
justice  of  the  Massachusetts  Supreme 
Court  in  1830-1860.  He  won  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  jurist  of  marked  ability,  being 
accorded  a  foremost  place  among  the 
greatest  New  England  jurists.  Among 
the  most  noted  cases  at  which  he  presided 
was  that  of  Prof.  John  W.  Webster  for 
the  murder  of  Dr.  George  Parkman  and 
that  of  the  convent  rioters  in  1834.  His 
publications  include  "Fourth  of  July  Ora- 
tion" (1815) ;  "Inaugural  Address" 
(1830) ;  and  "Addresses  at  the  Opening 
of  the  New  Court  House,  Worcester" 
(1845).  He  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March 
30,  1861. 

SHAW,  LESLIE  MORTIER,  an 
American  statesman ;  born  in  Morristown, 
Vt.,  Nov.  2,  1848;  was  graduated  at  Cor- 
nell College,  Mt.  Vernon,  la.,  in  1874,  and 
at  the  Iowa  College  of  Law  in  1876,  and 
in  the  latter  year  began  the  practice  of 
law  in  Denison,  la.  Some  years  later  he 
became  interested  in  banking  and  was 
made  president  of  the  Bank  of  Denison 


SHAW  UNIVERSITY 


377 


SHEARWATER 


and  also  of  the  Bank  of  Manilla,  la.  He 
first  became  prominent  in  politics  in  1896, 
where  he  came  out  strongly  for  William 
McKinley,  and  soon  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  public  speaker.  He  was 
elected  governor  of  Iowa  for  the  terms 
of  1898-1900  and  1900-1902;  and  was 
chairman  of  the  International  Monetary 
Conference  in  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  in  1898. 
He  resigned  the  office  of  governor  in  1902 
to  succeed  Lyman  J.  Gage  as  Secretary 
of  the  United  States  Treasury  Depart- 
ment. He  retired  in  1913,  to  engage  in 
the  banking  business. 

SHAW  UNIVERSITY,  a  coeducational 
institution  in  Raleigh,  N.  C,  for  colored 
students;  founded  in  1865  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Baptist  Church;  reported  at 
the  close  of  1919 :  Professors  and  instruc- 
tors, 23 ;  students,  464 ;  president,  Charles 
F.  Meserve,  LL.  D. 

SHAWL,  a  garment  of  high  antiquity. 
Even  the  elaborately  wrought  and  beau- 
tiful shawls  of  India  and  Persia  have 
been  continuously  made  from  an  early 
time.  Kashmere  shawls  are  made  of  a 
very  fine  material  called  pashm  or  pash- 
mina,  consisting  of  the  inner  or  under- 
wool  of  the  shawl  goat  of  Tibet. 

At  Paisley  in  Scotland,  for  many  years 
previous  to  1860  the  manufacture  of 
shawls  was  of  great  importance.  They 
were  made  of  silk,  wool,  or  cotton,  either 
separately  or  in  combination;  but  the 
best-known  class  of  Paisley  shawls  was 
manufactured  of  fine  wool  and  with  pat- 
terns in  the  style  of  those  woven  in 
Kashmere.  Soon  after  the  middle  of  the 
century,  however,  the  manufacture  be- 
gan to  decline.  Tartan  shawls  are  still 
made  at  several  places  in  Scotland. 
Shawls  are  now  manufactured  in  most 
European  countries,  in  the  United  States 
and  the  East. 

SHAWNEE,  a  city  of  Oklahoma,  in 
Pottawatomie  co.  It  is  on  the  Atchison, 
Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe,  the  Chicago,  Rock 
Island,  and  Pacific,  and  the  Missouri, 
Kansas,  and  Texas  railroads.  It  has  rail- 
road shops,  cotton  gins,  oil  mills,  etc.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  Baptist  University  and 
the  Catholic  University.  Pop.  (1910) 
12,474;    (1920)    15,348. 

SHAWNEE  INDIANS,  a  tribe  of 
American  Indians  of  the  Algonquin  fam- 
ily, formerly  settled  mainly  in  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio,  but  driven  W. 
by  the  Iroquois.  They  helped  the  French 
against  the  English,  gave  trouble  to  the 
newly-founded  United  States,  and  in  1812 
some  bands  joined  the  English.  They 
afterward  removed  to  Missouri,  Kansas, 
and  Indian  Territory. 


SHAYS,  DANIEL,  an  American  in- 
surgent; born  in  Hopkinton,  Mass.,  in 
1747;  served  as  ensign  at  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  the  Continental  army.  He 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  popular  move- 
ment in  western  Massachusetts  for  the 
redress  of  alleged  grievances,  appearing 
before  Springfield,  Mass.,  at  the  head  of 
1,000  men  to  prevent  the  session  of  the 
Supreme  Court  at  that  place,  and  com- 
manding the  rebel  party  at  Pellham  and 
at  the  engagement  with  the  militia  at 
Petersham.  After  the  rebellion  was  put 
down,  however,  he  was  pardoned  by  the 
government  and  later,  in  his  old  age,  was 
allowed  a  pension  for  his  services  during 
the  Revolutionary  War.  He  died  vt 
Sparta,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  29,  1825. 

SHEA,  the  Bassia  butyracea  of  botan- 
ists, is  a  native  of  tropical  Asia  and 
Africa.  The  trunk  of  this  tree,  when 
pierced,  yields  a  copious  milky  juke,  and 
shea  or  vegetable  butter  is  found  in  the 
nuts  when  crushed. 

SHEARTAILS  (Thaumastura) ,  a  genus 
of  humming  birds,  of  which  the  slender 
sheartail  (T.  enicura)  and  Cora's  shear- 
tail  (T.  Cora)  are  two  familiar  species. 
These  birds  occur,  the  former  in  Central 
America  generally;  the  latter  in  Peru 
and  in  the  Andes  valleys.  They  derive 
their  name  from  the  elongation  of  the 
two  central  tail  feathers  of  the  males. 

SHEARWATER,  the  name  of  several 
marine  birds  of  the  genus  Puffinus.  The 
greater  shearwater  (P.  cinereus),  which  is 
18  inches  long,  is  found  on  the  S.  W. 


GREATER   SHEARWATER 

coasts  of  England  and  Wales.  They  fly 
rapidly,  skimming  over  the  sea,  from 
which  they  pick  up  small  fishes,  mollusks, 
etc.  The  name  is  sometimes  applied  to 
the  scissor-bill  or  skimmer  (Rhynchops 
nigra). 


SHEATFISH 


378 


SHEEP 


SHEATFISH,  a  name  applied  to  any 
fish  of  the  family  Siluridse,  but  specifi- 
cally to  Silurns  giants,  called  also  the 
sly  silurus,  with  the  exception  of  the 
sturgeon,  the  largest  European  fresh- 
water fish.  It  is  allied  to  the  catfish.  It 
is  common  in  Germany,  Poland,  Styria, 
the  Danube,  and  the  rivers  of  southern 
Russia.  It  attains  a  weight  of  from  300 
to  400  pounds,  and  the  flesh  of  the  young 
fish  is  well-flavored.  The  fat  is  used  in 
dressing  leather,  and  the  air  bladder  is 
made  into  gelatine. 

SHEATH  BILL,  in  ornithology,  the 
genus  Chionis,  made  known  by  the  natur- 
alists of  Cook's  second  voyage,  a  speci- 
men of  C.  alba  having  been  met  with  on 
New  Year  Island,  on  Dec.  31,  1774.  It 
resembles  a  pigeon  in  size  and  general 
appearance ;  plumage  pure  white ;  bill  yel- 
low at  base,  passing  into  pink  at  tip; 
round  the  eyes  the  skin  is  bare,  and  dotted 
with  cream-colored  papillae;  legs  bluish- 
gray.  In  the  Falkland  Islands  it  is  called 
the  kelp  pigeon.  Another  species  was 
discriminated  in  1842  by  Dr.  Hartlaub; 
it  is  smaller  than  C.  alba,  with  similar 
plumage,  but  having  the  bill  and  bare 
skin  of  the  face  black  and  the  legs  much 
darker.  The  sealers  of  Kerguelen  Land 
call  it  the  sore-eyed  pigeon,  from  its 
prominent  fleshy  orbit. 

SHEATHING,  that  which  sheathes  or 
covers;  specifically,  in  shipbuilding,  a 
covering,  usually  thin  plates  of  copper 
or  an  alloy  containing  copper,  to  protect 
the  bottom  of  a  wooden  ship  from  worms. 

SHEAVE,  the  grooved  wheel  in  the 
shell  of  a  block  or  pulley  over  which  the 
rope  runs.  In  wooden  blocks,  it  is  gen- 
erally of  lignum  vitae,  and  has  a  brass 
bushing,  called  a  coak,  which  runs  on 
the  pin.  In  locksmithing,  a  sliding  scut- 
cheon for  covering  a  keyhole. 

SHEBA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  king- 
dom of  South  Arabia,  embracing  the 
greater  part  of  Arabia  Felix;  named  af- 
ter Sheba,  one  of  the  sons  of  Jokshan, 
second  son  of  Abraham  and  Keturah 
(Gen.  xxv.  3-4).  The  Queen  of  Sheba  vis- 
ited Solomon,  990  B.  c.  (I  Kings  x.  1-13). 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  called  the  people 
Sabaei,  or  Sabaeans. 

SHEBOYGAN,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Sheboygan  co.,  Wis. ;  on  Lake  Michigan 
'  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sheboygan  river,  and 
on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  rail- 
road; 52  miles  N.  of  Milwaukee.  Here 
are  a  United  States  Government  building, 
an  Asylum  for  the  Chronic  Insane,  Home 
for  the  Friendless,  St.  Nicholas  Hospital, 
State  Fish  Hatchery,  public  library, 
waterworks,  street  railroad  and  electric 
light  plants,  and  several  daily  and  weekly 


newspapers.  It  is  the  shipping  point  for 
an  extensive  dairying  and  agricultural 
region.  Sheboygan  is  chiefly  noted  for 
its  manufacture  of  chairs.  Besides  this 
industry  it  has  stamped  steel  and  cast- 
iron  works,  and  manufactories  of  furni- 
ture, soap,  boilers,  bicycles,  leather,  pi-  • 
anos,  beehives,  boots  and  shoes,  carriages 
and  wagons,  and  bricks  and  tiles.  Pop. 
(1910)  26,398;   (1920)  30,955. 

SHEEHAN,  PATRICK  AUGUSTINE, 
an  Irish  Roman  Catholic  clergyman  and 
novelist,  born  at  Mallow,  County  Cork,  in 
1852.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Colman's 
College  and  at  Maynooth.  He  was  pastor 
of  Roman  Catholic  churches  in  several 
cities  in  England  and  Ireland,  up  to 
1903,  when  he  became  canon  of  Cloyne. 
He  was  a  prolific  writer  in  all  lines  of 
literature,  but  is  best  known  as  a  novel- 
ist. His  books  afford  graphic  pictures 
of  Irish  life  and  character.  They  include 
"My  New  Curate"  (1899)  ;  "Parerga" 
(1908) ;  "Miriam  Lucas"  (1912) ;  "Graves 
at  Kilmorna"  (1915).  The  latter  book 
was  published  after  his  death,  which  oc- 
curred in  1913. 

SHEEHAN,  PERLEY  POORE,  an 
American  editor  and  writer,  born  in  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio,  in  1875.  He  graduated 
from  Union  College  in  1898,  and  engaged 
in  newspaper  work  in  New  York,  London, 
and  Paris,  until  1908.  He  was  in  charge 
of  the  Paris  edition  of  the  "New  York 
Herald,"  from  1905  to  1907,  and  from 
1908  to  1910  was  associate  editor  of  the 
Munsey  publications.  He  wrote  "The 
Seer"  (1913) ;  "Those  Who  Walk  in  Dark- 
ness" (1915)  ;  "If  You  Believe  It,  It's  So" 
(1919).  He  also  collaborated  in  the  writ- 
ing of  several  plays. 

SHEEP,  the  common  name  of  the 
genus  Ovis,  belonging  to  the  Cavicornia, 
or  hollow-horned  ruminant  family.  Nat- 
uralists are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to 
what  was  the  original  breed  of  this  in- 
valuable animal.  Of  the  several  varieties 
of  wild  sheep  which  have  by  naturalists 
been  considered  entitled  to  the  distinction 
of  being  the  parent  stock,  may  be  men- 
tioned: (1)  the  Musmon  (O.  musmon), 
still  found  wild  in  the  mountains  of  the 
larger  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
European  Turkey;  (2)  the  Argali  (O. 
ammon),  or  wild  Asiatic  sheep,  which  are 
the  tenants  of  the  highest  mountains  of 
Central  Asia,  and  the  elevated,  inhospit- 
able plains  of  its  N.  portions;  (3)  the 
Rocky  Mountain  sheep  (0.  montana) , 
which  is  found  on  the  mountains  of  North 
America;  (4)  the  bearded  sheep  of  Af- 
rica (O.  tragelopleus) ,  found  on  the  high 
lands  of  Egypt  and  in  Barbary.  The 
leading  fact  in  the  geographical  history 
of  this  genus   is  that  it   occurs  both  in 


SHEEP 


379 


SHEEP 


the  New  and  the  Old  World,  whereas 
the  goat  trihe  are  naturally  unknown  in 
America.  It  is  usually  regarded  by  nat- 
uralists as  being  not  only  specifically,  but 
generically,  distinguished  from  the  goat 
tribe;  but  some  authorities,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  inclined  to  believe  that  the 
generic  separation  is  founded  chiefly  on 
characters  which  have  arisen   from  the 


of  naturalists  is  that  it  is  from  this  spe- 
cies the  domestic  breeds  have  been  ob- 
tained. The  bearded  sheep  of  Africa  has 
the  hair  on  the  lower  part  of  the  cheeks 
and  upper  jaws  extremely  long,  so  that 
it  forms  a  double  or  divided  beard.  The 
hairs  on  the  sides  and  body  are  short, 
those  on  the  top  of  the  neck  somewhat 
longer,   and     rather     erect.     The    whole 


A.    Markhor. 


WILD   SHEEP 
B.    Blanford  Sheep. 


C.    Barbary  Sheep. 


influential  power  of  man.  In  a  state  of 
nature,  the  sheep  is  scarcely  less  active 
or  energetic  than  the  goat. 

The  main  characteristics  of  the  four 
unsubdued  races  of  sheep  mentioned  above 
are  as  follows:  The  Musmon  measures 
about  three  feet  and  a  half  in  length, 
and  its  height,  at  the  highest  part  of  the 
back,  is  about  two  feet  six  inches.  The 
neck  is  large,  the  body  thick,  muscular, 
and  of  a  rounded  form.  The  horns  of 
the  male  are  nearly  two  feet  long.  The 
body  is  protected  by  a  short,  fine,  gray- 
colored  wool,  of  which  the  filaments  are 
spirally  twisted,  and  by  a  stiffish  silky 
hair,  sufficient  to  conceal  the  wool  be- 
neath. It  is  gregarious  in  a  state  of 
nature,  and  seldom  descends  from  the 
highly^elevated  portions  of  the  mountains 
on  which  it  dwells.     The  general  opinion 


under-parts  of  the  neck  and  shoulders 
are  covered  by  coarse  hair. 

The  Argali,  or  wild  sheep  of  Asia, 
measures  about  three  feet  in  height  at 
the  shoulder,  and  five  feet  in  length.  His 
horns  are  nearly  four  feet  long,  and 
placed  on  the  summit  of  the  head,  so  as 
to  cover  the  occiput.  They  nearly  touch 
each  other  in  front,  bending  backward 
and  laterally,  and  then  forward  and  out- 
ward. The  female  is  of  smaller  size,  and 
her  horns  are  nearly  straight.  The  Ovis 
montana,  or  Rocky  Mountain  sheep  of 
the  United  States,  is  larger  than  the 
largest  varieties  of  domestic  breeds.  The 
horns  of  the  male  are  of  great  dimen- 
sions. The  hair  in  this  species  resembles 
that  of  a  deer. 

The  many  varieties  of  sheep  which 
tenant  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  may  be 


SHEEP 


380 


SHEERNESS 


conveniently  divided  into  two  classes;  the 
first  consisting  of  sheep  without  horns, 
and  the  second  of  sheep  with  horns.  Of 
the  first  class  are,  the  New  Leicester 
sheep,  the  characteristics  of  which  are 
fineness  and  fullness  of  form,  an  early 
maturity  and  propensity  to  fatten;  the 
wool,  not  so  long  as  in  some  breeds,  but 
considerably  finer.  The  Cotswold  sheep, 
which  have  been  long  celebrated  for  the 
fineness  of  their  wool,  and  which  have 
been  gradually  improved  by  crossing  with 
the  Leicester  sheep.  Their  mutton  is  fine- 
grained and  full-sized.  The  Dartmoor 
sheep,  which  have  white  faces  and  legs, 
some  with  and  some  without  horns,  small 
in  the  head  and  neck,  and  generally 
small-boned,  carcass  narrow  and  flat- 
sided.  The  Southdown  sheep  have  short 
wool,  close  and  curled.  The  flesh  is  highly 
esteemed.  The  Romney-Marsh  sheep 
have  long  but  coarse  wool,  much  internal 
fat,  and  much  hardihood,  and  require  no 
artificial  food  during  the  hardest  winter 
but  a  little  hay.  The  Cheviot  sheep  are 
a  peculiar  breed,  which  are  kept  on  the 
extensive  range  of  the  Cheviot  hills. 
They  have  the  face  and  legs  generally 
white,  and  the  body  long;  their  wool  is 
short,  thick,  and  fine;  they  possess  very 
considerable  fattening  qualities,  and  can 
endure  much  hardship  both  from  starva- 
tion and  cold.  Of  the  horned  sheep,  the 
chief  varieties  are:  The  Dorset  sheep. 
They  are  a  good  folding  sheep,  and  their 
mutton  is  well  flavored,  but  their  prin- 
cipal distinction  and  value  is  the  forward- 
ness of  the  ewes,  who  take  the  ram  at  a 
much  earlier  period  of  the  year  than  any 
other  species,  and  thus  supply  the  market 
with  lamb  at  the  time  when  it  fetches 
the  highest  price.  The  Shetland  sheep  are 
small  and  handsome;  hornless,  hardy, 
feeding  on  even  sea-weed,  and  with  soft 
and  cottony  wool.  The  Hebridean  sheep 
is  the  smallest  of  its  kind,  even  when 
fat  weighing  only  20  pounds. 

The  most  important  breed  of  sheep  as 
regards  the  texture  of  the  wool  is  the 
Merino  (O.  hispanica).  The  wool  is  fine, 
long,  soft,  twisted,  in  silky  spiral  ringlets, 
and  naturally  so  oily  that  the  fleece  looks 
dingy  and  unclean  from  the  dust  outside, 
but  is  perfectly  white  underneath.  They 
readily  form  cross  breeds,  called  demi- 
merinos,  which  have  been  brought  to  great 
perfection  in  France,  whence,  as  well  as 
from  Spain,  they  have  been  imported  into 
the  United  States.  Of  the  other  re- 
markable varieties  of  the  genus  Ovis  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  we  may 
mention  the  fat-tailed  sheep,  common  in 
Tartary,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Egypt,  the 
tail  of  which  is  so  loaded  with  fat  that  it 
alone  frequently  weighs  20  pounds.  The 
many-horned  sheep  of  Iceland,  and  the 
most  northern  part  of  the  Russian  do- 


minions, has  three,  four,  or  five  horns, 
sometimes  placed  with  great  regularity, 
and  sometimes  differing  in  proportion  and 
situation.  The  Cretan  sheep,  chiefly 
found  in  the  island  of  Crete,  are  kept  in 
many  parts  of  Europe  on  account  of  the 
strangeness  of  the  appearance  of  its 
horns,  which  are  remarkably  large,  long, 
and  spiral;  the  fat-rumped  tailless  sheep 
are  met  with  in  all  the  deserts  of  Tartary ; 
the  African  or  Guinea  sheep,  a  native 
of  all  the  tropical  climates,  both  of  Africa 
and  the  East.  Different  names  are  given 
to  the  sheep,  according  to  its  sex  and 
age.  The  male  is  called  a  ram  or  tup. 
After  weaning,  he  is  said  to  be  a  hog, 
hogget,  or  hoggerel,  a  lamb-hog,  or  tup 
hog  or  teg;  and  if  castrated,  a  wether- 
hog.  After  shearing,  he  is  called  a  shear- 
hog,  or  shearing,  or  dimmort,  or  tup. 
After  the  second  shearing,  he  is  a  two- 
shear  ram;  and  so  on.  The  female  is  a 
ewe  or  gimmer-lamb  till  weaned,  and  then 
a  gimmer,  or  ewe-hog,  or  teg.  After 
being  shorn,  she  is  a  shearing-ewe  or 
gimmen,  or  theave,  or  double-toothed  ewe; 
and  after  that  a  two-,  or  three-,  or  four- 
shear  ewe  or  theave.  The  age  of  the 
sheep  is  reckoned,  not  from  the  period 
of  their  being  dropped,  but  from  the  first 
shearing.  The  total  number  of  sheep  in 
the  United  States  on  Jan.  1,  1920,  was 
48,615,000. 

Black  sheep  is  a  figurative  term  to 
denote  a  person  who  is,  as  it  were,  out- 
lawed from  society,  by  reason  of  his  mis- 
deeds or  moral  obliquities. 

SHEEP  TICK,  a  well-known  dipterous 
insect  (Melophagns  ovinus)  belonging  to 
the  family  Hippoboscidx  or  horse  flies. 
The  pupae  produced  from  the  eggs  are 
shining  oval  bodies  which  become  at- 
tached to  the  wool  of  the  sheep.  From 
these  issue  the  tick,  which  is  horny, 
bristly,  of  a  rusty  ochre  color,  and  wing- 
less. It  fixes  its  head  in  the  skin  of  the 
sheep  and  extracts  the  blood,  leaving  a 
large  round  tumor.  Called  also  sheep 
louse. 

SHEERNESS,  a  seaport  and  royal 
dockyard  in  Kent,  England;  52  miles  E. 
of  London;  occupies  the  N.  W.  angle  of 
the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  and  thus  commands 
the  mouths  of  the  Thames  and  Medway. 
It  consists  of  the  four  divisions  of  Blue 
Town,  Mile  Town,  Westminster,  and  Ma- 
rine Town,  the  last  of  which  has  become  a 
favorite  watering-place,  while  the  first 
contains  the  dockyard  and  is  strongly 
fortified.  Sheerness  has  two  churches,  a 
Roman  Catholic  chapel  (1864),  and  large 
naval  and  military  barracks.  The  dock- 
yard, covering  60  acres,  comprises  wet 
and  dry  docks.  Captured  by  the  Dutch 
under  De  Ruyter  in  1667,  Sheerness  was 
shortly  after  fortified,  but  the  dockyard 


SHEFFIELD 


381 


SHELBURNE 


was  not  commenced  till  1814,  since  which 
time  large  sums  have  been  expended  on 
its  construction.     Pop.  about  18,000. 

SHEFFIELD,  a  city  of  Alabama,  in 
Colbert  co.  It  is  on  the  Tennessee  river, 
and  on  the  Louisville  and  Nashville,  the 
Northern  Alabama,  and  the  Southern  rail- 
roads. Its  important  industries  include 
iron  products  and  lumbering.  There  are 
also  extensive  coal  mines  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, and  the  farming  interests  are  quite 
important.  Pop.  (1910)  4,865;  (1920) 
6,682. 

SHEFFIELD,  a  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  England,  county  of 
York  (West  Riding)  ;  on  hilly  ground  at 
the  junction  of  the  Sheaf  and  Don,  about 
160  miles  N.  of  London.  The  site  of  the 
town  was  originally  confined  to  the  angle 
formed  by  the  Sheaf  and  Don,  but  it  now 
extends  along  the  slopes  above  these 
rivers  and  their  tributaries,  the  Loxley, 
Rivelin,  and  Porter.  In  the  central  parts 
great  improvements  have  been  made  in 
the  crowded  streets  by  the  corporation, 
and  the  suburban  districts  are  well  built 
and  picturesquely  situated.  The  chief  ec- 
clesiastical building  is  the  ancient  parish 
church  of  St.  Peter's  in  the  Perpendicular 
style.  There  are  numerous  educational 
and  literary  institutions,  and  the  St. 
George's  Museum  founded  by  Mr.  Ruskin. 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  town  hall, 
the  Cutlers'  Hall,  the  corn  exchange,  the 
music  hall,  and  the  Albert  Hall.  There 
are  numerous  hospitals  and  charitable 
institutions.  The  town  is  well  supplied 
with  parks,  chief  of  these  being  the  Nor- 
folk, Birth,  and  Weston  parks,  the  latter 
of  which  includes  a  museum  and  the 
Mappin  Art  Gallery.  The  trade  of  Shef- 
field is  chiefly  connected  with  cutlery,  for 
which  it  has  long  been  famous,  and  the 
manufacture  of  all  forms  of  steel,  iron, 
and  brass  work.  The  steel  manufacture 
includes  armor  plating,  rails,  engine  cast- 
ings, rifles,  etc.  There  are  also  manu- 
factures of  engines,  machinery,  plated 
goods,  Britannia  metal  goods,  optical  in- 
struments, stoves  and  grates,  etc.  Shef- 
field is  supposed  to  have  been  originally 
a  Roman  station.  Edward  I.  granted  it 
a  charter  as  a  market  town  in  1296,  and 
there  is  indication  in  Chaucer's  writings 
that  the  town  was  then  noted  for  its 
cutlery.  But  it  was  only  after  the  be- 
ginning of  the  19th  century  that  it  de- 
veloped such  importance  as  a  manufac- 
turing center.  The  chief  modern  event 
in  its  history  was  the  terrible  disaster 
in  1864,  occasioned  by  the  bursting  of 
Bradfield  Reservoir.    Pop.  (1919)  473,695. 

SHEIK,  or  SHEIKH  (Arabian),  an 
elder,  a  chief,  the  head  of  a  Bedouin 
family  of  importance  with  its  retainers, 

Y— 


or  of  a  clan  or  tribe.  When  war  exists, 
the  sheiks  of  a  region  confederate  to- 
gether and  choose  one  of  their  number 
as  a  sheik  or  chief.  The  position  of  Abra- 
ham with  his  allies,  Abner  and  Eshcol 
of  Mamre,  much  resembled  that  of  an 
Arab  sheik  with  his  confederates  (Gen. 
xiv.  13,  14).  When  a  traveler  passes 
through  the  territories  of  a  sheik  he  pays 
for  guidance  and  safe  conduct. 

SHEKEL,  in  Hebrew  weights,  the  fun- 
damental weight  in  the  Hebrew  scale.  It 
is  believed  to  have  weighed  8.78  drachms 
avoirdupois,  10  pennyweights  troy.  Half 
a  shekel  was  called  a  bekah,  which  was 
divided  into  ten  gerahs.  Three  thousand 
shekels  constituted  a  talent.  In  Hebrew 
money,  a  coin  believed  to  have  been  worth 
54.74  cents,  but  money  was  then,  perhaps, 
10  times  as  valuable  as  now.  Shekels  of 
the  Maccabee  period  still  exist.  In  shek- 
els of  three  years,  struck  under  Simon 
Maccabaeus,  the  obverse  has  a  vase,  over 
which  are  the  Hebrew  letters  aleph,  shin 
with  a  beth,  and  shin  with  a  gimel;  the 
reverse,  a  twig  with  three  buds  and  an 
inscription,  Jerusalem  Kedushah,  or 
Hakedushah  (Jerusalem  the  Holy).  The 
character  is  the  Samaritan.  Other  so- 
called  shekels  in  the  square  Hebrew  let- 
ters are  considered  forgeries. 

SHELBURNE,  JAMES  M.,  an  Ameri- 
can educator,  born  near  Taylorsville, 
Spencer  co.,  Ky.,  in  1867.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Georgetown  College,  Ky.,  and 
graduated  from  the  Southern  Baptist 
Theological  Seminary,  in  1900.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  ordained  to  the  Bap- 
tist ministry,  and  filled  pastorates  in  Ala- 
bama and  Virginia.  In  1913  he  was 
elected  president  of  Howard  College,  serv- 
ing until  1917,  when  he  engaged  in  edu- 
cational work  for  the  War  Work  Council 
of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  From  1918  he  was 
pastor  of  the  First  Church  of  Gadsden, 
Ala. 

SHELBURNE,  WILLIAM  PETTY, 
EARL  OF,  son  of  the  1st  earl,  and  ma- 
ternal grandson  of  the  famous  Sir  Will- 
iam Petty;  born  in  Dublin,  May  20,  1737. 
After  studying  at  Oxford  and  serving  in 
Germany,  he  entered  the  House  of  Com- 
mons for  the  borough  of  Wycombe  in 
1761,  but  only  sat  for  a  few  weeks,  the 
death  of  his  father  calling  him  to  the 
House  of  Lords.  When  George  Gren- 
ville  succeeded  Bute  in  1763  Lord  Shel- 
burne  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Board 
of  Trade,  and  when  Chatham  formed  his 
second  administration  in  1766  he  became 
one  of  the  Secretaries  of  State.  On  the 
fall  of  Lord  North's  ministry  in  1782, 
George  III.  sent  for  Shelburne  and  pro- 
posed to  him  to  form  a  government.  He 
declined,  not  being  the  head  of  a  party, 
Cyc  Vol  8 


SHELBY 


382 


SHELDON 


and  was  sent  by  the  king  to  the  Marquis 
of  Rockingham  with  an  offer  of  the 
Treasury,  himself  to  be  one  of  the  Sec- 
retaries of  State.  It  soon  appeared  that 
Shelburne  was  not  so  much  the  colleague 
as  the  rival  of  Lord  Rockingham,  the 
chosen  minister  of  the  court,  and  the 
head  of  a  separate  party  in  the  cabinet. 
On  Rockingham's  death  in  the  follow- 
ing July  the  king  sent  at  once  for  Shel- 
burne and  offered  him  the  Treasury, 
which  he  accepted  without  consulting  his 
colleagues.  Fox  thereupon  resigned,  and 
Shelburne  introduced  William  Pitt,  then 
only  23,  into  office  as  his  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer.  Shelburne's  ministry,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  king's  announcement 
of  his  determination  to  concede  the  in- 
dependence of  the  American  colonies, 
found  itself  outvoted  by  the  coalition  be- 
tween Fox  and  Lord  North  (February, 
1783).  He  resigned,  and  the  coalition 
ministry  took  his  place,  but  soon  broke 
up.  The  nation  expected  that  the  king 
on  this  event  would  have  sent  for  Shel- 
burne, but  William  Pitt  received  the  prize, 
and  Shelburne  was  consoled  by  being 
made  in  1784  Marquis  of  Lansdowne. 
The  rest  of  his  days  he  spent  in  retire- 
ment, amusing  himself  by  collecting  in 
Lansdowne  House  a  splendid  gallery  of 
pictures  and  a  fine  library,  and  with  the 
friendship  of  Priestley,  Jeremy  Bentham, 
Sir  S.  Romilly,  Mirabeau,  Dumont,  and 
others.  He  died  in  Bowood  Park,  Wilt- 
shire, May  7,  1805. 

SHELBY,  ISAAC,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer;  born  in  North  Mountain, 
Md.,  Dec.  11,  1750;  settled  with  his  father 
on  the  site  of  Bristol,  Tenn.,  in  1771,  and 
there  engaged  in  the  herding  of  cattle.  ' 
In  1774  he  was  made  a  lieutenant  in  a 
company  commanded  by  his  father.  He 
was  present  at  the  action  of  Point  Pleas- 
ant, where  his  skill  won  the  day,  and 
he  commanded  the  fort  there  till  July, 
1775.  During  the  battle  of  Long  Island 
flats,  when  the  American  line  was  broken 
by  the  attack  of  the  Indians,  though  pres- 
ent only  as  a  private,  he  took  command, 
and  by  his  valor  so  inspirited  the  troops 
that  they  rallied  and  completely  defeated 
the  savages.  Along  with  the  defense  of 
Watauga  this  victory  saved  the  colonies 
in  the  South  from  a  rear  attack.  Later 
Shelby  was  appointed  commissary-general 
of  the  Virginia  troops  with  the  rank  of 
captain;  was  made  colonel  in  1779;  and 
in  the  following  year  with  John  Sevier 
planned  the  expedition  which  brought 
about  the  action  of  King's  Mountain  and 
changed  the  whole  aspect  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary War.  In  1792,  when  Kentucky 
became  a  State  he  was  chosen  its  first 
governor  by  an  overwhelming  majority. 
He  refused  to  be  a  candidate  for  a  second 


term,  but  settled  down  to  farm  life  which 
he  declined  to  leave  for  public  office. 
When  the  War  of  1812  broke  out  and 
Michigan  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy, 


ISAAC    SHELBY 

though  63  years  old,  he  recruited  and 
led  4,000  men  to  re-inforce  Gen.  William 
H.  Harrison.  In  recognition  of  this  ser- 
vice Congress  voted  him  a  gold  medal  and 
he  received  the  thanks  of  both  that  body 
and  the  Legislature  of  Kentucky.  He 
died  near  Stanford,  Ky.,  July  18,  1826. 

SHELBYVILLE,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Shelby  co.,  Ind.;  on  the  Big  Blue 
river,  and  on  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago,  and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis  rail- 
roads; 26  miles  S.  E.  of  Indianapolis. 
It  is  in  a  rich  agricultural  section,  and 
has  a  large  general  trade,  flour,  saw  and 
planing  mills,  and  manufactories  of  bar- 
rels, ice,  glue,  soda-fountains,  baking 
powder,  carriages,  and  furniture.  Pop. 
(1910)  9,500;  (1920)  9,701. 

SHELDON,   CHARLES   MONROE,  an 

American  clergyman;  born  in  Wellsville, 
N.  Y.,  Feb.  26,  1857;  was  graduated  at 
Brown  University  in  1883  and  at  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary  in  1886;  was 
ordained  in  the  Congregational  Church 
the  same  year,  and  became  pastor  of  the 
Central  Congregational  Church,  Topeka, 
Kan.,  in  1899.  In  1912  he  resigned  to 
become  a  "minister-at-large."  He  was 
recalled  to  the  Central  Church  in  1915. 
He  edited  the  Topeka  "Capital"  for  one 
week  in  1900,  as  a   distinctly  Christian 


SHELDON 


383 


SHELL 


newspaper,  and  was  the  author  of  numer- 
ous books  including  "His  Brother's  Keep- 
er," "In  His  Steps,"  "Malcolm  Kirk," 
"Edward  Blake,"  "Born  to  Serve,"  etc. 
In  1920  he  was  appointed  editor  of  the 
"Christian  Herald,"  New  York. 

SHELDON,  EDWARD  BREWSTER, 
an  American  playwright,  born  in  Chicago, 
in  1886.  He  graduated  from  Harvard 
University  in  1907  and  at  once  began 
the  writing  of  plays.  Among  those  were 
successfully  produced  "Salvation  Nell" 
(1908) ;  "The  Nigger"  (1909) ;  "The 
High  Road"  (1912);  "Garden  of  Para- 
dise"   (1915). 

SHELDRAKE,  in  ornithology,  the 
Tadorna  cornuta  (or  vulpanser)  of  mod- 
ern ornithologists;  Anas  tadorna.  It  is 
somewhat  larger  than  an  ordinary  duck, 
with  a  fleshy  protuberance  at  the  base 
of  the  bill,  whence  its  specific  name.  It 
is  a  very  handsome  bird;  head  and  upper 
neck  dark,  glossy  green,  broad  white  col- 
lar, below  which  a  broader  band  of  bright 


SHELDRAKE 

bay  extends  from  the  back  across  the 
breast;  outer  scapulars,  primaries,  a  me- 
dian abdominal  stripe,  and  a  bar  on  tip 
of  middle  tail  quills  black;  inner  secon- 
daries and  lower  tail  coverts  gray;  specu- 
lum rich  bronze  green;  rest  of  plumage 
white.  The  female  is  smaller  and  less 
brilliantly  colored.  It  frequents  sandy 
coasts  in  Europe  and  North  Africa,  rang- 
ing across  Asia  to  Japan ;  nesting  usually 
in  a  rabbit  hole.  The  ruddy  sheldrake, 
T.  casarca,  is  a  native  of  Barbary,  south- 
eastern Europe,  and  Central  Asia.  Its 
color  is  an  almost  uniform  bay,  the  male 
with  a  black  ring  round  the  neck.  The 
common  sheldrake  breeds  freely  in  cap- 
tivity. 

SHELL,  in  zoology,  the  hard  calcareous 
substance  which  either  protects  the  testa- 
ceous mollusca  externally,  or  supports 
certain     species     of     them     internally. 


Though  shells,  properly  so  called,  which 
form  the  habitation  of  testaceous  animals 
are  sometimes  confounded  with  the  shelly 
coverings  which  protect  the  Crustacea 
(crabs  and  their  numerous  allies),  a  very 
obvious  and  striking  difference  exists  be- 
tween them,  as  well  as  between  the  kinds 
of  animals  which  respectively  inhabit 
them.  The  shells  of  testacea  are  com- 
posed of  carbonate  of  lime,  combined 
with  a  small  portion  of  gelatinous  mat- 
ter; they  are,  in  general,  permanent  cov- 
erings for  their  inhabitants;  and  the 
animal  is  of  a  soft  substance,  without 
bones  of  any  kind,  and  attached  to  its 
domicile  by  a  certain  adhesive  property. 
On  the  other  hand,  those  animals  which 
are  defended  by  a  crustaceous  covering 
cast  their  shells  and  renew  them  annu- 
ally; while  the  animals  themselves  are  of 
a  fibrous  texture,  with  articulated  limbs, 
and  protected,  as  it  were,  by  a  coat  of 
mail. 

Shells  are  divided  into  Multivalves,  Bi- 
valves, and  Univalves.  The  first  order, 
Multivalve,  is  made  up  of  shells  consisting 
of  more  shelly  parts  or  pieces  than  two. 
The  second  order,  Bivalve  is  made  up 
of  shells  having  two  parts  or  valves,  gen- 
erally connected  by  cartilage  or  hinge; 
as  in  the  cockle  and  mussel.  The  third 
order,  Univalve,  is  made  up  of  shells 
complete  in  one  piece — as  in  the  peri- 
winkle and  the  whelk — and  they  are  sub- 
divided into  shells  with  a  regular  spire, 
and  those  without  a  spire.  The  shells 
composing  this  order  are  far  more  nu- 
merous than  those  of  the  two  preceding, 
both  in  genera  and  species.  The  spire  is 
a  prominent  feature  of  the  Univalve; 
and  on  its  being  lengthened  or  elevated, 
shortened  or  depressed,  etc.,  depends  much 
of  the  generic  and  specific  definitions. 
Shells  increase  in  size  by  the  deposition 
of  new  layers  internally  on  those  already 
formed.  Each  new  layer  extends  more 
or  less  beyond  the  margin  of  the  layer 
to  which  it  is  applied,  so  that  as  the  ani- 
mal becomes  older  its  shell  becomes  larger 
and  thicker.  The  outer  surface  is  gen- 
erally covered  by  a  thin  layer  of  mem- 
branous or  horny  matter,  named  the  epi- 
dermis, and  the  inner  surface  is  often 
covered  with  a  layer  of  a  pearly  nature. 

In  military  usage  the  name  shell  is 
given  to  a  hollow  vessel  of  metal  contain- 
ing gunpowder,  or  other  explosive  com- 
pound, so  arranged  that  it  will  explode 
at  a  certain  point  and  spread  destruction 
around  by  the  forcible  dispersion  of  its 
fragments.  The  invention  of  this  missile, 
formerly  called  a  Bomb  (q.  v.),  cannot 
be  accurately  traced.  Shells  were  em- 
ployed in  a.  D.  1480  by  the  Sultan  of 
Gujerat,  and  by  the  Turks  at  the  siege 
of  Rhodes  in  1522.  The  Spaniards  and 
Dutch   both   used  them  during  the  war 


SHELLAC 


384 


SHELLEY 


of  Dutch  independence;  and  they  appear 
to  have  heen  generally  adopted  by  about 
1634.  Formerly  every  shell  was  a  hollow 
sphere  of  cast  iron,  having  a  fusehole 
an  inch  across,  through  which  the  charge 
was  inserted,  consisting  of  pieces  of  metal 
and  powder  to  burst  the  shell.  The  hole 
was  plugged  by  a  fuse,  timed  to  communi- 
cate fire  to  the  charge  after  the  lapse 
of  a  certain  number  of  seconds.  Since 
the  introduction  of  rifled  ordnance,  the 
shell  has  become  the  commonest  form  of 
projectile.  It  has  ceased  to  be  spherical, 
and  is  usually  of  cylindrical  form  and 
pointed  at  the  end.  In  the  World  War 
vast  quantities  of  large  explosive  shells 
were  used  to  blast  the  way  for  attacks. 
See  Projectile;  Artillery;  Ammuni- 
tion; Explosives. 

SHELLAC,  lac  purified  by  melting  and 
straining  through  coarse  cotton  bags.  It 
occurs  in  commerce  in  thin,  translucent, 
hard  flakes,  varying  in  color  from  yel- 
lowish-brown to  black,  sp.  gr.  1.139,  and 
is  soluble  in  alcohol,  hydrochloric  acid, 
acetic  acid,  potash,  soda,  borax,  and  am- 
monia. A  bleached  or  white  variety  is 
prepared  by  dissolving  crude  lac  in  pot- 
ash or  soda,  filtering  and  passing  chlorine 
gas  into  the  filtrate  till  all  is  precipitated; 
this  is  then  collected,  washed  with  water, 
slightly  heated,  and  then  twisted  into 
sticks.  Shellac  is  chiefly  used  in  var- 
nishes, lacquers,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  sealing  wax. 

SHELLEY,  HARBY  HOWE,  an  Am- 
erican composer,  born  at  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  in  1858.  He  studied  music  in  New 
York,  London,  and  Paris,  and  in  1899 
became  organist  of  the  Fifth  Avenue  Bap- 
tist Church,  New  York.  His  works  in- 
clude symphonies,  a  symphonic  poem,  sev- 
eral cantatas,  and  many  songs  and  pieces 
for  the  organ. 

SHELLEY,  NARY  (GODWIN),  an 
English  author,  second  wife  of  the  poet 
Shelley;  born  in  London,  Aug.  30,  1797. 
Her  first  story,  "Frankenstein"  (1818), 
won  for  her  a  place  among  the  imagina- 
tive writers  of  England;  it  was  followed 
by  "Valperga,"  a  historical  romance 
(1823);  "The  Last  Man"  (1826);  "Lo- 
dore"  (1835);  "Falkner"  (1837).  She 
died  in  London,  Feb.  21,  1851. 

SHELLEY,  PERCY  BYSSHE,  English 
poet,  son  of  Timothy  Shelley  and  grand- 
son of  Sir  Bysshe  Shelley;  born  Horsham, 
England,  Aug.  4,  1792;  educated,  Sion 
House  (Brentford),  Eton,  and  University 
College,  Oxford.  Of  a  delicate  constitu- 
tion he  was  early  characterized  by  an 
extreme  sensibility  and  a  lively  imagina- 
tion, and  by  a  resolute  resistance  to 
authority,  custom,  and  every  form  of  what 
he  considered  tvranny.     At  Eton  he  put 


himself  in  opposition  to  the  constituted 
authorities  by  refusing  to  submit  to  fag- 
ging. At  Oxford  he  published  anony- 
mously, a  scholastic  thesis  entitled  "The 
Necessity  of  Atheism."  The  authorship 
being  known  he  was  challenged,  and  re- 
fusing either  to  acknowledge  or  deny  it, 
was  at  once  expelled.  After  leaving  the 
university,  he  completed  his  poem  of 
"Queen  Mab,"  begun  some  time  previous- 
ly, and  privately  printed  in  1813.  His 
first  great  poem,  "Alastor,  or  the  Spirit 
of  Solitude,"  (1816),  was  followed  in 
1817  by  the  "Revolt  of  Islam,"  a  poem 


PERCY  BYSSHE  SHELLEY 

in  the  Spenserian  stanza.  In  September, 
1811,  six  months  after  his  expulsion,  he 
eloped  to  Edinburgh  with  Harriet  West- 
brook,  the  daughter  of  a  retired  inn- 
keeper. She  was  16  years  of  age,  his 
own  age  being  19.  The  marriage  turned 
out  unhappily,  and  after  nearly  three 
years  of  a  wandering  unsettled  life  Mrs. 
Shelley  returned  with  two  children  to  her 
father's  house.  In  November,  1816,  she 
committed  suicide  by  drowning.  Shelley 
was  deeply  affected  by  this  event,  but  soon 
after  married  Mary  Godwin,  with  whom 
he  had  visited  the  Continent  in  1814,  and 
by  whom  he  already  had  a  child.  By  a 
suit  in  Chancery  decided  in  1817,  Mr. 
Westbrook  obtained  the  guardianship  of 
the  children,  on  the  plea  that  his  atheisti- 
cal opinions  and  irregular  views  on  mar- 
riage made  the  father  unfit  to  be  intrusted 
with  them.  Partly  from  his  lungs  being 
affected,  and  partly  from  anxiety  lest  he 


SHELTER  AND  HOUSING 


385 


SHENANDOAH 


should  be  deprived  of  the  children  of  his 
second  marriage,  Shelley  left  England  in 
March,  1818,  and  the  whole  short  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  passed  in  Italy. 
After  staying  for  some  time  with  Lord 
Byron  at  Venice  he  proceeded  to  Naples; 
after  Naples  he  visited  Rome;  and  from 
Rome  he  went  to  Florence  and  Leghorn, 
and  finally  settled  at  Pisa.  On  July  8, 
1822,  he  was  sailing  with  a  Mr.  Williams 
in  the  Bay  of  Spezia  when  both  were 
drowned  by,  as  was  believed,  the  upset- 
ting of  the  boat  through  a  sudden  squall. 
His  body  was,  according  to  Italian  law, 
cremated  on  the  seashore. 

SHELTER  AND  HOUSING,  a  term 
which  includes  not  only  housebuilding  it- 
self, but  the  production  of  housebuilding 
materials,  plumbing,  ventilation,  gas  and 
electrical  fittings,  house  decoration  and 
sanitation.  During  and  after  the  World 
War,  however,  it  suddenly  began  to  ac- 
quire a  social  significance  which  hitherto 
had  not  been  appreciated.  Labor  being 
diverted  into  war  industries,  housebuild- 
ing practically  ceased  in  all  the  civilized 
countries,  including  those  not  involved  in 
the  war,  and  rents  leaped  to  such  heights 
as  had  never  been  attained  before,  rising 
proportionately  higher  than  the  prices 
of  any  other  necessities.  The  problem 
became  still  more  acute  after  the  war, 
when  it  became  obvious  that  capital  was 
not  being  invested  in  housing  while  the 
prices  of  land  and  building  materials  con- 
tinued at  exorbitant  rates.  Many  plans 
for  the  promotion  of  housebuilding  were 
proposed  and  put  into  practice.  Among 
these  were  state  subsidies,  loans  to  build- 
ing and  loan  associations,  exemption  from 
taxation,  municipal  and  co-operative  hous- 
ing. The  United  States  Government  had 
been  compelled  to  enter  the  field  of  house- 
building during  the  war,  through  the 
United  States  Housing  Corporation,  and 
completed  a  large  part  of  its  program 
for  the  erection  of  21,000  individual 
houses.  The  first  state  to  take  direct 
hold  of  housing  enterprises  was  Massa- 
chusetts, whose  Homestead  Commission 
received  a  large  appropriation  for  the 
purchase  and  building  of  homes.  Okla- 
homa also  passed  a  law  which  authorized 
the  investment  of  certain  state  funds  in 
loans  for  building  homes,  and  North  Da- 
kota, in  1919,  created  a  State  Housing 
Association,  which  acted  as  a  building 
and  loan  association,  on  a  state-wide  basis 
and  with  the  financial  backing  of  the 
state.  Relief  from  the  situation  was  in 
sight  at  the  end  of  1920,  when  the  inves- 
tigations of  the  Lockwood  Committee  of 
New  York  demonstrated  the  fact  that  the 
manufacturers  and  dealers  in  housing 
materials  had  formed  a  national  combine 
to  hold  up  their  prices,  which  were  then 


150  per  cent  higher  than  they  had  been 
before  the  war.  Almost  immediately  af- 
ter the  beginning  of  the  investigation 
prices  began  falling,  and,  though  they  soon 
rose  again,  by  the  end  of  the  year  there 
was  a  considerable  renewal  of  activity  in 
the  housing  industry. 

SHEM,  one  of  the  three  sons,  and  ac- 
cording to  many  commentators  the  elder 
son,  of  Noah  (Gen.  v.  32),  from  whom 
descended  the  nations  enumerated  in  Gen. 
x.  22,  sq.,  and  who  was  the  progenitor 
of  that  great  branch  of  the  Noachian 
family  called  from  him  Shemitic  or 
Semitic,  to  which  the  Hebrews  belong. 
See  Semites. 

SHEMAKHA,  a  town  in  Transcau- 
casia, Russia;  on  the  Zagolavan  river; 
70  miles  from  Baku;  2,230  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Black  Sea.  It  has  numerous 
ruins  of  large  caravansaries,  churches, 
and  public  buildings;  and  is  the  capital 
of  Shirvan.  In  February,  1902,  it  was 
visited  by  a  great  earthquake,  in  which 
4,000  houses  were  destroyed  and  2,000 
people  perished.     Pop.  about  23,000. 

SHENANDOAH,  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  which  flows  N.  E.  through  the 
valley  of  Virginia,  and  immediately  be- 
low Harper's  Ferry  joins  the  Potomac, 
of  which  it  is  the  principal  tributary. 
Its  length  is  170  miles,  the  greater  part 
of  which  is  navigable  for  boats.  The 
valley  of  the  Shenandoah  wa^  the  scene 
of  numerous  military  operations  in  the 
American  Civil  War,  and  was  devastated 
by  General  Sheridan  in  1864. 

SHENANDOAH,  a  borough  in  Schuyl- 
kill co.,  Pa.;  on  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading,  the  Lehigh  Valley,  and  the  Penn- 
sylvania railroads;  13  miles  N.  of  Potts- 
ville.  Here  are  a  number  of  the  largest 
coal  mines  in  the  rich  anthracite  coal 
section  of  which  it  is  the  center.  It  also 
contains  a  high  school,  street  railroad 
and  electric  light  plants,  public  library, 
building  and  loan  association,  National 
and  other  banks,  a  daily  and  several 
weekly  newspapers.  It  has  hat  factories, 
and  other  industries.  Pop.  (1910)  25,- 
774;    (1920)    24,726. 

SHENANDOAH,  a  city  of  Iowa,  in 
Page  co.  It  is  on  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton, and  Quincy,  the  Keokuk  and  Western, 
and  the  Wabash  railroads.  It  is  the 
center  of  an  important  fruit-growing 
and  poultry-raising  region.  Its  industries 
include  the  manufacture  of  wagons, 
plows,  knit  goods,  etc.  Its  notable  build- 
ings include  an  Elks'  Home,  a  Carnegie 
Library,  the  Western  Normal  College,  and 
the  World's  Missionary  Training  School. 
Pop.    (1910)    4,976;    (1920)    5,255. 


SHENANDOAH 


386 


SHEOL 


SHENANDOAH,  THE,  a  ship  in  the 
Confederate  service  during  the  American 
Civil  War.  It  was  built  at  Glasgow  in 
1863  for  the  China  trade,  and  in  1864 
was  purchased  by  the  Confederates.  Her 
war  record  included  the  capture  of  38 
Federal  vessels.  Lieut.  J.  I.  Waddell  was 
in  command  from  1864  to  1865,  while  the 
Shenandoah  was  a  privateer.  On  Oct. 
19,  1864,  the  vessel  was  commissioned  and 
ordered  on  a  Pacific  cruise.  Before  reach- 
ing Melbourne  she  made  nine  captures. 
From  Australia  she  sailed  N.,  and  in  the 
whaling  regions  did  much  destruction 
among  the  New  England  whaling  fleets. 
This  career  was  continued  for  several 
months  after  Lee's  surrender,  and  in- 
cluded the  last  hostile  acts  of  the  Civil 
War.  When  Commander  Waddell  learned 
of  the  close  of  the  war,  he  sailed  to  Liver- 
pool and  surrendered  to  the  British  Gov- 
ernment. The  commander  and  crew  were 
liberated  and  the  ship  was  handed  over 
to  the  United  States  consul.  The  Shenan- 
doah was  the  only  vessel  that  carried 
the  Confederate  flag  around  the  world. 

SHENANDOAH  MOUNTAINS,  a 
range  of  the  Alleghenies  forming  the  W. 
boundary  of  the  Shenandoah  valley  in 
Virginia. 

SHENANDOAH  VALLEY,  a  valley  in 
Virginia;  between  the  Blue  Ridge  on  the 
E.  and  the  Shenandoah  Mountains  on 
the  W.  It  is  noted  for  its  beautiful 
scenery,  hilly  and  broken,  with  interven- 
ing fertile  slopes  and  extents  of  high  roll- 
ing land.  It  has  large  forests  of  various 
kinds  of  trees,  including  oak,  chestnut, 
and  hickory.  The  entire  valley  is  of  great 
historic  interest,  having  been  the  arena 
of  thrilling  events  in  the  American  Civil 
War,  including  "Stonewall"  Jackson's 
campaign  in  1862,  and  that  conducted 
by  Sheridan  in  1864. 

SHENANGO,  a  river  in  the  N.  W. 
part  of  Pennsylvania,  joining  the  Maho- 
ning near  New  Castle,  the  two  rivers 
forming  the  Beaver.  It  is  about  90  miles 
long. 

SHENG-KING,  or  LIAO  TUNG.  See 
Shingking  and  Liao  Tung. 

SHENG-LI,  wild  aborigines  of  Hainan 
(q.  v.).  They  are  intractable,  given  to 
feuds  and,  though  armed  only  with  spear 
and  bow,  have  been  a  source  of  much 
trouble  to  the  Chinese  authorities. 

SHENOUTE  (SlNUTHIUS),  abbot  of 
Atrepe  (Suhag),  near  Akhmin,  Egypt. 
He  was  the  Coptic  leader  who,  in  the  4th 
century,  organized  a  national  church  and 
led  the  forces  which  successfully  warred  on 
idolatry  (see  Copt,  Coptic).  Died  a.  d.  451. 


SHEN-SI,  a  province  of  China;  bound- 
ed on  the  N.  by  Mongolia,  on  the  E.  by 
the  Hwang-ho  and  Honan,  on  the  S.  by 
Hupeh  and  Sze-chuen,  and  on  the  W.  by 
Kansuh;  area,  75,270  square  miles.  The 
Tsing-ling  mountains  divide  the  province 
into  two  distinct  regions,  of  which  the 
northern  is  the  more  important.  Shen-Si 
is  chiefly  an  agricultural  province,  but 
contains  very  extensive  coal  fields,  both 
anthracite  and  bituminous,  and  abundant 
deposits  of  iron  ore.  A  British  syndi- 
cate obtained  a  concession  for  working 
the  Shen-si  mines.  In  1901  the  famine 
in  Shen-si  was  so  severe  that  cannibalism 
was  resorted  to  and  it  was  estimated 
that  30  per  cent  of  the  population  died. 
From  Si-ngan-foo,  the  provincial  capital, 
and  anciently  the  capital  of  the  empire, 
radiate  a  number  of  roads  going  E.,  S., 
and  W.,  and  Shen-si  is  thus  the  great 
channel  of  communication  between  China 
and  Central  Asia.     Pop.  6,725,000. 

SHENSTONE,  WILLIAM,  an  English 
poet;  born  at  the  Leasowes,  near  Hale- 
sowen, England,  in  November,  1714.  His 
best-remembered  poems  are:  "The  School- 


W1LLIAM    SHENSTONE 

mistress"  (1742)  ;  "The  Pastoral  Ballad" 
(1755) ;  and  "Written  in  an  Inn  at  Hen- 
ley." His  "Works"  and  "Letters"  were 
collected  in  three  volumes  (1764-1769) ; 
and  his  "Essays  on  Men  and  Manners" 
were  republished  in  1868.  He  died  near 
Halesowen,  Feb.  11,  1763. 

SHEOL,  in  Jewish  belief,  the  place  of 
the  dead,  from  a  Hebrew  work  meaning  a 
cave.  In  the  Authorized  Version  of  the 
Bible  it  is  translated  by  the  words,  hell, 
grave,  or  pit.  In  the  Revised  Version 
the  word  "sheol"  is  generally  left  un- 
translated in  the  text,  while  "grave"  is 
put  in  the  margin.     For  instance,  in  Ps. 


SHEPARD 


387 


SHERBROOKE 


ix.  17,  "The  wicked  shall  be  turned  into 
hell"  (Authorized  Version),  becomes, 
"The  wicked  shall  return  to  sheol"  (Re- 
vised Version).     See  Hell. 

SHEPARD,  FINLEY  JOHNSON,  an 
American  railway  official,  born  at  Say- 
brook,  Conn.,  in  1867.  He  was  educated 
at  Seabury  Institute,  in  Saybrook,  and 
engaged  in  the  railroad  business,  becom- 
ing, in  1901,  general  superintendent  of 
the  Sante  Fe  Coast  Lines,  serving  until 
1905.  He  was  a  director  of  many  rail- 
roads and  in  many  important  financial 
institutions.  In  1913  he  married  Helen 
Miller  Gould,  daughter  of  Jay  Gould. 

SHEPHERD  KINGS,  the  chiefs  of  a 
nomadic  tribe  of  Arabs,  who  established 
themselves  in  Lower  Egypt  some  2,000 
years  B.  C.  Manetho  says  they  reigned 
511  years,  Eratosthenes  says  470  years, 
Africanus,  284  years,  Eusebius,  103  years. 
Some  say  they  extended  over  five  dynas- 
ties, some  over  three,  some  limits  their 
sway  to  one;  some  give  the  name  of  only 
one  monarch,  some  of  four,  and  others 
of  six.  Bunsen  places  them  1639  B.  c; 
Lepsius,  1842  B.  c;  others,  1900  or  2000 

B.    C. 

SHEPHERD,  WILLIAM  GUNN,  an 
American  writer  and  war  correspondent, 
born  in  Springfield,  Ohio,  in  1878.  He 
was  educated  in  the  high  schools  of  St. 
Paul,  and  at  the  University  of  Michigan. 
He  began  newspaper  work  in  1898,  in 
St.  Paul.  In  1908  he  removed  to  New 
York,  and  acted  as  correspondent  for 
newspapers  in  Mexico  during  the  Madero 
revolution.  In  1912  he  was  in  Europe 
as  a  correspondent.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  World  War  he  represented  news- 
papers in  the  United  States  and  saw 
service  in  every  capital  and  with  every 
army  of  both  sides  of  the  conflict,  except 
the  Turks,  Bulgars,  and  Rumanians. 
He  wrote  many  articles  on  the  war  and 
the  campaigns.  He  attended  the  Peace 
Conference,  and  wrote  an  account  of  its 
deliberations  for  several  papers.  He 
wrote  "The  Confessions  of  a  War  Cor- 
respondent" (1917);  "The  Scar  That 
Tripled"  (1918). 

SHEPHERD,  WILLIAM  R.,  an  Am- 
erican educator,  born  at  Charleston, 
S.  C,  in  1871.  He  graduated  from  Co- 
lumbia in  1893,  and  took  post-graduate 
studies  in  Berlin  and  Madrid.  He  was 
professor  of  history  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, and  honorary  professor  of  the 
University  of  Chile.  He  acted  as  delegate 
to  the  1st  Pan-American  Scientific  Con- 
gress, in  1908-9,  and  was  secretary  of 
the  United  States  delegation  at  the  4th 
International  Conference  of  American 
States,  in  1910.  He  was  a  correspondent 
and  a  member  of  many  Spanish-American 


societies.  He  wrote  "Latin  America"; 
"Central  and  South  America";  "The  His- 
panic Nations  of  the  New  World";  "The 
Story  of  New  Amsterdam,"  and  many 
articles  on  the  history  of  colonization. 

SHEPHERD'S  DOG,  a  popular  name 
for  many  varieties  of  Canis  familaris, 
used  to  tend  and  drive  sheep.  The  Eng- 
lish shepherd's  dog  has  a  longish  head, 
with  a  sharp  muzzle,  and  good  breadth 
over  the  forehead;  his  ears  are  slightly 
raised,  and  his  coat  is  short  and  wooly; 
tail  usually  long  and  bushy;  he  is  lesa 
faithful  and  sagacious  than  the  collie. 
The  drover's  dog  is  larger  and  stronger, 
and  has  usually  a  strain  of  mastiff  blood. 

SHEPHERD'S  PURSE  (Capsella  bur- 
sa pastoris),  a  plant  of  the  natural  or- 
der Cruciferse.  It  is  an  annual  weed, 
found  in  all  temperate  climates,  having 
simple  or  cut  leaves  and  small  white 
flowers. 

SHEPPARD,  MORRIS,  a  United 
States  Senator  from  Texas,  born  in 
Wheatville,  Texas,  in  1875.  He  grad- 
uated from  the  University  of  Texas  in 
1895,  and  after  studying  law  at  Yale, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  engaged  in 
practice  in  Texas.  In  1902  he  was  elected 
to  the  57th  Congress  and  was  re-elected 
to  the  58th  and  62nd  Congresses.  He 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate 
in  1913  for  the  unexpired  term  of  Joseph 
W.  Bailey.  On  the  same  day  he  was 
elected  for  the  term  of  1913  to  1919,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1918. 

SHEPPEY,  an  island  of  England,  in 
the  county  of  Kent,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Thames,  between  the  estuaries  of  the 
Medway  and  the  Swale.  It  is  9  miles 
long  and  5  broad,  is  rich  and  fertile, 
and  contains  the  town  of  Sheerness. 

SHERBROOKE,  ROBERT  LOWE, 
VISCOUNT,  an  English  statesman;  born 
in  Bingham,  England,  Dec.  4,  1811;  was 
educated  at  Winchester  and  Oxford. 
Called  to  the  bar  in  1836,  he  went  to  Aus- 
tralia in  1842,  practiced  in  Sydney;  took 
a  leading  part  in  politics  and  became  a 
member  for  Sydney.  At  home  again  in 
1850,  and  returned  in  1852  as  a  member 
of  Parliament,  he  in  1853  took  office  under 
Lord  Aberdeen,  and  in  1855  under  Lord 
Palmerston.  During  1859-1864  he  was 
vice-president  of  the  Education  Board, 
and  introduced  the  Revised  Code  of  1862, 
with  its  principle  of  "payment  by  re- 
sults." He  opposed  the  Whig  Reform 
Bill  in  1866.  In  1868  he  aided  the  Liberal 
leaders  in  carrying  the  disestablishment 
of  the  Irish  Church.  He  obtained  in  Mr. 
Gladstone's  ministry  the  office  of  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer;  exchanging  it 
in  1873  for  that  of  Home  Secretary.    In 


SHERE  ALI  KHAN 


388 


SHERIDAN 


education  he  opposed  the  once  exclusive 
study  of  the  classics.  In  1880  he  went 
to  the  Upper  House  as  Viscount  Sher- 
brooke.  He  wrote  "Poems  of  a  Life" 
(1884).  He  died  in  Warlingham,  England, 
July  27,  1892. 

SHERE  ALI  KHAN,  Ameer  of  Af- 
ghanistan; born  in  1825;  succeeded 
his  father,  Dost  Mohammed,  in  1863. 
During  the  earlier  part  of  his  reign  he 
passed  through  many  vicissitudes,  but 
by  1868  he  was  fully  established  on  the 
throne  of  Kabul.  In  1869  he  entered  into 
friendly  relations  with  the  Indian  Gov- 
ernment. In  1878  a  Russian  mission  was 
received  with  honor  at  Kabul,  and  shortly 
afterward  permission  was  refused  for  a 
British  mission  to  cross  the  frontier. 
Thereupon  the  British  invaded  Afghanis- 
tan and  took  possession  of  the  Khyber 
Pass  and  the  Kuram  Valley.  Shere  Ali 
fled  from  Kabul,  accompanied  by  the 
members  of  the  Russian  mission.  He  died 
in  Afghan  Turkestan,  Feb.  21,  1879.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  second  son,  Yakub, 
who,  however,  on  account  of  the  Cavag- 
nari  massacre,  was  speedily  deposed  and 
deported  to  India,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  cousin,  Abdurrahman,  in  1880,  who 
died  Oct.  3,  1901.    See  Afghanistan. 

SHERIDAN,  MOUNT,  a  mountain  of 
Wyoming,  situated  in  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park;  is  a  summit  of  the  Red 
Range  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  It  is 
10,420  feet  high,  with  a  range  of  vision 
over  an  immense  expanse  and  several 
hundred  distinct  mountain  summits,  at 
distances  varying  from  30  to  200  miles. 
A  large  part  of  it  is  formed  of  porphyry 
of  a  purplish-pink  color;  and  was  named 
for  Gen.  Philip  H.  Sheridan. 

SHERIDAN,  a  city  of  Wyoming,  the 
county-seat  of  Sheridan  co.  It  is  on  the 
Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy  railroad. 
It  is  the  center  of  an  important  stock- 
raising  and  coal  mining  region.  It  has 
a  State  Hospital  and  a  public  library. 
Pop.    (1910)    8,408;    (1920)    9,175. 

SHERIDAN,    PHILIP     HENRY,    an 

American  military  officer;  born  in  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  March  6,  1831;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point  in  1853.  Entering  the  United 
States  artillery,  he  served  in  Texas  and 
Oregon  till  1855,  when  he  sailed  for  San 
Francisco  in  command  of  an  escort  to 
the  expedition  for  surveying  the  proposed 
branch  of  the  Pacific  railway  between 
San  Francisco  and  the  Columbia  river. 
Afterward  he  commanded  a  body  of  troops 
among  the  Indian  tribes  till  1861,  when 
he  was  promoted  captain.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  ap- 
pointed quartermaster  of  the  army  in 
'  Southwestern  Missouri;   in  1862  became 


chief  quartermaster  of  the  Western  De- 
partment, and  colonel  of  the  2d  Michigan 
Volunteer  Cavalry.  He  cut  the  railroads 
S.  of  Corinth;  defeated  two  separate 
forces  of  cavalry  at  Baldwin  and  Gun- 
town  in  June,  1862,  and  fought  at  Boone- 
ville;  was  promoted  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers;  took  command  of  the  11th 
Division  of  the  Army  of  Ohio;  distin- 
guished himself  at  Perryville  and  at 
Stone  river  or  Murfreesboro,  Dec.  31  and 
Jan.  3,  1863,  for  which  he  was  promoted 
major-general  of  volunteers.  He  was  en- 
gaged at  Chickamauga,  Sept.  19  and  20, 
1863,  and  in  the  operations  around  Chat- 
tanooga; was  appointed,  in  April,  1864, 
to  the  command  of  the  cavalry  corps  of 
the  Army  of  th*  Potomac;  took  part  in 


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PHILIP  HENRY   SHERIDAN 

the  battles  of  the  Wilderness,  Meadow 
Bridge,  and  Cold  Harbor,  in  May;  in 
June,  led  a  cavalry  expedition  into  the 
heart  of  the  Confederate  country  and  was 
given  the  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
Shenandoah;  defeated  General  Early  in 
several  engagements  in  the  Shenandoah 
valley.  On  Oct.  19  occurred  his  famous 
ride  from  Winchester.  Under  orders 
from  Grant  he  devastated  the  valley.  He 
was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of 
the  cavalry,  which  branch  of  the  Federal 
forces,  under  his  able  and  energetic  di- 
rection, acquired  an  efficiency  and  gained 
a  reputation  such  as  it  had  never  borne 
before.  Sheridan  was  promoted  briga- 
dier-general, U.  S.  A.,  Sept.  20,  1864,  and 
major-general,  Nov.  8  of  the  same  year. 
On  Feb.  9,  1865,  the  thanks  of  Congress 
were  tendered  to  him  for  "the  gallantry, 
military  skill,  and  courage  displayed  in 
the  brilliant  series  of  victories  achieved 
by  his  army  in  the  valley  of  the  Shenan- 
doah, especially  at  Cedar  Creek."  After 
the  capture  of  Staunton,  he  pressed  on 


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SHERIDAN 


389 


SHERIFFMUIR 


to  Columbia,  laying  waste  the  country  in 
every  direction ;  gained  the  battle  of  Five 
Forks,  April  1,  1865;  assisted  in  com- 
pelling the  Confederate  forces  to  evacuate 
Petersburg  and  Richmond,  and  near  Ap- 
pomattox Court  House  encountered  Gen- 
eral Lee,  who  surrendered  April  9. 
General  Sheridan  was  in  command  of  the 
Military  Division  of  the  Southwest  from 
June  3  to  July  17,  1865;  of  the  Military 
Division  of  the  Gulf,  July  17,  1865,  to 
Aug.  15,  1866;  of  the  Department  of  the 
Gulf,  Aug.  15,  1866,  to  March  11,  1867; 
of  the  District  of  Louisiana  and  Texas, 
March  11  to  Sept.  5,  1867;  and  of  the 
Department  of  the  Missouri,  Sept.  12, 
1867.  On  March  4,  1869,  he  was  pro- 
moted lieutenant-general,  and  Nov.  1, 
1883,  succeeded  Sherman  in  command  of 
the  army.  Congress  revived  the  grade 
of  general,  to  which  he  was  appointed, 
June  1,  1888.  He  died  in  Nonquitt,  Mass., 
Aug.  5,  1888. 

SHERIDAN,  RICHARD  BRINSLEY 
BUTLER,  an  English  dramatist;  born 
in  Dublin,  Ireland,  Sept.  30,  1751;  son  of 
Thomas  Sheridan  (1719-1788) ;  educated 
in  Dublin  and  at  Harrow.  In  1772  he 
eloped  to  France  with  Miss  Linley,  a 
young  singer  of  great  beauty  and  accom- 
plishments. In  1775  he  brought  out  "The 
Rivals,"  which  attained  a  brilliant  suc- 
cess. On  Nov.  21  he  produced  the  comic 
opera  "The  Duenna,"  which  had  a  run 
of  75  nights,  an  unprecedented  success. 
In  1776  he  became  one  of  the  proprietors 
of  Drury  Lane  Theater,  where  in  1777 
appeared  "The  School  for  Scandal,"  his 
most  famous  comedy,  and  in  1779  "The 
Critic,"  a  farce.  In  1780  he  became  a 
member  of  Parliament.  In  1782  he  be- 
came under-secretary  of  state;  in  1783, 
secretary  of  the  treasury;  in  1806,  treas- 
urer of  the  navy  and  privy-councillor. 
His  greatest  effort  as  an  orator  was  his 
"Begum"  speech  on  the  impeachment  of 
Warren  Hastings  (1787).  His  wife  died 
in  1792.  In  1795  he  married  Miss  Ogle, 
a  daughter  of  the  Dean  of  Winchester. 
His  Parliamentary  career  ended  in  1812. 
In  addition  to  the  plays  mentioned,  he 
wrote:  "A  Trip  to  Scarborough"  (1777)  ; 
"The  Stranger,"  and  "Pizarro"  (1799). 
His  speeches  were  published  in  five 
volumes  (1816).  He  died  in  London,  July 
7,  1816,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 

SHERIDAN,  THOMAS,  an  English 
scholar;  grandfather  of  Richard  B.  Sheri- 
dan ;  born  in  1687.  He  was  a  close  friend 
and  confidant  of  Swift's,  and  was  noted 
for  his  learning  and  eccentricities.  He 
wrote  the  "Art  of  Punning,"  and  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Persius.  He  died  in 
1738.  His  son,  Thomas,  father  of  the 
dramatist;   born  in  1719;   was  educated 


at  Westminster  School  and  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin.  He  became  an  actor  and 
teacher  of  elocution,  and  published  a 
"Plan  of  Education,"  "Life  of  Swift,"  and 
a  "Dictionary  of  the  English  Language." 
He  died  in  1788.  His  wife,  Frances 
Chamberlaine  (1724-1766),  was  the  au- 
thor of  two  novels,  "Sidney  Bidulph"  and 
"Nourjahad";  and  two  plays,  "The  Dis- 
covery" and  "The  Dupe." 

SHERIF,  an  Arabic  title  equivalent  to 
noble,  borne  by  the  descendants  of  Mo- 
hammed. It  descends  both  in  the  male 
and  female  line.  Those  who  possess  this 
rank  are  distinguished  by  green  turbans 
and  veils,  green  being  the  color  of  the 
Prophet.  The  title  is  applied  specifically 
to  the  chief  magistrate  of  Mecca. 

SHERIFF,  the  chief  officer  of  a  shire 
or  a  county,  to  whom  is  intrusted  the  exe- 
cution of  the  laws,  the  serving  of  judicial 
writs  and  processes,  and  the  preservation 
of  the  peace.  In  the  United  States  the 
sheriff  is  either  elected  by  the  Legislature 
or  the  citizens,  or  appointed  and  commis- 
sioned by  the  executive  of  the  State.  The 
office  is  almost  exclusively  ministerial. 
The  sheriff  in  person  or  by  deputy  exe- 
cutes civil  and  criminal  process  through- 
out the  county,  has  charge  of  the  jail  and 
prisoners,  attends  courts,  and  keeps  the 
peace.  His  judicial  authority  is  generally 
confined  to  ascertaining  damages  on  writs 
of  inquiry,  etc. 

In  England  the  sheriff  is  the  chief  of- 
ficer of  the  crown  in  every  county  or 
shire,  to  whom  the  charge  of  the  county 
is  committed  by  letters  patent.  He  is  ap- 
pointed (except  in  the  case  of  London 
and  the  county  of  Middlesex)  by  the 
crown  out  of  three  names  submitted  for 
each  county  by  the  judge  who  goes  on 
circuit. 

In  Scotland  the  sheriff  is  a  law  officer 
whose  functions  seem  to  have  been  origi- 
nally, like  those  of  the  sheriffs  in  Eng- 
land, mainly  executive,  but  who  now  is 
judge  in  a  county  court.  The  office  is 
by  the  appointment  of  the  crown.  Nearly 
all  the  sheriffs  are  now  practicing  lawyers 
resident  in  Edinburgh,  sheriff -substitutes 
acting  for  them  as  local  judges  in  the 
several  counties.  The  sheriff-substitute 
can  try  criminal  cases  when  a  conviction 
will  not  involve  more  than  two  years' 
imprisonment.  The  lord-lieutenant  of  a 
Scotch  county  sometimes  receives  the  hon- 
orary title  of   sheriff-principal. 

SHERIFFMDIR,  or  SHERIFF  MOOR, 

a  place  in  Scotland,  in  the  parish  of  Dun- 
blane, in  Perthshire.  Here  an  indecisive 
battle  was  fought  between  the  troops  of 
George  I.  under  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  and 
a  rebel  force  of  the  adherents  of  the 
Stuarts  under  the  Earl  of  Mar,  in  1715. 


SHERMAN 


390 


SHERMAN 


SHERMAN,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Grayson  co.,  Tex.;  on  the  Texas  and  Pa- 
cific, the  Houston  and  Texas  Central,  the 
Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas,  and  the 
St.  Louis  Southwestern  railroads;  64 
miles  N.  of  Dallas.  It  contains  Aus- 
tin College  (Pres.),  North  Texas  Female 
College  (M.  E.),  Carr-Carlton  Christian 
College  for  Women,  public  library,  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  Building,  Federal  buildings,  water- 
works, electric  lights,  National  and  other 
banks,  and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
It  has  cotton  gins,  a  cotton-seed  oil  mill, 
machine  shops,  foundries,  flour  mills, 
planing  mills,  carriage  and  wagon  fac- 
tories, marble  and  brick  works,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)    12,412;    (1920)   15,031. 

SHERMAN,      FRANK     DEMPSTER, 

an  American  poet;  born  in  Peekskill, 
N.  Y.,  May  6,  1860.  Educated  at  Colum- 
bia College  and  Harvard  University,  he 
became  adjunct  professor  in  the  Columbia 
School  of  Architecture.  He  published: 
"Madrigals  and  Catches";  "Lyrics  for  a 
Lute";  and,  with  John  Kendrick  Bangs, 
"New  Waggings  of  Old  Tales";  "Little 
Folk  Lyrics";  "Lyrics  of  Joy"  (1904); 
"A  Southern  Flight"  (with  Clinton  Scol- 
lard,  1906)  ;  and  "Complete  Poems" 
(1918).     He  died  in  1916. 

SHERMAN,  JAMES  SCHOOLCRAFT, 

an  Americap  public  official,  and  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  born  at  Utica, 
N.  Y.,  in  1855.  He  graduated  from  Ham- 
ilton College  in  1878,  and  after  studying 
law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1880. 
For  several  years  he  practiced  his  pro- 
fession in  Utica.  He  was  early  interested 
in  politics  and  was  elected  chairman  of 
the  Oneida  Republican  County  Committee 
while  he  was  still  a  young  man.  In  1884- 
1885,  he  was  mayor  of  Utica,  and  from 
1887  to  1891,  and  again  from  1893  to 
1909,  he  was  a  member  of  Congress.  He 
served  as  chairman  of  the  Republican 
State  conventions  in  1895,  1900,  and  1908, 
and  chairman  of  the  Republican  National 
Congressional  Committee  in  1906.  He 
was  nominated  vice-president  on  the  ticket 
of  William  H.  Taft,  and  was  elected  in 
1908.     He  died  in  1912. 

SHERMAN,  JOHN,  an  American 
statesman;  born  in  Lancaster,  O.,  May 
10,  1823;  brother  of  Gen.  William  T.  Sher- 
man; was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1844; 
served  as  a  delegate  to  the  National  Whig 
conventions  of  1848  and  1852;  and  was 
a  member  of  Congress  in  1855-1861.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  House;  was  on  the  Committee  of 
Inquiry  sent  to  Kansas;  and  joined  the 
movement  for  the  formation  of  the  Re- 
publican party.  In  1861-1877  he  was  in 
the  Senate  and  there  was  prominently 
identified  with  the  support  of  all  measures 


for  the  prosecution  of  the  Civil  War; 
defended  the  protective  tariff,  the  restora- 
tion of  specie  payments,  and  the  refund- 
ing of  the  National  debt.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  committee  that  visited 
Louisiana  to  supervise  the  counting  of  the 
returns  of  that  State,  and  a  member  of 


JOHN   SHERMAN 

the  Electoral  Commission.  He  was  See* 
retary  of  the  Treasury  in  1877-1881,  and 
superintended  the  resumption  of  specie 
payments  in  1879,  after  a  suspension  of 
17  years.  He  was  re-elected  to  the  Senate 
in  1881  and  continued  to  hold  that  office 
till  1897,  when  he  was  appointed  Secre- 
tary of  State  by  President  McKinley.  He 
resigned  that  office,  however,  in  1898,  on 
account  of  failing  health.  In  1885  he 
was  president  of  the  Senate  pro  tern.,  but 
declined  re-election  at  the  end  of  the  49th 
Congress.  He  was  a  candidate  for  the 
presidential  nomination  in  1884  and  1888. 
Among  his  publications  are:  "Selected 
Speeches  and  Reports  on  Finance  and 
Taxation"  (1879) ;  and  "Recollections  of 
Forty  Years  in  the  House,  Senate,  and 
Cabinet"  (1893) .  He  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  Oct.  22,  1900.    See  Sherman  Act. 

SHERMAN,  LAWRENCE  YATES,  a 
United  States  Senator  from  Illinois,  born 
in  Miami  co.,  Ohio,  in  1858.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  his  parents  removed  to  Il- 
linois. He  was  educated  in  the  common 
schools  and  studied  law  at  McKendree 
College.  He  practiced  law  in  Chicago  and 
from  1886  to  1890  was  county  judge  of 
McDonough  County.     From  1897  to  1899 


SHERMAN 


391 


SHERMAN 


he  was  a  member  of  the  Illinois  House 
of  Representatives,  and  was  re-elected  in 
1900.    He  was  lieutenant-governor  of  the 


LAWRENCE   YATES   SHERMAN 

State  from  1904  to  1908,  and  in  1909  was 
elected  United  States  Senator  to  fill  the 
unexpired  term  of  William  Lorimer.  He 
was  re-elected  in  1914  but  declined  to 
stand  for  re-election  in  1920. 

SHERMAN,  ROGER,  an  American 
statesman;  born  in  Newton,  Mass.,  April 
19,  1721 ;  was  early  apprenticed  to  a  shoe- 
maker, and  continued  in  that  trade  till 
1743,  when  he  removed  to  New  Milford, 
Conn.,  and  engaged  in  mercantile  business 
with  his  brother.  In  1745  he  was  ap- 
pointed surveyor  for  his  county,  and  not 
long  afterward  furnished  the  astronomi- 
cal observations  for  an  almanac  published 
in  New  York.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1754;  was  several  times  elected 
to  the  Colonial  Assembly;  and  in  1759 
became  judge  of  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas.  Having  removed  to  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  in  1761,  he  became  judge  of  the 
Common  Pleas  there  in  1765,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  upper  house  of  the  Legislature. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  and 


National  Congress  in  1774-1791;  one  of 
the  committee  to  draft  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  of  which  he  was  a 
signer;  and  in  1787,  in  conjunction  with 
Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  and  Oliver  Ells- 
worth, served  as  a  delegate  to  the  conven- 
tion charged  with  the  duty  of  framing 
the  Federal  Constitution.  He  died  in 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  July  23,  1793. 

SHERMAN,  THOMAS  WEST,  an  Am- 
erican military  officer;  born  in  Newport, 
R.  I.,  March  26,  1813;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1836  and  assigned  to  duty  with  the 
3d  Artillery.  He  served  in  the  Florida 
and  Mexican  Wars,  and  for  his  services 
in  the  latter  was  brevetted  major,  Feb. 
23,  1847.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  was  placed  in  command  of  a 
battery  of  United  States  artillery  and 
later  was  made  chief  of  light  artillery 
in  the  defense  of  Washington,  D.  C.  He 
organized  an  expedition  for  the  capture 
of  Bull's  Bay,  S.  C,  and  Fernandina, 
Fla.,  for  the  use  of  the  blockading  fleet 
on  the  southern  coast;  commanded  the 
land  forces  of  the  Port  Royal  expedition 
in  1861-1862;  led  a  division  in  the  De- 
partment of  the  Gulf  in  1862-1863,  and 
participated  in  the  siege  of  Corinth. 
While  leading  a  column  in  the  assault  on 
Port  Hudson,  La.,  on  May  27,  1863,  he 
lost  his  right  leg,  in  consequence  of  which 
he  was  on  leave  of  absence  till  February, 
1864.  On  his  return  to  duty  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  a  reserve  brigade 
of  artillery  in  the  Department  of  the 
Gulf,  and  later  took  charge  of  the  de- 
fenses of  New  Orleans  and  the  Southern 
and  Eastern  Districts  of  Louisiana.  On 
March  13,  1865,  he  was  brevetted  major- 
general  of  volunteers  and  major-general, 
U.  S.  A.,  for  gallant  services  during  the 
war.  After  the  war  he  commanded  at 
Fort  Adams,  R.  I.,  and  at  Key  West, 
Fla.  He  was  retired  as  full  major-gen- 
eral, U.  S.  A.,  on  Dec.  31,  1870;  and  died 
in  Newport,  R.  I.,  March  16,  1879. 

SHERMAN,  WILLIAM  TECUMSEH, 
an  American  military  officer;  born  in 
Lancaster,  Ohio,  Feb.  8,  1820.  His  father, 
one  of  the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Ohio,  died  in  1829,  and  William  was 
educated  in  the  family  of  Thomas  Ewing 
till  he  had  reached  the  age  of  16,  when 
he  went  to  the  United  States  Military 
Academy;  was  graduated  there  in  1840, 
entered  the  army,  and  was  promoted  to 
1st  lieutenant  in  1841.  He  acted  as  as- 
sistant adjutant-general  in  1847,  and  ob- 
tained a  brevet  of  captain,  May,  1848, 
for  meritorious  services  in  California  dur- 
ing the  war  with  Mexico.  He  was  ap- 
pointed commissary  of  subsistence  in  1850, 
served  at  St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans,  but 
finding  his  pay  inadequate  to  support  his 


SHERMAN 


392 


SHERMAN    ACT 


family,  resigned  his  commission  Sept.  6, 
1853,  and  removed  to  San  Francisco, 
where  he  engaged  in  the  banking  business 
till  1858,  when  he  went  to  Leavenworth, 
Kan.,  leaving  there  in  July,  1859,  on  being 
elected  superintendent  of  the  Louisiana 
State  Military  Institute,  which  position 
he  resigned  when  the  Civil  War  began. 
After  the  fall  of  Fort  Sumter  he  was 
commissioned  colonel  of  the  13th  United 
States  Infantry,  and  commanded  the  3d 
Brigade  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July 
21,  1861.     On  the  reorganization  of  the 


WILLIAM   TECUMSEH   SHERMAN 

National  army  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers,  accompanied  Gen- 
eral Anderson  to  Kentucky,  succeeded  him 
temporarily  in  command  till  at  his  own 
request  he  was  relieved  by  General  Buell 
and  was  ordered  to  Missouri.  In  the 
early  part  of  1862  he  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  a  division  under  General 
Grant,  and  acted  with  great  bravery  at 
the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6;  was  pro- 
moted to  major-general,  May  1 ;  and  when 
the  Department  of  Tennessee  was  formed, 
in  December,  was  made  commander  of  the 
15th  Army  Corps.  At  the  end  of  that 
month  he  led  an  expedition  to  Vicksburg; 
but  the  works  were  too  strong  to  be  taken 
by  assault,  and  he  was  obliged  to  with- 
draw his  troops  after  a  severe  fight.  He 
commanded  the  wing  of  the  army  that 
captured   Fort   Hindman,   Ark.,  Jan.   10, 


1863,  after  which  he  resumed  command 
of  the  15th  Army  Corps;  took  part  in  the 
siege  of  Vicksburg,  which  capitulated 
July  3,  1863 ;  and  led  the  expedition  which 
captured  Jackson  City,  July  10. 

When  General  Grant  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  army  previously  under 
General  Rosecrans,  he  gave  the  command 
of  the  Department  of  the  Tennessee  to 
General  Sherman,  who  encountered  Gen- 
eral Longstreet,  and  obliged  him  to  re- 
treat, Nov.  20;  and  in  February,  1864, 
made  his  expedition  to  Meridian,  Miss., 
and  broke  up  that  important  railroad 
center,  driving  General  Polk's  army  out 
of  Mississippi.  Having  been  charged 
with  the  command  of  the  army  in  Georgia, 
May  4,  he  commenced  the  expedition 
through  that  State  which  ended  in  the 
capture  of  Atlanta,  the  capital  city.  Gen- 
eral Hood  thrice  attacked  the  Federal 
army  and  was  repulsed,  sustaining  con- 
siderable loss.  After  his  third  failure 
General  Hood  acted  merely  on  the  defen- 
sive in  Atlanta,  which  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Nationals  in  the  beginning  of  Sep- 
tember. In  October  Hood  began  his  move- 
ment toward  Tennessee.  Sherman  fol- 
lowed him  as  far  as  Resaca,  75  miles, 
drove  him  from  the  railroad,  and  then 
sent  part  of  his  army  to  Tennessee  to 
defend  that  State,  and  with  the  balance 
began  his  "march  to  the  sea,"  to  act  in 
concert  with  the  Union  army  in  Virginia 
against  Lee.  The  distance  from  Atlanta 
to  Savannah  is  290  miles.  General  Sher- 
man accomplished  the  march  with  very 
little  loss  in  23  days;  and  Savannah  fell 
into  his  hands  Dec.  21,  1864.  The  news 
of  its  capture  was  received  with  great 
rejoicing  in  the  North,  not  only  because 
it  showed  how  triumphant  the  campaign 
in  Georgia  had  been,  but  because  it  opened 
up  the  seaboard  of  that  State  and  inflicted 
a  heavy  blow  on  the  Confederate  cause. 
General  Sherman  defeated  the  Confed- 
erates at  Bentonville,  N.  C,  March  19, 
1865,  and  soon  afterward  paid  a  visit  to 
General  Grant,  to  concert  those  measures 
for  the  defeat  of  General  Lee  which  ended 
in  the  submission  of  that  general  and  that 
of  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston,  who  surrendered 
his  army  to  General  Sherman,  April  26, 
1865,  which  was  one  of  the  closing  actions 
of  the  war.  General  Sherman  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general, 
July  25,  1866;  succeeded  General  Grant 
as  general,  March  4,  1869;  was  retired 
Feb.  8,  1884,  and  died  in  New  York  City, 
Feb.   14,  1891. 

SHERMAN  ACT,  an  act  of  the  United 
States  Congress,  approved  July  14,  1890. 
It  was  the  culmination  of  a  long  disagree- 
ment between  the  two  Houses  over  a 
financial  policy,  neither  side  being  dis- 
posed to  yield.     This  bill  was  supported 


SHERRILL 


393 


oxxERZER 


by  Senator  Sherman  and  others  as  a  com- 
promise measure.  It  instructed  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury  to  buy  silver  bul- 
lion to  the  amount  of  4,500,000  ounces  a 
month,  and  to  issue  Treasury  notes  in 
payment.  Though  the  bill  was  approved, 
the  financial  policy  continued  to  be  a  dis- 
turbing question  and  arguments  favoring 
a  repeal  were  presented  at  almost  every 
opportunity.  The  business  depression  of 
the  summer  of  1893  was  believed  to  be 
a  consequence  of  the  bill,  and  President 
Cleveland  summoned  Congress  to  convene 
in  special  session,  Aug.  7.  A  bill  to 
repeal  the  silver-purchasing  proviso  of 
the  Sherman  Act  passed  the  House  Aug. 
28.  In  the  Senate,  the  Voorhees  bill  was 
presented  as  a  substitute,  its  provisions 
being  a  repeal  of  the  silver-purchasing 
clause,  but  affirming  bimetallism  as  a 
National  policy.  After  a  protracted  con- 
test the  Voorhees  bill  passed  the  Senate, 
Oct.  30.  It  was  concurred  in  by  the 
House  Nov.  1,  and  the  President  approved 
it  the  same  day. 

SHERMLL,  CHARLES  HITCHCOCK, 

an  American  lawyer,  born  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  in  1867.  He  was  educated  at  Yale 
University  and  practiced  law  in  New 
York,  from  1891  to  1909.  From  1909  to 
1911  he  was  United  States  Minister  to 
Argentina.  He  resumed  practice  of  law 
in  1912.  Besides  taking  an  active  part 
in  politics,  he  was  president  of  the  Yale' 
Law  School  Alumni;  chairman  of  the' 
Committee  on  Foreign  Relations  of  the' 
National  Chamber  of  Commerce;  trustee 
of  St.  Luke's  Hospital,  Tokio,  Japan;  of 
the  American  College  for  Girls,  Constan- 
tinople, Turkey ;  of  New  York  University, 
as  well  as  of  a  number  of  numerous  socie- 
ties and  clubs.  He  originated  a  series  of 
international  inter-university  track  meets 
in  1894.  During  the  World  War  he  served 
as  adjutant-general,  with  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general,  in  charge  of  the  United 
States  draft.  He  published  "Stained 
Glass  Tours  in  France"  (1908) ;  "Stained 
Glass  Tours  in  England"  (1909)  ; 
"Stained  Glass  Tours  in  Italy"  (1913)  ; 
"French  Memories  of  Eighteenth  Century 
America"  (1915) ;  "Modernizing  the  Mon- 
roe Doctrine"  (1916);  "Have  We  a  Far- 
Eastern  Policy?"   (1920). 

SHERRY,  a  favorite  Spanish  wine, 
prepared  from  small  white  grapes  grown 
in  the  province  of  Andalusia,  those  which 
furnish  the  better  qualities  being  culti- 
vated in  the  vineyards  of  Xeres.  In  the 
manufacture  of  sherry  the  grapes  are  not 
gathered  till  they  are  quite  ripe,  and  the 
fermentation  is  continued  till  nearly  all 
the  sugar  has  been  converted  into  alco- 
hol. Sherries  may  be  divided  into  natural, 
containing  from  20  to  26  per  cent,  of 
proof  spirit,  and  fortified,  containing  from 


30  to  40  per  cent.  Sherry  is  used  in  many 
of  the  wines  of  the  pharmacopoeia,  as 
Vinum  ferri,  etc. 

SHERWOOD  FOREST,  an  ancient 
royal  forest  in  Nottinghamshire,  England, 
celebrated  for  the  exploits  of  Robin  Hood 
and  his  followers. 

SHERWOOD,  GRANVILLE  HUDSON, 
an  American  bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  born  in  Elgin,  111.,  in 
1878.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Paul's 
School,  Concord,  N.  H.;  Trinity  College, 
Hartford,  Conn.;  University  of  Chicago; 
and  the  Western  Theological  Seminary, 
from  which  latter  institution  he  received 
the  degree  of  D.D.,  in  1917.  In  1903  he 
was  made  a  deacon  and  priest  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  From  1903 
to  1905  he  served  as  rector  of  Christ 
Church,  Streator,  111.;  from  1905  to  1917 
as  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Rock  Island, 
111.;  and  in  April,  1917,  became  bishop 
of  Springfield,  111. 

SHERWOOD,  ISAAC  R.,  an  Ameri- 
can public  official,  born  at  Stanford, 
N.  Y.,  in  1835.  He  was  educated  at  An- 
tioch  College,  Ohio,  and  the  Ohio  Law 
College,  Cleveland,  Ohio.  He  served  in 
the  Civil  War,  entering  the  army  as  a 
private,  and  eventually  rising  to  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  From 
1869  to  1873  he  was  secretary  of  state 
of  Ohio;  from  1873  to  1875,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  43rd  Congress  from  the 
6th  Ohio  District;  and  from  1878  to  1884 
he  was  a  probate  judge.  In  1907  he  was 
re-elected  from  the  9th  Ohio  District, 
being  re-elected  regularly  from  that  time 
on  and  serving  in  the  60th  to  the  66th 
(1907  to  1921).  At  various  times,  be- 
ginning with  1865  and  up  to  1898,  he 
was  successively  editor  of  the  Toledo, 
Ohio,  "Commercial";  the  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
"Leader'r;  the  Toledo,  Ohio,  "Journal"; 
and  the  Canton,  Ohio,  "News  Democrat." 
While  serving  in  Congress,  he  was  the 
author  of  the  Sherwood  "Dollar-a-Day 
Bill"  and  the  "Medal  of  Honor  Bill."  He 
was  a  member  of  the  G.  A.  R.,  and  of 
the  Loyal  Legion. 

SHERZER,  JANE,  an  American  edu- 
cator, born  at  Franklin,  Ohio.  She  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Jena,  Zu- 
rich, Michigan,  Paris,  and  Berlin,  receiv- 
ing the  degree  of  A.M.  and  Ph.D.  from 
the  latter  institution,  in  1902.  From 
1882  to  1895  she  was  principal  of  the 
Franklin,  Ohio,  high  school;  from  1889 
to  1891  instructor  of  English,  and  from 
1892  to  1894,  dean  of  Oxford  College; 
from  1895  to  1899,  principal  of  the  Acad- 
emy for  Young  Women,  Jacksonville,  111. ; 
from  1903  to  1904,  professor  of  English 
philosophy  and  dean  of  women,  Illinois 
College,  Jacksonville,  111.;  and  from  1905 


SHETLAND 


394 


SHIELD 


to  1917,  professor  of  English  and  presi- 
dent of  Oxford  (Ohio)  College  for 
Women.  Besides  contributing  letters  of 
travel  and  editorial  articles  to  newspapers, 
she  published  "The  He  of  Ladies"  (1902). 

SHETLAND,  or  ZETLAND  ISLANDS 
(Old  Norse,  Hialtlandia,  "the  viking's 
land"),  a  group  of  over  100  islands  (of 
which  30  are  inhabited)  lying  N.  N.  E. 
of  the  Orkney  Islands  (formerly  in- 
cluded in  the  same  county) ;  area,  551 
square  miles;  pop.  (1918)  26,300.  The 
principal  are  the  Mainland  (60  miles 
long,  but  narrow)  ;  N.  E.  of  it  Yell  (20 
miles  by  6),  Unst  (11  miles  by  6)  ;  Fet- 
lar,  Whalsay,  and  Bressay.  The  lonely 
islands  of  Foula,  20  miles  W.  of  Main- 
land, and  Fair  Island,  25  miles  S.  of  it, 
are  also  included  in  the  group.  The  rocks 
are  chiefly  Silurian,  highly  metamor- 
phosed, resting  on  Laurentian  gneiss,  and 
covered  in  the  S.  by  fragments  of  the 
Old  Red  Sandstone  which  characterizes 
the  Orkneys.  The  coast  line  of  the  islands 
is  rocky  and  precipitous  and  much  in- 
dented; their  surface  is  rocky  and  bare. 
The  highest  summit  is  Rona  Hill,  1,590 
feet  high,  in  the  N.  of  Mainland;  Foula 
Island  attains  a  height  of  1,400  feet. 

The  scenery  of  the  islands  is  very 
grand.  The  climate  is  humid  and  mild, 
but  severe  storms  rage  during  winter.  It 
seems  peculiarly  healthy  for  the  natives, 
who  frequently  attain  a  great  age. 

The  chief  occupation  of  the  Shetlanders 
is  fishing.  Cod,  ling,  tusk,  saithe  or  coal 
fish,  and  herring  are  caught  in  great  num- 
bers. The  bottle-nosed  whale  and  seal 
are  also  hunted.  Most  of  the  fishermen 
possess  also  small  crofts  of  land,  on  which 
they  raise  oats,  bere,  turnips,  and  pota- 
toes. The  group  produces  peculiar  di- 
minutive breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  and 
sheep.  The  ponies,  called  "shelties,"  are 
remarkably  sure-footed.  They  were  for- 
merly regarded  as  common  property  and 
ran  wild  on  the  moors.  Many  are  ex- 
ported for  use  in  coal  mines.  The  women 
spend  much  of  their  time  in  knitting,  and 
Shetland  hosiery  has  long  been  famous. 
Though  a  variety  of  minerals  are  found 
in  small  quantities,  chromate  of  iron  is 
the  only  one  obtainable  in  quantities 
worth  exporting.  The  chief  town  is  Ler- 
wick, 100  miles  N.  of  Kirkwall.  The  only 
other  towns  are  Hillswick  and  Scalloway. 
The  chief  antiquities  are  the  ruins  of 
^Scalloway  Castle  and  of  numerous  so- 
called  "Pictish"  towers,  the  chief  being 
Mousa,  12  miles  from  Lerwick. 

The  Shetland  Islands  were  early 
peopled  by  Northmen,  and  along  with  the 
Orkneys  were  attached  to  the  kingdom 
of  Denmark.  Robert  St.  Clair,  Earl  of 
Orkney,  held  them  under  the  kings  of 
Denmark.     In   1469   they  were   attached 


to  Scotland  as  dowry  of  Margaret  of  Den- 
mark, James  III.'s  bride.  After  passing 
through  the  hands  of  various  noblemen 
they  were  sold  in  1766  to  Sir  Lawrence 
Dundas,  in  whose  family  (the  Earls  of 
Zetland)  they  still  remain.  Old  Norse 
customs  long  survived,  and  are  not  yet 
quite  extinct,  but  the  English  language 
is  now  universal.  A  rich  though  little- 
wrought  vein  of  folklore  is  indicated  by 
the  survival  of  many  curious  incantations 
or  spell  songs,  which  bear  the  impress 
of  Odinic  origin.  A  transfigured  relic  of 
an  Eddie  lay — a  fragment  of  Odin's  Rune 
song  in  a  Christianized  version — from 
the  lips  of  an  inhabitant  of  Unst,  was 
received  by  Karl  Blind  in  1877. 

SHETLAND  PONY,  a  very  small 
variety  of  the  horse,  with  flowing  manes 
and  tails,  peculiar  to  Shetland. 

SHIBBOLETH  (properly  Shibbo'leth, 
Hebrew,  "ear  or  corn,"  or  "stream"),  the 
test  word  used  by  the  Gileadites  under 
Jephthah  after  their  victory  over  the 
Ephraimites,  recorded  in  Judges  xii.  6. 
The  latter  could  not  pronounce  the  sh, 
and,  by  saying  sibboleth,  betrayed  them- 
selves, and  were  slaughtered  at  the  ford. 
All  those  Hebrew  names  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment which  commence  with  the  sh  have 
now,  through  the  inability  of  the  Septua- 
gint  to  render  this  sound  in  Greek,  be- 
come familiar  to  us,  through  the  versions 
that  flowed  from  it,  as  beginning  with  the 
simple  s — e.  g.,  Simon,  Samaria,  Solomon, 
Saul,  etc.  The  word  shibboleth  is  still 
used  to  mean  a  test  of  opinions  and  man- 
ners. 

SHIEL,  LOCH,  a  fresh-water  lake  in 
Scotland,  on  the  boundary  between  Inver- 
ness-shire and  Argyleshire.  It  is  about 
15  miles  long,  but  extremely  narrow.  It 
discharges  by  the  river  Shiel,  which 
flows  3  miles  N.  W.  to  the  sea  at  Loch 
Moidart. 

SHIELD,  a  portion  of  defensive  armor 
held  by  the  left  hand  or  worn  on  the  left 
arm  to  ward  off  sword  strokes  or  missiles. 
The  earliest  known  shields  date  from  the 
close  of  the  Bronze  Age.  They  are  circu- 
lar and  flat,  or  but  slightly  convex,  with 
a  central  boss,  under  and  across  which 
the  handle  is  fixed.  The  Greek  shield  of 
the  Homeric  period  was  also  of  bronze, 
circular,  convex,  and  often  ornamented 
with  devices.  The  Etruscan  shield  of 
bronze,  of  which  there  is  a  fine  specimen 
in  the  British  Museum,  is  also  circular 
and  ornamented  in  concentric  bands  of 
embossed  work  round  the  central  boss. 
The  Roman  infantry  used  a  light  round 
shield  about  three  feet  in  diameter,  and 
the  cavalry  carried  a  smaller  buckler 
also  of  a  round  form  covered  with  hide, 


SHIELDS 


395 


SHIITES 


while  the  spearmen  had  a  large  oblong 
convex  shield  of  wood  and  leather 
strengthened  with  iron,  which  covered  the 
Whole  body.  The  early  Germanic  shields 
were  also  large,  oblong,  and  convex. 

The  shields  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  in- 
vaders of  England  and  of  the  Scandina- 
vian Vikings  were  mostly  circular.  But 
the  Norman  shield  of  the  11th  century 
was  kite-shaped,  and  the  triangular  form 
continued  to  prevail  till  the  15th  cen- 
tury, becoming  gradually  shorter  and 
more  obtusely  pointed,  or  heart-shaped. 
After  the  14th  century  the  small  round 
buckler  came  into  fashion,  and  retained 
its  place  till  the  16th  century.  By  this 
time  the  use  of  firearms  had  made  the 
shield  practically  useless  in  warfare. 
Many  savage  tribes  still  use  shields  of 
wood  or  hide. 

SHIELDS,  JAMES,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer;  born  in  Dungannon,  Ireland, 
in  1810;  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1826;  became  a  lawyer;  served  through 
the  Mexican  War,  and  was  brevetted 
major-general  for  gallantry  at  Cerro 
Gordo  and  Chapultepec.  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  from  Illinois 
in  1849,  and  from  Minnesota  in  1858. 
When  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  he  volun- 
teered and  entered  the  Federal  service. 
He  commanded  the  division  which  de- 
feated "Stonewall"  Jackson  near  Win- 
chester, March  23,  1862;  was  defeated  in 
an  engagement  with  the  Confederates  at 
Port  Republic,  June  9,  1862 ;  and  resigned 
his  commission  in  1863.  He  died  in  Ot- 
tumwa,  la.,  June  1,  1879.  i 

SHIELDS,  JOHN  KNIGHT,  an  Ameri- 
can public  official,  born  at  Clinchdale, 
Tenn.,  in  1858.  He  was  privately  edu- 
cated and  after  studying  law,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1879.  From  1892 
to  1894  he  was  chancellor  of  the  12th 
Chancery  Division  of  Tennessee,  and  from 
1902  to  1910  was  associate  justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court.  He  acted  as  chief  jus- 
tice from  1910  to  1913.  In  the  latter  year 
he  entered  the  United  States  Senate.  He 
was  re-elected  in  1918. 

SHIELDS,  SOUTH,  a  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough  of  England,  in  the 
county  of  Durham,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Tyne,  opposite  to  North  Shields,  in 
Northumberland  (pop.  about  10,000),  and 
communicating  with  it  by  steam  ferry. 
The  industries  comprise  glass,  earthen- 
ware, alkali  and  chemicals,  cordage,  steam 
engine  boilers,  and  chain  cables  and  an- 
chors, besides  shipbuilding.  The  ports  of 
North  Shields  and  South  Shields,  formed 
by  an  expansion  of  the  river  into  a  wide 
bay,  have  been  greatly  improved  and 
deepened^  by  dredging  and  the  construc- 
tion of  piers,  and  are  capable  of  contain- 


ing vessels  of  any  size  at  their  quays. 
Pop.  (1919)  116,152. 

SHIGATZE,  or  DIGARCHI,  a  town 
of  Tibet;  on  the  Sanpo  or  Brahmaputra 
river;  140  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Lhassa,  at 
an  altitude  of  12,000  feet.  Nearby  is  the 
great  monastery  (3,500  monks)  of  the 
Tashilunpo,  the  residence  of  one  of  the 
Tibetan  incarnations  of  Buddha. 

SHIITES  (also  Sheeahs;  "sectaries," 
from  the  Arabian  shiah,  "a  party"),  the 
name  given  by  orthodox  Muslims  or  Sun- 
nites  to  Ali's  followers,  who  call  them- 
selves al-adeliyyah,  "the  right  people." 
They  were  the  champions  of  Ali's  right 
to  be  Mohammed's  successor  as  being  his 
cousin  and  son-in-law;  and  after  Ali's 
death  they  took  the  side  of  his  sons  Has- 
san (Hasan),  Hussein  (Hosain),  and  Mo- 
hammed ibn  al-Hanafiyyah.  The  Per- 
sians, believers  in  the  divine  right  and 
even  in  the  divine  nature  of  kings,  took 
this  side.  All  Shiites  allegorize  the  Ko- 
ran; but  the  ultra  Shiites,  founded  by 
Abdallah  ibn  Saba,  a  converted  Jew  of 
Yemen,  differed  from  the  moderate  Shiites 
or  Zaidites  in  believing  in  the  transmi- 
gration of  souls,  and  in  calling  Ali  and 
his  legitimate  successors  incarnations  of 
God.  By  Shiite  help  the  Abbasides  in 
750  wrested  the  caliphate  from  the  Ora- 
miades.  Yet,  unsound  as  the  Abbasides 
were,  and  decided  as  Persian  ascendency 
was  for  100  years,  the  Shiites  gained 
little.  They  were  the  strength  of  the 
"veiled  prophet"  in  770-779  and  of  Balek 
in  817-837.  Their  disaffection  was  one 
chief  reason  for  the  introduction  of  Turks 
into  the  caliph's  service  (830-840). 

In  765  the  death  of  Jaafar  the  Vera- 
cious, the  Sixth  Shiite  Imam,  developed 
the  Ismaili  sect  of  the  Shiites.  Those  fol- 
lowed the  eldest  son  Ismael;  the  majority, 
following  Moosa,  the  second  son,  were 
afterward  named  Twelvers,  the  series  of 
their  Imams  ending  with  the  12th.  In 
Irak  in  887  arose  the  Karmathian  branch 
of  the  Ismailis.  In  909  an  Ismaili  pro- 
claimed himself  in  north  Africa  as  the 
first  Fatimide  caliph.  The  6th  caliph  of 
this  line,  Hakim,  was  declared  to  be  God's 
10th  and  final  incarnation  by  Darazi,  who 
founded  the  sect  of  the  Druses.  In  1090 
Hassan  Sabbah,  an  Ismaili  of  Khorassan, 
as  the  Sheikh  of  the  Mountains  insti- 
tuted the  order  of  Assassins,  who  gen- 
erally recognized  the  Fatimide  caliphate. 
Ismailis  are  still  found  in  Persia  and 
Syria.  The  moderate  Shiism,  that  has 
been  the  national  religion  of  Persia  since 
the  native  royal  line  of  Safiides  ascended 
the  throne  in  1499,  is  more  Koranic  than 
Sunnism.  It  has  Hadith  and  Sunna,  but 
not  those  of  the  orthodox  Muslims.  #  It 
has  its  own  modes  of  religious  washing, 
and  its  own  postures  in  prayer. 


SHIKARPUR 


396 


SHIMONOSEKi 


Shiites,  habitually  ill-used  in  Arabia, 
absent  themselves  much  from  Mecca,  and, 
unable  to  bless  Abu-bekr  and  Omar,  who 
are  buried  in  Medina,  go  still  less  thither. 
But  they  do  pilgrimage  unhindered  to 
the  tombs  of  Ali  and  Hussein  in  the 
pashalic  of  Bagdad,  and  to  the  tomb  of 
Riza,  one  of  their  12  imams,  in  Meshhed, 
the  capital  of  Khorassan,  and  to  the 
tombs  of  Shiite  saints.  They  keep  the 
orthodox  feasts  and  others,  among  which 
the  Moharram  feast,  occupying  the  first 
10  days  of  the  month  Moharram,  and  com- 
memorating the  martyrdom  of  Hussein, 
is  the  chief.  They  detest  Ayeshah  and 
the  founders  of  the  four  orthodox  schools, 
and  hold  all  caliphs  save  Ali  to  have  been 
usurpers.  They  own  no  caliphate  nor 
imamate;  these  have  been  dormant  since 
the  death  of  Mohammed,  their  12th  imam, 
in  879,  but  shall  be  revived  in  him  when 
he,  the  Hidden  Imam,  reappears  as  the 
Mahdi.  Shiism,  the  ancient  protest  of 
Persian  patriotism  against  Arabian  ascen- 
dency, has  spread  through  Afghanistan 
into  India,  but  toward  the  W.  has  made 
no  way.  The  Shiites,  divided  and  sub- 
divided into  sects,  number  10,000,000, 
most  of  whom  are  Aryans.  Toleration 
and  free  thought  are  common  in  towns 
and  among  the  more  cultivated  Persians. 
In  1736  Nadir  Shah  tried  but  failed  to 
restore  the  Shiites  to  orthodoxy. 

SHIKARPUR,  an  important  trading 
town  and  capital  of  a  district  in  the  N. 
of  Sind,  India,  18  miles  W.  of  the  Indus, 
on  the  railway  leading  to  Quetta  and 
Pishin.  Before  the  opening  of  this  rail- 
way it  was  a  place  of  very  considerable 
commercial  importance,  owing  to  its  situa- 
tion on  one  of  the  principal  routes  be- 
tween India  and  Khorassan — viz.:  that 
by  the  Bolan  Pass.  It  occupies  a  very 
low  site,  the  adjacent  country  being  often 
inundated,  but  the  soil  is  extremely  fer- 
tile and  yields  heavy  crops  of  grain  and 
fruits.  Carpets,  coarse  cottons,  furniture, 
baskets,  etc.,  are  made  in  the  town.  Pop. 
about  54,000. 

SHILKA,  a  river  of  Eastern  Siberia; 
rises  in  the  Trans-Baikal  region,  among 
the  Yablonoi  mountains,  and  after  a 
N.  E.  course  of  260  miles  falls  into  the 
Amur,  a  little  beyond  Ust  Strelka.  It 
is  navigable  for  boats  to  the  foot  of  the 
Yablonoi  mountains,  and  is  historically 
interesting  as  the  "point  of  departure" 
for  the  Russians  in  their  conquests  on 
the  Lower  Amur. 

SHILLABER,  BENJAMIN  PENH  AL- 
LOW, an  American  humorist;  born  in 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  July  12,  1814;  was 
best  known  as  the  author  of  the  popular 
sayings  of  "Mrs.  Partington."  He  was 
connected  with   the   "Boston    Post,"   the 


"Saturday  Evening  Gazette,"  and  other 
periodicals,  and  wrote:  "Rhymes  with 
Reason  and  Without"  (1853);  "Life  and 
Sayings  of  Mrs.  Partington"  (1854) ; 
"Mrs.  Partington's  Knitting  Work" 
(1857);  "Partingtonian  Patch -Work" 
(1873) ;  "Lines  in  Pleasant  Places" 
(1874) ;  "Ike  Partington  and  His  Friends" 
(1879);  "Cruises  with  Captain  Bob" 
(1880);  "The  Double  -  Runner  Club" 
(1882) ;  etc.  He  died  in  Chelsea,  Mass., 
Nov.  25,  1890. 

SHILLING,  an  English  silver  coin  and 
money  of  account  equal  to  12  pence,  or 
the  20th  part  of  a  sovereign  or  pound 
sterling;  and  equivalent  in  the  United 
States  to  about  24^  cents.  In  the  United 
'States,  a  denomination  of  money  formerly 
in  use,  differing  in  value  relatively  to  the 
dollar  in  different  states,  but  below  that 
of  the  English  shilling.  York  shilling, 
a  designation  given  in  some  parts  of 
Canada  to  a  silver  sixpenny  piece  or  Eng- 
lish sixpence. 

SHILOH,  a  town  of  the  tribe  of  Eph- 
raim,  the  first  permanent  resting-place  of 
the  Tabernacle;  the  home  of  Eli  and 
Samuel;  and  long  the  religious  center  of 
Israel.  The  site  is  well  ascertained — a 
ruinous  village  hidden  among  the  hills 
20  miles  N.  of  Jerusalem. 

SHILOH,    BATTLE    OF,    one    of    the 

most  memorable  battles  of  the  American 
Civil  War.  Shiloh  was  a  locality  in  Har- 
din co.,  Tenn.,  near  Pittsburgh  Landing, 
on  the  Tennessee,  and  88  miles  E.  of 
Memphis.  It  took  its  name  from  a  log 
chapel  known  as  "Shiloh  Church."  The 
battle  was  fought  on  April  6  and  7,  1862, 
Grant  and  Sherman  leading  the  Federals, 
and  Albert  S.  Johnston  and  Beauregard 
the  Confederates.  The  first  day  the  Con- 
federates, taking  the  Federals  by  sur- 
prise, drove  them  from  their  lines  with 
heavy  loss  in  men  and  guns;  but  the 
second  day  the  Federals,  having  received 
reinforcements  under  Buell,  and  largely 
outnumbering  the  Confederates,  regained 
their  lines,  and  forced  the  Confederates 
to  retreat  to  their  former  position  at 
Corinth.  General  Johnston  was  killed  on 
the  first  day.  The  Federal  loss  was 
placed  at  13,573;  the  Confederate  at 
10,699. 

SHIMONOSEKI,  a  town  of  Japan,  at 
the  S.  W.  extremity  of  the  main  island 
and  the  W.  entrance  to  the  Inland  Sea; 
declared  a  seaport  open  to  foreign  traders 
in  1890.  The  batteries  and  a  part  of  the 
town  itself  were  destroyed  during  a  bom- 
bardment by  a  combined  English,  French, 
Dutch,  and  American  fleet  in  1864.  Here 
the  peace  between  China  and  Japan  was 
negotiated  after  the  war  of  1894.  Pop. 
(1918)  67,866. 


SHINGKING 


397 


SHIP 


SHINGKING,  or  SHENGKING,  or 
FENGTIEN,  a  province  of  Manchuria. 
Its  area  is  56,000  square  miles,  and  though 
smaller  than  the  other  provinces  of  Man- 
churia, it  is  the  richest  and  most  im- 
portant.       It     contains     the     Shan-a-lin 

mountains  and  the  rivers  Liao,  Tayang,    belief  of  the  people   of  Japan   prior  to 

the  introduction  of  Buddhism  from  Korea 
in  A.  D.  552.     The  new  belief  almost  en- 


quent  exhibitor  in  general  exhibitions,  and 
has  also,  at  various  times,  held  exhibi- 
tions of  his  own  work  exclusively. 

SHINTO,  from  a  Chinese  word,  mean- 
ing the  way   of  the   gods,   the   religious 


and  Yalu  Kiang.  The  industries  are 
agriculture,  cattle-raising,  and  mining. 
Tobacco,  opium,  wheat,  millet,  cotton,  and 
oil  are  among  the  products.  There  are 
good  roads  and  two  railways.  Chief  ports : 
Port  Arthur  (q.  v.),  Talienwan,  and  New- 
chwang  (q.  v.).  Capital,  Mukden.  Japan- 
ese influence  succeeded  Russian  in  the 
province  in  1905.    Pop.  about  5,500,000. 

SHINGLES,  a  popular  name  for  an 
eruptive  skin  disease,  Herpes  zoster, 
which  usually  starts  from  the  backbone 
and  goes  half  round  the  body,  forming  a 
belt  of  inflamed  patches  with  clustered 
vesicles.  It  is  sometimes  produced  by 
sudden  exposure  to  cold  after  violent  ex- 
ercise, and  sometimes  follows  acute  af- 
fections of  the  respiratory  organs.  It  is 
a  self -limited  or  cyclical  disease,  usually 
running  its  course  in  about  a  fortnight. 

SHINN,     CHARLES     HOWARD,     an 

American  forester,  born  in  Austin,  Tex., 
in  1852.  He  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  California,  and  Johns  Hopkins 
University.  From  1879  to  1889  he  taught 
school  and  engaged  in  newspaper  and 
magazine  work  in  San  Francisco,  Balti- 
more, and  New  York.  In  1902  he  became 
agent  and  expert  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Forestry,  and  successively 
served  as  head  forest  ranger,  Department 
of  the  Interior;  supervisor  of  the  Sierra* 


tirely  absorbed  the  old,  being,  however, 
itself  modified  in  the  process.  Shinto 
possesses  no  moral  code.  Motoori  (1730- 
1801)  maintained  that  the  will  of  the 
Mikado  was  the  criterion  of  right  and 
wrong.  Shinto  holds  the  Mikado  to  be 
the  direct  descendant  and  representative 
of  the  Sun  goddess;  has  associated  with 
it  a  system  of  hero  worship,  and  attri- 
butes spiritual  agencies  to  the  powers  of 
nature.     Also,  a   Shintoist. 

SHIOGOON,  or  TYCOON,  the  title  of 
the  hereditary  military  ruler  of  Japan 
for  many  centuries  till  the  revolution  of 
1868,  which  reinstated  the  Mikado  in 
power.    See  Japan. 

SHIP,  in  the  most  general  sense,  a 
vessel  intended  for  navigating  the  ocean. 
In  contradistinction  to  boat,  which  is  the 
most  general  term  for  a  navigable  ves- 
sel, it  signifies  a  vessel  intended  for  dis- 
tant voyages.  Ships  are  of  various  sizes, 
and  fitted  for  various  uses,  and  receive 
various  names,  according  to  their  rig  and 
the  purposes  to  which  they  are  applied, 
as  man-of-war  ships,  transports,  mer- 
chantmen, barks,  brigs,  schooners,  lug- 
Igers,  sloops,  xebecs,  galleys,  etc.  The 
|name  as  descriptive  of  a  particular  rig, 
and  as  roughly  implying  a  certain  size, 


National   Forest,  California;   and  forest    !has  been  used  to  desipate  a  vessel  fur 


examiner,  district  five.  He  was  a  member 
of  various  domestic  and  foreign  arbori- 
cultural  and  horticultural  societies.  He 
published,  besides  many  papers,  reports, 
articles,  and  monographs  on  forestry, 
social  science,  and  literary  topics,  "Land 
Laws  of  Mining  Districts"  (1884) ;  "Min- 
ing Camps"  (1885) ;  "Co-operation  on  the 
Pacific  Coast"  (1888) ;  "Story  of  a  Mine" 
(1890).  He  also  acted  as  associate  edi- 
tor of  Bailey's  Standard  Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Horticulture"  (6  volumes). 

SHINN,  EVERETT,  an  American 
artist,  born  in  Woodstown,  N.  J.,  in  1873. 
He  studied  art  at  the  Pennsylvania  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts,  Philadelphia,  and  in 
Paris,  where  he  was  influenced  chiefly  by 
Degas.  At  first  devoting  himself  to  work- 
ing in  pastel  colors,  he  later  gained  rapid 
recognition  for  his  mural  paintings  and 
magazine  illustrations.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  former  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Trenton,  N.  J.,  city  hall,  in  several 
New  York  City  theaters,  and  in  numer- 
ous private  residences.     He  was  a  fre- 


Z— Cyc 


nished  with  a  bowsprit  and  three  or  four 
masts,  each  of  which  is  composed  of  a 
lower  mast,  a  top  mast,  and  a  top-gallant 
mast,  and  carrying  a  certain  number  of 
square  sails  on  each  of  the  masts.  These 
masts  are  named,  beginning  with  the 
foremost,  the  fore,  the  main,  and  mizzen 
masts;  and  when  there  is  a  fourth  it  is 
called  the  jigger  mast.  The  principal 
sails  are  named  according  to  the  masts 
to  which  they  belong. 

There  were  two  primitive  types  of  ship- 
building from  one  or  other  of  which,  or 
rather  perhaps  from  a  joint  development 
of  both,  all  the  improvements  of  modern 
times  have  proceeded.  These  were  the 
raft  and  the  canoe.  In  like  manner  there 
have  been  from  time  immemorial  two 
distinct  modes  of  propulsion,  by  oars  and 
sails. 

The  ancient  art  of  ship-building,  like 
many  other  arts,  was  lost  in  the  over- 
whelming tide  of  barbarism  which  over- 
threw the  last  of  the  great  empires  of 
antiquity. 

Shipbuilding   made   little   progress    in 


Vol  8 


SHIP 


398 


SHIP 


Europe  till  the  discovery  of  the  compass, 
which  was  introduced  in  a  rude  form  in 
the  12th  century,  and  had  been  improved 
and  had  come  into  common  use  in  the 
14th  century.  The  opening  up  of  the 
passage  to  India  and  the  discovery  of 
America  made  another  epoch  in  its  prog- 
ress. In  the  building  of  large  vessels  the 
Spaniards  long  took  the  lead,  and  were 
followed  by  the  French,  who  specially 
distinguished  themselves  in  the  theoreti- 
cal study  of  the  art.  In  the  early  prog- 
ress of  the  art  of  shipbuilding  the  English 
took  little  or  no  part.  When  Henry 
VII.  built  the  "Henri  Grace  a  Dieu," 
which  is  regarded  as  the  parent  of  the 
British  navy,  the  English  were  greatly 
inferior  to  the  nations  of  southern  Eu- 
rope both  in  navigation  and  in  shipbuild- 
ing. In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the 
English  fleet  proved  its  superiority  to 
that  of  Spain  in  respect  of  fighting  ca- 
pacity, but  it  was  afterward  rivaled  by 
that  of  Holland.  The  first  three-decker 
was  built  in  England  in  1637.  She  was 
called  the  "Sovereign  of  the  Seas"  and 
was  deemed  the  best  man-of-war  in  the 
world.  In  1768  the  French  adopted  three- 
deckers. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century 
the  lead  in  improvement  was  taken  by 
the  United  States.  English  builders  were 
at  first  skeptical  as  to  American  improve- 
ments; but  in  1832  Scott  Russell  theoreti- 
cally established  the  principles  on  which 
speed  in  sailing  depends — principles  which, 
had  already  been  practically  applied  not. 
only  by  the  Americans,  but  by  the  Span-, 
iards.  From  the  time  of  their  theoretical 
establishment  they  were  rapidly  adopted 
in  England,  and  a  race  of  improvements 
began  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  The  true  principles  of 
construction  both  in  build  and  rig  were 
exemplified  in  the  celebrated  Baltimore 
clipper  schooners,  which  were  sharp  in 
the  bow,  deep  in  the  stern,  of  great  length, 
and  lying  low  in  the  water,  with  long, 
slender  masts,  and  large  sails  cut  with 
great  skill. 

A  great  change  came  over  the  art  of 
shipbuilding  when  steam  was  introduced 
and  wood  gave  place  to  iron  and  then  to 
steel.  The  first  steamer  built  expressly 
for  regular  voyages  between  Europe  and 
America  was  the  "Great  Western," 
launched  in  1837.  She  was  propelled  by 
paddles,  but  about  the  same  time  Erics- 
son invented  his  screw  propeller,  which 
was  soon  adopted  in  sea-going  ships,  and 
the  British  Admiralty  possessed  a  screw 
vessel  in  1842.  Iron  vessels  were  built 
early  in  the  19th  century  for  canal  ser- 
vice, then  for  river  service,  and  later  for 
packet  service  on  the  coasts.  In  1838  the 
first  vessel  of  this  material  was  built  for 
ocean  service,  but  the  first  ocean-going 


steamship  in  its  present  form,  built  of 
iron  and  propelled  by  the  screw,  was  the 
"Great  Britain,"  launched  in  1843.  As 
early  as  1855,  iron  was  substituted  for 
wood  in  the  yards  on  the  Clyde;  and  on 
the  Mersey,  the  Tyne,  and  the  Wear,  iron 
shipbuilding  was  in  general  adoption  by 
1863  or  earlier.  Puddled  steel  was  used 
as  early  as  1862,  and  since  1870  Great 
Britain  has  led  the  world  in  steel  ship- 
building. Before  1890  steel  had  displaced 
iron  in  British  shipyards. 

In  the  United  States,  the  transition 
from  wooden  to  iron  ships  took  place  at 
the  commencement  of  the  Civil  War. 
Among  the  shipbuilding  yards  that  sur- 
vived the  change  was  Cramp's  at  Phila- 
delphia, and  the  Harlan  &  Hollingsworth 
Co.,  at  Wilmington,  Del.  Though  the 
building  of  merchant  vessels  was  inter- 
rupted (allowing  England  to  acquire  the 
leadership  she  still  maintains),  the  Amer- 
ican shipyards  promptly  turned  out  war- 
ships. The  "New  Ironsides,"  a  pioneer 
type  for  coast  service,  was  built  at 
Cramp's  yards  and  went  into  action  at 
Fort  Sumter.  The  lack  of  efficient  yards 
in  the  Confederate  States  was  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  Civil  War. 

The  "St.  Louis"  and  the  "St.  Paul," 
two  ocean  liners  built  by  the  Cramp  Co. 
between  1892  and  1896,  were  constructed 
entirely  of  domestic  material,  thus  mark- 
ing a  new  era  in  American  shipbuilding. 
American  yards  now  receive  orders  not 
only  from  foreign  firms  for  merchant 
ships,  but  from  foreign  governments  for 
warships. 

During  the  World  War  and  especially 
after  the  United  States  joined  the  Allies 
in  1917,  there  was  a  great  increase  in 
shipbuilding.  In  1919  the  sailing  vessels 
(exclusive  of  canal  boats  and  barges)  of 
the  United  States,  numbered  4,260,  ton- 
nage 1,199,661;  steamships  7,397,  tonnage 
10,027,400;  gas  vessels  10,254,  tonnage 
358,257 ;  including  canal  boats  and  barges 
27,513,  tonnage  12,907,300.  See  Ship- 
building; Shipping;  Navy;  etc. 

SHIP,  ARMORED.  The  earliest  plans 
for  the  building  of  armored  steamships 
appear  to  have  been  made  by  John 
Stevens  of  New  Jersey  in  1812.  The 
idea  did  not  then  take  practical  shape  but 
it  was  developed  by  his  son,  Robert  L., 
who  secured  acceptance  by  the  United 
States  Government  of  a  plan  for  the  con- 
struction of  an  ironclad  steamship  in 
which  all  the  machinery  would  be  below 
the  water-level.  The  keel  was  laid  in 
1854,  but  the  French  meanwhile  produced 
the  "Gloire,"  which,  speedily  followed  by 
the  sister  ships  "Invincible"  and  "Nor- 
mandie,"  was  the  first  ocean-going  iron- 
clad. In  1861  the  United  States  provided 
for  the  building  of  the  "Galena,"  "New 


SHIPBUILDING 


399 


SHIPKA  PASS 


Ironsides,"  and  the  famous  "Monitor," 
each  of  which  had  distinctive  features, 
which  included  inward-inclined  sides,  ram 
bows,  retreating  sterns,  coverings  of  iron 
plate,  and  powerful  batteries.  The  "Moni- 
tor" was  really  a  floating  battery,  unsafe 
at  sea,  and  her  usefulness  was  proved  in 
the  fight  with  the  "Merrimac"  in  the 
Civil  War.  Progress  from  that  time  on 
was  marked  by  a  development  that  alter- 
nated between  the  turret  ship  and  the 
ship  fitted  for  broadside  fire  from  many 
guns.  Italy,  France,  and  Great  Britain 
built  both  turret  ships  and  broadside  and 
central  battery  ships,  and  in  the  seventies 
a  definite  return  was  made  by  Italy  and 
Great  Britain  to  the  turret  ship  with 
thick  armor,  central  citadel,  and  battery 
of  heavy  guns.  The  caliber  of  the  auxil- 
iary guns  was  increased  till  the  British 
in  1906  finally  evolved  the  dreadnaught. 
This  new  type  involved  a  concentration 
of  force  which  made  many  other  vessels 
obsolete.  Turbine  engines  were  intro- 
duced, the  speed  increased,  and  the  prin- 
ciple of  single  caliber  guns  was  adopted 
in  all  the  great  navies.  The  first  battle- 
ship laid  down  in  the  United  States  was 
the  "Texas"  in  1889,  and  the  improvement 
was  uniform  till  the  building  of  the 
"California"  and  "Oklahoma."  The  Brit- 
ish super-dreachiaught  "Queen  Elizabeth" 
represented  the  utmost  concentration  of 
power  during  the  World  War,  and  its 
work  in  the  Dardanelles  in  February, 
1915,  was  an  interesting  exhibition  of 
relative  power  between  naval  guns  and 
land  guns. 

SHIPBUILDING.  The  development  of 
shipbuilding  is  represented  in  its  main 
stages  by  the  evolution  of  the  hull  and 
the  introduction  of  the  machinery  of  pro- 
pulsion. The  first  carries  us  back  almost 
to  the  prehistoric  period  and  to  an  idea 
as  simple  as  the  floating  log.  The  line 
of  development  through  the  raft,  the 
hollowed-out  trunk,  the  boat  of  skins 
stretched  on  frames,  and  the  vessel  of 
planks  tied  together  brings  us  finally  to 
the  wooden  and  iron  ship  of  modern 
times.  From  very  early  times  the  idea 
of  the  oars  and  the  sail  had  already  been 
evolved.  Early  Egyptian  drawings  show 
vessels  of  sawn  planks  with  sails  and 
oars.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  enlarged 
the  size  of  their  vessels,  but  they  still 
remained  dependent  on  man-power.  In 
mediaeval  times  Irish  mariners  sailed  in 
vessels  propelled  by  sails  and  oars  to  the 
Faroe  Islands  and  Iceland,  which  they 
discovered,  and  Columcille  at  Iona  com- 
manded fleets  of  vessels  which  passed 
constantly  between  Iona,  Derry,  and  other 
Irish  ports.  Ships  remained  dependent 
on  sails  and  man-power  for  propulsion 
down   to  modern  times,   but  the   arrival 


of  steam  engines  resulted  in  a  general 
awakening  of  the  possibilities  that  lay 
in  natural  forces  and  shipbuilding,  like 
other  mechanical  arts,  took  an  upward 
bound.  The  general  shape  of  vessels  had 
to  be  modified  to  the  new  methods  of  pro- 
pulsion, and  gradual  perfection  was 
reached.  Attention  was  given  in  the 
changed  circumstances  to  greater  stabil- 
ity and  speed,  simplicity  was  sought  in 
the  mechanical  apparatus,  and  the  struc- 
tural arrangement  was  developed  to  se- 
cure greater  habitability.  The  substitu- 
tion of  iron  for  wood  and  of  steel  for 
iron  had  reference  not  merely  to  increased 
resistance  and  durability  and  safety  from 
combustion  but  also  to  the  reduction  of 
weight  of  hull  in  proportion  to  weight 
of  lading.  The  investigation  of  the  effect 
of  the  shape  on  buoyancy,  speed,  range  of 
stability,  and  righting  ability  resulted  in 
a  certain  standardization  which  has  elim- 
inated former  dangers,  so  that  safety 
at  sea  is  now  as  procurable  as  on  land. 
The  naval  architect  drafts  his  plans  on 
paper,  and  embodies  parts  of  the  vessel 
in  wooden  models.  Molds  are  then  laid 
by  the  constructive  force.  When  these 
are  completed  actual  construction  begins 
with  the  preparation  of  the  building  way 
along  keel  blocks.  On  these  the  keel  is 
laid,  in  sections,  riveted  together  and 
fastened  to  the  stern  and  stern  posts. 
The  midship  frames  are  then  set  up,  being 
held  by  a  vertical  internal  keel  till  the 
forged  stern  and  stern  posts  and  the  com- 
plementary plating  are  put  in  and  the 
form  of  the  ship  is  completed. 

After  the  launching  the  machinery  is 
put  in  and  the  interior  supplementary 
fittings  are  added.  The  reciprocating 
engine  long  held  the  field,  but  in  recent 
years  the  development  of  turbine  engines 
displaced  the  older  type  while  the  use 
of  oil  and  the  Diesel  engine  has  produced 
motor  vessels  of  the  largest  displacement 
as  the  latest  type  of  all.  The  enormous 
expansion  in  shipbuilding  has  now  also 
entailed  the  introduction  of  an  immense 
variety  of  auxiliary  machinery  and  ap- 
pointments so  that  a  modern  transatlan- 
tic liner  has  come  to  partake  of  the  char- 
acter of  a  floating  city.  The  building  of 
naval  vessels  is,  of  course,  differentiated 
from  the  building  of  passenger  and  cargo 
ships  in  many  essential  ways,  but  the 
actual  ship  is  fundamentally  the  same, 
and  the  differences  lie  in  the  purposes  of 
the  parts,  such  as  machinery,  guns,  and 
armament,  added  to  it.    See  Shipping. 

SHIP   CANALS.      See   CANAL. 

SHIPKA  PASS,  a  pass  in  the  Balkans, 
47  miles  N.  E.  of  Philippopolis,  about 
4,600  feet  above  the  sea,  the  scene  of  a 
desperate  and  bloody  10  days'  struggle 
during   the   Russo-Turkish   War    (1877). 


SHIPMAN 


400 


SHIPPING 


In  his  futile  endeavors  to  take  Fort  Nicho- 
las at  the  summit  of  the  pass  from  the 
Russians,  Suleiman  Pasha  lost  20,000  of 
his  best  men. 

SHIPMAN,  LOUIS  EVAN,  an  Ameri- 
can author  and  playwright,  born  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  1869.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Brooklyn  Polytechnic  Institute 
and  Harvard  University.  From  1895  to 
1896  he  was  an  editorial  writer  on  "Les- 
lie's Weekly"  and  from  then  on  contrib- 
uted frequently  to  "Life"  and  "Collier's 
Weekly,"  as  well  as  to  other  magazines. 
He  wrote:  "Urban  Dialogues"  (1896); 
"A  Group  of  American  Theatrical  Carica- 
tures" (1898) ;  "D'Arcy  of  the  Guards" 
(1899) ;  "Predicaments"  (1899) ;  "The 
Curious  Courtship  of  Kate  Poins"  (1901) ; 
"The  Quality  of  Youth"  (1904) ;  and  "The 
True  Adventures  of  a  Play"  (1914).  Of 
his  plays,  the  best  known  are  "D'Arcy 
of  the  Guards"  (1901);  "The  Crisis" 
(with  Winston  Churchill,  1902) ;  "The 
Crossing"  (with  Winston  Churchill, 
1905);  "The  Admiral"  (1909);  "The 
Grain  of  Dust"  (1911) ;  and  "The  Foun- 
tain of  Youth"  (1918).  During  the  World 
War  he  served  as  a  member  of  the  New 
Hampshire  State  Commission  of  Public 
Safety,  state  director  of  the  "Four-Minute 
Men,"  and  local  food  administrator. 

SHIP  MONEY,  an  impost  levied  at 
various  times  in  England,  especially  on 
the  seaports  for  the  purpose  of  furnish- 
ing ships  for  the  king's  service.  Having 
lain  dormant  for  many  years,  it  was  re- 
vived by  Charles  I.,  who  in  1634  levied 
it  on  the  coast  towns,  and  in  1635  issued 
writs  for  ship  money  all  over  the  kingdom. 
The  tax  met  with  strong  opposition,  and 
the  refusal  of  John  Hampden  to  pay  the 
$5  at  which  he  was  rated  was  one  of  the 
proximate  causes  of  the  civil  war. 

SHIPPING.  The  use  of  ships  and 
shipping,  using  the  words  in  the  large 
sense,  goes  back  very  early  in  the  history 
of  civilization.  Ships  figure  in  the  earli- 
est records  of  the  Egyptians,  Chaldeans, 
Chinese  and  Hindus.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  Nile  Valley  constructed  vessels  capa- 
ble of  carrying  large  cargoes  or  half 
a  hundred  persons  some  4,000  years  be- 
fore the  Christian  era.  It  is  probable 
that  even  at  that  early  time  the  principles 
of  the  oar  and  the  sail  had  become  known 
and  put  into  practice.  By  the  time  the 
Phoenicians  dominated  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, the  use  of  the  oar  and  the  sail  had 
been  developed  and  vessels  of  large  size 
had  become  numerous.  Little  improve- 
ment was  discernible  in  the  craft  that 
sailed  the  seas  during  the  period  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  It  can  well  be  im- 
agined that  in  the  case  of  a  people,  in 


whom  the  sense  of  beauty  was  so  highly 
developed  as  in  the  Greeks,  vessels  in 
their  day  must  have  had  very  distinctive 
features.  The  actual  form  of  the  vessel 
could  not  necessarily  be  subjected  to  much 
variation.  Space,  speed  and  seaworthi- 
ness had  to  be  the  governing  principles 
alike  in  the  case  of  the  primitive  Egyp- 
tian and  the  highly  cultivated  Athenian, 
but  such  representations  as  exist  of  the 
craft  both  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans 
show  that  the  greatly  developed  artistic 
sense,  exhibited  in  the  case  of  almost 
every  object  in  the  world  of  classical  an- 
tiquity, found  an  outlet  also  in  the  build- 
ing of  ships.  From  the  time  of  the  Greek; 
and  Romans  to  the  sixteenth  century, 
when  voyages  around  the  world  became 
the  vogue,  the  improvement  was  not  very 
considerable.  The  stern  and  bow  rising 
sheer  out  of  the  water  had  been  retained 
and  a  hundred  feet  seemed  to  be  the 
limit  in  length  from  the  point  of  view 
of  safety.  The  discovery  of  America  and 
of  the  way  to  India  round  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  awakened  the  desire  for  ves- 
sels of  a  larger  type  and  of  greater  speed, 
and  immense  activity  was  expended  in 
construction  so  that  some  of  the  largest 
sailing  vessels  attained  a  length  of  200 
feet  and  were  carried  forward  with  an 
immense  spread  of  canvas.  The  high 
bows  and  sterns  were  retained,  but  the 
hull  was  modified.  The  proportion  of 
beam  to  length  was  about  one  to  four. 
Differences  were  made  between  merchant 
vessels  and  war  vessels,  but  as  in  those 
days  a  merchant  vessel  on  the  ocean  might 
be  called  on  at  any  time  to  defend  itself 
from  pirate  ships  the  differences  were 
not  great. 

As  long  as  ships  relied  on  the  sail  as  a 
driving  agent  progress  could  not  neces- 
sarily be  other  than  slow,  but  with  the 
arrival  and  development  of  steam  engines 
it  took  an  immense  step  forward.  Sailing 
ships  came  to  be  regarded  as  useless  as 
a  fighting  unit.  As  in  the  case  of  almost 
everything  new,  the  advent  of  steam  so 
far  from  immediately  displacing  the  sail, 
aroused  the  older  method  to  new  activity. 
In  the  sailing  vessel  every  other  consider- 
ation was  abandoned  in  the  effort  to  com- 
pete with  steam  in  the  attainment  of 
speed.  As  a  result  the  best  clipper  ships 
were  able  to  make  long  voyages  at  a  pace 
rivaling  that  of  the  steamer.  The  voy- 
age between  New  York  and  Liverpool  was 
cut  down  to  thirteen  and  fourteen  days, 
when  the  fast  mail-steamer  passage  took 
ten  days.  The  type  of  sailing  vessel  has 
since  varied  according  as  to  whether 
speed  or  carrying  capacity  was  desired. 
Steel  has  displaced  wood  in  the  more  mod- 
ern sailing  ships,  but  the  total  displace- 
ment of  the  sailing  vessel  by  the  steamer 
for   utilitarian   purposes   appears  only  a 


SHIPPING 


401 


SHIPPING 


matter  of  time,  though  a  combination  of 
sail  and  steam  or  oil  power  may  delay  the 
inevitable  end. 

There  had  been  many  experiments  in 
the  direction  of  using  steam  as  the  driving 
power  for  boats  before  Watt  took  out 
his  first  patent  in  1769.  The  earliest 
authentic  case  seems  to  have  been  that 
of  Professor  Denis  Papin  of  Blois  who  in 
1707  built  a  steamboat  which  he  navi- 
gated on  the  river  Fulda.  Watt,  whose 
engines  were  single-acting  pumps,  sug- 
gested in  1770  their  use  for  propelling 
vessels.  In  1782  he  brought  out  the 
double-acting  engine  and  improved  the 
principle  of  its  working  by  cutting  off 
the  steam  at  a  point  fixed  by  experiment 
instead  of  allowing  it  to  complete  the 
stroke.  This  development  by  Watt 
brought  into  existence  the  engine  needed 
for  propulsion  and  from  that  time  for- 
ward the  development  of  the  steamer  was 
only  a  matter  of  time.  In  1784  and 
after,  James  Rumsey  put  on  the  water 
at  Berkeley  Springs,  Va.,  a  number  of 
small  boats,  which,  by  the  ejection  of 
water  through  a  tube  at  the  stern,  at- 
tained a  speed  of  over  four  miles  an  hour. 
In  1788  a  boat  made  by  James  Fitch  with 
paddles  at  the  stern  made  a  trip  from 
Philadelphia  to  Burlington,  a  distance  of 
20  miles,  in  a  little  over  three  hours. 
Fitch  in  1789  built  a  larger  boat  with 
side  paddles  that  made  a  speed  of  eight 
miles  per  hour  and  was  made  a  passenger 
and  freight  boat  on  the  Delaware  river 
in  1790. 

While  Fitch  was  making  his  experi- 
ments, Patrick  Miller,  a  banker  of  Edin- 
burgh, succeeded  in  developing  at  Dals- 
winton  in  Dumfriesshire  a  paddle  boat 
driven  by  steam-power,  which  attained 
a  speed  of  7  miles  per  hour  on  the  Forth 
and  Clyde  Canal.  In  1801  Symington, 
the  engineer  of  Miller's  boat,  built  for 
Lord  Dundas  a  steamer  for  towing  barges 
with  machinery  very  highly  developed 
for  the  time.  In  Salem,  Mass.,  Nathan 
Read  in  1791  patented  the  multitubular 
boiler  and  built  a  successful  paddle-wheel 
steamboat.  John  Stevens  and  Oliver 
Evans  were  making  successful  experi- 
ments about  the  same  period.  A  boat 
built  by  Stevens  in  1804  had  twin  screws. 
His  steamboat  "Phcenix"  carried  passen- 
gers on  the  Raritan  river  between  New 
Brunswick  and  New  York  City,  and  later 
navigated  the  Delaware  for  six  years. 

New  possibilities  were  opened  up  with 
the  appearance  of  the  "Clermont"  built 
by  Robert  Fulton.  In  1797  Fulton  went 
to  France  and  experimented  with  sub- 
marine torpedoes  and  torpedo  boats.  In 
1801  he  built  a  small  steamer  and  in 
1804  procured  from  Watt  in  England 
machinery  for  a  large  vessel  which  was 
built  in  New  York  and  launched  in  1807. 


This  was  the  famous  "Clermont."  From 
New  York  City  she  navigated  the  Hudson 
to  Clermont,  110  miles  away,  and  20  hours 
later  went  to  Albany.  On  the  following 
day  she  began  her  return  trip  to  New 
York  City,  and  covered  the  distance  in 
30  hours  at  an  average  speed  of  five 
miles  an  hour.  After  an  interval  of  a 
month  she  started  running  regularly  be- 
tween Albany  and  New  York.  This 
marked  the  start  of  steam  navigation  as 
a  commercial  undertaking.  From  that 
time  forward  the  building  of  steamboats 
increased  rapidly.  The  United  States 
took  the  lead,  but  other  countries  were 
not  far  behind.  The  Dublin-Holyhead 
line  began  in  1819  and  in  the  following 
year  a  beginning  was  made  with  the 
Calais-Dover  service.  The  "Savannah," 
a  vessel  built  in  the  United  States,  was 
the  first  steamer  to  cross  the  Atlantic. 
She  had  a  length  of  100  feet,  and  a  dis- 
placement of  350  tons,  and  she  crossed 
from  Savannah  to  Liverpool  in  25  days. 
She  was  provided  with  sails  and  these 
were  used  when  the  wind  was  favorable. 
When  the  sea  was  smooth  the  paddle 
wheels  were  used  and  during  an  unfavor- 
able sea  they  were  taken  on  deck.  In 
1828  the  steamer  "Curacao,"  built  in  Hol- 
land, successfully  navigated  the  Atlantic 
and  she  was  followed  in  1832  by  the 
Canadian  "Royal  William."  The  "Sirius" 
and  "Great  Western"  registered  a  great 
step  forward.  Both  started  in  April, 
1838,  arriving  in  New  York  in  the  same 
month  within  a  day  from  each  other.  The 
"Great  Western"  averaged  208  miles  per 
day  and  at  her  topmost  speed  she  aver- 
aged 247  miles.  She  continued  running 
as  a  regular  transatlantic  vessel,  and  may 
be  said  to  have  initiated  the  transatlantic 
steam  service.  It  was  left,  however,  to 
Samuel  Cunard  to  make  the  service  a 
paying  commercial  proposition.  In  1839 
he  established  the  Cunard  line  with  the 
help  of  a  government  subsidy.  The  Cu- 
nard line  carried  the  bulk  of  the  freight, 
passengers,  and  mail  for  ten  years  and 
was  almost  without  a  competitor  till  the 
Inman  and  Collins  lines  were  started. 
The  loss  of  a  subsidy  from  the  United 
States  Government  obliged  the  Collins 
line,  which  was  purely  American,  to  with- 
draw in  1858  after  the  service  had  been 
continued  for  eight  years.  In  1850  two 
other  American  lines,  the  Vanderbilt  line 
and  the  New  York  and  Havre  Steamship 
Company,  were  started  and  both  of  them 
continued  to  run  till  British  competition 
during  the  Civil  War  swept  American 
commerce  from  the  seas.  The  Inman  line 
from  the  beginning  used  vessels  of  iron 
propelled  by  screws,  and  its  example  was 
followed  by  the  Cunard  line,  with  which 
the  screw  gradually  displaced  the  paddle 
wheel.  The  building  of  the  "Princeton"  by 


SHIPPING 


402 


SHIPPING    SUBSIDIES 


the  U.  S.  Navy,  had  proved  the  availability 
of  the  screw,  the  chief  advantage  of 
which  was  getting  the  propelling  machin- 
ery below  the  water  line.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  propelling  machinery  re- 
sponded to  the  demand  for  increased 
speed  and  the  tricompound  and  triple-ex- 
pansion engine  was  evolved.  The  evolu- 
tion of  the  water-tube  boiler  led  to  the 
quadruple-expansion  engine  until  at  last 
the  turbine  and  similar  forms  of  steam 
and  internal  combustion  engines  brought 
the  development  of  steam-shipping  to  the 
modern  types  in  transatlantic  service. 

From  the  middle  of  the  last  century  the 
transatlantic    service   has   naturally    led 
in  the  development  of  shipping,  size  and 
speed  being  in  nearly  every  case  the  gov- 
erning considerations.     Vessels  like   the 
"Germanic"  have  marked  the  milestones 
of  progress  reducing  to  about  eight  days 
the   average   length   of   passage   between 
New  York  and  Queenstown.    The  "Maure- 
tania"  and  the  "Lusitania"   showed   the 
development  of  a  generation,  reducing  the 
voyage  in  favorable  weather  to  about  five 
days.    The  White  Star  Line  led  the  way 
in   the   development   of   vessels   of   large 
dimensions.       The     "Olympic"      (46,000 
tons)  launched  in  1910,  marked  the  high 
water  mark,  and  this  was  outclassed  by 
the  Hamburg-American  "Imperator"  (52,- 
000  tons)  in  1913.    The  World  War  had 
the  result  of  retarding  the  construction 
of  great  passenger  vessels,  but  the  inten- 
sive competition  in  warship  building  had 
its  bearing  on  commercial  steamship  ser- 
vice.   As  a  result  of  the  larger  knowledge 
furnished  by  the  experiences  of  the  war, 
oil-burning  vessels  are   likely   to  be   the 
predominant  type  of  the  near  future,  and 
the  scramble  for  oil-lands  by  the  great 
nations  is  largely  occasioned  by  future 
needs  in  that  direction. 

A  development  of  the  war  is  the  United 
States  Shipping  Board  which  was  author- 
ized by  Congress  in  1916  with  power  to 
investigate,  regulate  and  fix  the  rates 
in  United  States  marine  business.  The 
board  has  authority  to  issue  bonds  not 
exceeding  $50,000,000  to  build,  purchase 
or  lease  vessels  for  a  merchant  marine. 
It  constitutes  the  head  of  a  corporation 
to  endure  for  a  period  not  to  exceed  five 
years  after  the  war.  The  annual  salary 
of  the  members  of  ~  the  board  was  fixed 
at  $7,500.  During  the  war  the  Board 
operated  the  merchant  marine  as  a  na- 
tional enterprise.  As  a  result  American 
shipping  has  promised  to  be  as  important 
in  peace  as  in  war.  The  decisive  manner 
in  which  the  United  States  entered  the 
world  of  shipping  during  the  war  has 
awakened  the  most  sanguine  hopes  of 
those  interested  in  the  development  of  an 
American  mercantile  marine,  and  legis- 
lation looking  to  the  promotion  of  Ameri- 


can shipping  is  looked  for  under  the  new 
Republican  administration. 

SHIPPING        BOARD,       UNITED 

STATES.     See  Shipping. 

SHIPPING  SUBSIDIES,  financial  aid 
to  shipping  by  public  authority.     Great 
Britain  appears  to  have  led  the  way  in 
this  manner  of  promoting  shipping  ser- 
vice,  Parliament   in    1730   providing   for 
a  bounty  of  20  shillings  per  ton  on  ves- 
sels  of   20   tons   and   more   employed   in 
the  white-herring  fisheries.     In  1839  the 
British  Government  also  granted  a  sub- 
vention  to   the    Cunard    Company   as    a 
recompense   for   the   carrying   of   postal 
matter,  between   Canada   and   Liverpool. 
The  amount,  beginning  with  £60,000,  was 
gradually  increased,  finally  being  made 
to  depend  on  the  weight  of  mail  matter 
carried.     By  methods  such  as  these  the 
British    succeeded    in    building   up    their 
merchant  fleet  and  in  driving  from  the 
high   seas   the     American     clipper    lines 
which  previous  to  these  subsidies  had  won 
much  of  the  ocean-carrying  trade.    In  ad- 
dition subsidies  have  also  been  paid  by 
the  British  Government  for  the  option  of 
buying  or  hiring  certain  speedy  Cunard 
and  White  Star  steamers  in  time  of  war. 
The  policy  of  granting  subsidies  to  ships 
has  been   followed   by    other    European 
countries,  though  various  methods  have 
been  employed.    Germany  paid  an  annual 
subsidy  for  the  East  Asian  service,  and 
other  subsidies  were  paid  the  North  Ger- 
man Lloyd  for  other  services.     Indirect 
subventions  were  paid  also  in  the  form 
of  exemption  from  import  duties.    France 
also  voted  mail  subsidies  which  amounted 
in  1914  to  $6,030,000.     Italy  paid  subsi- 
dies in  aid  of  construction  and  navigation 
amounting  in  1912  to  $2,000,000. 

The  United  States  has  followed  no  set- 
tled policy  in  the  granting  of  shipping 
subsidies,  though  in  1845  it  began  to  pay 
for  the  transportation  of  mails  by  ships. 
The  abrogation  of  contracts  for  carrying 
of  mails  in  1858  by  the  United  States 
Government  brought  about  the  failure  of 
the  Collins  line  which  till  that  time  had 
competed  favorably  with  the  Cunard. 
The  abrogation  of  similar  contracts  later 
brought  about  the  failure  of  the  Pacific 
Mail  Company.  Under  the  Act  of  1891 
the  United  States  instituted  a  mileage 
basis  of  payment  for  the  carrying  of 
mails,  and  the  subsidies  have  been  paid 
to  foreign  as  well  as  to  American  lines. 
A  general  subsidy  measure  was  introduced 
in  Congress  in  1898,  but  failed  to  pass 
the  House.  A  Senate  committee  in  1905 
recommended  a  subsidy  policy,  and  its 
permanent  advantages  have  been  grad- 
ually recognized  in  the  plans  put  forward 
in  1919  for  the  resurrection  of  an  Ameri- 
can merchant  marine. 


SHIPTON 


403 


SHISHAK 


SHIPTON,  MOTHER,  a  half-mythical 
English  prophetess;  born  near  Knares- 
borough,  Yorkshire,  in  July,  1488.  She 
was  christened  Ursula  Southill.  Tradi- 
tion has  it  that  she  was  the  child  of 
Agatha  Shipton  and  the  devil.  Some  of 
her  alleged  "prophecies"  have  been  handed 
down  to  us.  She  became  the  wife  of  a 
shipbuilder,  Tobias  Shipton,  and  died 
about  1559. 

SHIRAS,  GEORGE,  JR.,  an  American 
jurist,  born  in  Pittsburgh,  in  1832.  He 
was  educated  at  Yale  University,  from 
which  institution  he  received,  besides  the 
degrees  of  A.B.  and  LL.B.,  also  the  hon- 
orary degree  of  LL.D.  Admitted  to  the 
Pennsylvania  bar  in  1856,  he  practiced 
law  in  Pittsburgh  until  appointed  asso- 
ciate justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  in  October,  1892,  retiring  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1913.  In  1888  he  served  as  a 
presidential  elector. 

SHIRAZ,  a  city  of  Persia  and  capital 
of  the  province  of  Fars;  much  celebrated 
in  Persian  poetry  for  its  climate,  its  wine 
and  roses,  and  its  beautiful  gardens; 
situated  in  a  broad  plain,  115  miles  E. 
N.  E.  of  Bushire  and  35  miles  S.  W.  of 
the  ancient  Persepolis.  It  is  inclosed  by 
ruined  walls,  and  previous  to  the  earth- 
quakes contained  many  splendid  mosques, 
bazaars,  caravansaries,  and  other  public 
buildings.  The  wine  of  Shiraz,  which  is 
very  strong  and  resembles  Tokay,  is,  how- 
ever, still  famous  throughout  the  East. 
Rose  water  is  prepared  in  large  quanti- 
ties. Inlaid  articles  in  wood  and  metal, 
glass,  and  woolens  are  made  here.  The 
city  was  founded  in  the  8th  century,  and 
from  its  beautiful  situation  and  charming 
climate  became  a  favorite  resort  of  the 
,  Persian  princes.  In  1812  a  destructive 
earthquake  laid  a  large  portion  of  it  in 
ruins,  and  another  in  1824,  which  cost 
the  lives  of  4,000  of  the  inhabitants,  com- 
pleted the  wreck  of  its  prosperity.  It 
was,  however,  rebuilt,  and  numbered  40,- 
000  people,  when  a  third  and  more  ter- 
rible visitation,  in  April,  1853,  laid  almost 
the  whole  town  again  in  ruins,  and  caused 
the  death  of  10,000  people.  It  has  been 
rebuilt  to  a  considerable  extent.  The 
tombs  of  the  poets  Hafiz  and  Sadi,  both 
natives  of  the  town,  exist  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  about  55,000. 

SHIRE,  in  the  United  States,  a  divi- 
sion of  a  State,  comprising  several  con- 
tiguous townships — a  distinction  must  be 
drawn  between  the  application  of  this 
word  as  between  English  and  American 
usage;  as,  for  instance,  it  is  correct  in 
the  United  States  to  say  "the  county  of 
Berkshire";  whereas  in  England  such  an 
expression  would  be  tautological,  or,  in 


other  words,  would  convey  the  sense  of 
"a  county  of  a  county." 

SHIRE,  a  river  of  southeastern  Africa 
draining  Lake  Nyassa  into  the  Zambesi, 
which  it  enters  on  its  left  bank  after  a 
course  of  about  270  miles  nearly,  due  S. 
It  is  navigable  throughout  its  entire 
length,  with  the  exception  of  about  35 
miles  of  falls  and  rapids,  during  the 
course  of  which  it  descends  as  much  as 
1,200  feet. 

SHIRLEY,  JAMES,  an  English  drama- 
tist; born  in  London,  England,  Sept.  13, 
1596;  went  to  Merchant  Taylors'  School, 
whence  he  passed  in  1612  to  St.  John's 
College,  Oxford.  Laud  esteemed  him 
highly,  but  discouraged  him  from  seeking 
holy  orders.  He  migrated,  however,  to 
Catharine  Hall,  Cambridge,  took  orders, 
and  held  for  a  short  time  a  living  at  or 
near  St.  Albans,  but  becoming  a  Catholic 
resigned  it,  taught  school  for  two  years, 
and  then  retired  to  the  metropolis,  lived 
in  Gray's  Inn,  and  set  up  for  a  play 
maker.  For  his  plots  Shirley  drew  on  his 
own  inventiveness.  Beaumont  and  Flet- 
cher were  his  models,  even  more  than 
Ben  Jonson.  Most  of  his  plays  are  tragi- 
comedies. His  chief  plays  were  "Love 
Tricks"  (1625) ;  "The  Maid's  Revenge" 
(1626);  "The  Brothers"  (1626);  "The 
Witty  Fair  One"  (1628) ;  "The  Wedding" 
(1628) ;  "The  Traitor,"  his  finest  and  also 
his  strongest  tragedy  (1631);  "The 
Changes,  or  Love  in  a  Maze"  (1632) ; 
"The  Gamester,"  an  admirable  comedy, 
(1633)  ;  "The  Lady  of  Pleasure"  (1635) ; 
and  "The  Cardinal."  In  1646  he  printed 
a  volume  of  his  poems,  including  his 
masque  of  "The  Triumph  of  Beauty." 
As  a  writer  of  masques  he  is  second 
only  to  Ben  Jonson.  Among  his  best 
was  "The  Triumph  of  Peace,"  presented 
by  the  Inns  of  Court  before  the  king  and 
queen  in  1633.  The  only  complete  edi- 
tion of  his  works  is  that  edited  by  Gif- 
ford  and  Dyce  (6  vols.  1833).  There  is 
a  selection  of  five  plays  with  "The  Tri- 
umph of  Peace,"  in  the  "Mermaid"  series, 
by  E.  W.  Gosse  (1888).  He  died  in  pov- 
erty, Oct.  29,  1666. 

SHIRWA,  or  TAMANDTTA,  a  lake  of 
southeastern  Africa,  on  the  Shire  river, 
to  the  S.  E.  of  Lake  Nyassa.  It  is  a 
secluded  basin,  lying  at  an  elevation  of 
2,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  surrounded 
by  mountains  which  reach  a  height  of 
7,000  to  8,000  feet.  It  is  mostly  shallow 
and  infested  by  hippopotami  and  croco- 
diles. 

SHISHAK,  the  name  of  several  mon- 
archs  of  the  22d  or  Bubastite  Egyptian 
dynasty.  Shishak  I.'s  name  is  found  in 
the  portico  built  by  the  Bubastite  dynasty 
at  the  great  temple  of  Karnak,  and  on 


SHITEPOKE 


404 


SHOE-BILLED  STORK 


several  statues  of  the  Egyptian  goddess 
Pasht,  which  probably  came  from  Luxor. 
Jeroboam  fled  to  Shishak  from  the  pur- 
suit of  Solomon,  who  wished  to  kill  him, 
and  lived  there  during  the  lifetime  of 
Solomon.  On  the  death  of  this  monarch 
Jeroboam  quitted  Egypt  and  contended 
with  Rehoboam  for  the  possession  of  the 
crown.  This  struggle  caused  the  divi- 
sion of  the  kingdom  of  David  into  two 
states,  that  of  Israel  and  Judah.  In  the 
fifth  year  of  Rehoboam  Shishak  marched 
to  Jerusalem  with  an  army  of  12,000 
chariots,  60,000  cavalry,  and  an  innu- 
merable number  of  infantry,  composed  of 
Troglodytes,  Libyans,  and  Ethiopians. 
He  took  the  city,  the  treasures  of  the 
temple,  and  all  the  gold  bucklers  which 
Solomon  had  made.  The  conquest  of  Jeru- 
salem is  found  recorded  on  the  monuments 
of  Karnak,  on  which  Shishak  I.  is  rep- 
resented dragging  before  the  god  Ammon 
three  files  of  prisoners,  inscribed  with 
various  names  of  places,  among  them 
Judaea,  Megiddo,  Ajalon,  Mahanaim,  and 
other  towns  taken  by  Shishak  in  his  line 
of  march. 

SHITEPOKE,  the  small  green  heron 
of  North  America  (Butorides  virescens). 
The  plumage  of  its  crest  and  upper  parts 
is  mainly  glossy  green;  the  under  parts 
are  brownish-ash,  varied  with  white  on 
its  belly.  Also  called  poke  and  fly-up-the- 
creek. 

SHITTIM  WOOD,  the  wood  of  the 
shittah  tree  of  the  Bible,  of  which  the 
tabernacle  in  the  wilderness  was  princi- 
pally constructed,  is  supposed  to  be  the 
Acacia  seyal  of  the  Sinaitic  peninsula. 
It  is  a  light  but  cross-grained  and  en- 
during wood,  of  a  fine  orange-brown  color. 

SHIVELY,  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN, 
a  United  States  Senator  from  Indiana, 
born  in  St.  Joseph  co.,  Ind.,  in  1857.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Northern  Indiana 
Normal  School  and  at  the  University  of 
Michigan.  He  graduated  from  the  law 
department  of  the  latter  in  1886.  He 
was  engaged  in  farming,  and  was  at 
various  times  an  editor  and  teacher. 
Elected  to  Congress  in  1884  and  again 
in  1886,  he  served  until  1892.  In  1909 
he  was  elected  United  States  Senator  and 
was  re-elected  in  1914.  During  his  ser- 
vices as  Senator,  he  was  chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Pensions  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Rela- 
tions.    He  died  in  1916. 

SHOA,  a  province  in  the  S.  E.  of  Abys- 
sinia; area,  about  26,000  square  miles. 
Pop.  about  2,500,000.  It  consists  (like 
the  rest  of  Abyssinia)  mostly  of  plateaus 
reaching  up  to  an  elevation  of  10,000  feet 
on  the  S.  E.  and  S.,  overtopped  by  higher 
mountains,  and  intersected  by  numerous 


streams  mostly  tributaries  of  the  Blue 
Nile.  The  capital  is  Ankober.  It  also 
contains  Addis  Abeba,  the  capital  of 
Abyssinia.  In  1889  Menelek,  King  of 
Shoa,  became  ruler  of  all  Abyssinia,  which 
in  1896  became  an  independent  state.  See 
Abyssinia. 

SHOCK,  in  electricity:  (1)  Frictional, 
a  sensation  as  of  a  more  or  less  painful 
concussion  or  blow  attended  by  a  sudden 
contraction  or  convulsion  of  the  muscles 
produced  by  a  discharge  through  them 
of  electricity  from  a  charged  body.  If 
a  number  of  persons  join  hands,  the  first 
touching  the  outside  coating  and  the  last 
the  knob  of  a  charged  Leyden  jar,  all 
will  receive  a  nearly  simultaneous  shock 
proportioned  to  the  strength  of  the  charge 
and  the  number  of  persons  whom  it 
strikes.  (2)  Dynamical,  the  sensation 
produced  in  the  same  way  by  a  current 
from  a  charged  inductive  coil,  or  from 
a  dynamo-electric  machine.  Owing  to  the 
large  quantity  of  these  latter  currents, 
fatal  accidents  not  unfrequently  occur.  In 
pathology,  a  sudden  and  violent  derange- 
ment of  any  organ  or  of  the  nervous 
system,  and  through  it  of  the  general 
frame,  consequent  on  sudden  injury,  the 
sight  of  anything  painful  or  terrible,  or 
the  reception  of  very  startling  news. 

SHODDY,  old  woolen  or  worsted  fab- 
rics torn  to  pieces  by  a  machine  having 
spiked  rollers  (termed  a  devil),  cleansed, 
and  the  fiber  spun  with  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  new  wool,  the  yarn  being  after- 
ward woven  into  full  bodied  but  flimsy 
fabric  also  known  as  shoddy,  and  made 
into  cheap  cloth,  table  covers,  etc. 

SHOE,  a  covering  or  protection  for 
the  foot,  usually  of  leather.  The  ancients 
usually  wore  Sandals  (q.  v.).  The  cres- 
cent was  employed  as  an  ornament  on 
the  shoes  of  Romans  of  exalted  rank,  who 
appear  to  have  carried  on  the  art  of  shoe 
making  with  great  taste  and  skill.  Only 
one  instance  is  known  of  an  ancient  monu- 
ment exhibiting  shoes  with  separate  heel 
pieces.  The  custom  of  making  shoes  right 
and  left  was  common  in  classical  times. 
The  fashion  of  shoes  and  boots,  as  has 
occurred  with  other  articles  of  dress,  has 
undergone  innumerable  changes.  In  1914, 
according  to  the  last  United  States  census 
of  manufactures,  there  were  in  the  boot 
and  shoe  industry  1,960  establishments, 
employing  227,605  persons.  Their  com- 
bined capital  was  $97,609,000  and  the 
value  of  their  products  was  $590,028,000. 
The  principal  centers,  of  the  industry 
were  Lynn,  Brockton,  Haverhill,  and  Bos- 
ton, all  in  Massachusetts,  and  St.  Louis, 
Mo.    See  Boots  and  Shoes. 

SHOE-BILLED  STORK,  in  ornithology, 
Balseniceps  rex,  a  large  stork  found  on 


SHOEMAKER 


405 


SHORE  LABS 


the  upper  Nile.    It  figures  in  many  Arab 
myths.    Called  also  the  boot  bill. 

SHOEMAKER,  HENRY  WHARTON, 
an  American  newspaper  publisher,  born 
in  New  York,  in  1882.  He  was  educated 
at  Columbia  University,  N.  Y.  In  1903 
and  1904  he  served  as  secretary  of  the 
American  Legation,  Lisbon,  Portugal,  and 
of  the  American  Embassy,  Berlin,  Ger- 
many. From  1905  to  1911  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  New  York  banking  house  of 
Shoemaker,  Bates  &  Co.,  and  since  then 
director  of  numerous  business  corpora- 
tions. Beginning  with  1905,  he  was  at 
various  times  the  owner  and  publisher  of 
several  daily  newspapers,  chiefly  in  towns 
of  Pennsylvania,  acquiring  finally  the 
Altoona,  Pa.,  "Tribune"  and  "Gazette." 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Associated  Press, 
and  a  member  of  many  domestic  and 
foreign  scientific,  benevolent,  and  patri- 
otic societies.  At  various  times  he  held 
commissions  in  the  New  York  and  Penn- 
sylvania National  Guard.  During  the 
World  War  he  served  as  a  captain  of  the 
Military  Intelligence  Division,  General 
Staff,  United  States  Army,  and  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Pennsylvania  Commissions  for 
National  Defence  and  of  Public  Safety. 
He  edited  "Philosophy  of  Jake  Haiden" 
(1911) ;  "The  Passenger  Pigeon  in  Penn- 
sylvania" (1919),  and  was  the  author  of 
"Immaterial  Verses"  (1898) ;  "Wild  Life 
in  Western  Pennsylvania"  (1903) ;  "Penn- 
sylvania Mountain  Verses"  (1907) ; 
"Pennsylvania  Mountain  Stories"  (1907)  ; 
"More  Pennsylvania  Mountain  Stories" 
(1912) ;  "Susquehanna  Legends"  (1913) ; 
"Stories  of  Great  Pennsylvania  Hunters" 
(1914) ;  "Stories  of  Pennsylvania  Ani- 
mals" (1914) ;  "Pennsylvania's  Grandest 
Cavern"  (1914) ;  "Captain  Logan" 
(1915) ;  "Juniata  Memories"  (1916) ; 
"Eldorado  Found"  (1917) ;  "Extinct 
Pennsylvania  Animals"  two  parts  (1917- 
1918) ;  "North  Pennsylvania  Minstrelsy" 
(1919);  etc. 

SHOLAPUR,  chief  town  of  Sholapur 
district,  Bombay  presidency,  India,  150 
miles  from  Poona.  Its  situation  between 
Poona  and  Hyderabad  has  made  it,  espe- 
cially since  the  opening  of  the  railway 
in  1859,  the  center  for  the  trade  of  a 
large  extent  of  country.  Its  chief  in- 
dustry is  the  manufacture  of  silk  and 
cotton  cloth.  Sholapur  was  stormed  by 
General  Munro  in  1818,  when  the  whole 
of  the  Peshawa's  territories  were  incor- 
porated in  the  Bombay  presidency.  Pop. 
about  61,500. 

SHONTS,  THEODORE  PERRY,  an 

American  capitalist  and  railway  official, 
born  in  Crawford  co.,  Pa.,  in  1856.  While 
he  was  still  a  boy  his  parents  removed 
to  Iowa.     He  graduated  from  Monmouth 


College  in  1876.  For  several  years  he 
worked  as  an  accountant.  In  a  short 
time  he  secured  employment  by  National 
banks  in  Iowa,  to  standardize  and  sim- 
plify their  methods  of  bookkeeping.  He 
studied  law  and  for  a  short  time  prac- 
ticed, but  soon  became  interested  in  rail- 
road construction  and  management,  and 
took  part  in  the  building  of  several  im- 
portant railways  in  the  west.  He  also 
became  a  partial  and  controlling  owner 
in  several  important  roads.  In  1905  he 
was  appointed  by  President  Roosevelt  as 
chairman  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commis- 
sion. He  formulated  the  plans  of  that 
work  and  continued  in  this  capacity  until 
February,  1907,  when  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Interborough-Metropoli- 
tan  Co.,  of  New  York,  afterward  the 
Interborough  Consolidated  Corporation. 
He  was  also  president  or  an  official  in 
many  other  railroads  and  financial  in- 
stitutions.    He  died  in  1919. 

SHOOTER'S  ISLAND,  an  island  be- 
tween Newark  Bay  and  Staten  Island; 
chiefly  noted  for  its  large  shipbuilding 
plant. 

SHOOTING  STAR,  a  small  celestial 
body  suddenly  becoming  luminous  and 
darting  across  the  sky,  its  course  being 
marked  by  a  streak  of  silvery  radiance, 
which  is  an  optical  illusion  caused  by  the 
rapidity  of  its  passage.     See  Meteor. 

SHORE,  JANE,  the  famous  mistress 
of  Edward  IV. ;  born  in  London,  was  well 
brought  up,  and  married  at  an  early  age 
to  William  Shore,  traditionally  a  gold- 
smith. After  her  intrigue  with  the  king 
began  her  husband  abandoned  her,  but 
she  lived  till  Edward's  death  in  the  great- 
est luxury,  enjoying  great  power  through 
his  favor.  Her  beauty  was  more  that  of 
expression  than  of  features.  Her  great- 
est charm  was  her  bright  and  playful 
wit.  After  the  king's  death,  King  Rich- 
ard III.,  out  of  a  pretended  zeal  for  virtue, 
plundered  her  house  of  more  than  2,000 
merks,  and  caused  the  Bishop  of  London 
to  make  her  walk  in  open  penance,  taper 
in  hand,  dressed  only  in  her  kirtle.  Jane 
Shore  survived  her  penance  more  than 
40  years,  dying  in  1527. 

SHORE  LARK,  or  SHORE  PIPIT,  in 

ornithology,  the  Otocorys  (Alauda)  alpes- 
tris,  a  native  of  the  N.  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  The  adult  male  is  about  seven 
inches  long;  in  summer,  lores,  cheeks, 
gorget,  and  band  on  top  of  head,  ending 
in  erectile  tufts,  black;  nape,  mantle  and 
upper  tail  coverts  pinkish  brown,  white 
beneath.  They  nest  in  a  depression  in 
the  ground  and  lay  four  or  five  eggs — 
French-white  mottled  with  dull  olive- 
green  or  yellowish-brown. 


SHOREY 


406 


SHORTHAND 


SHOREY,  PAUL,  an  American  edu- 
cator; born  in  Davenport,  la.,  Aug.  3, 
1857;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Univer- 
sity in  1878;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Chi- 
cago in  1880;  was  Professor  of  Greek 
at  Bryn  Mawr  College  in  1885-1892.  In 
the  latter  year  he  accepted  a  similar  chair 
at  the  University  of  Chicago.  His  pub- 
lications include  "De  Platonis  Idearum 
Doctrina"  (1884) ;  "The  Idea  of  Good 
in  Plato's  Republic"  (1895);  "The  Odes 
and  Epodes  of  Horace"  (1898)  ;  "Unity 
of  Plato's  Thoughts"  (1903)  ;  "The  As- 
sault on  Humanism"  (1918),  and  numer- 
ous contributions  to  periodicals. 

SHORTER,  CLEMENT  KING,  an 
English  editor;  became  editor  of  the  "Il- 
lustrated London  News"  in  1891;  also 
had  charge  of  the  "Sketch,"  "Album," 
and  "English  Illustrated  Magazine,"  and 
was  generally  regarded  as  one  of  the 
ablest  and  most  acute  editors  in  London. 
His  published  works  comprise:  "Fifty 
Years  of  Victorian  Literature,  1837-1887" 
(1897)  ;  "Charlotte  Bronte  and  Her 
Circle"  (1896);  "Victorian  Literature: 
Sixty  Years  of  Books  and  Bookmen" 
(1897) ;  "Immortal  Memories"  (1907) ; 
"George  Borrow  and  His  Circle"  (1913)  ; 
etc. 

SHORTHAND,  an  art  by  which  writ- 
ing is  abbreviated,  so  as  to  keep  pace 
with  speaking.  Its  great  and  general 
utility  has  been  recognized  in  every  age, 
and  numberless  systems  have  been  devised 
to  facilitate  its  acquirement.  It  was  prac- 
ticed by  the  ancients  for  its  secrecy  as 
well  as  for  its  brevity,  and  a  work  is 
extant  on  the  art,  which  is  ascribed  to 
Tiro,  the  freedman  of  Cicero.  The  first 
English  treatise  on  stenography,  in  which 
marks  represent  words,  was  published 
in  1588  by  Timothy  Bright,  M.  D.,  under 
the  title,  "Characterie ;  an  Art  of  Short, 
Swift,  and  Secret  Writing  by  Character." 
In  1602  appeared  "The  Art  of  Stenog- 
raphy, or  Short  Writing  by  Spelling 
Characterie,"  by  John  Willis.  Notwith- 
standing the  intricacy  of  this  system,  in 
which  "arbitraries"  are  extensively  used, 
it  became  popular  and  found  many  imi- 
tators. It  was  succeeded  by  the  systems 
of  Edmond  Willis  (1618),  Henry  Dix 
(1641),  and  Jeremiah  Rich  (1659).  In 
1672  appeared  "A  Pen  Plucked  from  an 
Eagle's  Wing:  or,  The  Most  Swift,  Com- 
pendious, and  Speedy  Method  of  Short 
Writing."  The  author  was  William  Ma- 
son, the  most  famous  shorthand  writer 
of  the  17th  century.  His  alphabet  was 
formed  from  Rich's  by  altering  the  signs 
of  six  letters,  viz.,  g,  h,  j,  o,  r,  w. 

In  1767  was  published  the  system  of 
Dr.  Byrom,  four  years  after  his  death, 
which,  however,  had  been  completed  as 
early  as  1720.    This  was  in  many  respects 


an  admirable  system — characterized  by 
"simple  strokes  and  no  arbitrary  charac- 
ters." In  1785  Dr.  Mavor  published  his 
"Universal  Stenography,"  an  ambitious 
improvement  on  Byrom.  His  alphabet 
consists  of  18  letters,  two  of  which  are 
for  vowels.  The  characters  for  the  vowels 
are  a  dot  (.)  and  a  comma  (,).  The 
comma  in  different  positions  indicates  a, 
e,  i;  the  dot,  o,  u,  y.  In  1786  appeared  the 
famous  system  of  Taylor,  which  was  al- 
most universally  used  previous  to  the 
publication  of  "Phonography"  by  Mr.  Pit- 
man in  1837.  Taylor  has  22  marks  or 
characters:  of  these,  16  represent  the 
alphabet;  the  remaining  6  standing  for 
ch,  sh,  th,  ious,  etc.,  viz. 

In  1837  appeared  Pitman's  "Phonogra- 
phy"— the  first  really  popular  system. 
Melville  Bell,  following  in  the  path 
marked  out  by  Pitman,  founded  his  sys- 
tem on  the  sounds  of  the  language.  The 
first  sketch  appeared  in  1849;  in  1852 
the  first  complete  edition,  under  the  title 
"Steno-Phonography."  An  improved  edi- 
tion was  published  as  "The  Reporter's 
Manual"  in  1857.  Bell's  letters  are  writ- 
ten in  three  sizes;  full  size,  half  size,  and 
"tick"  size.  Pitman  makes  his  letters 
of  two  lengths  only,  full  size  and  half 
size  (the  half -sized  letters  expressing  an 
additional  t  or  d. 

The  principal  point  of  difference  in  the 
two  systems  is,  that  Bell  subordinates 
his  alphabet  to  a  theory  of  sounds  which 
is  strictly  correct;  and  Pitman,  while 
acknowledging  the  principle  of  a  phonetic 
representation,  consults  the  convenience 
of  the  writer  in  the  selection  of  signs. 
For  example,  the  broad  distinction  of 
voice  and  breath  consonants  was  first 
marked  by  Pitman  by  the  happy  expedient 
of  writing  heavy  strokes  for  the  voice 
letters  b,  d,  j,  g,  v,  th  (in  then),  z,  zh,  and 
light  strokes  for  the  breath  letters  p,  t, 
ch,  k,  f,  th  (in  thin),  s,  sh.  Bell  adopted 
the  same  principle. 

Shorthand  is  now  largely  practiced  in 
both  England  and  the  United  States,  and 
has  extended  its  benefits  to  many  classes 
besides  that  of  the  professional  reporter. 
This  is  due  chiefly  to  the  excellences  of 
Pitman's  system  and  to  his  activity  in 
disseminating  its  principles.  The  exis- 
tence of  two  styles  of  phonography,  one 
adapted  for  letter  writing  and  the  other 
for  reporting — the  second,  however,  being 
only  an  extension  of  the  first,  and  not  a 
new  system  in  itself — has  been  the  chief 
basis  of  the  popularity  of  phonetic  short- 
hand. Popular  modifications  of  Pitman's 
system  have  been  made  in  the  United 
States  by  Graham,  Burnz,  Munson  and 
others.  Shorthand  machines  for  rapid 
dictation  are  considerably  used.  In  1909 
the  National  Shorthand  Reporters'  Asso- 
ciation appointed  a  committee  to  standard- 


SHORTHORN 


407 


SHORT  STORY 


ize  variations   and   establish     shorthand 
on  a  thoroughly  scientific  basis. 

SHORTHORN,  a  breed  of  cattle  char- 
acterized by  short  horns,  rapidity  of 
growth,  aptitude  to  fatten,  and  good  tem- 
per. It  was  produced  by  Charles  and 
Robert  Colling,  at  Ketton  and  Barmpton, 
near  Darlington,  England,  by  a  process 
of  in-and-in  breeding  between  1780  and 
1818.  The  Collings  were  imitated  by 
R.  T.  and  J.  Booth  between  1814  and 
1863;  by  Thomas  Bates  between  1818  and 
1849.  The  process  has  been  followed  in 
the  United  States  since  1817. 

SHORTHOUSE,  JOSEPH  HENRY,  an 
English  novelist;  born  in  Birmingham, 
England,  Sept.  9,  1834.  His  best-known 
novel  is  "John  Inglesant"  (1881).  His 
other  works  include:  "The  Little  School- 
master, Mark"  (1883-1884)  ;  "Sir  Perci- 
val"  (1886);  "A  Teacher  of  the  Violin" 
(1888) ;  "Blanche,  Lady  Falaise"  (1891) ; 
"The  Humorous  in  Literature";  etc.  He 
died  in  1903. 

SHORT  STORY,  THE.  The  anecdotal 
short  story,  which  passes  from  tongue  to 
tongue,  and  has  done  so  since  the  earliest 
times,  is  no  more  a  literary  form  than 
the  riddle  or  the  joke,  although  like  these 
it  may  pass  into  literature.  The  literary 
short  story  is  of  course  a  much  later 
product,  although  it  is  to  be  found  scat- 
tered through  the  ancient  literature  of 
the  Orient,  of  Greece,  and  of  Rome. 
Notable  examples  of  early  short  stories 
of  a  more  or  less  literary  character  are 
to  be  found  in  famous  collections,  such 
as  in  the  so-called  "Arabian  Nights," 
"The  Seven  Sages,"  the  "Gesta  Roma- 
norum,"  which,  originating  usually  in  the 
East,  and  in  some  obscurely  distant  pe- 
riod, worked  their  way  through  many 
languages  and  centuries  and  came  into 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

So  far  as  modern  literature  is  con- 
cerned, the  importance  of  the  literary 
short  story  really  begins  with  the  later 
Middle  Ages  in  western  Europe.  Here, 
in  two  literatures,  it  became  a  recognized 
form  of  literary  art,  and  was  widely 
translated  and  imitated  elsewhere  in  Eu- 
rope. 

The  French  fabliaux  were  verse  short 
stories,  originating  in  about  the  12th  cen- 
tury, humorous,  often  indecent,  told  or 
sung  by  the  minstrels  as  an  offset  to  ro- 
mances and  love  lyrics.  They  represent 
the  unromantic  and  often  the  seamy  side 
of  medieval  life.  "La  Bourse  Pleine  de 
Sens"  of  Jean  le  Galois  d'Aubepierre  is 
an  example.  Many  fabliau  plots  are  still 
familiar  to  us  in  modern  humorous  sto- 
ries. 

More  important  were  the  novelle,  brief 
prose  stories,  usually  but  not  always  real- 


istic in  mood,  concise  and  pointed  in 
form.  They  were  written  from  the  late 
13th  century  onward  by  men  of  the  civi- 
lized trading  communities  of  Florence, 
Venice,  and  elsewhere  in  Italy,  and 
though  their  plots  are  often  old,  they  are 
given  a  local  time  and  place,  and  are 
impregnated  with  the  customs,  the  ideals, 
and  the  interests  of  the  earliest  renais- 
sance. The  range  of  the  novella  was 
wider  than  that  of  the  fabliau.  The 
tragic,  the  romantic,  as  well  as  the  hu- 
morous and  the  anecdotal,  were  admitted 
into  its  compact  brevity;  and  the  novelle 
of  great  writers  like  Boccaccio,  and  lesser 
men,  like  Bandello  and  Straparola,  have 
become  sources  for  some  of  our  best 
known  plays.  "Othello"  and  "Romeo  and 
Juliet"  are  examples. 

Mention  only  may  be  made  here  of  the 
exempla,  brief,  didactic  narratives  told 
usually  of  a  saint  and  ending  in  a  moral, 
written  by  monks  and  circulating  in  vast 
collections,  usually  in  Latin,  throughout 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  fable,  a  special 
form  of  the  didactic  short  story,  was  still 
another  popular  variety  and  likewise 
drifted  in  great  collections  across  Europe 
and  into  all  the  important  vernaculars. 

In  English  these  various  types  of  short 
stories  had  a  sudden  flowering  in  the 
works  of  one  great  author.  Geoffrey  Chau- 
cer, at  the  end  of  the  14th  century,  took 
the  fabliau,  the  novella,  the  exemplum, 
the  fable  (which  came  to  him  through 
the  so-called  beast  epic  of  "Reynard  the 
Fox"),  and  filling  old  plots  with  his  own 
humor  and  shrewd  observation  made  "The 
Canterbury  Tales,"  which  remain  for  the 
English-speaking  reader  the  best  sum- 
mary of  the  earlier  periods  of  the  literary 
short  story. 

The  short  story  of  the  period  of  the 
full  renaissance,  the  16th  and  17th  cen- 
turies, is  relatively  unimportant.  It  is 
in  all  the  greater  European  literatures 
a  kind  of  expanded  novella,  usually  florid 
in  phrasing,  and  adorned  with  a  rather 
empty  romance.  In  English,  the  stories 
of  Greene  and  Lodge,  which  Shakespeare 
read,  are  favorable  examples. 

The  latter  17th  and  the  18th  century,  pe- 
riods of  a  new  didacticism  and  a  renewed 
respect  for  concision  in  writing,  were 
better  seeding  grounds  for  the  short  story. 
Here  belongs  the  simple  and  direct  short 
narrative  which  usually  reflects  in  its 
conclusion  upon  some  aspect  of  life  or 
human  nature,  though  often  no  moral  is 
attached.  The  French  called  this  the 
conte,  and  it  was  written  in  such  perfect 
examples  in  verse  by  La  Fontaine  (see 
his  "Fables"),  in  prose  by  Voltaire,  Mar- 
montel,  and  Diderot,  that  the  tradition 
has  remained  constant  ever  since  in 
French  literature.  In  England,  the  pe- 
riodical   essayists,    Steele,   Addison,    Dr. 


SHOBT  STORY 


408 


SHOSHONE  FALLS 


Johnson,  developed  a  briefer,  more  highly 
moral  form  of  short  story,  which  was 
appended  usually  to  their  essays. 

The  modern  short  story,  as  we  have  it 
in  English  today,  is  a  product  of  the 
Romantic  movement  at  the  end  of  the 
18th  and  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
turies. In  French,  concision  and  unity 
have  always  been  characteristic  of  the 
short  story,  and  the  change  in  form  has 
been  less  great. 

Books  and  magazines  in  the  early  nine- 
teenth century  are  full  of  short  narratives 
which  deal  with  the  horrible,  the  mys- 
terious, the  pitiful.  Many  of  these  were 
written  by,  or  imitated  from,  the  stories 
of  the  so-called  German  romantic  school, 
J.  L.  Tieck,  de  la  Motte  Fouque,  A.  Hoff- 
man, etc.  Occasionally  these  stories,  as 
with  Washington  Irving's  "Rip  Van 
Winkle"  (1819),  or  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
"Wandering  Willie's  Tale"  (1824),  are 
clear  and  beautiful  in  form,  but  usually 
they  are  rambling,  turgid,  and  often 
pointless.  The  taste  for  didactic  stories 
had  disappeared.  The  growth  of  the 
magazine  had  created  a  real  need  for 
short  stories  that  were  effective.  The 
problem  was  first  worked  out  in  America. 

Edgar  Allan  Poe,  already  a  poet  of 
ability  in  the  romantic  manner,  applied, 
in  the  attempt  to  write  stories  of  horror 
and  mystery  that  would  grip  the  imagina- 
tion, the  principle  of  narrative  suspense. 
In  "Ligeia"  (1838),  "The  Fall  of  the 
House  of  Usher"  (1839),  "The  Mosque 
of  the  Red  Death"  (1842),  he  made  a 
single  vivid  impression  the  result  of  the 
reading  of  his  story;  accomplishing  this 
in  part  by  a  carefully  toned  style,  but 
more  particularly  by  consciously  directing 
the  interest  of  the  reader  from  the  very 
first  sentence  toward  the  climax  of  his 
story.  The  result  was  a  kind  of  short 
story  that  in  spite  of  its  brevity  did  make 
an  effect  on  the  imagination.  In  other 
words,  Poe  achieved  a  higher  unity  for 
the  short  story. 

The  story  of  weird  romanticism  has 
gone  out  of  fashion,  but  the  method  Poe 
used  has  remained  a  prime  factor  in 
writing  short  stories.  In  America  Haw- 
thorne, with  his  "Twice-Told  Tales" 
(1837,  1842)  was  little  influenced  by  it, 
because  his  moral  tales  were  based  upon 
situations  which  themselves  gave  unity 
to  the  story.  But  Bret  Harte  (see  "The 
Outcasts  of  Poker  Flat,"  1869),  T.  B. 
Aldrich  (see  "Marjorie  Daw,"  1873),  F. 
R.  Stockton  (see  "The  Lady  or  the  Tiger," 
1882)  ;  the  writers  of  local  color  short 
stories,  such  as  Sarah  Orne  Jewett  (see 
"A  Native  of  Winby,"  1893),  and  Hamlin 
Garland  (see  "Main  Traveled  Roads," 
1891)  ;  O.  Henry  (see  "The  Four  Million," 
1906),  Edith  Wharton  (see  "Crucial  In- 
stances," 1901,  and  "Ethan  Frome,"  1911), 


and  the  magazine  writers  of  today,  are  all 
deeply  indebted  to  Poe  for  this  artificial 
but  very  effective  method  of  giving  high 
specific  gravity  to  a  short  story.  Henry 
James,  however  (see,  for  example,  "The 
Madonna  of  the  Future,"  1873,  or  "The 
Real  Thing,"  1893),  trusted  to  a  single 
subtle  situation  as  the  factor  of  unity  in 
his  stories. 

In  England,  the  really  important  short- 
story  writers  have  been  less  numerous. 
Rudyard  Kipling  (see  for  example,  "Sol- 
diers Three,"  1888,  and  "They,"  1904), 
learned  his  art  from  Bret  Harte  and 
Henry  James,  but  chose  his  material  from 
fresh  fields.  R.  L.  Stevenson  (see  "Mark- 
heim,"  1885)  is,  in  short  narrative,  Haw- 
thorne's most  evident  disciple.  In  France, 
the  tradition  of  the  simple  conte  has  been 
carried  on  by  Prosper  Merimee  (see 
"Mateo  Falcone,"  1829),  Alphonse  Dau- 
det  (see  "Contes  du  Lundi,"  1873),  Guy 
de  Maupassant  (see  "Contes  du  Jour  et 
de  la  Nuit,"  1885),  Anatole  France  (see 
"Les  Sept  Femmes  de  la  Barbe-Bleue," 
1909),  and  many  others. 

In  Russia  with  Ivan  Turgenev  (see  "A 
Lear  of  the  Steppes,"  1870),  Maxime 
Gorky  (see  "Chelkosh,"  1895)  and  Anton 
Pavlovitch  Chekhov  (see  "The  Kiss  and 
Other  Stories,"  in  English,  1908),  a  freer, 
less  artificial  form  of  short  narrative, 
casual  and  impressionistic  in  effect,  but 
highly  unified  in  theme,  has  become  fa- 
miliar to  western  readers.  Good  in  itself, 
it  is  valuable  as  a  protest  against  the 
increasing  artificiality  of  the  American 
form.  In  a  sense,  the  vivid  verse  narra- 
tives of  Robert  Frost,  Edgar  Lee  Masters, 
Amy  Lowell,  and  other  realist  American 
poets  may  also  be  regarded  as  American 
short  stories  written  in  a  new  and  fresher 
fashion. 

For  a  selective  list  of  representative 
short  stories  from  the  earliest  times  to 
1903,  see  Jessup  &  Canby,  "The  Book  of 
the  Short  Story."  A  good  bibliography 
is  included  in  the  "Cambridge  History  of 
American  Literature."  See  also  Brander 
Matthews'  "The  Philosophy  of  the  Short 
Story,"  H.  S.  Canby,  "The  Short  Story 
in  English";  Walter  B.  Pitken,  "The  Art 
and  Business  of  the  Short  Story." 

SHORTT,  EDWARD,  a  British  public 
official.  He  was  educated  at  Durham 
School  and  University  and  became  a  bar- 
rister. He  was  Recorder  of  Sunderland 
during  1907-18,  and  in  1910  became  Lib- 
eral member  of  parliament  for  Newcastle. 
In  1918-1919  he  was  Chief  Secretary  for 
Ireland  and  became  Home  Secretary  since 
1919. 

SHOSHONE  FALLS,  an  attractive  fall 
in  the  Lewis  or  Snake  river,  Idaho.  They 
rank  among  the  waterfalls  of  North 
America,   next   to   those   of   Niagara   in 


SHOSHONE  INDIANS 


409 


SHOW  BREAD 


grandeur,   being   about   250   yards   wide 
and  200  feet  bigh. 

SHOSHONE  INDIANS,  a  family  of 
American  Indians,  also  known  as  Snakes, 
living  since  1805  to  the  W.  of  the  Rocky 
mountains;  they  are  now  on  four  reser- 
vations, two  in  Idaho,  one  in  Wyoming, 
and  one  in  Nevada.  Hostilities  ceased  in 
1867,  after  an  expedition  had  destroyed 
a  great  part  of  their  braves  and  stores. 
Total  number  about  4,000. 

SHOT.  See  Ammunition;  Projec- 
tile, etc. 

SHOULDER  JOINT,  the  articulation 
of  the  upper  arm  or  humerus  with  the 
glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula  or  shoulder 
blade  (see  Arms).  The  shoulder  joint 
forms  an  example  of  the  ball-and-socket 
joints,  the  ball-like  or  rounded  head  of 
the  humerus  working  in  the  shallow  cup 
of  the  glenoid  cavity.  Such  a  form  of 
joint  necessarily  allows  of  very  consider- 
able movement,  while  the  joint  itself  is 
guarded  against  dislocation  or  displace- 
ment by  the  strong  ligaments  surrounding 
it,  as  well  as  by  the  tendons  of  its  in- 
vesting and  other  muscles.  The  muscles 
which  are  related  to  the  shoulder  joint 
are  the  supraspinatus  above,  the  long 
head  of  the  triceps  below,  the  subscapu- 
lars internally,  the  infraspinatus  and 
teres  minor  externally,  and  the  long  ten- 
don of  the  biceps  within.  The  deltoid 
muscle  lies  on  the  external  aspect  of  the 
joint,  and  covers  it  on  its  outer  side  in 
front  and  behind  as  well,  being  the  most 
important  of  the  muscles  connected  with 
it.  The  movements  of  the  shoulder  joint 
consist  in  those  of  abduction,  adduction, 
circumduction,  and  rotation — a  "univer- 
sal" movement  being  thus  permitted;  and 
its  free  motion  is  further  aided,  when  the 
bony  surfaces  are  in  contact,  by  separate 
movements  of  the  scapula  itself,  and  by 
the  motion  of  the  articulations  between 
the  sternum  and  clavicle,  and  between  the 
coracoid  process  and  clavicle  also.  The 
biceps  muscle,  from  its  connection  with 
both  elbow  and  shoulder  joints,  bring  the 
movements  of  both  into  harmonious  rela- 
tion. 

SHOtTSE,  JOUETT,  an  American  pub- 
lic official,  born  in  Woodford  co.,  Ky.,  in 
1879.  He  was  educated  at  the  Mexico 
(Mo.)  High  School,  and  at  the  University 
of  Missouri.  From  1898  to  1904  he  was 
successively  reporter,  managing  editor, 
and  business  manager  of  the  Lexington 
(Ky.)  "Herald,"  and  also  editor  and  man- 
ager of  "The  Kentucky  Farmer  and 
Breeder."  After  being  interested  in  va- 
rious enterprises  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  from 
1904  to  1911,  he  removed  in  the  latter 
year  to  Kansas  and  engaged  there  in 
farming  and  stock-raising.     From   1913 


to  1915  he  served  in  the  Kansas  Senate, 
and  from  1915  to  1919  he  was  a  member 
of  the  64th  and  65th  Congresses,  from 
the  7th  Kansas  District.  In  1919  he  was 
appointed  assistant  secretary  of  the 
Treasury. 

SHOVEL,     SIR     CLOUDESLEY,     an 

English  naval  officer;  born  probably  in 
Clay,  a  Norfolk  fishing  village,  about 
1650.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoe- 
maker, but  he  ran  away  to  sea,  and  soon 
rose  by  his  remarkable  ability  and  cour- 
age through  the  grades  of  cabin  boy  and 
seaman  to  the  quarter  deck.  He  served 
as  lieutenant  under  Sir  John  Narborough 
in  the  Mediterranean  (1674),  burned  four 
pirate  ships  under  the  walls  of  Tripoli, 
commanded  a  ship  at  the  battle  in  Ban- 
try  Bay  (1689),  and  was  soon  after 
knighted  for  his  conduct.  In  1690  he  rose 
to  be  rear-admiral  of  the  blue,  and  took 
an  active  part  in  the  battle  off  Beachy 
Head;  two  years  later,  as  rear-admiral 
of  the  red,  he  supported  Admiral  Russell 
heroically  at  La  Hogue,  and  himself 
burned  20  of  the  enemy's  ships.  He  was 
sent  to  Vigo  in  1702  to  bring  home  the 
spoils  of  Rooke,  next  served  under  him 
in  the  Mediterranean,  and  led  his  van  at 
Malaga.  In  January,  1705,  he  was  made 
rear-admiral  of  England.  That  year  he 
took  part  with  Peterborough  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Barcelona,  but  failed  in  his  at- 
tack on  Toulon  in  1707.  On  the  voyage 
home  his  ship,  the  "Association,"  struck 
a  rock  off  the  Scilly  Isles  on  the  foggy 
night  of  Oct.  22,  1707,  and  went  down 
with  800  men  on  board.  Four  vessels  of 
his  squadron  perished  with  as  many  as 
2,000.  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel's  body  was 
washed  up  next  day  and  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

SHOVELER,  in  ornithology,  the  Spatu- 
la (Ana)  clypeata,  the  broadbill  or  spoon- 
bill duck,  widely  distributed  over  the 
Northern  Hemisphere.  Length  about  20 
inches;  bill  much  widened  on  each  side 
near  tip,  somewhat  resembling  that  of  the 
spoonbill;  head  and  upper  part  of  neck 
in  adult  male  rich  green,  lower  part  white, 
back  brown,  breast  and  abdomen  chest- 
nut brown.  It  nests  in  some  dry  spot 
near  water,  and  lays  from  8  to  14  green- 
ish-buff eggs.     Also  the  white  spoonbill. 

SHOW  BREAD,  or  SHEW  BREAD, 
in  Judaism,  a  word  modeled  on  the  Ger- 
man schaubrode,  Luther's  rendering  of 
the  Hebrew  lehem  hapanim=bread  of  the 
faces  or  face,  perhaps  meaning  designed 
for  the  presence  of  Jehovah.  It  is  called 
also  the  "continual  shew  bread"  (II 
Chron.  ii.  4),  or,  more  briefly,  the  "con- 
tinual bread"  (Num.  iv.  7),  or  "hallowed 
bread"  (I  Sam.  xxi.  4-6).  It  was  to  be 
set  on  a  table  of  shittim  wood,  overlaid 


SHOWERMAN 


410 


SHREW    MOLE 


with  gold  (Exod.  xxv.  23-29;  I  Kings 
vii.  48),  and  having  a  blue  covering 
(Num.  iv.  7).  The  shew  bread  consisted 
of  12  cakes  baked  with  fine  flour,  two- 
tenth  deals  being  in  each  cake  (Lev.  xxiv. 
5).  It  was  to  stand  in  the  Holy  Place, 
and,  being  sprinkled  with  frankincense, 
was  there  to  be  eaten  each  Sabbath  by 
Aaron  and  his  priestly  descendants  (Lev. 
xxiv.  9).  When  the  old  shew  bread  was 
removed,  new  and  hot  bread  was  to  take 
its  place  (I  Sam.  xxi.  6).  When  David 
was  in  want  of  food,  he  ate  the  shew 
bread,  though  he  was  not  a  priest  (I  Sam. 
xxi.  3-6),  and  Jesus  approved  the  deed 
(Matt.  xii.  4;  Mark  ii.  26;  Luke  vi.  4). 
The  12  cakes  of  shew  bread  were  appar- 
ently one  for  each  tribe;  the  deeper  spiri- 
tual significance  of  the  bread  has  been 
variously  interpreted. 

SHOWERMAN,  GRANT,  an  Ameri- 
can university  professor,  born  at  Brook- 
field,  Wis.,  in  1870.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Wisconsin,  from  which 
he  received  the  degrees  of  A.B.,  A.M., 
and  Ph.D.  From  1898  to  1900  he  was  a 
fellow  at  the  Archaeological  Institute  of 
America  at  the  American  School  of  Clas- 
sical Studies,  Rome,  and  in  1900  became 
professor  of  classics  at  the  University 
of  Wisconsin.  He  was  a  member  of  va- 
rious educational  and  other  societies.  Be- 
sides contributing  to  the  leading  literary 
magazines  and  philological  journals,  he 
wrote  "With  the  Professor"  (1910) ; 
"Translation  of  Ovid's  Heroides  and 
Amores"  (Loeb  Classical  Library,  1914) ; 
"The  Indian  Stream  Republic  and  Lu- 
ther Parker"  (1915) ;  "A  Country  Chron- 
icle" (1916) ;  and  "A  Country  Child" 
(1917). 

SHRADY,  HENRY  MERWIN,  an 
American  sculptor,  born  in  New  York 
City,  in  1871.  He  was  educated  at  Co- 
lumbia University  and  studied  law,  which, 
however,  he  never  practiced,  being  en- 
gaged in  business  from  1895  to  1900. 
From  then  on  he  devoted  himself  to  sculp- 
ture. Although  being  entirely  self-taught, 
he  won  the  competition  for  the  equestrian 
statue  of  General  George  Washington  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  1901,  and  another 
competition  for  the  Grant  Memorial  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  in  1902.  He  also  exe- 
cuted various  other  statues,  chiefly  eques- 
trian, for  Detroit,  Charlottesville,  Va., 
and  Duluth.  In  1909  he  became  an  Asso- 
ciate of  the  National  Academy,  and  he 
was  also  a  member  of  the  National  Insti- 
tute of  Arts  and  Letters,  the  Architec- 
tural League,  and  the  National  Sculpture 
Society. 

SHRAPNEL,  HENRY,  an  English 
inventor,  entered  the  Royal  Artillery  in 
1779,   served   with   the   Duke   of   York's 


army  in  Flanders,  and  shortly  after  the 
siege  of  Dunkirk  invented  the  case  shot 
known  by  the  name  of  shrapnel  shells, 
an  invention  for  which  he  received  from 
government  a  pension  of  $6,000  a  year  in 
addition  to  his  pay  in  the  army.  He 
retired  from  active  service  in  1825,  at- 
tained the  rank  of  Lieutenant-General  in 
1837,  and  died  in  1842. 


SHRAPNEL.  See      PROJECTILE ; 

Shell:  Explosives. 

SHREVEPORT,  a  city  and  parish- 
seat  of  Caddo  parish,  La.;  on  the  Red 
river,  and  on  the  Texas  and  Pacific,  the 
Houston  and  Shreveport,  the  St.  Louis 
Southwestern,  and  other  railroads,  326 
miles  N.  W.  of  New  Orleans.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  important  cities  in  Louisiana, 
owing  to  its  location  in  a  great  stockrais- 
ing  and  cotton  growing  region.  Here  are 
St.  John's  College,  St.  Vincent's  Convent, 
St.  Mary's  Convent,  hospitals,  sanitori- 
ums,  a  high  school,  United  States  govern- 
ment building,  United  States  Marine 
Hospital,  board  of  trade,  cotton  exchange, 
waterworks,  street  railroad  and  electric 
light  plants,  National  and  State  banks, 
and  several  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
Shreveport  has  a  large  trade  in  wool, 
cotton,  livestock,  groceries,  and  hides; 
cotton  gins,  cotton-seed  oil  mills,  cotton 
compresses,  manufactories  of  ice,  cotton 
machinery,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  28,015; 
(1920)    43,874. 

SHREW,  in  zoology,  a  popular  name 
for  any  individual  of  the  Soricidse,  par- 
ticularly the  common  {Sorex  vulgaris) 
and  the  lesser  shrew  (S.  pygmssus) .  The 
former  is  about  the  size  of  a  mouse,  which 
it  somewhat  resembles,  but  has  the  muzzle 
produced,  with  prominent  nostrils,  far 
beyond  the  lip;  the  eyes  are  scarcely  dis~ 
cernible  through  the  fur;  ears  wide  and 
short;  the  tail  is  four-sided,  with  the 
angles  rounded  off;  fur  usually  reddish- 
gray  above,  grayish  beneath,  but  the  color 
varies.  They  feed  on  insects  and  worms 
and  the  smaller  mollusca;  they  are 
extremely  pugnacious,  and  two  males 
scarcely  ever  meet  without  a  battle,  when 
the  weaker  is  killed  and  eaten.  They 
breed  in  the  spring;  the  female  makes  a 
nest  of  dry  herbage  in  a  hole  in  the 
ground,  and  brings  forth  from  five  to 
seven  young,  but  their  increase  is  checked 
by  the  weasel  and  barn  owl. 

SHREW  MOLE  (Scalops  aquaticus), 
a  genus  of  insectivorous  mammals,  be- 
longing to  the  family  of  Soricidse  or  shrew 
mice,  but  also  by  some  zoologists  placed 
in  the  Talpidse  or  mole  family.  It  ia 
found  in  North  America,  usually  near 
rivers  and  streams,  and  burrows  after 
the  fashion  of  the  common  mole. 


SHREWSBURY 


411 


SHROVE    TUESDAY 


SHREWSBURY,  a  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough  of  England,  capi- 
tal of  Shropshire,  situated  on  a  slightly 
elevated  peninsula  formed  by  a  bend  of 
the  Severn,  42  miles  N.  W.  of  Birming- 
ham. It  consists  of  some  handsome  mod- 
ern houses  and  many  old  timbered  houses 
of  very  picturesque  appearance.  Several 
bridges  cross  the  Severn  and  connect  the 
town  with  its  suburbs.  Among  objects 
deserving  of  notice  are  the  remains  of 
the  old  walls ;  the  ruins  of  the  castle ;  the 
Church  of  Holy  Cross,  originally  attached 
to  a  magnificent  Benedictine  abbey, 
founded  in  1083;  the  grammar  school, 
ranking  high  among  public  schools, 
founded  by  Edward  VI.  in  1551,  and 
removed  to  new  buildings  at  Kingsland 
in  1882;  the  market  house,  of  the  time 
of  Queen  Elizabeth;  statues  of  Lords 
Clive  and  Hill,  etc.  The  chief  manufac- 
tures are  glass  staining,  the  spinning 
of  flax  and  linen  yarn,  iron  founding, 
brewing,  the  preparation  of  brawn,  and 
the  making  of  the  well-known  "Shrews- 
bury cakes."  In  1403  the  famous  battle 
which  ended  in  the  defeat  of  Hotspur  and 
the  Earl  of  Douglas,  his  ally,  by  Henry 
IV.  was  fought  in  the  vicinity.  Pop. 
about  30,000. 

SHRIKE,  in  ornithology,  a  popular 
name  for  any  individual  of  the  Laniidas, 
applied  specially  for  the  last  three  cen- 


BULL-HEADED  SHRIKE 

turies  to  Lanius  excubitor,  the  great  gray 
shrike.  The  length  of  the  adult  male  is 
about    10    inches:    pearl    gray   on    uuper 


part  of  body;  chin,  breast,  and  abdomen 
white;  tail  feathers  black,  variegated, 
and  tipped  with  white;  a  black  band 
crosses  the  forehead.  The  lesser  gray 
shrike  (L.  minor),  from  eight  to  nine 
inches,  is  an  occasional  winter '  visitor. 
The  red-backed  shrike  (L.  colluris),  like 
L.  septentrionalis,  is  often  called  the  nine 
killer,  and  with  one  or  two  other  small 
shrikes  is  sometimes  placed  in  a  genus 
Enneoctonus.  Shrikes  feed  on  insects  and 
small  birds,  and  have  a  remarkable  habit 
of  impaling  their  prey  on  thorns  in  the 
neighborhood  of  their  nests,  which  may 
thus  be  easily  discovered.  They  kill  and 
impale  many  insects  that  they  do  not  ea't 
See  Butcher  Bird. 

SHRIMP,  a  popular  name  for  any 
individual  of  the  genus  Crangon,  allied 
to  lobster,  crayfish,  and  prawn.  The 
form  is  elongated,  tapering,  and  arched. 
The  rostrum  is  very  short,  claws  small, 
the  fixed  finger  being  merely  a  small 
tooth,  the  movable  finger  unciform.  The 
whole  structure  is  delicate  and  subtrans- 
lucent.  When  alarmed  they  bury  them- 
selves in  the  sand  by  a  peculiar  motion 
of  the  telson.  The  common  shrimp  (C. 
vulgaris ) ,  about  two  inches  long,  green- 
ish-gray dotted  with  brown,  is  esteemed 
as  an  article  of  food.  They  are  usually 
taken  by  a  net.  Also,  the  Pandalus  an- 
nulicomis,  taken  in  the  northern  waters  of 
Europe.  When  alive  its  color  is  reddish- 
gray,  with  red  spots.  When  boiled  it  be- 
comes a  deep  red. 

SHRINE,  a  case,  box,  or  reliquary  in 
which  the  bones  or  other  remains  of  saints 
were  deposited.  They  were  often  richly 
ornamented  with  gold,  precious  stones, 
and  elaborate  carvings,  and  were  gener- 
ally placed  near  the  altar  of  the  church. 

SHROPSHIRE,  or  SALOP,  a  county 
of  western  England,  adjoining  Wales. 
Area,  1,346  square  miles.  Pop.  about 
250,000.  The  principal  river  is  the  Sev- 
ern, flowing  in  a  southeasterly  direction 
across  the  county  for  a  distance  of  some 
70  miles.  It  is  navigable  throughout  its 
entire  course.  In  the  N.  and  N.  E.,  the 
generally  level  country  is  worked  exten- 
sively for  agricultural  purposes.  In  the 
S.  and  S.  W.,  where  the  county  is  hilly, 
rising  at  times  to  an  altitude  of  1,800 
feet,  cattle  breeding  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry. A  peculiarly  horned  sheep  is 
well  known  as  the  product  of  the  county. 
The  county  also  has  extensive  mineral 
deposits,  consisting  of  coal,  iron,  copper, 
and  lead,  which  are  worked  successfully 
and  form  the  basis  of  important  iron  in- 
dustries.    Capital,  Shrewsbury. 


SHROVE      TUESDAY. 
Gras. 


See     Mardi 


SHRUB 


412 


SHUTTLE 


SHRUB,  in  botany,  a  plant  with 
woody  stem  and  branches  like  a  tree,  but 
of  smaller  size,  not  generally  exceeding 
20  feet  in  height,  and  branching  near  the 
root,  so  as  to  have  no  main  stem  of  con- 
siderable height.  When  a  shrub  is  of 
small  size  and  much  branched,  it  is  often 
called  a  bush.  Also  a  liquor  composed 
of  acid,  particularly  lemon  juice  and 
sugar,  with  spirit  to  preserve  it. 

SHTJFELDT,    ROBERT    WILSON,    an 

American  author,  born  in  New  York  in 
1850.  He  was  educated  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, and  in  1876  received  the  degree 
of  M.D.  from  Columbian  (now  George 
Washington)  University.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  served  as  a  midshipman. 
In  1876  he  was  commissioned  1st  lieuten- 
ant, medical  department,  United  States 
Army,  retiring  in  1891  with  the  rank  of 
major.  From  1876  to  1881  he  served 
as  surgeon  during  the  Indian  wars.  In 
1882  he  became  curator  of  the  Army  Med- 
ical Museum,  Washington.  He  was  a 
member  of  many  domestic  and  foreign 
scientific  societies.  His  numerous  publi- 
cations include,  besides  some  1,300  arti- 
cles on  medicine,  science,  travel,  etc., 
"Scientific  Taxidermy  for  Museums" 
(1894)  ;  "The  Negro"  (1907)  ;  "Osteol- 
ogy of  Birds"   (1909),  etc. 

SHUMAGIN  ISLANDS,  a  group  of 
islands  lying  S.  W.  of  Kodiak,  Alaska. 
The  largest  is  Unga,  on  which  is  a  Fed- 
eral judicial  station.  Fox  farming  is  car- 
ried on  in  several  of  the  islands.  The 
headquarters  of  the  Alaskan  cod  fishing 
is  in  Unga. 

SHTJMLA,  or  SHUMA,  a  fortified 
town  of  Bulgaria;  on  the  Little  Balkan, 
to  the  N.  of  the  main  range,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  800  feet;  50  miles  W.  of  Varna; 
and  60  S.  E.  of  Rustchuk.  It  is  of  great 
strategical  importance,  commanding  as  it 
does  the  roads  from  the  fortresses  in  the 
Lower  Danube  and  in  the  Dobrudscha, 
and  those  from  the  E.  passes  of  the  Bal- 
kans. It  is  closed  in  on  the  N.  and  W. 
by  mountains,  and  looks  out  to  the  E.  and 
S.  on  an  open  plain  where  grain  and  the 
vine  are  cultivated  and  where  there 
is  extensive  silk  culture.  Surrounded 
by  high  massive  walls,  it  is  further  de- 
fended by  a  citadel  on  the  heights,  and 
by  several  forts.  The  town  has  many 
mosques,  large  barracks  for  cavalry  and 
artillery  as  well  as  infantry,  an  arsenal, 
military  hospital,  etc.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  copper  and  tin  wares,  silk, 
leather,  and  wearing  apparel.  A  great 
fair  is  held  in  June.  The  Russians  failed 
to  take  the  town  in  774,  1810,  and  1828. 
No  attempt  on  it  was  made  in  the  war  of 
1877-1878,  but  the  place  was  evacuated 


by  the  Turks  on  the  conclusion  of  peace. 
Pop.  about  22,000. 

SHURTLEFF  COLLEGE,  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  in  Upper  Alton,  111.; 
founded  in  1835  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Baptist  Church;  reported  at  the  close 
of  1919:  Professors  and  instructors,  15; 
students,  198;  president,  G.  M.  Potter, 
A.M. 

SHTJSTER,  W(ILLIAM)  MORGAN, 
an  American  lawyer  and  editor,  born  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  in  1877.  He  gradu- 
ated from  the  Central  High  School  in 
1893,  and  studied  law  at  Columbian  Uni- 
versity and  Law  School.  He  served  in 
various  government  departments,  and  was 
insular  collector  of  customs  at  Manila 
from  1901  to  1906.  From  1906  to  1909 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Philippine  Com- 
mission, and  secretary  of  public  instruc- 
tion in  the  Philippines.  From  May,  1911, 
to  January,  1912,  he  served  as  treasurer- 
general  and  financial  adviser  of  Persia. 
His  administration  of  the  finances  of  this 
country  were  widely  praised,  but  he  was 
obliged  to  resign  on  account  of  the  in- 
trigues of  Russia.  Returning  to  the 
United  States,  he  engaged  in  business,  and 
in  1915  became  president  of  the  Century 
Co.,  and  editor  of  the  "Century  Maga- 
zine." 

SHUTE,     HENRY     AUGUSTUS,     an 

American  author,  born  in  Exeter,  N.  H.t 
in  1856.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard 
University,  and  in  1882  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  In  1883  he  became  judge  of  the 
police  court  of  his  native  town.  He  wrote 
"Real  Diary  of  a  Real  Boy"  and  "Sequel" 
(1904)  ;  "Letters  to  Beany  and  Love  Let- 
ters of  Plupy  Shute"  (1905) ;  "Real  Boys" 
(1905) ;  "A  Few  Neighbors"  (1906) ;  "A 
Profane  and  Somewhat  Unreliable  His- 
tory of  Exeter"  (1907)  ;  "The  Country 
Band"  (1908) ;  "Farming  It"  (1909) ; 
"A  Country  Lawyer"  (1911);  "Plupy" 
(1912) ;  "Misadventures  of  Three  Good 
Boys"  (1914) ;  "The  Youth  Plupy" 
(1917)  ;  "The  Lad  with  the  Downy  Chin" 
(1917). 

SHUTTLE,  SCHYTTYL,  or  SHYT- 
TELL,  in  weaving,  an  instrument  used 
by  weavers  for  shooting  or  passing  the 
thread  of  the  weft  from  one  side  of  the 
web  to  the  other,  between  the  threads  of 
the  warp.  It  is  a  boat-shaped  piece  of 
wood,  which  carries  a  bobbin  or  cop  con- 
taining the  yarn  of  the  weft  or  woof. 
The  shuttle  sometimes  has  wheels  to  fa- 
cilitate its  motion.  It  is  thrown  by  hand 
or  by  the  fly.  The  fly  shuttle  was  in- 
vented by  John  Kay,  of  Bury,  England, 
in  1733. 

In  a  sewing  machine,  the  sliding  thread- 
holder  which  carries  the  lower  thread  be- 
tween the  needle  and  the  upper  thread,  to 


SIAGONIUM 


413 


SIAM 


make  a  lock  stitch.  In  hydraulic  engi- 
neering, the  gate  which  opens  to  allow 
the  water  to  flow  onto  a  wheel.  That  side 
of  a  wheel  which  receives  the  water  is 
known  as  the  shuttle  side. 

SIAGONIUM,  in  entomology,  the  typi- 
cal genus  of  Siagoninas.  They  have  por- 
rected  horns  on  the  head  and  thorax.  The 
males  are  in  two  sets,  differing  greatly 
in  the  size  of  their  bodies  and  in  the  de- 
velopment of  their  horns.  The  females 
are  the  more  numerous  sex. 

SIAM,  a  kingdom  embracing  a  great 
part  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula  and 
part  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  lying 
between  Burma  on  the  W.,  and  Annam 
and  Cambodia  on  the  E.  and  S.  E.  Its 
boundaries  are  ill  defined  on  the  N.  and 
N.  E.,  but  its  area  is  estimated  at  about 
195,000  square  miles,  and  its  population 
(1919)  at  8,924,000.  Capital,  Bangkok. 
Pop.  630,000. 

Topography. — A  large  part  of  the  ter- 
ritory is  not  well  known.  Siam  proper 
consists  mainly  of  the  low-lying  alluvial 
basin  of  the  Menam  and  its  numerous 
tributaries,  which  flows  S.  into  the  Gulf 
of  Siam,  forming  an  extensive  and  intri- 
cate delta.  This  alluvial  plain,  intersected 
by  numerous  streams  and  canals,  is  ex- 
tremely fertile,  producing  crops  of  rice, 
sugar,  cotton,  maize,  and  indigo.  Both 
sides  of  the  Manam  basin  are  skirted  by 
densely  wooded  ranges  of  hills,  forming 
the  water  partings  toward  the  Salwin 
and  Mekong,  the  latter  of  which  is  the 
great  river  of  eastern  Siam.  The  min- 
erals include  gold,  tin,  iron,  copper,  lead, 
zinc,  and  antimony,  besides  several  pre- 
cious stones,  such  as  the  sapphire,  Ori- 
ental ruby,  and  Oriental  topaz.  Mining 
is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese. 
Much  of  Upper  Siam  seems  incapable  of 
being  cultivated.  During  the  dry  season, 
which  lasts  from  November  to  May,  there 
is  an  utter  absence  of  rain  in  this  region, 
which  again  is  so  flooded  by  rain  during 
the  wet  season  as  to  be  converted  into  a 
vast  swampy  forest.  Cocoa  and  areca 
palms  are  numerous  in  Siam;  fruits  are 
abundant  and  of  excellent  quality;  black 
pepper,  tobacco,  cardamoms,  and  gamboge 
are  important  products.  The  forests  pro- 
duce aloes  wood,  sappan  wood,  teak  tim- 
ber, bamboos,  rattans,  gutta  percha,  dam- 
mar, catechu,  benzoin,  etc.  Among  wild 
animals  are  the  tiger,  leopard,  bear,  otter, 
ourang-outang,  single-horned  rhinoceros, 
and  elephant,  which  here  attains  a  size 
and  beauty  elsewhere  unknown.  The  last, 
when  of  a  white  color,  is  held  in  the  high- 
est reverence.  The  forests  abound  with 
peacocks,  pheasants,  and  pigeons;  and  in 
the  islands  are  large  flocks  of  the  swal- 
lows that  produce  the  famed  edible  birds' 
nests.  Crocodiles,  geckoes,  and  other  kinds 

AA- 


of  lizards,  tortoises,  and  green  turtles  are 
numerous.  The  python  serpent  attains  an 
immense  size,  and  there  are  many  species 
of  snakes. 

Commerce  and  Finances. — Practically 
the  entire  trade  of  the  country  is  in  the 
hands  of  foreigners  and  in  recent  years 
many  Chinese  have  settled  in  the  country 
and  have  become  important  in  commercial 
activities.  The  total  imports  in  1918  and 

1919  amounted  to  £7,930,147,  and  the  ex- 
ports £12,469,956.  The  principal  imports 
are  cotton  goods,  foodstuffs,  raw  material, 
metal  manufactures  and  machinery,  min- 
eral oils,  silk  goods,  and  tobacco.  The 
chief  exports  are  rice  and  teak.  The  total 
revenue  in  1919-20  amounted  to  £5,853,- 
846  and  the  expenditure  to  £5,850,526. 
The  total  national  debt  in  March  31,  1920, 
was  £6,630,960.  A  British  officer  holds 
the  position  of  financial  adviser,  and  other 
British  officers  hold  advisory  positions  in 
the  government,  especially  in  the  depart- 
ments of  finance,  revenue,  forests,  and 
police. 

Army  and  Navy. — Military  service  is 
compulsory  and  the  army  is  organized 
along  European  lines.  The  peace  strength 
is  over  20,000  men.  The  navy  consists 
nominally  of  21  vessels,  but  they  are  of 
little  effective  value. 

Government. — The  executive  power  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  king  who  is  advised  by 
a  cabinet  consisting  of  the  heads  of  the 
various  departments  of  the  government. 
There  is  also  a  legislative  council  composed 
of  not  less  than  12  members,  appointed 
by  the  Crown.  The  total  membership 
in  1920  was  40.  The  kingdom  is  di* 
vided  into  18  provinces,  of  which  17  have 
each  a  lord  lieutenant,  taking  their  au- 
thority  directly   from   the   king,   who   in 

1920  was  Chao  Fa  Maha  Vajiravudh,  who 
succeeded  his  father  in  1910.  His  official 
title  is  King  Rama  VI. 

People. — The  Siamese  are  members  of 
the  great  Mongolian  family,  and  of  the 
same  race  as  the  people  of  Burma  and 
Annam.  In  stature  they  do  not  average 
more  than  5  feet  3  inches  in  height;  they 
have  a  lighter  colored  skin  than  the  West- 
ern Asiatics,  but  darker  than  the  Chi- 
nese. Elementary  education  is  general, 
most  of  the  Siamese  being  able  to  read 
and  write.  The  houses  are  mostly  con- 
structed of  timber  and  bamboo,  and  in 
localities  subject  to  inundation  are  raised 
on  piles.  The  Siamese  profess  Buddhism, 
introduced  into  the  country  about  the 
middle  of  the  7th  century.  Christianity  ' 
is  now  making  some  progress  in  the  coun- 
try. Some  of  the  temples  are  large  and 
elaborate  structures  richly  decorated. 
The  language  forms  a  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  Chinese  and  Malay.  The  writ- 
ten characters  seem  to  be  derived  from 
a  form  of  Sanskrit.  The  literature  is 
-Cyc  Vol  s 


SIANG-TAN 


414 


SIBERIA 


meager,  uninteresting,  and  in  point  of  im- 
agination and  force  of  expression  much 
below  the  Arabic,  Persian,  or  Hindustani. 
The  language  of  the  chief  Buddhist  works 
is  Pali.  The  printing  press  has  been  in- 
troduced in  recent  years,  and  many  of 
the  best  Siamese  works  can  now  be  had 
in  a  printed  form. 

History. — Siam  appears  to  have  no 
place  in  history  prior  to  A.  D.  638,  and  the 
credible  records  go  back  only  to  1350,  the 
date  of  the  foundation  of  Ayuthia,  the  old 
capital.  The  Portuguese  established  in- 
tercourse with  Siam  in  1511,  but  in  the 
17th  century  were  gradually  supplanted 
by  the  Dutch.  English  traders  were  in 
Siam  very  early  in  the  17th  century,  but 
in  consequence  of  a  massacre  their  fac- 
tory at  Ayuthia  was  abandoned  in  1688. 
The  French  were  expelled  about  the  same 
time,  and  the  trade  was  neglected  till 
1856,  when  Sir  J.  Bowring's  treaty  again 
opened  up  Siam  to  Europeans. 

The  French,  desiring  access  to  China  by 
means  of  the  river  system  of  the  penin- 
sula, accused  Siam  of  encroaching  on  the 
territory  of  Annam,  and  in  1893  sent  a 
fleet  to  Bangkok,  where  peace  was  dic- 
tated. Cambodia  and  the  territory  E.  of 
the  Mekong  river  were  placed  under 
French  protection.  A  belt  extending  for 
a  distance  of  25  kilometers  W.  of  Mekong 
was  neutralized  and  valuable  trade  privi- 
leges were  conceded  to  France.  From 
that  time  the  French  sphere  of  influence 
gradually  extended  still  further  west  and 
by  a  treaty  made  in  1904  France  obtained 
control  of  about  8,000  square  miles  to  the 
W.  of  the  Mekong  and  the  S.,  as  well  as 
other  territory.  By  a  treaty  between 
France  and  Great  Britain  made  in  the 
same  year,  the  territories  to  the  W.  of  the 
Menam  and  the  Gulf  of  Siam  were  recog- 
nized as  in  the  British  sphere  of  influence, 
while  those  to  the  E.  were  in  the  French. 
France  and  Great  Britain  guaranteed  the 
future  integrity  of  Siamese  territory.  In 
1907,  however,  more  territory  was  ceded 
to  France  and  in  1909  three  states  were 
ceded  to  Great  Britain.  A  conspiracy 
against  the  king  was  discovered  in  1912, 
which  was  put  down  with  great  severity. 
Siam  remained  neutral  in  the  World 
War  until  July  22,  1917,  when  war  was 
declared  against  the  Central  Powers.  At 
the  invitation  of  the  Allied  governments 
a  force  of  volunteers  were  sent  to  France 
in  1918.  These  comprised  chiefly  aviation 
troops. 

In  recent  years  Siam  has  developed 
greatly  commercially  and  economically. 
The  government  has  been  well  adminis- 
tered and  there  has  been  notable  improve- 
ment in  the  condition  of  the  people. 

SIANG-TAN,  a  prefectural  city  of 
China.     It  is  in   Hu-nan,  on  the   Siang 


river,  and  though  small,  has  large  sub- 
urbs which  extend  for  four  miles  along  the 
bank  of  the  river.  It  is  the  trade  center 
of  Hu-nan,  and  the  river  route  between 
Peking  and  Canton  is  open  to  foreign  ves- 
sels.    Pop.  about  300,000. 

SIANG-YANG-FU,  a  Departmental 
city  of  China.  It  is  situated  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Hu-peh,  at  the  junction  of  the  Pai 
and  Han  rivers,  and  is  opposite  Fan- 
ching,  which  has  silk  and  other  industries. 
Both  towns  figured  in  the  resistance  to 
the  campaign  of  Kublai  Khan  in  1268-73. 
Pop.  about  50,000. 

SIBELIUS,  JEAN  JULIUS  CHRIS- 
TIAN, a  Finnish  composer,  born  at 
Tavastehus,  Finland,  in  1865.  He  was 
educated  at  Helsingfors  and  studied  mu- 
sic at  Berlin  and  Vienna,  becoming  a 
member  of  the  Musical  Academy  of  Stock- 
holm. He  was  a  chevalier  of  the  ^Legion 
of  Honor  and  Accademico  onorario  di 
Santa  Cecilia,  Roma,  and  received  other 
honors.  His  compositions  include:  music 
to  the  tragedy  "Kaolema"  (containing  the 
"Valse  Triste") ;  music  to  the  tragedy  of 
"King  Christian  II.,"  and  the  following 
orchestra  pieces:  "Carelia,"  "Dance  Inter- 
mezzo," "Der  Schwan  von  Tuonela,"  "Eine 
Sage,"  etc. 

SIBERIA,  a  great  division  of  the 
Russian  dominions;  occupies  all  North 
Asia,  stretching  uninterruptedly  E.  from 
the  Ural  mountains  to  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
and  S.  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Chi- 
nese dominions  and  Russian  Central  Asia ; 
total  area,  4,831,882  square  miles;  pop. 
about  10,378,000.  It  is  divided  into  the 
governor-generalships  of  western  Siberia, 
eastern  Siberia,  and  the  Amur  region.  A 
region  of  such  vast  extent  has  naturally 
a  very  diversified  configuration;  but  gen- 
erally speaking  Siberia  may  be  considered 
as  a  vast  inclined  plane  sloping  gradually 
from  the  Altai,  Syan,  and  Yablonoi  moun- 
tains on  the  S.  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the 
N.  In  the  E.  it  is  traversed  in  different 
directions  by  several  mountain  ranges,  but 
elsewhere  it  is  almost  unbroken  by  any 
greater  heights  than  a  few  hills.  It  is 
drained  chiefly  by  the  Obi  (2,120  miles), 
with  its  great  tributary,  the  Irtish  (2,520 
miles),  the  Yenisei,  and  the  Lena  (3,000 
miles),  all  of  which  pursue  a  N.  course 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean;  and  by  the  Amur 
(2,700  miles,  2,400  of  which  are  naviga- 
ble), which  flows  in  an  E.  and  N.  E. 
direction  to  the  Pacific.  The  principal 
lake  is  Lake  Baikal  in  the  S.,  400  miles 
long,  20  to  53  broad,  and  1,560  feet  above 
sea-level.  The  chief  islands  are  the  New 
Siberia  group  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and 
the  island  of  Sakhalin,  off  the  mouth  of 
the  Amur,  in  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  an  arm 
of   the    Pacific.      The   coast   line   is   very 


SIBERIA 


415 


SIBERIAN    DOG 


extensive,  but  the  Arctic  Ocean  is  ice- 
bound at  least  10  months  out  of  the  12, 
and  is  almost  valueless  for  commercial 
purposes,  and  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  on  the 
Pacific,  is  infested  with  masses  of  floating 
ice  and  dense  fogs.  The  principal  ports 
are  Vladivostock,  on  the  Sea  of  Japan, 
the  chief  naval  station  of  Russia  on  the 
Pacific;  Okhotsk,  on  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk; 
and  Petropavlovsk,  on  the  E.  coast  of 
Kamchatka. 

Siberia  has  a  warm  summer,  but  the 
winter  is  exceedingly  severe.  South  Si- 
beria has,  in  many  parts,  a  very  fertile 
soil,  which  yields  rich  crops  of  wheat,  rye, 
oats,  and  potatoes;  but  immense  tracts  of 
Siberia  are  utterly  unfit  for  tillage,  more 
particularly  the  tundras,  or  great  stretch- 
es of  boggy  country  along  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  In  the  W.  are  extensive  steppes. 
Roughly  speaking,  the  N.  limits  of  agri- 
culture are  60°  N.  latitude.  Cattle  breed- 
ing and  bee  keeping  are  largely  pursued. 
Hunting  and  fishing  are  also  sources  of 
remuneration,  ermines,  sables,  and  other 
fur-bearing  animals  being  numerous.  The 
wild  animals  include  the  elk,  reindeer,  and 
other  deer,  bear,  wolf,  white  and  blue 
fox,  lynx,  etc.  The  forests  are  extensive 
and  valuable.  Even  before  the  World 
War  manufactures  and  mining  were  in  a 
backward  state,  though  Siberia  has  very 
considerable  mineral  wealth.  Large  quan- 
tities of  gold  are  obtained,  as  well  as  sil- 
ver, platinum,  lead,  iron,  coal,  etc.  The 
trade  was  mainly  with  Russia,  which 
took  every  year  from  Siberia  about  $20,- 
000,000  worth  of  raw  products,  chiefly  tal- 
low, hides,  furs,  and  grain ;  and  sent  every 
year  to  Siberia  about  $60,000,000  worth  of 
manufactured  wares.  The  foreign  trade 
was  insignificant.  The.  chief  towns  are 
Irkutsk,  capital  of  eastern  Siberia,  a 
trading  city;  Tomsk,  capital  of  Tomsk 
province,  a  trading  city,  with  a  univer- 
sity; and  Tobolsk,  capital  of  western  Si- 
beria. Yermak  the  Cossack  entered  west- 
ern Siberia  in  1580,  and  made  a  rapid 
conquest  of  the  W.  portion  of  the  country, 
which  he  handed  over  to  Ivan  the  Terrible 
of  Russia.  Bands  of  hunters  and  adven- 
turers then  poured  across  the  Urals,  at- 
tracted by  the  furs,  and  gradually  pene- 
trated to  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Pacific. 
The  latest  acquisitions  by  Russia  were  the 
Amur  territory  and  coast  regions  of  Man- 
churia, ceded  by  China  in  1858  and  1860. 
Exile  to  Siberia  began  soon  after  the  con- 
quest, and  until  the  downfall  of  the  Im- 
perial Government  in  1917,  Siberia  was  a 
great  penal  colony.  Hardened  convicts 
and  important  political  offenders  were 
kept  under  close  control,  but  the  great 
majority  of  the  exiles  were  simply  placed 
in  ^  a  particular  district  and  allowed  to 
shift  for  themselves.  Valuable  goldfields 
have  been  discovered  in  Yeniseisk,  and  in 


the  basins  of  the  Obi,  Lena  and  Amur 
rivers.  In  recent  years  thousands  of  Rus- 
sian peasants  have  emigrated  hither,  and 
nearly  all  the  fertile  soil  free  of  forest 
land  outside  the  steppes  has  been  occu- 
pied. A  new  sea  route  through  the  Kara 
Sea  to  Siberia  has  been  opened  up  lately. 
The  railway  connection  between  Russia 
and  Siberia  forms  the  greatest  railway 
scheme  in  the  world.  See  Russia  :  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway. 

During,  and  especially  after,  the  World 
War,  radical  political  changes  took  place 
in  Siberia,  as  in  Russia  proper.  After 
the  fall  of  the  Imperial  Government,  in 
March,  1917,  and  after  the  fall  of  the 
Provisional  Government  in  the  following 
November,  and  the  rise  into  power  of  the 
Bolshevik  Government,  political  chaos 
spread  over  the  country,  until  gradually 
a  provisional  government  was  established 
by  General  Alexander  Kolchak,  with  head- 
quarters in  Omsk.  In  January,  1920,  the 
Kolchak  Government  went  down  before 
the  assaults  of  the  Red  Bolshevist  armies, 
made  possible  by  the  internal  discontent 
of  the  population. 

During  the  year  ending  with  January, 
1921,  still  further  changes  took  place. 
Transbaikalia  was  divided  into  two  sepa- 
rate districts;  the  Chita  District,  where 
the  Cossack  leader,  Seminov,  had  estab-  ( 
lished  a  military  dictatorship  under  the 
protection  of  the  Japanese  army  of  inva- 
sion; and  the  Verkhne-Undinsk  District, 
where  a  form  of  government  similar  to 
that  of  the  Bolsheviki  was  established. 
The  Amur  Province  remained  unchanged, 
and  Blagovieschensk  became  the  head- 
quarters of  the  revolutionary  government 
of  the  Eastern  Siberian  Republic,  recog- 
nized by  the  Bolsheviki  as  a  concession 
to  Japan,  which  desired  a  buffer  state 
between  its  territory  and  Soviet  Russia. 
The  Maritime  Province,  which  now  in- 
cludes Kamchatka  and  the  northern  part  , 
of  Sakhalin,  is  administered  from  Vladi- 
vostok by  a  government  which,  while 
strongly  inclined  toward  Socialism,  was 
under  the  influence  of  the  Japanese  army 
of  occupation.  In  October,  1920,  the  Red 
Army,  in  co-operation  with  local  revolu- 
tionary forces,  succeeded  in  driving  Semi- 
nov out  of  the  Chita  District,  the  Cos- 
sack chief  himself  seeking  flight  across 
the  Chinese  frontier. 

SIBERIAN  DOG,  a  variety  of  the 
Eskimo  dog,  but  of  larger  size  and  more 
docile  temper.  They  do  not  stand  so  high 
as  the  pointer,  but  their  thick  hair,  three 
or  four  inches  long  in  the  winter,  gives 
them  an  appearance  of  greater  stoutness. 
Under  this  hair  is  a  coating  of  soft,  fine 
wool,  which  begins  to  grow  in  the  winter 
and  drops  off  in  the  spring.  Muzzle  sharp, 
generally  black;  ears  erect. 


SIBERIAN    RAILWAY 


416 


SICILIES 


SIBERIAN  RAILWAY.     See  TRANS- 
Siberian  Railway. 

SIBERT,     WILLIAM     LUTHER,    an 

American  soldier,  born  at  Gadsden,  Ala., 
in  1860.  He  graduated  from  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1884  and  was 
appointed  2nd  lieutenant  of  engineers  in 
the  same  year.  In  1887  he  graduated 
from  the  Engineering  School  of  Applica- 
tion. He  was  appointed  captain  in  1896, 
major  in  1904,  and  lieutenant-colonel  in 
1909.  From  1887  to  1892  he  was  engaged 
in  engineering  river  work  in  Kentucky, 
and  from  1892  to  1894  he  was  engaged 
in  the  construction  of  a  ship  channel  con- 
necting with  the  Great  Lakes.  He  was 
later  engaged  in  engineering  work  in  Ar- 
kansas and  in  the  Philippines.  From  1900 
to  1907  he  was  in  cnarge  of  the  engineer- 
ing of  the  river  and  harbor  districts,  with 
headquarters  at  Louisville  and  Pitts- 
burgh. In  March  of  the  latter  year,  he 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission,  and  as  engineer  of 
the  commission  he  built  the  Gatun  Locks 
and  Dam,  the  west  breakwater,  and  ex- 
cavated the  channel  from  Gatun  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  After  completion  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  he  served  in  China  under 
the  auspices  of  the  American  National 
Red  Cross  and  the  Chinese  Government, 
on  the  board  of  engineers  for  flood  pre- 
vention. He  was  made  brigadier-general 
in  1915,  and  was  extended  the  thanks  of 
Congress  for  his  work  on  the  Panama 
Canal.  In  1917  he  was  promoted  to  be 
major-general  and  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  1st  Division  of  the  Ameri- 
can troops  in  France,  under  General 
Pershing.  He  organized  and  was  the  di- 
rector of  the  Chemical  Warfare  Service 
of  the  United  States  Army.  He  received 
a  Distinguished  Service  Medal  and  was 
made  a  commander  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  by  the  French  Government. 

SIBYL,  the  name  by  which  certain 
prophetic  women  were  designated  in.  an- 
cient times.  Their  number  is  variously 
stated.  iElian  mentions  four — the  Ery- 
thraean, the  Samian,  the  Egyptian,  and  the 
Sardian;  but  it  was  popularly  believed 
that  there  were  10  in  all.  Of  these  the 
most  famous  is  the  Cumaean,  known  by 
the  names  of  Herophile,  Demo,  Phemonoe, 
Deiphobe,  and  Amalthaea.  She  was  con- 
sulted by  iEneas  before  his  descent  into 
the  lower  world,  and  accompanied  him  in 
his  journey  through  the  land  of  shadows. 
It  was  she  who  appeared  before  King 
Tarquin,  offering  him  nine  books  for  sale. 
The  king  refused  to  buy  them,  whereupon 
she  went  away,  burnt  three,  and  then  re- 
turned, asking  the  original  price  for  the 
remaining  six.  On  his  still  refusing  to 
purchase  them,  she  again  left,  destroyed 
another  three,  and  on  her  return  offered 


to  let  him  have  the  remaining  three  at  the 
price  which  she  had  asked  for  the  nine. 
Tarquin,  astonished  at  such  singular  con- 
duct, bought  the  books ;  and  the  sibyl  van- 
ished. On  inspection  they  were  found  to 
contain  directions  as  to  the  worship  of 
the  gods  and  the  policy  of  the  Romans. 
They  were  kept  with  great  care  in  a  stone 
chest  in  an  underground  chamber  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  at  first  by 
two  commissioners,  afterward  by  a  col- 
lege of  10,  finally  increased  by  Sulla  to 
15.  These  oracle  keepers  alone  consulted 
them,  by  special  order  of  the  senate,  in 
case  of  prodigies,  dangers,  and  calamities. 

In  83  B.  C.  the  temple  of  Jupiter  was 
burned  and  the  original  Sibylline  books 
were  destroyed.  Ambassadors  were  ac- 
cordingly sent  to  the  different  towns  of 
Italy,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor,  to  make  a 
fresh  collection.  This  was  deposited  in 
the  temple  when  rebuilt.  Spurious  Sibyl- 
line books  now  began  to  accumulate  and 
circulate  in  Rome.  Augustus,  fearing 
danger  to  the  state  from  the  abuse  of 
them,  ordered  that  all  such  should  be 
delivered  up.  Over  2,000  were  thus 
destroyed.  Those  that  were  accounted 
genuine  were  deposited  in  the  temple  of 
Apollo  on  the  Palatine.  The  writing  of 
these  having  become  faded,  Augustus  com- 
manded them  to  be  rewritten.  In  the  con- 
flagration of  Rome  in  the  reign  of  Nero 
they  were  all  again  destroyed.  New  col- 
lections were  made,  which  were  publicly 
and  finally  burnt  by  the  Christian  Em- 
peror Honorius. 

The  Sybilline  oracles  to  which  the 
Christian  Fathers  refer  are  in  no  sense 
whatever  to  be  confounded  with  the  older 
pagan  collections.  They  are  "pious 
frauds,"  belonging  to  early  ecclesiastical 
literature.  An  exhaustive  collection  of  the 
Sibylline  oracles  was  published  by  Gal- 
laeus  (1689).  Fragments  have  been  edited 
byAngeloMai  (1817)  and  Struve  (1818). 

SICILIAN  VESPERS.  Charles  of 
Anjou,  brother  of  Louis  IX.,  King  of 
France,  having  seized  Sicily  by  virtue  of 
a  grant  from  Pope  Alexander  IV.,  the 
natives  rose  against  the  French  the  day 
after  Easter,  March  30,  1282.  The  mas- 
sacre which  ensued  commenced  at  Paler- 
mo, extended  to  Messina  and  other  parts 
of  the  island,  and  is  known  in  history  as 
the  Sicilian  Vespers. 

SICILIES,  THE  TWO,  a  former  king- 
dom of  Italy,  consisting  of  Naples  (or  S. 
Italy)  and  Sicily.  In  1047,  while  Greeks 
and  Saracens  were  struggling  for  the  pos- 
session of  lower  Italy  and  Sicily,  the  12 
sons  of  Tancred  de  Hauteville,  a  count 
in  lower  Normandy,  came  in  with  their 
followers.  Robert  Guiscard,  one  of  these 
brothers,  subdued  Apulia  and  Calabria, 
taking  the  title  of  duke,  and  his  youngest 


SICILIES 


417 


SICILY 


brother,  Count  Roger,  conquered  Sicily. 
Roger's  son  and  successor,  Roger  II.,  com- 
pleted the  conquest  of  all  Lower  Italy  by 
subduing  Capua,  Amain  and  Naples,  at 
that  time  celebrated  commercial  republics, 
and  in  1130  took  the  title  of  king,  calling 
his  kingdom  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sici- 
lies. In  1189  the  race  of  Tancred  became 
extinct,  and  the  German  emperor,  Henry 
VI.,  of  the  house  of  Hohenstauf  en,  claimed 
the  kingdom  in  right  of  his  wife,  Constan- 
tia,  the  daughter  of  Roger  II.  The  king- 
dom remained  with  the  family  of  Hohen- 
staufen  till  1266,  when  Pope  Alexander 
IV.,  feudal  overlord,  bestowed  it  on 
Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  Louis  IX.  of 
France,  who  caused  the  legitimate  heir, 
Conradin  of  Suabia  (1268).,  to  be  be- 
headed. Sicily,  however,  freed  herself  in 
1282  from  the  oppressions  of  the  French 
by  the  aid  of  King  Pedro  of  Aragon,  and 
Naples  was  now  separated  from  it,  Sicily 
being  under  the  Kings  of  Aragon,  while 
Naples  was  under  the  Angevin  dynasty. 
This  dynasty  was  dispossessed  in  1442  by 
Alfonso  V.  of  Aragon,  who  bestowed 
Naples  on  his  natural  son  Ferdinand. 

In  1504  Sicily  was  again  united  to  Na- 
ples under  the  Spanish  crown,  and  gov- 
erned by  viceroys  till  1713,  when  the 
peace  of  Utrecht  again  divided  the  Two 
Sicilies,  Naples  falling  to  Archduke 
Charles  of  Austria,  Sicily  to  Duke  Victor 
Amadeus  of  Savoy.  King  Philip  V.  of 
Spain  reconquered  Sicily  in  1718,  at  the 
instigation  of  Alberoni,  but  was  forced 
to  cede  it  to  Austria  in  1720,  Savoy  re- 
ceiving Sardinia  in  exchange,  by  which 
means  the  Two  Sicilies  became  a  part  of 
the  Austrian  dominions.  In  1734  the 
Spanish  Infante  Don  Carlos,  son  of  Philip 
V.,  at  the  head  of  an  army  invaded  Na- 
ples, conquered  both  the  continental  and 
the  insular  part  of  the  Kingdom,  and  was 
crowned  at  Palermo  in  1735  as  Charles 
III.  This  change  was  sanctioned  by  the 
treaty  of  Vienna  (1783),  and  till  1860 
this  line  of  the  Bourbon  family  main- 
tained possession  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  ex- 
cept for  a  few  years  during  the  Napo- 
leonic period,  when  Joseph  Bonaparte  and 
Joachim  Murat  reigned  on  the  mainland 
as  kings  of  Naples.  In  1759,  when  Charles 
ascended  the  Spanish  throne  under  the. 
name  of  Charles  III.,  he  conferred  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  on  his  third 
son  Ferdinand,  and  decreed  at  the  same 
time  that  it  should  never  again  be  united 
to  the  Spanish  monarchy.  The  reign  of 
Ferdinand  extended  through  the  stormy 
period  of  the  French  Revolution  and  the 
subsequent  European  commotions.  His 
successors,  Francis  I.,  Ferdinand  II. 
(Bomba),  and  Francis  II.  were  despotic 
tyrants  who  forced  the  people  into  peri- 
odic revolt,  put  down  with  much  severity. 
In  1860,  however,  an  insurrection  broke 


out  in  Sicily,  and  an  expedition  of  volun- 
teers from  Piedmont  and  other  Italian 
provinces  under  Garibaldi  sailed  from 
Genoa  to  the  assistance  of  the  insurgents. 
The  result  was  that  the  Neapolitan  troops 
were  driven  from  the  island.  Garibaldi, 
following  up  his  success,  crossed  over  to 
the  mainland,  where  he  met  little  or  no 
opposition;  Francis  II.  fled  from  Naples; 
the  strong  places  in  his  hands  were  re- 
duced; and  by  a  popular  vote  the  King- 
dom of  the  Two  Sicilies  ceased  to  exist  as 
such,  and  became  an  integral  part  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy.    See  Italy. 

SICILY,  an  island  belonging  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  in  the  Mediterranean, 
the  largest  and  the  finest  in  that  sea,  ly- 
ing at  the  S.  W.  extremity  of  Italy,  from 
which  it  is  parted  by  the  narrow  Strait 
of  Messina.  Area,  9,936  square  miles; 
pop.  about  3,793,500.  Sicily  is  of  an  ir- 
regularly triangular  shape  (hence  its  an- 
cient Latin  name  of  Trinacria),  and  is 
180  miles  in  length  by  120  in  breadth.  <  A 
mountain  chain,  seemingly  a  continuation 
of  the  Apennines,  traverses  the  island  E. 
and  W.,  throwing  off  spurs,  from  one  of 
which  in  the  E.  rises  Mount  Etna,  the 
loftiest  volcano  in  Europe,  having  a  cul- 
mination of  10,900  feet;  neither  the  lakes 
nor  the  rivers  are  of  any  considerable 
size  or  length.  The  plains  and  valleys 
which  compose  the  greater  portion  of  the 
island  are  remarkably  fertile,  and  yield 
large  crops  of  maize,  wheat,  rice,  pulse, 
all  kinds  of  vegetables,  and  abundance  of 
fruits;  the  silk  worm  is  largely  culti- 
vated. The  minerals  are  marble,  iron, 
copper,  stone,  agate,  jasper,  salt,  and  coal, 
while  of  sulphur  the  yield  is  enormous — 
about  300  mines.  The  manufactures,  gen- 
erally unimportant,  are  silks,  hats,  furni- 
ture, skins,  cotton,  and  cutlery;  the  ex- 
ports comprise  all  native  produce,  with 
linseed,  manna,  rags,  and  tanned  leather. 

Sicily  is  divided  into  seven  provinces — 
Palermo,  Messina,  Catania,  Girgenti,  Syr- 
acuse or  Noto,  Trapani,  and  Caltanisetta. 
The  Sicilians  are  of  middle  stature,  well 
made,  with  dark  eyes  and  coarse  black 
hair;  their  features  are  better  than  their 
complexion ;  and  they  attain  maturity  and 
begin  to  decline  earlier  than  the  inhabi- 
tants of  more  N.  regions.  There  are  1,000 
miles  of  railroads.  Elementary  schools 
are  established  everywhere,  and  grammar 
and  commercial  schools  in  the  town. 
There  are  universities  in  Palermo,  Mes- 
sina and  Catania. 

Sicily  was  originally  peopled  by  the 
Phoenicians,  by  the  Greeks,  next  by  the 
Carthaginians,  and  then  by  the  Romans. 
The  Saracens  in  the  8th  century  subju- 
gated the  island,  and  some  centuries  later 
the  Norwegians  made  inroads  on  its  ter- 
ritory and  finally  it  fell  under  the  Nor- 


SICKLES 


418 


SIDGWICK 


man  sway.  From  this  time  Sicily  became 
the  prey  of  Spain,  France,  and  Austria, 
till  the  crown  was  united  to  that  of  Na- 
ples under  the  title  of  the  Two  Sicilies 
in  1734.  When  the  French  overran  Italy 
under  Bonaparte,  the  King  of  Naples, 
being  driven  from  his  throne,  took  shelter 
in  this,  the  insular  portion  of  his  domin- 
ions, where  he  reigned  in  peace,  under 
British  protection,  till  the  final  peace  of 
1815  placed  him  once  more  in  his  conti- 
nental chair  of  Naples.  The  revolution 
in  Italy  begun  by  Garibaldi  in  1860  soon 
spread  to  Sicily,  and  on  the  landing  of 
that  patriot  the  whole  island  rose  in  arms, 
and  the  royal  troops  were  beaten  in  every 
engagement.  Sicily  in  a  few  months  was 
free,  and  when  Naples  acknowledged  Vic- 
tor Emmanuel  as  its  sovereign,  under  the 
style  of  King  of  Italy,  the  Sicilian  crown 
was  laid  with  rejoicings  at  the  feet  of 
that  sovereign.    See  Italy. 

SICKLES,      DANIEL      EDGAR,      an 

American  military  officer;  born  in  New 
York  City,  Oct.  20,  1825.  He  studied  law 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1844;  was 
elected  to  the  State  Legislature  in  1847; 
became  city  attorney  of  New  York,  and 
was  elected  State  Senator  in  1855.  In 
1856  the  Democratic  party  of  New  York 
elected  him  to  Congress,  where  he  re- 
mained till  1861.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  he  organized  the  "Excelsior 
Brigade"  of  New  York  volunteers,  and 
was  commissioned  one  of  its  colonels.  He 
was  conspicuous  for  bravery  and  heroic 
endurance  in  the  Peninsular  campaign; 
was  in  the  battles  near  Richmond,  Va., 
in  1862,  commanding  a  brigade;  and  led 
a  division  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  Sept. 
17,  the  same  year.  He  was  in  command 
of  a  corps  at  Chancellorsville,  May  2  and 
3,  1863,  where  he  was  severely  wounded. 
For  brilliant  achievements  at  Fredericks- 
burg he  was  promoted  major-general  of 
volunteers.  He  commanded  the  3d  Army 
Corps  at  Gettysburg,  July  2,  1863,  and  in 
this  engagement  lost  a  leg.  He  was  as- 
signed to  the  command  of  the  2d  Military 
District,  which  included  North  and  South 
Carolina,  in  April,  1867.  In  consequence 
of  having  supported  the  policy  of  Con- 
gress instead  of  that  of  President  John- 
son, he  was  removed,  Aug.  26,  1867;  and 
in  1869  was  retired  from  the  army.  He 
was  minister  to  Spain  in  1869-1873,  when 
he  resigned,  returned  to  New  York  City, 
and  subsequently  held  several  important 
civil  posts,  among  them  that  of  president 
of  the  Civil  Service  Commission.  He  was 
also  a  Democratic  member  of  Congress  in 
1893-1897.  He  was  made  a  Commander, 
Medal  of  Honor  Legion,  1902.  He  died  in 
1914. 

SICYON,   a   once   celebrated   city   and 
small  state  of  Greece,  situated  a  few  miles 


S.  of  Corinth,  in  the  Morea.  It  was  a 
chief  seat  of  painting  and  statuary  (tra- 
dition asserting  that  the  former  was  in- 
vented there),  it  having  given  its  name  to 
a  school  of  painting  which  included  among 
its  disciples  Pamphilos  and  Apelles,  both 
natives  of  Sicyon.  It  was  also  the  native 
city  of  Aratus,  the  noted  general  of  the 
Achaean  League.  There  exists  at  the  pres- 
ent day  a  few  remains  of  the  ancient  city, 
as  well  as  of  the  more  modern  buildings 
erected  by  the  Roman  conquerors  of 
Greece,  near  which  stands  a  small  modern 
village  named  Vasiliko. 

SIDDONS,  SARAH,  an  English  ac- 
tress; born  in  Brecon,  South  Wales,  July 
5,  1755.  She  commenced  her  theatrical 
career  when  quite  a  child,  and  in  her  19th 
year  was  married  to  William  Siddons,  an 
actor  in  her  father's  (Roger  Kemble) 
company.  In  1774  she  met  with  the  first 
recognition  of  her  great  powers  as  an  ac- 
tress at  Cheltenham  in  consequence  of  her 
representation  of  Belvidera  in  "Venice 
Preserved."  Her  success  at  Cheltenham 
procured  for  her  an  engagement  at  Drury 
Lane,  but  her  first  appearance  there  was 
a  comparative  failure,  and  in  1777  she 
again  went  on  circuit  in  the  provinces. 
Her  second  appearance  at  Drury  Lane 
took  place  Oct.  10,  1782,  in  the  character 
of  Isabella  in  the  "Fatal  Marriage."  Her 
success  was  complete,  and  she  was  uni- 
versally acknowledged  to  be  the  first  trag- 
ic actress  of  the  English  stage.  For  30 
years  she  continued  to  astonish  and  en- 
chant the  lovers  of  the  drama,  and  having 
acquired  an  ample  fortune  she  took  her 
leave  of  the  stage  in  1812.  Her  greatest 
characters  were  Queen  Catharine  in 
"Henry  VIII."  and  Lady  Macbeth.  She 
died  in  London,  June  8,  1831. 

SIDDONS,  MRS.  SCOTT,  an  English 
actress;  born  in  India  in  1844;  the  great- 
granddaughter  of  Sarah  Siddons;  was 
educated  in  Germany.  As  Lady  Macbeth 
she  made  her  first  professional  appear- 
ance in  England,  at  Nottingham.  She  ap- 
peared in  the  United  States  first  as  a 
dramatic  reader  in  New  York  City,  and 
she  made  her  debut  as  a  dramatic  star 
at  the  Boston  Museum  about  1868.  She 
died  in  Paris,  Nov.  9,  1896. 

SIDGWICK,  HENRY,  an  English 
philosopher;  born  in  Skipton,  Yorkshire, 
May  31,  1838.  He  was  Professor  of  Moral 
Philosophy  at  Cambridge,  and  has  done 
much  for  the  promotion  of  higher  educa- 
tion of  women,  having  assisted  in  the 
foundation  of  Newnham  College.  His 
valuable  works  include:  "The  Methods  of 
Ethics"  (1874) ;  "The  Principles  of  Polit- 
ical Economy"  (1883),  one  of  the  most 
important  works  on  the  subject;  "History 
of  Ethics"  (1886) ;  "Elements  of  Politics" 


SIDIS 


419 


SIDNEY 


(1891);   "Practical  Ethics"    (1898),  etc. 
He  died  in  1900. 

SIDIS,  BORIS,  an  American  psycho- 
pathologist,  born  in  Russia,  in  1867.  He 
came  to  America  in  1887  and  received 
from  Harvard  the  degrees  of  A.B.  in 
1894;  A.M.  in  1895;  Ph.D.  in  1897;  and 
M.D.  in  1908.  From  1896  to  1901  he 
served  as  associate  psychologist  and  psy- 
chopathologist  of  the  Pathological  Insti- 
tute of  the  New  York  State  hospitals. 
Practicing  his  profession  in  Boston,  he 
was  also  medical  director  of  a  psychother- 
apeutic institute  bearing  his  name,  at 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  and  at  various  times 
an  associate  editor  of  the  "Archives  of 
Neurology  and  Psychopathology,"  and  of 
the  "Journal  of  Abnormal  Psychology." 
His  numerous  publications  include  "Multi- 
ple Personality"  (with  Goodhart,  1905) 
"Experimental  Study  of  Sleep"  (1909) 
"Studies  in  Psychopathology"  (1909) 
"The  Psychology  of  Laughter"  (1913) 
"The  Foundations  of  Normal  and  Abnor 
mal  Psychology"  (1914) ;  "The  Causation 
and  Treatment  of  Psychopathic  Diseases" 
(1916) ;  "The  Source  and  Aim  of  Human 
Progress"   (1919),  etc. 

SIDMOTJTH,  a  watering-place  on  the 
S.  coast  of  Devonshire,  England;  14  miles 
by  road,  E.  S.  E.  of  Exeter.  It  lies  in  a 
narrow  valley  at  the  mouth  of  the  little 
Sid  between  the  red  sandstone  cliffs  of 
High  Peak  (513  feet)  on  the  W.  and  Sal- 
combe  Hill  (497)  on  the  E.  Its  esplanade 
is  protected  by  a  sea  wall  (1838),  1,700 
feet  long;  and  its  parish  church  (1259; 
almost  rebuilt  1860)  has  a  stained  W. 
window  inserted  by  Queen  Victoria  in 
memory  of  her  father,  the  Duke  of  Kent, 
who  died  here  in  1820.  The  climate  is 
mild  and  the  rainfall  the  least  in  Devon. 
Pop.  about  6,000. 

SIDNEY,  a  city  of  Ohio,  the  county- 
seat  of  Shelby  co.  It  is  on  the  Great 
Miami  river,  the  Miami  and  Erie  Canal, 
and  on  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton,  and  Day- 
ton, the  Western  Ohio,  and  the  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis  rail- 
roads. It  has  important  industries,  in- 
cluding the  manufacture  of  whips,  hollow 
ware,  horse  collars,  churns,  wheels,  iron 
and  wood  workers'  tools,  aluminum  ware, 
flour,  etc.  Its  notable  buildings  include 
a  public  library  and  a  court  house.  Pop. 
(1910)  6,607;   (1920)   8,590. 

SIDNEY  SUSSEX  COLLEGE,  a  col- 
lege at  Cambridge,  England.  It  began  as 
the  Franciscan  or  Grey  Friar's  House, 
established  in  1240,  and  after  the  Refor- 
mation was  endowed  as  a  school  by  the 
will  of  Lady  Frances  Sidney,  Countess 
Dowager  of  Sussex.  Its  early  career  is 
marked  by  Puritanism  and  Irish  and 
Scotch  students  were  first  conspicuous  in 


this  college  at  Cambridge.  It  has  a  mas- 
ter and  ten  fellows,  twenty-four  scholars, 
and  about  seventy  undergraduates.  It  has 
eight  livings  in  its  gift.  Oliver  Cromwell, 
Thomas  Fuller,  and  Bramhall  were  among 
the  members. 

SIDNEY,  or  SYDNEY,  ALGERNON, 
an  English  military  officer;  born  in  Pens- 
hurst,  Kent,  in  1622.  He  accompanied  his 
father,  the  2d  Earl  of  Leicester,  in  his 
embassies  to  Denmark  and  France.  He 
was  also  early  trained  to  a  military  life, 
and  served  with  some  distinction  in  Ire- 
land, where  his  father  was  lord  lieuten- 
ant. In  1643  he  returned  to  England  and 
joined  the  Parliamentary  forces.    In  1644 


ALGERNON   SIDNEY 

he  was  lieutenant-colonel  of  a  regiment  of 
horse  in  Manchester's  army,  and  was  se- 
verely wounded  at  Marston  Moor.  In 
1645  he  was  given  the  command  of  a  cav- 
alry regiment  in  Cromwell's  division  of 
Fairfax's  army,  and  was  returned  to  Par- 
liament for  Cardiff.  He  was  nominated 
one  of  the  commissioners  to  try  Charles  I., 
but  took  no  part  in  the  trial,  though  he 
approved  of  the  sentence.  He  refused  all 
concurrence  in  the  government  of  Crom- 
well, retiring  to  Penshurst,  but  when  the 
return  of  the  Long  Parliament  in  May, 
1659,  gave  expectations  of  the  establish- 
ment of  a  republic,  he  again  took  his  seat 
and  was  nominated  one  of  the  council  of 
state.  He  was  soon  after  appointed  a 
commissioner  to  mediate  a  peace  between 
Denmark  and  Sweden,  and  while  he  was 
engaged  in  this  embassy  the  Restoration 
took  place.     Conscious  of  the  offence  he 


SIDNEY 


420 


SIDNEY 


had  given  the  royal  party,  he  refused  to 
return  and  remained  an  exile  for  17  years. 
At  length,  in  1677,  the  influence  of  his 
friends  procured  him  permission  to  return 
to  England.  After  the  death  of  Shaftes- 
bury in  1682,  he  entered  into  the  confer- 
ence held  between  Monmouth,  Russell,  Es- 
sex, Hampden,  and  others,  and  on  the 
discovery  of  the  Rye  House  Plot  he  was 
arrested  and  sent  to  the  Tower  on  a 
charge  of  high  treason.  He  was  tried 
before  the  notorious  Chief  Justice  Jeff- 
reys, and  his  trial  was  conducted  with  a 
shameless  absence  of  equity  which  has 
conferred  on  him  all  the  glory  of  a  mar- 
tyr. He  was  executed  on  Tower  Hill, 
Dec.  7,  1683.  His  "Discourses  Concern- 
ing Government"  were  first  printed  in 
1698. 

SIDNEY,  SIR  PHILIP,  an  English 
writer,  soldier  and  man  of  affairs,  born 
in  1554,  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Henry  and 
Lady  Mary  Sidney.  As  a  child,  he  im- 
pressed all  who  knew  him  for  such  "lovely 
and  familiar  gravity  as  carried  grace  and 
reverence  above  greater  years."  He  at- 
tended Christ  Church,  Oxford,  completing 
the  course  at  17.  In  1572  he  went  abroad 
to  study  the  governments  of  Europe.  At 
the  time  of  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew he  was  in  Paris.  The  blackness  of 
the  deed,  which  sent  a  shudder  through 
all  England,  affected  Sidney  very  power- 
fully, and  he  became  identified  with  the 
party  that  held  it  to  be  the  duty  of  the 
English  Government  to  espouse  the  Prot- 
estant cause  throughout  Europe.  He  was 
interested  in  the  political  theories  of  the 
French  Huguenots,  and  later  met  Languet 
in  Frankfort,  who  exerted  a  great  influ- 
ence on  his  political  ideas.  His  travels 
extended  through  Hungary,  Italy,  Ger- 
many, and  the  Low  Countries.  By  1575 
he  was  at  home  again,  and  attended  the 
Princely  Pleasures  at  Kenil worth  given 
by  his  uncle,  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  who 
hoped  by  the  entertainment  to  win  the 
hand  of  the  queen.  Soon  after,  he  wrote 
a  sonnet  cycle,  "Astrophel  and  Stella," 
telling  his  love,  after  approved  court 
fashion,  for  the  Lady  Penelope  Rich.  In 
1577  he  again  went  abroad,  this  time  to 
Germany,  on  diplomatic  business.  On  his 
return  he  met  the  young  poet  Spenser,  and 
became  his  patron.  To  him  Spenser  dedi- 
cated his  first  important  series  of  poems, 
the  "Shepheard's  Calender"  (1579). 
Sidney  wrote  a  powerful  protest  against 
the  projected  French  marriage,  and  for 
his  pains  was  exiled  from  the  court  for 
a  time  (1580),  using  his  enforced  leisure 
by  writing  a  long  pastoral  romance,  "Ar- 
cadia." This  romance,  which  conformed 
to  the  ideas  of  poetry  obtaining  at  the 
time,  was  a  prose  counterpart  to  Spenser's 
"Faerie  Queene"  and  exerted  considerable 


influence  upon  it.  It  is  heroic,  dealing 
with  the  education  and  character  of  the 
ideal  prince;  it  contains  many  allegories, 
part  of  them  being  ethical  and  religious, 
others  directly  applicable  to  persons  of 
the  court;  and  it  is  related  also  to  the 
political  conditions  of  the  time.  It  be- 
came the  most  famous  of  all  Elizabethan 
literary  works,  excepting  only  the  "Faerie 
Queene."  Soon  afterward  Sidney  wrote 
a  "Defense  of  Poetry,"  which  is  a  survey 
of  the  state  of  literature  in  England  at 
about  1581,  an  application  of  Platonic 
doctrine  to  the  theory  of  poetry  as  the 
loftiest  of  human  disciplines,  and  an 
eloquent  defense  of  poetry  against  the 
attacks  of  Gosson  and  other  Puritan 
defamers. 

All  these  literary  activities  were  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  idea  of  the  time  con- 
cerning the  true  courtier.  The  idea  was 
that  of  complete  and  many-sided  develop- 
ment. The  courtier  must  excel  in  war,  in 
all  manly  sports  and  exercises,  in  knowl- 
edge of  men  and  affairs,  in  statecraft, 
and  in  music,  art,  poetry,  and  all  the 
learning  of  the  time.  Many  books  were 
written,  in  Italy,  France,  and  England, 
on  the  subject,  and  it  was  carried  out  in 
practice  in  schools  founded  on  true  hu- 
manistic principles.  In  "Astrophel  and 
Stella,"  in  "Arcadia,"  and  in  his  volumi- 
nous correspondence,  Sidney  bears  witness 
to  the  influence  of  this  ideal  as  the  con- 
scious aim  of  all  his  self-training  and  ac- 
tivities. No  small  part  of  his  tremendous 
influence,  therefore,  lies  in  the  way  in 
which  his  personality  and  achievement 
incarnated  the  highest  cultural  ideal  of 
the  time.  The  story  of  his  life  and  opin- 
ions, as  related  by  his  friend  Fulke  Gre- 
ville  and  as  revealed  in  his  letters,  shows 
the  high  seriousness,  the  intelligent  patri- 
otism, and  the  extent  of  his  studies  of 
political  conditions  in  Europe  at  a  time 
when  England's  destiny  hung  in  the  bal- 
ance. Thus  to  his  love  of  literature  was 
added  his  patriotic  service  to  his  prince 
as  a  true  courtier.  He  carried  the  ideal 
farther  than  this.  He  was  actively  inter- 
ested in  Raleigh's  colonizing  ambitions,  at 
one  time  being  prevented  from  going  to 
America  only  by  the  express  injunction 
of  the  queen.  He  served  in  Parliament. 
He  held  with  Leicester  and  Spenser  and 
Raleigh  the  view  that  English  safety  re- 
quired active  opposition  to  Philip  of 
Spain,  and  that  it  was  the  duty  of  Eng- 
land to  the  world  to  assume  the  leader- 
ship of  the  Protestant  cause  throughout 
Europe.  At  length  the  long  fight  to  in- 
duce Elizabeth  to  intervene  in  the  Low 
Countries  was  won.  Sidney  went  with  the 
expedition  sent  by  the  queen.  In  Septem- 
ber of  1586  he  received  the  wound  at  Zut- 
phen  from  which  he  died  twenty-six  days 
later,  young  in  years  but  with  a  record 


SIDON 


421 


SIEGE 


of  many-sided  achievements  outstanding 
even  in  that  time  of  houndless  activity. 
As  men  of  all  nations  had  looked  to  him 
as  a  leader  and  had  dedicated  to  him 
books  in  every  field  of  human  knowledge, 
so  at  his  death  every  nation  bore  tribute 
to  him.  The  mere  list  of  the  poetical 
tributes  to  his  memory  is  without  parallel 
elsewhere.  But  his  greatest  achievement 
was  himself.  His  personality  exerted  a 
fascination  not  only  on  his  contemporaries 
but  on  succeeding  ages.  He  won  immor- 
tality, not  through  his  actual  work,  varied 
and  worthy  as  that  work  was,  but  through 
himself. 

SIDON  (Hebrew,  Zidon),  anciently  a 
city  of  Phoenicia;  on  the  E.  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean;  half  way  between  Tyre 
and  Beyrout.  It  soon  rose,  both  by  its 
exceptional  position  and  the  enterprising 
character  of  its  inhabitants,  to  the  first 
position  among  the  cities  of  Phoenicia,  so 
that  the  whole  country  is  sometimes  desig- 
nated by  the  name  Sidon.  The  colonies 
extended  over  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
the  adjacent  islands,  Thrace  and  Euboea, 
and  even  some  parts  of  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
Spain,  northern  Africa,  in  fact,  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  ancient  world.  The  Sido- 
nian  manufactures  of  glass  and  linen, 
purple  dye  and  perfumes,  were  sources  of 
vast  wealth.  At  length  it  surrendered  to 
Shalmaneser,  King  of  Assyria.  But  un- 
der Assyrian,  Chaldean,  and  Persian  dom- 
ination it  retained  a  kind  of  independence 
for  its  internal  affairs,  and  under  the  Per- 
sians reached  its  highest  prosperity.  An 
unsuccessful  revolt  against  Artaxerxes 
Ochus  ended  in  its  temporary  ruin  (351 
B.  c).  Speedily  rebuilt  and  repeopled,  it 
opened  its  gates  to  Alexander  the  Great 
(333  B.  a),  and  from  that  time  forth  it 
fell  successively  into  the  hands  of  Syrian, 
Greek,  and  Roman  rulers.  Through  the 
Middle  Ages  little  is  heard  of  it,  except 
that  it  was  taken  by  the  Crusaders.  The 
present  town  of  Saida  has  15,000  inhabi- 
tants, of  whom  7,000  are  Mohammedans. 
In  the  neighborhood  are  numerous  rock- 
cut  burial-places  of  the  ancient  Phoeni- 
cians, in  which  have  been  found  the 
sarcophagus  of  Eshmunazar,  King  of  As- 
syria, and  others.  The  town  was  stormed 
by  the  allies  under  Napier  in  1840. 

SIEBENGEBIRGE,  a  small  mountain 
range  of  Germany,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  not  far  from  Bonn.  Seven 
mountains  tower  above  the  rest,  of  which 
the  Drachenfels,  close  to  the  Rhine,  and 
presenting  a  splendid  view  from  the  river, 
is  the  most  beautiful.  On  all  of  them  are 
ruins  of  ancient  castles. 

SIEDLCE,  the  chief  town  of  the  for- 
mer Russian  province  of  the  same  name, 


in  Poland;  40  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Warsaw. 
The  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  it 
has  a  fine  palace,  girt  with  beautiful  gar- 
dens, and  carries  on  important  industries. 
Pop.  about  30,000.  Considerable  fighting 
occurred  here  during  the  World  War.  The 
province  lying  between  the  Vistula  and 
the  Bug  nearly  corresponds  to  the  old 
palatinate  of  Polachia,  area,  5,534  square 
miles;  pop.  province,  1,000,000.  It  now  is 
part  of  the  republic  of  Poland. 

SIEGE,  literally  a  sitting  down.  When 
the  assault  of  a  fortified  place  would  be 
too  hazardous  and  costly  and  its  reduction 
by  blockade  too  slow,  recourse  is  had  to 
the  "regular  siege  or  systematic  attack." 
In  order  to  cross  the  open  ground  swept 
by  the  fire  of  the  fortress  with  as  little 
loss  as  possible  the  besieger  makes  use 
of  sunken  roads  or  trenches.  The  revet- 
ments having  been  breached  by  his  artil- 
lery or  mines,  he  continues  these  roads 
through  the  breaches  into  the  place.  To 
prevent  these  "approaches"  being  enfi- 
laded by  the  guns  of  the  fortress  they  are 
made  at  first  in  zigzags ;  the  prolongations 
of  which  are  directed  so  as  to  clear  the 
works  of  the  fronts  attacked,  and,  when  a 
direct  advance  becomes  necessary,  they  are 
provided  with  traverses  at  short  intervals, 
or  "blinded  sap"  is  used — i.e.,  a  trench 
covered  in  with  timber  and  earth.  Two 
or  three  such  lines  of  approach  are  used. 
To  protect  and  connect  them  lateral 
trenches  are  formed  from  which  large 
bodies  of  troops  can  fire  upon  any  sortie 
that  may  be  made.  These  are  termed 
"parallels,"  being  parallel  to  the  general 
front  of  the  parts  attacked. 

The  ancients  used  to  surround  the  place 
attacked  with  a  high  bank  of  earth,  called 
a  "line  of  circumvallation"  and  protected 
themselves  against  attack  from  the  out- 
side by  another  called  a  "line  of  contra- 
vallation,"  and  a  similar  arrangement 
was  in  vogue  till  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century.  Now  a  covering  field  army  is 
employed,  which  by  its  greater  mobility, 
is  able  to  meet  the  relieving  army  many 
miles  from  the  besieging  force,  and  a 
chain  of  fortified  localities  takes  the  place 
of  the  continuous  line  of  circumvallation. 
In  order  that  a  siege  may  be  safely  under- 
taken the  strength  of  the  besieger  should 
be  about  four  times  that  of  the  garrison. 
In  1870  Strasburg,  with  a  garrison  of 
20,000,  was  captured  by  a  besieging  force 
of  60,000  strong.  Metz  was  starved  into 
surrender,  the  presence  of  so  many  men 
(some  170,000)  besides  the  proper  garri- 
son only  hastening  that  result. 

The  "siege  parks,"  or  main  depots,  for 
the  artillery  and  engineer  trains  must  be 
out  of  range  of  the  enemy's  guns,  con- 
taining as  they  do  powder,  ammunition, 
guns,  and  warlike  stores  of  all  descrip- 


SIEGE    ARTILLERY 


422 


SIENA 


tions.  The  batteries  necessary  are  "en- 
filade" batteries,  placed  on  the  prolonga- 
tions of  all  the  important  works  attacked ; 
"counter"  batteries,  to  overcome  the  fire 
of  the  works  bearing  upon  the  field  of 
attack;  "mortar"  and  "howitzer"  bat- 
teries, to  search  by  high  angle  fire  the 
interior  of  all  the  works  attacked;  and 
"breaching"  batteries,  to  breach  by  curved 
fire  the  scarps  and  flanking  casements. 
Light  pieces,  such  as  the  seven-pounder 
mountain  guns  and  machine  guns,  are 
placed  in  the  second  and  third  parallels, 
and  in  the  "demi-parallels"  or  lodgments, 
100  to  150  yards  long,  made  on  each  ap- 
proach about  half  way  between  these 
parallels. 

Beyond  the  third  parallel  the  besieger 
will  probably  be  met  by  counter  mines, 
and  himself  have  to  resort  to  mining  in 
order  to  carry  out  the  crowning  of  the 
covered  way.  The  World  War  developed 
a  more  or  less  new  system  of  siege.  See 
World  War:  Artillery. 

Siege  in  History. — Among  great  sieges 
in  the  world's  history  may  be  mentioned 
those  of  Troy,  Tyre  (572,  332  b.  a),  Syr- 
acuse (396  B.  C.J,  Saguntum  (219  B.  a), 
Jerusalem  (a.  d.  70),  Acre  (1192,  etc.), 
Calais  (1347),  Orleans  (1428),  Constan- 
tinople (1453),  Haarlem  (1572-1573), 
Leyden  (1574),  Breda  (1625),  Rochelle 
(1628),  Magdeburg  (1631),  Breisach 
(1638),  Taunton  (1644-1645),  London- 
derry (1689),  Gibraltar  (1731,  1779,  1782- 
1783),  Prague  (1741-1744),  Leipsic  (1757, 
1813),  Quebec  (1759-1760),  Seringapatam 
(1799),  Genoa  (1800),  Saragossa  (1808- 
1809),  Ciudad  Rodrigo  (1810,  1812),  New 
Orleans  (1814),  Antwerp  (1832),  Rome 
(1849),  Sebastopol  (1854-1855),  Kars 
(1855),  Lucknow  (1857),  Delhi  (1857), 
Gaeta  (1860-1861),  Vicksburg  (1863), 
Charleston  (1864-1865),  Richmond  (1864- 
1865),  Metz  (1870).  Strasburg  (1870), 
Belfort  (1870-1871),  Paris  (1870-1871), 
Plevna  (1877),  Khartum  (1884),  Lady- 
smith  (1900),  Port  Arthur  (1904),  Adri- 
anople  (1912);  Liege  (1914),  Przemysl 
(1914-1915);  Verdun   (1915-1916). 

SIEGE  ARTILLERY.     See  ARTILLERY. 

SIEGEN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  West- 
phalia, on  the  Sieg  river;  47  miles  E.  of 
Cologne;  manufactures  leather,  paper, 
linen,  soap,  iron,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  etc., 
having  many  mines  in  the  vicinity.  Siegen 
was  the  birthplace  of  Rubens.  Pop.  about 
27,300. 

SIEMENS,  WERNER  VON,  a  Ger- 
man engineer  and  electrician;  born  in 
Lenthe,  Hanover,  Dec.  13,  1816.  In  1834 
he  entered  the  Prussian  artillery,  and  in 
1844  was  put  in  charge  of  the  artillery 


workshops  at  Berlin.  He  early  showed 
scientific  tastes,  and  in  1841  took  out  his 
first  patent  for  galvanic  silver  and  gold 
plating.  He  was  of  peculiar  service  in 
developing  the  telegraphic  system  in 
Prussia,  and  discovered  in  this  connec- 
tion the  valuable  insulating  property  of 
gutta-percha  for  underground  and  sub- 
marine cables.  In  1849  he  left  the  army, 
and  shortly  after  the  service  of  the  state 
altogether,  and  devoted  his  energies  to  the 
construction  of  telegraphic  and  electrical 
apparatus  of  all  kinds.  The  well-known 
firm  of  Siemens  and  Halske  was  estab- 
lished in  1847  in  Berlin;  and  subsequently 
branches  were  formed,  chiefly  under  the 
management  of  the  younger  brothers  of 
Werner  Siemens,  in  St.  Petersburg 
(1857),  in  London  (1858),  in  Vienna 
(1858),  and  in  Tiflis  (1863).  Besides  de- 
vising numerous  useful  forms  of  galva- 
nometers and  other  electrical  instruments 
of  precision,  Werner  Siemens  was  one 
of  the  discoverers  of  the  principle  of  the 
self-acting  dynamo.  He  also  made  val- 
uable determinations  of  the  electrical 
resistance  of  different  substances,  the 
resistance  of  a  column  of  mercury  one 
meter  long  and  one  square  millimeter 
cross  section  at  0°  C.  being  known  as  the 
Siemens  unit.  His  numerous  scientific 
and  technical  papers,  published  in  the 
"Proceedings"  of  the  Berlin  Academy  (of 
which  he  became  a  member  in  1874),  in 
Poggendorff's  "Annalen,"  in  Dingler's 
"Polytechnische  Journal,"  etc.,  were  re- 
published in  collected  form  in  1881.  In 
1886  he  gave  500,000  marks  for  the 
founding  of  an  imperial  institute  of 
technology  and  physics;  and  in  1888  he 
was  ennobled.  He  died  in  Berlin,  Dec.  6, 
1892. 

SIENA,  or  SIENNA,  a  city  of  central 
Italy,  on  three  connecting  hills  on  the  S. 
frontiers  of  Tuscany,  59  miles  S.  of  Flor- 
ence, is  surrounded  by  old  walls,  entered 
by  nine  gates,  and  has  also  a  citadel;  the 
streets  are  irregular,  steep  and  narrow. 
It  has  a  university  with  faculties  of  law 
and  medicine,  and  a  cathedral,  begun  in 
the  early  years  of  the  13th  century,  which 
is  one  of  the  finest  examples  of  Italian 
Gothic  architecture.  The  municipal  pal- 
ace, begun  in  1288,  is  a  fine  specimen  of 
Pointed  Gothic.  It  stands  in  the  historic 
Piazza  del  Campo,  now  the  Piazza  di  Vit- 
torio  Emmanuele,  a  large  open  semicir- 
cular space  in  the  center  of  the  city,  and 
is  adorned  with  frescoes  of  the  Sienese 
school.  The  institute  of  fine  arts  contains 
a  valuable  collection  of  pictures  of  the 
oldest  Sienese  painters.  There  are  vari- 
ous other  buildings  of  interest,  including 
churches  and  palaces.  The  manufactures 
are  not  of  much  importance.  In  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  Siena  gave  its  name  to  a  school 


SIENKIEWICZ 


423 


SIERRA    LEONE 


of  painting,  and  was  the  birthplace  of  was  president  of  the  General  Relief  Corn- 
famous  painters,  sculptors,  and  architects,  mittee  for  Polish  victims.  He  died  in 
It  was  long  the  powerful  rival  of  Flor-    1916. 


SIENA   CATHEDRAL 


ence,  but  was  annexed  by  Tuscany  in 
1557.  Siena  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop. 
Pop.  commune  about  41,700. 

SIENKIEWICZ,  HENRYK,  a  Polish 
author;  born  in  Lithuania  in  1845.  He 
was  the  author  of  the  historical  novels 
"Quo  Vadis,"  "The  Deluge,"  and  "With 
Fire  and  Sword."  The  next  books  were 
"Pan  Michael"  and  "Ian  Wolovyjswki." 
Later  works  were :  "Children  of  the  Soil," 
"Knights  of  the  Cross,"  "Let  Us  Follow 
Him,"  etc.  He  was  awarded  the  Nobel 
Prize  for  literature  in  1905.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  World  War  he  removed  to 
Switzerland.  He  was  active  in  behalf  of 
the  sufferers  from  the  war  in  Poland,  and 


SIENNA,  or  SIENNA  EARTH,  a  fer- 
ruginous ochreous  earth,  which  when  raw 
is  of  a  fine  yellow  color,  and  when  burned 
assumes  a  rich  orange-red  tint.  It  is 
used  as  a  pigment  in  both  oil  and  water- 
color  painting. 

SIERRA,  a  chain  of  hills  or  mass  of 
mountains  with  jagged  or  saw-like  ridges. 

SIERRA  LEONE,  a  small  British 
colony  and  a  protectorate  on  the  W.  coast 
of  Africa.  The  colony  occupies  the  pen- 
insula, Sherbro  Island,  some  small  isles 
and  a  coast-strip  between  French  Guinea 
and  Liberia.  Area,  4,000  square  miles. 
The  protectorate  extends  inland  and  is 
bounded  by  French  Guinea  on  the  N.,  by 


SIERRA    MADRE 


424 


SIGEL 


Liberia,  E.  and  S.  E.  Area,  27,000  square 
miles.  Principal  products:  palm  kernels, 
cola  nuts  and  gum  copal.  Exports  in 
1919  were  valued  at  £2,101,569;  imports 
at  £2,123,344.  There  are  169  elementary 
schools.  A  college  at  Fourah  Bay,  to  pre- 
pare natives  for  the  ministry,  is  supported 
by  the  Church  Missionary  Society.  Pop. 
of  colony  about  75,500;  of  Protectorate, 
about  1,400,000,  mostly  negroes.  There 
are  about  700  whites.  Sierra  Leone  was 
purchased  by  Great  Britain  in  1787  from 
the  native  chiefs,  for  the  purpose  of  a 
settlement  for  liberated  negroes,  and  to 
aid  in  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade. 
Capital,   Free   Town.     Pop.   34,000. 

SIERRA  MADRE  ("Main  Chain"),  a 
general  name  for  the  mountains  that  in 
Mexico  stretch  N.  from  about  Guadala- 
jara to  Arizona,  forming  the  W.  wall 
of  the  plateau,  and  separating  Chihuahua 
from  the  maritime  States  of  Sinaloa  and 
Sonora.  Along  the  E.  foothills  of  the 
range,  in  northwest  Chihuahua,  the  coun- 
try is  very  fertile.  The  so-called  Sierra 
Madre  plateau,  on  the  United  States  fron- 
tier, is  a  continuation  of  the  Chihuahua 
plateau.  The  name  has  often  been  more 
widely  extended,  however,  to  include  the 
central  and  E.  ranges  of  the  Cordilleras. 

SIERRA  MORENA,  a  chain  of  moun- 
tains in  Spain,  between  New  Castile  and 
Andalusia,  separating  the  Guadiana  on 
the  N.  and  the  Guadalquivir  on  the  S., 
and  attaining  a  height  of  5,500  feet  above 
sea-level. 

SIERRA  NEVADA,  a  chain  of  moun- 
tains in  southern  Spain,  the  most  ele- 
vated in  the  peninsula.  The  greater  part 
of  it  is  in  the  province  of  Granada,  run- 
ning E.  and  W.,  and  the  highest  peak 
in  Mulahacen,  which  has  an  elevation  of 
about  11,678  feet,  and  is  capped  with  ever- 
lasting snow.  The  range  is  rich  in  fer- 
tile valleys  and  picturesque  scenery. 

SIERRA  NEVADA,  a  mountain  range 
of  California,  extending  N.  and  S.  along 
the  E.  boundary  of  the  State.  It  con- 
sists of  an  aggregate  of  ranges,  on  an 
average  some  70  miles  wide,  with  numer- 
ous peaks  reaching  an  elevation  of  10,000 
and  15,000  feet.  Gold  mining,  timber 
cutting,  and  sheep  rearing  are  important 
industries  in  these  ranges. 

SIESTA,  the  name  given  to  the  prac- 
tice indulged  in  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  hot  climates  generally, 
of  sleeping  two  or  three  hours  in  the 
middle  of  the  day,  when  the  heat  is  too 
oppressive  to  admit  of  their  going  from 
home. 

SIEYES,  EMMANUEL  JOSEPH,  bet- 
ter known  as  the  Abbe  Sieyes,  a  French 
revolutionist;    born    in    Frejus,   France, 


May  3,  1748,  and  pursued  his  studies  for 
the  Church  at  Paris.  He  was  active  in 
furthering  the  progress  of  the  Revolution, 
and  soon  acquired  great  influence  in  the 
National  Assembly.  He  originated  the 
idea  of  the  new  geographical  division  of 
France  into  departments,  arrondisse- 
ments,  and  communes.  In  1791  he  be- 
came a  member  for  the  Seine  department, 
and  in  1792  deputy  for  the  department 
of  Sarthe.  During  the  Reign  of  Terror 
he  withdrew  into  the  country,  but  after 
Robespierre's  downfall  he  returned  to  the 
convention  and  took  an  active  part  in 
affairs.  In  1799,  on  his  return  from  a 
mission  to  Berlin,  by  which  he  secured 
the  neutrality  of  Prussia,  he  became  a 
member  of  the  directory.  He  subse- 
quently suppressed  the  Jacobin  Club,  and 
was  active  in  bringing  about  the  over- 
throw of  the  directory  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  the  consular  government  by  the 
revolution  of  the  18th  Brumaire,  the  new 
constitution  being  devised  by  him.  Sieyes 
soon  found  his  speculations  completely 
overmatched  by  Bonaparte's  practical  en- 
ergy, and  though  a  consul  provisionally, 
he  saw  it  desirable  to  terminate  his  politi- 
cal career.  He  retired  with  the  title  of 
count,  and  obtained  grants  of  land  and 
property  to  the  value  of  at  least  $250,000. 
He  was  exiled  at  the  restoration,  but 
returned  on  the  July  revolution  of  1830, 
and  died  in  Paris,  June  20,  1836. 

SIFTON,  SIR  CLIFFORD,  a  Canadian 
lawyer,  born  in  Middlesex,  Ontario,  in 
1861.  He  was  educated  at  the  High 
School,  London,  Ont. ;  the  Boys'  College, 
Dundas;  and  Victoria  University,  Co- 
bourg.  In  1882  he  was  called  to  the  Mani- 
toba bar  and  in  1895  became  Q.  C.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Manitoba  Legislature 
for  North  Brandon  in  1888  and  continued 
a  member  until  1896.  He  entered  Sir 
Wilfred  Laurier's  administration  as  Min- 
ister of  the  Interior  in  1896  and  resigned 
in  1905.  He  represented  Canada  at  the 
International  Conference  of  Conservation 
of  Resources  at  Washington  in  1909,  and 
resigned  as  chairman  of  the  Commission 
for  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources 
in  1918. 

SIGEL,  FRANZ,  an  American  military 
officer;  born  in  Sinsheim,  Baden,  Nov.  18, 
1824;  was  graduated  at  the  military 
school  at  Carlsruhe  in  1843  and  commis- 
sioned a  lieutenant  in  the  army.  When 
the  Baden  revolution  began  he  raised 
troops;  assumed  the  leadership  of  the  in- 
surrection; and  was  made  Secretary  of 
War  and  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
army.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1852,  and  when  the  Civil  War  broke  out, 
organized  a  regiment  and  went  to  the 
front,  where  he  served  with  unusual  dis- 
tinction, being  promoted   Major-General. 


SIGHT 


425 


SiGISMUND 


Subsequently  he  settled  in  New  York  City, 
where  he  entered  politics;  was  made  col- 
lector of  internal  revenue  in  May,  1871; 


0 

FRANZ   SIGEL 


register  of  the  city  in  October,  1871,  and 
pension  agent  in  1886;  later  was  head  of 
an  advertising  bureau  and  editor  and  pub- 
lisher of  the  "New  York  Monthly."  Died 
August,  1902. 

SIGHT,  in  physiology,  one  of  the  five 
human  senses,  having  for  its  organ  the 
Eye  (q.  v.).  In  this  organ,  then,  we  have 
the  retina,  an  expansion  of  the  optic 
nerve,  to  receive  and  transmit  Jto  the  brain 
the  impressions  of  light;  certain  refract- 
ing media  for  so  disposing  the  rays  of 
light  traversing  them  as  to  throw  a  cor- 
rect image  of  an  external  body  on  the 
retina ;  and  a  contracting  diaphragm,  with 
central  apertures  for  regulating  the  quan- 
tity of  light  admitted  into  the  eye.  When 
the  eye  is  directed  to  any  object,  an  image 
of  that  object  is  depicted  on  the  back  of 
the  eye  by  means  of  the  rays  of  light  en- 
tering the  pupil,  and  duly  refracted  by 
the  different  humors.  The  image,  which 
is  inverted,  produces,  somehow,  an  im- 
pression on  the  retina  with  the  assistance 
of  the  choroid  coat,  and  this  impression 
passes  inward  to  the  nervous  centers, 
whence  the  optic  nerve  takes  its  rise.  The 
subject  of  binocular  vision,  or  that  with 
two  eyes  we  only  perceive  one  object,  was 
long  a  perplexing  subject  to  philosophers, 
till  it  was  satisfactorily  explained  by 
means  of  that  now  well-known  instrument 
the  Stereoscope  (q.  v.). 

The  power  of  adapting  the  eye  to  vision 


at  different  distances  has  received  the 
most  varied  explanations;  but  the  opinion 
now  generally  entertained  is  that  it  de- 
pends mainly  on  some  alteration,  either 
in  position  or  form,  which  takes  place  in 
the  crystalline  lens.  Some  persons  pos- 
sess this  power  of  adaptation  in  a  very 
slight  degree,  and  thus  labor  under  de- 
fective vision,  of  which  there  are  two 
kinds.  Nearsightedness  (myopia)  is  caused 
by  anything — such  as  undue  convexity  of 
the  cornea — which  increases  the  refract- 
ing power  of  the  eye,  and.  so  causes  the 
image  of  an  object  to  be  formed  at  a 
point  anterior  to  the  retina,  and  is  rem- 
edied by  the  use  of  concave  glasses. 
Long-sightedness  (hypermetropia),  on  the 
other  hand,  is  owing  to  conditions  the  re- 
verse of  this,  and  is  remedied  by  the  use 
of  convex  glasses,  which  diminish  the 
focal  distance  of  an  image  formed  in  the 
eye.  We  judge  of  the  motion  of  an  object 
partly  from  the  motion  of  its  image  over 
the  surface  of  the  retina,  and  partly  from 
the  motion  of  our  eyes  following  it;  and 
of  the  form  of  bodies,  partly  from  the 
mere  sensation,  and  partly  from  the  as- 
sociation of  ideas. 

In  law,  bills  of  exchange  are  frequently 
drawn  payable  "at  sight"  (i.  e.,  on  pre- 
sentation), or  a  certain  number  of  days 
"after  sight."  In  the  last  case  the  time 
begins  to  run  from  the  period  of  present- 
ment and  acceptance.  "Sight  draft"  and 
"Sight  bill"  are  bills  payable  at  sight. 

SIGISMUND,  EMPEROR  OF  GER- 
MANY AND  KING  OF  HUNGARY 
AND  BOHEMIA,  second  son  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  IV.;  born  in  1368.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1378,  he  be- 
came Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  and  was 
occupied  four  years  in  visiting  his  states, 
and  receiving  their  homage.  He  married, 
in  1385,  Maria,  daughter  of  Ludwig 
Louis,  King  of  Hungary,  and  was  crowned 
king  the  same  year.  He  soon  after  ex- 
tended his  dominions  by  the  conquest  of 
the  Wallachia.  His  queen  dying  in  1392, 
his  claim  to  the  crown  of  Hungary  was 
contested  by  Ladislaus  V.,  King  of  Po- 
land, but  unsuccessfully;  and  the  fre- 
quent conspiracies  formed  against  Sigis- 
mund  by  the  nobles  made  him  suspicious 
and  cruel.  Alarmed  by  the  conquests  of 
the  Turks,  he  sought  aid  of  France  and 
England;  and  a  great  battle  was  fought 
at  Nicopolis  in  1396,  in  which  the  French, 
under  the  Count  of  Nevers,  were  defeated 
and  almost  all  slain,  the  Hungarians  fled 
without  fighting,  and  Sigismund  nar- 
rowly escaped  and  led  a  wandering  life 
for  18  months.  In  1410  he  was  chosen 
emperor  by  one  party  of  the  electors, 
Jobst,  Marquis  of  Moravia,  being  chosen 
by  another  party,  and  Wenceslaus,  who 
had  been  deposed,  still  retaining  the  title 


SIGISMUND 


426       SIGNALING,  TELEGRAPHING 


of  emperor.     At  the  same  period  there 
were  also  three  rival  Popes. 

But  the  death  of  Jobst  and  the  acquies- 
cence of  Wenceslaus  left  Sigismund  with- 
out a  rival  in  the  following  year.  He  was 
crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  November, 
1414,  and  went  thence  to  the  great  Coun- 
cil of  Constance.  He  surrounded  the 
town  with  his  troops,  and  remained  mas- 
ter of  its  gates  during  the  council.  The 
Bohemian  reformer,  John  Huss,  had  come 
to  Constance  under  a  safe  conduct  of  the 
emperor;  but  he  was  nevertheless  burnt, 
as  was  also  his  disciple,  Jerome  of 
Prague.  Sigismund  had  a  conference 
with  the  Pope,  Benedict  XIII.,  at  Perpig- 
nan,  hoping  to  induce  him  to  resign  the 
tiara,  but  he  failed.  About  the  same  time 
he  sold  Brandenburg  to  Frederick  of 
Hohenzollern,  Burgrave  of  Nuremberg; 
raised  Savoy  into  a  duchy  for  Amadeus 
VIII.,  and  visited  France  and  England. 
He  professed  to  negotiate  a  peace  between 
Charles  VI.  and  Henry  V.,  but  perfidi- 
ously made  a  secret  alliance  with  the 
latter,  hoping  to  recover  Aries.  By  the 
death  of  his  brother,  Wenceslaus,  in  1419, 
he  succeeded  to  the  crown  of  Bohemia, 
and  the  Hussite  war  began,  which  lasted 
15  years.  The  famous  Zisca  defeated  Sig- 
ismund before  Prague  in  1420,  but  agreed 
to  a  truce,  and  Sigismund  was  crowned 
soon  after.  After  the  death  of  Zisca  the 
war  was  ably  carried  on  by  the  two  lead- 
ers, named  Procopius  the  Great  and  Pro- 
copius  the  Less.  In  1431,  Sigismund  was 
crowned  King  of  Italy  at  Milan;  and  in 
1433,  Emperor  of  Rome  by  Eugenius  IV. 
He  died  Dec.  9,  1437. 

SIGISMUND  I.,  KING  OF  POLAND, 
The  Great,  son  of  Casimir  IV.;  born  Jan. 
1,  1467;  and  succeeded  his  brother,  Alex- 
ander, in  1507.     He  died  April  1,  1548. 

SIGISMUND  II.,  surnamed  Augustus  ; 
born  Aug.  1,  1520,  was  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, and  succeeded  him  in  1548.  He  died 
in  1572. 

SIGISMUND  III.,  surnamed  De  Vasa; 
born  in  1566,  was  son  of  John  III.,  King 
of  Sweden,  and  of  Catharine,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Sigismund  I.  He  was  elected  King 
of  Poland  in  1587,  and  succeeded  to  the 
crown  of  Sweden  in  1594.  Being  a  Cath- 
olic, his  uncle,  Charles,  Duke  of  Suder- 
mania,  easily  undermined  his  authority 
in  Sweden,  and  he  lost  that  kingdom  in 
1604.  In  1610  he  succeeded  in  placing  his 
son,  Vladislaus,  on  the  throne  of  Russia, 
but  was  afterward  obliged  to  succumb, 
and  besides  that,  was  involved  in  a  war 
with  Gustavus  Adolphus.  He  died  in 
Warsaw  in  1632. 

SIGN,  in  astronomy,  a  portion  ol  the 
ecliptic  or  zodiac,  containing  30  degrees, 
or   a   12th   part   of  the   complete   circle. 


The  first  commences  at  the  point  of  the 
equator  through  which  the  sun  passes  at 
the  time  of  the  vernal  equinox;  and  they 
are  counted  onward,  proceeding  from  W. 
to  E.,  according  to  the  annual  course  of 
the  sun,  all  round  the  circle.  The  names 
of  the  12  signs,  in  the  order  in  which  they 
follow  each  other,  are  as  follows:  Aries, 
Taurus,  Gemini,  Cancer,  Leo,  Virgo,  Li- 
bra, Scorpio,  Sagittarius,  Capricornus, 
Aquarius,  Pisces.  It  is  to  be  remarked 
that  the  above  are  also  the  names  of  the 
12  constellations  of  the  zodiac ;  and  in  an- 
cient times  (more  than  200  years  before 
our  era),  the  places  of  the  signs  and  the 
constellations  were  coincident;  but  owing 
to  the  motion  of  the  earth's  equator,  by 
which  the  equinoctial  points  are  carried 
backward  on  the  ecliptic  about  50'  6"  an- 
nually, the  intersections  of  the  ecliptic 
and  equator,  and  consequently  the  com- 
mencement of  the  signs,  now  correspond 
to  different  stars,  the  first  point  of  the 
sign  Aries  being  at  present  near  the  be- 
ginning of  the  constellation  Pisces.  On 
this  account  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
confound  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  which 
are  fixed  in  respect  of  the  equinoxes,  with 
the  constellations,  which  are  movable  in 
respect  of  those  points. 

In  algebra,  a  symbol  indicating  an  op- 
eration to  be  performed,  or  a  relation  sub- 
sisting between  two  quantities.  Of  the 
former  kind,  those  most  commonly  used 
are,  +  for  addition,  —  for  subtraction,  X 
for  multiplication,  -s-  for  division,  V  for 
the  square  root,  3V  for  the  cube  root, 
nV  for  the  nth  root,  etc.  The  sign  de- 
noting relations  are,  =  equal  to,  ;>  great- 
er than,  <;  less  than,  etc. 

SIGNALING  AND  TELEGRAPH- 
ING, MILITARY.  The  art  of  trans- 
mitting information  by  visual  signals  is 
of  very  ancient  origin,  and  has,  no  doubt, 
been  practiced  by  all  races  in  every  part 
of  the  world.  The  simplest  form  of  sig- 
nal is,  probably,  the  beacon  fire,  used  for 
centuries  to  warn  neighboring  tribes  of 
the  approach  of  enemies  and  for  other 
purposes.  Very  early  in  history,  how- 
ever, the  art  of  signaling  for  military 
purposes  reached  a  high  stage  of  devel- 
opment, and  even  in  these  days  of  teleg- 
raphy, telephony  and  wireless  telegraphy, 
communicating  by  visible  signs  still  has 
its  uses.  In  the  modern  army,  the  stand- 
ard equipment  used  for  signaling  is  a  flag 
attached  to  a  light  pole,  but  any  other 
easily  visible  object  may  be  used,  a  torch 
or  lantern  being  employed  at  night  time. 
The  two  systems  most  commonly  used  are 
the  Morse  code  and  the  Myer  code.  The 
former  makes  use  of  a  system  of  dots 
and  dashes,  a  definite  number  of  dots  and 
dashes  representing  each  letter  of  the  al- 
phabet.   Thus,  a  is  represented  by ,  6 


SIGNALS 


427 


SIGURD 


by — ...,  and  so  on.  The  signaler  holds 
his  flag  perpendicularly,  and  to  send  a 
message  moves  it  through  an  angle  of  45 
for  a  dot,  or  of  90  for  a  dash.  The  Myer 
system  represents  each  letter  of  the  al- 
phabet by  a  series  of  numbers.  Thus,  a 
is  22,  b  is  2112,  c  is  121,  and  so  on.  The 
signaler  holds  his  flag  perpendicularly, 
and  then  moves  it  through  an  angle  of  90 
to  the  right  for  1,  90  to  the  left  for  2,  and 
straight  down  in  front  of  him  for  3. 

The  heliograph  signals  by  means  of  a 
mirror,  or  a  combination  of  two  mirrors, 
reflected  sun  flashes  taking  the  place  of 
movements  of  a  flag.  When  the  sun  is 
in  front  of  the  operator,  only  one  mirror 
is  needed.  When  the  sun  is  behind  the 
operator,  two  mirrors  are  required,  one 
to  reflect  the  sun  from  the  first  mirror 
to  the  second,  the  other  to  reflect  it  from 
the  second  mirror  to  the  receiver. 

Military  telegraphy  differs  in  no  essen- 
tial from  ordinary  telegraphy,  but  special 
equipment  is,  of  course,  required.  The 
wires  are  strung  on  light  poles,  or  may 
even  lie  on  the  ground.  They  are  car- 
ried on  a  reel,  supported  either  on  a  man's 
back  or  on  a  light  cart.  Wireless  teleg- 
raphy is  rapidly  rendering  the  use  of  a 
cable  unnecessary. 

SIGNALS,  the  means  by  which  com- 
munications are  made  to  greater  distances 
than  can  be  reached  by  the  human  voice. 
To  the  eye  these  are  conveyed  by  flags, 
lights,  etc.,  and  to  the  ear  by  guns,  steam- 
whistles,  fog-horns,  etc.  The  most  com- 
plete systems  of  signaling  are  those  de- 
vised to  enable  ships  some  distance  apart 
to  communicate  with  each  other.  Of  these 
the  most  important  ones  in  the  United 
States  navy  are  the  international  code, 
the  secret  naval  code,  the  wig-wag  system, 
the  Ardois  night  signal  code,  and  a  system 
of  wireless  telegraphy  invented  by  officers 
of  the  navy.  The  wig-wag  system  is  the 
simplest  of  all,  and  in  most  general  use 
when  vessels  of  a  fleet  are  lying  in  close 
proximity  to  each  other.  It  is  carried  on 
by  means  of  a  small  flag  of  conspicuous 
color,  mounted  on  a  staff  some  six  or  seven 
feet  long.  This  is  held  by  the  person 
sending  the  message  and  is  waved  down, 
or  to  the  right  or  left,  in  accordance  with 
an  understood  arrangement.  The  inter- 
national code,  which  is  used  by  all  vessels 
at  sea,  consists  of  27  flags,  of  which  there 
are  19  square  ones,  6  pennants  and  2 
burgees.  These  flags  represent  letters, 
and  in  order  to  spell  out  a  message 
combinations  of  three  or  four,  having  the 
same  meaning  in  all  languages,  are  hoist- 
ed to  the  top  of  the  signal  mast. 

SIGNATURE,  in  music,  in  writing 
music  in  any  key  with  sharps  or  flats,  the 
sharps  and  flats  belonging  to  the  key,  in- 
stead of  being  prefixed  to  each  note  as 


required,  are  placed  together  immediately 
after  the  clef  on  the  degrees  of  the  staff 
to  which  they  belong;  and  this  collection 
of  sharps  or  flats  is  called  the  signature. 
In  printing,  a  letter  or  figure  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  first  page  of  each  sheet,  to 
denote  the  order  of  the  sheet  and  to  facil- 
itate the  arrangement  of  them  for  bind- 
ing. 

SIGOURNEY,  LYDIA  (HUNTLEY), 
an  American  author;  born  in  Norwich, 
Conn.,  Sept.  1,  1791.  Among  her  many 
publications  are:  "Pleasant  Memories  of 
Pleasant  Lands,"  a  record  of  her  visit  in 
Europe  made  in  1840  (1842)  ;  "Scenes  in 
My  Native  Land"  (1884)  ;  "Water  Drops: 
A  Plea  for  Temperance"  (1847)  ;  "Glean- 
ings," poems  (1860)  ;  and  "The  Man  of 
Uz,  and  Other  Poems"  (1862).  She  died 
in  Hartford,  Conn.,  June  10,  1865. 

SIGSBEE,  CHARLES  DWIGHT,  an 
American  naval  officer;  born  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.)  Jan.  16,  1845;  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
1863;  served  in  the  Gulf  blockading 
squadron  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
Civil  War;  and  participated  in  the  battle 
of  Mobile  Bay.  After  the  war  he  com- 
manded a  Coast  Survey  vessel,  and  served 
for  several  years  in  the  hydrographic 
office  of  the  Navy  Department  at  Wash- 
ington. He  invented  a  deep-sea  sounding 
apparatus  and  was  permitted  to  accept 
the  Order  of  the  Red  Eagle  from  the  Em- 
peror of  Germany  in  recognition  of  his 
services  in  superintending  its  construc- 
tion abroad.  As  captain  he  was  assigned 
to  the  command  of  the  battleship  "Maine" 
in  1897.  During  the  Spanish-American 
War  he  commanded  the  auxiliary  cruiser 
"St.  Paul,"  which  rendered  excellent  serv- 
ice as  a  naval  scout.  The  deepest  valley 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  named  "Sigsbee's 
Deep,"  after  Captain  Sigsbee,  and  the  sci- 
entific name  of  Sigsbeia  murrhina  is  given 
to  one  of  the  rarest  species  of  deep-sea 
fauna.  It  was  Sigsbee,  too,  who  discov- 
ered near  the  Morro  light,  many  beauti- 
ful specimens  of  the  pentacrini,  or  sea 
lilies.  In  1898  Captain  Sigsbee  was  given 
command  of  the  battleship  "Texas,"  and 
in  1900  became  chief  of  the  bureau  of 
naval  intelligence.  In  1903  he  was  com- 
mander of  the  navy  yard  at  League  Is- 
land, Pa.  He  was  commander  of  the  S. 
Atlantic  Squadron,  1904-1905;  of  the  N. 
Atlantic  Fleet,  1905-1906.  He  retired  in 
1907.  He  was  the  author  of  "Deep-Sea 
Sounding  and  Dredging,"  "Personal  Nar- 
rative of  the  Battleship  Maine,"  etc. 

SIGURD,  or  SIGURDR,  in  Northern 
mythology,  the  hero  of  the  Volsunga  Saga, 
on  which  the  "Nibelungenlied"  is  based. 
According  to  the  legend  of  the  Volsungs, 
Sigurd   (the  Siegfried  of  the  "Nibelung- 


SIKHS 


428 


SIKKIM 


enlied)"  is  the  posthumous  son  of  Sig- 
mund,  son  of  Volsung,  a  descendant  of 
Odin.  After  obtaining  the  golden  treas- 
ure by  slaying  the  dragon  Fafnir  with  his 
good  sword,  Gram,  he  eats  the  monster's 
heart,  and  thus  acquires  the  power  of  un- 
derstanding the  songs  of  birds.  He  then 
rides  through  a  volume  of  flame  sur- 
rounding a  house  in  which  the  fair  Bren- 
hyldr  (Brunhild)  lay  asleep.  He  wakes 
Brenhyldr,  to  whom  he  plights  his  troth, 
and  then  rides  to  the  palace  of  Giuki  the 
Niflung,  whose  wife  gives  him  a  potion 
which  causes  him  to  forget  Brenhyldr, 
and  he  marries  Gudrun  (Chriemhild),  Gi- 
uki's  daughter.  Her  brother  Gunnar 
(Gunther)  determines  to  marry  Bren- 
hyldr, but  is  unable  to  ride  through  the 
flames;  so  his  mother  by  her  arts  causes 
Sigurd  to  go  through  the  flames  and  bring 
away  Brenhyldr  in  the  form  of  Bunnar. 
Sigurd  then  resumes  his  shape,  and  Bren- 
hyldr is  handed  over  to  Bunnar.  When 
Brenhyldr  hears  the  true  story  of  her  res- 
cue, her  love  for  the  hero  turns  to  hatred, 
and  she  seeks  to  slay  him.  Sigurd  is 
eventually  killed  by  Gunnar's  half  broth- 
er. His  death  revives  Brenhyldr's  love, 
and  she  dies  of  a  broken  heart. 

SIKHS,  a  religious  sect  in  Hindustan, 
which  worships  one  only  and  invisible 
God.  Its  founder  was  Nanak  Shah,  born 
in  1469  in  the  province  of  Lahore.  He 
labored  to  lead  the  people  to  a  practical 
religion,  to  a  pure  worship  of  God  and 
love  to  mankind.  He  died  about  1540.  Of 
his  successors,  Arjun-mal  gave  stability 
and  unity  to  the  religion  by  publishing 
Nanak's  writings  in  the  Adi-Granth,  the 
first  sacred  book  of  the  Sikhs.  The  Sikhs 
had  now  rejected  the  authority  of  the 
Koran  and  the  Vedas,  and  thus  aroused 
the  enmity  both  of  the  Mohammedans  and 
Brahmans.  Arjun-mal  was  thrown  into 
prison,  where  he  died.  His  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Har  Govind,  transformed  the  Sikhs 
from  peaceful  believers  into  valiant  war- 
riors, and  under  his  reign  began  the 
bloody  contest  with  the  Mohammedans. 
The  real  founder  of  the  Sikh  state  was 
Govind  Sinh  or  Singh,  the  10th  ruler  from 
Nanak.  He  abolished  the  system  of 
castes  and  gave  all  men  equal  rights.  His 
followers,  owing  to  their  valor  in  the  pro- 
tracted contest  with  the  Mohammedans, 
received  the  title  of  Sinhs  or  lions.  Go- 
vind Sinh  wrote  the  Dasema  Padshah  ke 
Granth,  or  book  of  the  10th  prince,  which, 
besides  treating  of  religious  subjects,  con- 
tained the  history  of  the  author's  exploits. 
The  Sikhs  hold  it  in  equal  veneration  with 
the  Adi-Granth.  Govind  Sinh  died  in 
1708,  and  the  Sikhs  gradually  yielded  to 
the  superior  power  of  the  Mohammedans. 
A  small  number  of  the  Sikhs  escaped  to 
inaccessible  mountains,  and  preserved  the 


doctrines  of  their  fathers  and  an  inextin- 
guishable hatred  toward  the  Mohamme- 
dans. After  Nadir  Shah's  return  to  Per- 
sia they  left  the  mountains  and  subdued 
all  Lahore.  The  Sikhs  then  broke  up  into 
a  number  of  independent  communities, 
each  governed  by  a  sirdar;  but  in  1792 
Runjeet  Singh  established  himself  as  des- 
potic ruler  of  the  Sikhs,  with  the  title  of 
Maharajah.  After  Runjeet  Singh's  death 
in  1839  a  period  of  anarchy  followed.  In 
1845  (first  sikh  war)  the  sikhs  were  de- 
feated by  Sir  Hugh  Gough  at  Ferozeshah 
and  again  in  January  and  February  of 
1846,  by  Gough  and  Sir  H.  Smith.  A 
treaty  was  signed  by  which  Great  Britain 
held  the  city  of  Lahore,  and  a  British 
resident  took  supervision  of  the  govern- 
ment. In  1848  a  general  revolt  broke  out, 
and  it  was  evident  that  the  Sikhs  had 
resolved  on  a  decisive  struggle,  being  as^ 
sisted  by  the  Afghans.  In  this  the  second 
Sikh  war,  Lord  Gough  advanced  with  an 
army  against  them,  but  received  a  severe 
check  at  Chillianwalla,  Jan.  13,  1849. 
Both  armies  were  then  reinforced,  and 
on  Feb.  21,  at  Gujerat,  the  power  of  the 
Sikhs  was  completely  broken.  The  Sikh 
dominion  was  proclaimed  at  an  end,  and 
the  Punjab  was  annexed  to  the  British 
Empire  in  India,  the  Maharajah  Dhulip 
Singh  receiving  an  annuity  of  $245,000. 
The  bulk  of  the  Sikhs  are  of  Jat  origin 
and  number  over  3,000,000.  During  the 
mutiny  the  Sikhs  displayed  the  utmost 
loyalty  to  the  British.  Bodies  of  Sikhs 
did  efficient  service  in  France,  and  in 
other  military  areas  during  the  World 
War. 

SI-KIANG,  or  WEST  RIVER,  China, 
by  far  the  most  important  of  the  streams 
which  unite  to  form  the  Canton  river.  It 
is  navigable  for  vessels  drawing  12  feet 
75  miles  from  the  sea. 

SIKINO  (ancient  Sikinos),  a  small  is« 
land  of  the  Cyclades,  in  the  Grecian  Ar- 
chipelago, E.  of  Melos;  area,  17  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  lofty,  but  the  soil 
is  fertile.    The  staple  product  is  wine. 

SIKKIM,  a  native  State  in  the  Hima- 
layas, between  Nepal  and  Bhutan,  in  po- 
litical connection  with  the  government  of 
Bengal;  area  2,818  square  miles.  It  is 
important  as  containing  the  most  direct 
trade  routes  from  India  into  Tibet,  which 
have  hitherto  been  kept  closed  by  the  jeal- 
ous influence  of  the  Chinese  Government. 
The  ruling  family  is  Buddhist  in  religion 
and  of  Tibetan  descent.  In  1836  the  san- 
itarium of  Darjeeling  was  ceded  to  the 
British  in  consideration  of  a  payment  at 
first  of  $3,000,  now  of  $6,000,  per  annum. 
In  recent  years  much  has  been  done  to 
develop  the  transit  trade  with  Tibet.  The 
lieutenant-governor    of    Bengal   has   had 


SILCHESTER 


429 


SILISTRIA 


repeated  interviews  with  the  rajah  and 
his  minister.  The  capital  is  at  Tumlung 
from  November  to  May;  for  the  rest  of 
the  year  it  is  removed  to  Chumbi,  on  the 
Tibetan  side  of  the  range.  The  products 
are  rice,  Indian  corn,  millet,  oranges,  tea, 
and  cotton  cloth;  the  minerals  are  lime 
and  copper.    Pop.  about  88,000. 

SILCHESTER,  a  village  in  the  ex- 
treme N.  of  Hampshire,  England;  7  miles 
N.  of  Basingstoke;  is  famous  for  the  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  Romano-British 
town  of  Caer  Segeint,  called  by  the  Ro- 
mans Calleva,  and  by  the  West  Saxons 
Silceastre.  The  chief  visible  remains  are 
the  amphitheater,  50  yards  by  40,  and  the 
walls,  2,760  yards  in  length;  excavations 
have  shown  the  foundations  of  a  basilica, 
the  forum,  a  temple,  baths,  etc.;  and 
coins,  seals,  rings,  and  much  broken  pot- 
tery have  been  found.  New  excavations 
were  begun  in  June,  1890,  by  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries  and  by  1910  most  of  the 
old  town  was  uncovered. 

SILESIA  (German,  Schlesien),  a  ter- 
ritory of  Central  Europe,  formerly  di- 
vided politically  between  Prussia  and 
Austria.  Prussian  Silesia,  the  largest  of 
the  Prussian  provinces,  was  bounded  E. 
by  Posen  and  Poland,  S.  by  the  Austrian 
territories,  W.  and  N.  by  Saxony  and 
Brandenburg;  area,  15,566  square  miles. 
The  province  is  intersected  by  branches 
of  the  Sudetic  mountains  in  the  S.,  but 
is  level  toward  Brandenburg  and  Posen, 
and  though  in  parts  marshy  and  sandy 
is  yet  fertile.  The  principal  river  is  the 
Oder.  Silesia  produces  corn,  beet-root, 
flax,  madder,  hemp,  hops,  tobacco,  fruits, 
and  tolerable  wines.  The  mountainous 
parts  yield  timber  and  afford  good  pas- 
turage and  meadow  land.  Minerals  in- 
clude iron,  copper,  lead,  silver,  coal,  sul- 
phur, etc.,  and  there  are  mineral  waters 
in  several  places.  Linen,  lace,  cotton,  and 
woolen  goods,  and  leather,  glass,  earthen- 
ware and  iron  ware  are  the  chief  manu- 
factures. Silesia  was  divided  into  three 
governments — Breslau,  Liegnitz,  and  Op- 
peln.  Breslau  is  the  capital.  By  a  pleb- 
iscite held  in  March,  1921,  a  majority  of 
the  people  of  Upper  Silesia  elected  to 
remain  German,  rather  than  join  Poland. 

Silesia  was  annexed  to  Poland  in  the 
beginning  of  the  10th  century.  In  1163 
it  became  independent,  and  was  governed 
by  three  dukes  of  the  royal  house  of  Piast. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century  17 
independent  dukes  reigned  in  Silesia  at 
one  time,  and  ruined  the  country  by  their 
feuds.  In  order  to  escape  the  grasp  of 
Poland  it  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of 
the  Bohemian  kings.  In  1675  the  ducal 
line  of  Piast  became  extinct,  and  the 
country  was  incorporated  in  the  Austrian 
dominions.    In  1740  Frederick  II.  of  Prus- 


sia laid  claim  to  part  of  Silesia  (based 
on  old  agreements  to  which  effect  had 
never  been  given),  and  in  1763,  at  the 
close  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  a  great 
part  of  Silesia  was  ceded  to  Prussia.  Pop. 
about  5,225,900.  By  the  Peace  Treaty  of 
1919,  Czecho-Slovakia  obtained  1,996 
square  miles  of  Prussian  and  Austrian 
Silesia  with  a  population  of  608,128. 

On  October  20,  1921,  the  Council  of  the 
League  of  Nations  denned  the  Upper  Si- 
lesian  boundary.  Germany  retained  the 
north  and  west,  but  Poland,  in  the  coun- 
try around  Kattowitz  and  Rybnick,  got  an 
important  part  of  the  mining  district. 

SILICA,  oxide  of  silicon.  Pure  silica 
occurs  in  nature,  crystallized  in  six-side  J 
prisms,  terminated  by  six-sided  pyramids 
in  rock  crystal  and  some  other  forms  o£ 
quartz.  It  enters  largely  into  the  compo- 
sition of  agate,  chalcedony,  flint,  opal, 
sandstone,  felspar,  and  a  vast  number  of 
other  minerals.  In  a  perfectly  pure  state 
it  is  quite  transparent  and  colorless.  Its 
hardness  is  next  to  that  of  the  precious 
stones,  and  it  has  a  sp.  gr.  of  2.6.  Silica 
presents  the  general  characters  of  an 
earthy  base,  but  acts  as  an  acid,  forming 
with  the  bases  compounds  known  as  sili- 
cates. These  are  very  abundant  in  na- 
ture; clay,  felspar,  mica,  hornblende,  and 
a  large  number  of  other  common  minerals 
are  compounds  of  this  description. 

SILICON,  in  chemistry,  one  of  the 
non-metallic  elements,  the  base  of  silica, 
discovered  by  Berzelius  in  1823.  It  is  in 
the  form  of  its  only  oxide,  silica,  the  most 
abundant^  solid  element  in  nature.  It  is 
obtained  in  a  state  of  purity  by  igniting 
the  double  fluoride  of  silicon  and  potas- 
sium with  sufficient  potassium  to  combine 
with  the  whole  of  the  fluorine.  The  mass 
is  washed  first  with  cold,  and  then  with 
hot  water.  Silicon  thus  obtained  is  a 
dull-brown  powder,  sinking  in  water,  in 
which  it  is  insoluble.  It  is  a  non-conduc- 
tor of  electricity,  and  is  insoluble  in  all 
acids  but  the  hydrofluoric.  Heated  in 
oxygen  or  air,  it  burns  with  a  brilliant 
flame,  being  converted  into  silica,  its  only 
oxide.  If  heated  in  a  closed  platinum 
crucible  its  properties  become  changed. 
It  is  now  insoluble  in  hydrofluoric  acid, 
it  is  decreased  in  bulk,  and  may  be  heated 
strongly  in  air  and  oxygen  without  taking 
fire.  Silicon  unites  with  hydrogen,  form- 
ing a  gas  spontaneously  inflammable  in 
air  or  oxygen.    Equiv.,  28;  symbol,  Si. 

SILISTRIA,  a  town  of  Rumania  (for- 
merly belonging  to  Bulgaria),  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube,  66  miles  N.  E.  of 
Shumbla.  For  five  centuries  it  was  the 
main  defensive  point  of  the  Turkish  em- 
pire on  the  N.  E.  It  was  an  ill-built  and 
dirty   town   till   the    Crimean   War,   but 


BB— Cyc 


Vol  8 


SILK 


430 


SILK 


r.fter  that  time  it  was  considerably  im- 
proved. Silistria  was  strongly  fortified 
up  to  1878,  when  the  fortifications  were 
decreed,  like  those  of  other  Bulgarian 
cities,  to  be  dismantled  in  accordance  with 
the  terms  of  the  Berlin  treaty.  In  May 
and  June,  1854,  with  a  garrison  of  15,000, 
it  successfully  resisted  a  siege  of  39  days 
by  60,000  to  80,000  Russians.  After  the 
Balkan  War  Silistria  was  awarded  to  Ru- 
mania by  the  Treaty  of  Bukarest  in  1913. 
Pop.  about  15,000. 

SILK,  the  peculiar  glossy  thread  spun 
by  the  caterpillars  or  larvae  of  certain 
species  of  moths,  and  a  well-known  kind 
of  fabric  manufactured  from  it.  The 
chief  silk-producing  larvae  belong  to  the 


SILKWORM 
1.  Moth.    2.  Chrysalis.    3.  Silkworm.    4.  Cocoon. 

family  of  the  Bombycidx,  of  which  group 
the  common  silk  moth,  Bombyx  m&ri,  is 
the  most  familiar  species,  being  that 
which  is  by  far  the  most  important  in 
artificial  culture.  This  family  of  moths 
is  distinguished  by  the  small  size  of  the 
proboscis,  by  the  thick  hairy  body;  and 
oy  the  large,  broad  wings.  The  common 
silk  moth  possesses  a  short  body,  stout 
legs,  and  white  wings,  which  are  marked 
by  black  lines  running  parallel  with  the 
wing  borders.  The  female  moth  deposits 
her  eggs  in  summer  on  the  leaves  of  the 
mulberry  tree,  Morus  alba.  For  hatching 
artificially  the  eggs  are  placed  in  a  rocm 
heated  gradually  up  to  a  temperature  of 
about  80°  F.  In  8  or  10  days  the  young 
appear.  The  caterpillars  are  then  covered 
with  sheets  of  paper  on  which  mulberry 
leaves  are  spread,  and  make  their  way 
through  perforations  in  the  paper  to  the 
mulberry  leaves,  their  natural  food.  The 
leaves  when  covered  with  caterpillars  are 
laid  on  shelves  of  wicker  work  covered 


with  brown  paper.  When  first  hatched 
the  larvae  or  worms  are  black  and  about 
^4  inch  long.  The  larval  or  caterpillar 
stage  lasts  from  six  to  eight  weeks,  and 
during  this  period  the  insect  generally 
casts  its  skin  four  times.  After  casting 
its  last  skin  the  insect  is  about  two  inches 
long,  and  in  10  days  attains  its  full 
growth  of  three  inches.  The  insect's  body 
consists  of  12  apparent  segments,  with 
six  anterior  forelegs,  and  10  fleshy  legs 
or  "prolegs"  provided  with  hooks  in  the 
hinder  body-segments.  The  mouth  is 
large,  with  powerful  jaws.  At  this  stage 
the  insect  becomes  languid,  refuses  food, 
and  prepares  for  its  next  change  into  the 
pupa  or  chrysalis  stage. 

The  Chinese  appear  to  have  been  the 
first  to  render  the  filamentous  cocoon  sub- 
stance serviceable  to  man,  and  China  is 
still  the  chief  silk-producing  country  in 
the  world.  Before  the  reign  of  Augustus 
the  use  of  silk  was  little  known  in  Europe, 
and  the  culture  of  the  silkworm  was  not 
introduced  till  the  6th  century.  It  was  at 
first  confined  to  Constantinople,  but  soon 
spread  to  Greece  and  then  through  Italy 
to  Spain.  When  the  Duke  of  Parma  took 
Antwerp  in  1585  a  check  was  put  on  its 
trade  in  silk  goods,  and  many  of  the  weav- 
ers from  Flanders  and  Brabant  took  ref- 
uge in  England.  Revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  (1685)  drove  hosts  of  silk 
workers  into  exile,  50,000  settling  in  Spital- 
fields,  London.  A  silk-throwing  machine, 
constructed  on  Italian  models  secretly  ob- 
tained, was  fitted  up  at  Derby  in  1718  by 
Thomas  Lombe  (afterward  Sir  Thomas 
Lombe),  who  obtained  a  patent  in  1719, 
and  on  its  expiration  received  a  grant  of 
£14,000  ($70,000)  for  his  services  to  his  ' 
country.  In  France  looms  were  set  up  at 
Lyons  in  1450,  and  at  Tours  in  1470.  The 
first  nursery  of  white  mulberry  trees  was 
founded  by  a  working  gardener  of  Nismes. 

In  the  manufacture  of  silk  the  first  op- 
eration is  the  unwinding  of  the  cocoons 
and  the  reeling  of  the  silk.  For  this  pur- 
pose they  are  placed  in  shallow  vessels 
containing  hot  water,  which  softens  the 
gummy  matter  of  the  cocoons.  The  ends 
of  >  the  filaments  are  then  conducted  by 
guides  to  large  reels  moved  by  machinery. 
Four  or  five  (or  more)  threads  from  as 
many  different  cocoons  are  thus  brought 
together,  and  uniting  by  the  gum  form  one 
thread.  When  the  cocoon  is  half  unwound 
the  filament  decreases  50  per  cent,  in 
thickness.  The  silk  thus  produced  is 
called  raw  silk.  Before  it  can  be  woven 
into  cloth  the  raw  silk  must  be  thrown. 
This  is  often  a  special  trade  and  is  usually 
conducted  by  machinery  in  large  mills. 
Previous  to  throwing,  the  silk  is  carefully 
washed,  wound  on  bobbins,  and  assorted 
as  to  its  quality.  In  the  throwing  ma- 
chine it  is  again  unwound  from  the  bob- 


SILL 


431 


SILURIAN    SYSTEM 


bins,  twisted  by  the  revolutions  of  a  flyer,  *" 
and  then  wound  on  a  reel. 

The  cultivation  and  production  of  silk 
was  commenced  in  the  United  States  at 
a  very  early  period.  In  1734  eight  pounds 
of  silk  cocoons  raised  in  Georgia  were 
taken  to  England  by  Governor  Oglethorpe. 

Nearly  a  century  afterward  the  first 
silk  made  by  machinery  in  the  United 
States  was  manufactured  at  Mansfield, 
Conn.  (1829).  Silk  cultivation  is  now  a 
firmly  established  industry  in  California 
and  several  other  States,  and  there  are 
extensive  silk  manufactories  at  Paterson, 
N.  J.,  Hartford  and  South  Manchester, 
Conn.,  Newton,  Groton,  Northampton  and 
other  points  in  Massachusetts,  Philadel- 
phia, Baltimore,  New  York,  etc.  Sewing 
silks  of  American  manufacture  are  re- 
garded throughout  the  world  as  superior 
in  many  respects  to  those  manufactured 
in  Italy  or  elsewhere  in  Europe.  The 
same  is  also  true  of  American-made  dress 
silks  and  ribbons.  The  silk  crop  of  the 
world  in  1919  was  about  24,100,000  kilos, 
of  which  the  greater  part  came  from  Ja- 
pan. The  production  of  American  fac- 
tories in  the  same  year  was  valued  at 
$750,000,000,  compared  with  a  value  of 
$250,000,000  in  1914.  The  imports  of 
manufactures  of  silk  in  the  United  States 
in  1920  were  valued  at  $87,728,181. 

SILL,  EDWARD  ROWLAND,  an 
American  poet;  born  in  Windsor,  Conn., 
April  29,  1841.  In  1874  he  became  Pro- 
fessor of  English  Literature  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  California,  where  he  remained 
till  1882,  subsequently  removing  to  Cuya- 
hoga Falls,  Ohio.  His  poetical  works  are 
"The  Hermitage,  and  Other  Poems" 
(1867) ;  "The  Venus  of  Milo,  and  Other 
Poems"  (1882) ;  and  "Poems,"  posthu- 
mously issued  (1888).  He  died  in  Cleve- 
land, O.,  Feb.  27,  1887. 

SILL,  LOUISE  MORGAN,  an  Ameri- 
can author,  born  in  Honolulu,  H.  I.  She 
was  educated  at  Mt.  Vernon  Institute, 
Washington,  D.  C.  From  1899  to  1905 
she  was  a  member  of  the  literary  staff  of 
Harper  &  Bros.,  and  from  1905  to  1910 
was  an  assistant  editor  of  "Harper's  Mag- 
azine." In  1889  she  married  G.  I.  Sill, 
whom  she  divorced  in  1908.  In  1910  she 
removed  to  Paris,  France.  She  wrote  "In 
Sun  or  Shade"  (1906)  ;  "Sunnyfield" 
(1909);  "Kitty  Tipsy-Toe"  (1909).  She 
also  translated  various  books  from  the 
French,  among  which  are  to  be  mentioned 
Bordeaux'  "Biography  of  Guynemer" 
(1918),  and  Charles  des  Granges'  "His- 
tory of  French  Literature"  (1919). 

SILLIMAN,  BENJAMIN,  an  Ameri- 
can scientist;  born  in  North  Stratford, 
Conn.,  Aug.  8,  1779;  was  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1796  and  admitted  to  the 


bar  in  1802.  At  the  solicitation  of  Pres- 
ident Dwight,  of  Yale,  he  abandoned  law 
to  devote  himself  to  science,  and  in  1802 
was  chosen  Professor  of  Chemistry  and 
Natural  History  at  Yale.  In  1807  he 
wrote  the  earliest  authentic  account  of  a 
fall  of  a  meteor  in  America.  In  1811  he 
began  a  series  of  experiments  with  the 
compound  blowpipe  and  obtained  for  the 
first  time  in  the  United  States  the  metals 
sodium  and  potassium.  He  discovered  the 
fusion  of  the  carbons  in  the  voltaic  arc  in 
1822 ;  opened  the  Lowell  Institute  in  Bos- 
ton with  a  course  of  lectures  on  geology 
in  1838;  was  chosen  president  of  the 
American  Association  of  Geologists  and 
Naturalists  in  1840;  and  was  one  of  the 
corporate  members  named  by  Congress 
for  the  formation  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  in  1863.  In  1818  he 
founded  the  "American  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence," which  he  conducted  as  sole  editor 
till  1838  and  as  senior  editor  till  1846. 
Among  his  numerous  publications  are: 
"Elements  of  Chemistry,"  "Consistency 
of  Discoveries  of  Modern  Geology  with 
the  Sacred  History  of  the  Creation  and 
the  Deluge,"  etc.  He  died  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  Nov.  24,  1864. 

SILLS,  KENNETH  CHARLES  MOR- 
TON, an  American  educator,  born  at 
Halifax,  N.  S.,  in  1879.  He  was  educated 
at  Bowdoin,  Harvard,  and  Columbia,  and, 
besides  receiving  degrees  from  these  in- 
stitutions, also  received  honorary  degrees 
from  the  University  of  Maine,  Bates  Col- 
lege, and  Dartmouth  College.  From 
1901  to  1903  he  was  an  assistant  in  Eng- 
lish at  Harvard  University;  from  1903 
to  1904,  instructor  in  English  and  classics 
at  Bowdoin  College;  and  from  1904  to 
1905,  tutor  in  English  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. In  1906  he  returned  to  Bowdoin 
College  as  adjunct  professor  of  Latin, 
becoming,  in  1907,  Winkley  professor  of 
Latin  language  and  literature;  in  1910, 
dean;  in  1917,  acting  president;  and  in 
1918,  president  of  Bowdoin  College.  From 
1917  to  1919  he  was  a  member  of  the 
board  of  visitors,  of  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy.  He  wrote  "The  First 
American,  and  Other  Poems"   (1911). 

SILO,  a  store-pit  for  potatoes  or  beets; 
also,  a  pit  in  which  green  fodder  is 
tightly  packed  to  make  silage  or  ensilage. 

SILOAM,  or  SILOAH,  a  pool  in  Jeru- 
salem, fed  by  the  waters  of  the  Gihon 
and  forming  part  of  the  ancient  water- 
supply  system  of  the  city.  In  1880  the 
famous  "Siloam  inscription"  was  discov- 
ered in  the  aqueduct.  It  is  the  oldest 
Hebrew  inscription  known. 

SILURIAN  SYSTEM,  in  geology,  a 
term  made  public  by  Sir  Roderick  Murchi- 


SILVER 


432 


SILVER 


son  in  1839,  though  he  had  begun  to  use 
it  as  early  as  1835.  It  implied  that, 
speaking  broadly,  the  rocks  so  described 
were  well  developed  in  the  country  of  the 
old  Silures.  The  term  has  been  univer- 
sally adopted.  Murchison  divided  his  Si- 
lurian system  into  Upper  and  Lower 
Silurian,  contending  that  the  Cambrian 
system  of  Sedgwick  was  not  independent, 
but  simply  Lower  Silurian.  Whatever 
be  the  case  with  the  Cambrian,  the  Lau- 
rentian  system,  since  established,  is  un- 
equivocally older  than  the  Silurian. 
Under  the  Upper  Silurian  were  ranged  in 
descending  order:  (1)  the  tilestone  of 
Brecon  and  Caermarthen;  (2)  the  Lud- 
low ironstone  and  shale,  and  (3)  the 
Wenlock  or  Dudley  limestone.  Under  the 
Lower  Silurian:  (1)  the  Caradoc  sand- 
stone; (2)  the  Llandeilo  flags  and  schists. 
Now  the  Table  of  Strata  stands  thus: 

I.  Upper  Silurian:  1.  Ludlow  formation; 
2.  Wenlock  formation;  3.  Llandovery  for- 
mation or  group. 

II.  Lower  Silurian:  1.  Bala  and  Caradoc 
beds;  2.  Llandeilo  flags;  3.  Arenig  or  Stiper 
Stone  Group. 

There  is  a  great  break  between  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Silurian,  which  are 
uncomformable,  and  a  greater  break  be- 
tween the  Upper  Silurian  and  the  Devo- 
nian. During  the  early  part  of  the 
Silurian  the  land  was  sinking ;  during  the 
deposition  of  the  Llandeilo  the  sea  was 
moderately  deep.  Algae,  corals,  brachio- 
pods,  trilobites,  and  other  Crustacea,  and, 
in  the  upper  strata,  fishes,  are  the  charac- 
teristic fossils.  The  higher  vertebrates 
had  not  yet  appeared.  Vast  areas  in 
Russia,  etc.,  are  covered  by  Silurian 
rocks.  In  America,  the  Canadian  and 
the  Trenton  formations  are  believed  to 
be  Lower  Silurian;  the  Niagara  forma- 
tion to  be  Upper  Llandovery  and  Wen- 
lock, and  the  Salina,  the  Lower  Helder- 
berg,  and  the  Oriskany  to  be  formations 
of  Ludlow  age. 

SILVER,  a  precious  metal.  It  appears 
to  have  been  known  almost  as  early  as 
gold,  and,  without  doubt,  for  the  same 
reason,  because  it  occurs  very  frequently 
in  a  state  of  purity  in  the  earth  and 
requires  but  an  ordinary  heat  for  its  fu- 
sion. Pure  silver  is  of  a  fine  white  color. 
It  is  softer  than  copper  but  harder  than 
gold.  When  melted  its  sp.  gr.  is  10.47; 
when  hammered,  10.510.  _  Its  chemical 
symbol  is  Ag.  It  is  next  in  malleability 
to  gold,  having  been  beaten  into  leaves 
only  .00001  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  It 
may  be  drawn  out  into  a  wire  much  finer 
than  a  human  hair,  and  a  wire  of  silver 
0.078  of  an  inch  in  diameter  is  capable 
of  supporting  a  weight  of  187.13  pounds 
avoirdupois.     It  excels  all  other  metals 


as  a  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity. 
Silver  melts  when  heated  completely  red 
hot,  and  may  be  boiled  and  volatilized 
by  a  very  strong  and  long-continued  heat. 
When  cooled  slowly  crystals  of  silver  may 
be  obtained.  Silver  is  not  oxidized  by 
exposure  to  the  air,  or  affected  by  water, 
but  it  is  blackened  or  tarnished  by  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen.  The  at.  wt.  of  silver 
is  107.9.  Oxide  of  silver  (Ag20)  is  pro- 
duced by  dissolving  silver  in  a  solution 
of  nitric  acid  and  precipitating  with  an 
alkali.  Its  sp.  gr.  is  7.14.  The  compound 
called  horn  silver  or  chloride  of  silver 
(AgCl)  is  obtained  by  dissolving  silver 
in  nitric  acid  and  mixing  the  solution  with 
a  solution  of  common  salt.  Its  sp.  gr.  is 
5.550.  When  exposed  to  the  light  it 
turns  to  a  blackish  color,  hence  its  great 
use  in  photography.  Bromide  of  silver 
is  the  most  sensitive  to  light  of  any 
known  solid.  It  is  used  for  coating  the 
"dry  plates"  employed  in  photography. 
When  silver  is  long  exposed  to  the  air 
it  acquires  a  covering  of  a  violet  color, 
which  deprives  it  of  its  luster;  this  coat- 
ing is  sulphide  of  silver.  Sulphide  of 
silver  occurs  native  as  silver  glance.  Sil- 
ver readily  forms  alloys  with  iron,  steel, 
lead,  tin,  and  mercury.  Of  the  combina- 
tions of  acid  and  silver  the  most  impor- 
tant is  nitrate  of  silver  (AgNOs), 
obtained  by  dissolving  silver  in  nitric 
acid.  If  the  silver  and  acid  are  pure  the 
solution  of  silver  nitrate  is  colorless,  very 
heavy,  and  caustic;  it  stains  the  skin  and 
all  animal  substances  an  indelible  black; 
after  evaporation  it  deposits,  on  cooling, 
transparent  crystals  of  Nitrate  op  Sil- 
ver (q.  v.). 

There  are  five  important  silver  ores, 
native  silver,  vitreous  silver  (or  silver 
glance) ,  black  silver,  red  silver,  and  horn 
silver.  The  first  is  usually  found  in  den- 
tiform, filiform,  and  capillary  shapes, 
also  in  plates  formed  in  fissures  and  in 
superficial  coatings ;  luster  metallic ;  color 
silver-white,  more  or  less  subject  to  tar- 
nish; ductile;  hardness  between  gypsum 
and  calcareous  spar;  sp.  gr.  10.47.  Na- 
tive silver  occurs  principally  in  veins, 
traversing  gneiss,  clay-slate,  and  other 
palaeozoic  rocks,  but  not  usually  in  great 
quantity.  It  often  forms  a  natural  alloy 
with  gold.  Vitreous  silver  presents  itself 
in  various  shapes,  and  is  of  a  blackish 
lead-gray  color  with  a  metallic  luster.  It 
is  malleable,  about  as  hard  as  gypsum, 
and  subject  to  tarnish;  sp.  gr.,  7.19.  It 
is  more  or  less  pure  silver  sulphide,  and 
has  been  found  almost  exclusively  in 
veins  along  with  ores  of  lead,  antimony, 
and  zinc.  It  occurs  in  Saxony,  Bohemia, 
Hungary,  Mexico,  and  Peru;  and  is  an 
important  species  for  the  extraction  of 
silver.  Black  silver  generally  occurs  in 
granular  masses  of  an  iron-black  color. 


SILVER 


433 


SIMBIRSK 


It  is  sectile  and  about  as  hard  as  gyp- 
sum; sp.  gr.,  6.2.  This  mineral  is  a  com- 
position of  silver  (about  68.5  per  cent.) 
with  antimony  and  sulphur  and  traces  of 
iron,  copper,  and  arsenic.  It  is  found  in 
veins  along  with  other  ores  of  silver,  and 
is  a  valuable  ore  for  the  extraction  of 
silver.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  Saxony,  Bo- 
hemia, Hungary,  and  the  American  con- 
tinent. Red  silver  is  found  in  crystals 
and  often  massive,  granular,  and  even 
as  an  impalpable  powder.  It  is  a  double 
sulphide  of  silver  and  antimony,  contain- 
ing on  an  average  60  per  cent,  of  silver. 
It  occurs  in  veins  with  other  silver  ores, 
galena,  and  blende.  It  is  found  in  various 
parts  of  Saxony,  also  in  Bohemia,  Hun- 
gary, and  Norway;  but  chiefly  in  Mexico, 
Peru,  and  the  western  United  States. 
Horn  silver,  or  silver  chloride,  occurs  in 
crystals  and  also  in  crusts  and  granular 
masses.  It  contains  about  76  per  cent, 
of  silver.  It  is  found  in  the  upper  parts 
of  veins  in  clay-slate,  and  also  in  beds 
with  other  silver  ores  or  with  iron  ochre. 
It  is  not  abundant  in  Europe,  but  occurs 
in  large  masses  in  Mexico  and  Peru. 

Silver  is  extracted  from  its  various 
ores  by  smelting  or  amalgamation. 

The  silver  mines  of  North  and  South 
America  are  incomparably  more  impor- 
tant than  those  of  all  the  rest  of  the 
world.  The  Mexican  mines  were  worked 
before  the  Spanish  conquest,  and  produced 
large  quantities  of  silver.  There  are 
great  deposits  of  silver  in  Nevada,  Ari- 
zona, California,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Mon- 
tana, New  Mexico,  and  Utah.  Silver  ore, 
chiefly  argentiferous  galena,  has  also  been 
found  in  great  quantities  in  the  Barrier 
Ranges  of  New  South  Wales. 

In  the  Andes  Mountains  and  adjacent 
sections  are  marvelous  deposits  of  silver 
and  other  minerals,  especially  iron  and 
copper.  Bolivia  is  unsurpassed  in  her 
possession  of  extensive  and  rich  silver 
mines.  Peru  is  but  little  less  fortunate 
in  her  silver  resources  and  it  is  said  more 
than  2,000  yielding  mines  are  within  her 
boundaries.  At  Hualgayoc,  in  northern 
Peru,  and  at  the  base  of  the  W.  spur  of 
the  Andes,  there  are  within  40  square 
leagues  400  silver  mines,  some  of  them 
yielding  300  ounces  to  the  ton.  Indians 
are  employed  to  work  in  these  mines  and 
their  only  tools  are  drills,  hammers,  and 
raw-hide  sacks.  They  fairly  burrow 
through  the  mountain,  gathering  only  the 
richest  parts  of  the  ore. 

Considerable  quantities  of  silver  are 
produced  in  Europe.  The  average  pro- 
duction of  Germany  (before  the  World 
War)  was  about  $8,000,000.  In  Great 
Britain  silver  is  obtained  from  argen- 
tiferous lead  ore. 

The  following  is  the  production  of  sil- 
ver in  the  United  States  in  1919: 


State  or 

Territory          Fine  ounces  Value 

Alaska     690,151  $       773,570 

Arizona     5,702,911  6,392,222 

California     1,153,614  1,293,051 

Colorado     5,966,606  6,687,790 

Georgia     8  9 

Idaho     5,933,076  6,650,207 

Illinois     6,000  6,725 

Maine    4,142  4,643 

Michigan    425,610  477,054 

Missouri     75,991  85,176 

Montana     15,012,258  16,826,790 

Nevada     7,045,395  7,896,972 

New    Mexico    851, S21  954,781 

North    Carolina    ...  19  21 

Oregon     236,620  265,220 

Philippine    Islands.  15,715  17,614 

South   Carolina  ....  2  2 

South    Dakota    122,068  136,822 

Tennessee     97,554  109,345 

Texas     539,483  604,690 

Utah     12,542,623  14,058,650 

Vermont     2,200  2,466 

Virginia  8  9 

Washington     258,270  289,487 

Wyoming    300  336 

56,682,445  $63,533,652 

SILVER  QUESTION.  See  Bimetal- 
lism: Bryan,  William  Jennings;  Mc- 
Kinley,  William. 

SILVESTER  I.,  Pope,  elected  in  314. 
The  Arian  heresy  commenced  in  his  pon- 
tificate, and  he  distinguished  himself 
against  the  Donatists.     He  died  336. 

SILVESTER  II.,  was  at  first  a  monk 
in  Auvergne,  but  his  superior  talents 
exciting  the  envy  and  hatred  of  his  com- 
panions, he  withdrew  from  the  monastery 
and  went  to  Spain.  The  Duke  of  Barce- 
lona took  him  to  Italy  where  he  was 
noticed  by  the  Emperor  Otho,  who  gave 
him  an  abbey,  which  he  afterward  quitted, 
and  proceeding  to  Germany  became  pre- 
ceptor to  Otho  III.  He  was  afterward 
tutor  to  the  son  of  Hugh  Capet,  by  whom 
he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Rheims.  By 
the  interest  of  Otho  he  gained  the  papacy 
in  999.  He  was  a  man  of  considerable 
learning,  particularly  in  the  mathematical 
sciences.     He  died  in  1003. 

SIMBIRSK,  a  government  of  eastern 
Russia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Kazan, 
on  the  S.  by  Saratov,  and  it  has  an  area 
of  19,110  square  miles.  The  surface  is 
mountainous  and  in  the  west  is  inter- 
sected by  rivers.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and 
agriculture  is  developed,  while  the  forests 
yield  much  timber.  Hats,  boots  and  bags 
are  made  in  the  towns.  Pop.  (1915) 
2,124,500. 

SIMBIRSK,  the  capital  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Simbirsk,  Russia.  It  is  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Volga, 
about  579  miles  S.  E.  of  Moscow.  Its 
situation  is  elevated  and  picturesque  and 
it  has  handsome  gardens.  It  is  the  center 
of  a  horse-raising  region,  has  some  dis- 
tilleries, and  an  annual  fair.  Pop.  about 
70,500. 


SIMCOE 


434 


SIMMS 


SIMCOE,  a  lake  in  the  province  of 
Ontario,  Canada.  It  is  about  30  miles 
long,  and  18  miles  broad,  situated  between 
Lake  Ontario  and  the  arm  of  Lake  Huron 
called  Georgian  Bay,  into  which  it  dis- 
charges its  waters  through  Lake  Couchi- 
ching  and  the  Severn.  It  contains 
numerous  islands,  and  is  generally  frozen 
over  in  the  winter,  so  as  to  be  passable 
with  safety  for  sleighs. 

SIMEON,  surnamed  Stylites,  a  Chris- 
tian fanatic  who  acquired  immense  fame 
by  passing  the  last  47  years  of  his  life 
on  the  tops  of  ruined  pillars.  He  flour- 
ished, if  such  a  word  is  at  all  applicable 
to  him,  from  392  to  459. 

SIMFEROPOL,  a  town  of  southern 
Russia;  in  the  Crimea;  capital  of  the 
former  province  of  Taurida;  on  the  Sal- 
ghir,  49%  miles  N.  E.  of  Sebastopol.  It 
consists  of  a  European  and  a  Tartar 
quarter  (Ak-Mechet)  and  is  surrounded 
by  productive  gardens  and  orchards.  It 
has  several  churches,  four  mosques,  large 
barracks,  and  government  buildings,  and 
exports  a  great  quantity  of  fruit.  Pop. 
about  84,000. 

SIMILE,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  by  which 
two  things  are  considered  with  regard  to 
a  third  that  is  common  to  both.  To  have 
a  just  notion  of  similes  they  must  be 
distinguished  into  two  kinds ;  one  common 
and  familiar,  as  where  a  man  is  com- 
pared to  a  lion  in  courage,  and  another 
more  distant  and  refined,  as  where  two 
things  which  have  in  themselves  no  re- 
semblance or  opposition  are  compared 
with  respect  to  their  effects;  as  where  a 
comparison  is  instituted  between  a  flower 
and  a  song,  with  reference  to  the  emo- 
tions they  produce  in  the  mind. 

SIMLA,  the  chief  town  of  a  district 
of  the  same  name  in  the  Punjab,  and  the 
most  important  hill  sanitarium  in  British 
India;  about  170  miles  N.  of  Delhi.  Sit- 
uated on  a  series  of  wooded  hill  ridges, 
covered  with  deodars,  rhododendrons  and 
an  innumerable  variety  of  ferns,  and 
with  an  equable  temperature  that  rarely 
exceeds  70°,  Simla  is  a  perfect  elysium 
to  Anglo-Indians  who  have  come  from  the 
burning  plains  of  Hindustan  or  the 
swamps  of  Bengal.  For  many  years  it 
has  been  the  permanent  headquarters  of 
the  supreme  government  of  India  for 
more  than  six  months  of  the  year.  This 
tract  of  hill  country  was  first  acquired 
by  the  British  in  1816,  as  a  result  of  the 
Gurkha  War,  and  has  since  been  aug- 
mented by  purchase,  lapse,  and  exchange. 
The  first  house  was  built  in  1819.  There 
are  now  churches,  schools,  hotels,  clubs, 
banks,  etc.  The  district  of  Simla  which 
is  entirely  surrounded  by  petty  native 
States,  has  an  area  of  18  square  mile*. 


The  crops  are  wheat,  Indian  corn,  ginger, 
and  poppy.  The  neighboring  mountains 
yield  lead,  iron,  and  slate.  Pop.  about 
15,000  in  winter;  35,000  in  summer.  Pop. 
of  district  50,000. 

SIMMONS,  FRANKLIN,  an  Ameri- 
can sculptor;  born  in  Webster,  Me.,  Jan. 
11,  1839;  first  came  into  prominence  in 
1865-1866  when,  at  Washington,  D.  C, 
he  produced  several  life-size  bronze  me- 
dallions of  the  members  of  the  cabinet 
and  prominent  army  and  navy  officers. 
In  1868  he  went  to  Rome,  Italy.  He  has 
executed  over  100  portrait  busts  in 
marble,  and  numerous  public  monuments, 
including  statues  of  General  Grant  and 
Roger  Williams  in  the  National  Capital, 
and  numerous  ideal  statues,  busts,  etc.  A 
fine  specimen  of  his  work,  "The  Promised 
Land,"  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York.     He  died  in  1913. 

SIMMONS,  FURNIFOLD  McLENDEL, 

American  Senator;  born  in  Jones  co., 
N.  C,  Jan.  20,  1854.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1875.  In  1887  he  was  elected 
as  a  Democrat  to  Congress.  In  1893  he 
became  Internal  Revenue  collector  for 
four  districts  in  North  Carolina,  and 
acted  as  chairman  of  the  Democratic 
Executive  Committee  in  six  campaigns. 
In  1901  he  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate,  and  again  in  1907,  1912, 
and  1918.  From  1913  to  1920  he  was 
chairman  of  the  Finance  Committee  of 
the  Senate. 

SIMMONS  COLLEGE,  an  institution 
for  the  higher  education  of  women, 
founded  in  Boston,  in  1899,  from  be- 
quests left  by  John  Simmons,  a  Boston 
merchant,  who  died  in  1870.  It  was 
opened  in  1902.  Its  courses  include  house- 
hold economics,  secretarial  and  library 
studies,  general  science,  philanthropic 
work,  salesmanship,  nursing,  etc.  There 
were  in  1919  125  instructors  and  1,111 
students.    President,  H.  LeFavour,  Ph.D. 

SIMMONS  COLLEGE,  a  coeducational 
institution  for  higher  education,  at  Abi- 
lene, Texas,  founded  in  1891.  It  is  under 
the  control  of  the  Baptist  denomination. 
In  1919  there  were  30  instructors  and  862 
students.     President,  J.  D.  Sandafer. 

SIMMS,  WILLIAM  GILMORE,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Charleston, 
S.  C,  April  17,  1806.  His  publications  in- 
clude: "Atalantis:  A  Tale  of  the  Sea" 
(1832),  the  longest  and  most  noted  of 
his  poems;  "The  Yemassee"  (1835;  re- 
vised ed.  1853)  ;  "Castle  Dismal"  (1845)  ; 
"The  Wigwam  and  the  Cabin;  or,  Tales 
of  the  South"  (1845-1846)  ;  "The  Maroon, 
and  Other  Tales"  (1855);  and  "War 
Poetry  of  the  South"  (1867).  He  died  in 
Charleston,  June  11,  1870. 


SIMNEL 


435 


SIMONY 


SIMNEL,  LAMBERT,  an  impostor 
who  was  put  forward  by  a  party  of  mal- 
content leaders  of  the  York  faction  early 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  He  was 
trained  to  personate  Edward  Plantage- 
net,  Earl  of  Warwick,  son  of  the  mur- 
dered Duke  of  Clarence.  Simnel  was 
crowned  at  Dublin,  and  landed  with  his 
followers  in  Lancashire.  They  were  to- 
tally defeated  near  Newark,  June  16, 
1487,  when  most  of  the  leaders  in  the 
recent  rebellion  perished.  Simnel  ended 
his  days  as  a  domestic  in  the  royal  serv- 
ice. 

SIMON,  SIB  JOHN  (Allsebrook),  a 
British  lawyer  and  public  official;  born 
in  1873.  He  was  educated  at  Fettes  Col- 
lege, Edinburgh,  and  Wadham  College, 
Oxford,  and  was  president  of  the  Oxford 
Union  Society  in  1896.     He  became  one 


SIR  JOHN  SIMON 

of  the  counsel  for  the  British  Government 
in  the  Alaska  Boundary  Arbitration  in 
1903,  and  chairman  of  the  Departmental 
Committee  on  Street  Trading  in  1909. 
In  1910  he  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Commission  on  Justices  of  the  Peace  and 
solicitor-general  in  1910-13;  attorney- 
general,  1913-15;  home  secretary,  1915- 
16;  major  in  the  air  force  in  France, 
1917-18. 

SIMON,  JULES  FRANCOIS,  a  French 
statesman;    born    in    Lorient,    Morbihan, 


Brittany,  Dec.  27,  1814;  was  a  disciple 
of  Victor  Cousin,  the  great  French  phi- 
losopher, and  when  25  years  of  age  suc- 
ceeded him  in  the  chair  of  philosophy  at 
the  Sorbonne.  After  the  revolution  of 
1848  he  was  elected  to  the  assembly  from 
the  C6tes-du-Nord,  taking  a  seat  with  the 
Moderate  Left.  In  March,  1849,  he  was 
elected  to  the  Council  of  State,  and  re- 
signed his  seat  as  deputy  in  April,  to 
devote  himself  to  lectures  and  the  editing 
of  "La  Liberte  de  Penser."  In  1863  he 
was  elected  to  the  Corps  Legislatif ,  where 
he  served  till  the  fall  of  the  empire,  when 
he  was  placed  with  Thiers  and  Gambetta 
at  the  head  of  the  provisional  govern- 
ment, whose  affairs  he  administered  dur- 
ing the  siege.  From  the  conclusion  of 
peace  in  1871  till  the  fall  of  Thiers  he 
was  prominent  in  the  Assembly  at  Bor- 
deaux and  at  Versailles,  and  in  1875  was 
elected  a  life  senator.  He  was  the  senior 
representative  of  France  at  the  Labor 
Congress  of  Berlin  convoked  by  the  Em- 
peror William  II.;  was  made  permanent 
secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and 
Political  Sciences  in  1882,  and  from  1875 
was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
He  died  in  Paris,  France,  June  8,  1896. 

SIMONDS,    FRANK    HERBERT,    an 

American  journalist  and  newspaper  edi- 
tor, born  in  Concord,  Mass.,  in  1878.  Af- 
ter graduating  from  Harvard,  he  went 
as  correspondent  to  Porto  Rico  during  the 
Spanish-American  War.  Afterward  he 
became  a  reporter  on  the  staff  of  the 
New  York  "Tribune,"  where  he  remained 
until  he  was  sent  to  Albany  as  legisla- 
tive reporter  for  this  paper.  In  1905 
he  joined  the  staff  of  the  New  York 
"Evening  Post,"  with  which  he  remained 
until  1908  when  he  joined  the  editorial 
staff  of  the  New  York  "Morning  Sun." 
In  1913  he  became  editor  of  the  New 
York  "Evening  Sun,"  which  position  he 
held  until  he  took  charge  of  the  editorial 
page  of  the  "Tribune,"  in  1915.  Mr. 
Simonds  attracted  general  attention  by 
his  able  military  and  political  articles 
during  the  World  War,  his  expert  knowl- 
edge of  politics  in  southern  Europe  bring- 
ing him  to  the  notice  of  European  states- 
men. He  is  the  author  of  "They  Shall  Not 
Pass  — Verdun,  1916";  "History  of  the 
World  War"  (5  vols.),  1917. 

SIMONY  (so  called  from  its  resem- 
blance to  the  sin  of  Simon  Magus),  in 
English  law,  an  offense  consisting  in  the 
presentation  to  an  ecclesiastical  benefice 
for  a  reward.  By  31  Eliz.  c.  6,  a  simonia- 
cal  presentation  is  declared  void,  and  two 
years'  value  of  the  benefice  forfeited,  one- 
half  of  the  forfeit  to  go  to  the  crown,  the 
other  half  to  the  person  suing;  and  the 
person  accepting  the  benefice  is  forever 
debarred    from    holding   it.      An    act   of 


SIMPLON 


436 


SIMS 


George  IV.,  however,  legalizes  engage- 
ments for  the  resignation  of  ecclesiastical 
preferments  in  favor  of  one  of  two  per- 
sons specially  named,  being  by  blood  or 
marriage  an  uncle,  son,  grandson,  brother, 
nephew,  or  grand-nephew  of  the  patron. 
The  bond  must  be  entered  into  before  the 
presentation,  and  entered  in  the  registry 
of  the  diocese.  The  resignation  in  terms 
of  the  bond  will  be  void  unless  one  of 
the  presentees  named  in  it  is  presented 
within  six  months  after  notice  of  resig- 
nation has  been  given  to  the  patron. 

SIMPLON,  a  mountain  of  the  Alps,  in 
the  S.  of  Switzerland,  separating  the  can- 
ton of  Valais  from  the  Piedmontese  terri- 
tory. The  old  road  across  it  being  im- 
practicable for  heavy  carriages,  a  new 
one,  called  the  Route  of  the  Simplon,  was 
formed  by  order  of  Napoleon  I.  at  the 
joint  expense  of  France  and  the  kingdom 
of  Italy.  Though  the  ascent  is  every- 
where gradual,  the  highest  point  of  the 
road  is  nearly  6,600  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  The  length  is  38  miles,  and 
the  width  between  25  and  30  feet.  It  is 
carried  through  several  tunnels,  over  up- 
ward of  600  bridges,  and  has  20  station 
houses  for  travelers.  The  road  of  the 
Simplon,  long  regarded  as  one  of  the 
greatest  feats  accomplished  by  modern 
engineering,  has  become  of  less  impor- 
tance since  the  formation  of  a  railroad. 
The  Simplon  tunnel,  completed  in  Febru- 
ary, 1905,  is  larger  than  either  that  of 
St.  Gothard  or  Mt.  Cenis.  It  is  12  Y2 
miles  long  as  against  8  miles  for  the  Mt. 
Cenis  and  9.3  miles  for  the  St.  Gothard. 

SIMPLON  TUNNEL,  a  tunnel  through 
the  Alps,  designed  to  give  France  and 
Switzerland  direct  communication  by  rail 
with  Milan,  the  greatest  distributing 
point  in  Italian  trade.  Work  was  begun 
on  the  tunnel  in  1898,  and  it  was  com- 
pleted Feb.  24,  1905. 

The  Simplon  tunnel  begins  in  Switzer- 
land near  the  little  town  of  Brig,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Rhone,  Canton  Wallis,  and 
ends  in  the  valley  of  the  Diveria,  on  the 
Italian  side  near  Isella.  It  is  perfectly 
straight,  except  for  a  small  curve  at  the 
ingress  and  egress.  The  tunnel  was 
opened  for  traffic  on  Jan.  25,  1906,  when 
the  first  passenger  train  passed  through. 

SIMPSON  COLLEGE,  a  coeducational 
institution  in  Indianola,  la.;  founded  in 
1867  under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church;  reported  at  the  close 
of  1919:  Professors  and  instructors,  28; 
students,  528;  president,  J.  W.  Campbell, 
Ph.D. 

SIMS,  JAMES  MARION,  an  Ameri- 
can surgeon;  born  in  Lancaster,  S.  C, 
Jan.  25,  1813;  studied  medicine  at 
Charleston  and  Philadelphia,  and  having 


begun  practice  had  his  attention  specially 
drawn  to  some  of  the  special  diseases  of 
women,  for  which  he  gained  a  distin- 
guished name,  introducing  new  instru- 
ments and  operations.  He  was  instru- 
mental in  getting  a  woman's  hospital 
established  in  New  York;  subsequently 
practiced  for  some  years  in  Europe;  and 
had  charge  of  a  large  hospital  at  Sedan 
after  the  disaster  to  the  French  there  in 
1870.  He  died  in  New  York  City,  Nov. 
13,  1883. 

SIMS,  WILLIAM  SOWDEN,  an  Am- 
erican naval  officer;  born  at  Port  Hope, 
Canada,  in  1858.  He  was  appointed  to 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  from 
Pennsylvania.      Graduated    in     1880,   he 


ADMIRAL  WILLIAM    S.    SIMS 

was  promoted  through  the  various  grades 
to  the  rank  of  commander  in  1907,  of 
captain  in  1911,  of  rear-admiral  in  Jan- 
uary, 1917,  and  of  vice-admiral  in  May, 
1917.  His  various  assignments  included 
service  with  the  North  Atlantic  Station 
(1880-1882  and  1885-1887) ;  on  the  "Colo- 
rado" (1882)  ;  at  the  New  York  Navy 
Yard  (1883-1885)  ;  on  the  nautical  school- 
ship  "Saratoga"  (1889-1893);  on  the 
"Philadelphia,"  Pacific  Station  (1893- 
1894);  on  the  "Charleston,"  China  Sta- 
tion (1894-1896)  ;  naval  attache  of  Amer- 
ican embassies  at  Paris  and  Petrograd 
(1897-1900) ;    various   assignments   with 


SIN 


437 


SINAI 


the  Asiatic  Fleet  (1900-1902) ;  inspector 
of  target  practice,  Bureau  of  Navigation, 
Navy  Department  (1902-1909);  naval 
aide  to  the  President  (1907-1909) ;  com- 
manding officer  of  the  "Minnesota" 
(1909-1911) ;  Naval  War  College,  New- 
port, R.  I.  (1911-1913) ;  commanding  of- 
ficer of  the  Atlantic  Torpedo  Flotilla 
(1913-15) ;  commanding  officer  of  the 
"Nevada"  (1915-1917).  During  the 
World  War  he  was  in  command  of  the 
naval  operations  of  the  United  States  in 
European  waters.  In  1920  he  made  an 
extensive  report  to  the  United  States 
Senate  sub-committee  on  Naval  Affairs, 
alleging  that  grave  errors  had  been  com- 
mitted by  the  United  States  Naval  Board 
in  connection  with  the  management  of  the 
United  States  Naval  operations  during 
the  World  War.  This  report  resulted  in 
an  extensive  controversy  between  Admiral 
Sims  and  Secretary  of  the  Navy  Daniels. 
In  1919  Admiral  Sims  declined  the 
D.  S.  M.  which  had  been  awarded  to  him. 
He  received  the  Grand  Cross  of  the  Order 
of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George,  was  made 
a  Grand  Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor, 
and  held  honorary  degrees  from  Yale  and 
Harvard  universities  and  from  Tufts  and 
Juniata  colleges. 

SIN,  a  condition  that  is  not  simply 
moral  evil  as  recognized  by  the  awakened 
human  conscience,  but  guilt  before  God 
or  the  gods.  Some  doctrine  of  sin,  and 
of  the  mode  of  averting  the  anger  of  the 
deity,  of  reconciling  Him,  and  of  escap- 
ing from  the  guilt,  is  accordingly  part  of 
most  religions,  ancient  and  modern. 
Zoroastrianism  is  a  conflict  <  of  sin  and 
holiness.  The  central  doctrine  of  Bud- 
dhism turns  on  the  demerit  of  human 
actions  and  human  life,  which  must  be 
purged  by  transmigration.  But  in  no 
sacred  books  is  the  sense  of  sin  so  keen 
and  developed  as  in  the  Bible — in  the 
writings  of  the  prophets  t  of  the  God  of 
holiness,  in  the  Psalms,  in  the  Gospels, 
and  in  Paul's  epistles. 

Throughout  the  Scriptures  sin  appears 
as  that  element  in  man  which  puts  him 
at  enmity  with  God,  and  for  his  salva- 
tion requires  the  work  of  a  Redeemer 
(see  Christianity).  The  early  Greek 
fathers  regarded  sin  as  opposition  to  the 
will  of  God,  and  as  such  involving  death 
as  its  just  penalty.  But  they  did  not 
affirm  that  the  guilt  of  Adam's  sin  or  the 
corruption  of  his  nature  descended  to  all 
mankind.  Tertullian,  in  virtue  of  his  doc- 
trine of  Traducianism  (q.  v.),  was 
bound  to  hold  that  sinfulness  had  been 
propagated  from  Adam  to  his  descend- 
ants. But  it  was  reserved  for  Augustine 
to  maintain,  against  Pelagius,  that 
Adam's  sin  completely  corrupted  his 
whole  nature;  that  the  corruption  of  his 


guilt  and  its  penalty  death  pass  to  all 
his  children.  Pelagius  (q.  v.)  main- 
tained contrary  doctrines,  and  semi-pela- 
gianism  insists  that  in  spite  of  the  weaken- 
ing of  his  powers  through  hereditary  sin- 
fulness man  is  yet  not  wholly  inclined 
to  evil.  The  Greek  Church  continued  to 
deny  hereditary  guilt,  and  to  affirm  man's 
will  as  free  as  Adam's  before  the  fall. 
Thomas  Aquinas  taught  that  hereditary 
sin  is  truly  sin,  and  the  unbaptized  infant 
is  damned.  At  the  Reformation  both 
Luther  and  Calvin  asserted  what  they  re- 
garded as  Augustinian  and  Pauline  views. 
Zwingli  looked  on  hereditary  sin  as  an 
inherited  evil  or  disease;  Arminians  and 
Socinians  practically  denied  hereditary 
sin  altogether.  In  modern  German  specu- 
lation the  Hegelians  taught  that  sin  was 
a  necessary  condition  of  the  development 
of  mankind. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Thirty-nine  Arti- 
cles (Art.  ix.)  is  as  follows:  "Original 
sin  standeth  not  in  the  following  of  Adam 
(as  the  Pelagians  do  vainly  talk) ;  but 
it  is  the  fault  and  corruption  of  the  na- 
ture of  every  man,  that  naturally  is  en- 
gendered of  the  offspring  of  Adam,  where- 
by man  is  very  far  gone  from  original 
righteousness,  and  is  of  his  own  nature 
inclined  to  evil,  so  that  the  flesh  lusteth 
always  contrary  to  the  spirit;  and  there- 
fore in  every  person  born  into  this  world 
it  deserveth  God's  wrath  and  damnation." 

The  Westminster  Confession  teaches 
(chap,  vi.) :  "By  this  sin"  (i.  e.,  the  eat- 
ing of  the  forbidden  fruit)  "they"  (i.  e., 
our  first  parents)  "fell  from  their  origi- 
nal righteousness  and  communion  with 
God,  and  so  became  dead  in  sin,  and 
wholly  defiled  in  all  the  faculties  and 
parts  of  soul  and  body.  They  being  the 
root  of  all  mankind,  the  guilt  of  this  sin 
was  imputed,  and  the  same  death  in  sin 
and  corrupted  nature  conveyed  to  all 
their  posterity,  descending  from  them  by 
ordinary  generation.  From  this  original 
corruption,  whereby  we  are  utterly  indis- 
posed, disabled,  and  made  opposite  to  all 
good,  and  wholly  inclined  to  all  evil,  do 
proceed  all  actual  transgressions." 

Sins  have  been  divided  into  categories, 
as  sins  of  omission  and  of  commission, 
deliberate  voluntary  sins  and  involuntary 
sins,  sins  of  infirmity,  etc. 

SINAI,  a  mountain,  or  mountain  range 
in  Arabia  Petrsea,  in  the  peninsula 
formed  by  the  two  arms  of  the  Red  Sea, 
and  rendered  memorable  as  the  spot 
where,  according  to  the  Pentateuch,  the 
law  was  given  to  Israel  through  Moses. 
This  mountain  pass  is  divisible  into  three 
groups:  a  N.  W.,  reaching,  in  Mount  Ser- 
bal,  an  elevation  of  6,340  feet;  an  E.  and 
central,  attaining,  in  Jebel  Katherin,  a 
height  of  8,160  feet;  and  a  S.  E.,  whose 


SINALOA 


438 


SINCLAIR 


highest  peak,  Um  Shaumer,  is  the  cul- 
minating point  of  the  whole  Sinaitic 
range.  Serbal,  with  its  five  peaks,  is 
the  most  magnificent  mountain  in  the  pen- 
insula, and  is  identified  with  Sinai  by 
the  earlier  Church  fathers,  Eusebius, 
Jerome,  Cosmas,  etc. ;  but  it  does  not  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  Hebrew  narrative, 
and  even  as  early  as  the  time  of  Justinian 
the  opinion  that  Serbal  was  the  Sinai  of 
Moses  had  been  abandoned,  and  to  a  ridge 
of  the  second  or  E.  range  that  honor  had 
been  transferred,  the  N.  summit  of  which 
is  termed  Horeb;  and  the  S.  Jebel  Musa, 
or  Mount  of  Moses,  continues  to  be  re- 
garded by  the  great  majority  of  scholars 
as  the  true  Sinai.  Its  height  is  variously 
estimated  at  from  6,800  to  7,100  feet 
above  the  sea.  It  is  separated  from  the 
Jebel-ed-Deir  on  the  W.  by  a  narrow 
valley,  called  Er-Rahah,  on  one  of  the 
steps  of  which  stands  the  famous  con- 
vent of  Mount  Sinai,  devoted  to  St. 
Catherine.  In  many  of  the  western  Sinai- 
tic valleys  the  more  accessible  parts  of 
the  rocky  sides  are  covered  by  thousands 
of  inscriptions,  usually  short,  and  rudely 
carved  in  spots  where  travelers  would 
naturally  stop  to  rest  at  noon,  frequently 
accompanied  by  a  cross  and  mingled  with 
representations  of  animals.  The  inscrip- 
tions are  in  unknown  characters,  but  were 
at  first  ascribed  to  the  ancient  Israelites 
on  their  way  from  Egypt  to  Sinai,  and 
afterward  to  Christian  pilgrims  of  the 
4th  century.  Recently,  however,  many 
of  them  have  been  deciphered  by  Profes- 
sor Beer  of  Leipsic,  who  regards  them 
as  the  only  known  remains  of  the  lan- 
guage and  characters  once  peculiar  to 
the  Nabathaeans  of  Arabia  Petraea. 

SINALOA,  one  of  the  Pacific  States  of 
Mexico;  area,  27,557  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1912)  329,317.  Capital,  Culiacan  (pop. 
22,000).  It  contains  over  100  mining  dis- 
tricts chiefly  producing  silver.  The  an- 
nual sale  of  cattle  is  about  $9,000,000. 
Crops,  $8,000,000.     Revenue,  $11,000,000. 

SINCLAIR,  originally  St.  Clair,  a 
Scotch  family  of  Norman  origin,  founded 
by  William  de  Santo  Claro,  who  settled 
m  Scotland  and  received  from  David  I. 
the  grant  of  the  barony  of  Roslin.  The 
earldoms  of  Orkney,  of  Caithness,  and 
of  Rosslyn  have  been  especially  connected 
with  this  family,  which  at  one  time  was 
one  of  the  most  powerful  in  the  kingdom. 

SINCLAIR,  MAY,  an  English  novel- 
ist, born  at  Rock  Ferry,  Cheshire,  Eng- 
land. She  was  educated  at  the  Ladies' 
College,  Cheltenham,  and  at  an  early  age 
began  the  writing  of  essays,  short  stories, 
and  novels.  Her  first  notable  success  was 
"The  Divine  Fire,"  published  in  1904. 
This   attracted  wide   attention   and  won 


her  immediate  reputation.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  "The  Helpmate"  (1907);  "The 
Judgment  of  Eve"  (1908);  "The  Com- 
bined Maze"  (1913) ;  "The  Three  Sisters" 


UPTON    SINCLAIR 

(1914) ;  "The  Belfry"  (1916) ;  "The  Tree 
of  Heaven"  (1918).  During  the  World 
War  she  served  as  a  nurse  in  Belgium. 
She  was  considered  one  of  the  foremost 
of  modern  English  novelists. 

SINCLAIR,  UPTON  (BEALL),  an 
American  novelist  and  socialist,  born  in 
Baltimore,  in  1878.  After  graduating 
from  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York 
in  1897,  he  immediately  took  up  literature 
as  a  vocation,  but  at  first  without  much 
success.  In  1903  he  published  "The  Jour- 
nal of  Arthur  Stirling,"  supposed  to  be 
the  diary  of  a  young  poet  who  had  com- 
mitted suicide.  Much  editorial  indigna- 
tion was  vented  on  Sinclair  when  it  was 
discovered  that  he  had  written  the  work 
and  was  still  alive,  only  serving  to  brin^ 
him  into  public  notice.  In  1906  he  pub- 
lished the  first  book  which  made  him  fa- 
mous, "The  Jungle,"  which,  in  fiction 
form,  gave  such  a  picture  of  labor  con- 
ditions in  the  packing  house  industry  in 
Chicago  that  the  entire  American  public 
was  horrified.  President  Roosevelt  imme- 
diately ordered  an  investigation,  whose 
report  indicated  that  Sinclair  had,  on 
the  whole,  stated  the  actual  facts.  As  a 
result  stringent  legislation  was  passed, 
known   as   the   Pure   Food   Acts      Since 


SIND 


439 


SINGAPORE 


then  Sinclair  has  written  a  number  of 
novels,  none  of  which  has  attracted  much 
attention.  Among  these  are  "The  Indus- 
trial Republic"  (1907) ;  and  "The  Brass 
Check"  (1920);  the  latter  an  alleged  ex- 
pose of  American  journalism. 

SIND,  SINDH,  or  SCINDE,  a  province 
of  British  India,  in  the  N.  part  of  the 
presidency  of  Bombay.  It  consists  of  the 
lower  valley  and  delta  of  the  Indus,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  W.  and  N.  W.  by 
Baluchistan  and  Afghanistan;  N.  E.  by 
the  Punjab;  E.  by  Rajputana;  and  S.  by 
the  Runn  or  Ran  of  Kach  and  the  Indian 
Ocean;  area,  46,980  square  miles,  pop. 
about  3,500,000.  Divided  into  six  districts : 
flaidarabad,  Karachi,  Shikarpur,  Thar 
and  Parkar,  Larkhana  and  Upper  Sind 
Frontier,  and  also  includes  the  native 
state  of  Khairpur  (6,109  square  miles). 
The  chief  city  and  port  is  Kurrachee  or 
Karachi,  but  the  ancient  capital  Haidara- 
bad  is  still  a  populous  town. 

The  history  of  Sind  is  of  little  interest. 
It  was  subdued  by  the  Mogul  Emperor 
Akbar  in  1580,  since  which  period  it  has 
always  been  either  nominally  or  really 
tributary.  In  1739  it  fell  under  the  nower 
of  Nadir  Shah,  but  on  his  death  it  re- 
verted to  the  imperial  sway  of  Delhi. 
From  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury it  was  subordinate  to  Afghanistan. 
Civil  dissension  in  the  end  of  the  18th 
eentury  led  to  the  elevation  of  the  Talpur 
dynasty  of  the  "Ameers."  The  govern- 
ment then  became  a  wholly  unchecked 
military  despotism,  upheld  by  a  feudal 
soldiery.  The  hostility  displayed  by  the 
Ameers  of  Sind  toward  the  British  during 
and  after  their  operations  against  the 
Afghans  led  ultimately  to  its  invasion  by 
British  troops,  and  final  conquest  by  Sir 
C.  Napier's  victory  at  Miani  in  1843. 
Sir  C.  Napier  was  appointed  its  first 
governor,  and  it  was  soon  after  annexed 
to  the  presidency  of  Bombay. 

SINGAN-FTJ,  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Shen-si,  in  northwest  China.  It 
was  long  the  capital  of  the  empire,  and 
is  still  of  strategic  and  commercial  impor- 
tance. Silk,  tea,  and  sugar  are  the  prin- 
cipal articles  of  commerce.  Pop.  about* 
1,000,000. 

SINGAPORE,  a  British  dependency  in 
Asia,  the  most  important  of  the  Straits 
Settlements;  consisting  of  the  islands  of 
Singapore  (27  miles  long,  14  broad;  area, 
217  square  miles),  separated  from  the  S. 
extremity  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  by  a 
strait  only  half  a  mile  wide  at  its  narrow- 
est, and  of  a  great  number  of  very  small 
islands  along  its  shores.  The  surface  is 
undulating,  the  highest  point  reaching 
520  feet  only.  The  climate  is  hot  and 
moist,   but   the    soil   is    not   particularly 


fertile;  nevertheless  the  island  is  perpet- 
ually clothed  with  verdure,  and  yields 
good  crops  of  coffee,  pineapples,  cocoa- 
nuts,  aloes,  and  every  kind  of  fruit,  espe- 
cially East  Indian  fruit  (e.  g.,  mango- 
steen  and  durian).  Gambier,  pepper,  and 
nutmegs  used  formerly  to  be  the  staple 
crops;  but  all  three  are  cultivated  to  a 
much  smaller  extent  than  formerly.  This 
island  was  purchased  in  1824  from  the 
Sultan  of  Johore  for  $62,500,  and  a  life 
rent  of  $25,000.  Pop.  of  island  (1919) 
369,777. 

SINGAPORE,  the  capital  of  the  de- 
pendency of  the  same  name,  is  the  only 
town  on  the  island.  It  occupies  a  pleas- 
ant site  on  the  S.  E.  coast,  on  the  Strait 
of  Singapore,  the  principal  waterway  for 
vessels  trading  between  eastern  Asia  and 
India  and  Europe.  This  city  was  founded 
by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  in  1819  as  an  em- 
porium for  British  trade  in  the  East  In- 
dies, and  it  has  since  that  time  advanced 
and  grown  in  prosperity  till  it  has  become 
the  most  important  trading-place  in  the 
S.  E.  of  Asia,  its  only  competitor  being 
Batavia  in  Java,  from  which  it  is  600 
miles  distant.  Singapore  is  a  picturesque, 
well-built  town,  with  fine  public  buildings 
and  aU  kinds  of  appliances  in  the  nature 
of  public  works.  It  possesses  a  governor's 
residence,  St.  Andrew's  Protestant  cathe- 
dral (1861-1870),  a  Roman  Catholic  ca- 
thedral, Mohammedan  mosques,  Hindu 
temples,  Chinese  joss-houses,  Raffles  mu- 
seum (1823),  the  supreme  law-courts, 
post-office  (1883),  hospitals,  jail,  bar- 
racks, and  fine  botanical  and  zoological 
gardens.  It  is  defended  by  numerous  bat- 
teries and  forts,  and  is  a  naval  coaling 
station  and  depot.  The  docks,  stores,  and 
dwelling  houses  extend  for  6  miles  or  more 
along  the  sea  front.  The  harbor  is  spa- 
cious and  safe  and  remarkably  easy  of 
access,  and  its  dock  accommodation  em- 
braces two  graving  docks,  an  admiralty 
dock,  and  several  docks  of  the  ordinary 
kind.  The  total  annual  trade  of  Singa- 
pore has  increased  at  a  remarkable  rate 
since  the  city  was  founded.  The  imports 
in  1918  were  valued  at  £67,219,285,  and 
the  exports  at  £57,940,969.  The  imports 
embrace  nearly  every  kind  of  European 
manufacture,  while  the  exports  consist  of 
the  productions  of  the  East  Indies,  China, 
Japan,  and  the  islands  of  the  Western 
Pacific.  The  tonnage  of  the  vessels  en- 
tering the  port  has  been  known  to  increase 
at  the  rate  of  75  per  cent,  annually.  The 
vessels  of  the  P.  and  O.  Company,  and 
other  large  companies  trading  to  China, 
Australia,  and  the  East  put  in  regularly 
at  Singapore.  The  population  has  grown 
at  the  same  rapid  rate  as  the  commerce: 
in  1824  the  town  had  10,603  inhabitants; 
in   1919  about  325,000.     The  death  rate 


SINGER 


440 


SIOUX    CITY 


is  high,  yet  the  climate,  in  spite  of  Singa- 

Sore  being  situated  little  more  than  1° 
r.  of  the  equator,  is  uniform  and  agree- 
able, the  nights  being  particularly  cool 
and  refreshing.  The  thermometer  ranges 
between  67°  and  94°  F.  and  has  a  mean 
of  about  82°.  The  rainfall  varies  from 
65.6  to  92.2  inches  in  the  year.  There  was 
a  former  town  on  the  site  of  the  present 
city,  which  was  founded  by  Malay  con- 
verts to  Hinduism  from  Java  or  Sumatra, 
apparently  in  the  12th  century;  but  it 
had  wholly  disappeared  when  Sir  S.  Raf- 
fles laid  the  foundations  of  the  existing 
Singapore  (i.  e.,  "Lion  City").  It  was 
made  the  capital  of  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments (q.  v.)  in  1830,  superseding  Pe- 
nang. 

SINGER,  ISIDORE,  an  American 
Jewish  editor  and  author,  born  at  Weiss- 
kirchen,  Moravia,  in  1859.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  universities  of  Vienna  and 
Berlin,  and  for  a  time  edited  and  pub- 
lished a  newspaper  in  Vienna.  He  served 
as  secretary  and  librarian  of  the  French 
Ambassador  at  Vienna  and  afterward  was 
an  employee  in  the  French  Foreign  Office. 
After  editing  papers  in  France  and  Italy, 
he  came,  in  1895,  to  New  York,  where  he 
engaged  upon  his  life  work,  the  "Jewish 
Encyclopedia,"  which  was  published  in  12 
volumes,  in  1905.  He  was  managing  edi- 
tor of  the  "International  Insurance  En- 
cyclopedia," in  1909,  and  of  the  "German 
Classics  of  the  Nineteenth  and  Twentieth 
Centuries,"  completed  in  20  volumes,  in 
1914.  He  was  the  author  and  editor  of 
many  works  and  was  considered  to  be  one 
of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 

SINGLE  STANDARD,  a  phrase  used 
in  the  discussion  of  Bimetallism  (q.  v.), 
to  indicate  a  single  standard  of  value; 
that  is  gold  alone  or  silver  alone.  Double 
standard  means  the  concurrent  use  of  both 
metals  as  standards. 

SINGLE  TAX,  the  principle  held  by 
Henry  George  (q.  v.)  and  his  followers, 
that  the  value  which  the  growth  and  im- 
provement of  the  community  attaches  to 
land  should  be  taken  for  the  use  of  the 
community,  so  that  no  tax  need  be  levied 
on  the  product  of  labor,  but  all  public 
revenues  for  national,  state,  county,  and 
municipal  purposes  could  be  raised  by  a 
single  tax  on  land  values,  irrespective  of 
improvement.  The  originator  urged  the 
adoption  of  his  theory  on  two  grounds, 
"governmental  expediency"  and  "social 
justice." 

Mr.  George  stated  his  theories  in  "Prog- 
ress and  Poverty,"  a  book  that  appeared 
in  1879. 

SINGLETON,  ESTHER,  an  American 
author,  born  at  Baltimore,  Md.  She  was 
educated  at   Baltimore.     Her  works  in- 


clude: "Turrets,  Towers  and  Temples," 
"Great  Pictures,"  "Wonders  of  Nature," 
"Romantic  Castles  and  Palaces,"  "Fa- 
mous Paintings,"  "Historic  Buildings," 
"Famous  Women,"  "Golden  Rod  Fairy 
Book,"  "A  Guide  to  Modern  Opera,"  "Fur- 
niture of  Our  Forefathers,"  "The  Story 
of  the  White  House,"  "A  Guide  to  Great 
Cities,"  "History  of  American  Music," 
"The  Orchestra  and  Its  Instruments." 

SINGMASTER,  ELSIE  (Mrs.  Harold 
Lewars),  an  American  author,  born  at 
Schuylkill  Haven,  Pa.,  in  1879.  She  was 
educated  at  Radcliffe  College.  Besides 
contributing  short  stories  to  many  promi- 
nent magazines,  she  wrote:  "When  Sarah 
Saved  the  Day"  (1909);  "When  Sarah 
Went  to  School"  (1910) ;  "Gettysburg- 
Stories  of  the  Red  Harvest  and  the  After- 
math" (1913);  "Katy  Gaumer"  (1914); 
"Emmeline"  (1916) ;  "The  Long  Journey" 
(1917) ;  "Life  of  Martin  Luther"  (1917) ; 
"History  of  Lutheran  Missions"  (1917). 

SINIGAGLIA,    or     SENIGALLIA,     a 

seaport  on  the  Adriatic  coast  of  Italy; 
16  miles  N.  W.  of  Ancona;  was  down  to 
1869  celebrated  for  its  annual  fair,  July 
20  to  Aug.  8.  It  was  founded  by  the  Seno- 
nian  Gauls,  and  colonized  by  the  Romans 
289  B.  c.  There  are  here  a  cathedral 
(1787)  and  a  palace  of  the  dukes  of  Ur- 
bino.    Pius  IX.  was  born  here. 

SINOPE  (Turkish,  Sinub),  a  town  of 
Asiatic  Turkey;  on  a  rocky  tongue  pro- 
jecting into  the  Black  Sea;  220  miles  W. 
by  N.  of  Trebizond.  It  has  two  harbors, 
one  presenting  the  finest  anchorage  along 
the  N.  coast  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  The  town 
is  surrounded  by  ancient  Byzantine  walls, 
and  has  a  ruined  castle  built  under  Byzan- 
tine influence.  The  bay  was  the  scene  of 
a  naval  engagement  on  Nov.  30,  1853, 
when  a  Turkish  squadron  was  destroyed 
by  the  Russian  fleet.  The  ancient  city  of 
Sinope  was  founded  by  a  colony  of  Mile- 
sian Greeks,  and  for  several  years  shared 
with  Byzantium  the  supremacy  of  the 
Euxine.  It  was  made  by  Pharnaces  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Pontus  in  183 
B.  c.  The  great  Mithridates,  who  was 
born  within  its  walls,  raised  it  to  a  lofty 
pitch  of  splendor.  But  in  70  B.  c.  it  capit- 
ulated to  Lucullus,  and  in  45  B.  c.  was 
made  a  Roman  colony.  After  belonging 
successively  to  the  empire  of  Trebizond 
(from  1204)  and  the  Seljuks,  it  was  con- 
quered by  the  Turks  in  1461.  Sinope  was 
the  birthplace  of  Diogenes  the  cynic.  Pop. 
about  9,000. 

SIOUX  CITY,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Woodbury  co.,  la.;  on  the  Missouri 
river,  and  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and 
St.  Paul,  the  Illinois  Central,  the  Chicago 
and   Northwestern,   the   Great  Northern, 


SIOUX    FALLS 


441 


SIBIUS 


and  other  railroads;  100  miles  N.  of 
Omaha.  Here  are  Morningside  College, 
Trinity  College,  a  high  school,  college  of 
medicine,  a  city  normal  school,  St.  Joseph, 
Samaritan,  German  Lutheran  and  St. 
Vincent  hospitals,  United  States  govern- 
ment building,  public  library,  sanitari- 
ums, auditorium,  waterworks,  street  rail- 
road and  electric  light  plants,  several 
National  and  private  banks,  and  numer- 
ous daily  and  weekly  periodicals.  The 
United  States  census  for  1914  reported 
manufacturing  establishments,  employing 
$22,610,000  capital,  and  having  a  com- 
bined output  valued  at  $49,452,000.  The 
city  contains  large  slaughtering  and  meat- 
packing plants,  flour  mills,  gas  engine 
works,  candy  factories,  brick  works,  and 
the  general  shops  of  several  railroads. 
Pop.    (1910)    47,823;    (1920)    71,227. 

SIQTTX  FALLS,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Minnehaha  co.,  S.  D.;  on  the  Sioux 
river,  and  on  the  Illinois  Central,  the 
Great  Northern,  the  Burlington,  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  and  other 
railroads;  90  miles  N.  of  Sioux  City,  la. 
It  contains  the  Sioux  Falls  College 
(Bapt.),  Lutheran  Normal  School,  All 
Saints  School,  the  State  penitentiary,  the 
State  School  for  Deaf  Mutes,  libraries, 
several  National  and  other  banks,  and 
several  daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  The 
city  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  and  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop  of  South  Dakota.  It  has  impor- 
tant jasper  quarries,  and  manufactories 
of  woolen  and  linen  goods,  boilers,  brick, 
brooms,  flour,  soap,  etc.  The  meat-pack- 
ing industry  is  important.  Pop.  (1910) 
14,094;    (1920)   25,202. 

SIOUX,  or  DACOTAH,  INDIANS,  a 
once  powerful  family  of  North  American 
Indians.  Their  number  is  estimated  at 
25,000 ;  they  are  well  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion and  are  increasing  in  population.  In 
1862,  the  Sioux  under  the  lead  of  Little 
Crow,  a  noted  chief,  in  consequence  of 
the  annuity  not  having  been  paid  to  their 
satisfaction,  waged  a  most  cruel  and  ex- 
terminating war  on  the  whites  of  Minne- 
sota; and  so  well  concerted  were  their 
schemes  that  no  less  than  640  men,  wo- 
men, and  children,  and  94  soldiers,  were 
killed  before  the  massacre  was  stayed. 
As  an  atonement  for  their  great  crime  in 
thus  murdering  the  whites  the  Federal 
Government  allowed  only  38  out  of  303 
Indians  found  guilty  by  a  proper  tribu- 
nal, to  be  executed.  This  clemency,  though 
seemingly  unjust,  was  the  result  of  ma- 
ture deliberation  on  the  part  of  the  au- 
thorities at  Washington,  who  found  that 
the  Indians  had  been  greatly  wronged, 
and  in  consequence  of  which  they  sought 
revenge.  They  are  now  divided  into 
small  branches,  and  located  on  several  res- 


ervations, chiefly  in  North  and  South  Da- 
kota and  Minnesota. 

SIPHON,  a  curved  tube  having  one 
branch  longer  than  the  other;  used  for 
transferring  liquids  from  higher  to  lower 
levels.  It  acts  by  atmospheric  pressure, 
and  consequently  cannot  be  depended  on 
for  overcoming  heights  greater  than  about 
30  feet  near  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  a 
less  height  at  greater  elevations. 

SIREN,  in  acoustics,  an  instrument 
for  determining  the  number  of  vibrations 
corresponding  to  a  note  of  any  given 
pitch. 

In  classical  mythology,  certain  melodi- 
ous divinities  who  dwelt  on  the  shores  of 
Sicily,  and  so  charmed  passing  mariners 
by  the  sweetness  of  their  song  that  they 
forgot  their  homes  and  remained  there 
till  they  perished  of  hunger.  According 
to  one  legend,  they  threw  themselves  into 
the  sea,  from  rage  and  despair,  on  hear- 
ing the  more  melodious  song  of  Orpheus. 
Originally  there  were  only  two  sirens; 
but  their  number  was  afterward  increased 
to  three,  and  their  names  are  given  with 
great  variety. 

SIRIUS,  in  astronomy,  the  dog  star, 
by  far  the  brightest  fixed  star  in  the  sky. 
It  is  alpha  Cards  Major,  situated  a  little 
below  Orion,  and  is  mythologically  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  hounds  held  in  leash 
by  Orion,  Procyon  in  Canis  Minor  being 
the  other.  A  line  drawn  from  the  Plei- 
ades through  the  three  stars  of  Orion's 
belt  will  pass  it  closely;  straight  lines 
connecting  it  with  Procyon  and  Betel- 
geuse  will  constitute  a  nearly  equilateral 
triangle;  and  Aldebaran,  Betelgeuse,  Siri- 
us,  and  Regel,  all  of  the  first  magnitude, 
form  a  lozenge-shaped  figure,  with  Orion's 
belt  in  the  center.  Ptolemy,  in  the  2d 
century,  ranked  Sirius  among  red  stars; 
now  it  is  white,  and  is  a  very  brilliant 
object,  its  light  being  324  times  as  great 
as  that  of  a  star  of  the  sixth  magnitude. 
It  is  about  1,000,000  times  as  far  from 
us  as  the  sun,  and  its  mass  is  about  20 
times  as  great.  Viewed  by  the  spectro- 
scope, its  chief  lines  are  those  of  incan- 
descent hydrogen,  with  feebler  ones  of  so- 
dium and  magnesium;  the  metal  mercury 
seems  also  to  be  present.  Some  irregular 
movements  of  Sirius  led  to  the  belief  that 
a  heavenly  body  existed  near  enough  to 
produce  a  perturbation,  and  a  son  of 
Alvan  Clark,  of  Boston  (Mass.).  discov- 
ered, on  Jan.  31,  1862,  what  appears  to 
be  a  planet  revolving  around  Sirius  as  its 
sun,  it  is  thought  in  about  49  years.  The 
heliacal  rising  of  Sirius  varies  in  different 
latitudes,  and  the  procession  of  the  equi- 
noxes makes  it  do  so  also  in  successive 
ages.  When  the  heliacal  rising  of  Sirius 
(called  by  the  old  Egyptians  Sothes)  took 


SIROCCO 


442 


SISTERHOODS 


place,  it  indicated  to  them  that  the  over- 
flow of  the  Nile  was  at  hand. 

SIROCCO,  a  hot  wind  storm.  Most  of 
the  hot  winds  of  the  Old  World  are  modi- 
fied forms  of  the  simoom.  The  sirocco 
originates  in  the  Sahara  and  travels  N. 
to  the  Mediterranean  and  southern  Eu- 
rope, but  it  is  not  so  deadly  as  the  proto- 
type. It  brings  with  it  great  quantities 
of  the  desert  sand,  and  the  air  becomes 
so  dense  at  times  that  the  sun  is  obscured 
as  if  by  fog.  While  it  remains  on  the 
African  mainland  it  is  characterized  by 
a  very  marked  dryness,  as  there  are  no 
extensive  water  surfaces  to  supply  it  with 
moisture.  As  soon,  however,  as  it  is 
launched  over  the  Mediterranean  it  begins 
to  take  up  copious  draughts,  so  that  when 
it  reaches  Malta,  Sicily,  and  the  S.  shores 
of  Europe  as  a  wind  from  between  S.  E. 
and  S.  W.f  it  has  undergone  a  change 
from  a  hot,  dry  wind  to  a  hot,  damp  wind. 
The  result  of  this  alteration  is  that  it 
becomes  most  enervating  to  the  human 
constitution.  During  its  prevalence  iron 
rusts,  clothes  spoil  with  mildew,  grapes 
and  green  leaves  wither,  wine  will  not 
fine,  and  paint  will  not  dry.  Sicily  expe- 
riences the  sirocco  about  a  dozen  times  a 
year,  but  it  is  not  so  frequently  met  with 
in  other  parts  of  Europe. 

SISIONDI  (SlMONDE),  JEAN 
CHARLES  LEONARD  DE,  a  historian; 
born  in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  May  9,  1773. 
His  principal  works  are:  "History  of  the 
Italian  Republics  in  the  Middle  Ages"  (16 
vols.  1807-1818)  ;  "History  of  the  New 
Birth  of  Liberty  in  Italy"  (1832)  ;  "His- 
tory of  the  French"  (31  vols.  1821-1834)  ; 
"History  of  the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire" (1835);  "Julia  Severa;  or,  The 
Year  492"  (1882)  ;  "Literature  of  the 
South  of  Europe"  (1813).  He  died  in 
Geneva,  June  25,  1842. 

SISSON,  EDWARD  OCTAVIUS,  an 
American  educator,  born  at  Gateshead, 
England,  in  1869.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1882  and  was  educated  at  Kan- 
sas State  Agricultural  College,  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago,  University  of  Berlin  and 
Harvard  University.  From  1886  to  1891 
he  was  a  teacher  and  principal  of  public 
schools;  from  1892  to  1897  principal  of 
the  South  Side  Academy,  Chicago,  111.; 
from  1897  to  1904  director  of  Bradley 
Polytechnic   Institute,    Peoria,    111;    from 

1905  to  1906  assistant  professor  of  educa- 
tion at  the  University  of  Illinois;  from 

1906  to  1912  professor  of  pedagogy  and 
director  of  the  department  of  education 
at  the  University  of  Washington;  from 
1913  to  1917  State  commissioner  of  edu- 
cation of  Idaho;  and  since  1917  president 
of  the  State  University  of  Montana.  He 
was  a  member  of  various  educational  so- 


cieties and,  besides  lecturing  and  contrib- 
uting articles  on  educational  subjects,  he 
was  the  author  of  "The  Essentials  of 
Character"  (1910)  ;  and  joint  author  of 
"The  Social  Emergency"  (1913)  ;  "Prin- 
cipals of  Secondary  Education"  (1914). 

SISTAN,  an  extensive  level  and  low- 
lying  tract  on  the  borders  of  Persia  and 
Afghanistan,  partly  filled  by  the  Hamum 
(Sistan)  Lake  or  swamp.  It  is  divided 
between   Persia   and  Afghanistan. 

SISTERHOODS,  societies  or  communi- 
ties of  women  living  together  under  a  re- 
ligious rule,  binding  upon  all,  and  with  a 
common  object  for  their  united  life.  But 
in  common  use  the  word  denotes  those 
communities  which  are  not  enclosed,  and 
whose  life  is  one  of  active  labor.  An 
account  of  the  great  religious  communi- 
ties of  women  in  the  early  and  Middle 
Ages  of  Christianity  falls  under  the  head 
of  Monachism.  Indeed  the  state  of  Chris- 
tendom for  many  centuries  prevented  the 
possibility  of  life  and  work  for  women 
such  as  that  of  Sisters  of  Charity.  Wo- 
men were  affiliated  to  the  great  monastic 
orders,  the  Benedictine,  Augustine,  Car- 
melite, etc.,  but,  with  one  partial  excep- 
tion, that  of  the  Hospitalers,  "Religieuse 
Hospitalieres,"  were  invariably  cloistered. 
There  were  several  communities  of  hos- 
pital nuns,  the  great  hospitals  of  the  Ho- 
tel Dieu  at  Paris,  San  Spirito  at  Rome, 
Dijon  Hospital,  and  several  others  in 
France  being  served  by  them.  But  they 
lived  in  convents  adjoining  the  hospitals, 
and  only  left  their  cloisters  to  nurse  the 
sick.  Even  when  the  Franciscan  and  Do- 
minican orders  of  preaching  friars  arose, 
the  nuns  belonging  to  them,  the  Poor 
Clares  and  Dominican  nuns,  were  strictly 
enclosed. 

The  first  sisterhood  in  England,  that 
founded  by  Dr.  Pusey,  was  broken  up  in 
1855,  after  the  war  in  the  Crimea,  where 
some  of  the  sisters  had  worked  under 
Florence  Nightingale.  A  few  of  the  orig- 
inal members  of  this  first  English  sister- 
hood joined  a  small  community  which  had 
been  founded  by  Miss  Lydia  Sellon  in 
1846,  called  the  Society  of  the  Holy  Trin- 
ity. One  of  the  largest  and  most  impor- 
tant sisterhoods  in  England  was  founded 
in  1851  under  the  title  of  "Sisters  of  the 
Poor,"  by  Miss  Harriet  Byron.  St.  Mar- 
garet's Sisterhood  was  founded  at  East 
Grinstead  in  1854  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  J.  M. 
Neale  for  the  purpose  of  nursing  the  sick 
poor  or  rich  in  their  homes.  The  Holy 
Cross  Sisterhood,  whose  headquarters  are 
at  Holy  Cross  Home,  Hayward's  Heath, 
was  formed  in  1857.  One  of  the  most 
flourishing  sisterhoods  in  England — that 
of  St.  Mary's,  Wantage — was  founded  by 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Butler,  afterward  Dean  of 
Lincoln,  primarily  for  penitentiary  work. 


SISTOVA 


443 


SIX    COMPANIES 


The  "Sisters  of  Bethany,"  founded  in 
1866,  have  their  headquarters  in  Clerk- 
enwell,  and  are  chiefly  devoted  to  educa- 
tion and  to  mission  work  in  poor  par- 
ishes. St.  Raphael's  Sisterhood,  Bristol, 
founded  in  1867,  follows,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  rule  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and 
is  devoted  entirely  to  the  service  of  the 
poor;  middle-class  education  and  peniten- 
tiary work  being  excluded. 

The  "Sisters  of  the  Church,"  Randolph 
Gardens,  Kilburn,  founded  in  1870  by 
Miss  Emily  Ayckbowm,  developed  with 
extraordinary  rapidity.  They  have  im- 
mense schools,  teaching  many  thousands 
of  children,  and  training  homes  for  teach- 
ers. 

Besides  these  large  communities  there 
are  many  smaller  sisterhoods  in  England. 

The  first  Protestant  sisterhood  in  the 
United  States  was  organized  in  1852  by 
the  Rev.  W.  A.  Muhlenberg.  The  sisters 
took  charge  of  St.  Luke's  Hospital,  which 
he  founded  in  1859.  Since  then  a  number 
of  sisterhoods  have  sprung  up  all  over 
the  country,  notable  among  them  being: 
The  Sisterhood  of  St.  Mary,  New  York 
City,  founded  in  1865;  the  Sisterhood  of 
St.  John  Baptist,  New  York  City,  affil- 
iated in  1881;  the  All  Saints  Sisters  of 
the  Poor,  Baltimore,  Md.,  affiliated  in 
1890;  and  the  Sisterhood  of  St.  Marga- 
ret, Boston,  Mass.,  established  in  1873. 
In  1919  there  were  113  Catholic  and  Prot- 
estant sisterhoods  at  work  in  the  United 
States,  exclusive  of  deaconesses,  whose 
first  home  was  established  in  Chicago  in 
1887. 

SISTOVA,  a  town  of  Bulgaria;  on  the 
Danube,  opposite  Simmitza;  38  miles 
S.  W.  of  Rustchuk,  beautifully  situated 
on  undulating  slopes.  It  has  mosques  and 
churches,  and  carries  on  manufactures  of 
wine,  leather,  and  wool.  Here  was  signed, 
on  Aug.  4,  1791,  a  treaty  of  peace  between 
Turkey  and  Austria.  Sistova  was  a  place 
of  some  importance  in  the  Russo-Turkish 
War.  Part  of  the  Russian  army  crossed 
the  Danube  here,  and  the  town  fell  into 
their  hands  on  June  27,  1877.  Pop.  about 
14,000. 

SISYPHUS,  in  mythology,  a  descend- 
ant of  ^lolus,  said  by  some  to  have  lived 
at  Ephyra,  on  the  Peloponnesus,  while 
others  allege  that  he  was  a  robber,  slain 
by  Theseus.  His  punishment  in  Tartar- 
us for  his  crimes  committed  on  earth  con- 
sisted in  rolling  a  huge  stone  to  the  top 
of  a  high  hill,  which  constantly  recoiled, 
and  thus  l'endered  his  labor  incessant. 

SITKA,  or  NEW  ARCHANGEL,  a 
port  of  entry  and  former  seat  of  admin- 
istration of  Alaska  Territory;  on  the  W. 
coast  of  the  island  of  Sitka  or  Baranof ; 
about  1,300  miles  N.  of  San  Francisco. 


It  is  located  amid  beautiful  scenery,  and 
has  a  wide  and  deep  harbor,  somewhat 
difficult  of  entrance.  The  town  contains 
a  hospital,  museum,  an  industrial  and 
public  school,  the  Greek  Church  of  St. 
Michael,  built  in  1816,  and  in  which  the 
Russians  still  maintain  the  national  re- 
ligion, and  a  Presbyterian  mission,  where 
boys  and  girls  receive  an  industrial  train- 
ing in  connection  with  the  ordinary 
branches  of  an  English  education.  The 
principal  business  establishment,,  that  of 
the  Russian-American  Fur  Company,  or- 
ganized in  1799,  was  located  here  till 
1863.  When  Alaska  was  transferred  to 
the  United  States  in  1867,  Sitka  contained 
only  about  100  log  huts.  Since  then  it 
has  made  considerable  progress  and  a 
number  of  substantial  and  permanent 
buildings  have  been  erected.  Pop.  (1920) 
1,175. 

SITTING  BULL,  a  chief  of  the  Sioux 
Indians;  born  about  1837;  was  regarded 
as  a  great  "medicine  man"  by  his  tribe; 
and  was  an  obdurate  foe  of  the  whites, 
even  violently  repulsing  all  overtures  to- 
ward a  peaceful  understanding.  He  man- 
ifested this  hatred  from  youth  till  the  day 
of  his  death.  He  was  conspicuous  in  the 
Sioux  massacre  of  1862;  was  constantly 
on  the  war-path  for  14  years;  was  a 
leader  in  the  Indian  outbreaks  of  1876; 
and  was  in  command  at  the  battle  of  the 
Little  Big  Horn  in  which  General  Custer 
and  his  entire  force  were  killed.  With  his 
band  he  escaped  into  Canada,  but  contin- 
ued even  there  to  incite  rebellion  among 
the  Sioux.  In  1880,  receiving  the  promise 
of  pardon,  he  returned  to  Dakota  and 
surrendered  to  General  Miles.  It  is  a 
question  whether  the  acceptance  of  the 
condition  of  pardon  was  sincere,  for  he 
again  incited  the  Indians  to  renewed  out- 
breaks. His  arrest  was  ordered  and  the 
Indian  police  were  detailed  on  this  duty. 
In  attempting  to  resist  them,  Sitting  Bull 
was  killed  Dec.   13,  1890. 

SIVAS,  a  town  in  Armenia,  the  cen- 
ter of  a  large  and  fertile  plain  watered 
by  the  Kizil  Irmak,  410  miles  E.  S.  E.  of 
Constantinople.  It  has  numerous  mosques, 
large  and  well-supplied  bazaars,  commo- 
dious khans,  baths,  etc.  Being  on  the 
road  from  Bagdad,  and  having  easy  ac- 
cess to  the  Black  Sea,  it  commands  a  con- 
siderable trade.     Pop.  about  65,000. 

SIX  COMPANIES,  an  organization  of 
Chinamen  with  headquarters  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal.,  partly  benevolent  and  partly 
commercial,  their  functions  being  to  loan 
money,  give  advice,  act  as  bankers,  care 
for  the  sick,  and  protect  their  countrymen 
in  all  ways.  Originally,  they  guaranteed 
to  send  back,  dead  or  alive,  the  body  of 
every  Chinaman  who  sailed  from  home  to 


SIXTUS 


444 


SIXTUS 


this  country,  but  they  now  ship  back  to 
China  the  bones  only  of  those  whose  fam- 
ilies desire  those  relics  buried  in  the  sa- 
cred earth  of  the  Flowery  Kingdom.  They 
began  in  1850  and  1851  hiring  men  in 
China  to  meet  the  demand  for  labor  in 
California.  The  business  grew  and  other 
Chinese  firms  went  into  it.  Then  the 
agents  of  all  these  firms  found  it  neces- 
sary to  unite  for  self-protection.  There 
were  six  of  these  agencies,  and  they  called 
themselves  the  Six  Companies.  A  con- 
tractor in  need  of  newly  imported  labor 
goes  to  one  of  these  companies  and  gives 
his  order  for  so  many  men.  He  pays  the 
fees  for  that  number  to  the  company  he 
deals  with.  If  he  hires  laborers  already 
here  they  will  be  members  of  the  com- 
pany, and  the  charge  will  be  only  the  rate 
exacted  for  the  service.  The  names  of 
the  Six  Companies  are:  the  Ning  Yeung, 
the  Hop  Wo,  the  Kong  Chow,  the  Yung 
Yo,  the  Sam  Yup,  the  Yang  Wo.  The 
Six  Companies  have  added  arbitration 
bureaus  and  banking  operations  to  their 
original  scheme. 

SIXTUS,  the  name  of  several  popes: 
Sixtus  I.,  successor  of  Alexander  I.  in 

119;  martyred  in  127. 

Sixtus  II.,  the  successor  of  Stephen  I. 

He  is  stated  to  have  been  an  Athenian  and 


SIXTUS  IV. 

pagan  philosopher  before  his  conversion 
to  Christianity.  He  was  one  of  those  who 
suffered  martyrdom  in  the  persecution  of 
the  Christians  by  Valerianus  in  258. 

Sixtus  III.,  successor  of  Celestin  I.  in 
432.  He  endeavored  to  reconcile  the  dis- 
putes existing  in  the  Eastern  Church, 
particularly  in  the  case  of  Cyril,  Bishop 
of  Alexandria,  and  John  of  Antioch.  Some 
of  the  epistles  which  he  composed  with 
regard  to  those  controversies  are  extant, 
and  are  included  in  the  collection  of  Con- 
stant.    He  was  also  a  munificent  patron 


of  learning,  and  is  stated  to  have  left 
5,000  silver  marks  to  be  expended  in  the 
embellishment  of  ecclesiastical  structures. 
He  died  in  440. 

Sixtus  IV.;  born  in  Savona,  July  22, 
1414;  was  the  son  of  a  fisherman  on  the 
coast  of  Genoa,  but  became  a  monk  of  the 


sixtus  v. 

order  of  the  Cordeliers.  His  abilities  pro- 
cured him  the  chair  of  divinity  at  Padua 
and  other  universities  of  Italy.  He  also 
became  general  of  his  order,  and  was  hon- 
ored with  the  cardinalship  by  Paul  II., 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1471.  He  is  ac- 
cused of  having  been  a  participator  in  the 
conspiracy  of  the  Pazzi,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  destroy  the  Medici  family. 
He  also  endeavored  to  raise  a  new  cru- 
sade against  the  infidels,  but  without  suc- 
cess.    He  died  Aug.  13,  1484. 

Sixtus  V.  (Felice  Peretti),  Pope;  born 
near  Montalto,  Dec.  13,  1521.  He  entered 
the  convent  of  the  Cordeliers  at  Ascoli, 
and  by  his  natural  good  abilities  and  his 
popularity  as  a  preacher  made  his  way 
rapidly,  notwithstanding  a  petulant  tem- 
per and  frequent  contentions  with  his  as- 
sociates. He  was  successively  Professor 
of  Theology,  commissary-general  of  his 
order  at  Bologna,  and  inquisitor  at  Ven- 
ice, whence  he  fled  to  Rome  and  obtained 
still  higher  honors  and  offices.  A  remark- 
able change  appeared  in  his  character  or 
manners — he  showed  himself  meek  and 
amiable.  Pius  V.,  who  had  been  his  pu- 
pil, got  him  chosen  general  of  the  Cor- 
deliers, named  him  his  confessor,  and  in 
1570,  created  him  cardinal.  He  was  not 
in  favor  with  Gregory  XIII.,  and  it  is  said 
that  in  his  retirement  he  feigned  great 
feebleness.  These  signs  of  old  age  van- 
ished the  moment  of  his  election  as  suc- 
cessor to  Gregory  in  April,  1585.  He 
threw  away  his  staff,  and  made  the  place 
ring  with  his  loud  Te  Denm.  His  first 
care   was   to   repress   brigandage.      One 


SKAGEN  CAPE 


445 


SKATING 


year  of  his  vigorous  government  made  an 
immense  and  beneficial  change.  Before 
the  end  of  1585  Sixtus  published  a  bull  of 
excommunication  against  Henry  of  Na- 
varre and  the  Prince  of  Conde.  After 
the  murder  of  the  Duke  of  Guise  and  the 
Cardinal  of  Lorraine,  he  cited  Henry  III. 
of  France  to  Rome,  and  on  his  non-ap- 
pearance excommunicated  him.  During 
the  five  years  of  his  pontificate  Sixtus 
formed  and  executed  many  great  designs 
for  the  improvement  and  adornment  of 
Rome.  He  caused  the  famous  granite 
obelisks  which  Caligula  had  brought  from 
Egypt  to  be  set  up  on  a  pedestal;  com- 
pleted a  great  aqueduct  for  the  supply 
of  Rome  with  water;  rebuilt  the  library 
of  the  Vatican,  and  established  the  cele- 
brated printing  office  in  connection  with 
it;  and  yet  left  the  treasury  rich.  Sixtus 
confirmed  the  order  of  "Feuillants";  es- 
tablished or  reformed  many  congrega- 
tions for  the  management  of  secular  or 
ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  fixed  the  num- 
ber of  cardinals  at  70.  He  died  in  Rome, 
Aug.  27,  1590. 

SKAGEN,  CAPE,  or  THE  SKAW,  the 
extreme  N.  point  of  the  province  of  Jut- 
land, Denmark.  A  lighthouse,  67  feet 
high,  built  by  Frederick  II.  in  1564,  is 
situated  on  the  cape.  The  village  of  Ska- 
gen,  close  by,  has  2,000  inhabitants. 

SKAGER  RACK,  a  broad  arm  of  the 
German  Ocean,  which  washes  Norway  on 
the  N.,  Jutland  on  the  S.,  and  Sweden  on 
the  E.,  where  it  communicates  with  the 
Cattegat;  length,  W.  S.  W.  to  E.  N.  E., 
about  150^ miles;  breadth,  80  miles.  Its 
depth  varies  from  30  to  upward  of  400 
fathoms.  There  are  several  good  harbors 
on  the  Norwegian  and  Swedish  coasts. 

SKAGWAY,  a  town  on  Chilkat  Inlet, 
Alaska;  at  the  head  of  Lynn  canal,  and 
at  the  entrance  to  the  White  Pass.  It  is 
a  result  of  expeditions  to  the  Yukon  gold 
fields  in  1897,  when  the  White  Pass  began 
to  be  used  as  a  means  of  reaching  the 
Klondike  and  its  vicinity.  Skagway  is  a 
landing-place  for  steamers  and  a  distrib- 
uting point  for  supplies  to  and  from  the 
Canadian  Klondike.  Its  name  is  derived 
from  the  Indian  name  of  a  river  which 
flows  into  the  sea  near  the  town.  Pop. 
(1920)   494. 

SKATE,  in  ichthyology,  the  popular 
name  of  any  individual  of  a  section  of  the 
genus  Rata,  differing  from  the  rays  proper 
in  having  a  long  pointed  snout.  R.  batis, 
the  true  skate,  is  one  of  the  commonest 
fishes  in  European  waters,  and  attains  a 
large  size.  The  upper  part  of  the  body 
is  dusky  gray  or  mottled.  The  long-nosed 
skate^  (R.  vomer),  between  four  and  five 
feet  in  length,  has  the  snout  excessively 

CC- 


prolonged.  The  Burton  skate  (R.  mar- 
ginata)  is  thicker  and  heavier  than  the 
true  skate,  and  is  frequently  eight  feet 


SKATE 


long;  the  shagreen  skate,  or  Ray  (R. 
fullonica) ,  is  rather  less  than  three  feet 
long. 

SKATING,  progression  on  ice  accom- 
plished by  means  of  instruments  com- 
posed of  steel  blades  which  are  fastened 
to  the  soles  of  the  boot,  and  which  are 
called  skates.  In  early  times  the  shin- 
bones  of  animals  were  bound  to  the  feet, 
and  skaters  glided  over  the  frozen  surface 
on  these  by  propelling  themselves  with  the 
aid  of  a  spiked  stick.  At  a  later  period 
the  iron  or  steel  blades  were  introduced, 
the  cutting  edge  of  which  enabled  the 
wearer  to  dispense  with  the  stick,  and  to 
push  off  with  one  foot  and  glide  on  the 
other  with  alternate  strokes.  Skates  are 
now  of  two  kinds — viz.,  those  made  for 
speed  skating  and  those  for  figure  skat- 
ing. Both  were  formerly  constructed  by 
inserting  the  steel  blade  into  a  wooden 
bed,  which  was  approximately  shaped  to 
the  foot  and  bound  to  it  by  means  of 
leather  straps.  Modern  skates  are  made 
entirely  of  metal,  and  are  fixed  either  by 
screws  passing  through  plates  (to  which 
the  blade  is  attached)  into  the  sole  of  the 
boot,  which  form  of  skate  is  known  as  the 
Mount  Charles;  or  they  are  fixed  to  the- 
boot  by  various  mechanical  devices  which 
enable  the  skate  to  be  quickly  and  firmly 
attached  to  the  boot,  and  as  quickly  re- 
moved. 
■Cyc  Vol  8 


SKEAT 


446 


SKELETON 


SKEAT,     WALTER     WILLIAM,     an 

English  Anglo-Saxon  scholar;  born  in 
London,  Nov.  21,  1835.  In  1883  he  be- 
came Professor  of  Anglo-Saxon  at  Cam- 
bridge; was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
English  Dialect  Society;  and  an  author- 
ity on  early  English  literature.  He  ed- 
ited "The  Vision  of  William  Concerning 
Piers  Plowman"  (1867-1885);  Bar- 
bour's "The  Bruce"  (1870-1889) ;  "Speci- 
mens of  English  Literature,  1298-1579" 
(1871  and  1872;  "The  Works  of  Chaucer" 
(1894) ;  numerous  poems,  metrical  ro- 
mances, etc.;  compiled  "An  Etymological 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language" 
(1879-1881;  1884);  and  wrote  "A  Stu- 
dent's Pastime"  (1896);  "Notes  on  Eng- 
lish Etymology"  (1901),  etc.  He  died  in 
1912. 

SKELETON,  a  general  term  for  the 
more  or  less  hard  parts  of  animals, 
whether  forming  an  internal  supporting 
framework — an  endoskeleton,  or  an  exter- 
nal exoskeleton,  often  useful  as  armor. 

Skeleton  of  Invertebrates. — Many  of 
the  Protozoa  have  shells  of  lime,  or  of 
flint,  or  of  some  organic  substance,  such 
as  acanthin.  These  are  formed  by  the 
living  matter  of  the  units,  in  the  case  of 
the  lime  and  flint  shells  from  materials 
absorbed  from  the  surrounding  water,  but 
in  what  precise  way  we  do  not  know.  Al- 
most all  sponges  are  supported  by  loose 
or  firmly  fused  spicules  of  lime  or  of  flint, 
or  have,  as  in  the  bath  spone,  an  inter- 
woven supporting  skeleton  of  "horny"  fi- 
bers. The  spicules  or  fibers  are  formed 
by  cells  in  the  middle  stratum  of  the 
sponge.  Among  ccelenterates  various 
forms  of  skeleton,  both  external  and  in- 
ternal, both  limy  and  "horny,"  are  repre- 
sented by  the  different  kinds  of  corals. 
With  few  exceptions  these  skeletons  are 
produced  by  cells  belonging  to  the  outer 
layer  or  ectoderm  of  the  animal.  Worms 
have  little  that  can  be  called  a  skeleton. 
The  tubes,  calcareous  or  otherwise,  in 
which  many  sedentary  worms  are  shel- 
tered, have  no  vital  connection  with  the 
animals  which  make  and  inhabit  them. 
Echinoderms  tend  to  be  very  calcareous; 
lime  is  deposited  in  the  mesodermic  tissue 
of  the  body  in  almost  any  part,  though 
predominantly  near  the  surface.  Most 
arthropods  have  well-developed  exoskele- 
tons,  cuticles  formed  from  the  epidermis, 
consisting  in  great  part  of  an  organic 
basis  of  chitin,  on  which,  in  crustaceans 
and  most  myriopods,  carbonate  of  lime  is 
also  deposited.  As  this  cuticle  is  not  al- 
ways restricted  to  the  outside  of  the  ani- 
mal, but  sometimes  extends  inward,  an 
apparent  endoskeleton  arises — e.  g.,  in 
the  lobster,  the  king  crab,  and  the  scor- 
pion. Most  mollusks  have  shells  in  which 
carbonate  of  lime  occurs  along  with  an 


organic  basis  conchiolin,  and  in  cuttlefish 
there  is  a  remarkable  development  of  car- 
tilage around  the  nerve  centers  in  the 
head — an  analogue  of  the  skull  in  verte- 
brate animals. 


ia-j 


SKELETON 


SKELETON 


447 


SKELETON 


1 — Frontal   bone 
2 — Parietal   bone 
3 — Temporal   bone 
4 — -Occipital    bone 
5 — Malar    bone 
6 — Superior    maxillary 
7 — Inferior   maxillary 
8 — Cervical     vertebrae 
9 — Nasal  bone 

10 — Sternum 

11 — Humerus 

12— Ulna 

13 — Radiu9 

1-i — Lumbar    vertebrje 

15 — Innominate    bones 


16 — Sacrum 

17 — Head   of   femur 

18— Shaft  of  femur 

19— Patella 

20— Shaft    of   tibia 

21— Fibula 

22 — Greater    trochanter 

of   femur 
23 — Condyles   of  femur 
2-1 — Tuberosity   of  tibia 
25 — Clavicle 

26 — Condyles  of  humerus 
27 — Head   of   radius 
28 — Dorsal  vertebrae 
29 — Scapula 


Skeleton  of  Vertebrates. — Here  we  must 
distinguish  first  of  all  between  the  exter- 
nal exoskeleton  and  the  internal  endo- 
skeleton.  The  scales  of  fishes,  the  scales 
and  scutes  of  reptiles,  the  scales,  claws, 
and  even  feathers  of  birds,  the  remark- 
able bony  armature  of  armadillos,  the 
scales  of  pangolins,  the  claws  of  carni- 
vores, the  quills  of  porcupines,  and  even 
the  hair  of  ordinary  mammals  illustrate 
the  variety  of  structures  which  may  be 
included  within  the  anatomical  conception 
of  an  exoskeleton.  All  these  structures 
are  formed  in  the  epidermis,  or  in  the 
dermis,  or  in  both  combined.  Tortoise 
shell  and  the  scales  of  reptiles  are  epi- 
dermic; the  scutes  of  crocodiles  and  the 
plates  covering  armadillos  are  dermic; 
the  scales  of  elasmobranch  and  ganoid 
fishes  are  due  to  both  layers.  But  it  is 
difficult  to  carry  out  any  rigidly  logical 
classification. 

The  Skeleton  of  Man. — As  the  bones  of 
all  the  chief  parts  of  the  human  body  are 
described  in  separate  articles,  we  need  not 
do  more  than  unify  these  by  reference  to 
a  diagram  of  the  entire  skeleton.  Alto- 
gether there  are  more  than  200  bones,  but 
some  which  are  originally  distinct  become 
fused  with  their  neighbors. 

In  the  vertebral  column  there  are  origi- 
nally 33  vertebrae,  but  in  adult  life  the 
normal  number  is  26,  for,  while  the  first 
24  remain  distinct,  five  (the  25th  to  the 
29th  inclusive)  unite  to  form  the  sacrum 
supporting  the  hip  girdle,  and  the  four 
hindmost  fuse  more  or  less  completely  in 
a  terminal  tail  piece  or  coccyx.  Seven 
cervi^als  support  the  neck;  12  dorsals 
form  the  greater  part  of  the  back  and 
bear  ribs ;  five  lumbars  occur  in  the  loins ; 
these  are  followed  by  the  sacrum  and  the 
coccyx. 

The  ribs,  or  elastic  arches  of  bone 
which  bound  the  breast,  are  normally  12 
on  each  side.  Most  of  them  articulate 
dorsally  with  the  bodies  of  two  adjacent 
vertebra?  and  with  the  transverse  proc- 
esses of  the  posterior  one;  ventrally  the 
first  seven  pairs  are  connected  with  the 
median  breastbone  by  means  of  interven- 
ing cartilages,  while  the  posterior  five 
pairs  are  more  or  less  free. 

The  skull  consists  in  early  adult  life  of 
22   separate   bones,  but  originally  there 


were  more,  and  as  life  continues  the  num- 
ber may  be  further  reduced  by  fusion. 
See  Skull. 

The  skeleton  of  the  arm  includes  30 
bones — in  the  upper  arm  the  humerus, 
which  articulates  with  the  shoulder  gir- 
dle; in  the  forearm  the  radius  and  ulna, 
which  articulate  with  the  humerus  at  the 
elbow;  the  wrist  of  eight  carpal  bones; 
the  five  metacarpals  of  the  palm;  the  five 
digits,  of  which  the  four  fingers  have  each 
three  joints  or  phalanges,  while  the  thumb 
has  two.  The  important  bone  of  the  pec- 
toral girdle  is  the  shoulder  blade  or  scap- 


SKELETON   OF  GIANT  SLOTH 


ula.  To  this,  at  the  shoulder  joint,  there 
is  fused  a  small  beak-like  bone — the  cora- 
coid — which  is  separate  in  birds  and  rep- 
tiles, but  reduced  to  a  mere  process  of  the 
scapula  in  all  mammals  except  the  mono- 
tremes.  Stretching  from  the  breastbone 
to  shoulder  blade  is  the  curved  collar  bone 
or  clavicle. 

The  skeleton  of  the  leg  also  includes 
30  bones — in  the  thigh  the  femur,  which 
articulates  with  the  hip  girdle;  in  the 
lower  leg  the  shin  bone  or  tibia  and  the 
splint  bone  or  fibula,  which  articulate 
with  the  femur  at  the  knee  joint,  where 
there  lies  a  little  "sesamoid"  bone — the 
patella ;  in  the  ankle  region  seven  bones, 
then  five  metatarsal  bones  forming  the 
sole  of  the  foot,  and  five  toes  with  the 
same  number  of  phalanges  as  in  the  fin- 
gers. The  pelvic  girdle  consists  in  early 
life  of  three  paired  bones — large  dorsal 
ilium,  a  posterior  ischium,  an  anterior 
pubis  on  each  side — but  these  unite  about 
the  25th  year  into  a  single  haunch  bone 
with  the  socket  of  which  the  thigh  articu- 
lates. 


SKELLIGS 


448 


SKIN 


SKELLIGS,  THE,  three  rocky  islets 
off  the  S.  W.  coast  of  Ireland,  W.  of 
Bolus  Head,  county  Kerry.  There  are 
here  two  lighthouses,  visible  18  miles. 

SKELTON,  JOHN,  an  English  poet; 
born  about  1460,  probably  in  Norfolk. 
He  studied  at  both  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
and  from  the  former  received  the  lau- 
reateship  (then  a  degree  in  grammar). 
He  was  tutor  to  the  Duke  of  York,  after- 
ward Henry  VIII. ;  was  rector  of  Diss  and 
curate  of  Trompington  in  1504,  and  was 
appointed  orator  regius  to  Henry  VIII. 
His  satirical  attacks  incurred  the  resent- 
ment of  Wolsey,  and  Skelton  had  to  take 
refuge  in  the  sanctuary  at  Westminster, 
where  the  abbot  afforded  him  protection 
till  his  death  in  1529.  His  works  com- 
prise among  others  the  drama  or  morality 
of  "Magnyfycence";  a  satire  on  Wolsey, 
entitled  "Why  Come  Ye  Not  to  Courte?"; 
the  "Tunning  (that  is  the  brewing)  of 
Elynour  Rummyng,"  a  humorous  picture 
of  low  life;  and  the  "Boke  of  Phyllyp 
Sparowe." 

SKERRYVORE      LIGHTHOUSE,      a 

lighthouse  built  on  a  rock  forming  part 
of  an  extensive  reef  lying  about  12  miles 
S.  W.  from  the  wild  isle  of  Tyree  on  the 
W.  coast  of  Scotland.  Lying  in  the  fair- 
way of  vessels  making  for  the  Clyde  and- 
Mersey,  it  was  long  the  terror  of  mari- 
ners. The  reef  is  exposed  to  the  mighty 
"fetch"  of  the  Atlantic. 

SKI,  large  snow-shoes  worn  in  Nor- 
way and  other  extreme  N.  countries. 
They  are  light  in  their  construction  and 
are  about  eight  feet  long.  Without  these 
it  Would  be  impossible  for  the  peasants 
to  get  about  during  the  months  of  deep 
snow,  when  ordinary  walking  is  impos- 
sible. The  ski  has  become  popular  in 
Canada  and  in  some  parts  of  the  United 
States,  especially  in  the  northwestern 
states,  where  there  is  a  large  Scandina- 
vian population.  Here  "ski  running"  has 
become  a  prominent  feature  of  winter 
sport. 

SKIN,  that  membrane  of  variable 
thickness  which  covers  the  whole  body 
externally  and  extends  inward  into  all  the 
natural  openings,  where  it  changes  its 
properties,  becoming  soft  and  moist,  and 
hence  known  as  mucous  membrane.  The 
skin  is  generally  described  as  composed 
of  three  layers:  the  cuticle,  the  rete  mu- 
cosum,  and  the  cutis  vera,  the  last  being 
the  most  internal.  The  cutis  (dermis), 
or  true  skin,  consists  of  two  layers,  of 
which  the  deeper  is  called  the  corium,  and 
the  more  superficial,  the  papillary  layer. 
The  corium   is    composed    of    numerous 


fibers  closely  interlaced,  and  forming  a 
smooth  surface  for  the  support  of  the 
papillary  layer.  It  varies  in  thickness, 
being,  as  a  general  rule,  thick  on  the  ex- 
posed parts  and  thin  on  the  protected. 
The  papillary  layer  is  soft,  and  formed 
by  numerous  papillae  which  cover  its 
whole  surface.  It  contains  the  expansions 
of  the  sensitive  nerves.  The  rete  muco- 
sum  (mucous  network)  lies  immediately 
over  the  cutis,  and  in  some  measure  di- 
minishes the  inequalities  of  its  surface, 
being  thicker  between  the  papilla?  and 
thinner  on  their  summit.  It  is  composed 
of  minute,  nucleated  cells,  and  is  almost 
pulpy  in  consistence.  It  is  very  slightly 
developed  in  the  white  races,  but  is  very 
distinct  and  thick  in  those  that  are  dark^ 
er,  the  cells,  which  are  filled  with  a  pig- 
ment, being  that  which  gives  the  dark 
color  to  their  skin.  The  cuticle,  scarfskin, 
or  epidermis  is  a  disorganized  scaly  sub- 
stance, serving  to  protect  from  injury  the 
more  delicate  cutis.  It  is  thickest  on  the 
most  exposed  parts;  and  on  the  palms  of 
the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet  it  consists 
of  several  layers.  The  skin  performs 
various  important  functions.  It  is  the 
seat  of  common  sensation,  and  is  fur- 
nished with  numerous  pores  or  openings 
which  give  passage  to  the  sweat  and 
other  exhalations.  It  is  in  this  way  the 
great  regulator  of  the  heat  of  the  body. 
The  different  diseases  of  the  skin  may 
be  classified  into  eight  orders,  distin- 
guished from  each  other  solely  by  the  ap- 
pearances on  the  skin,  as  follows:  (1) 
Papulae,  or  pimples,  little  elevations  of  the 
cuticle  of  a  red  color,  and  not  containing 
any  fluid,  as  in  the  earliest  stage  of 
smallpox.  (2)  Squamae,  or  scales,  small, 
hard,  thickened,  opaque,  whitish  patches 
of  unhealthy  cuticle,  as  in  leprosy.  (3) 
Exanthemata,  or  rashes,  superficial  red 
patches  varying  in  figure  and  size,  and 
irregularly  diffused  over  the  surface,  as 
in  measles,  scarlet  fever,  etc.  (4)  Bullae, 
blebs  or  miniature  blisters,  as  sometimes 
occur  in  erysipelas.  (5)  Postulae,  or  pus- 
tules, circumscribed  elevations  of  the 
cuticle  containing  pus,  and  having  red  in- 
flamed bases,  as  in  the  eruption  of  small- 
pox when  at  its  height  and  maturity. 
(6)  Vesiculae,  or  vesicles,  small  elevations 
of  the  cuticle,  covering  a  fluid  usually  at 
first  clear  and  colorless,  but  becoming 
afterward  opaque  and  whitish,  or  pearly, 
as  in  cowpox  and  chickenpox.  (7)  Tuber - 
cula,  tubercles,  small,  hard,  superficial 
tumors,  circumscribed  and  permanent,  or, 
if  they  separate  at  all,  it  is  only  par- 
tially. (8)  Maculae,  spots  or  patches,  aris- 
ing from  excess  or  deficiency  of  the  color- 
ing matter  of  the  skin,  and  frequently 
occurring  congenitally,  or  connected  with 
some  slight  disorder  of  the  digestive  or- 
gans or  of  the  general  health. 


SKINNER 


449 


SKUA 


SKINNER,  CHARLES  RUFUS,  an 
American  educator,  born  at  Union  Square, 
N.  Y.,  in  1844.  He  was  educated  at 
Mexico  Academy  and  Clinton  Liberal  In- 
stitution and  received  honorary  degrees 
from  Hamilton,  Colgate,  and  Tufts. 
From  1867  to  1870  he  was  engaged  in 
business  in  New  York  City;  from  1870 
to  1874  he  was  manager  and  city  editor 
of  the  "Daily  Times,"  Watertown,  N.  Y. ; 
from  1877  to  1881  a  member  of  the  New 
York  Assembly;  from  1881  to  1885  a 
member  of  congress;  from  1886  to  1892 
Deputy  State  (N.  Y.)  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction;  from  1892  to  1894 
supervisor  of  Teacher's  Institute;  from 
1895  to  1904  State  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction;  from  1906  to  1911 
assistant  appraiser  of  the  port  of  New 
York;  and  since  1915  Legislative  Libra- 
rian at  Albany,  N.  Y.  He  wrote:  "New 
York  Question  Book"  (1890);  "Arbor 
Day  Manual"  (1891);  "Manual  of  Pa- 
triotism for  the  Schools  of  New  York" 
(1900);  "The  Bright  Side"    (1909). 

SKINNER,  OTIS,  an  American  actor, 
born  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1858.  He 
was  educated  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  which 


OTIS  SKINNER 

city  he  first  appeared  as  an  amateur 
reader  and  actor.  In  1877  he  made  his 
professional  debut  in   Philadelphia.     He 


then  appeared  successively  at  Niblo's, 
New  York;  with  Lawrence  Barrett;  with 
Augustin  Daly;  and  with  Mme.  Modjeska. 
Since  1895  he  has  appeared  as  star  in 
many  romantic  productions.  The  best 
known  of  his  later  productions  were  "Kis- 
met" (1911-1914);  "Cock  O'  the  Walk" 
(1915-1916)  ;  "Mr.  Antonio"  (1916-1918)  ; 
"The  Honor  of  the  Family"  (1918-1919)  ; 
"The  Joy  of  Peter  Barban"  (1919-1920). 

SKINNER,  ROBERT  P.,  an  American 
consular  officer,  born  in  Massillon,  Ohio, 
in  1866.  He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  of  Cincinnati,  and  from  1886  to 
1897  he  was  owner  and  editor  of  the 
"Evening  Independent,"  Massillon,  Ohio. 
From  1897  to  1908  he  was  Consul  at  Mar- 
seilles, France;  from  1908  to  1914,  Con- 
sul General  at  Hamburg,  and  since  July, 
1914,  Consul  General  at  London,  England. 
In  1903  he  was  appointed  commissioner 
to  establish  relations  and  to  negotiate  a 
treaty  between  the  United  States  and 
Ethiopia,  and  in  1912  he  was  commis- 
sioned to  adjust  the  claims  of  foreign 
creditors  against  the  republic  of  Liberia. 
He  wrote  "Abyssinia  of  Today"    (1906). 

SKOBELEFF,  MIKHAIL  DIMITRIE- 
VICH,  a  Russian  military  officer;  born 
in  1843;  entered  the  army  as  sub-lieuten- 
ant in  1861.  He  distinguished  himself 
against  the  Poles  in  1866,  and  afterward 
in  Central  Asia.  In  1876  he  was  appoint- 
ed military  governor  of  the  province  of 
Ferghana.  In  the  Russo-Turkish  War 
Skobeleff  distinguished  himself  at  the 
second  battle  of  Plevna,  and  also  at 
Loftscha.  In  1878  he  was  created  adju- 
tant-general to  the  emperor.  In  1880  he 
successfully  led  an  expedition  against  the 
Tekke  Turcomans,  and  captured  Geok 
Tepe,  Jan.  12,  1881.  He  was  then  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  general.  He  died 
suddenly  in  Moscow,  July  7,  1882. 

SKOPELOS,  an  island,  one  of  the 
northern  Sporades,  in  the  Grecian  Archi- 
pelago, about  11  miles  long  and  5  miles 
broad.  The  town  of  Skopelos,  on  its  S. 
E.  shore,  is  a  Greek  see  and  has  a  number 
of  churches  and  convents. 

SKOWHEGAN,  a  city  of  Maine,  the 
county-seat  of  Somerset  co.  It  is  on  the 
Kennebec  river.  Its  manufactures  in- 
clude woolen  and  worsted  goods,  canned 
corn,  foundry  and  machine  shop  products, 
etc.  It  is  the  center  of  an  important 
dairying  region.  Its  public  buildings  in- 
clude a  public  library,  a  court  house,  and 
a  hospital.  Pop.  (1910)  5,341;  (1920) 
5,981. 

SKUA,  in  ornithology,  the  popular 
name  of  any  species  of  the  genus  Ster- 
corarius.  They  are  predatory  swimming 
birds,  rarely  fishing  for  themselves,  and 


SKULL 


450 


SKULL 


generally  pursuing  smaller  gulls  and 
terns,  and  compelling  them  to  drop  or 
disgorge  their  prey.  Four  species  visit 
the  temperate  regions  of  Europe  and 
America:  S.  catarrhactes,  the  great  skua, 
which  breeds  in  the  Shetland  Islands;  it 
is  about  24  inches  long,  and  of  somber 
plumage;  S.  pomatorhinus,  the  pomato- 
rhine  skua,  21  inches,  dark  mottled  above, 
under  surface  brown  (nearly  white  in 
old  birds) ;  S.  crepidatus,  the  Arctic  or 
Richardson's  skua,  about  20  inches  long, 
occurring  under  two  different  plumages, 
one  entirely  sooty,  the  other  with  white 
under  parts,  and  S.  parasiticus,  the  long- 
tailed  or  Buffon's  skua,  about  14  inches 
long,  upper  part  of  head  black,  upper 
surface  brownish-gray,  under  surface 
white. 

SKULL.  The  skull  is  divided  into  two 
parts,  the  cranium  and  the  face.  In 
human  anatomy  it  is  customary  to  de- 
scribe the  former  as  consisting  of  eight 
and  the  latter  14  bones;  the  eight  cranial 
bones,  which  constitute  the  brain  case, 
being  the  occipital,  two  parietal,  frontal, 
two  temporal  sphenoid  and  ethmoid ;  while 


EUROPEAN    SKULL 

the  14  facial  bones,  which  surround  the 
cavities  of  the  mouth  and  nose  and  com- 
plete the  orbits  or  cavities  for  the  eyes, 
are  the  two  nasal,  two  superior  maxil- 
lary, two  lachrymal,  two  malar,  two 
palate,  two  inferior  turbinated,  vomer, 
and  inferior  maxillary.  The  bones  of 
the  ear,  the  teeth,  and  the  Wormian  bones 
are  not  included  in  this  enumeration. 
The  lower  jaw  articulates  with  the  tem- 
poral bones  by  means  of  a  diarthrodia 
joint,  but  all  the  others  are  joined  by 
sutures.  On  the  base  of  the  cranium  the 
occipital  and  sphenoid  bones  articulate 
by  means  of  a  plate  of  cartilage  (syn- 
chondrosis) in  young  subjects;  in  adults 
this  becomes  bony  union.  Sutures  are 
named  from  the  bones  between  which  they 


are  found,  but  to  those  around  the 
parietal  bones  special  names  are  given — 
e.  g.,  interparietal  or  sagittal;  occipito- 
parietal or  lambdoid;  fronto-parietal  or 
coronal;  parieto-temporal  or  squamous. 
During  adult  life  many  of  the  sutures 
close  by  bony  union  and  disappear,   but. 


HUMAN  SKULL 


a — Frontal    bone 
b — Parietal    bone 
c — Occipital   bone 
d — Temporal   bone 
e — Sphenoid  bone 


f — Malar   bone 
g — Nasal  bone 
h — Upper  jaw  bone 
i — Lower   jaw   boi»e 


both  the  age  at  which  this  occurs  and  the 
order  of  its  occurrence  are  subject  to 
variation.  Wormian  bones  are  irregular 
ossifications  found  in  relation  to  the  su- 
tures of  cranial  bones,  but  these  bones  are 
seldom  seen  in  relation  to  the  bones  of  the 
face. 

The  fact  that  concussion  of  the  brain 
scarcely  ever  proves  fatal,  unless  there 


NEGRO   SKULL 

is  also  fracture  of  the  skull,  affords  the 
most  distinct  evidence  that  the  skull  is 
constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  so 
long  as  it  maintains  its  integrity  it  is 
able  to  protect  its  contents  from  serious 
lesion.  There  are  two  points  in  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  bones  of  the  face  which 
deserve  special  notice — viz.  (1)  the  great 
strength  of  the  nasal  arch;  and   (2)  the 


SKUNK 


451 


SLADEN 


immobility  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  is 
fixed  by  three  buttresses — the  nasal,  the 
zygomatic,  and  the  pterygoid. 

SKUNK,  the  Mephitis,  a  genus  of 
small  carnivorous  quadrupeds  of  the 
family  Mustelidse.    The  body  is  elongated, 


SKUNK 

and  usually  much  arched;  the  tail  long 
and  thickly  covered  with  long,  fine  hair; 
the  head  small,  with  thick,  blunt  snout; 
the  legs  short,  and  the  paws  compara- 
tively large,  with  five  incompletely  divided 
toes.  The  general  color  is  black  and 
white.  The  power,  characteristic  in  some 
degree  of  all  the  Mustelidse,  of  forcibly 
discharging  the  fetid  secretion  of  the  anal 
glands  is  in  the  skunks  enormously  de- 
veloped. 

SKUNK  RIVER,  a  river  of  Iowa 
whose  source  is  in  Hamilton  co.  Its 
course  is  S.,  crossing  Jasper,  Mohaska, 
Keokuk  and  Henry  counties.  It  flows 
into  the  Mississippi  about  11  miles  below 
Burlington.  The  North  Skunk,  which 
rises  in  Marshall  co.,  flows  into  the  main 
river  about  10  miles  S.  E.  of  Sigourney. 
The  upper  part  is  sometimes  called  the 
South  Skunk.    It  is  about  275  miles  long. 

SKYE,  after  Lewis,  the  largest  of  the 
Scotch  islands,  and  the  most  N.  of  the 
Inner  Hebrides,  is  included  in  Inverness- 
shire;  area,  547  square  miles.  Separated 
from  Ross-shire  in  the  N.  W.  by  the 
Sound  of  Rona,  and  from  Inverness  in 
the  S.  W.  by  the  Sound  of  Sleat,  it  ap- 
proaches within  half  a  mile  of  the  main- 
land between  these  two  channels  at  Kyle 
Rhea.  It  is  very  irregular  in  shape,  and 
is  so  cut  up  by  inlets  that  no  part  of  it 
is  more  than  4  miles  from  the  sea.  The 
chief  inlets,  all  toward  the  W.  and  N., 
are  Lochs  Eishort,  Slapin,  Scavaig,  Bra- 


cadale,  Follart,  and  Snizort;  the  princi- 
pal headlands  are  Aird  Point,  Ru-Huinish, 
Dunvegan  Head,  and  Vaternish  Point, 
which  are  extremities  of  the  peninsulas 
of  Duirinish,  Vaternish,  and  Trotternish 
in  the  N.,  and  Sleat  Point  in  the  S.  Its 
extreme  length  from  Aird  Point  to  Sleat 
Point  is  47  miles;  its  greatest  breadth, 
from  Portree  to  Copnahow  Head,  22  miles. 
Skye  is  a  wild,  highland  country,  and  its 
rocky  mountains  and  pale  headlands  are 
shrouded  in  the  mists  of  the  Atlantic. 
The  S.  portion,  however,  is  "comparatively 
soft  and  green,"  the  long  promontory  of 
Sleat  being  the  "best  wooded,  the  sun- 
niest, and  the  most  carefully  cultivated" 
part  of  Skye,  with  its  larch  plantations 
and  trim  hedgerows. 

The  inhabitants  are  mainly  Celtic,  and 
universally  speak  Gaelic,  though  the  use 
of  English  is  gradually  increasing.  There 
is  a  strong  Norse  infusion,  and  the  names 
of  the  N.  headlands  are  Norwegian,  not 
Gaelic.  The  chief  families  in  Skye  are 
the  Macdonalds  of  Sleat,  who  trace  their 
descent  to  the  Lords  of  the  Isles,  and  the 
Macleods,  originally  Norsemen,  who  still 
occupy  old  Dunvegan  Castle.  The  island 
is  historically  interesting  as  the  home 
of  Flora  Macdonald  and  the  refuge  of 
Prince  Charles.  At  the  old  house  of 
Kingsburgh  Flora  entertained  Dr.  John- 
son and  Boswell  in  1773.  The  grave  of 
Flora  in  the  churchyard  of  Kilmuir,  was 
marked  by  the  erection  of  an  Iona  cross, 
a  granite  monolith  28  feet  high,  in  No- 
vember, 1871.     Pop.  about  13,000. 

SKYROS,  or  SCYRO,  an  island  of  the 
Grecian  Archipelago;  the  largest  of  the 
northern  Sporades;  24  miles  N.  E.  of 
Eubcea;  length,  17  miles,  area,  79  square 
miles.  Skyros  is  very  mountainous  in  the 
S.,  the  mountains  being  covered  with 
forests  of  oaks,  firs,  and  beeches;  but  the 
N.  part,  though  also  hilly,  has  several 
fertile  plains,  which  produce  fine  wheat 
and  grapes  for  wine.  The  only  town  is 
Skyro,  or  St.  George  on  the  E.  coast. 
This  island  is  associated  with  the  legends 
of  Achilles  and  Theseus.  In  409  B.  C, 
Cimon  the  Athenian  conquered  it  and 
carried  off  to  his  native  city  the  bones  of 
the  hero  Theseus.  It  was  likewise  cele- 
brated for  its  goats  and  its  variegated 
marble.    Pop.  about  3,500. 

SLADEN,  DOUGLAS  BROOKE 
WHEELTON,  an  English  poet;  born  in 
London,  Feb.  5,  1856.  He  wrote  "Frith- 
jof  and  Ingebjorg,  and  Other  Poems" 
(1882)  ;  "Edward  the  Black  Prince,"  an 
epic  drama  (1886) ;  "Australian  Ballads 
and  Rhymes"  (1888)  ;  "The  Spanish  Ar- 
mada" (1888),  a  ballad;  "Australian 
Poets"  (1888);  "A  Japanese  Marriage" 
(1895);  "The  Admiral"  (1898);  "A  Si- 
cilian  Marriage"    (1905) ;   "Tragedy    of 


SLAG 


452 


SLATTERY 


the  Pyramids"  (1909) ;  "The  Unholy  Es- 
tate" (1912) ;  "Germany's  Great  Lie" 
(1914);  "Twenty  Years  of  My  Life" 
(1915) ;  "Grace  Lorraine"  (1917) ;  etc. 

SLAG,  in  metallurgy,  vitreous  mineral 
matter  removed  in  the  reduction  of 
metals;  the  scoria  from  a  smelting  fur- 
nace. It  is  used  for  making  cement  and 
artificial  stone,  in  the  manufacture  of 
alum  and  crown  glass,  and  is  cast  into 
slabs  for  pavements,  garden  rollers,  etc. 
In  founding,  the  fused  sullage  and  dross 
which  accompany  the  metal  in  a  furnace, 
and  which  it  is  the  business  of  the  skim- 
mer to  hold  back  from  the  ingate.  Also 
the  scoria  of  a  volcano. 

SLATE,  a  very  remarkable  form  of 
clay  rock,  frequently  fossiliferous  and 
not  confined  to  one  geological  period. 
Consisting  essentially  of  clay,  the  par- 
ticles of  slate  are  so  mechanically  ar- 
ranged that  the  rock  splits  with  perfect 
facility  into  almost  indefinitely  thin  layers 
in  one  direction  only,  and  in  all  others 
either  breaks  with  a  jagged  edge,  or  in 
well-defined  joints  at  some  distance  from 
each  other.  Mineralogically  slate  is 
nothing  more  than  a  pure  clay;  nor  does 
there  seem  any  reason  to  suppose  that 
any  approach  is  made  in  it  toward  crys- 
talline structure.  As,  however,  no  other 
rock  shows  this  tendency  to  split  indefi- 
nitely, the  case  is  one  of  great  interest. 
Practically  slate  is  very  valuable,  owing 
to  its  peculiar  facility  of  splitting  and 
the  perfectly  smooth  natural  face  which 
it  presents.  Its  hardness  and  compact- 
ness preserve  it  from  all  weathering  by 
mere  exposure,  though,  when  ground 
down,  it  easily  passes  back  into  fine  clay. 
Slate  is  always,  and  properly,  regarded 
as  a  metamorphic  rock.  For  a  long  time 
slate  was  used  almost  exclusively  for 
roofing.  For  this  purpose  the  slates  are 
cut  into  sizes  varying  from  a  few  square 
inches  to  two  square  feet,  though  some 
are  much  larger.  This  is  done  with  very 
simple  tools  and  extreme  rapidity.  The 
rest  is  in  slabs  or  thick  slates,  often  very 
large.  The  use  of  slate  and  slabs  has 
increased  considerably  of  late  years. 
Slabs  are  now  used  in  house  fittings;  as 
in  strong  rooms,  powder  magazines,  lar- 
ders, partitions,  baths,  stables,  floors,  etc. 
It  is  very  largely  used  also  for  enamel- 
ing; the  surface  of  enameled  slate  being 
made  to  represent  marble  of  all  kinds 
with  wonderful  accuracy,  and  resisting 
almost  all  wear.  Quarries  of  great  mag- 
nitude are  worked  in  Cornwall,  Wales, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland.  The  product  of 
the  Welsh  quarries  was  formerly  largely 
exported  to  the  United  States,  but  this 
business  received  a  serious  check  on  the 
opening  of  valuable  quarries  in  Vermont, 


New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and 
other  states. 

Adhesive  slat<j  is  a  kind  of  greenish- 
gray  slate,  quickly  absorbent  of  water, 
and  remarkable  for  its  adhesiveness.  Bi- 
tuminous slate,  a  soft  species  of  sectile 
slate  clay  impregnated  with  bitumen; 
hornblende  slate,  a  slaty  rock  consisting 
of  hornblende  and  feldspar  with  some 
chlorite,  principally  used  for  flagging 
pavements,  etc. 

SLATIN  PASHA  (Baron  Rudolf 
Carl),  an  Austrian  soldier,  born  near 
Vienna,  in  1857.  After  service  in  the 
Austrian  Army,  he  engaged  in  service 
in  Egypt  under  General  Gordon,  and  in 
1881  was  made  Governor-General  of  Dar- 
fur.  Shortly  after,  the  Mahdi  aroused 
his  followers  and  began  the  famous  re- 
ligious war  which  resulted  in  1884  in  the 
defeat  of  Hicks  Pasha,  and  the  capture 
of  Slatin  by  the  Mahdists.  He  was  made 
practically  a  slave  of  the  Mahdist  com- 
mander, Abdullahi,  who  succeeded  the 
Mahdi  after  the  latter's  death.  He  was 
kept  in  captivity  for  11  years,  until  1895, 
when  he  succeeded  in  escaping  to  Lower 
Egypt.  He  was  made  a  pasha  by  the 
Khedive,  and  was  appointed  in  1900 
British  Inspector-General  of  the  Sudan. 
In  1906  he  was  created  a  Baron  of  the 
Austrian  empire.  He  had  already  been 
made  an  honorary  major-general  in  the 
British  army,  but  in  1914  renounced  this 
and  other  British  honors. 

SLATTERY,  CHARLES  LEWIS,  an 
American  Protestant  Episcopal  clergy- 
man, born  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  in  1867.  He 
was  educated  at  Harvard  and  the  Epis- 
copal Theological  School,  Cambridge, 
Mass.  He  was  made  a  deacon  in  1894, 
and  a  priest  in  1895.  From  1894  to  1896 
he  was  rector  of  St.  Andrew's,  Ayer, 
Mass.,  and  a  master  at  Groton  School 
from  1896  to  1907  dean  of  the  Cathedral 
at  Faribault,  Minn.;  from  1907  to  1910 
rector  of  Christ  Church,  Springfield, 
Mass.,  and  since  May,  1910,  rector  of 
Grace  Church,  New  York  City.  He  was 
at  various  times  a  lecturer  at  Seabury 
Divinity  School,  Faribault,  Minn.,  and  at 
Berkeley  Divinity  School,  as  well  as 
paddock  lecturer  at  the  General  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (1911-1912) ;  and  West 
lecturer  at  Stanford  University  (1915). 
He  wrote:  "Felix  Reville  Brunot"  (1901)  ; 
"Edward  Lincoln  Atkinson"  (1904) ;  "The 
Master  of  the  World— a  Study  of  Christ" 
(1906);  "Life  Beyond  Life— a  Study  of 
Immortality"  (1907) ;  "The  Historic 
Ministry  and  the  Present  Christ"  (1908) ; 
"Present-Day  Preaching"  (1909) ;  "Alex- 
ander Viets  Griswold  Allen"  (1911) ; 
"The  Authority  of  Religious  Experience" 
(1912);    "The    Light    Within"    (1915); 


SLAVE    COAST 


453 


SLAVEBY 


"Why  Men  Pray"  (1916)  ;  "The  Gift  of 
Immortality"  (1916)  ;  "A  Churchman's 
Reading"  (1917)  ;  "Certain  American 
Faces— Sketches  from  Life"  (1918) ;  "The 
Lord's  Prayer"   (1919). 

SLAVE  COAST,  a  maritime  strip  on 
the  W.  of  Africa,  on  the  Guinea  coast, 
extending  between  the  Volta  and  Akinga, 
a  stretch  of  about  240  miles.  It  consists 
mainly  of  long  narrow  islands.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  on  the  coast  are  Badagry  and 
Whydah.  A  large  traffic  in  slaves  was 
formerly  carried  on  at  the  ports  of  this 
region,  hence  its  name. 

SLAVERY,  the  state  or  condition  of  a 
slave,  bondage.  Slavery  in  the  full  sense 
of  the  term  implies  that  the  slave  is  the 
property  or  at  the  disposal  of  another, 
who  has  a  right  to  employ  or  treat  him 
as  he  pleases;  but  the  system  has  been 
subjected  to  innumerable  limitations  and 
modifications.  Slavery  probably  arose  at 
an  early  period  of  the  world's  history  out 
of  the  accident  of  capture  in  war.  Sav- 
ages, in  place  of  massacring  their  cap- 
tives, found  it  more  profitable  to  keep 
them  in  servitude.  All  the  ancient  Orien- 
tal nations  of  whom  we  have  any  records, 
including  the  Jews,  had  their  slaves.  The 
Hebrews  were  authorized  by  their  law  to 
possess  slaves,  not  only  of  other  races, 
but  of  their  own  nation.  The  latter  were 
generally  insolvent  debtors  who  had  sold 
themselves  through  poverty,  or  thieves 
who  lacked  the  means  of  making  restitu- 
tion; and  the  law  dealt  with  them  far 
more  leniently  than  with  stranger  slaves. 
They  might  be  redeemed,  and  if  not  re- 
deemed became  free  in  the  space  of  seven 
years  from  the  beginning  of  their  servi- 
tude; besides  which  there  was  every  50th 
year  a  general  emancipation  of  native 
slaves. 

Serfdom. — A  numerous  class  of  the 
population  of  Europe  known  as  serfs  or 
villeins  were  in  a  state  of  what  was  al- 
most tantamount  to  slavery  during  the 
early  Middle  Ages.  In  some  cases  this 
serf  population  consisted  of  an  earlier 
race  which  had  been  subjugated  by  the 
conquerors;  but  there  were  also  instances 
of  persons  from  famine  or  other  pressing 
cause,  selling  themselves  into  slavery,  or 
even  surrendering  themselves  to  churches 
and  monasteries  for  the  sake  of  the  bene- 
fits to  be  derived  from  the  prayers  of 
their  masters.  Different  as  was  the  con- 
dition of  the  serf  in  different  countries 
and  at  different  periods,  his  position  was 
on  the  whole  much  more  favorable  than 
that  of  the  slave  under  the  Roman  law. 
He  had  certain  acknowledged  rights — 
and  this  was  more  particularly  the  case 
with  the  classes  of  serfs  who  were  at- 
tached to  the  soil.     In  England,  prior  to 


the  Norman  Conquest,  a  large  proportion 
of  the  population  were  in  a  servile  posi- 
tion, either  as  domestic  slaves  or  as  cul- 
tivators of  the  land.  The  humblest  was 
nearly  a  slave — the  theoiv;  the  other,  the 
ceorl,  an  irremovable  tiller  of  the  ground. 

In  Scotland  as  in  England  serfdom  dis- 
appeared by  insensible  degrees;  but  a  re- 
markable form  of  it  continued  to  survive 
down  to  the  closing  years  of  the  18th 
century.  Colliers  and  salters  were  bound 
by  the  law,  independent  of  paction,  on 
entering  to  a  coal  work  or  salt  mine,  to 
perpetual  service  there;  and  in  case  of 
sale  or  alienation  of  the  ground  on  which 
the  works  were  situated,  the  right  to  their 
services  passed  without  any  express  grant 
to  the  purchaser.  The  sons  of  the  collier 
and  salter  could  follow  no  occupation  but 
that  of  their  father. 

Negro  Slavery. — This  form  existed 
from  the  earliest  times;  the  Carthagini- 
ans seem  to  have  brought  caravans  of 
slaves  from  various  parts  of  north  Af- 
rica; but  in  this  the  negroes  suffered  no 
more  than  other  contemporary  barbari- 
ans. The  negro  slavery  of  modern  times 
was  a  sequel  to  the  discovery  of  America. 

The  first  part  of  the  New  World  in 
which  negroes  were  extensively  used  was 
Haiti,  in  St.  Domingo.  The  aboriginal 
population  had  at  first  been  employed  in 
the  mines;  but  this  sort  of  labor  was 
found  so  fatal  to  their  constitution  that 
Las  Casas,  Bishop  of  Chiapa,  the  cele- 
brated protector  of  the  Indians,  interceded 
with  Charles  for  the  substitution  of 
African  slaves  as  a  stronger  race.  As 
early  as  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century 
a  good  many  Africans  were  already  in 
Hispaniola;  the  emperor  accordingly  in 
1517  authorized  a  large  importation  of 
negroes  from  the  establishments  of  the 
Portuguese  on  the  coast  of  Guinea.  Sir 
John  Hawkins  was  the  first  Englishman 
who  engaged  in  the  traffict  in  which  his 
countrymen  soon  largely  participated, 
England  having  exported  no  fewer  than 
300,000  slaves  from  Africa  between  the 
years  1680  and  1700;  and  between  1700 
and  1786  imported  610,000  into  Jamaica 
alone.  Most  of  the  English  slaving  ships 
belonged  first  to  Bristol,  and  from  1730 
onward  to  Liverpool. 

The  slave  trade  was  attended  with  ex- 
treme inhumanity.  Legal  restraints  were, 
however,  imposed  in  the  various  Euro- 
pean settlements  to  protect  the  slaves 
from  injury;  in  the  British  colonies  courts 
were  instituted  to  hear  their  complaints; 
their  condition  was  to  a  certain  extent 
ameliorated,  and  the  flogging  of  women 
was  prohibited.  But  while  slavery  was 
thus  legalized  in  the  British  colonies,  it 
was  at  the  same  time  the  law  of  Eng- 
land (as  decided  in  1772  by  Lord  Mans- 
field in  the  case  of  the  negro  Somerset) 


SLAVERY 


454 


SLAVS 


that  as  soon  as  a  slave  set  his  foot  on 
English  soil  he  became  free;  though,  if 
he  returned  to  his  master's  country,  he 
could  be  reclaimed. 

In  1787  a  society  for  the  suppression 
of  the  slave  trade  was  formed  in  Lon- 
don, numbering  Thomas  Clarkson  and 
Granville  Sharp  among  its  original  mem- 
bers. The  most  active  parliamentary 
leader  in  the  cause  was  William  Wilber- 
force,  and  Zachary  Macauley  was  one  of 
its  most  zealous  friends.  The  Quakers 
were  the  only  religious  body  who  as  such 
petitioned  the  House  of  Commons  on  the 
subject. 

The  United  States  abolished  the  slave 
trade  immediately  after  Great  Britain 
(1808),  and  the  same  was  in  the  course 
of  time  done  by  the  South  American  re- 
publics of  Venezuela,  Chile  and  Argen- 
tina, by  Sweden,  Denmark,  Holland,  and, 
during  the  Hundred  Days  after  Napo- 
leon's return  from  Elba,  by  France. 
Great  Britain,  at  the  peace,  exerted  her 
influence  to  induce  other  foreign  powers 
to  adopt  a  similar  policy;  and  eventually 
nearly  all  the  states  of  Europe  have 
passed  laws  or  entered  into  treaties  pro- 
hibiting the  traffic.  The  accession  of 
Portugal  and  Spain  to  the  principle  of 
abolition  was  obtained  by  treaties  of  date 
1815  and  1817;  and  by  a  convention  con- 
cluded with  Brazil  in  1826  it  was  de- 
clared piratical  for  the  subjects  of  that 
country  to  be  engaged  in  the  slave  trade 
after  1830.  By  the  conventions  with 
France  of  1831  and  1833,  to  which  nearly 
all  the  maritime  powers  of  Europe  have 
since  acceded,  a  mutual  right  of  search 
was  stipulated  within  certain  seas,  for 
the  purpose  of  suppressing  this  traffic. 
The  provisions  of  these  treaties  were 
further  extended  in  1841  by  the  Quin- 
tuple Treaty  between  the  five  great  Eu- 
ropean powers,  subsequently  ratified  by 
all  of  them  except  France.  The  Ash- 
burton  treaty  of  1842  with  the  United 
States  provided  for  the  maintenance  by 
each  country  of  a  squadron  on  the  Afri- 
can coast;  and  in  1845  a  joint  co-opera- 
tion of  the  naval  forces  of  England  and 
France  was  substituted  for  the  mutual 
right  of  search. 

The  steps  that  hindered  or  prepared  the 
way  for  the  final  abolition  of  slavery  in 
the  United  States  in  1861-1865  are  part 
of  the  history  of  the  country.  Here  it 
may  be  noted  that  in  1800  there  were  in 
the  United  States  893,041  slaves;  that 
Vermont,  Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York, 
and  New  Jersey  emancipated  their  slaves 
before  1840,  most  of  them  by  gradual 
measures.  The  average  value  of  slaves 
was  about  this  period  stated  at  $600. 
The  3,953,760  slaves  at  the  census  of 
1860  were  in  what  were  known  as  the 


Southern  States.  Eminent  leaders  of  pub- 
lic opinion  from  the  earliest  period  of 
the  national  existence — such  as  Washing- 
ton, Franklin,  Jefferson,  Madison,  Jay, 
Hamilton — regarded  slavery  as  a  great 
evil  and  inconsistent  with  the  principles 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  The 
Society  of  Friends  uniformly  opposed 
slavery  and  agitated  against  it.  The 
Presbyterian  Church  made  six  formal 
declarations  against  it  between  1787  and 
1836. 

Mohammedanism  recognizes  the  insti- 
tution; Mohammed's  own  precepts  insist 
on  the  kindly  usage  of  the  slave;  and 
Moslem  slavery  is  mainly  domestic  sla- 
very, household  slaves  being  on  the  whole 
well  treated.  But  there  is  no  more  awful 
chapter  in  the  history  of  human  callous- 
ness and  human  misery  than  the  story 
of  the  slave  trade  as  carried  on  by  "Arab" 
or  Moslem  slave  traders.  The  main  re- 
gions from  which  slaves  were  procured 
for  the  Moslem  East  were,  or  still  are, 
the  Sudan  proper,  the  Egyptian  Sudan, 
or  Valley  of  the  Upper  Nile,  Somaliland, 
and  the  borders  of  the  Portuguese  East 
African  territory.  English  and  other 
men-of-war  were  long  employed  in  cap- 
turing slave  dhows  on  the  E.  coast.  In 
1869  the  Egyptian  Khedive  Ismail  gave 
Sir  Samuel  Baker  large  powers  for  the 
suppression  of  the  slave  trade,  a  crusade 
carried  on  by  Gordon  Pasha.  The  Sultan 
of  Zanzibar  signed  a  treaty  for  the  sup- 
pression of  the  trade  in  1873. 

By  occupying  Caucasia,  Russia  stopped 
an  important  supply  for  the  Turkish  ha- 
rems; it  also  closed  the  slave  markets  of 
Khiva  and  Bokhara,  and  by  crushing  the 
Turkomans  (Tekkes  and  others)  freed  at 
once  40,000  slaves.  Cardinal  Lavigerie, 
who  became  Archbishop  of  Algiers  in 
1867,  made  the  suppression  of  the  slave 
trade  and  slavery  his  life  work,  and  se- 
cured the  help  of  many  zealous  fellow 
workers,  men  and  women.  In  1890  an 
international  conference  including  Tur- 
key, Persia,  Zanzibar  and  the  United 
States  formulated  an  act  for  the  purpose 
of  repressing  the  slave  trade.  Slavery, 
except  among  semi-barbarous  peoples,  is 
now  non-existent. 

SLAVS,  a  division  of  the  Aryan  or 
Indo-Germano  family,  inhabiting  eastern 
and  central  Europe.  They  number  about 
176,000,000.  Included  in  the  group  (east- 
ern division)  are  Great  and  Little  Rus- 
sians, or  Malo-Russians  (Ukrainians  and 
Ruthenians)  and  White  Russians;  (west- 
ern division)  :  Slovenes  and  Serbo-Croats, 
Slavic  inhabitants  of  Macedonia  and  Bul- 
garia. The  Slavs  before  the  great  mi- 
gration of  nations  inhabited  the  territory 
between  the  Oder  and  Dneiper  rivers  and 
between  the  3rd  or  4th  century  and  the 


SLAVONIA 


455 


SLIDELL 


7th  century  migrated  toward  the  Baltic 
Sea,  the  Danube  and  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula. The  Germans  in  the  10th  century- 
forced  out  the  Slavs  from  many  regions, 
which  then  became  German.  The  Bul- 
garians, a  Turkish  people  who  had  in- 
vaded the  Balkan  peninsula,  were  ab- 
sorbed by  the  Slavic  occupants  of  the 
territory.  The  Slavic  states  are  described 
under  their  several  headings.  See  Slav- 
onia,  Ukraine,  Jugo-Slavia,  and  Czecho- 
slovakia. Also  Balkan  Peninsula; 
Balkan  Wars. 

SLAVONIA,  or  SCLAVONIA,  for- 
merly a  province  of  Austro-Hungary, 
forming,  with  Croatia,  a  kingdom  united 
with  that  of  Hungary,  now  a  province  of 
Jugo-Slavia  (q.  v.),  bounded  N.  and  E. 
by  Hungary,  W.  by  Croatia,  and  S.  by 
Turkey;  area,  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia, 
16,423  square  miles;  pop.  about  2,650,000. 
Principal  towns,  Eszek  (the  capital),  Pe- 
terwardin,  Carlovitz,  Semlin,  Mitrovitz, 
and  Brod. 

SLEEP,  that  natural  state  or  condi- 
tion of  unconsciousness  in  animals  which 
alternates  with  a  period  of  activity.  In 
this  state  the  involuntary  functions,  such 
as  those  of  nutrition,  secretion,  etc.,  go 
on  as  usual,  but  the  voluntary  powers  are 
quiescent. 

SLEEPING  SICKNESS,  Sleeping 
Dropsy,  Negro  Lethargy.  A  term  applied 
to  several  distinct  diseases.  The  first  is 
a  tropical  disease  caused  by  a  parasite, 
Trypanosome  gambiense,  carried  by  a 
tsetse  fly  Glossina  palpalis.  This  discovery 
was  made  in  1903.  It  is  now  considered 
possible  that  rat  fleas  play  a  part  in  its 
dissemination,  and  mosquitoes  and  other 
species  of  fly  have  also  been  suspected. 
The  cause  of  the  symptoms  appears  to  be 
an  inflammation  of  the  lymphatics  pro- 
duced by  the  presence  of  the  trypanosome. 
This  inflammation  finally  injures  the 
brain,  spinal  cord,  and  their  membranes, 
and  leads  to  the  so-called  cerebral  stage 
of  the  disease,  which  gave  it  the  name 
sleeping  sickness.  Probably  within  two 
or  three  weeks  after  the  bite  of  an 
infected  fly  the  victim  develops  a  fever, 
often  accompanied  by  an  eruption.  The 
fever  is  intermittent  or  remittent.  There 
may  be  neuralgic  pains  and  the  lymphatic 
glands  are  enlarged.  During  this  stage 
the  disease  may  be  cured.  Later,  some- 
times after  weeks  or  months  of  fever,  the 
victim  gradually  loses  his  brightness,  has 
difficulty  in  walking,  is  dull  and  apathetic, 
and  develops  a  sort  of  palsy.  Epilepti- 
form fits  may  occur.  Emaciation  and 
muscular  weakness  gradually  increase, 
the  saliva  dribbles  from  the  mouth,  the 
intelligence  wanes,  and  coma  appears  with 
a  subnormal  temperature,  nnd  the  Datient 


dies.      This  sleeping  stage  lasts  from  a 
few  weeks  to  several  months. 

The  only  drug  that  has  proved  of  any 
value  is  arsenic.  This  has  been  adminis- 
tered in  various  forms.  Another  disease 
of  the  same  name  appears  at  intervals  in 
the  United  States  and  Europe.  Its  tech- 
nical name  is  lethargic  encephalitis,  or 
inflammation  of  the  brain.  While  there 
is  a  close  relation  in  the  symptoms  to  in- 
fantile paralysis,  the  two  diseases  prob- 
ably have  no  connection.  No  definite  rem- 
edy has  been  discovered  for  this  malady. 
The  best  known  preparation  is  called 
atoxyl. 

SLEZAK,  LEO,  an  Austrian  singer, 
born  at  Mahrisch-Schonberg,  in  1876.  He 
early  developed  musical  talent  and  when 
only  17  years  of  age  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance as  "Lohengrin."  He  sang  in 
Berlin  in  1898  with  great  success,  and 
for  seven  years  succeeding  was  a  member 
of  the  Vienna  Opera.  In  1908  he  began 
studying  with  Jean  de  Reszke,  and  in  the 
following  year  made  a  remarkable  success 
at  Covent  Garden,  London.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  engagement,  lasting  a  num- 
ber of  years,  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House  in  New  York.  He  was  especially 
excellent  in  the  Wagner  operas  and  in 
many  of  the  Italian  operas. 

SLIDELL,  JOHN,  an  American  states- 
man; born  in  New  York  City,  about  1793; 
was  graduated  at  Columbia  University  in 
1810;  studied  law,  and  in  1819  went  to 
New  Orleans,  where  he  soon  acquired  a 
large  practice.  He  was  appointed  United 
States  district  attorney  for  Louisiana  in 
1829;  elected  to  Congress  in  1843;  made 
minister  to  Mexico  in  1845;  and  was  in 
the  United  States  Senate  in  1853-1861. 
In  September,  1861,  he  was  appointed  a 
Confederate  commissioner  to  France,  and 
in  November  set  out  with  his  associate, 
James  M.  Mason,  for  Southampton.  Both 
commissioners  were  seized  on  the  English 
mail  steamer  "Trent"  by  Capt.  Charles 
Wilkes  of  the  United  States  steamer  "San 
Jacinto,"  and  brought  to  the  United 
States.  After  imprisonment  in  Fort  War- 
ren he  was  released  on  the  demand  of 
Great  Britain,  and  sailed  for  England  in 
January,  1862.  From  England  he  at 
once  went  to  Paris,  where  in  February, 
1862,  he  paid  his  first  visit  to  the  French 
minister  of  Foreign  Affairs.  His  mission, 
which  had  for  its  object  the  recognition 
of  the  Confederate  States  by  France,  was 
a  failure,  but  he  succeeded  in  negotiating 
a  large  loan  and  in  securing  the  ship 
"Stonewall"  for  the  Confederate  govern- 
ment. After  the  war  he  settled  in  Lon- 
don, England,  where  he  died  July  29, 
1871. 


SLIGO 


456 


SLOVAKS 


SLIGO,  a  maritime  county  of  Ireland. 
It  is  in  Connaught  and  has  an  area  of 
707  square  miles.  The  coast  has  numer- 
ous inlets  and  a  splendid  bay.  Near  the 
border  is  situated  Roth  Crauachan,  cele- 
brated as  the  court  of  Queen  Maeve, 
the  great  opponent  of  Cuchulain,  and 
with  the  site  of  a  famous  mediaeval  school 
in  the  vicinity.  Cattle  raising,  fisheries, 
and  agriculture  are  the  chief  industries. 
Pop.  about  75,000. 

SLOAN,  JOHN,  an  American  painter, 
born  at  Lock  Haven,  Pa.,  in  1871.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Philadelphia  Central 
High  School  and  at  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts.     He  was  espe- 


JOHN   SLOAN 

cially  well  known  for  his  paintings  and 
etchings  of  city  life  subjects,  as  well  as 
for  his  drawings  published  in  many  of 
the  most  prominent  magazines.  He  re- 
ceived a  medal  for  etchings  at  the  Pan- 
ama-Pacific Exposition.  He  was  an  in- 
structor at  the  Art  Student's  League  and 
a  director  of  the  Society  of  Independent 
Artists. 

SLOANE,  WILLIAM  MILLIGAN,  an 
American  historian;  born  in  Richmond, 
O.,  Nov.  12,  1850;  was  graduated  at  Col- 
umbia in  1868;  studied  in  Berlin  and 
Leipsic  (1872-1876),  and  during  part  of 
that  time  was  private  secretary  of  George 
Bancroft,  then   minister  at   Berlin.     He 


was  for  several  years  a  professor  at 
Princeton,  later  Professor  of  History  at 
Columbia.  He  published:  "The  French 
War  and  the  Revolution,"  "Life  of  James 
McCosh,"  in  1897  brought  out  a  very  im- 
portant "Life  of  Napoleon,"  in  four  vol- 
umes. His  later  works  include:  "The 
French  Revolution  and  Religious  Reform" 
(1901);  "The  Balkans"  (1914);  "Party 
Government  in  America"  (1915). 

-  SLOCTTM,  HENRY  WARNER,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in  Delphi, 
Onondaga  co.,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  24,  1827.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1852;  resigned  his  com- 
mission in  1856;  studied  law,  and  prac- 
ticed in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  State  Legislature  in  1859. 
When  the  Civil  War  broke  out  he  was 
commissioned  a  colonel  of  volunteers  in 
the  Union  army.  He  was  at  the  first 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  commanding  a  regi- 
ment, July  21,  1861 ;  was  promoted  Brig- 
adier-General in  the  autumn  of  1861,  and 
commanded  a  division  in  the  battles  of 
Gaines's  Mill,  White  Oak  Swamp,  and 
Malvern  Hill.  In  1862  he  was  promoted 
Major-General;  participated  in  the  battles 
of  Bull  Run,  Aug.  29  and  30;  commanded 
a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville, 
and  at  Gettysburg,  July  2  and  3,  1863, 
was  placed  in  command  of  a  corps  on  the 
left  wing  of  General  Sherman's  army ;  and 
took  part  in  the  great  "March  to  the  Sea," 
leading  the  left  wing  of  the  army  from 
Atlanta  to  _  Savannah.  In  September, 
1865,  he  resigned  from  the  army;  settled 
in  Brooklyn;  and  resumed  the  practice 
of  law.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1869  and  served  till  1873.  He  died  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  April  14,  1894. 

SLOSSON,  EDWIN  EMERY,  an 
American  editor  and  writer,  born  at  Al- 
bany, Kan.,  in  1865.  He  graduated  from 
the  University  of  Kansas  in  1890,  t  and 
took  post-graduate  studies  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago.  He  was  for  several  years 
professor  of  chemistry  at  the  University 
of  Wyoming.  In  1903  he  became  literary 
manager  of  the  "Independent,"  and  from 
1912  was  an  associate  professor  at  the 
Columbia  School  of  Journalism.  He  wrote 
"Great  American  Universities"  (1910); 
"Major  Prophets  of  To-Day"  (1914)  ; 
"Creative  Chemistry"  (1919)  ;  "The 
American  Spirit  in  Education"  (1919). 

SLOVAKS,  the  name  of  the  Slavic 
inhabitants  of  North  Hungary  who  in  the 
9th  century  formed  the  nucleus  of  the 
great  Moravian  kingdom,  but  who,  after 
the  bloody  battle  of  Presburg  (a.  d.  907), 
were  gradually  subjugated  by  the  Mag- 
yars. There  are  scattered  settlements 
of  Slovaks  in  Austria  and  Slavonia.  They 
number   about   2,500,000.     The    Slovaks, 


SMALL 


467 


SMELTING 


whose  character  probably  comes  nearest 
to  that  of  the  old  Slavic  type,  travel  in 
great  numbers  over  Germany  and  Poland 
as  peddlers.  Their  language  is  a  dialect 
of  the  Bohemian.    See  Czecho-Slovakia. 

SMALL,    ALBION    WOODBURY,    an 

American  educator,  born  at  Buchfield, 
Me.,  in  1854.  He  was  educated  at  Colby 
College,  the  Newton  Theological  Institu- 
tion, the  Universities  of  Berlin  and  Leip- 
zig, and  Johns  Hopkins  University.  From 
1881  to  1888  he  was  professor  of  history 
and  political  economy  at  Colby  College, 
and  from  1889  to  1892  president  of  this 
institution.  From  1892  to  1905  he  was 
professor  and  head  of  the  department  of 
sociology  at  the  University  of  Chicago, 
and  since  1905  Dean  of  the  Graduate 
School  of  Arts  and  Literature.  Begin- 
ning with  1895  he  was  editor  of  the 
"American  Journal  of  Sociology."  He 
wrote  "General  Sociology"  (1905) ;  "Ad- 
am Smith  and  Modern  Sociology"  (1907)  ; 
"The  Cameralists"  (1909) ;  "The  Meaning 
of  Social  Science"  (1910) ;  "Between 
Eras"  (1913). 

SMALLEY,  GEORGE  WASHBURN, 
an  American  journalist;  born  in  Frank- 
lin, Mass.,  June  2,  1833.  During  the 
American  Civil  War,  the  war  between 
Prussia  and  Austria,  and  the  Franco-Ger- 
man War,  he  distinguished  himself  as  war 
correspondent  of  the  New  York  "Trib- 
une," and  as  representative  of  the  same 
in  London  (1867-1895)  he  gained  an  emi- 
nent rank  in  journalism.  His  "London 
Letters  and  Some  Others"  and  "Studies 
of  Men"  were  widely  popular.  He  pub- 
lished two  series  of  "Anglo-American 
Memories"  (1911-1912).  He  became 
American  correspondent  of  the  London 
"Times"  in  1895.    He  died  in  1916. 

SMALLPOX,  an  eruptive  febrile  dis- 
ease, which  happily  is  not  now  nearly  so 
prevalent  as  it  once  was.  According  to 
some  Arabic  historians,  it  came  first  from 
Ethiopia  into  Arabia  about  A.  D.  572.  The 
wars  which  were  carried  on  in  the  East, 
and  particularly  the  Crusades  in  the  12th 
and  13th  centuries,  introduced  it  into  Eu- 
rope, first  into  Spain  and  France,  and 
then  into  other  countries.  This  disease 
commonly  commences  with  the  usual  fe- 
brile symptoms;  as  rigors,  pain  in  the 
back  and  loins,  great  prostration  of 
strength,  followed  by  heat  and  dryness  of 
the  skin,  a  hard  and  frequent  pulse,  loss 
of  appetite,  pain  in  the  epigastrium,  with 
nausea,  vomiting,  headache,  and  some- 
times delirium  or  convulsions.  About  the 
third  day  an  eruption  of  small,  hard,  red- 
colored  pimples  makes  its  appearance 
about  the  face  and  neck,  and  gradually 
extends  over  the  trunk  and  extremities. 
The   pimples   gradually   ripen   into   pus- 


tules, which,  on  the  eighth  day,  generally 
begin  to  break,  and  crusts  or  scabs  form 
on  these  last,  falling  off  in  four  or  five 
days  more.  When  the  pustules  are  nu- 
merous they  run  together  and  form  an 
irregular  outline;  when  fewer  they  are 
distinct  and  of  a  regularly  circumscribed 
circular  form.  The  former  is  technically 
called  variola  conftnens,  and  the  other 
variola  discreta;  the  former  being  never 
free  from  danger,  the  latter  seldom  or 
never  dangerous. 

SMART,  CHRISTOPHER,  an  English 
poet,  and  one  of  the  interesting  figures 
of  literary  history;  born  in  Shipbourne, 
Kent,  England,  April  11,  1722.  His  fame 
rests  on  a  "Song  to  David"  (1763).  Noted 
also  is  a  version  of  Horace  which  had  a 
wide   sale.      Other   works   are:    "Poems" 

(1752)  ;  "Power  of  the  Supreme  Being" 
(1753);    "The   Hilliah:    An   Epic   Poem" 

(1753)  ;  "Poems  on  Several  Occasions" 
(1763)  ;  "Translation  of  the  Psalms  of 
David"  (1765);  and  many  miscellaneous 
essays,  poems  and  translations.  He  died 
in  London,  May  21,  1771. 

SMELT,  Osmerus  eperlanus;  a  small 
anadromous  fish;  common  on  the  coasts 
and  in  the  fresh  waters  of  northern  and 
central  Europe,  and  of  corresponding 
American  latitudes,  from  August  to  May, 
returning  to  the  sea  after  it  has  deposited 
its  eggs.  It  sometimes  becomes  landlocked 
in  lakes.  New  Zealand  smelt,  Ketropinna 
richardsoni,  one  of  the  Salmonidze,  found 
only  in  the  rivers  of  New  Zealand. 

SMELTING,  the  act  or  process  of 
obtaining  metal  from  ore  by  the  combined 
action  of  heat,  air,  and  fluxes.  The  oper- 
ation varies  according  to  the  different 
metallic  ores  to  be  operated  on.  In  smelt- 
ing iron  the  ore  is  first  roasted  in  a  kiln 
in  order  to  drive  off  the  water,  sulphur, 
and  arsenic  with  which  it  is  more  or  less 
combined  in  its  native  state,  and  is  then 
subjected  to  the  heat  of  a  blast-furnace 
along  with  certain  proportions  of  coke  or 
coal  and  limestone,  varying  according  to 
the  quality  and  composition  of  the  ore  to 
be  heated.  The  smelting  of  copper  con- 
sists in  alternate  roastings  and  fusions. 
The  first  of  these  operations  is  calcining 
the  ore  in  furnaces  in  which  the  heat  is 
applied  and  increased  gradually  till  the 
temperature  is  as  high  as  the  ore  can 
support  without  melting  or  agglutinating, 
when  the  ore  is  thrown  into  an  arch 
formed  under  the  sole  of  the  furnace. 
The  second  operation,  or  fusion  of  the 
calcined  ore,  is  performed  in  a  luted  fur- 
nace, the  ore  having  been  spread  uni- 
formly over  the  hearth,  and  fluxes,  such 
as  lime,  sand,  or  fluorspar,  being  added 
when  required,  though  the  necessity  for 
this  addition  is  sought  to  be  obviated  by 


SMELTING    FURNACE 


458 


SMITH 


a  careful  admixture  of  ores  of  different 
qualities,  the  several  earthy  components 
of  which  serve  as  fluxes  in  the  fusion 
of  the  mass.  These  two  processes  of 
calcination  and  fusion  are  repeated  alter- 
nately till  the  ore  is  completely  freed 
from  all  the  earthy  materials,  and  pure 
metal  is  obtained.  In  smelting  lead,  the 
ores,  after  being  sorted,  cleansed,  ground, 
and  washed,  are  roasted  in  furnaces  which 
are  without  any  blast  or  blowing  appara- 
tus, the  ores  being  separable  from  the 
metal  by  its  great  fusibility.  The  smelt- 
ing of  tin  consists  of  the  calcining  or 
roasting  of  the  ores  after  they  have  been 
cleaned,  sorted,  stamped,  and  washed. 
See  Blast  Furnace;  Iron  and  Steel. 

SMELTING  FURNACE,  a  furnace  for 
disengaging  the  metal  from  its  gangue  or 
the  non-metalliferous  portions  of  the  ore. 
The  furnaces  differ  much,  according  to 
the  metals  to  be  treated.  See  Blast  Fur- 
nace: Reverberatory  Furnace. 

SMEW,  in  ornithology,  the  Mergus 
albellus,  called  also  the  smee  or  nun,  fre- 
quenting the  seashore  and  also  inland 
ponds  and  lakes  of  Europe  and  America. 
The  adult  male  is  about  17  inches  long; 
head,  chin  and  neck  white,  a  black  patch 
round  the  eyes,  and  over  the  back  of  the 
head  is  a  green  streak  forming,  with  some 
white  elongated  feathers,  a  kind  of  crest; 
back  black,  tail  gray,  wings  black  and 
white,  under  surface  white,  penciled  with 
gray  on  the  flanks.  The  female  is  smaller, 
with  plumage  chiefly  reddish-brown  and 
gray. 

SMILACE.33,  sarsaparilla ;  an  order  of 
dictyogens.  Herbs  or  under-shrubs  often 
climbing,  and  with  fleshy  tuberous  rhi- 
zomes; leaves  reticulated;  fruit,  a  round- 
ish berry.  Known  genera,  two;  species 
120,  widely  distributed,  but  most  numer- 
ous in  Asia  and  America. 

SMILAX,  sarsaparilla,  the  typical 
genus  of  the  order  Smilacese.  The  roots 
of  several  species  or  varieties  constitute 
the  sarsaparilla  of  the  Materia  Medica. 
Sarsaparilla  is  regarded  as  an  alterative 
in  venereal  and  skin  diseases,  rheumatism, 
etc.  The  kind  most  valued  is  that  known 
as  Jamaica  sarsaparilla,  obtained  from 
the  species  S.  officinalis.  It  is  not  the 
produce  of  Jamaica,  but  of  Central  Amer- 
ica and  the  N.  parts  of  South  America. 
Other  kinds  distinguished  in  commerce 
are  Lima,  Lean  Vera  Cruz,  Gouty  Vera 
Cruz,  Lisbon,  or  Brazilian,  and  Honduras. 
Among  the  European  species  is  S.  aspera, 
the  roots  of  which  form  Italian  sarsa- 
parilla. 

SMILES,  SAMUEL,  a  British  miscel- 
laneous writer;  born  in  Haddington,  Scot- 
land, Dec.  23,  1812;  was  educated  at  Ed- 


inburgh University,  and  as  a  surgeon  in 
Edinburgh;  editor  of  Leeds  "Times"; 
secretary  of  the  Leeds  and  Thirsk  rail- 
way; afterward  of  Southeastern  railway; 
then  retired.  Many  of  his  writings  had 
a  very  wide  circulation.  Among  them 
are:  "Self-Help"  (1859)  ;  "Life  of  George 
Stephenson"  (6th  ed.  1864) ;  "Lives  of 
Engineers"  (1862;  new  ed.  1874,  5  vols.)  ; 
"The  Huguenots  in  England  and  Ireland" 
(4th  ed.  1876) ;  "Thrift"  (1875)  ;  "Men 
of  Invention  and  Industry"  (1884)  ;  "Life 
and  Labor,"  "Conduct,"  etc.  The  King 
of  Servia  conferred  on  him  (1897),  for 
his  literary  work,  the  Knight  Command- 
er's Cross  of  the  Royal  Order  of  St.  Sava. 
He  died  April  16,  1904. 

SMILEY,  ALBERT  KEITH,  an  Ameri- 
can humanitarian,  born  at  Vassalboro, 
Me.,  in  1828.  He  graduated  from  Haver- 
ford  College  in  1849,  and  was  an  instruc- 
tor in  that  institution  until  1853.  In  1853 
he  founded,  together  with  his  brother,  the 
English  and  Classical  Academy  in  Phila- 
delphia. For  a  number  of  years  follow- 
ing he  was  principal  of  schools  in  Phila- 
delphia and  at  Providence,  R.  I.  His  chief 
work,  however,  was  the  establishment  of 
the  Lake  Mohonk  Conference,  at  Mohonk 
Lake,  where  annual  meetings  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  humanitarian  and  social  sub- 
jects are  held.  In  1889  he  purchased  a 
large  tract  of  land  at  Redlands,  Cal.,  part 
of  which  he  made  into  a  park.  He  died 
in  1912. 

SMILLIE,  ROBERT,  a  British  labor 
leader,  born  in  Scotland  in  1859.  He  was 
educated  in  the  board  schools  and  at  first 
worked  as  a  miner.  Rising  as  an  official 
of  his  trade  union,  he  became  in  1894 
president  of  the  Scottish  Miners'  Federa- 
tion, and  later  president  of  the  Miners' 
Federation  of  Great  Britain.  He  was  one 
of  the  most  strenuous  fighters  in  behalf 
of  the  movement  for  the  nationalization  of 
mines. 

SMITH,  ADAM,  a  Scotch  political 
economist;  born  in  Kirkcaldy,  Fifeshire, 
Scotland,  June  5,  1723.  He  studied  at 
Oxford,  and  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Moral  Philosophy  at  Glasgow  University 
in  1752.  Toward  the  close  of  1763  he 
accepted  an  invitation  to  travel  with  the 
Duke  of  Buccleuch,  and  having  resigned 
his  chair,  made  a  long  tour  in  France, 
becoming  acquainted  at  Paris  with  some 
of  the^  most  eminent  philosophers  and 
economists.  Returning  in  1766,  he  spent 
the  next  10  years  in  retirement  at  Kirk- 
caldy, engaged  in  the  composition  of  his 
great  work,  the  "Inquiry  into  the  Nature 
and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations" 
(1776).  It  has  a  high  rank  among  the 
successful  books  of  the  world.  Its  main 
principle  is  that  labor,  not  money  or  land, 


SMITH 


459 


SMITH 


is  the  real  source  of  wealth.  The  means 
of  making  labor  most  fruitful,  the  divi- 
sion of  labor,  what  wealth  consists  in,  the 
mischiefs  of  legislative  interference  with 
industry  and  commerce,  the  necessity  of 
freedom  of  trade,  are  admirably  discussed 
and  expounded.  The  book  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  basis  of  modern  political 
economy.  In  1778  Smith  settled  in  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  had  the  appointment  of 
a  commissioner  of  customs  for  Scotland. 
He  was  the  friend  of  David  Hume,  of 
whose  last  days  and  death  he  wrote  an 
account,  with  a  warm  panegyric  on  his 
character,  which  was  published  with 
Hume's  autobiography.  He  was  also  au- 
thor of  a  "Theory  of  Moral  Sentiments" 
(1759).  Smith  was  chosen  lord-rector  of 
the  University  of  Glasgow  in  1787.  He 
died  in  Edinburgh,  July  17,  1790. 

SMITH,  ALFRED  EMANUEL,  an 
American  public  official,  born  in  New 
York  City  in  1873.  He  was  educated  in 
the  parochial  schools  and  received  honor- 
ary degrees  from  Manhattan  College  and 
Fordham  University.  From  1895  to  1903 
he  was  a  clerk  in  the  office  of  the  commis- 
sioner of  jurors;  from  1903  to  1915  a 
member  of  the  New  York  Assembly,  be- 
coming the  Democratic  leader  in  1911  and 
speaker  in  1913;  in  1915  a  delegate  to 
the  State  Constitutional  Convention ;  from 
1915  to  1917  sheriff  of  New  York  co.;  and 
from  1917  to  1919  president  of  the  Board 
of  Aldermen  of  Greater  New  York.  Al- 
ways having  been  a  member  of  Tammany 
Hall,  he  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for 
governor  in  1918  and  was  elected  in  the 
fall  of  that  year  for  a  two-year  term. 
Although  his  administration  was,  gener- 
ally speaking,  efficient  and  satisfactory 
to  the  people  of  the  State,  he  failed  of  re- 
election in  1920,  being  defeated  by  the 
Republican  candidate,  Nathan  L.  Miller. 
His  popularity  was  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  he  received  almost  500,000  more  votes 
than  the  Democratic  candidate  for  Presi- 
dent and  that  he  ran  ahead  of  the  balance 
of  the  Democratic  ticket  by  an  almost 
equal  number  of  votes.  On  his  retirement 
from  public  service  on  Jan.  1,  1921,  he 
became  vice-president  and  general  man- 
ager of  a  large  trucking  concern  in  New 
York  City. 

SMITH,  ALFRED  H.,  an  American 
railway  official.  He  entered  the  service 
of  the  L.  S.  and  M.  S.  Ry.  at  Cleveland 
as  a  messenger  boy  in  1879,  rising  grad- 
ually to  the  position  of  general  superin- 
tendent in  1901.  In  1902  he  became  con- 
nected with  the  N.  Y.  C.  and  H.  R.  RR. 
as  general  superintendent,  becoming  gen- 
eral manager  in  1903,  vice-president  in 
1906,  senior  vice-president  in  1913,  and 
president  of  the  N.  Y.  Central  Lines  in 
1914.    During  the  World  War  he  was  as- 


sistant director-general  of  railroads  in 
charge  of  transportation  in  the  trunk  line 
territory  E.  of  Chicago  and  N.  of  the 
Ohio  and  Potomac  rivers,  and  later  re- 
gional director  of  the  eastern  district. 
At  the  end  of  his  service  with  the  Federal 
Government  he  was  re-elected  president 
of  the  N.  Y.  Central  Lines  on  June  1, 1919. 

SMITH,  C(HARLES)  ALPHONSO, 
an  American  educator  and  writer,  born 
at  Greensboro,  N.  C,  in  1864.  He  was 
educated  at  Davidson  College  and  at 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  holding  also 
honorary  degrees  from  the  University  of 
Tennessee,  University  of  North  Carolina, 
and  the  University  of  Cincinnati.  From 
1890  to  1893  he  was  instructor  of  English 
at  Johns  Hopkins  University;  from  1893 
to  1902  professor  of  English  language  and 
literature  at  the  Louisiana  State  Univer- 
sity; from  1902  to  1907  professor  of  Eng- 
lish language;  from  1907  to  1909  head 
of  the  English  Department  and  dean  of 
the  graduate  department  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  North  Carolina;  from  1909  to  1917 
Edgar  Allan  Poe  Professor  of  English  at 
the  University  of  Virginia ;  and  from  1917 
on  head  of  the  Department  of  English  at 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy.  At 
various  times  he  was  a  lecturer  on  Eng- 
lish language  and  literature  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  California,  University  of  Kan- 
sas, etc.  From  1910  to  1911  he  was 
Roosevelt  professor  of  American  history 
and  institutions  at  the  University  of  Ber- 
lin. He  was  the  founder  of  the  Virginia 
Folk  Lore  Society  (1913).  Besides  con- 
tributing to  periodicals,  he  was  associate 
editor  of  "World's  Orators"  (1901),  and 
of  the  "Library  of  Southern  Literature," 
and  wrote:  "Repetition  and  Parallelism 
in  English  Verse"  (1894)  ;  "Old  English 
Grammar  and  Exercise  Book"  (1896); 
"Elementary  English  Grammar"  (1903) ; 
"Studies  in  English  Syntax"  (1906) ;  "Die 
Amerikanische  Literatur"  (1911);  "Se- 
lections from  Huxley"  (1911)  ;  "The 
American  Short  Story"  (1912)  ;  "Peri- 
cles" (1913)  ;  "What  Can  Literature  Do 
for  Me?"  (1913)  ;  "0.  Henry,  Biography" 
(1916)  ;  "Short  Stories  Old  and  New" 
(1916)  ;  "Keynote  Studies  in  Keynote 
Books  of  the  Bible"  (1919) ;  "New  Words 
Self -Defined"  (1919). 

SMITH,      CHARLES      EMORY,      an 

American  journalist;  born  in  Mansfield, 
Conn.,  Feb.  18,  1824;  was  graduated  at 
Union  College  in  1861 ;  edited  the  Albany 
"Express"  in  1865-1870,  and  in  1880  be- 
came editor  of  the  Philadelphia  "Press." 
He  was  United  States  minister  to  Russia 
in  1890-1892;  a  delegate  to  several  Na- 
tional Republican  conventions;  and  post- 
master-general, 1898-1901,  then  resuming 
the  editorship  of  the  Philadelphia  "Press*." 
He  died  Jan.  19,  1908. 


SMITH 


460 


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cSMTTH,  CHARLES  HENRY,  pseudo- 
nym, "Bill  Arp,"  an  American  humorist; 
born  in  Lawrenceville,  Ga.,  June  15,  1826; 
was  graduated  at  Franklin  College,  Ath- 
ens, Ga.,  in  1848;  studied  law  and  prac- 
ticed in  Rome,  Ga.,  for  27  years,  after- 
ward removing  to  Cartersville ;  served  in 
the  Confederate  army  in  1861-1865,  be- 
coming major  on  staff  of  3d  Georgia  Brig- 
ade. His  literary  career  began  (1861) 
in  a  series  of  letters  under  his  pseudo- 
nym. His  publications  include:  "Bill 
Arp's  Scrap  Book"  (1886);  "The  Farm 
and  the  Fireside,"  and  "Georgia  as  a  Col- 
ony and  State,  1733-1893."     Died  1903. 

SMITH,     CHARLES     SPENCER,     an 

American  bishop  of  the  African  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church,  born  at  Colborne, 
Canada,  in  1852.  He  was  educated  in  the 
public  schools  of  Canada  and  at  Meharry 
Medical  College,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  from 
which  institution  he  received  the  degree 
of  M.D.  in  1880.  He  also  holds  honorary 
degrees  from  Wilberforce  University  and 
Victoria  College.  He  was  ordained  a  min- 
ister of  the  A.  M.  E.  Church  in  1872; 
was  a  member  of  the  Alabama  House  of 
Representatives  from  1874  to  1876; 
founded  in  1882  the  Sunday  School  Union 
of  the  A.  M.  E.  Church,  of  which  he  was 
secretary  and  treasurer  from  1882  to 
1900 ;  and  was  elected  bishop  in  1900, 
becoming  later  presiding  bishop  of  the 
A.  M.  E.  Church  in  Michigan,  Canada, 
and  the  West  Indies.  He  wrote  "Glimpses 
of  Africa,  West  and  South  West  Coast" 
(1895). 

SMITH,  DANIEL  APPLETON 
WHITE,  an  American  missionary,  born 
at  Waterville,  Me.,  in  1840.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  University  and  the 
Newton  Theological  Institution.  After 
having  been  ordained  a  Baptist  minister 
in  1862,  he  devoted  himself  to  missionary 
work,  becoming  president  of  the  Karen 
Theological  Seminary  at  Insein,  Burma, 
in  1876.  He  served  until  1916,  when  he 
became  president  emeritus,  and  was  also 
editor  of  the  "Morning  Star,"  a  Karen 
monthly.  He  wrote  "Sketch  of  the  Life 
of  E.  A.  Stevens"  (1886) ;  "Sound  Prin- 
ciples of  Interpretation"  (1902)  ;  "Ser- 
monizing and  Preaching"  (1904)  ;  and 
various  Bible  annotations  and  commen- 
taries in  the  Karen  language. 

SMITH,  EDGAR  FAHS,  an  American 
chemist  and  educator,  born  in  York,  Pa., 
in  1856.  He  graduated  from  Pennsyl- 
vania College  in  1874  and  took  post-grad- 
uate studies  in  Germany.  For  several 
years  he  served  as  instructor  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  and  as  professor 
at  Muhlenberg  and  Wittenberg  colleges. 
From  1888  to  1911  he  was  professor  of 


chemistry  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  was  appointed  vice-provost  of 
the  University  in  1899,  and  provost  in 
1911,  retiring  in  1920.  He  was  president 
of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  and 
wa6  a  member  of  other  scientific  societies. 
He  wrote  many  books  on  chemical  sub- 
jects, including  "Theories  of  Chemistry" 
■<1913)  ;  "Chemistry  in  America"  (1914)  ; 
"Chemistry  in  Old  Philadelphia"  (1918), 
and  "James  Cutbush"   (1919). 

SMITH,  ELLISON  DTJ  RANT,  Ameri- 
can Senator;  born  at  Lynchburg,  S.  C, 
Aug.  1,  1866.  In  1896  he  was  elected  to 
the  South  Carolina  Legislature.  He  took 
an  active  part  in  the  organization  of  the 
Farmers'  Protective  Association  in  1901, 
and  was  delegate  to  the  Boll  Weevil  Con- 
vention at  Shreveport,  La.,  in  1905.  He 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate 
by  the  Democrats  for  the  three  terms  from 
1909  to  1927. 

SMITH,   FRANCIS   HOPKINSON,   an 

American  painter,  writer  and  civil  engi- 
neer; born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Oct.  23, 
1838.  He  was  educated  as  a  mechanical 
engineer ;  built  the  government  wall  round 
Governor's  Island,  one  at  Tompkinsville, 
S.  I.,  the  Race  Rock  lighthouse  off  New 
London,  Conn.,  the  foundation  for  the 
statue  of  Liberty  Enlightening  the  World 
in  New  York  harbor,  etc.  He  won  fame 
as  a  water-color  artist  and  an  illustrator, 
and  lectured  on  art.  Among  his  most 
popular  books  are:  "Book  of  the  Tile 
Club"  (1890);  "A  White  Umbrella  in 
Mexico"  (1889) ;  "Colonel  Carter  of  Car- 
tersville" (1891);  "American  Illustra- 
tors" (1892)  ;  "A  Gentleman  Vagabond" 
(1895);  "Gondola  Days"  (1897);  "Caleb 
West"  (1898);  "The  Other  Fellow" 
(1899)  ;  "Kennedy  Square"  (1911)  ;  "The 
Arm  Chair  at  the  Inn"  (1912)  ;  "In  Dick- 
ens Land"  (1914)  ;  "Felix  O'Day"  (1915). 
He  died  in  1915. 

SMITH,  FREDERICK  EDWIN,  Baron 
Birkenhead,  British  Lord  Chancellor,  born 
at  Birkenhead,  England,  in  1872.  He  was 
educated  at  Birkenhead  School  and  Wad- 
ham  College,  Oxford,  and  was  president 
of  the  Oxford  Union  Society  in  1893.  He 
was  conservative  candidate  for  the  Scot- 
land Division  of  Liverpool  in  1903-4  and 
for  the  Walton  Division  in  1905.  He  was 
an  associate  of  Sir  Edward  Carson  in  the 
opposition  to  Irish  Home  Rule,  threat- 
ening to  take  the  field,  but  became  Solici- 
tor-General when  the  European  War 
broke  out.  He  became  Lord  Chancellor 
in  1919.  He  wrote  "International  Law," 
"My  American  Visit." 

SMITH,      FREDERICK       MADISON, 

president  of  the  Reorganized  Church  of 
Jesus  Christ  of  Latter  Day  Saints,  born 


SMITH 


461 


SMITH 


at  Piano,  111.,  in  1874.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Iowa,  Graceland 
College,  University  of  Missouri,  and  Uni- 
versity of  Kansas,  and  holds  the  degree 
of  Ph.D.  from  Clark  University.  After 
teaching  mathematics  at  Graceland  Col- 
lege, Lamoni,  la.,  and  being  editor  of  a 
local  paper,  he  became  in  1902  first  coun- 
selor of  the  Reorganized  Church  of  Jesus 
Christ  of  Latter  Day  Saints  and  presi- 
dent in  1915.  From  1908  to  1912  he  was 
editor  of  the  "Journal  of  History"  and 
in  1917  he  became  editor  of  the  "Saints' 
Herald."  He  was  a  member  of  many  his- 
torical and  scientific  societies. 

SMITH,  GEORGE,  an  English  Assyri- 
ologist;  born  in  London,  England,  March 
26,  1840.  The  importance  of  his  contri- 
butions to  our  knowledge  of  Assyrian  his- 
tory and  inscriptions  is  everywhere  ac- 
knowledged. Part  of  his  published  works 
are:  "The  Chaldean  Account  of  Genesis"; 
"Assyria  from  the  Earliest  Times  Till  the 
Fall  of  Nineveh"  (1875)  ;  "Assyrian  Dis- 
coveries" (1875),  an  account  of  his  own 
travels  and  researches;  "The  Assyrian 
Eponym  Canon"  (1875);  "History  of 
Babylonia,"  edited  by  A.  H.  Sayce  (1877)  ; 
"History  of  Sennacherib,"  edited  by  A.  H. 
Sayce  (1878).  He  died  in  Aleppo,  Aug. 
19,  1876. 

SMITH,  SIR  GEORGE  ADAM,  a  Brit- 
ish educator,  born  at  Calcutta,  in  1856. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Royal  High 
School,  University,  and  New  College,  Ed- 
inburgh, and  at  Tubingen  and  Leipzig. 
After  traveling  in  Egypt  and  Syria  he 
became  assistant  to  the  Rev.  John  Fraser, 
at  Brechin,  and  then  became  Hebrew  tu- 
tor at  Aberdeen.  He  traveled  again  in 
Syria  and  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  went 
back  to  England  to  teach  and  write.  His 
works  include:  "The  Book  of  Isaiah," 
"The  Preaching  of  the  Old  Testament  to 
the  Age,"  "Historical  Geography  of  the 
Holy  Land,"  "The  Twelve  Prophets," 
"The  Life  of  Henry  Drummond,"  "Mod- 
ern Criticism  and  the  Preaching  of  the 
Old  Testament,"  "Syria  and  the  Holy 
Land." 

SMITH,  GEORGE  OTIS,  an  American 
geologist  and  public  official,  born  at  Hodg- 
don,  Me.,  in  1871.  He  graduated  from 
Colby  College  in  1893,  and  took  post-grad- 
uate studies  at  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity. For  many  years  he  was  engaged  in 
geological  work  in  various  States  of  the 
Union,  and  from  1896  to  1907  was  assist- 
ant geologist  and  geologist  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey.  He  was  di- 
rector of  the  Survey  from  1907.  He  was 
a  member  of  many  scientific  societies  and 
was  the  autho*  of  many  papers  on  the 
economics  of  minerals  and  power  re- 
sources. 

DD- 


SMITH,  GERRIT,  an  American  phi- 
lanthropist; born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  March 
6,  1797;  was  graduated  at  Hamilton  Col- 
lege in  1818;  studied  law;  and  took  up 
his  residence  at  Peterboro,  Madison  co., 
N.  Y.,  devoting  himself  to  the  care  of  a 
vast  landed  estate  in  Central  and  North- 
ern New  York  left  him  by  his  father.  He 
joined  and  liberally  contributed  to  the 
American  Colonization  Society  in  1825, 
but  withdrew  from  it  in  1835,  then  becom- 
ing a  member  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Society. 
He  gave  pecuniary  aid  to  John  Brown, 
in  whose  affair  at  Harper's  Ferry,  he, 
however,  it  is  thought,  had  no  part.  He 
was  nominated  for  governor  of  New  York 
in  1840  and  in  1858;  was  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1853-1854,  but  resigned  after 
one  session;  with  Horace  Greeley  he 
signed  the  bail  bond  of  Jefferson  Davis 
in  1867.  He  was  an  earnest  advocate  of 
temperance  and  a  supporter  of  a  number 
of  reforms.  He  built  a  non-sectarian 
church  at  Peterboro,  in  which  he  occa- 
sionally preached.  He  published 
"Speeches  in  Congress"  (1855) ;  "Ser- 
mons and  Speeches"  (1861);  "The  Re- 
ligion of  Reason"  (1864);  "The  Theolo- 
gies" (1866)  ;  and  "Nature  the  Base  of 
a  Free  Theology"  (1867).  He  died  in 
New  York  City,  Dec.  28,  1874. 

SMITH,  GOLDWIN,  an  English  his- 
torian; born  in  Reading,  England,  Aug. 
13,  1823;  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Ox- 
ford, where  he  graduated  first-class  in 
classics  in  1845  and  became  a  fellow  of 
University  College  in  1847.  He  also  helc 
the  post  of  Regius  Professor  of  History 
in  the  university  from  1858  to  1868.  As 
a  lecturer  he  attracted  great  attention 
both  on  account  of  his  strongly  democratic 
views  and  his  striking  originality.  Hav- 
ing during  the  American  Civil  War 
strongly  defended  the  cause  of  the  North, 
he  was  at  the  close  of  the  war  invited  to 
visit  the  States  to  deliver  a  course  of  lec- 
tures, and  his  visit  resulted  in  his  becom- 
ing Professor  of  History  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, New  York.  He  resigned  the 
appointment  in  1871,  and  was  appointed 
member  of  the  senate  of  the  University 
of  Toronto,  where  he  afterward  resided. 
Among  his  chief  works  are:  "Lectures 
on  Modern  History"  (1866)  ;  "The  Em- 
pire," a  series  of  letters  (1863)  ;  "Speech- 
es and  Letters  on  the  Rebellion"  (1865)  ; 
"Three  English  Statesmen"  (Pym,  Crom- 
well, and  Pitt)  (1867)  ;  "A  Short  History 
of  England  Down  to  the  Reformation" 
(1869)  ;  "A  History  of  the  United  States" 
(1893)  ;  "Essays  on  Questions  of  the 
Day"  (1894)  ;  "Guesses  at  the  Riddle  of 
Existence"  (1896);  "The  United  States: 
an  Outline  of  Political  History"  (1899)  ; 
"My  Memory  of  Gladstone"  (1905)  ;  "No 
Refuge  but  in  Truth"  (1909).  He  died 
June  7,  1910. 
-Cyc  Vol  8 


SMITH 


462 


SMITH 


SMITH,    HARLAN    INGERSOLL,    an 

American  scientist,  born  at  East  Sagi- 
naw, Mich.,  1872.  He  was  educated  in 
the  public  schools  and  at  the  University 
of  Michigan.  In  1891  he  was  an  assistant 
at  the  Peabody  Museum,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. From  1891  to  1893  he  was  in 
charge  of  the  anthropological  collections 
in  the  Museum  of  the  University  of  Mich- 
igan. He  became  in  1895  connected  with 
the  American  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, with  which  institution  he  served 
chiefly  in  connection  with  its  department 
of  archaeology,  becoming  honorary  cura- 
tor of  archaeology  in  1912.  He  was  ar- 
chaeologist of  the  Jesup  Northern  Pacific 
Expedition  and  of  the  Geological  Survey 
of  Canada.  His  archaeological  explora- 
tions, undertaken  since  1897,  were  de- 
voted chiefly  to  British  Columbia,  and  to 
other  parts  of  Canada.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  several  domestic  and  foreign 
anthropological  societies  and  wrote:  "Ar- 
chaeology of  Lytton"  (1899)  ;  "Archae- 
ology of  the  Thompson  River  Religion" 
(1900)  ;  "Cairns  of  British  Columbia  and 
Washington"  (1901)  ;  "Shell  Heaps  of 
the  Lower  Fraser  River,  British  Colum- 
bia" (1903);  "Archaeology  of  the  Gulf 
of  Georgia  and  Puget  Sound"  (1907) ; 
"Archaeology  of  the  Yakima  Valley,  Wash- 
ington" (1910)  ;  "The  Prehistoric  Eth- 
nology of  a  Kentucky  Site"  (1910). 

SMITH,  HENRY  LOUIS,  an  Ameri- 
can educator,  born  at  Greensboro,  N.  C, 
in  1859.  He  was  educated  at  Davidson 
College  and  the  University  of  Virginia. 
From  1887  to  1901  he  was  professor  of 
physics,  and  from  1901  to  1912  president 
of  Davidson  College.  In  1912  he  became 
president  of  Washington  and  Lee  Uni- 
versity. He  was  a  lecturer  on  educa- 
tional and  scientific  topics  and  a  member 
of  several  educational  and  other  societies. 

SMITH,  HOKE,  a  United  States  Sen- 
ator from  Georgia,  born  at  Newton,  N.  C, 
in  1855.  He  was  privately  educated  and 
removed  with  his  parents  to  Georgia  in 
1872.  In  the  following  year  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  and  practiced  at  At- 
lanta until  1909,  except  while  serving  as 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  the  cabinet 
of  President  Cleveland,  from  1893  to  1896. 
He  was  governor  of  Georgia  from  1907 
to  1909,  and  was  re-elected  for  the  term 
1911  to  1913.  He  resigned  as  governor 
to  enter  the  United  States  Senate,  having 
been  elected  to  fill  the  unexpired  term  of 
Alexander  S.  Clay,  deceased.  He  was 
reelected  for  the  term  of  1915  to  1921, 
but  was  defeated  bv  Thomas  E.  Watson 
in  1920. 

SMITH,  HERBERT  KNOX,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer,  born  at  Chester,  Mass.,  in 
1869.     He  was  educated  at  Yale  Univer- 


sity. He  practiced  law  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  from  1895  to  1903  and  again  be- 
ginning with  1912.  From  1900  to  1902 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Hartford  Com- 
mon Council;  from  1903  to  1905  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Connecticut  House  of  Repr»* 


HERBERT   KNOX   SMITH 

sentatives;  from  1903  to  1907  deputy 
commissioner  of  corporations,  Department 
of  Commerce  and  Labor;  and  from  1907 
to  1912  commissioner  of  corporations.  In 
1912  he  was  progressive  candidate  for 
governor  of  Connecticut.  During  the 
World  War  he  served  as  a  major  in  the 
Q.   M.   C. 

SMITH,  JAMES  and  HORACE,  au- 
thors of  the  "Rejected  Addresses"  and 
other  excellent  humorous  compositions; 
born  in  London,  James,  Feb.  10,  1775; 
Horace,  Dec.  31,  1779.  The  managers 
of  the  new  Drury  Lane  Theater,  com- 
pleted in  1812  to  replace  the  burned  one, 
offered  a  prize  for  the  most  suitable  open- 
ing address;  the  result  was  a  deluge  of 
such  ludicrous  rubbish  that  all  had  to  be 
rejected,  and  Byron  was  commissioned  to 
write  one.  The  brothers  Smith  conceived 
the  idea  of  burlesquing  the  style  of  lead- 
ing poets  and  other  men  of  letters  and 


SMITH 


468 


SMITH 


public  notorieties,  in  a  set  of  pieces  pur- 
porting to  be  among  the  real  addresses 
sent  in  to  the  committee  but  declined. 
Hence  the  volume  of  "Rejected  Ad- 
dresses," which  by  1819  had  reached  its 
16th  edition,  and  is  a  livingly  familiar 
classic  still.  vIts  travesties  are  hardly 
caricatures  so  much  as  genuine  reproduc- 
tions of  the  spirit  as  well  as  manner  of 
their  subjects.  Horace  subsequently  pub- 
lished many  novels  and  poems,  the  best- 
known  among  them  being  the  "Ode  to  an 
Egyptian  Mummy."  James  was  after- 
ward.a  well-known  diner-out,  entertainer, 
and  contributor  to  periodical  literature  in 
his  day;  his  best-known  pieces  are  "The 
Taking  of  Sebastopol"  and  "Surnames  Go 
by  Contraries."  James  died  Dec.  26,  1839 ; 
Horace,  July  12,  1849. 

SMITH,  J  (AMES)  ALLEN,  an  Ameri- 
can educator,  born  at  Pleasant  Hill,  Mo., 
in  1860.  He  was  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versities of  Missouri  and  Michigan.  From 
1895  to  1897  he  was  professor  of  econom- 
ics and  sociology  at  Marietta  College, 
Ohio.  In  1897  he  became  professor  of 
political  science  at  the  University  of 
Washington,  serving  also  as  dean  of  the 
graduate  school  since  1909.  He  wrote: 
"Multiple  Money  Standard"  (1896)  ;  "The 
Spirit  of  American  Government"  (1907). 

SMITH,  JAMES  FRANCIS,  an  Amer- 
ican jurist,  born  in  San  Francisco,  Cal., 
in  1859.  He  was  educated  in  Santa  Clara 
College  and  at  Hastings  Law  School  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1881.  In 
April,  1898,  he  became  colonel  of  the 
First  California  Regiment,  U.  S.  V.  With 
it  he  saw  service  in  the  Philippines  from 
June,  1898,  until  June,  1901.  Besides 
participating  in  many  engagements  he 
served  as  military  governor  of  the  Island 
of  Negros  and  as  collector  of  customs 
of  the  Philippine  Archipelago.  He  was 
mentioned  in  dispatches  for  gallantry  and 
was  promoted  Brigadier-General,  U.  S.  V., 
in  1899.  In  1901  he  was  associate  justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Philippines; 
from  1903  to  1906  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Philippine  Commission  and  secretary 
of  public  instruction  for  the  Philippine 
Islands;  from  1906  to  1909  governor -gen- 
eral of  the  Philippine  Islands;  and  since 
1910  associate  justice  of  the  United  States 
Court  of  Customs  Appeals. 

SMITH,  JESSIE  WILCOX,  an  Ameri- 
can artist,  born  in  Philadelphia.  She  was 
educated  privately  and  studied  art  at  the 
Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and 
at  Drexel  Institute.  From  1890  she  was 
engaged  as  an  artist  and  illustrator.  She 
was  especially  known  for  her  skill  in  por- 
traits of  children.  She  contributed  to 
most  of  the  important  magazines,  and 
illustrated  many  books. 


SMITH,  JOHN,  an  English  adveu 
turer,  the  founder  of  Virginia;  born  in 
Willoughby,  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  in 
January,  1579.  Of  a  daring  spirit,  long- 
ing for  a  larger  and  more  adventurous 
life,  he  early  served  in  the  Netherlands 
as  a  soldier  in  the  cause  of  liberty.  He 
then  traveled  in  France,  visited  Egypt  and 
Italy,  and,  about  1602,  greatly  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  wars  of  Hungary 
against  the  Turks,  gaining  the  favor  of 
Sigismund  Bathori,  Prince  of  Transylva- 
nia. Wounded  and  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Turks,  he  was  sold  as  a  slave,  was  harsh- 
ly treated  in  the  Crimea,  and  made  his 
escape.  Rumors  of  war  in  Morocco  at- 
tracted him  thither,  and  thence  he  re- 
turned to  England  about  1606. 

Smith  entered  with  enthusiasm  into  the 
project  of  colonizing  the  New  World,  and 
with  Gosnold,  Wingfield,  Hunt,  and  others 
set  out  in  December,  1606,  with  a  squad- 
ron of  three  small  vessels  for  Virginia, 
under  the  authority  of  a  charter  granted 
by  James  I.  Amid  the  unhappy  dissen- 
sions, difficulties,  and  distress  of  the  first 
years  of  the  great  enterprise,  Smith  ren- 
dered the  most  important  services  by  hi? 
irrepressible  hopefulness,  practical  wis- 
dom, and  vigorous  government.  But  for 
his  wisdom  and  noble  exertions  the  project 
would  probably  have  been  abandoned. 
He  made  important  geographical  explora- 
tions and  discoveries.  In  1607,  ascending 
the  Chickahominy,  and  penetrating  into 
the  interior  of  the  country,  Smith  and  his 
comrades  were  captured  by  the  Indians, 
and  he  only,  by  his  rare  self-possession, 
escaped  with  life.  He  remained  a  pris- 
oner for  some  weeks,  carefully  observed 
the  country,  got  some  knowledge  of  the 
language  of  the  natives,  and  when  at  last 
they  were  going  to  put  him  to  death  he 
was  saved  by  the  affectionate  pleading 
of  Pocahontas,  the  daughter  of  the  chief, 
Powhatan,  a  girl  10  or  12  years  old.  Re- 
conducted to  Jamestown,  Smith  had  need 
of  all  his  energy  to  cheer  the  desponding 
colonists.  In  the  summer  of  1608  he  ex- 
plored in  an  open  boat  the  Bay  of  Chesa- 
peake and  its  tributary  rivers,  a  navi- 
gation of  nearly  3,000  miles.  He  also 
penetrated  inland,  established  friendly  re- 
lations with  the  Indians,  and  prepared  a 
map  of  the  country.  On  his  return  from 
this  great  expedition  he  was  made  presi- 
dent of  the  colonial  council.  In  1609  he 
was  severely  injured  by  an  accidental  ex- 
plosion of  gunpowder,  and  without  re- 
ward for  his  splendid  services,  except  in 
his  own  conscience  and  the  applause  of 
the  world,  returned  to  England.  He  vis- 
ited Virginia  in  1614,  was  captured  by 
the  French  in  the  following  year,  and  on 
his  return  to  London  after  three  months 
heard  of  the  arrival  of  his  Indian  friend 
Pocahontas.    Smith  made  known  her  serv- 


SMITH 


464 


SMITH 


ices,  and  she  was  presented  to  Queen  Eliz- 
abeth and  loaded  with  marks  of  honor 
and  gratitude.  Smith  published  in  1608 
"A  True  Relation  of  Such  Occurrences 
and  Accidents  of  Note  as  Hath  Happened 
in  Virginia  Since  the  First  Planting  of 
That  Colony."  He  died  in  London,  June 
21,  1631. 

SMITH,  JOHN  WALTER,  American 
Senator;  born  at  Snow  Hill,  Md.,  Feb.  5, 
1845.  In  1889  he  was  elected  to  the  State 
Senate,  and  in  1895  acted  as  chairman  of 
the  Democratic  State  Committee.  In 
1899  he  became  a  member  of  Congress; 
in  1900  was  elected  Governor  of  Mary- 
land, serving  two  terms.  In  1908  he  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  for 
the  term  ending  in  1909  and  was  re- 
elected for  terms  1909-1915  and  1915-1921. 

SMITH,  JOSEPH,  the  founder  of  the 
Mormons;  born  in  Sharon,  Windsor  co., 
Vt.,  Dec.  23,  1805.  He  was  revered  as  a 
prophet  by  his  followers.  His  parents 
were  poor  farmers  who  went  to  Palmyra, 
N.  Y.,  in  the  hope  of  bettering  their  con- 
dition, taking  Joseph  with  them,  about 
1815.  Later  the  family  removed  to  Man- 
chester in  the  same  State.  According  to 
his  own  story  regarding  his  earlier  years, 
he  worked  hard  on  his  father's  farm.  But 
the  "oldest  settlers"  _  reported  that  the 
family  had  an  aversion  to  hard  toil  of 
any  kind  and  seemed  inclined  to  lead 
thriftless  lives,  spending  much  time  in 
digging  for  possible  hidden  treasure. 
About  1820  Joseph  claimed  to  be  a  con- 
stant witness  of  supernatural  visions  and 
to  be  gifted  with  a  supernatural  sight. 
He  pretended  that  he  received  in  1828  a 
divine  revelation  inscribed  in  mysterious 
hieroglyphics  on  golden  plates  which  were 
delivered  to  him  by  an  angel,  and  that  the 
"Book  of  Mormon,"  which  he  published  in 
1830,  was  translated  from  those  golden 
plates.  The  translation  was  dictated  by 
him  while  he  sat  behind  a  curtain  as  if 
in  the  society  of  mysterious  spiritual  com- 
panions. He  gathered  a  number  of  con- 
verts, and  as  "prophet"  went  with  them 
first  to  Kirtland,  O.,  and  afterward  to 
Independence,  Mo.     See  Mormons. 

SMITH,  JOSEPH  FIELDING,  a  Mor- 
mon apostle;  born  in  Far  West,  Mo.,  Nov. 
13,  1838;  drove  an  ox-team  in  the  "exo- 
dus" of  1846 ;  worked  as  a  manual  laborer 
in  1848-1854,  and  was  a  missionary  to 
the  Sandwich  Islands  in  1854-1857.  He 
was  ordained  to  one  of  the  "seventies"  in 
1858  and  to  apostleship  in  1866,  becoming 
a  member  of  the  Council  of  12  in  1867. 
He  was  several  times  a  member  of  the 
Utah  Legislature,  and  in  1882  presided 
over  the  Constitutional  Convention  which 
framed  the  constitution  for  the  State  of 
Utah;   was   director  of  Zion's   Co-opera- 


tive Mercantile  Institution  and  several 
other  enterprises;  and  editor  of  the  "Im- 
provement Era."  He  succeeded  Lorenzo 
Snow  as  president  of  the  Mormon  Church 
in  October,  1901.     He  died  in  1918. 

SMITH  (EDMUND)  MUNROE,  an 
American  educator,  born  at  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  in  1854.  He  was  educated  at  Am- 
herst College,  Columbia  University,  and 
at  the  University  of  Gottingen.  He  re- 
ceived honorary  degrees  from  Columbia. 
Amherst  and  the  University  of  Louisiana 
From  1880  to  1883  he  was  instructor  and 
from  1883  to  1891  adjunct  professor  of 
history  at  Columbia  University,  becoming 
professor  of  Roman  Law  and  Comparative 
Jurisprudence  in  the  latter  year.  Begin- 
ning with  1901  he  was  also  a  lecturer  on 
Roman  Law  at  the  Georgetown  Law 
School,  Washington,  D.  C.  He  was  an 
editor  of  the  "Political  Science  Quarter- 
ly" and  wrote:  "Bismarck  and  German 
Unity"  (1898);  "Militarism  and  State- 
craft"  (1918). 

SMITH,  NORA  ARCHIBALD,  an 
American  author,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.  She  was  educated  at  Santa  Barbara 
College,  California,  and  for  some  years 
devoted  herself  to  kindergarten  work  in 
connection  with  her  sister,  Kate  Douglas 
Wiggin,  afterward  engaging  in  literary 
work.  She  wrote  "The  Children  of  the 
Future"  (1898) ;  "Under  the  Cactus  Flag" 
(1899):  "The  Kindergarten  in  a  Nut- 
shell" (1899) ;  "The  Message  of  Froebel" 
(1900);  "Three  Little  Marys"  (1902); 
"Nelson,  the  Adventurer"  (1906) ;  "The 
Adventures  of  a  Doll"  (1907);  "The 
"Doll's  Calendar"  (1909);  "The  Home- 
Made  Kindergarten"  (1912) ;  "Old,  Old 
Tales  from  the  Old,  Old  Book"  (1916); 
"Plays  and  Pantomimes  for  Children" 
(1917).  Also  (with  Kate  Douglas  Wig- 
gin)  "The  Story  Hour"  (1891);  "Chil- 
dren's Rights"  (1893)  ;  "Republic  of 
Childhood"  (3  volumes) ;  "Froebel's  Gifts" 
(1896) ;  "Froebel's  Occupations"  (1896)  ; 
"Kindergarten  Principles  and  Practice" 
(1897) ;  "Golden  Numbers"  (1902) ;  "The 
Posy  Ring"  (1903);  "The  Fairy  Ring" 
(1906)  ;  "Pinafore  Palace"  (1907) ;  "Mag- 
ic Casements"  (1907) ;  "Tales  of  Laugh- 
ter" (1908)  ;  "Tales  of  Wonder"  (1909) ; 
"The  Talking  Beasts"  (1911). 

SMITH,  SAMUEL  FRANCIS,  an 
American  clergyman  and  religious  poet; 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  21,  1808.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  hymns,  in- 
cluding "America,"  which  was  written  in 
1832;  and  published  for  young  readers 
and  others:  "Knights  and  Sea  Kings," 
"Mythology  and  Early  Greek  History," 
and  "Poor  Boys  Who  Became  Great."  He 
died  in  Boston,  Nov.  16,  1895. 

SMITH,  SYDNEY,  an  English  clergy- 
man; born  in  Woodford,  Essex,  England, 


SMITH 


465 


SMITH 


June  3,  1771.  Educated  at  Winchester 
School,  Sydney,  in  1789,  entered  New 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  took  his  degree 
of  M.A.  in  1796,  becoming  fellow  a  few 
years  afterward.  In  1797  he  obtained  the 
curacy  of  Netheravon,  a  village  on  Salis- 
bury Plain,  where  he  passed  a  secluded 
life  for  about  two  years.  He  then  went 
to  Edinburgh  as  tutor  to  a  young  gentle- 
man, continued  there  for  five  years,  and 
was  one  of  the  founders  in  1802  of  the 
"Edinburgh  Review,"  being  also  one  of 
its  most  influential  contributors.  In  1804 
he  removed  to  London,  about  the  same 
time  married,  and  became  renowned  as 
one  of  the  wittiest  and  most  genial  of 
men.  In  1806  he  was  presented  to  the 
living  of  Foston-le-Clay,  in  Yorkshire. 
In  1807  appeared  anonymously  his  cele- 
brated "Letters  of  Peter  Plymley,"  in- 
tended to  further  the  cause  of  Catholic 
emancipation.  His  liberal  views  on  poli- 
tics excluded  him  for  a  long  time  from 
church  preferment;  but  in  1828  he  was 
presented  to  the  rectory  of  Combe  Florey, 
in  Somersetshire,  and  in  1831,  during  the 
ministry  of  Earl  Grey,  he  became  one  of 
the  canons  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  where 
he  henceforth  resided.  A  few  years  be- 
fore his  death  a  collected  edition  of  his 
writings  was  published  under  his  own 
supervision,  including  papers  contrib- 
uted to  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  "Sketch- 
es of  Moral  Philosophy,"  etc.  He  wrote  a 
"Life  of  Dalton,"  and  "History  of  the 
Atomic  Theory  up  to  his  Time" ;  "Air  and 
Rain:  the  Beginnings  of  a  Chemical  Cli- 
matology"; "Loch  Etive,  and  the  Sons  of 
Uisnach";  "Science  in  Early  Manches- 
ter"; etc.  He  died  in  London,  Feb.  22, 
1845. 

SMITH,  WILLIAM,  the  "father  of 
English  geology";  born  in  Churchill,  Ox- 
fordshire, England,  March  23,  1769.  Act- 
ing successively  as  land  surveyor,  mining 
surveyor,  and  canal  engineer,  he  was  led 
to  indulge  in  many  speculations  of  a  gee* 
logical  nature.  He  became  convinced  that 
each  stratum  contained  its  own  peculiar 
fossils,  and  might  be  discriminated  by 
them,  and  in  1815  he  was  able  to  submit 
a  complete  colored  map  of  the  strata  of 
England  and  Wales  to  the  Society  of  Arts, 
and  received  the  premium  of  $250  which 
had  for  several  years  been  offered  for 
such  a  map.  His  fame  as  an  original 
discoverer  was  now  secure;  but  becoming 
involved  in  pecuniary  difficulties  he  was 
obliged  to  part  with  his  geological  coU 
lection  to  government  for  $3,500.  Subse- 
quently a  pension  was  granted  to  him  by 
government.  He  died  in  Northampton, 
England,  Aug.  28,  1839. 

SMITH,  WILLIAM  ALDEN,  Ameri- 
can Senator;  born  at  Dowagiac,  Mich., 
May  12,  1859.    In  1879  he  was  appointed 


page  in  the  Michigan  House  of  Represen- 
tatives, studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  and  began  practising  in  Grand  Rap- 
ids in  1883.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Republican  State  Committee  in  1888.  In 
1895  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  where  he 
served  for  twelve  years,  and  in  1907  to 
the  Senate  on  the  death  of  Russell  A. 
Alger.  He  was  reelected  for  the  term 
1913-1919,  but  declined  a  renomination  in 
1918. 

SMITH,  WILLIAM  AUSTIN,  an 
American  clergyman  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church.  He  was  educated  at 
Harvard  University  and  at  Seabury  Di- 
vinity School.  He  was  made  deacon  in 
1898  and  priest  in  1899.  After  serving  as 
curate  and  rector  of  churches  in  Provi- 
dence, R.  I. ;  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  and  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  he  became  editor  of  the 
"Churchman"  in  1916. 

SMITH,  WINCHELL,  an  American 
playwright,  born  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  in 
1871.  He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  of  Hartford,  and  from  1892  to 


WINCHELL  SMITH 

1904  was  on  the  stage.  Together  with 
Arnold  Daly  he  produced  a  number  of 
plays  by  George  Bernard  Shaw.  He  be- 
gan the  writing  of  plays  in  1906.  Among 
his  best  known  plays  were  a  dramatiza- 


SMITH   COLLEGE 


466 


SMOKE  NUISANCE 


tion  of  "Brewster's  Millions";  "The  For- 
tune Hunter";  "The  Boomerang"  (with 
Victor  Mapes) ;  "Lightnin'  "  (with  Frank 
Bacon) ;  etc. 

SMITH  COLLEGE,  an  educational 
non-sectarian  institution  for  women  in 
Northampton,  Mass.;  founded  in  1875; 
reported  at  the  close  of  1919:  Professors 
r.nd  instructors,  123;  students,  2,103; 
president,  W.  A.  Neilson,  LL.D. 

SMITH-DORRIEN,  SIR  HORACE 
LOCKWOOD,  a  British  general,  born  in 
1858.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and 
entered  the  Sherwood  Foresters  (Derby 
regiment)  in  1876.  He  served  in  the 
Zulu  War  in  1879,  the  Egyptian  War  in 
1882,  the  Soudan  campaign  in  1885,  in 
the  Tirah  campaign  in  India  in  1897-8, 
and  in  the  South  African  War  in  1900 
was  major-general  commanding  a  bri- 
gade and  a  division.  He  was  also  active 
in  the  World  War  in  1914-15,  after  hav- 
ing held  the  Southern  Command  in  Eng- 
land during  the  two  previous  years.  In 
1914-15  he  commanded  the  2nd  Army 
Corps  and  then  the  2nd  army  in  the  Brit- 
ish Expeditionary  Force.  In  1915-16  he 
commanded  the  British  forces  fighting 
the  Germans  in  East  Africa. 

SMITH'S  ISLAND,  a  small  island  of 
North  Carolina,  off  the  coast  of  New 
Hanover  co.,  and  at  the  mouth  of  Cape 
Fear  river;  20  miles  S.  of  Wilmington. 
Its  most  S.  point  is  Cape  Fear.  It  has  a 
lighthouse. 

SMITHSON,  JAMES,  an  English  phi- 
lanthropist; natural  son  of  Hugh  Percy, 
1st  Duke  of  Northumberland;  born  in 
England  about  1765;  was  graduated  at 
Oxford  in  1786,  and  elected  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Society  in  1787.  His  first  paper 
presented  to  the  society  in  1791  was  "An 
Account  of  Some  Chemical  Experiments 
on  Tabasheer,"  and  was  followed  from 
time  to  time  by  others  treating  of  the 
chemical  analysis  of  minerals,  etc.  In 
1835  his  property,  amounting  to  $508,318, 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  United 
States  Government,  having  been  be- 
queathed by  him  "for  the  purpose  of 
founding  an  institution  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  to  be  called  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of 
knowledge  among  men."  He  died  in  Ge- 
noa, Italy,  June  27,  1829. 

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  a 
literary,  scientific,  and  philosophical  in- 
stitution, organized  at  Washington,  D.  C, 
by  Act  of  Congress  in  1846,  pursuant  to 
the  will  of  James  Smithson.^  The  man- 
agement of  the  institution  is  in  the  hands 
of  regents  appointed  by  the  United  States 
Government,  and  a  spacious  structure, 
containing  a  museum,  library,  cabinets 
of  natural  history,  and  lecture  rooms,  has 


been  the  result  of  their  able  administra- 
tion of  the  testator's  wishes.  The  library, 
carefully  collected,  is  unsurpassed  in  the 
United  States  as  a  resource  for  scientific 
reference,  while  in  its  museum  are  col- 
lected the  rich  acquisitions  of  national 
exploring  expeditions.  Some  part  of  its 
income  is  devoted  to  scientific  researches, 
and  the  production  of  works  too  costly  for 
publication  by  private  individuals.  De- 
partments of  astronomy,  ethnology,  me- 
teorology, and  terrestrial  magnetism,  have 
been  established.  The  United  States 
Weather  Bureau  has  grown  out  of  its 
department  of  meteorology,  and  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission  was  es- 
tablished in  connection  with  its  work  in 
ichthyology.  Under  its  direction  are  the 
United  States  National  Museum;  the  Bu- 
reau of  International  Exchanges;  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology;  the 
Astro-Physical  Observatory;  the  National 
Zoological  Park,  Langley  Aerodynamical 
Laboratory,  Research  Laboratory,  Inter- 
national Catalogue  and  American  History 
Archives.  Among  the  publications  hith- 
erto issued  are  the  "Smithsonian  Contri- 
butions to  Knowledge,"  4to,  distributed 
gratis  to  libraries;  "Annual  Reports"; 
"Miscellaneous  Collections";  "Reports  of 
the  National  Museum"  (1884-1892) ; 
"Bulletins  of  the  National  Museum"; 
"Proceedings  of  the  National  Museum"; 
"Annual  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Eth- 
nology"; and  "Harriman  Alaska  Series." 
The  periodical  courses  of  lectures  held  in 
the  institution  by  eminent  scientists  and 
savants  form  a  prominent  social  feature 
of  the  national  capital.  The  institution 
has  had  four  secretaries:  Joseph  Henry 
(1846-1878) ;  Spencer  Fullerton  Baird 
(1878-1887);  Samuel  Pierpont  Langley 
(1887-1906) ;  and  Charles  D.  Walcott 
(1906 ). 

SMITH  SOUND,  a  passage  of  water 
leading  to  the  Arctic  regions,  at  the  N. 
extremity  of  Baffin  Bay,  between  Prud- 
hoe,  in  Greenland,  and  Ellesmere  Land. 
Its  S.  entrance  was  discovered  by  Baffin 
in  1616.  In  1854  it  was  surveyed  by  a 
United  States  expedition  under  Dr.  Elisha 
Kent  Kane.  A  gulf  110  miles  long  was 
found  at  its  N.  E.  end. 

SMOKELESS  POWDER.  See  Gun- 
powder: Explosives. 

SMOKE  NUISANCE.  Smoke  is  caused 
by  the  incomplete  combustion  of  fuel.  It 
consists  of  finely  divided  particles,  either 
of  carbon  or  of  hydrocarbonsj  the  latter 
being,  as  a  rule,  liquid  and  oily.  Under 
ideal  conditions,  there  will  be  sufficient 
oxygen  present  to  burn  the  carbon  com- 
pletely to  oxides  of  carbon  and  also  to 
decompose  the  hydrocarbons.  It  follows 
that  with  the  right  conditions  of  draught 
and  temperature,  no  smoke  will  be  pro- 


SMOKY  HILL  RIVER 


467 


SMOLLETT. 


duced,  and  with  a  good  type  of  furnace 
under  the  control  of  a  skilled  and  intelli- 
gent fireman,  it  is  possible  to  burn  even 
soft  coal  with  the  production  of  no  more 
than  a  negligible  quantity  of  smoke.  Soft 
coal  is  more  liable  to  produce  smoke  than 
hard  coal  because  it  contains  a  much 
larger  proportion  of  volatile  hydrocar- 
bons, and  for  this  reason  its  use  in  many 
cities  is  prohibited.  Since  smoke  consists 
of  unburned  fuel,  it  follows  that  its  elimi- 
nation would  be  a  saving  to  the  coal  con- 
sumer, provided  the  cost  of  elimination 
did  not  exceed  the  value  of  the  coal.  In 
spite  of  this,  however,  the  smoke  nuisance 
has  become  serious  in  cities  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  and  in  most  cases  special  legis- 
lation has  been  needed  to  combat  it. 

SMOKY  HILL  RIVER,  or  SMOKY 
HILL  EORK,  a  river  whose  source  is  in 
eastern  Colorado,  and  which  flows  into  the 
State  of  Kansas.  It  traverses  Gove,  Tre- 
go, Ellis,  Russell  and  Ellsworth  counties, 
and  10  miles  W.  of  Abilene  unites  with 
the  Solomon  river,  the  two  streams  form- 
ing the  Kansas  river.  On  both  banks  are 
extensive  fertile  prairies.  It  is  400  miles 
long. 

SMOKY  MOUNTAINS,  or  GREAT 
SMOKY  MOUNTAINS,  a  range  on  the 
boundary  of  North  Carolina  and  Tennes- 
see; is  a  part  of  the  Appalachian  system. 
Mount  Guyot,  6,636  feet  high,  and  Cling- 
man's  Peak,  6,660  feet  high,  are  among 
its  loftiest  summits. 

SMOLENSK,  a  town  of  Russia  in 
Europe,  capital  of  a  government  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  Dnieper,  230  miles 
S.  W.  of  Moscow.  It  is  the  see  of  an 
archbishop,  and  has  three  cathedrals,  nu- 
merous other  churches,  monasteries,  and 
an  episcopal  palace.  It  has,  besides,  nu- 
merous schools,  a  college,  hospitals,  a 
house  of  correction,  and  assembly  rooms. 
Manufactures,  linens,  leather,  carpets,  and 
soap.  Smolensk  was  the  scene  of  an  ob- 
stinate conflict  between  the  French  and 
Russians,  Aug.  16-17,  1812,  in  which  vic- 
tory is  claimed  on  both  sides.  The  day 
following,  Aug.  18,  the  French  returning 
to  the  attack,  found  the  city  deserted  and 
in  ruins.     Pop.  about  76,000. 

SMOLENSK,  a  government  of  Russia. 
It  is  hilly  in  the  N.,  and  level  in  the  S., 
and  has  an  area  of  21,624  square  miles. 
It  is  watered  by  the  Dnieper  and  Diina 
and  several  tributaries  of  the  Volga  and 
the  Oka.  Forests  cover  one-third  of  the 
soil.  Manufacturing  industries  are  de- 
veloping and  there  is  also  considerable 
stock-raising.  Oil,  textiles,  and  lumber 
are  among  the  chief  products.  The  gov- 
ernment was  a  mediaeval  principality  and 
is  mentioned  in  1054.  Tartars  took  pos- 
session of  it  and  Lithuania  held  it  in  the 


15th  century.  It  was  united  to  Russia  in 
1654.  The  capital  is  Smolensk.  Pop. 
about  2,250,000. 

SMOLLETT,     TOBIAS     GEORGE,    an 

English  novelist,  born  in  March,  1721,  the 
son  of  Archibald  Smollett,  of  Dalquhurn, 
Dumbartonshire,  Scotland,  and  his  wife, 
Barbara  Cunningham.  He  was  educated 
in  Dumbarton  and  at  Glasgow  University, 
where  he  studied  medicine.  After  some 
years  of  an  apprenticeship  with  a  Dr. 
John  Gordon,  he  went  to  London,  where 
he  sought  to  find  patronage  for  a  tragedy 
he  had  written.  Failing  in  this,  he 
shipped  as  surgeon  on  H.M.S.  Cumber- 
land, and  served  in  the  operations  against 
Carthagena.  He  accompanied  the  fleet  to 
Jamaica,  where  he  met  Nancy  Laseelles, 
a  Creole  beauty,  whom  he  married  in  Eng- 
land about  1747.  Leaving  the  navy,  he 
settled  as  a  surgeon  in  Westminster,  and 
became  a  favorite  of  the  taverns  and  cof- 
fee-houses on  account  of  his  talent  for 
story-telling.  But  he  made  little  of  his 
practice,  and,  turning  to  literature,  he 
published  in  1758  "Roderick  Random,"  a 
picaresque  novel,  modeled  on  "Gil  Bias" 
and  including  a  good  deal  of  autobiogra- 
phy. It  was  well  received,  and  its  profits 
enabled  him  to  publish  his  youthful  trag- 
edy, "The  Regicide."  His  second  novel, 
"The  Adventures  of  Peregrine  Pickle," 
appeared  in  1751,  and  was  even  more  suc- 
cessful, though  it  was  disfigured  by  many 
coarse  attacks  on  his  personal  enemies, 
and  had  an  unsympathetic  hero. 

He  now  made  another  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  establish  himself  as  a  physician, 
this  time  at  Bath,  but  gained  little  save 
material  for  future  satire,  especially  on 
the  medical  profession.  With  his  return 
to  London  in  1753,  he  gave  himself  up  to 
literature,  and  produced  "Ferdinand 
Count  Fathom,"  which  shows  an  increase 
in  power.  He  spent  extravagantly,  and 
in  the  effort  to  get  money  made  a  lively 
but  inaccurate  version  of  "Don  Quixote" 
(1755).  After  a  visit  to  Scotland  he  be- 
came the  chief  director  of  the  new  "Criti- 
cal Review"  (1756),  the  severity  of  which 
brought  a  number  of  reprisals  on  his 
head;  and  in  1757,  he  published  a  "His- 
tory of  England"  in  four  volumes.  After 
a  period  of  hack  work  for  the  booksellers, 
in  the  course  of  which  he  served  three 
months  in  prison  for  slandering  an  ad- 
miral in  the  "Critical  Review,"  he  joined 
the  staff  of  the  new  "British  Magazine" 
(1760)  in  which  appeared  "Sir  Launce- 
lot  Greaves,"  a  weak  imitation  of  "Don 
Quixote."  Two  years  later  he  became  ed- 
itor of  the  "Briton,"  a  weekly  periodical 
started  in  defence  of  Lord  Bute,  which 
evoked  Wilkes's  notorious  "North  Briton." 

In  1763,  Smollett,  having  lost  his  only 
child,  ill,  in  debt  and  harassed  by  enemies, 


SMOOT 


468 


SMUTS 


decided  to  leave  England  with  his  wife, 
and  for  two  years  made  his  home  at  Nice. 
After  a  tour  of  Italy  he  returned  to  Lon- 
don and  published  his  "Travels."  A  visit 
to  Scotland,  where  he  was  made  much  of 
in  the  then  brilliant  society  of  Edinburgh, 
and  to  Bath,  improved  his  health  for  a 
time,  and  he  produced  in  1769  his  coarse 
satire,  "The  History  and  Adventures  of 
an  Atom,"  dealing  with  politics  in  Eng- 
land during  the  previous  fifteen  years.  At 
the  end  of  the  year  he  went  to  seek  health 
at  Lucca  and  Pisa,  where  he  wrote  his 
masterpiece,  "Humphrey  Clinker."  Mean- 
time he  was  growing  weaker,  and  on  Sept. 
17,  1771,  he  died  in  his  villa  near  Leg- 
horn. 

SMOOT,  REED,  a  United  States  Sen- 
ator from  Utah,  born  in  Salt  Lake  City, 
in  1862.  After  graduating  from  Brigham 
Young  Academy  in  1879,  he  engaged  in 
business  and  became  a  director  and  officer 
in  many  important  financial  organizations 
in  Salt  Lake  City  and  elsewhere.  In  1900 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  apostles  of 
the  Mormon  Church.  He  was  ejected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  in  1902,  1908, 
1916,  and  1920.  He  was  also  a  member 
of  the  Republican  National  Committee, 
and  in  1919  was  chairman  of  the  Repub- 
lican Senatorial  Campaign  Committee.  In 
the  Senate  he  was  recognized  as  one  of 
its  most  industrious  and  efficient  members, 
and  was  an  especial  authority  on  matters 
pertaining  to  finance  and  the  tariff. 

SMUGGLING,  originally  and  strictly 
a  crime  of  commerce,  a  violation  of  cus- 
toms laws,  to  be  distinguished  from  such 
a  crime  of  manufacture  as  illicit  distilla- 
tion, which  violates  excise  laws.  But  the 
term  is  commonly  applied  also  to  the  eva- 
sive manufacture  and  disposal  of  com- 
modities liable  to  excise  as  well  as  to  the 
clandestine  importation  of  articles  on 
which  customs  duties  have  been  imposed. 
Defrauding  the  government  of  revenue 
by  the  evasion  of  customs  duties  or  excise 
taxes  may  therefore  serve  as  a  definition. 

Smuggling,  in  the  sense  of  evading  cus- 
toms duties  by  dealing  in  contraband 
goods,  has  ceased  to  deserve  the  name  of 
a  trade  in  the  United  Kingdom.  From 
about  the  close  of  the  17th  century  to 
nearly  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  the 
suppression  of  that  kind  of  free  trade  by 
vigorous  methods  of  prevention  engaged 
the  close  attention  of  the  inland  revenue 
department.  Free  trade  as  a  national 
policy  has  put  down  the  smuggling  trade. 
Only  a  very  small  number  of  persons 
comparatively  deal  in  contraband  goods 
now.  But  when  the  duties  on  spirits  were 
higher  in  England  than  in  Scotland, 
Northumberland  and  Cumberland  were 
haunted  with  smugglers.  Haddington  and 
Berwick  and  the  Scotch  counties  on  the 


Solway  were  long  demoralized  by  unwise 
tariffs  on  articles  of  import  from  abroad. 
The  contrabandista  used  to  be  one  of 
the  most  popular  characters  in  Spain. 
The  exports  from  England  to  Gibraltar, 
to  refer  only  to  one  of  his  lines  of  activ- 
ity, used  to  be  large,  and  were  introduced 
by  smugglers  to  the  interior  of  Spain. 
The  injudicious  tariffs  which  used  to  be 
imposed  by  both  England  and  France  en- 
couraged smuggling  to  an  enormous  extent 
on  both  sides  of  the  English  Channel; 
spirits,  especially  brandy,  tea,  tobacco,  silk 
goods  from  France;  from  England  the 
most  important  article  of  illicit  trade  was 
cotton  twist.  English  goods  were  intro- 
duced into  France  chiefly  by  the  Belgian 
frontier,  and  dogs  were  trained  to  convey 
them;  a  dog  would  convey  goods  worth 
from  $100  to  $250.  A  great  historical 
outburst  of  smuggling  was  the  answer 
which  commercial  enterprise  gave  to  Na- 
poleon's Berlin  and  Milan  decrees.  Silk 
from  Italy  reached  England  by  Smyrna 
after  being  a  year  on  passage,  by  Arch- 
angel after  being  two  years.  Cotton 
twist,  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  were  shipped 
from  England  to  Salonica,  conveyed 
thence  by  mules  and  horses  through  Ser- 
via  and  Hungary  to  Vienna,  and  distrib- 
uted over  the  Continent  from  that  capital. 
Coffee  from  London  would  reach  Calais 
by  Vienna. 

SMUTS,  JAN   CHRISTIAN,   a   South 
African   soldier   and  statesman,  born  in 


GENERAL  JAN   CHRISTIAN   SMUTS 

1870.     He  was  educated  at  Victoria  Col- 
lege, South  Africa,  and  at  Christ  College, 


SMYRNA 


469 


SNAIL 


Cambridge.  He  practiced  law  for  a  time 
in  Cape  Town  and  Johannesburg,  and  in 
1898  was  appointed  State  Attorney  of  the 
South  African  Republic.  He  was  one  of 
the  chief  leaders  in  the  Boer  War,  and, 
following  its  close,  he  took  a  leading  part 
in  the  work  of  reconstruction  and  union. 
He  was  Colonial  Secretary  of  Transvaal 
in  1907.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War  he  commanded  the  forces  invading 
German  Southwest  Africa  and  carried  the 
operations  to  a  complete  success.  He  also 
defeated  the  German  forces  in  German 
East  Africa  in  1916.  In  the  following 
year  he  represented  South  Africa  in  the 
Imperial  War  Cabinet.  He  was  one  of 
the  leading  figures  at  the  Peace  Confer- 
ence in  Paris.  He  became  Prime  Minister 
of  the  Union  of  South  Africa  (q.  v.) 
upon  the  death  of  General  Botha  in  Au- 
gust, 1919. 

SMYRNA  (Turkish,  Izmer),  an  an- 
cient city  and  seaport  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
on  the  W.  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  at  the 
head  of  the  gulf  of  the  same  name.    The 


COIN   OF   SMYRNA 

appearance  of  the  city  from  the  sea  is 
extremely  attractive,  but  a  closer  inspec- 
tion dissipates  the  illusion.  The  houses, 
mostly  built  of  wood,  are  mean  and  frag- 
ile-looking; the  streets  close  and  filthy 
and  filled  with  intolerable  stenches  pro- 
ceeding from  the  sewers  and  drains.  The 
city  is  divided  into  four  quarters — Frank, 
Turk,  Jew,  and  Armenian.  There  is  an 
English  hospital,  church,  and  burying- 
ground,  English  schools,  and  numerous 
schools  for  Turks,  Greeks,  and  others; 
all  sects  and  faiths  having  complete  tol- 
eration, Smyrna  has  been  for  centuries 
the  most  important  place  of  trade  in  Asia 
Minor.  The  chief  imports  are  cotton 
manufactures,  woolen  cloths,  colonial 
goods,  iron,  steel,  and  hardware  goods. 
The  principal  exports  are  dried  fruits  (es- 
pecially figs),  cotton,  silk,  goats'  hair, 
sheep  and  camels'  wool,  rugs,  madder 
root,  yellow  berries,  sponges,  and  opium. 
The  origin  of  Smyrna  is  lost  in  antiquity. 
It  laid  claim  to  the  honor  of  being  the 
birthplace  of  Homer,  and  no  doubt  was  a 
Greek  city  as  early  as  the  date  assigned 
to  the  poet.  It  was  afterward  taken  by 
the  Lydians,  was  restored  by  Antigonus 
and  Lysimachus,  generals  of  Alexander 


the  Great,  became  the  capital  of  Antigo- 
nus and  a  flourishing  city.  During  the 
Roman  civil  wars  it  was  taken  and  partly 
destroyed  by  Dolabella,  but  soon  recov- 
ered. It  early  received  Christianity,  and 
was  one  of  the  "seven  churches"  of  Asia. 
In  the  13th  century  only  the  ruins  of  its 
former  splendor  were  left;  but  after  the 
Turks  became  masters  of  the  country  it 
revived.  It  has  repeatedly  suffered  from 
earthquake.  After  the  World  War  Smyrna 
was  awarded  to  Greece,  by  whom  it  was 
occupied  in  1919.     Pop.  about  350,000. 

SMYRNA,  GULF  OF,  formerly  the 
Hermasan  Gulf,  an  inlet  of  the  iEgean 
Sea  on  the  coast  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  so 
called  from  the  town  of  Smyrna,  which 
stands  at  its  head.  It  is  40  miles  in  length 
by  20  at  its  broadest  part,  and  contains 
several  islands  and  affords  good  anchor- 
age. 

SMYTH  [SAMUEL]  NEWMAN 
[PHILLIPS],  an  American  clergyman 
and  religious  writer;  born  in  Brunswick, 
Me.,  June  25,  1843;  was  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1863;  served  as  lieu- 
tenant in  16th  Maine  regiment  (1864- 
1865) ;  was  graduated  at  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (1867) ;  held  pastorates 
at  Providence,  R.  I.,  Bangor,  Me.,  Quincy, 
111.,  and  New  Haven,  Conn.  His  publica- 
tions include :  "Old  Faiths  in  New  Light." 
"The  Orthodox  Theology  of  To-day,"  "The 
"Morality  of  the  Old  Testament,"  "Per- 
sonal Creeds,"  "Christian  Ethics,"  "The 
Religious  Feeling,"  "The  Reality  of 
Faith,"  "The  Place  of  Death  in  Evolu- 
tion," "Through  Science  to  Faith,"  "Con- 
structive Natural  Theology,"  etc. 

SNAIL,  the  common  name  of  gastero- 
podous  mollusks  comprising  the  numer- 
ous family  Helicidse.  They  feed  chiefly 
on  vegetable  substances.  The  mischief 
which  they  do  to  garden  crops  is  too  well 
known.  Snails  delight  in  warm,  moist 
weather;  in  dry  weather,  their  chief  time 
of  activity  is  during  the  night,  and  they 
hide  themselves  by  day;  but  after  rain 
they  come  forth  at  any  hour  in  quest  of 
food.  At  the  approach  of  winter  or  in 
very  dry  weather  they  close  the  mouth  of 
the  shell  with  a  membrane  (epiphragm), 
formed  by  the  drying  of  the  mucous  sub- 
stance which  they  secrete,  and  become  in- 
active and  torpid.  Snails  retreat  into 
crevices  for  the  winter,  or  into  holes  which 
they  made  in  the  earth,  and  which  are 
roofed  over  with  earth,  dead  leaves,  etc., 
agglutinated  by  secreted  mucus.  The 
great  vine  snail,  or  edible  snail  (Helix 
pomatia),  a  European  species,  was  con- 
sidered by  the  ancient  Romans  one  of 
their  table  luxuries.  In  some  countries, 
as  Switzerland  and  parts  of  France,  they 
are  cultivated  for  the  table. 


SNAITH 


470 


SNORRI 


SNAITH,  JOHN  COLLIS,  an  English 
writer  of  fiction.  He  brought  out  his  first 
work,  "Broke  of  Covenden,"  in  1904,  and 
this  was  followed  two  years  later  by 
"Henry  Northcote."  Since  then  his  pub- 
lished works  have  included:  "William 
Jordan,  Junior,"  "Araminta,"  "Fortune," 
"Mrs.  Fitz,"  "The  Principal  Girl,"  "An 
Affair  of  State,"  "The  Great  Age,"  "The 
Sailor,"  "Mary  Plantagenet." 

SNAKE,  a  serpent,  any  species  of  the 
order  Ophidia.  The  best-known  harmless 
snake  is  probably  the  common  snake, 
known  also  as  the  ringed  or  grass  snake. 
The  black  snake,  of  which  there  are  two 
species,  is  also  very  common  in  the  United 
States.  The  common  snake  has  no  poison 
fangs,  but  is  furnished  with  scent  glands 
which  secrete  a  volatile  substance  of  of- 
fensive and  penetrating  odor.  Snakes  are 
partial  to  damp  situations  and  enter 
water  readily,  swimming  with  ease.  They 
are  very  voracious  and  swallow  their  prey 
— frogs,  mice,  and  small  birds — alive  and 
entire,  their  teeth,  which  are  in  two  rows 
on  each  side  of  the  jaws  and  directed 
backward,  being  too  weak  to  tear  or  mas- 
ticate.   See  Serpent. 

SNAKEROOT,  the  popular  name  of 
numerous  American  plants  of  different 
species  and  genera,  most  of  which  are, 
or  formerly  were,  reputed  to  be  efficacious 
as  remedies  for  snake  bites. 

SNEEHATTEN  (sna-het'en;  "Snow- 
hat"),  a  mountain  in  Norway  with  an 
altitude  of  7,566  feet.  It  rises  from  the 
midst  of  the  Dovrefield,  an  extensive  tract 
of  country,  from  40  to  50  miles  in  extent 
in  every  direction,  and  between  3,000  and 
4,000  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

SNIDER,  JACOB,  inventor  of  a  method 
for  converting  Enfield  muzzle-loading  ri- 
fles into  breechloaders,  originally  a  Phil- 
adelphia wine  merchant!  busied  himself 
in  inventions  connected  with  dyeing,  brew- 
ing, coach  wheels,  the  sheathing  of  ships, 
etc.,  and  went  to  England  in  1859  to  in- 
duce the  British  Government  to  adopt  his 
system  of  breech  loading  or  converting. 
In  this  he  succeeded,  but'  for  one  reason 
or  another  found  himself  unable  to  obtain 
the  expected  remuneration.  He  died  Oct. 
25,  1866,  without  having  received  the  re- 
ward of  his  labors,  worn  out  by  delays, 
lawsuits,  poverty,  and  debts. 

SNIPE,  the  common  name  of  the  birds 
composing  the  family  Scolopacidss.  There 
are  many  genuses,  of  which  the  genus 
Gallinago  may  be  taken  as  the  type.  The 
common  snipe  of  Europe  (G.  media),  is 
about  11  inches  in  entire  length,  the  bill 
almost  3  inches.  The  general  color  of  the 
upper  parts  is  a  blackish-brown,  finely 
mixed  with  pale-brown  and  a  rich  buff- 


color;  three  pale-brown  streaks  along  the 
head;  the  neck  and  breast  pale-rust  color 
mottled  with  black;  the  belly  white.  The 
snipe  makes  a  nest  of  a  little  dry  herbage 
in  a  depression  of  the  ground,  or  some- 
times in  a  tuft  of  grass  or  rushes.  The 
eggs  are  four  in  number,  pale-yellowish 
or  greenish-white,  the  larger  end  spotted 


'^Lr^- 


%6Q 


SNIPE 


with  brown.  This  species  of  snipe  is 
plentiful  in  all  the  moory  and  marshy 
places  throughout  Europe,  also  in  some 
parts  of  Asia,  and  it  is  found  in  the  N. 
of  Africa.  The  snipe  is  capable  of  being 
tamed.  The  common  American  snipe  (G. 
Wilsonii)  is  about  equal  in  size  to  the 
common  snipe  of  Europe,  and  much  re- 
sembles it  also  in  plumage.  This  species 
is  abundant  in  summer  in  the  N.  parts  of 
the  United  States  and  in  Canada,  in  the 
more  southern  States  in  winter.  It  is 
much  in  request  for  the  table,  and  is  often 
caught  in  snares. 

SNIZORT,  LOCH,  a  large  inlet  of  the 
sea  on  the  N.  W.  of  Skye,  between  Vater- 
nish  and  Trotternish,  picturesquely  stud- 
ded with  islands  in  its  upper  part.  Length 
16  miles;  greatest  breadth  about  9. 

SNORRI,  STTTRLASON,  an  Icelandic 
poet  and  historian ;  born  in  Hvami,  in  the 
Dala  district  of  Iceland,  in  1178;  was  the 
son  of  Sturla  Thordsson,  the  founder  of 
the  powerful  family  of  the  Sturlungs.  At 
three  years  of  age  he  became  a  foster -son 
of  Jon  Loptsson,  grandson  of  Saemund, 
author  of  the  "Elder  Edda,"  then  the 
most  influential  and  gifted  man  in  Ice- 
land, and  after  his  death  (1197),  Snorri 
remained  at  Odda  with  his  son  Saemund, 
and  by  his  marriage,  first  with  Herdys 
(1199),  and  after  her  death  with  Hallveg 
Ormsdatter,  gained  great  possessions, 
sometimes  appearing  at  the  Althing  with 
a  following  of  800  to  900  men.  Twice 
was  he  appointed  "Langmand"  (1219- 
1223,  and  1226-1236).  In  1218  he  trav- 
eled to  Norway,  where  he  gained  great 
favor  with  Duke  Skuli,  returning  to  Ice- 


SNOW 


471 


SNOWBIRD 


land  in  1220.  In  1237  he  was  obliged  to 
flee  to  Norway  in  consequence  of  a  league 
formed  against  him  by  his  brother  Sigh- 
vat  and  his  nephew  Sturla.  Here,  by  his 
poetical  powers,  he  aided  his  patron  Skuli 
in  his  war  against  King  Hacon,  but  was 
in  consequence,  on  his  return  to  Iceland, 
pursued  by  the  hatred  of  the  king,  and 
murdered  through  his  influence  by  his 
son-in-law  at  Reykaholt,  Sept.  22,  1241. 

SNOW,  in  meteorology,  water  solidified 
in  stellate  crystals,  variously  modified, 
and  floating  in  the  atmosphere.  These 
crystals  arise  from  the  congelation  of  the 
minute  vesicles  which  constitute  the 
clouds,  when  the  temperature  of  the 
latter  is  below  zero.  They  are  more  reg- 
ular when  formed  in  a  calm  atmosphere. 
Their  form  may  be  investigated  by  col- 
lecting them  on  a  black  surface,  and  view- 
ing them  through  a  strong  lens.  The  reg- 
ularity, and  at  the  same  time  variety,  of 
their  forms  are  truly  beautiful.  These 
crystals  are  united  together  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  reflect  light  to  the  eye  in 
great  abundance  from  all,  thus  producing 
a  sensation  of  whiteness.  The  presence 
of  air  in  snow  renders  it  opaque,  other- 
wise it  would  be  transparent,  like  ice  and 
other  crystallized  bodies.  Regular  crys- 
tals of  snow  are  only  found  where  the 
air  is  still  and  the  temperature  very  cold ; 
they  do  not,  therefore,  often  occur  in  tem- 
perate regions.  In  the  polar  regions  snow 
has  been  seen  of  red,  orange,  and  salmon 
color.  This  phenomenon  occurs  both  in 
the  fixed  and  floating  ice,  and  seems  to 
result  in  some  cases  from  vegetable,  and 
in  others  from  animal  matter  suspended 
in  the  water  and  deposited  on  the  sur- 
rounding ice.  In  general,  the  electricity 
of  snow  is  positive,  and  by  chemical 
analysis  it  has  been  found  that  snow 
water  contains  a  greater  proportion  of 
oxygen  than  rain  or  river  water — a  fact 
which  accounts  for  its  superior  activity 
in  causing  iron  to  rust,  etc. 

In  the  economy  of  nature  snow  answers 
many  valuable  purposes.  By  its  gradual 
melting  in  high  regions  it  serves  to  supply 
streams  of  running  water,  which  a  sudden 
increase  in  the  form  of  rain  would  convert 
into  destructive  torrents  or  standing  pools. 
In  many  countries  snow  tempers  the  burn- 
ing heat  of  summer  by  cooling  the  winds 
which  pass  over  it.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  colder  climates  snow  serves  as  a  de- 
fense against  the  severity  of  winter,  where 
it  protects  plants  against  the  frost  and 
serves  as  a  shelter  to  animals,  which  bury 
themselves  in  it.  The  elevation  at  which 
mountains  are  covered  with  perpetual 
,  snow  is  called  the  "snow  line,"  or  plane 
of  perpetual  snow.  The  snow  line  on  the 
N.  side  of  the  Himalayan  Mountains  is 
18,600  feet;  on  Chimborazo,  15,802  feet. 


The  altitude  of  perpetual  snow  under  the 
equator  was  fixed  by  Humboldt  at  15,748 
feet;  toward  the  poles  it  is  considerably 
lower.  The  snow  line  of  the  Alps,  N.  lat- 
itude 46°,  is  only  8,860  feet;  and  that  of 
the  Pyrenees  about  8,850  feet.  At  the 
North  Cape,  in  latitude  71°,  it  is  only 
2,300  feet.  The  position  of  the  snow  line 
in  all  mountains,  however,  depends  so 
much  on  variable  causes  that  no  general 
rule  can  be  laid  down  for  determining  the 
altitude  of  perpetual  snow. 

SNOW,  ALBERT  SIDNEY,  an  Ameri- 
can naval  officer,  born  at  Rockland,  Me., 
in  1845.  He  graduated  from  the  United 
States  Naval  Academy  in  1865  and 
reached  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1905. 
He  saw  service  during  the  Civil  War 
on  the  "Marblehead."  During  the  Span- 
ish-American War  he  was  in  command 
of  the  "Badger."  His  assignments  in- 
cluded service  at  the  Torpedo  Station, 
Newport,  R.  I.,  the  Boston  Navy  Yard, 
the  coast  survey  service,  the  Naval  Acad- 
emy, the  lighthouse  service,  the  naval 
station  at  San  Juan,  and  the  Navy  Yard, 
New  York.  He  was  retired  upon  reach- 
ing the  legal  age  limit  in  1907.  From 
1918  to  1919  he  was  president  of  the 
General  Court  Martial  at  the  Boston  Navy 
Yard. 

SNOW,  LORENZO,  a  Mormon  apostle; 
born  in  Mantua,  Ohio,  April  3,  1814;  was 
converted  to  Mormonism  in  1836;  became 
a  missionary  in  1837,  and  traveled  in 
England  and  other  countries;  and  on  his 
return  to  the  United  States  organized 
and  captained  the  Nauvoo  Legion,  the 
body  of  Mormon  troops  in  Illinois.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Utah  Legislature 
in  1852-1882;  founded  Brigham  City, 
Utah;  was  ordained  one  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles  of  the  Church  in  1849,  and  suc- 
ceeded Wilford  Woodruff  as  president  of 
.the  Mormon  Church  in  1898.  He  died 
in  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  Oct.  10,  1901. 

SNOWBIRD,  the  common  name  of  the 
genus  of  birds  Junco,  family  Fringillidx, 
distinguished  by  their  bill  small  and  coni- 
cal, the  wings  reaching  the  basal  fourth 
of  the  exposed  portion  of  the  tail,  and 
the  tail  slightly  emarginate.  The  com- 
mon snowbird  or  black  snowbird,  Junco 
hyemalis,  of  the  United  States  E.  of  the 
Missouri,  is  6%  inches  long;  grayish  or 
dark  ashy  black  deepest  before ;  the  middle 
of  the  breast  and  belly,  the  under  tail 
coverts,  and  the  first  and  second  external 
tail  feathers  white,  and  the  third  tail 
feather  white,  margined  with  black.  These 
birds  appear  in  flocks  in  winter  and  are 
very  tame.  They  are  fond  of  grass-seeds 
and  berries;  the  flesh  is  delicate  and 
juicy,  and  is  often  sold  in  the  New  Or- 
leans market. 


SNOWDEN 


472 


SNUFF 


SNOV/DEN,  JAMES  HENRY,  an 
American  theologian,  born  at  Hookstown, 
Pa.,  in  1852.  He  was  educated  at  Wash- 
ington and  Jefferson  College  and  at  the 
Western  Theological  Seminary.  After 
having  been  ordained  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister in  1879,  he  served  as  pastor  of 
churches  in  Huron,  Ohio,  Sharon,  Pa., 
and  Washington,  Pa.,  until  1911  when  he 
became  professor  of  systematic  theology 
at  Western  Theological  Seminary,  Alle- 
gheny, Pa.  From  1898  to  1917  he  was 
editor-in-chief  of  the  "Presbyterian  Ban- 
ner." He  wrote:  "Scenes  and  Sayings  in 
the  Life  of  Christ"  (1903)  ;  "A  Summer 
Across  the  Sea"  (1908)  ;  "The  World  a 
Spiritual  System — An  Outline  of  Meta- 
phvsics"  (1910)  ;  "The  Basal  Beliefs  of 
Christianity"  (1911)  ;  "The  City  of 
Twelve  Gates"  (1916);  "The  Psychology 
of  Religion"  (1917) ;  "Can  We  Believe  in 
Immortality?"  (1918)  ;  "The  Coming  of 
the  Lord"  (1919)  ;  "Is  the  World  Grow- 
ing Better?"  (1919)  ;  "A  Wonderful 
Night"   (1919). 

SNOWDON,  a  mountain  range  in 
North  Wales;  stretching  N.  N.  E.  to 
S.  S.  W.  across  Carnarvonshire  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Conway  to  Tremadoc; 
length,  about  24  miles;  average  breadth, 
6  miles.  It  attains  its  greatest  height  in 
Snowdon  proper,  whose  loftiest  summit — 
Wyddva,  3,571  feet — is  the  culminating 
point  of  South  Britain. 

SNOWDROP,  a  well-known  garden 
plant  of  the  genus  Galanthus;  G.  nivalis, 
natural  order  Amwryllidacese.  It  bears 
solitary,  drooping,  and  elegant  white 
flowers,  which  appear  early  in  spring. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  Alps,  but  is  quite 
common  in  gardens  in  the  northern  United 
States. 

SNOWSHOE,  a  light  frame  made  of 
bent  wood  and  interlacing  thongs,  used 


tread  of  the  shoe  is  formed  of  strips  of 
raw-hide,  hard  twisted  twine,  or,  among 
the  Indians,  of  deer-sinews.  In  use  the 
toe  is  placed  beneath  the  strap  and  the 
foot  rests  on  the  thongs;  as  the  heel  rises 
in  walking,  the  snow  shoe  is  not  raised, 
but  as  the  foot  is  lifted,  the  toe  elevates 
the  forward  end  of  the  snowshoe,  which 
is  then  dragged  along  on  the  snow  as  the 
leg  is  advanced.  They  are  usually  from 
three  to  four  feet  in  length,  and  a  foot 
to  18  inches  broad  in  the  middle.    See  Ski. 

SNOWY  OWL,  in  ornithology,  the 
Nyctea  scandiaca,  a  native  of  the  N.  of 
Europe  and  America,  visiting  and  breed- 
ing in  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands. 
In  old  birds  the  plumage  is  pure  white, 
but  in  younger  and  adult  birds  each 
feather  is  tipped  with  dark  brown  or 
black.  The  length  of  the  adult  male  is 
about  20  inches,  that  of  the  female  four 
or  five  inches  more.  It  flies  by  day  and 
preys  on  the  smaller  mammalia  and  on 
various  birds  which  it  is  able  to  capture. 

SNOWY  RIVER,  a  river  of  Australia, 
in  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria ;  length, 
240  miles,  160  of  which  are  in  New  South 
Wales. 

SNUFF,  a  fragrant  powdered  prepara- 
tion of  tobacco  inhaled  through  the  nose. 
It  is  made  by  grinding,  in  conical  mortars 
or  "mills"  worked  by  power,  the  chopped 
leaves  and  stalks  of  tobacco  in  which 
fermentation  has  been  induced  by  mois- 
ture and  warmth  in  closed  rooms.  There 
are  numerous  varieties.  Some,  like  the 
rappees,  are  moist;  others,  for  example, 
the  Irish  and  Welsh,  are  highly  dried. 
A  roasted  Irish  snuff  called  "Lundy 
Foot,"  or  "Irish  Blackguard,"  has  wide 
repute  for  excellence.  French  rappee  is 
superior  to  all  others,  and  its  manufac- 
ture has  been  brought  to  high  perfection 
at  the  French  Government  factory.     The 


FRAME 


TOE 
CENTER     4TAYS 

vFILLER  CROSS 

BAR 


SNOWSHOE 


to   give  the  wearer   a   broader   base   of    tobacco    is    subjected    to    two    processes 
support  when   walking    on    snow.     The    of    fermentation,    whereby    aroma    and 


SOAP 


473 


SOCIAL  HYGIENE 


strength  are  acquired,  and  the  nicotine 
and  organic  acids  removed.  The  con- 
sumption of  snuff  in  the  British  Isles  has 
been  estimated  to  amount  to  BOO  tons 
annually.  The  practice  of  snuff  taking 
was  introduced  from  America  into  France 
in  the  16th  century,  and  in  the  middle  of 
the  following  century  it  was  very  general 
throughout  Europe.  The  consumption 
of  snuff  greatly  increased  in  England 
during  the  reigns  of  William  and  Anne, 
and  snuff-boxes  of  gold,  silver,  precious 
stones,  and  enamels  were  then  not  uncom- 
mon. An  average  of  about  i/,000  tons 
are  annually  made  in  the  United  States, 
consumed  principally  by  foreigners. 

SOAP,  strictly  speaking,  a  salt  con- 
sisting of  a  fatty  acid  in  combination 
with  a  metallic  base.  In  common  par- 
lance, however,  the  term  is  applied  to  the 
soluble  salts  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
fatty  acids  with  the  alkalies.  If  oil  and 
water  be  shaken  together  mechanical 
union  will  take  place;  but  on  allowing 
the  mixture  to  rest,  the  oil  will  gradually 
separate  and  float  on  the  surface  of  the 
water.  If  a  small  quantity  of  caustic 
soda  or  potash  be  added  to  the  mixture, 
and  it  be  then  agitated,  union  will  take 
place  between  the  three  bodies,  a  milky 
fluid  being  formed.  If  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  alkali  has  been  added,  and  the 
solution  be  boiled,  it  gradually  becomes 
clear,  giving  rise  to  a  soapy  fluid,  which 
froths  strongly  on  agitation,  presenting 
all  the  properties  of  a  solution  of  soap. 
If  to  a  portion  of  this  clear  liquid  a 
strong  solution  of  common  salt  is  added, 
a  peculiar  curdling  is  produced.  The 
liquid  separates  into  a  clear  fluid,  con- 
taining glycerin,  while  the  curdy  portion 
rises  to  the  surface.  This  substance  is  the 
fatty  acid  of  the  oil,  in  combination  with 
the  alkali  used  and  a  certain  proportion 
of  water,  and  if  pressed  and  dried,  ex- 
hibits the  properties  of  ordinary  soap. 

Ordinary  soaps  are  of  two  kinds, — soft 
and  hard.  Soft  soap  is  a  combination  of 
some  fatty  or  oily  substance  with  potash, 
and  contains  an  excess  of  alkali;  hence 
it  is  used  for  cleansing  purposes  where 
very  highly  detergent  powers  are  re- 
quired. The  hard  soaps  are  combinations 
of  the  fatty  acids  with  soda ;  the  principal 
varieties  being  yellow  soap,  made  from 
tallow  and  palm  oil,  and  containing  a 
certain  proportion  of  resin  to  give  it 
lathering  properties;  curd  soap,  which  is 
made  from  tallow,  only  a  small  portion 
of  olive  oil  or  lard  being  added,  to  give 
it  softness;  mottled  soap,  which  is  pre- 
pared from  tallow,  palm  oil,  and  kitchen 
stuff,  and  contains  a  portion  of  insoluble 
iron  soap  giving  it  a  marbled  appearance. 
Marseilles  and  Castile  soaps  are  made  of 
olive   oil   and   soda,  a   small   quantity   of 


sulphate  of  iron  and  sulphuretted  lye 
being  added  to  them  while  in  a  pasty  con- 
dition. The  object  of  marbling  soap  with 
an  insoluble  matter  is  to  show  that  they 
contain  but  little  moisture,  since,  if  too 
large  a  proportion  of  water  were  present, 
the  coloring  matter  would  sink  to  the 
bottom  and  remain  there,  instead  of  be- 
ing diffused  through  the  mass. 

The  United  States  stands  at  the  head 
of  all  other  countries  in  the  use  if  not 
in  the  manufacture  of  soap.  New  York, 
Illinois,  New  Jersey,  Ohio  and  Pennsyl- 
vania lead,  in  the  order  named,  all  other 
states.  Over  2  billion  pounds  of  hard 
soap  (including  about  170,000,000  pounds 
of  toilet-soap)  are  annually  produced  and 
57,000,000  pounds  of  soft  soap. 

SOAPSTONE,  or  STEATITE,  a  hydra- 
ted  silicate  of  magnesia.  It  is  a  massive 
variety  of  talc,  which,  when  pure  and 
compact,  is  much  used  as  a  refractory 
material  for  lining  furnaces.  It  is  easily 
turned  in  the  lathe,  or  cut  with  knives' 
and  saws,  and  is  made  into  culinary  ves- 
sels. When  reduced  to  powder  it  is  used 
like  plumbago  as  a  lubricator  and  to 
diminish  friction. 

Soapstone  slabs  are  extensively  used 
for  manufacturing  into  laundry,  bath 
and  acid  tubs,  and  in  chemical  labora- 
tories, as  also  in  the  manufacture  of  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  stoves,  mantels,  linings, 
heaters,  caskets,  assay  furnaces,  gas 
burners,  and  wherever  acids  are  used  or 
there  is  a  necessity  to  retain  heat,  or 
where  a  fireproof  article  is  necessary. 
See  Talc. 

SOAR,  a  river  of  England,  which  flows 
N.  through  Leicestershire,  taking  Leices- 
ter on  its  course,  and  joins  the  Trent 
about  12  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Derby,  whence 
to  Leicester  it  is  navigable  by  barges. 

SOBRANJE,  the  national  assembly  of 
Bulgaria   (q.  v.). 

SOCIAL  CONTRACT,  or  ORIGINAL 
CONTRACT,  that  imaginary  bond  of 
union  which  keeps  mankind  together,  and 
which  consists  in  a  sense  of  mutual  weak- 
ness and  dependence.  Jean  Jacques  Rous- 
seau maintained  that  the  natural  and 
proper  state  of  man  is  the  savage  state, 
when  he  possesses  complete  liberty,  and 
that  every  social  organization  is  an  in- 
fraction of  natural  right.  All  men  he  be- 
lieved are  born  equal,  and  society  is 
founded  on  a  social  contract.  His  views 
on  the  subject  prepared  the  way  for  the 
first  French  Revolution. 

SOCIAL,  or  PUBLIC,  HYGIENE,  the 

science  of  caring  for  the  physical  well- 
being  of  entire  communities,  as  simple 
hygiene  is  the  science  of  guarding  the 
physical  welfare  of  the  individual  against 


SOCIAL  HYGIENE 


474 


SOCIAL  INSURANCE 


disease.  Obviously  the  former  is  more 
than  the  latter  on  a  larger  scale,  for  the 
living  together  of  large  numbers  of  people 
creates  dangers  that  do  not  necessarily 
threaten  the  individual.  It  is  only  within 
recent  years  that  social  hygiene  has  af- 
fected the  public  policies  of  municipali- 
ties or  states,  but  its  importance  is  of 
the  highest  order,  since  it  is  due  to  the 
application  of  the  laws  of  social  hygiene 
that  the  fatal  epidemics  of  the  earlier 
periods  of  history  have  been  banished. 
What  were  commonly  known  as  plagues 
in  olden  times  were,  in  the  light  of  mod- 
ern science,  nothing  but  such  dirt  dis- 
eases as  smallpox  and  malarial  fevers, 
none  of  which  can  flourish  where  the  pre- 
cautions dictated  by  a  knowledge  of  hy- 
giene are  applied.  To  a  lesser  degree  the 
same  may  be  said  of  all  contagious  dis- 
eases. The  rules  of  hygiene  are  chiefly 
based  on  the  knowledge  that  most  con- 
tagious diseases  are  caused  by  foul  air, 
which,  first  of  all,  robs  the  body  of  the 
vitality  which,  in  good  health,  enables  it 
to  throw  off  the  attacks  of  disease  germs ; 
by  filth  and  dampness,  in  which  the  dis- 
ease germs  are  incubated;  and  the  va- 
rious methods  by  which  these  germs  are 
transmitted  from  their  places  of  incuba- 
tion to  the  vulnerable  parts  of  the  human 
body.  Social  hygiene,  therefore,  as  en- 
forced through  state  laws  and  municipal 
ordinances,  demands  the  removal  of  all 
filth;  clean  streets,  removal  of  garbage 
and  proper  disposal  of  sewage;  a  certain 
minimum  amount  of  air  space  per  in- 
dividual in  human  dwellings,  with  proper 
ventilation,  as  illustrated  in  the  tenement 
house  laws  of  large  cities;  careful  in- 
spection of  sources  of  food  and  water 
supply,  that  infection  may  not  be  carried 
by  this  medium;  and,  finally,  when  sick- 
ness has  made  its  appearance,  measures 
for  the  segregation  of  those  already  af- 
fected. The  abolition  of  public  drinking 
cups  is  another  illustration  of  the  pre- 
cautions against  disease  demanded  by 
modern  social  hygiene.  The  result  of 
not  enforcing  laws  and  ordinances  in  this 
field  may  be  witnessed  in  the  present 
condition  of  the  large  cities  of  Russia, 
where,  in  some  cases,  epidemics  have 
reduced  the  populations  by  a  third.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  the  United  States 
Federal  Government  became  especially 
interested  in  social  hygiene,  on  account 
of  the  precautions  that  had  to  be  taken 
against  epidemics  in  the  mobilization 
camps.  The  greatest  enemy  here  encoun- 
tered, however,  was  found  to  be  venereal 
diseases.  As  a  consequence  of  what  was 
learned  by  investigation  during  this  pe- 
riod, the  Federal  Government  has  decided 
to  continue  its  activities  in  this  field  on 
a  permanent  basis.  The  agencies  through 
which  it  works  are:   The  United  States 


Public  Health  Service,  the  Inter-Depart- 
mental Social  Hygiene  Board  and  Army 
and  Navy  Departments.  These  first  be- 
gan to  function  in  the  summer  of  1918. 
The  second  of  these  institutions,  created 
by  an  Act  of  Congress,  passed  July  9, 
1918,  received  an  appropriation  of  four 
million  dollars.  As  a  result  of  the  ac- 
tivities of  these  Government  institutions, 
96  laws  were  passed  in  1919,  in  various 
States  to  protect  society  against  venereal 
diseases.  During  1919  all  these  institu- 
tions together  treated  35,000  cases. 

SOCIAL  INSURANCE,  one  of  threfe 
distinct  branches  of  insurance  in  gen- 
eral, the  other  two  of  which  are  commer- 
cial insurance  and  mutual  insurance. 
Both  of  these  are  voluntary  in  nature, 
and  protect  those  who  have  the  initiative 
to^  take  proper  precautions  against  the 
misfortunes  which  insurance  covers.  So- 
cial insurance  is  that  branch  which  en- 
deavors to  protect  that  weaker  and  more 
thriftless  element  of  the  population  which 
does  not,  or  cannot,  protect  itself,  usually 
the  l®wer  paid  classes  of  the  workers. 
As  defined  by  a  pamphlet  of  the  United 
States  Government,  it  is  a  "method  of  or- 
ganized relief  by  which  wage-earners,  or 
persons  similarly  situated,  and  their  de- 
pendents and  survivors,  become  entitled 
to  specific  pecuniary  or  other  benefits, 
on  the  occurrence  of  certain  emergencies." 
The  medium  is  generally  through  govern- 
ment institutions,  in  combination  with 
employers  and  the  beneficiaries  them- 
selves. In  most  European  countries  the 
government  contributes  one-third  of  the 
insurance  fund,  the  employees,  or  bene- 
ficiaries, and  the  employers,  contributing 
the  rest.  These  contributions  are  some- 
times voluntary,  in  which  case  the  con- 
tribution of  the  government  is  in  the  na- 
ture of  a  subsidy.  Where  they  are  com- 
pulsory the  insurance  is  in  the  nature 
of  workingmen's  compensation  law.  So- 
cial insurance  was  first  established  in 
Germany,  by  Bismarck,  who  was  much 
influenced  by  the  Socialist  teachings  of 
Ferdinand  Lasalle.  In  the  United  States 
workingmen's  compensation  laws  were 
not  passed  until  about  ten  years  ago,  but 
the  movement  in  their  favor  has  since 
become  very  strong.  Social  insurance 
usually  is  divided  into  the  following 
branches:  accident,  occupational  diseases, 
non-industrial  accidents,  general  illness, 
maternity,  employers'  liability,  in- 
valid, old  age,  funeral,  widows  and  or- 
phans, and  unemployment.  These  heads, 
it  will  be  seen,  cover  almost  all  the  evils 
to  which  the  mass  of  the  people  are  sub- 
ject, and  it  is  believed  by  many  statesmen 
and  economists  that  social  insurance, 
when  carried  out  to  its  fullest  limits,  may 
entirely  abolish  all  those  social  evils  con- 


SOCIALISM 


475 


SOCIALISM 


sequent  on  our  present  industrial  system. 
The  first  national  convention  on  Social 
Insurance  was  held  in  Chicago,  in  June, 
1913,  and  the  second,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  United  States  Government,  was 
held  in  December,  1916. 

SOCIALISM,  in  its  broader  meaning, 
is  the  conception  that  the  production  and 
distribution  of  »H  those  commodities 
which  satisfy  the  wants  of  the  people 
should  be  under  the  collective,  democratic 
control  of  the  people  as  a  whole,  with 
the  result  that  use  would  be  the  only  in- 
centive to  industry,  and  that  the  private 
profit  of  capitalistic  enterprise  would  be 
eliminated  as  an  element.  With  this  defi- 
nition no  Socialist  will  quarrel.  It  is 
chiefly  in  how  this  end  is  to  be  achieved, 
and  the  form  in  which  the  public  indus- 
tries are  to  be  administered,  that  So- 
cialists differ,  on  which  differences  are 
based  the  various  groups,  some  of  which 
are  so  widely  separated  in  their  sympa- 
thies from  the  others  that  only  by  the 
broadest  generalization  may  they  be  con- 
sidered as  the  component  parts  of  the 
one  movement. 

Socialism  had  its  origin  in  the  inven- 
tion and  establishment  of  steam-driven 
machinery,  by  which  means  the  handi- 
crafts system  of  production  was  gradually 
transformed  into  the  present  large  scale 
system  of  capitalist  industry.  Previous 
to  the  introduction  of  machinery  each 
worker  had  produced  commodities  in  his 
home  and  sold  his  surplus  to  his  imme- 
diate neighbors.  Such  inventions  as  the 
power  loom  not  only  multiplied  the  pro- 
ductive power  of  the  individual  workers 
many  hundreds  of  times,  but  made  neces- 
sary the  factory  system  of  production, 
whereby  great  numbers  of  men  and 
women  were  brought  together  under  the 
roof  of  the  factory  which  housed  the 
machinery.  The  machinery,  however,  re- 
mained the  property  of  one  owner,  on 
whom  all  the  workers  became  dependent 
for  their  means  of  livelihood,  since  large 
scale  production,  by  its  vast  superiority, 
had  killed  the  handicrafts  industries. 
This  autocratic,  economic  power  over  the 
workers  enabled  the  owner  of  the  machi- 
nery to  dictate  the  terms  on  which  they 
were  to  work,  with  the  result  that  the 
hours  became  as  long  as  human  endur- 
ance could  bear  and  that  wages  were  cut 
down  to  the  barest  means  of  subsistence. 
From  these  conditions,  growing  gradually 
worse,  trades  unionism  had  its  inception. 
The  workers  banded  together  for  mutual 
protection  against  the  masters,  and  by 
the  strength  of  their  organization  were 
enabled  gradually  to  counteract  the  evil 
tendencies.  The  vast  improvements  in 
the  conditions  of  the  workers  during  the 
past  century  are  largely  the  result  of  the 


activities  of  the  labor  unions,  together 
with  the  legislation  in  their  favor  inspired 
and  supported  by  them  and  their  sym- 
pathizers. But  since  their  object  is  mere- 
ly to  increase  wages  and  shorten  the  hours 
of  the  working  day,  they  are  not,  in  them- 
selves, in  any  way  a  part  of  the  Socialist 
movement. 

Socialism  had  its  definite  origin  in 
those  groups  of  keen  idealists  who  imme- 
diately saw  the  injustice  in  a  system 
which  provided  that  the  machinery  of 
social  production  should  be  in  the  hands 
of  private  ownership.  They  held  that 
since  the  factories  produced  the  needs  of 
the  people,  for  their  consumption,  the 
people  should  own  and  control  them.  Or, 
a  little  more  definitely,  since  the  workers 
used  the  machinery  of  production  to  pro- 
duce the  needs  of  life,  they  should  own 
them,  as  they  had  owned  their  own  tools 
under  the  handicrafts  system.  This  lat- 
ter conception,  somewhat  more  narrow, 
was  undoubtedly  the  first.  It  persists 
to  the  present  day  in  the  Guild  Socialist 
and  Syndicalist  movements,  off-shoots  of 
the  main  Socialist  movement,  and  will  be 
considered  later. 

The  first  one  to  formulate  the  idea  of 
collective  ownership  of  the  tools  of  pro- 
duction was  Robert  Owen,  himself  not 
a  workingman,  but,  peculiarly  enough, 
the  owner  and  manager  of  a  large  tex- 
tile factory  in  New  Lanark,  on  the  Clyde. 
Owen  has  been  considered  the  father  of 
Socialism,  in  England  at  least.  Owen 
improved  the  conditions  of  the  several 
hundreds  of  workers  in  his  own  mills, 
shortening  the  hours  and  raising  wages, 
limiting  child  labor,  and  then  strove  he- 
roically to  persuade  other  employers  that 
self-interest,  if  not  a  sense  of  humanity, 
should  impel  them  to  follow  his  example, 
since  better  conditions  enabled  his  work- 
ers to  reach  a  higher  degree  of  produc- 
tiveness. He  was,  however,  only  scorn- 
fully laughed  at,  and  his  failure  led  him 
to  elaborate  more  radical  schemes  for 
the  betterment  of  the  workers.  He,  there- 
fore, presented  various  plans  for  the 
establishment  of  isolated  communist  colo- 
nies, in  which  factories  were  to  be  estab- 
lished, to  be  owned  collectively  by  the 
colonists,  the  profits  of  their  industry  to 
be  shared  equally  between  them.  These 
plans  were  in  several  cases  actually  car- 
ried out,  one  of  them  in  this  country,  at 
New  Harmony,  Ind.  All  failed,  but 
Owen  nevertheless  made  a  strong  impres- 
sion on  a  number  of  educated  English- 
men, who  accepted  his  fundamental  prin- 
ciples and  modified  them  in  an  effort  to 
render  them  more  practical. 

At  about  the  same  time,  during  the 
first  two  or  three  decades  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, Francois  Fourier,  in  France,  was 
proposing  similar  communist  enterprises, 


SOCIALISM 


476 


SOCIALISM 


wherein  workers  were  to  establish  iso- 
lated colonies  and  produce  and  enjoy 
collectively.  Fourierism  made  some  im- 
pression in  this  country,  and  was  taken 
up  actively  by  Horace  Greeley  and  Albert 
Brisbane  in  the  forties.  The  communist 
colonies  resulting  from  their  preachings 
and  writings  form  a  whole  phase  of  the 
early  history  of  Socialism  in  this  coun- 
try, though  they,  too,  met  nothing  but 
failure. 

This  is  what  is  generally  known  as  the 
Utopian  stage  of  Socialism,  in  which 
idealists  sought  to  jump  immediately  to 
idealistic  conditions,  merely  by  organiz- 
ing society  on  their  principles.  This  was 
followed  by  what  modern  Socialists  call 
scientific,  or  evolutionary,  Socialism, 
which  they  declare  has  its  basis  in  the 
laws  of  social  evolution. 

The  founder  of  this  more  elaborate 
scheme  of  social  betterment  was  Karl 
Marx,  who  was  born  of  Jewish  parents, 
in  Treves,  Prussia,  in  1818,  and  had  the 
advantages  of  a  first  class  education, 
studying  at  Jena,  Bonn  and  Berlin.  As 
a  result  of  the  revolutionary  disturbances 
in  Germany,  in  1848,  he  was  expelled 
from  Prussia  and  settled  in  London, 
where  he  made  a  meagre  living  as  Lon- 
don correspondent  for  Greeley's  New 
York  "Tribune."  For  several  years  he 
studied  political  economy  and  kindred 
subjects  in  the  British  Museum  Library. 
The  result  of  his  long  labor  was  a  volu- 
minous work,  "Capital,"  which  he  pub- 
lished in  German,  in  1867.  This  work 
is  the  Bible  of  a  large  proportion  of 
present-day  Socialists. 

Marx,  however,  had  already  published 
his  ideas  on  Socialism,  in  collaboration 
with  Frederich  Engels ;  together,  in  1848, 
they  had  issued  what  is  considered  by 
their  many  followers  the  most  important 
piece  of  literature  in  the  history  of  So- 
cialism, the  "Communist  Manifesto." 
Though  only  in  the  form  of  a  short  pam- 
phlet, probably  no  other  piece  of  litera- 
ture, except  the  Bible,  has  been  more 
frequently  quoted.  Nor  has  any  other 
writing,  except  the  Bible,  been  more  va- 
riously interpreted. 

Three  theoretical  propositions  constitute 
the  fundamental  basis  of  the  "Communist 
Manifesto."  They  are:  the  materialist 
conception  of  history;  the  class  struggle; 
and  the  theory  of  surplus  value.  The 
first  implies  that  all  history,  that  is,  the 
activities  of  all  nations,  has  been  dictated 
by  economic  conditions.  The  second  im- 
plies that  through  all  history  there  have 
always  been  two  classes  antagonistic 
toward  each  other;  the  master  class,  liv- 
ing parasitically  on  the  second  class, 
which  is  made  up  of  the  workers,  the 
producers.  This  class  struggle,  under  the 
capitalist  system,  centers  about  surplus 


value,  which  the  master  class  extracts 
from  the  working  class  at  the  point  of 
production.  The  workers  are  compelled 
to  work  with  tools  owned  by  the  capi- 
talist class.  For  this  work  they  receive 
merely  enough  wages  to  subsist,  while 
the  surplus  value  of  their  labor  is  ap- 
propriated by  the  capitalist  class.  The 
higher  the  degree  of  perfection  in  ma- 
chinery and  large-scale  factory  organiza- 
tion, the  bigger  becomes  this  margin,  and 
the  more  powerful  becomes  the  capitalist 
class.  Correspondingly  the  pressure  on 
the  working  class  grows,  until  it  becomes 
intolerable,  and  the  latter  rises  in  revolu- 
tion and  overthrows  the  master  class. 

Marx,  Engels  and  their  disciples  were 
not  interested  in  politics,  in  the  form  of 
political  parties.  This  was  natural,  since 
at  that  time  the  suffrage  was  very  much 
restricted  in  European  countries.  The 
change  would  not  be  brought  about  by 
politics,  but  by  an  intensification  of  the 
class  struggle.  Agitation  should  be  car- 
ried on  to  create  "class  consciousness" 
among  the  workers.  The  intensification 
of  the  misery  of  the  workers  would  be  an 
ally  of  the  agitators.  Finally,  when  class 
consciousness  had  become  a  quality  of  a 
large  majority  of  the  workers,  they  would 
rise  in  revolution,  overthrow  the  master 
class  and  seize  political  power,  which 
would  bring  about  the  "dictatorship  of 
the  proletariat."  Once  in  power,  the  pro- 
letariat would  organize  industry  on  a  col- 
lective basis,  all  members  of  society  would 
have  to  become  workers,  and  class  rule 
would  give  place  to  pure  Socialism,  or 
Communism.  This  is  the  program  of 
the  purely  Marxian  Socialists.  These 
are  the  principles  on  which  was  founded 
the  International  Workingmen's  Associa- 
tion, in  Paris,  in  1864,  and  which  a  few 
years  later  was  removed  to  New  York 
in  a  moribund  condition,  there  to  be  un- 
obtrusively interred. 

For  the  Marxian  program  did  not  work 
out  according  to  schedule.  Trade  unions 
improved  the  conditions  of  the  workers. 
Legislation,  backed  by  so-called  capitalist 
parties,  also  improved  their  conditions. 
Suffrage  was  widened,  and  the  political 
parties  bid  for  the  support  of  the  working 
classes.  All  this  tended  to  impede  the 
development  of  "class  consciousness"  and 
of  its  final  climax,  the  social  revolution. 

Finally  the  rank  and  file  of  the 
socialist  organizations  began  to  insist  on 
participation  in  politics.  They  wanted 
candidates  elected  to  office,  especially  rep- 
resentatives sent  to  the  legislative  bodies. 
The  staunchest  of  the  Marxians  fought 
this  tendency,  some  to  the  present  day. 
These  have  been  known  as  the  "impossi- 
bilists,"   or   "direct  actionists." 

The  majority,  however,  succumbed  to 
the   prospects   of  political   party   power. 


SOCIALISM 


477 


SOCIALISM 


The  first  Socialist  representatives  elected 
to  legislative  bodies  were  sent  to  the 
North  German  Diet,  in  the  seventies,  and 
soon  after  Socialist  political  parties  were 
formed  in  other  countries  as  well. 

From  that  day  until  the  present  there 
has  been  a  steady  gTowth  in  all  countries, 
of  the  Socialist  political  parties  and 
of  the  number  of  their  representatives  in 
the  governing  bodies.  But  even  within 
the  parties  themselves  there  continued 
the  original  split,  between  those  who, 
while  willing  to  have  their  representatives 
elected  to  legislative  bodies,  did  not  be- 
lieve they  should  support  reform  legisla- 
tion ;  and  those  who  supported  all  legisla- 
tive measures  for  the  betterment  of  the 
masses. 

The  first  believed  that  all  reform 
measures  retarded  and  even  checked  the 
growth  of  class  consciousness,  therefore 
delayed  the  social  revolution,  which  was 
to  be  the  means  by  which  the  proletariat 
would  achieve  power.  The  latter  suc- 
cumbed to  pressure  from  below,  and  fol- 
lowed the  dictates  of  the  rank  and  file, 
who,  little  interested  in  abstract  theories, 
wanted  their  material  conditions  im- 
proved. 

This  partisanship  between  the  Marxian 
theorists  and  the  practical  politicians  in 
the  movement  continued,  now  and  then 
breaking  out  into  violent  party  dissen- 
tions.  It  remained  for  the  recent  World 
War  to  bring  about  an  open  split. 

In  the  United  States  the  Socialist  La- 
bor Party  was  organized  in  1877.  Its 
chief  was  Daniel  De  Leon,  a  true  Marx- 
ian, though  he  believed  in  political  ac- 
tivity for  its  propaganda  value.  As  the 
Socialist  Labor  Party  met  with  little  or 
no  success  at  the  polls,  it  was  not  tempted 
to  deviate  from  its  Marxian  principles, 
since  its  chiefs  were  not  elected  to  office. 

In  the  late  nineties,  however,  a  grow- 
ing number  of  native  Americans  were 
converted  to  Socialism,  including  Eugene 
Debs,  a  prominent  labor  leader,  and  dis- 
satisfaction with  the  policy  of  the  Ger- 
man Socialists  who  had  formed  the  bulk 
of  the  Socialist  Labor  Party  began  to 
manifest  itself.  In  1900  came  a  split; 
the  Socialist  Party  was  organized,  and 
in  the  presidential  elections  of  that  year 
it  polled  nearly  100,000  votes.  Hencefor- 
ward the  Socialist  Labor  Party  dwindled 
in  strength,  while  the  Socialist  Party 
developed  rapidly,  polling  901,361  votes 
in  the  presidential  election  in  1912.  This 
later  party  frankly  adopted  a  platform 
of  reform  measures,  and  while  it  did  not 
repudiate  the  Marxian  theories,  it  made 
the  development  of  its  political  strength 
its  chief  aim.  Its  appeal  has  been  openly 
to  the  people  as  citizens,  or  consumers, 
while  its  championship  of  the  workers  at 
the  "point  of  production"  has  been  chiefly 

EE- 


confined  to  the  editorials  of  its  official 
organs.  In  1912,  at  a  national  convention, 
held  in  Indianapolis,  the  "direct  action- 
ists,"  those  who  remained  true  to  the 
old  Marxian  program  of  mass  revolution, 
were  definitely  thrown  out. 

In  1899  the  first  international  Socialist 
Congress  was  held,  and  thereafter  a  sim- 
ilar international  meeting  was  held  every 
three  years,  for  the  purpose  of  formu- 
lating common  action.  Needless  to  re- 
mark, the  politicians  were  behind  these 
congresses,  and  of  these  the  German  So- 
cialists were  dominant.  German  Social- 
ism, which  had  built  up  the  biggest 
political  party  in  Germany,  remained  the 
ideal  of  the  Socialists  in  all  other  coun- 
tries, with  the  exception  of  England, 
where,  through  the  influence  of  the  Fa- 
bian Society  (q.  v.),  the  Labor  Party  had 
been  gradually  developed  with  a  platform 
based  simply  on  an  extension  of  govern- 
ment enterprise.  The  Continental  parties, 
at  least,  still  held  that  it  would  be  use- 
less to  support  state  industrial  enter- 
prises until  the  government  had  been 
definitely  captured  by  the  Socialist  votes. 

In  1900  the  "Second  International"  was 
organized,  in  the  International  Socialist 
Bureau  which  was  established  in  Brussels. 
This  central  bureau  functioned  until  the 
outbreak  of  the  World  War,  when,  not 
so  much  through  the  interruption  of  com- 
munications, as  because  of  the  action  of 
the  German  Socialists  in  supporting  their 
Government  in  the  war,  it  was  disrupted. 
Political  activities,  naturally,  had  devel- 
oped a  corresponding  degree  of  national- 
ism in  the  Socialist  parties,  though  the 
Marxian  program  had  emphasized  very 
strongly  the  international  character  of 
the  Socialist  movement  and  specifically 
pointed  out  that  the  brotherhood  of  the 
proletariat  was  more  important  than  pa- 
triotism, which  was  considered  merely  a 
medium  by  which  the  ruling  classes  di- 
vided the  solidarity  of  labor.  The  true 
Marxians  in  Germany  were  represented 
by  such  leaders  as  Rosa  Luxemburg  and 
Karl  Liebknecht,  who  refused  to  support 
the  war  and  suffered  imprisonment  there- 
for. In  this  country,  when  the  time 
came,  the  Socialist  party  stood  strongly 
against  the  war,  not  so  much,  perhaps, 
on  account  of  Marxian  principles,  as  be- 
cause a  large  portion  of  the  rank  and  file 
was  of   German  birth. 

For  the  first  two  and  a  half  years  of 
the  war  Socialism  in  all  countries  re- 
mained practically  quiescent.  It  had  been 
shocked  insensible  by  the  unexpected  ef- 
fect that  the  war  had  had  on  itself. 

Then  came  the  revolution  in  Russia,  in 
March,  1917.  Essentially  this  began  as 
a  protest  of  all  classes  of  society  against 
the  incompetence  and  the  treason  of  the 
ruling  autocracy,  but  the  Socialists  were 
■Cys  Vol  8 


SOCIALISM 


478 


SOCIALISM 


the  only  ones  who  had  the  organization 
needed  to  hold  the  revolutionary  masses 
together,  through  their  Council  of  Work- 
ingmen  Delegates,  which  was  hastily 
called  into  being  for  the  purpose.  The 
Socialists  only  were  capable  of  coherent 
action,  and  therefore  the  power  fell  to 
them.  Certainly  they  had  not  had  any 
more  than  their  proportionate  share  in 
creating  the  overturn. 

The  rise  into  power  of  the  Socialists 
in  Russia  suddenly  revived  Socialism  in 
other  countries.  In  May,  1917,  the  Coun- 
cil of  Workingmen  Delegates,  which  while 
not  itself  the  Government,  was  at  any 
rate  the  biggest  unit  of  power  behind 
the  Government,  issued  a  call  to  all  So- 
cialists in  other  countries  to  hold  an 
international  conference  in  Stockholm, 
where  war  aims  should  be  discussed  and 
mutually  agreed  upon. 

The  Stockholm  Conference  was  not  held, 
as  practically  all  the  belligerent  govern- 
ments refused  to  issue  passports  to  the 
delegates,  but  nevertheless  there  had  been 
a  willingness  on  the  part  of  the  national 
organizations  to  be  represented.  If  the 
Socialists  could  not  prevent  the  outbreak 
of  the  war,  they  felt  that  at  least  they 
might  capture  the  honor  of  ending  it. 
The  statesmen  of  the  parties  in  power 
were  determined  that  they  should  not 
have  this  honor,  and  successfully  defeated 
their  hope. 

From  now  on  there  was  a  steady  ef- 
lort  to  revive  the  International.  In  the 
fall  of  1918,  after  the  signing  of  the 
armistice,  there  was  held  in  London  an 
Inter -Allied  Labor  and  Socialist  Congress, 
which  found  its  most  radical  expression 
in  an  indorsement  of  President  Wilson's 
"fourteen  points."  This  conference  called 
an  international  conference  to  be  held 
at  Berne,  Switzerland,  in  February,  1919. 
To  this  came  the  German  Socialist  dele- 
gates, representing  not  only  the  German 
Socialist  Movement,  but  the  German  So- 
cialist Government,  which  had  been  cap- 
tured by  the  old  German  Socialist  poli- 
ticians. This  conference  of  the  Second 
International  declared  itself  for  "parlia- 
mentary" Socialism;  that  is,  for  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  political  party  policies 
which  had  been  adopted  against  the  pro- 
tests of  the  Marxians. 

Meanwhile,  in  Russia,  the  Bolsheviki 
had  captured,  first  the  Council  of  Work- 
ingmen Delegates,  and  then,  in  November, 
entire  control  of  the  government.  The 
Bolshevist  leaders  were  true  Marxians, 
as  they  showed  when  they  disbanded  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  the  creation  of  a 
parliamentary  regime,  and  established  the 
"dictatorship  of  the  proletariat."  They 
had  come  into  power,  however,  not 
through  the  class  consciousness  of  the 
workers,  but  through  the  discontent  of 


the  peasantry  with  carrying  on  further 
warfare. 

The  Bolsheviki  repudiated  the  Berne 
Conference.  This  stand  by  the  Russians 
immediately  awoke  the  Marxians  in  all 
countries,  and  now  came  such  a  split  as 
had  never  existed  before. 

On  March  2-6,  1919,  all  these  elements 
came  together  in  Moscow  and  there,  under 
the  leadership  of  the  Bolshevist  chiefs, 
formed  the  "Third  International."  As  the 
Germans  formerly  dominated  the  Second 
International,  so  now,  even  more  auto- 
cratically, the  Russians  dominated  the 
Third  International,  which  they  term  the 
"General  Staff  of  the  Social  Revolution." 
The  third  stands  for  the  old  Marxian  pro- 
gram, by  which  "class  consciousness"  is 
to  be  developed  until  it  has  acquired  such 
strength  that  it  can,  by  forcible  means 
or  otherwise,  overthrow  the  capitalist 
system  and  set  up  its  dictatorship  of  the 
proletariat. 

The  Second  International  stands  for  the 
parliamentary  method.  By  increasing  its 
electoral  strength  it  hopes  gradually  to 
permeate  all  existing  governments  and 
so  accomplish  its  ends  more  peacefully 
and  by  a  more  evolutionary  process.  Its 
representatives  are  in  power  in  Germany, 
Austria,  Czecho-slovakia,  and,  until  late 
in  1920,  were  so  in  Sweden.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  the  Socialist  party  majorities 
in  about  two  dozen  countries. 

In  May,  1920,  the  American  Socialist 
Party  held  its  national  convention  and 
passed  a  resolution  supporting  the  Third 
International,  with  the  important  reserva- 
tion, however,  that  it  did  not  believe  it 
feasible  to  adopt  the  revolutionary  pro- 
gram culminating  in  the  dictatorship  of 
the  proletariat.  In  March,  1920,  the 
Third  International  held  its  second  con- 
vocation in  Moscow.  Several  months  af- 
ter that,  and  after  the  resolution  passed 
by  the  American  Socialists  in  May,  the 
Executive  Committee  of  the  Third  Inter- 
national presented  twenty-one  points 
which  the  American  Socialist  Party  must 
indorse  before  it  would  be  admitted  to 
join.  Among  these  points  were:  that  the 
editors  of  the  Party  organs  must  be  men 
who  had  declared  themselves  Communists 
previously,  or,  in  other  words,  the  pres- 
ent editors  must  all  be  dismissed  and  re- 
placed by  members  of  the  Communist 
Party.  The  document  read  like  terms 
presented  to  a  defeated  foe  by  a  mighty 
conqueror.  These  terms  were  finally  re- 
jected by  the  National  Executive  Com- 
mittee of  the  American  Socialist  Party, 
in  December,  1920,  and  at  that  time  there 
seemed  little  doubt  that  the  party  mem- 
bership referendum  would,  when  it  took 
place,  reverse  the  previous  decision  to 
join  the  Third  International.  This  will 
mean   the  withdrawal   of  all  the   Slavic 


SOCIALISM 


479 


SOCIALISTS 


and  Finnish  affiliated  organizations,  and 
reduce  the  membership  of  the  American 
Socialist  Party  to  something  like  7,000, 
as  compared  to  a  membership  which  once 
stood  at  140,000.  A  split  had  already- 
taken  place  in  August,  1919,  in  Chicago, 
when  a  large  minority  walked  out  of  the 
convention  hall,  and  formed  the  Com- 
munist and  the  Communist  Labor  parties, 
both  of  which  organizations  have  since 
been  driven  underground  by  the  prosecu- 
tions of  the  state  and  Federal  authorities. 

The  origin,  development  and  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  chief  Socialist  organizations 
having  been  set  forth  it  remains  only  to 
describe  briefly  several  important  off- 
shoots of  the  main  official  movement. 
First  of  these  is  Syndicalism,  which  had 
its  origin  in  the  French  labor  movement. 
Syndicalism  represents  a  reaction  against 
State  Socialism,  to  which,  obviously,  po- 
litical action  would  lead.  Syndicalists 
hold  that  the  State  should  be  practically 
abolished,  as  it  exists  at  present,  at  least, 
and  that  the  industries  should  be  owned 
and  controlled  by  the  organized  workers 
employed  in  them.  The  school  teachers 
should  own  the  schools,  the  postal  em- 
ployes should  run  the  post  office  and  the 
railroad  workers  should  have  full  charge 
of  transportation.  The  American  repre- 
sentative organization  of  this  movement 
is  the  I.  W.  W. 

Against  this  conception  there  has  been 
still  another  reaction,  originated  in  Eng- 
land, known  as  Guild  Socialism.  The 
movement  is  worthy  of  special  notice,  for 
while  it  remains  comparatively  small  as 
on  organization,  it  has  nevertheless  cap- 
tured the  younger  elements  of  the  British 
Labor  movement.  Its  program  is  almost 
perfectly  represented  in  this  country  by 
the  Plumb  Plan  of  the  American  railroad 
brotherhoods  for  the  nationalization  of 
the  railroads. 

The  Guild  Socialist  program  was  first 
formulated,  shortly  before  the  World  War, 
in  the  writings  of  G.  D.  H.  Cole,  an 
English  writer,  and  A.  R.  Orage,  editor 
of  the  "New  Age."  The  idea  is  simply 
a  combination  of  state  ownership  and 
control  by  the  labor  organizations.  The 
state  is  to  own  the  sources  of  raw  mate- 
rial and  the  machinery  of  production. 
The  workers,  organized  into  "guilds,"  or 
industrial  unions,  are  to  control,  each  its 
own  industry,  regulating  working  condi- 
tions and  prices.  There  are  also  to  be 
consumers'  guilds,  representing  those  who 
will  consume  the  output  of  the  guild  fac- 
tories, and  these  will  have  charge  of  dis- 
tribution. Apparently  they  will  have 
very  little  to  say  about  the  prices  they 
are  to  pay  to  the  producers'  guilds  for 
the  commodities  they  consume.  Nor  is 
it  definitely  stated  what  value  will  there 
Ih?,  in  state  ownership  of  industries  with- 


out control.  "Guildsmen,"  as  they  term 
themselves,  do  not  emphasize  political 
action.  Their  plan  is  to  permeate  the 
labor  organizations  with  their  idea,  cause 
them  to  organize  on  an  industrial  basis, 
and,  finally,  by  sheer  weight  of  their 
economic  strength,  take  over  the  indus- 
tries. 

Another  form  of  Socialism,  using  the 
word  in  its  very  broadest  sense,  is  Con- 
sumers' Co-operation,  whose  origin  is 
older  than  that  of  Marxian  Social- 
ism, and  which  has  ever  since  pursued 
its  own  course.  It  is  the  only  form  of 
collectivism  which  has  demonstrated  itself 
in  actual  practice.  Here,  society  as  a 
whole,  as  a  general  organization  of  con- 
sumers, will  own  and  control,  while  labor 
will  be  in  the  service  of  society,  on  the 
old  wage  basis,  modified  by  some  system 
of  joint-control,  in  so  far  as  working 
conditions  are  concerned.  Co-operation, 
however,  has  no  theoretical  program,  but 
follows  obediently  in  the  wake  of  its  own 
successful  experiments,  though  its  de- 
clared ideal,  in  common  with  all  Socialists, 
is  the  Co-operative  Commonwealth. 

Socialism,  International,  first  as- 
sumed form  in  the  International  Work- 
ingmen's  Association,  organized  in  Paris, 
in  1864,  of  which  Karl  Marx,  Friedrich 
Engels  and  Michael  Bakunin  were  the 
leaders.  It  never  prospered,  and  its  head- 
quarters were,  a  few  years  later,  re- 
moved to  New  York,  where  it  gradually 
faded  out  of  existence.  The  second  inter- 
national organization  of  Socialists  was 
effected,  temporarily  in  1889,  when  the 
political  Socialist  parties  of  all  coun- 
tries began  holding  their  international 
congresses.  A  permanent  Bureau  was 
finally  formed  in  1900,  with  headquarters 
in  Brussels,  Belgium.  This  was  removed 
to  the  Hague  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War,  in  1914,  but  for  the  entire 
duration  of  the  war  remained  inactive. 
It  was  revived  at  Berne,  in  February, 
1919.  In  March,  1919,  a  Third  Inter- 
national was  formed  in  Moscow,  which 
repudiated  political  action  and  declared 
itself  for  violent  revolution.  (See  So- 
cialism.) 

SOCIALISTS,  CHRISTIAN,  a  name 
first  taken  by  a  small  group  of  English 
reformers,  in  the  forties  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, led  by  Vansittart  Neale,  Tom 
Hughes,  author  of  "Tom  Brown's  School- 
days," and  Canon  Charles  Kingsley,  the 
noted  novelist.  They  attached  the  "Chris- 
tian" to  their  Socialism  to  distinguish, 
themselves  from  the  revolutionary  So- 
cialists led  by  Marx  and  Engels,  and  to 
indicate  their  repudiation  of  Robert 
Owen's  atheism,  whose  economic  theories, 
however,  they  adopted  in  large  part. 
They  are  undoubtedly  the  natural  prede- 


SOCIAL  SCIENCE 


480 


SOCIAL  SETTLEMENTS 


cessors  of  the  modern  Syndicalists,  in 
that  they  believed  that  the  workers  should 
own  the  tools  of  production.  This  they 
wished  to  bring  about  by  establishing 
self-governing  workshops,  which  should 
be  owned  by  the  employes  and  the  profits 
of  which  should  be  divided  among  the 
same  employes.  Their  experiments  never 
snowed  the  vitality  of  growth,  and  the 
movement,  also  known  under  the  name  of 
productive  co-operation  and  co-partner- 
ship, is  today  practically  dead. 

More  recently  a  group  of  Marxian  So- 
cialists has  appeared,  which  bases  its 
propaganda  on  the  belief  that  the  teach- 
ings of  Christ  were  essentially  Socialistic, 
in  that  they  advocated  the  brotherhood 
of  man  and  denounced  the  possession  of 
riches.  This  point  of  view  is  most  ably 
expounded  in  Bouck  White's  "The  Call 
of  the  Carpenter"  (1912). 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE,  the  systematic  in- 
vestigation of  questions  relating  to  pub- 
lic and  domestic  hygiene,  education,  labor, 
the  punishment  and  reformation  of  crim- 
inals, the  prevention  of  pauperism,  and 
the  like.  The  "Societes  de  Bienfaisance" 
(Beneficent  Societies),  established  in 
France  in  the  18th  century,  were  founded 
for  the  purpose  of  discussing  similar  mat- 
ters, and  the  National  Association  for 
the  Promotion  of  Social  Science  origi- 
nated in  a  meeting,  in  1857,  at  the  house 
of  Lord  Brougham  (1778-1868),  when  he 
was  appointed  the  first  president.  The 
association  held  annual  meetings,  and 
published  its  proceedings,  classed  under 
the  heads  of  Jurisprudence,  Education, 
Punishment  and  Reformation,  Public 
Health,  Social  Economy,  and  Trade  and 
International  Law,  but  its  action  was 
temporarily  suspended  in  1884.  Since  its 
establishment  social  science  has  made 
great  advances  in  most  civilized  countries, 
notably  in  precautions  against  disease, 
the  reconstitution  of  hospital  charities, 
the  regulation  of  prisons  and  workhouses, 
the  establishment  of  reformatories  for 
young  criminals  and  penitentiaries  for 
fallen  women,  and  the  extension  of  middle- 
class  and  industrial  education.  The  word 
has  also  been  used  to  designate  the  sci- 
ence now  termed  Sociology  (q.  v.). 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE  ASSOCIATION, 
AMERICAN,  was  founded  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  in  1865,  for  the  purpose  of  inves- 
tigating and  studying  all  those  social 
problems  which  come  under  the  following 
heads:  community  health;  education  and 
art;  social  economy;  finance;  and  juris- 
prudence. The  membership  of  the  asso- 
ciation throughout  the  country  is  at  pres- 
ent about  1,200.  Its  official  organ  is 
"The  Journal  of  Social  Science." 

SOCIAL  SERVICE,  AMERICAN  IN- 
STITUTE   OF,    an    organization    whose 


purpose  it  is  to  serve  as  a  clearing-house 
of  information  regarding  social  institu- 
tions for  the  betterment  of  society  in  all 
countries.  At  first  known  as  the  League 
for  Social  Service,  it  was  reorganized 
under  its  present  name  in  1902.  Its  work 
is  divided  under  the  following  heads: 
gathering  facts  on  social  and  industrial 
betterment;  interpreting  these  facts  and 
tracing  their  causes;  and  to  make  known 
results  obtained  by  the  various  social  bet- 
terment institutions  in  all  countries.  As 
an  instance,  when  an  employer  desires 
to  establish  profit-sharing  in  his  firm,  the 
Institute  will  save  him  the  trouble  of  an 
extensive  investigation  into  the  subject 
and  supply  him  with  the  material. 

SOCIAL  SETTLEMENTS,  groups  of 
social  workers  who  live  among  the  lower 
classes  in  the  slum  districts,  first,  to  ob- 
tain first  hand  information  of  conditions 
which  create  poverty,  and,  second,  to  of- 
fer relief  and  educational  assistance  at 
first  hand.  The  idea  of  obtaining  such 
close  contact  with  the  sources  of  social 
misfortune  originated  with  the  Christian 
Socialists  an  association  of  educated 
Englishmen  "who  were  active  during  the 
middle  of  the  last  century.  One  of  these, 
Edward  Dennison,'was  the  first  who  went 
to  live  among  the  poor  of  London,  in  1867, 
to  obtain  first  hand  information  of  social 
conditions  among  them.  Another  deeply 
interested  student  was  Arnold  Toynbee, 
who,  on  his  death,  left  a  legacy  which  was 
to  be  devoted  to  the  establishment  of  what 
was  to  be  the  first  social  settlement, 
Toynbee  Hall,  opened  in  London,  in  1885. 
Only  two  years  later  the  Neighborhood 
Guild,  now  known  as  the  University  Set- 
tlement, was  opened  in  New  York  City. 
The  largest  social  settlement  in  this  coun- 
try is  Hull  House,  opened  in  Chicago,  in 
1889,  at  whose  head  is  Jane  Addams.  Its 
influence  has  extended  all  over  the  city 
of  Chicago,  and  the  results  of  its  socio- 
logical studies  form  an  important  part  of 
sociological  literature  in  general  in  this 
country.  The  object  of  the  settlement 
house  is  strongly  in  contrast  to  that  of 
any  charitable  institution  in  that  it  seeks 
to  stimulate  the  poverty-stricken  classes 
to  improve  their  condition  by  their  own 
efforts.  To  this  end  clubs  and  associa- 
tions are  organized  among  the  people  of 
the  neighborhood  for  the  purpose  of  study- 
ing a  multitude  of  subjects  and  for  self^ 
improvement.  Credit  unions  are  formed 
for  the  purpose  of  assisting  mutually 
those  who  may  meet  unexpected  misfor- 
tunes. As  another  instance,  the  Neigh- 
borhood Guild  Settlement  House,  in  New 
York  City,  has  organized  among  the 
women  of  its  neighborhood  a  co-operative 
society,  which  carries  on  a  successful 
grocery  store  business  through  which  the 


SOCIAL  WAR 


481 


SOCIETY    ISLANDS 


members  obtain  many  of  the  necessaries 
of  life  at  lower  cost.  Many  other  settle- 
ments stimulate  their  neighbors  to  pur- 
chase their  winter  supplies  of  coal  by 
this  method.  Other  settlements  devote 
much  attention  to  the  training  of  mothers. 
One,  the  Nurses'  Settlement,  in  New  York 
City,  sends  trained  nurses  to  the  homes 
in  a  wide  district  in  cases  of  sickness, 
especially  in  maternity  cases.  Through- 
out the  large  American  cities  there  are 
about  one  hundred  settlement  houses. 

SOCIAL  WAR,  the  name  of  a  noted 
struggle  in  Roman  history.  M.  Livius 
Drusus  proposed  a  law  for  investing  the 
Italian  allies  with  the  privileges  of  Ro- 
man citizens;  but  it  was  strongly  opposed 
by  the  senators,  the  knights,  and  the 
people,  and  Drusus  was  assassinated  91 
B.  c.  The  Marsi,  who  took  the  lead 
(whence  the  name  Marsian  or  Marsic, 
also  given  to  that  war),  the  Peligni,  the 
Samnites,  the  Lucani,  and  almost  every 
nation  in  Italy  except  the  Latins,  Tus- 
cans, and  Umbrians,  revolted  and  estab- 
lished a  republic  in  opposition  to  that  of 
Rome.  In  the  first  campaign  the  Romans 
met  with  some  severe  losses.  Nola  was 
taken  by  the  Samnites;  the  consul,  P. 
Rutilius,  and  his  lieutenant,  Q.  Caepio, 
were  defeated  and  slain,  and  many  cities 
were  captured.  On  the  other  hand  Sylla 
and  Marius  obtained  a  great  victory  over 
the  Marsi,  and  L.  Caesar  defeated  the 
Samnites.  In  the  second  campaign,  90 
B.  c,  the  Romans  defeated  the  Marsi  and 
induced  them,  together  with  the  Vestini, 
Peligni,  and  Marrucini,  to  make  a  sepa- 
rate peace.  Sulla,  the  Roman  general, 
destroyed  the  town  of  Stalise,  defeated 
a  large  army  near  Nola,  reduced  the  Hir- 
pini  to  subjection,  and  defeated  the  Sami- 
ans.  The  Romans  were  induced,  hearing 
that  Mithridates  VI.,  King  of  Pontus,  in- 
tended to  aid  the  allies,  to  adopt  measures 
of  conciliation,  and  one  state  after  an- 
other submitted  and  received  the  gift  of 
Roman  citizenship.  After  the  close  of 
this  campaign  the  war  dwindled  away  till 
it  was  brought  to  a  conclusion,  88  B.  c, 
by  the  remainder  of  the  Italian  states 
receiving  the  concessions  they  required. 
During  this  war,  called  the  Social  War, 
300,000  men  were  slain. 

SOCIETIES  FOR  ETHICAL  CUL- 
TURE. The  first  Ethical  Culture  society 
was  founded  in  New  York  City  in  1876, 
by  Dr.  Felix  Adler,  who  was  then  a  lec- 
turer at  Cornell  University.  His  object 
was  to  offer  a  substitute  for  the  orthodox 
church  to  those  who  had  abandoned  be- 
lief in  orthodox  religion,  forming  a  move- 
ment ^  which  should  retain  the  ethical 
teachings  of  the  churches  without  their 
religious  ceremonies  and  rituals.  The 
original  society  in  New  York  later  estab- 


lished a  kindergarten  and  a  school  for 
older  children  which  became  models  of 
their  kind  in  this  country.  The  latter 
was  the  first  to  adopt  manual  training 
and  demonstrate  its  value  as  a  medium 
for  education.  Similar  societies  were 
soon  organized  in  other  American  cities, 
and,  later,  in  Berlin,  Paris,  London  and 
other  large  European  cities. 

SOCIETY  ISLANDS,  an  archipelago 
in  the  South  Pacific,  lying  between  lat. 
16°-18°  S.,  and  Ion.  148°-155°  W.  There 
are  13  principal  islands,  besides  numer- 
ous islets,  and  the  total  area  of  the  group 
is  estimated  at  734  square  miles.  The 
chief  islands  are  Tahiti  and  Moorea. 
The  first  has  an  area  of  600  square 
miles;  pop.  about  11,600;  the  latter  an 
area  of  50   square  miles;   pop.   1,500. 

The  Society  Islands  are  of  basaltic 
formation  and  abound  in  lofty  and  pre- 
cipitous mountains  usually  fringed  by  a 
belt  of  flat  land.  Two  peaks  in  Tahiti 
are  respectively  7,000  and  8,700  feet  high. 
Coral  reefs  are  very  abundant  round  all 
the  islands.  The  soil  being  extremely 
fertile  and  water  plentiful,  the  vegetation 
of  the  islands  is  most  luxuriant.  The 
climate  is  healthy,  but  enervating,  and 
terrible  hurricanes  occur  from  time  to 
time.  The  inhabitants  belong  to  the  Poly- 
nesian race  and  are  handsome,  brave,  and 
intelligent,  but  indolent,  fickle,  immoral, 
and  passionately  fond  of  ardent  spirits. 
On  account  of  their  indolence  Chinese 
and  Hervey  Islanders  are  imported  to 
work  the  cotton  plantations.  The  people 
of  Huahine,  however,  are  enterprising 
traders,  and  their  flag  is  seen  as  far 
away  as  San  Francisco.  The  chief  ex- 
ports from  the  islands  are  cotton,  cocoa- 
nut  oil,  copra,  pearl  shell,  and  oranges. 
The  Society  Islands  were  discovered  by 
De  Quiros  in  1606,  but  were  first  made 
known  to  the  world  by  Cook,  who  visited 
them  in  1769,  and  named  them  after  the 
Royal  Society,  at  whose  recommendation 
the  expedition  which  he  commanded  was 
fitted  out.  They  have  been  the  scene  of 
missionary  labors  since  1797,  and  have 
for  many  years  been  entirely  Christian. 
Taking  advantage  of  a  quarrel  between 
the  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries, the  French  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  latter,  who  were  the  last  in  the 
field,  and  seized  the  islands  in  1844.  In 
1847  they  were  expelled  by  the  natives 
from  Huahine,  Raiatea,  and  Bora-Bora, 
which,  with  small  dependencies,  were 
again  ruled  by  their  own  sovereigns.  The 
entire  group  was  officially  annexed  by 
France  in  1880.  A  hurricane  of  great 
severity  nearly  wiped  off  the  population 
of  Tahiti  early  in  March,  1906.  It  lasted 
some  seventeen  hours,  and  the  wind 
reached  an  hourly  velocity  of  120  miles. 


SOCIETY— PSYCHICAL  RESEARCH    482 


SOCOTRA 


SOCIETY  FOR  PSYCHICAL  RE- 
SEARCH, a  society  founded  in  England 
in  1882  under  the  presidency  of  Prof.  H. 
Sedgwick,  of  Cambridge  University,  for 
the  purpose  of  "making  an  organized  at- 
temot  to  investigate  that  large  group  of 
debatable  phenomena  designated  by  such 
terms  as  mesmeric,  psychical,  and  spiri- 
tualistic." Six  committees  were  ap- 
pointed to  examine  (1)  the  nature  and 
extent  of  any  influence  which  may  be 
exerted  by  one  mind  on  another  other- 
wise than  through  the  recognized  sensory 
channels;  (2)  hypnotism  and  mesmer- 
ism; (3)  obscure  relations  between  liv- 
ing organisms  and  electric  and  magnetic 
forces;  (4)  haunted  house  and  ghosts; 
(5)  spiritualism;  (6)  for  the  collection 
of  existing  evidence  in  connection  with 
these  subjects,  and  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  apparitions  at  the  moment  of 
death,  or  otherwise.  A  special  commit- 
tee was  also  appointed  in  1885  to  investi- 
gate the  remarkable  occurrences  which 
the  Theosophical  Society  claimed  to  have 
witnessed.  All  these  committees,  however, 
were  subsequently  dissolved,  and  experi- 
mental investigation  and  the  collection 
of  evidence  left  in  the  hands  of  indi- 
vidual members,  the  results  of  their  in- 
quiries to  be  embodied  in  papers  and  read 
before  the  society,  and  also,  if  they  de- 
sire, to  be  published  by  them.  The  so- 
ciety has  published  reports  containing 
papers  on  thought  reading,  on  mesmer- 
ism, on  apparitions  and  haunted  houses, 
and  on  many  other  similar  subjects.  It 
has  a  membership  of  more  than  900,  with 
a  branch  in  the  United  States  with  more 
than  500  members  and  associates;  pub- 
lishes monthly  "Proceedings";  and  has 
already  gathered  quite  a  large  library 
of  works  in  various  languages,  all  bear- 
ing on  topics  of  a  more  or  less  mysterious 
character.  Articles  on  various  subjects 
have  also  been  contributed  by  members 
of  the  society  to  various  magazines.  All 
that  the  "investigations"  have  done  has 
been  to  bring  together  a  mass  of  so-called 
evidence  in  the  form  of  testimony  from 
persons  who  claim  to  have  seen  or  ex- 
perienced something  abnormal  or  out  of 
the  common  way.  See  Psychical  Re- 
search. 

SOCIOLOGY,  the  science  of  the  evolu- 
tion and  constitution  of  human  society. 
It  has  for  its  subject  the  origin,  organiza- 
tion, and  development  of  human  society 
and  culture,  especially  on  the  side  of  so- 
cial and  political  institutions.  Sociology 
embraces  all  social  phenomena  under  their 
statical  and  dynamical  aspects.  It  is  the 
study  of  the  conditions  of  existence  and 
permanence  of  the  social  state;  social 
dynamics  studies  the  laws  which  govern 
the    evolution    of   society.      The    field   of 


Anthropology  (q.  v.)  is  usually  re- 
stricted to  the  discussion  of  the  earlier 
stages  of  social  development  and  survivals 
from  that  stage  into  the  present.  It  is 
claimed  for  Comte  that  he  created  the 
science  of  sociology,  but  according  to 
Mill  he  only  rendered  such  a  science  pos- 
sible. Lewes  points  out  that  Macchiavelli, 
Montesquieu,  Adam  Smith,  and  Benthan 
had  a  full  conviction  that  social  phe- 
nomena conformed  to  invariable  laws,  but 
that  it  was  reserved  for  Comte  to  bring 
them  under  his  "law  of  the  three  stages," 
and  to  show  that  all  societies  pass  through 
a  theological,  a  metaphysical,  and  a  posi- 
tive stage. 

In  Great  Britain  the  name  of  sociology 
has  been  given  to  the  study  of  all  that 
relates  to  the  social  improvement  of  the 
community.  A  society  called  "The  Na- 
tional Association  for  the  Promotion  of 
Social  Science"  was  organized  at  a  meet- 
ing held  under  Lord  Brougham's  aus- 
pices in  July,  1857,  to  consider  the  best 
means  of  uniting  together  all  those  inter- 
ested in  social  improvement;  and  till  1884 
held  annual  congresses  in  large  towns 
throughout  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
American  Social  Science  Association 
is  similar  to  the  British;  it  dates  from 
1866.     See  Social  Science. 

SOCOTRA,  an  island  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  150  miles  E.  by  N.  from  Cape 
Guardafui,  and  220  from  the  S.  coast  of 
Arabia;  70  miles  long  by  20  broad;  area, 
1,380  square  miles.  The  interior  em- 
braces numerous  barren  plateaus  (1,500 
to  2,000  feet),  with  several  well-wooded 
mountains  rising  to  4,500  feet;  there  are 
fertile  valleys  between  the  ranges  and 
belts  of  rich  soil  along  the  coast.  The 
climate  is  moist  and  warm,  but  healthy. 
Aloes  and  dragon's  blood  are  the  chief 
commercial  products.  The  inhabitants, 
about  10,000  in  all,  live  on  dates  and  the 
produce  of  their  sheep,  goats  and  cows. 
They  belong  to  two  distinct  types — one 
with  a  comparatively  light-colored  skin 
and  straight  hair,  the  other  darker  with 
curly  hair.  But  all  alike  speak  the  same 
peculiar  language,  which  has  certain  af- 
finities with  the  South  Arabian  dialect  of 
Mahra.  The  people  show  traces  of  inter- 
mixture with  Negro,  Arab,  and  Indian 
tribes;  and  in  ancient  times  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Socotra  were  believed  to  have 
been  acquainted  with  Greek  civilization 
and  later  to  have  been  Nestorian  Chris- 
tians. From  the  16th  century  at  least 
they  owed  some  sort  of  allegiance  to  the 
Sultan  of  Keshin  on  the  Arabian  coast 
After  being  occupied  by  Great  Britain  in 
1835-1839,  the  island  was  taken  under 
British  protection  in  1876  and  formally 
annexed  in  1886.  Population  about  ten 
thousand. 


SOCRATES 


483 


SOCRATES 


SOCRATES,  a  great  Athenian  philoso- 
pher, the  son  of  Sophroniscus  and  Phae- 
narete;  born  near  Athens  in  469  B.  C. 
He  was  brought  up  to  his  father's  call- 
ing, that  of  a  sculptor,  and  for  a  time 
gained  his  living  by  it.  He  was,  however, 
naturally  an  eager  student,  and  by  means 
of  the  best  teachers  and  the  best  works 
accessible  to  him  got  the  best  education 
his  country  and  his  age  could  give  him. 
He  was  one  of  the  disciples  of  the  great 
Anaxagoras  and  of  his  successor  Arche- 
laus,  and  soon  gave  himself  up  entirely 


SOCRATES 

to  philosophy.  He  led  an  active  social 
life,  married — unhappily  for  himself, 
Xantippe — served  his  country  as  a  sol- 
dier, distinguished  himself  by  his  cour- 
age and  extraordinary  endurance  at  the 
siege  of  Potidaea,  at  the  battle  of  Delium, 
and  at  Amphipolis.  At  Potidaea  he  saved 
the  life  of  his  pupil  Alcibiades,  and  at 
Delium  the  life  of  his  pupil  Xenophon. 
His  robust  constitution  made  him  indif- 
ferent to  the  extremes  of  temperature; 
he  could  dress  alike  and  go  barefoot  all 
the  year  round.  He  seems  to  have  in- 
clined rather  to  the  aristocratic  than  the 
democratic  party.  Critias,  one  of  the 
Thirty  Tyrants,  had  been  his  pupil; 
Theramenes  was  his  friend ;  so  was  Char- 
mides.  Yet  he  fearlessly  rebuked  Critias 
for  his  vices,  and  thereby  made  him  his 
enemy;  and  he  with  equal  courage  and 
disregard  of  consequences  denounced  the 
proceedings  of  the  Thirty,  and  in  one  im- 


portant case  refused  to  obey  their  com* 
mand.  On  the  trial  of  the  six  generals 
after  the  battle  of  Arginusas  he  firmly 
opposed  the  injustice  of  the  sentence. 

It  was,  however,  as  a  teacher  that  Soc- 
rates made  himself  the  foremost  man  of 
Athens.  He  wrote  no  book,  he  did  not 
establish  a  school  or  constitute  a  system 
of  philosophy.  But  he  almost  lived 
abroad,  and  mixed  with  men  familiarly. 
He  talked  and  questioned  and  discussed, 
not  for  pay,  but  from  the  love  of  truth, 
and  a  sense  of  duty.  He  was  persuaded 
that  he  had  a  high  religious  mission  to 
fulfil,  and  that  a  divine  voice  (afterward 
spoken  of  as  his  Dsemon  or  Genius) ,  habit- 
ually interfered  to  restrain  him  from  cer- 
tain actions.  Socrates  was  distinguished 
chiefly  by  his  theory  of  virtue.  Virtue, 
he  said,  consisted  in  knowledge.  To  do 
right  was  the  only  road  to  happiness ;  and 
as  every  man  sought  to  be  happy,  vice 
could  arise  only  from  ignorance  or  mis- 
take as  to  the  means;  hence  the  proper 
corrective  was  an  enlarged  teaching  of 
the  consequences  of  actions. 

So  early  as  424  B.  c.  he  was  attacked 
by  Aristophanes,  in  his  comedy  of  the 
"Clouds"  as  the  arch-sophist,  the  enemy 
of  religion,  and  corrupter  of  youth;  sub- 
stantially the  same  charges  as  those  on 
which  he  was  prosecuted  20  years  later. 
He  was  made  to  appear  not  only  hateful 
but  ridiculous — a  result  the  more  easy  to 
be  attained  because  of  his  singularly  ugly 
physiognomy,  so  easily  rendered  by  the 
comic  mask.  He  was  persecuted  during 
the  tyranny  of  the  Thirty,  and  after  their 
fall  he  was  impeached  by  Anytus,  one  of 
their  leading  opponents,  with  whom  were 
associated  Melitus,  a  tragic  poet,  and 
Lycon,  an  orator.  He  was  charged  with 
not  believing  in  the  gods  which  the  state 
worshiped;  with  introducing  new  divin- 
ities; and  with  corrupting  the  youth. 
Death  was  proposed  as  the  penalty.  Soc- 
rates refused  to  make  use  of  a  speech 
prepared  for  his  defense  by  Lysias,  and 
defended  himself  in  a  tone  of  confident 
innocence  which  aggravated  the  ill-will  of 
his  judges.  He  was  condemned  by  a  ma- 
jority of  six  only;  but  his  additional 
speech  in  mitigation  of  the  sentence  raised 
the  majority  against  him  to  80.  Thirty 
days  elapsed  between  his  sentence  and  its 
execution.  During  that  period  Socrates 
had  the  society  of  his  friends  and  con- 
versed with  them  as  usual;  the  last  con- 
versation being  on  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.  He  refused  the  offer  of  some  of  his 
friends  to  procure  means  of  escape  for 
him;  drank  the  hemlock  cup  with  perfect 
composure,  and  so  died  in  the  70th  year 
of  his  age  in  399  B.  c. 

Socrates  opened  a  new  era  in  philoso- 
phy, and  without  founding  a  system  he 
originated,  by  rousing  men  to  reflection 


SODA 


484 


SOFISM 


and  leading  them  toward  self-knowledge, 
a  vast  movement  of  intellect  which  pro- 
duced, first  Platonism  and  the  Aristotel- 
ian logic,  and  then  all  the  systems,  even 
conflicting  ones,  which  rose  into  more  or 
less  importance  during  10  successive  cen- 
turies. By  his  religious  spirit,  his  belief 
in  God  and  in  immortality,  his  aim  to 
reunite  religion  and  immortality,  and  his 
own  noble  and  beautiful  life,  he  exerted 
so  strong  and  wholesome  an  influence  that 
the  historian  of  the  Christian  religion, 
Neander,  does  not  hesitate  to  say  that 
Socrates,  like  John  the  Baptist,  was  a 
forerunner  of  Christ.  Our  primary  au- 
thorities for  the  life  and  teaching  of  Soc- 
rates are  Xenophon's  "Memorabilia  and 
Apology  of  Socrates,"  and  Plato's  "Dia- 
logues," in  which  he  forms  the  great 
central  figure. 

SODA,  the  protoxide  of  the  alkaline 
metal  sodium.  It  may  be  procured  in  an 
anhydrous  state  by  burning  the  metal  in 
dry  air  or  oxygen.  It  is  of  a  white  color, 
greedily  abstracting  water  from  the  air, 
which  cannot  be  expelled  by  heat.  In  this 
state  it  forms  hydrate  of  soda,  or  caustic 
soda.  It  is  so  similar  in  its  properties  to 
hydrate  of  potash  that  it  need  not  be  fully 
described  here. 

Carbonates  of  Soda. — There  are  three 
of  these,  the  ordinary  monocarbonate,  or 
common  washing  soda,  Na2C03,  which  in 
its  crystalline  form  contains  10  equiva- 
lents of  water;  the  sesquicarbonate,  Na2 
C03+2NaHC03+3Aq,  which  occurs  in 
the  mineral  kingdom  as  trona  and  urao; 
and  the  bicarbonate,  NaHCO'3,  which  is 
prepared  by  passing  carbonic  acid  through 
a  concentrated  solution  of  the  carbonate 
till  saturation  takes  place.  It  is  also  pre- 
pared by  exposing  the  crystallized  mono- 
carbonate  to  the  action  of  a  current  of 
carbonic  acid;  but  in  this  method  of  mak- 
ing it  only  the  outside  portions  of  the  con- 
verted crystals  should  be  used,  the  inner 
parts  being  only  partially  changed.  It  is 
ground  and  dried  at  a  very  gentle  heat, 
care  being  taken  to  avoid  a  high  temper- 
ature, which  would  cause  the  formation 
of  the  sesquicarbonate.  Bicarbonate  of 
soda  crystallizes  in  prisms.  It  occurs  in 
commerce  as  a  white  crystalline  powder, 
which  is  gradually  converted  into  the  ses- 
quicarbonate by  exposure  to  the  air.  It 
is  much  used  in  medicine.  The  properties 
of  the  monocarbonate  are  described  under 
manufacture  of  soda. 

SODIUM,  the  alkaline  metal  of  which 
soda  is  the  oxide.  It  was  discovered  in 
1807  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy.  It  occurs 
in  large  quantities  in  nature,  chiefly  in 
combination  with  chlorine,  as  sea  salt. 

SODOM,  one  of  the  cities  of  the  plain, 
and  for  some  time  the  dwelling-place  of 


Lot.  Its  crimes  and  vices  (the  nature  of 
which  is  recalled  in  the  word  sodomy) 
were  so  enormous  that  God  destroyed  it 
by  fire  from  heaven,  with  three  neighbor- 
ing cities,  Gomorrah,  Zeboim,  and  Admah, 
which  were  as  wicked  as  itself. 

SOEST,  a  town  of  the  province  of 
Westfalen,  Prussia;  34  miles  S.  E.  of 
Munster;  was  once  a  Hanse  town,  and 
one  of  the  most  important  places  in  Ger- 
many, with  a  population  of  between  30,- 
000  and  40,000,  but  has  declined  since 
the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Its  city  law  was 
the  model  for  that  of  many  other  cities, 
such  as  Hamburg,  Liibeck,  etc.  The  re- 
mains of  its  walls  with  their  36  towers 
are  still  to  be  seen.  It  has  a  great  num- 
ber of  old  churches,  of  which  seven  are 
now  in  use,  the  cathedral  being  Catholic 
and  the  remaining  six  Protestant.  Soest 
is  the  center  of  a  rich  agricultural  dis- 
trict, and  has  chemical  works  and  exten- 
sive breweries.    Pop.  about  20,000. 

SOFIA,  or  SOPHIA,  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Bulgaria;  lies  in  a  fertile 
plain  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Isker, 
an  affluent  of  the  Danube,  to  the  N.  of  the 
Vitsch  Mountains,  75  miles  N.  W.  of  Phil- 
ippopolis.  The  seat  of  a  Greek  metropoli- 
tan and  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  it  has 
many  mosques,  minarets,  Christian 
churches,  synagogues,  etc.  Sofia  is  the 
converging  point  of  several  important 
trade  routes  (three  from  the  Balkans), 
and  carries  on  considerable  manufactures 
of  cloth,  silk  wares,  leather,  and  tobacco. 
In  the  vicinity  are  celebrated  hot  springs, 
with  a  temperature  of  48°  C.  Sofia  occu- 
pies the  site  of  old  Sardica,  which  was 
built  by  Justinian.  It  was  taken  from 
the  Byzantine  emperor  Basilius  in  809  by 
the  Bulgarians,  who  called  it  Triaditza, 
a  name  which  gave  place  at  the  time  of 
the  Crusades  to  that  of  Stralitz  or  Ster- 
nitz.  It  fell  to  the  Turks  in  1382.  Dur- 
ing the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1877-1878 
the  abandonment  of  Sofia  became  neces- 
sary as  soon  as  a  considerable  Russian 
force  had  made  its  way  S.  of  the  Balkans, 
and  the  retreat  was  effected  without  loss. 
At  the  Congress  of  Berlin  (July,  1878), 
the  English  plenipotentiaries  strove  to 
join  the  town  and  district  of  Sofia  to  the 
province  of  Eastern  Rumelia,  but  they 
were  eventually  included  in  Bulgaria.  On 
Oct.  25,  1878,  Sofia  became  the  seat  of 
government  of  Bulgaria.  Pop.  about 
105,000. 

SOFISM,  or  STJFISM,  the  mystical  and 
pantheistic  doctrines  of  the  Sofis.  They 
consider  that  God  alone  exists;  that  He 
is  in  all  nature,  and  that  all  nature  is  in 
Him,  the  visible  universe  being  an  emana- 
tion from  His  essence.  God  is  the  real 
author  of  the  deeds  of  men,  and  there  is 


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LION'S    HEAD,    CAPETOWN,    SOUTH    AFRICA 


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IGUAZU    WATERFALLS,   IN   THE   INTERIOR   OF   SOUTH   AMERICA 


© 


SOGNEFJORD 


485 


SOLAR  CYCLE 


therefore  no  valid  distinction  between 
good  and  evil.  The  passages  in  the  Koran 
which  speak  of  a  paradise  and  a  hell  are 
only  allegorical.  Man's  soul  existed  be- 
fore his  body,  and  will  transmigrate  when 
he  dies  into  other  bodies  till  sufficiently 
purified  to  be  absorbed  into  the  deity. 

SOGNEFJORD,  an  extensive  fjord  on 
the  W.  coast  of  Norway,  exhibiting  mag- 
nificent rock  and  glacier  scenery. 

SOIL,  that  part  of  the  disintegrated 
surface  of  the  earth's  crust  in  which  the 
roots  of  plants  ramify,  and  from  which 
growing  plants  derive  the  mineral  sub- 
stances necessary  for  their  proper  devel- 
opment. Soils  are  formed  by  the  disinte- 
gration of  the  rocks  through  the  continued 
action  of  water  and  air  at  various  tem- 
peratures, and  by  the  accumulation  of  the 
decaying  remains  of  vegetable  organisms. 
In  the  process  of  disintegration  water 
acts  variously,  as  in  the  bursting  action 
of  frost,  the  gradual  wear  of  running 
water,  and  the  sawing,  grinding,  and 
dashing  of  the  glacier  and  mountain  tor- 
rent. The  action  of  the  atmosphere  is 
dependent  upon  the  carbonic  acid  which 
it  contains.  This  acid  is  capable  of  de- 
composing the  silicates  of  potash  and  soda, 
which  form  part  of  rocks,  seizing  the  pot- 
ash and  soda  and  converting  the  same 
into  carbonates,  which  are  subsequently 
washed  out  by  water.  Besides  carbonic 
acid,  chloride  of  sodium,  or  common  salt, 
possesses  a  very  powerful  solvent  action, 
having  in  solution  the  power  of  dissolv- 
ing the  phosphates  of  the  alkaline  earths. 
The  tendency  of  water  and  atmosphere 
combined  is  to  level  the  earth's  surface 
by  destroying  eminences  and  filling  up 
hollows.  We  often  find,  therefore,  in  the 
plains  a  soil  differing  widely  from  its  un- 
derlying stratum,  on  account  of  its  being 
a  mixture  of  the  deposits  of  streams  and 
the  debris  of  neighboring  or  more  distant 
mountains.  On  hills  the  soil  is  usually  of 
the  same  nature  as  the  subsoil. 

The  proportion  of  organic  matter  varies 
exceedingly  in  different  soils.  The  mix- 
ture of  various  earths  and  humus,  termed 
loams,  constitute  the  best  of  soils.  These 
are  classified  according  to  the  earths 
which  prevail  in  them,  as  a  sandy  loam, 
etc.;  according  to  their  degree  of  friabil- 
ity, as  a  free  loam,  a  stiff  loam,  etc. ;  or 
according  to  both,  as  a  free  calcareous 
loam,  etc.  They  are  generally  laid  on  the 
sides  of  valleys,  along  the  bases  of  hills 
or  mountains,  or  on  the  banks  of  upland 
rivers.  In  general,  much  more  depends 
on  the  texture  of  a  soil,  and  on  its  capacity 
for  retaining  or  parting  with  water  and 
heat,  than  on  its  chemical  composition. 

SOISSONS,  a  town  and  fortress  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Aisne;  on 


the  Aisne  river;  65  miles  N.  E.  of  Paris. 
It  is  the  key  of  Paris  for  an  army  invad' 
ing  France  from  the  Netherlands,  and  is 
the  meeting  point  of  several  military 
roads.  The  principal  building  is  the 
cathedral,  founded  in  the  12th  century, 
the  library  of  which  contains  many  rare 
MSS.  There  are  also  some  remains  of 
the  great  castellated  abbey  of  St.  Jean 
des  Vignes  (1076),  where  Thomas  a 
Becket  found  refuge  when  in  exile.  The 
church  of  St.  Peter  (Romanesque)  dates 
from  the  12th  century;  there  are  slight 
remains  of  the  once  celebrated  abbey  of 
Notre  Dame  (founded  660)  and  of  the 
abbey  church  of  St.  Leger  (1139).  Quit* 
near  to  Soissons  is  an  institution  for  deaf 
and  dumb,  which  occupies  the  site  of  the 
famous  abbey  (560)  of  St.  Medard,  where 
Clothaire  and  Siegbert  were  buried.  The 
civil  buildings  embrace  a  college  and  a 
museum  of  antiquities.  Soissons  is  one 
of  the  oldest  towns  in  France,  and  was 
celebrated  even  in  the  time  of  the  Romans, 
when  it  bore  the  name  first  of  Noviodu- 
num,  and  afterward  of  Augusta  Suessio- 
num;  hence  its  modern  name  of  Soissons. 
It  was  the  second  capital  of  Gallia  Bel- 
gica,  and  subsequently  the  most  important 
town  of  _  the  Romans  in  northern  Gaul. 
Near  to  it  Clovis  overthrew  Syagrius,  the 
Roman  commander,  in  486.  The  same 
prince  made  Soissons  the  seat  of  the 
Frankish  monarchy  of  Neustria.  Here 
Pepin  was  crowned  king,  and  Louis  the 
Pious  imprisoned.  It  was  the  gathering 
place  of  more  than  one  important  council 
and  has  been  repeatedly  captured  and 
sacked  in  war — e.  g.,  six  times  during  the 
Hundred  Years'  War,  by  the  Armagnac 
party  in  1414,  by  Charles  V.  (1544),  the 
Huguenots  (1565),  three  times  in  1814, 
and  by  the  Germans  in  1870.  The  town 
suffered  severely  in  the  World  War 
(q.  v.).  It  was  captured  by  the  Germans, 
and  was  retaken  by  the  French  on  Aug.  2, 
1918.     Pop.  about  14,300. 

SOKOTO,  or  SACKATOO,  a  large  town 
in  Central  Africa,  on  the  Sokoto  or  Rima 
river,  which  falls  into  the  Niger.  It  is 
surrounded  by  lofty  walls,  is  fairly  well 
built,  and  has  regular  streets,  a  royal 
residence,  several  mosques,  manufactures 
of  cotton  cloth,  and  carries  on  an  exten- 
sive trade.  Pop.  at  one  time  given  at 
80,000.  The  same  name  belongs  to  an 
extensive  Fellata  Kingdom,  of  which  the 
town  was  formerly  the  capital,  though 
Wurno  has  now  that  rank;  area,  over 
100,000  square  miles. 

SOLAR  CYCLE,  in  chronology,  a  term 
applied  to  one  of  those  artificial  periods 
made  use  of  in  chronological  researches. 
It  comprehends  a  period  of  28  years,  com- 
pounded of  7  and  4,  the  number  of  days 
in  a  week,  and  the  number  of  years  in  the 


SOLAR  SYSTEM 


486 


SOLBERG 


interval  of  two  leap  years.  This  cycle 
remained  undisturbed  till  the  end  of  the 
19th  century;  but  in  consequence  of  the 
year  1900  not  being  reckoned  as  a  leap 
year,  the  whole  cycle  was  then  over- 
thrown. It  may,  however,  be  recon- 
structed after  2000,  that  year  being  reck- 
oned as  leap  year;  it  will  then  last  till 
2100. 

SOLAR  SYSTEM,  the  sun  and  all  the 
bodies,  by  whatever  name  they  may  be 
ealled,  which  periodically  revolve  round 
the  sun  as  a  center.  Visible  to  us  are 
seven  distinct  orders  or  systems  of  re- 
volving worlds.  They  are  the  zodiacal 
light,  whatever  that  may  be,  the  planet- 
ary, the  satellitic,  the  meteoric,  the  com- 
etary,  the  stellar,  and  the  nebular  sys- 
tems. All  but  the  latter  two  belong  to  our 
solar  system.  The  limits  of  the  planetary 
system,  as  far  as  known,  are  Mercury, 
the  nearest  to  the  sun,  and  Neptune,  the 
most  distant.    This  limit  does  not  include 


rings,  which,  while  the  earth  is  passing 
through  them,  produce  the  star  showers. 
Every  member  of  the  solar  system,  be  it 
planet,  satellite,  meteoroid  or  comet, 
moves  in  an  orbit  called  an  ellipse,  of 
greater  or  lesser  eccentricity.  There  is 
not  a  heavenly  body  known  to  man  that 
moves  in  a  circle.  The  planets  and  satel- 
lites revolve  in  elliptic  orbits,  while  the 
comets  move  some  in  elliptic  and  others 
in  parabolic  and  hyperbolic  orbits.  Those 
moving  in  either  of  the  latter  two  can 
never  return,  as  the  two  branches  of 
their  paths  do  not  meet  to  form  a  closed 
curve  as  does  the  ellipse.  For  adopting 
the  ellipse  instead  of  the  circle  for  plane- 
tary revolution  the  world  is  indebted  to 
the  genius  of  Kepler,  who  by  the  first 
of  his  three  laws  brought  harmony  out 
of  confusion.  The  three  laws  of  Kepler, 
as  enunciated  by  him,  are:  (1)  Th« 
planets  move  in  ellipses,  having  the  sun 
in  one  of  the  foci.  (2)  The  radius  vec- 
tor of  each  planet  describes  equal  areas 


PRINCIPAL    ELEMENTS      OP    THE    SOLAR    SYSTEM 


Diameter 
Planet  (miles) 

Mercury     2,770 

Venus      7.700 

Earth    7,918 

Planetoid   Eros    20 

Mars     4,230 

Planetoid   Ceres    ...         480 

Jupiter     86,500 

Saturn     73,000 

Uranus     31,900 

Neptune   34,800 


Mean     distance     Period     of 


from    sun 

revolu- 

Density 

Mass 

(millions  of 

tion 

(earth's    1) 

(earth's   1) 

miles) 

(days) 

0.56 

0.024 

35.7 

88 

0.82 

0.82 

67.2 

225 

1.00 

1 

92.9 

365 

9 

9 

135.1 

643 

0.71 

0.105 

141.5 

687 

? 

? 

257.1 

1,681 

0.24 

318' 

483.3 

4,333 

0.13 

93 

886.0 

10,759 

0.22 

15 

1,781.9 

30,688 

0.29 

17 

2,791.6 

60,181 

the  hypothetical  intra-Mercurial  planets, 
discovered  during  the  total  solar  eclipses, 
in  1878,  by  Watson  and  Swift.  Its  com- 
etary  extent  is  not  known,  and  never  will 
be,  as  several  comets  have  computed  peri- 
ods of  over  1,000,000  years,  and  even  their 
'aphelia  reach  only  a  step  toward  even  the 
nearest  star.  The  sun's  far-reaching 
power,  of  course,  extends  to  half  way  to 
the  stars,  and  it  is  not  an  unreasonable 
supposition  to  suppose  that  there  are 
comets  whose  aphelia  extend  that  far,  and 
if  so,  their  periodic  times  must  be  several 
million  years. 

The  bodies  as  far  as  known  that  are 
denizens  of  our  solar  system  are  the  sun 
(the  center),  the  planets  of  Mercury, 
Venus,  earth  with  one  satellite,  Mars 
with  2  satellites,  428  asteroids,  Jupiter 
and  5  satellites,  Saturn  with  5  rings  and 
8  satellites,  Uranus  with  4,  and  Neptune 
with  1,  also  Halley's,  Pons',  and  Olbers' 
comets  of  long  period,  and  about  25  of 
short  period,  ranging  from  3.3  years 
(Encke's)  to  13.78  years,  commonly,  but 
unjustly,  called  Tuttle's  comet.  It  was 
discovered  by  Mechain  in  1790.  To  the 
list  must  be  added  200  or  more  meteoric 


in  equal  times.  (3)  The  squares  of  their 
periodic  times  are  proportional  to  the 
cubes  of  their  mean  distances  from  the 
sun.  As  all  heavenly  bodies  hang  sus* 
pended  on  nothing  throughout  all  space, 
each  being  attracted  by  all  the  others, 
it  results  that  they  must  move,  and,  while 
the  motions  of  the  planets  are  easily 
noticeable  in  a  few  hours,  and  even  min- 
utes, it  requires  to  detect  motion  in  the 
stars  long-continued  observation  with  in- 
struments of  great  delicacy  and  power 
to  ascertain  that  they  have  any  motion 
at  all,  so  far  away  are  they.  No  planet 
whose  orbit  is  interior  to  the  earth's  can 
ever  assume  the  crescent  phase,  or  rise 
when  the  sun  sets,  or  be  on  the  meridian 
at  midnight,  or  transit  the  sun.  On  the 
other  hand,  those  whose  orbits  are  ex- 
terior to  ours  can  never  assume  the  cres- 
cent and  half-moon  phase,  and  are  the 
only  ones  that  can  ever  be  in  opposition, 
rising  at  sunset. 

SOLBERG,  THORVALD,  an  Ameri- 
can public  official,  born  at  Manitowoc, 
Wis.,  in  1852.  He  served  on  the  staff  of 
the  Library  of  Congress  from  1876  to  1889 


SOLDIERS'   HOMES 


487 


SOLITAIRE 


and  became  register  of  copyrights  in  1897. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  effort  to 
secure  international  copyright  and  at- 
tended the  various  international  copyright 
congresses,  being  the  official  delegate  of 
the  United  States  to  the  congresses  at 
Paris,  Berlin,  and  Luxembourg.  Besides 
having  contributed  to  many  American 
and  foreign  journals,  he  wrote:  "Annual 
Reports  Copyright  Business"  (1897-98, 
1916-19)  ;  "Copyright  Enactments,  1883- 
1906"  (1906);  "Copyright  in  England" 
(1902)  ;  "Copyright  in  Canada  and  New- 
foundland" (1903) ;  "Report  on  Copy- 
right Legislation"  (1904)  ;  "Foreign 
Copyright  Laws"  (1904)  ;  "Copyright  in 
Congress — Bibliography  and  Chronologi- 
cal Record"  (1905)  ;  "Memorandum  Draft 
of  a  Bill  to  Amend  and  Consolidate  the 
Acts  Respecting  Copyright"  (1905-6)  ; 
"International  Copyright  Union — Report 
on  the  Berlin  Conference  of  1908";  "Re- 
port on  Copyright  Relations  with  South 
American  Republics"  (1915). 

SOLDIERS'  HOMES,  institutions  pro- 
vided by  National  and  State  governments 
for  the  care  of  sick  and  disabled  soldiers 
and  sailors.  The  National  Home  for  Dis- 
abled Volunteer  Soldiers  has  branches 
at  Dayton,  Ohio;  Milwaukee,  Wis.;  To- 
gus,  Me.;  Hampton,  Va.;  Leavenworth, 
Kan.;  Santa  Monica,  Cal. ;  Marion,  Ind. ; 
Danville,  111.;  Johnson  City,  Tenn. ;  and 
Hot  Springs,  S.  Dak.  The  aggregate 
number  of  inmates  in  1919  was  about 
25,000.  The  chief  requirements  for  ad- 
mission are:  (1)  An  honorable  discharge 
from  the  United  States  service.  (2)  Dis- 
ability which  prevents  the  applicant  from 
earning  his  living  by  labor.  (3)  A  soldier 
or  sailor  must  forward  with  his  applica- 
tion for  admission  his  discharge  paper, 
and  when  he  is  a  pensioner,  his  pension 
certificate,  and  if  he  has  been  a  member 
of  a  State  Home,  his  discharge  from  that 
Home,  before  his  application  will  be  con- 
sidered. Those  who  have  been  members 
of  the  State  Homes  must  have  been  dis- 
charged from  those  Homes  at  least  six 
months  before  they  can  be  admitted  to  a 
branch  of  the  National  Home,  except  by 
a  vote  of  the  Board  of  Managers.  Appli- 
cants are  requested  to  conform  strictly 
to  the  above  requirements. 

SOLENT,  that  part  of  the  British 
Channel  separating  the  N.  W.  shore  of 
the  Isle  of  Wight  from  the  mainland  of 
Hampshire,  and  extending  between  the 
Needles  and  West  Cowes.  It  has  a  width 
varying  from  2  to  5  miles,  and  affords 
a  safe  and  well-sheltered  roadstead. 

SOLEURE,  or  SOLOTHURN,  a  canton 
in  the  N.  of  Switzerland;  bounded  on  the 
W.  and  S.  by  Berne,  and  on  the  N.  and 
E.  by  Basel  and  Aargau;  area,  302  square 


miles;  pop.  (1920)  130,230,  mostly  Roman 
Catholics  and  speakers  of  German.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  canton  is  fertile 
and  well  cultivated,  especially  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Aar.  But  it  also  embraces 
outlying  ranges  of  the  Alpine  and  Jura 
systems.  Besides  grain,  the  principal 
products  are  fruit,  timber,  cherry  brandy, 
cheese;  cotton,  paper,  iron,  hose,  watches, 
clocks,  etc.  The  canton  consists  of  the 
territories  acquired  by  the  town  of  So- 
leure. 

Soleure,  or  Solothurn,  the  capital  of  the 
canton,  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Aar,  18  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Berne.  The 
most  notable  building  is  the  cathedral  of 
St.  Ursus,  built  in  1762-1763  on  the  site 
of  an  older  church  (1050),  with  a  cupola 
and  facade  of  Corinthian  columns.  There 
are  also  a  curious  old  clock  tower,  an 
arsenal  with  a  museum  of  ancient  tro- 
phies of  war,  and  collections  of  antiqui- 
ties. The  principal  objects  of  industry 
are  cotton,  watches,  clocks,  and  cement. 
Pop.  (1920)  12,970.  Soleure  (Salodurum) 
was  a  place  of  some  consequence  in  Ro- 
man times,  was  made  a  free  city  of  the 
empire  (1218),  joined  the  Swiss  Con- 
federation in  1481,  and  in  1828  was  cho- 
sen the  bishop's  see  for  the  diocese  of 
Basel.  Close  by  are  the  baths  of  Weis- 
senstein,  with  a  celebrated  "whey  cure" 
that  is  very  much  frequented. 

SOLFERINO,  a  village  and  commune 
of  Italy,  in  the  province  and  18  miles 
N.  W.  of  Mantua.  In  1796  the  Austrians 
were  here  defeated  by  the  French  prior 
to  the  siege  of  Mantua ;  it  was  here  also, 
June  24,  1859,  that  a  battle  was  fought 
between  the  French  and  Sardinians  on 
the  one  side  and  the  Austrians  on  the 
other,  resulting  in  the  defeat  of  the  lat- 
ter and  the  subsequent  treaty  of  Villa- 
franca. 

SOLINGEN,  a  town  of  Prussia;  13 
miles  E.  of  Diisseldorf  and  not  far  from 
the  river  Wupper.  Ever  since  the  12th 
or  13th  century  it  has  been  famous  for 
its  steel  and  iron  ware,  especially  for 
sword  blades,  helmets,  cuirasses,  knives, 
scissors,  surgical  instruments,  etc.,  which, 
before  the  World  War,  were  exported  to 
all  parts  of  the  world.  Solingen  has  also 
iron  foundries,  cigar  factories,  etc.  Pop. 
about  50,000. 

SOLITAIRE,  a  game  played  by  one 
person  on  a  board  indented  with  33  or 
37  hemispherical  hollows,  with  an  equal 
number  of  balls.  One  ball  is  removed 
from  the  board,  and  the  empty  hollow 
thus  left  enables  pieces  to  be  captured 
singly  as  in  draughts.  The  object  of  the 
player  is  to  take  all  the  pieces  except  one 
without  moving  diagonally  or  over  more 
than  two  spaces   at  a  time.     The  game 


SOLOMON 


488 


SOLON 


may  also  be  played  with  ordinary  play- 
ing cards,  the  object  being  to  so  combine 
the  cards  that  similar  denominations  may 
be  grouped.  There  are  many  variations, 
some  of  them  extremely  intricate. 

SOLOMON  (Hebrew,  Shelomoh,  the 
Prince  of  Peace),  son  of  David,  King  of 
Israel,  by  Bathsheba,  formerly  the  wife 
of  Uriah,  was  appointed  by  David  to  be 
his  successor  in  preference  to  his  elder 
brothers.  By  his  remarkable  judicial  de- 
cisions and  his  completion  of  the  political 
institutions  of  David  Solomon  gained  the 
respect  and  admiration  of  his  people; 
while  by  the  building  of  the  temple,  which 
gave  to  the  Hebrew  worship  a  magnifi- 
cence it  had  not  hitherto  possessed,  he 
bound  the  nation  more  strongly  to  his 
throne.  The  wealth  of  Solomon,  accumu- 
lated by  a  prudent  use  of  the  treasures 
inherited  from  his  father;  by  successful 
commerce;  by  a  careful  administration 
of  the  royal  revenues ;  and  by  an  increase 
of  taxes,  enabled  him  to  meet  the  ex- 
penses of  erecting  the  temple,  building 
palaces,  cities,  and  fortifications,  and  of 
supporting  the  extravagance  of  a  luxuri- 
ous court.  Fortune  long  seemed  to  favor 
this  great  king;  and  Israel,  in  the  fulness 
of  its  prosperity,  scarcely  perceived  that 
he  was  continually  becoming  more  des- 
potic. Contrary  to  the  laws  of  Moses, 
he  admitted  foreign  women  to  his  harem ; 
and  from  love  of  them  he  was  weak 
enough  in  his  old  age  to  permit  the  free 
practice  of  their  idolatrous  worship  and 
even  to  take  part  in  it  himself.  Toward 
the  close  of  his  reign  troubles  arose  in 
consequence  of  these  delinquencies,  and 
the  growing  discontent,  coming  to  a  head 
after  his  death,  resulted  in  the  division 
of  the  kingdom,  which  his  feeble  son 
Rehoboam  could  not  prevent.  The  40 
years'  reign  of  Solomon  is  still  celebrated 
among  the  Jews,  for  its  splendor  and  its 
happy  tranquillity,  as  one  of  the  brightest 
periods  of  their  history.  The  writings 
attributed  to  Solomon  are  "The  Book  of 
Proverbs,"  "Ecclesiastes,"  and  the  "Song 
of  Solomon,"  with  the  apocryphal  book 
the  "Wisdom  of  Solomon";  but  modern 
criticism  has  decided  that  only  a  portion 
of  the  "Book  of  Proverbs"  can  be  referred 
to  Solomon. 

SOLOMON  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  the 
South  Pacific;  lying  S.  E.  of  New  Britain 
and  E.  of  New  Guinea;  extending  in  a 
S.  E.  direction  between  lat.  5°  and  11° 
S.,  and  long.  154°  to  162°  E.  These 
islands  were  first  discovered  and  explored 
by  the  Spanish  navigator  Mendana  in 
1568.  He  named  them  Solomon  Islands 
on  the  imagined  idea  that  the  riches  of 
Solomon's  temple  had  been  brought  from 
them.    While  on  his  way  to  colonize  them 


in  1595,  he  died,  and  the  islands  were 
not  again  visited  till  they  were  rediscov- 
ered by  Carteret  in  1767.  They  were 
visited  several  times  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  18th  century,  and  parts  of 
the  coast  line  of  the  larger  islands  were 
surveyed,  but  between  1794  and  1838, 
they  became  almost  forgotten.  After  the 
latter  date  the  survey  of  the  coast  was 
renewed,  and  both  traders  and  mission- 
aries endeavored  to  settle  on  the  islands. 
Neither  met  with  much  success,  however, 
and  little  was  heard  of  the  islanders  save 
accounts  of  the  murders  and  plunders  per- 
petrated by  them.  In  1845  some  French 
missionaries  went  thither  in  charge  of 
Mgr.  Epaulle,  a  notable  dignitary  of  the 
Church,  but  their  leader  was  killed  by 
the  natives  soon  after  landing.  There 
is  no  doubt,  from  the  accounts  given,  that 
the  natives  practiced  cannibalism.  In 
1848  the  French  mission  was  abandoned. 
Some  12  or  14  years  later,  the  English 
Church  established  a  mission  on  the 
islands,  in  charge  of  native  teachers 
from  other  islands  that  had  been  Chris- 
tianized. In  1881  the  French  Catholic 
mission  was  again  resumed. 

The  British  protectorate  was  extended 
in  1887-1898.  In  accordance  with  the 
Anglo-German  agreement  of  1899  the 
islands  of  Choiseul  and  Isabel,  with  their 
surrounding  islets,  were  transferred  to 
Great  Britain,  Germany  retaining  the 
islands  of  Bougainville  and  Buka  until 
the  World  War,  when  they  were  captured 
by  an  Australian  force  in  1914.  The 
population  of  the  entire  group  of  islands 
is  about  600  whites  and  150,000  natives. 

SOLOMON'S  SONG,  called  also  the 
Song  of  Songs,  or  Canticles,  one  of  the 
canonical   books   of  the   Old    Testament. 

SOLON,  one  of  the  seven  sages  of 
Greece,  and  the  celebrated  legislator  of 
Athens;  born  in  Salamis,  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury B.  c.  After  having  enhanced  the 
glory  of  his  country  by  recovering  Sala- 
mis, he  was  chosen  archon  594  B.  c.,  and 
having  received  full  power  to  do  whatever 
he  judged  needful,  he  set  himself  to  the 
task  of  improving  the  condition  of  his 
countrymen.  He  abolished  most  of  the 
cruel  laws  of  Draco,  and  formed  a  new 
constitution  founded  on  the  principle  of 
making  property,  not  birth,  the  title  to 
the  honors  and  offices  of  the  State.  He 
made  many  special  laws  also  relating  to 
trade  and  commerce,  marriage,  disposi- 
tion of  property  by  will,  etc.,  caused  them 
to  be  engraved  on  wooden  cylinders,  and 
is  said  to  have  bound  the  Athenians  by 
an  oath  not  to  make  any  changes  in  his 
code  for  10  years.  He  then  left  the  coun- 
try, to  avoid  being  obliged  to  make  any 
alteration   in   them,   and   visited   Egypt, 


SOLSTICE 


489 


SOLYMAN  II. 


Cyprus,  and  Lydia.  On  his  return,  after 
an  absence  of  10  years,  he  found  the  State 
torn  by  party  violence,  and  his  kinsman 


SOLON 

Pisistratus  aiming  at  the  sovereignty, 
which  he  soon  seized.  Solon  then  with- 
drew from  public  life  and  is  supposed  to 
have  died  at  the  age  of  80,  about  558  B.  c. 

SOLSTICE,  in  astronomy,  the  time 
when  the  sun  is  in  one  of  the  solstitial 
points — that  is,  when  it  is  at  its  greatest 
distance  from  the  equator — and  is  so 
called  because  he  then  appears  to  stand 
still,  and  not  to  change  his  distance  from 
the  equator  for  some  time.  There  are 
two  solstices  in  each  year — the  summer 
and  the  winter  solstice.  The  former  is 
when  the  sun  seems  to  enter  the  tropic  of 
Cancer,  which  is  on  June  21,  the  longest 
day;  the  latter  solstice  is  when  the  sun 
enters  the  first  degree,  or  seems  to  de- 
scribe the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  which  is 
on  Dec.  22,  the  shortest  day.  This  is 
only  to  be  understood  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere,  as  in  the  Southern  the  sun's 
entrance  into  Capricorn  makes  the  sum- 
mer solstice,  and  into  Cancer  the  winter 
solstice. 

SOLUTION,  in  ordinary  language,  the 
act  of  separating  the  parts  of  any  body; 
disruption,  breach;  also,  the  act  of  solv- 
ing, explaining,  answering,  or  clearing 
up,  as  a  problem,  question,  doubt;  the 
State  of  being  solved,  explained,  answered, 
or  cleared  up;  or,  that  which  serves  to 
solve,  explain,  answer,  or  clear  up  a  prob- 
lem, question,  doubt,  or  the  like,  explana- 
tion, resolution. 


In  chemistry,  a  term  applied  to  the 
product  of  the  action,  as  well  as  the 
action  itself,  whereby  a  solid  or  gaseous 
body  in  contact  with  a  liquid  suffers  lique- 
faction ;  or  to  the  union  of  one  liquid  with 
another  when  each  is  capable  of  taking 
up  only  a  limited*  quantity  of  the  other. 

SOLVAY,  a  city  of  New  York,  in 
Onondaga  co.  It  is  on  the  Delaware, 
Lackawanna,  and  Western,  and  the  New 
York  Central  and  Hudson  River  railroads, 
and  on  the  State  Barge  Canal.  It  joins 
Syracuse  on  the  west.  Its  chief  indus- 
tries are  the  manufacture  of  chemicals, 
pottery,  and  iron.  The  city  has  a  public 
library  and  a  high  school  building.  Pop. 
(1910)   5,139;    (1920)   7,352. 

SOLVAY,  ERNEST,  a  Belgian  chem- 
ist, born  in  1838.  His  chief  investigations 
were  connected  with  the  development  of 
the  ammonia  process  for  the  manufacture 
of  soda  and  its  establishment  on  a  com- 
mercial basis.  He  erected  his  first  plant 
in  Belgium  in  1863.  His  processes  were 
continually  improved  and  patents  cover- 
ing it  were  granted.  He  established 
plants  in  all  parts  of  the  world  and  by 
1913  practically  had  acquired  control  of 
the  world's  supply  of  soda.  He  founded 
the  Solvay  Institute  in  Brussels  for  the 
advancement  of  social  democracy,  and  was 
also  aclive  in  philanthropic  work.  He 
made  large  gifts  to  educational  institu- 
tions in  Paris  and  in  Belgium,  and  was 
president  of  the  Belgian  Academy  of  Let- 
ters. During  the  World  War  he  took 
an  active  part  in  relieving  the  distress 
of  Belgium,  although  the  greater  part  of 
his  fortune  was  taken  by  the  Germans 
during  their  occupation  of  Belgium. 

SOL  WAY  FIRTH,  an  arm  of  the  Irish 
Sea,  forming  part  of  the  boundary  be- 
tween England  and  Scotland,  and  ex- 
tending inland  in  a  N.  E.  direction  for 
above  41  miles,  with  a  breadth  diminish- 
ing from  20  miles,  at  its  entrance  between 
St.  Bees  Head  in  Cumberland,  and  Ray- 
berry  Head  in  Kirkcudbrightshire,  to  7 
miles,  and  finally  only  to  2  miles.  A  large 
portion  of  the  Solway  is  left  dry  at  ebb 
tide.  It  abounds  with  fish  and  has  valua- 
ble salmon  fisheries. 

SOLYMAN  I.,  or  SULEIMAN,  the 
Noble,  Emperor  of  Turkey,  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  after  the  defeat  and 
capture  of  his  father,  Bajazet,  by  Tim- 
our,  1402.  He  was  dethroned  by  his 
brother,  Mousa,  during  a  revolt  of  his 
subjects,  and  soon  after  killed,  1410. 

SOLYMAN  II.  surnamed  the  Magni- 
ficent; born  in  1493,  succeeded  his  father, 
Selem  I.,  in  1520.  Having  concluded  a 
truce  with  Ismael,  sophi  of  Persia,  and 
quelled   a   rebellion  in   Syria,  he  turned 


SOLYMAN  III 


490 


SOMERSWORTH 


his  arms  against  Europe.  In  1521  he 
took  Belgrade;  and  in  the  following  year 
Rhodes  fell  into  his  hands  after  an  obsti- 
nate defense.  In  1529  he  made  himself 
master  of  Buda,  and  then  laid  siege  to 
Vienna,  whence  he  was  obliged  to  retreat 
with  the  loss  of  120,000  men.  In  1534 
he  marched  into  the  East,  and  took  Tauris 
from  the  Persians,  but  was  soon  after- 
ward defeated  by  the  Shah.  His  forces 
were  also  repulsed  before  Malta;  but  he 
took  the  Isle  of  Chios  in  1566.  He  was 
a  poet,  legislator,  and  warrior  of  eminent 
greatness  for  an  Oriental.  He  encouraged 
arts  and  literature,  made  roads,  bridges, 
erected  noble  mosques  and  public  build- 
ings, and  superintended  the  compilation 
of  an  administrative  code.  He  died  in 
Szigeth,  Hungary,  in  1566. 

SOLYMAN  III.,  became  sultan  on  the 
deposition  of  his  brother,  Mahomet  IV., 
in  1687.  His  life  had  been  spent  up  to 
his  49th  year,  in  the  seraglio,  where  he 
had  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
Koran.  Under  his  weak  rule  the  Turks 
were  defeated  in  Hungary  and  in  Servia. 
He  died  in  Constantinople  in  1691. 

SOMALILAND,  a  country  S.  E.  of 
Abyssinia  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Aden  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  apportioned 
to  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Italy.  Two 
ranges  of  mountains  traverse  the  penin- 
sula S.  E.  to  N.  W.,  between  which  lie3 
the  Wadi  Nogal,  of  which  the  natives 
speak  in  the  most  glowing  terms.  Sev- 
aral  varieties  of  gum  trees  occur,  and 
the  mimosa,  tamarisk,  wild  fig,  and 
several  species  of  the  cactus  and  aloe  are 
abundant.  The  wild  beasts  include  the 
elephant,  lion,  leopard,  hyena,  wolf,  and 
jackal.  Several  varieties  of  deer,  jer- 
boas, and  squirrels  are  common.  The 
Somali  are  a  fine  race,  mainly  Moham- 
medans, though  still  in  a  bai'barous  state. 
The  principal  articles  of  trade  or  pro- 
duce are  myrrh,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers, 
hides  and  horns,  coffee,  indigo,  and  gum 
arabic.  A  strip  180  miles  broad  on  the 
coast  was  reserved  to  Italy  by  the  treaty 
of  Adis  Abeba.  By  the  Cairo  convention, 
signed  Jan.  19,  1899,  the  ports  of  Berbera 
and  Zilah  with  the  adjacent  strip  on  the 
N.  coast  now  belong  to  Great  Britain.  In 
1898  Great  Britain  ceded  to  Abyssinia 
a  part  of  Somaliland.     See  Abyssinia.  * 

SOMALILAND  PROTECTORATE,  a 
British  protectorate  in  Africa.  It  is  on 
the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  is  bounded  inland 
by  Italian  territory.  The  area  is  68,000 
square  miles.  The  natives  lead  a  nomad 
existence  and  engage  in  cattle-raising, 
and  in  the  coastal  towns  there  is  much 
commerce,  with  exports  of  hides  and 
skins,  cattle  and  sheep,  gold,  salt,  ivory, 
and  gums.    Cotton  piece-goods,  rice,  dates, 


shirtings  and  sugar  are  largely  imported. 
The  ports  are  Zeila,  Bulhar,  and  Berbera. 
It  formerly  belonged  to  Abyssinia,  but 
in  1884  the  British  succeeded  in  gaining 
a  footing,  and  it  has  since  been  admin- 
istered by  a  commissioner,  with  officials 
in  the  coast  towns.    Pop.  about  375,000. 

SOMBRERETE,  a  town  of  Mexico, 
State  of  Zacatecas,  85  miles  N.  W.  of  the 
town  of  that  name,  is  the  center  of  a 
rich  silver  mining  district.  Pop.  about 
11,000. 

SOMBRERO  ISLAND,  a  small  rocky 
British  island  midway  between  Anguilla 
and  the  Virgin  group,  West  Indies.  It 
has  a  lighthouse.  There  are  large  de- 
posits of  phosphates  of  lime. 

SOMERSET,  LADY  HENRY  (ISA 
BEL),  an  English  social  worker,  born 
in  1850,  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  third 
Earl  Somers.  In  1873  she  married  Lord 
Henry  Somerset.  She  became  interested 
in  temperance  reform,  and  in  1895  she 
founded  an  industrial  farm  colony  for 
inebriate  women  at  Duxhurst.  It  was  the 
first  institution  of  its  kind  in  England. 
She  also  established  a  home  for  training 
workhouse  children,  and  other  philan- 
thropic organizations.  She  was  for  a 
number  of  years  president  of  the  National 
British  Women's  Temperance  Association 
and  of  the  World's  Women's  Temperance 
Union.  She  made  several  visits  to  the 
United  States. 

SOMERSETSHIRE,  a  county  of  S.  W. 
England,  forming  parts  of  the  S.  and  E. 
shores  of  the  Bristol  Channel.  Area, 
1,615  square  miles.  Pop.  about  425,000. 
The  surface  of  the  county  is  diversified. 
There  are  lofty  hills,  rich  valleys,  barren 
moors,  and  vast  stretches  of  marsh  lands, 
much  of  the  latter  being  below  high  water 
and  protected  by  sea  banks  and  sluices. 
The  wild  district  of  Exmoor  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  county,  is  well  known. 
The  principal  river  is  the  Bristol  Avon. 
The  principal  agricultural  products  are 
wheat  and  barley,  the  quality  of  which  is 
especially  famous  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Bridgewater.  ^  Cattle-breeding  is  also  car- 
ried on  extensively,  and  the  dairy  products 
of  the  county,  especially  cheddar  cheese, 
have  been  noted  for  a  long  time.  The 
rich  mineral  products,  consisting  chiefly 
of  iron,  are  not  worked  extensively.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  woolens, 
coarse  linens,  gloves,  silk,  and  lace.  Capi- 
tal, Taunton  (pop.  about  23,000). 

SOMERSWORTH,  a  city  of  New 
Hampshire,  in  Strafford  co.  It  is  on  the 
Salmon  Falls  river,  and  on  the  Boston 
and  Maine  railroad.  It  is  important  for 
its  manufactories  of  textiles  and  dyes.  It 
has   a    public   library    and    a    municipal 


SOMERVILLE 


491 


SONNINO 


theater.      Pop.     (1910)     6,704;      (1920) 
6,688. 

SOMERVILLE,  a  borough  of  New- 
Jersey,  the  county-seat  of  Somerset  co. 
It  is  on  the  Raritan  river  and  on  the 
Central  Railroad  of  New  Jersey.  It  is 
chiefly  a  residential  place  but  has  manu- 
factures of  woolen  cloth,  clothing,  stoves, 
iron  pipe,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  5,060;  (1920) 
6,718. 

SOMERVILLE,  a  city  in  Middlesex 
co.,  Mass.;  on  the  Mystic  river,  and  on 
the  Boston  and  Maine  railroad.  It  com- 
prises nearly  a  dozen  villages,  and  con- 
tains a  public  library,  high  schools,  Home 
of  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  a  hospi- 
tal, street  railroads,  electric  lights,  Na- 
tional, savings,  and  co-operative  banks, 
and  several  weekly  newspapers.  It  has 
desk  factories,  iron  foundries,  flour  mills, 
tube  works,  and  large  slaughtering  and 
meat-packing  plants.  The  city  is  built 
on  seven  hills,  some  of  which  were  forti- 
fied during  the  Revolutionary  War,  and 
the  remains  of  some  of  the  structures  are 
still  preserved,  including  the  "old  powder 
house"  on  Quarry  Hill.  The  city  is  a 
favorite  residential  suburb  of  Boston 
business  men.  Pop.  (1910)  77,236; 
(1920)  93,091. 

SOMME,  a  river  of  northern  France, 
rising  near  Fonsomme,  about  6  miles  N. 
E.  of  St.  Quentin,  in  the  Department  of 
Aisne.  After  flowing  in  a  southwesterly 
direction,  it  turns  N.  W.,  enters  the  De- 
partment of  Somme,  and  after  receiving 
on  the  left  the  Avre  and  Celle,  it  enters 
the  English  Channel  below  St.  Valery. 
Its  total  course  is  about  152  miles  long. 
The  Somme  Canal  follows  the  course  of 
the  river  from  St.  Simon  to  St.  Valery,  a 
distance  of  about  97  miles.  The  river 
is  also  connected  with  the  Scheldt  by  the 
St.  Quentin  Canal,  and  with  the  Oise 
by  the  Crozat  Canal.  The  river  became 
widely  known  during  the  World  War  as 
a  result  of  the  highly  important  fighting 
which  at  various  times  occurred  along  its 
upper  reaches,  some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant battles  of  the  World  War  being 
known  as  the  Battles  of  the  Somme. 

SOMME  BATTLES.  See  PlCARDY, 
Battles  of. 

SOMNAMBULISM,  literally,  the  act 
or  practice  of  walking  in  sleep;  but,  in 
a  wider  and  more  usual  sense,  that  state 
of  sleep  or  unconsciousness  in  which  the 
mind  retains  its  power  over  the  limbs, 
but  has  no  influence  over  its  own  thoughts. 

SONATA,  a  term  originally  applied  to 
any  kind  of  musical  composition  for  in- 
struments, as  distinguished  from  vocal 
compositions,  which  were  called  cantatas. 
It  is  now,  however,  confined  to  composi- 


tions for  solo  instruments,  generally  the 
pianoforte.  The  term  sonata  or  suonata, 
as  applied  to  a  musical  composition,  was 
first  used  about  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century.  Those  of  that  time  so  called 
had  but  one  movement;  they  were  in  fact 
simply  airs  arranged  in  parts  for  an 
instrument  or  instruments.  A  modern 
sonata  is  generally^constructed  upon  the 
following  plan :  The  first  movement  is  an 
allegro,  sometimes  with  an  introduction, 
but  more  frequently  without  one ;  the  sec- 
ond, "the  slow  movement,"  is  set  in  any 
time,  between  adagio  and  andante;  and 
the  final  movement  is  an  allegro.  See 
Concerto. 

SONNET,  a  species  of  poetic  composi- 
tion first  brought  into  notice  by  Petrarch, 
and  consisting  properly  of  14  iambic 
verses  of  11  syllables.  It  is  divided  into 
two  chief  parts,  each  consisting  of  two 
divisions — in  the  former,  each  comprising 
four  lines  (quatrain)  ;  in  the  latter,  three 
(terzina).  The  quatrains  have  two 
rhymes,  each  of  which  is  repeated  four 
times;  and  in  the  common  Italian  form 
the  rhymes  are  the  first,  fourth,  fifth,  and 
eighth  verses,  and  the  second,  third,  sixth, 
and  seventh;  but  several  other  forms  are 
also  adopted.  In  the  two  terzine,  there 
are  either  three  rhymes  each  twice  re- 
peated, or  two  rhymes  thrice  repeated  in 
all  positions.  The  sonnet  generally  con- 
tains one  principal  idea  pursued  through 
the  various  antitheses  of  the  different 
strophes,  and  adorned  with  the  charm  of 
rhyme.  Italy  and  Spain  are  the  countries 
in  which  the  sonnet  is  most  cultivated, 
the  lightness  and  flexibility  of  their  lan- 
guages being  eminently  suited  for  such 
compositions. 

SONNINO,  SIDNEY,  BARON,  an 
Italian  statesman,  who,  as  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  represented  Italy  at  the 
Paris  Peace  Conference.  He  was  born 
in  1847,  and  while  still  a  young  man 
served  in  diplomatic  posts  in  Spain, 
France,  and  Austria.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament  at  the  age  of  30,  and  attained 
prominence  at  once  through  his  knowl- 
edge of  economic  and  financial  methods. 
He  favored  reforms  in  the  land  policy 
by  which  large  estates  should  be  broken 
up.  From  1887  to  1890  he  was  Under- 
secretary for  Finance,  and  again  from 
1893  to  1896.  He  was  later  Minister  of 
the  Treasury,  and,  while  he  held  this  of- 
fice, put  in  effect  many  reform  measures. 
Following  the  defeat  of  Crispi,  he  led 
the  opposition  in  Parliament  for  about  10 
years.  During  this  period  he  was  Prime 
Minister  in  1906  and  in  1910.  He  be- 
came Foreign  Minister  in  November, 
1914,  and  carried  on  the  negotiations  with 
Austria  and  Germany  for  the  recognition 
of  Italy's  claims.     He  also  negotiated  the 


SONOKA 


492 


SOPHIA 


Treaty  of  London,  with  England,  France, 
and  Russia.  He  took  a  conspicuous  part 
in  the  Peace  Conference,  and  made  every 
effort  to  secure  Italy's  claims  to  Fiume 
and  Dalmatia.  Unable  to  secure  the  as- 
sent of  the  Conference,  he  left  Paris  and 
returned  to  Italy.  Shortly  after,  the  min- 
istry of  which  he  was  a  member,  fell. 

SONORA,  a  frontier  State  in  the  N. 
W.  of  Mexico;  on  the  Gulf  of  California; 
is  the  second  largest  in  the  republic; 
area,  76,633  square  miles.  The  coast  is 
flat  and  sandy,  the  interior  filled  with 
wooded  mountains  and  fertile  valleys. 
Malaria  is  mostly  confined  to  one  part  of 
the  coast.  Here  the  climate  is  hot,  but 
in  the  mountains  there  is  frost  for  five 
months  in  the  year.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Sonora,  Yaqui,  and  Mayo.  The  prin- 
cipal wealth  of  the  State  is  in  its  min- 
erals, especially  gold,  silver,  mercury,  and 
iron.  Agriculture,  wine  growing,  and 
cattle-rearing  are  also  successful,  and  cot- 
tons, hats,  shoes,  and  soap  are  manufac- 
tured. Pop.  about  275,000.  Capital, 
Hermosillo;  chief  port,  Guaymas. 

SONS  OF  THE  AMERICAN  REVO- 
LUTION, NATIONAL  SOCIETY  OF 
THE,  a  patriotic  society.  It  was  organ- 
ized in  New  York  City  in  1889  and  mem- 
bership is  hereditary,  being  confined  to 
descendants  of  those  who  fought  in  the 
cause  of  American  independence,  as  of- 
ficer, soldier,  seaman,  marine,  militiaman, 
or  minuteman  in  the  forces  of  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  or  of  the  several  colo- 
nies. The  society  is  a  reorganization  of 
the  Sons  of  Revolutionary  Sires,  which 
was  organized  in  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  in 
1875,  and  after  1889  became  the  Cali- 
fornia State  Society  of  the  Sons  of  the 
American  Revolution.  The  society  was 
incorporated  in  1906,  and  the  member- 
ship is  about  13,500. 

SONS     OF     THE     REVOLUTION,     a 

patriotic  society  composed  of  the  descend- 
ants of  those  who  co-operated  in  the 
American  Revolution.  It  was  organized 
in  New  York  City  in  1876  and  reorgan- 
ized in  1883.  Membership  is  restricted  to 
male  lineal  descendants  and  the  society 
has  been  active  in  marking  with  tablets 
and  otherwise  indicating  and  safe-guard- 
ing places  associated  with  persons  and 
events  connected  with  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence. Among  the  monuments  due  to 
the  society  are  tablets  commemorating 
the  site  of  the  battles  of  Long  Island 
and  of  Harlem  Heights.  The  statue  of 
Nathan  Hale  in  City  Hall  Park  was 
erected  by  the  society.  Membership  i3 
about  7,000. 

SONS  OF  VETERANS,  a  patriotic 
organization  established  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  in  1879.     It  is  an  hereditary  society, 


being  restricted  to  lineal  male  descend- 
ants of  soldiers,  sailors  and  marines  who 
served  with  honor  in  the  Civil  War.  The 
insignia  consist  of  a  bronze  bar  on  which 
are  the  words  "Filii  Veteranorum" ;  and 
pendant  from  this  bar  is  a  red,  white  and 
blue  ribbon  attached  to  a  medallion  con- 
taining a  monogram  of  the  letters  "S.  V." 
in  relief  on  a  wreath  over  crossed  can- 
nons, surmounted  by  a  spread  eagle.  A 
parallel  society  is  the  Daughters  of  Vet- 
erans, consisting  of  female  descendants. 
The  members  number  about  56,000. 

SONS  OF  WAR  VETERANS,  SO- 
CIETY OF,  a  patriotic  society  estab- 
lished in  1893,  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
serving and  perpetuating  the  principles 
for  which  the  Federal  soldiers  fought  in 
the  Civil  War,  to  assist  surviving  veter- 
ans and  their  widows,  and  help  in  the 
mutual  benefit  and  advancement  of  its 
members.  The  society  admits  to  mem- 
bership any  male  descendant  of  an  hon- 
orably discharged  Union  soldier,  sailor, 
or  marine,  who  served  for  not  less  than 
six  months  and  part  of  the  time  at  the 
front. 

SOPHIA,  Empress  of  Constantinople, 
niece  of  Theodora,  and  wife  of  Justinian 
II.,  with  whom  she  shared  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  state.  After  the  death  of 
that  prince  in  578  she  conspired  against 
Tiberius  Constantine,  who  had  been  raised 
to  the  throne  by  her  advice,  and,  being 
defeated  by  him,  was  compelled  to  live  in 
privacy. 

SOPHIA,  half-sister  of  Peter  the 
Great,  and  Czarina  of  Russia;  born  in 
1657;  in  1682  she  placed  herself  at  the 
head  of  the  revolt  of  the  stryeltsy.  Having 
succeeded  in  her  ambitious  designs,  she 
reigned  over  the  Muscovites  under  the 
names  of  her  brothers,  Peter  and  Ivan. 
The  former  (Peter  the  Great),  however, 
finally  possessed  himself  of  the  sole 
power;  and  Sophia  died  a  prisoner  in  a 
convent  in  1704. 

SOPHIA,  CHURCH  OF  ST.,  in  Con- 
stantinople, the  most  celebrated  ecclesi- 
astical edifice  of  the  Greek  Church,  now 
used  as  a  mosque;  was  built  by  the  Em- 
peror Justinian,  and  dedicated  in  558.  It 
is  in  the  Byzantine  style  of  architecture, 
has  a  fine  dome  rising  to  the  height  of 
180  feet,  and  is  richly  decorated  in  the 
interior.  With  the  principal  dome  are 
connected  two  half  domes  and  six  smaller 
ones,  which  add  to  the  general  effect.  The 
mass  of  the  edifice  is  of  brick,  but  is  over- 
laid with  marble;  the  floor  is  of  mosaic 
work,  composed  of  porphyry  and  verd  an- 
tique. The  great  piers  which  support 
the  dome  consist  of  square  blocks  of  stone 
bound  with  hoops  of  iron.  The  numerous 
pillars  supporting  the  internal  galleries, 


SOPHISTS 


493 


SOPvBONNE 


etc.,  are  of  white  and  colored  marbles, 
porphyry,  granite,  etc.,  and  have  capitals 
of  various  peculiar  forms.  The  interior 
of*  the  church  is  243  feet  in  width  from 
N.  to  S.,  and  269  in  length  from  E.  to  W., 
and  its  general  effect  is  singularly  fine. 

SOPHISTS.  The  Greek  word  sophistes 
(from  sop/i.os="skilled,"  "wise")  meant 
originally  any  one  of  acknowledged  or 
professed  skill;  thus,  the  term  was  ap- 
plied to  the  seven  sages  (whether  philoso- 
phers, like  Thales,  or  statesmen,  like 
Solon),  to  poets,  musicians,  etc.  In  the 
5th  and  4th  centuries  B.  c.  it  came  to  be 
applied  specially  to  those  who  made  a 
profession  of  teaching  all  or  any  of  the 
higher  branches  of  learning.  The  great 
intellectual  awakening  of  Athens  after 
the  Persian  War,  and  the  growth  of 
democracy  in  Sicily  and  elsewhere,  as  well 
as  at  Athens,  which  gave  skill  in  public 
speaking  a  new  importance,  led  to  the 
demand  for  an  education  which  should  go 
beyond  the  old  training  in  "gymnastics" 
and  "music"  (i.  e.,  reading,  writing,  sing- 
ing, and  reciting  from  the  poets).  To 
meet  this  demand  there  arose  a  class  of 
professional  teachers,  wandering  scholars, 
who  undertook  to  provide  what  we  should 
call  "higher  education." 

SOPHOCLES,  a  Greek  tragic  poet; 
born  in  the  Attic  demus  or  village  of 
Colonus,  495  B.  c,  30  years   later  than 


SOPHOCLES 

/Eschylus.  He  received  a  good  education, 
and  at  an  early  age  gained  the  prize  in 
music  and  gymnastics.     He  was  15  when 

FF- 


the  battle  of  Salamis  was  fought,  and 
for  his  remarkable  beauty  and  skill  in 
music  he  was  chosen  to  lead  the  chorus 
which  sang  the  paean  of  victory.  His 
first  appearance  as  a  dramatist  was  in 
468,  when,  under  memorable  circum- 
stances, he  had  iEschylus  for  his  rival 
and  won  the  victory.  Of  the  next  28 
years  of  his  life  nothing  is  recorded;  but 
it  is  known  that  he  made  poetry  his  busi- 
ness, and  that  he  composed  a  great  .many 
plays  during  that  period.  Not  one  of 
them,  however,  is  now  extant.  The  "An- 
tigone," the  earliest  of  his  extant  trage- 
dies, was  brought  out  in  440,  and  won  the 
prize.  The  number  of  plays  attributed 
to  him  without  question  was  113,  of  which 
81  were  probably  produced  after  the  "An- 
tigone." Seven  only  are  extant,  viz., 
"Antigone,"  "Electra,"  "Trachinian  Wom- 
en," "King  CEdipus,"  "Ajax,"  "Philoc- 
tetes,"  and  "CEdipus  at  Cok-nus."  These 
exhibit  his  art  in  its  maturity,  and  sus- 
tain the  verdict  of  ancient  and  modern 
critics  that  Sophocles  carried  the  Greek 
drama  to  its  highest  perfection.  He  ef- 
fected a  complete  change  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  tragedy  as  iEschylus  left  it; 
loosening  the  connection  between  the  parts 
of  the  trilogy  and  the  satiric  drama,  and 
making  them  not  one  great  poem,  but 
four  distinct  ones;  introducing  a  third 
actor;  and  for  subjects  selecting,  not  a 
series  of  heroic  and  mythical  actions,  but 
for  each  play  one  leading  fact  of  real 
human  interest  and  lasting  significance. 
Sophocles  lived  to  be  nearly  90,  and  in 
his  latest  years  most  probably  wrote  the 
"CEdipus  at  Colonus,"  so  full  of  sweet- 
ness and  tender  melancholy,  and  consol- 
ing hopes,  which  was  not  presented  on 
the  stage  till  five  years  after  the  poet's 
death,  406  B.  c. 

SOPWITH,  THOMAS  OCTAVE  MUR- 
DOCH, a  British  aviator.  Born  1888;  edu- 
cated at  Cottesmore,  and  the  Seafield  En- 
gineering College.  In  1910  he  won  the 
de  Forest  prize  of  $20,000  for  the  longest 
flight  from  England  in  a  British  machine 
by  a  flight  from  Eastchurch  to  Beaumont, 
Belgium,  a  distance  of  176  miles,  in  a 
Howard-Wright  biplane.  In  1912  he  es- 
tablished the  Sopwith  Aviation  Co.,  Ltd., 
at  Kingston-on-Thames,  where  aeroplanes 
and  seaplanes  are  designed  and  built.  He 
assisted  in  the  turning  out  of  many 
British  aeroplanes  during  the  World  War. 

SORACTE,  a  celebrated  mountain  of 
Italy,  27  miles  N.  of  Rome,  now  called 
Monte  Sant'  Oreste;  height,  2,420  feet. 

SORBONNE,  an  establishment  founded 
at  Paris  in  1253  by  Robert  de  Sorbon, 
chaplain  to  St.  Louis,  for  certain  secular 
priests,  who  should  devote  themselves  to 
the  study  of  and  gratuitous  instruction 
Cyc  vol  8 


SOBDELLO 


494 


SOBSOGON 


5n  theology.  The  celebrity  of  its  doctors, 
the  crowds  of  scholars  who  sought  its  de- 
grees, gave  the  Sorbonne  a  European 
fame,  which  steadily  grew  from  the  14th  . 
to  the  17th  century,  from  a  branch  of 
the  theological  faculty,  it  became  the 
faculty  itself;  its  voice  was  paramount 
in  matters  of  faith.  It  was  abolished  in 
1792,  revived  in  1821  and  in  1852  given 
to  the  city  of  Paris  and  incorporated  in 
the  University.  New  buildings  were 
erected  in  1889.  The  Sorbonne  Chapel, 
where  Richelieu  is  buried,  is  still  stand- 
ing. The  University  is  admirably  con- 
structed for  the  purposes  of  higher 
education.  There  are  over  100  professors 
and  instructors  and  about  10,000  students. 

SOBDELLO  (sor-del'lo),  an  Italian 
poet;  born  in  Gioto,  near  Mantua,  about 
1180.  He  composed  poems  in  the  lan- 
guage of  Provence,  of  which  34  remain. 
One  of  the  most  celebrated  passages  in 
Dante  is  on  the  subject  of  this  poet,  and 
Browning's  "Sordello"  (1840)  is  founded 
on  the  story  of  his  life.  He  died  about 
1269. 

SOBEL,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Richelieu  co.,  Quebec,  Canada;  on  Lake 
St.  Peter,  at  the  mouth  of  Richelieu  river, 
and  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  and  other 
railways;  45  miles  N.  E.  of  Montreal. 
For  many  years  it  was  the  summer  resi- 
dence of  the  governor-general  of  Canada. 
It  has  large  manufacturing  and  ship- 
building interests.  A  fort  was  built  on 
the  site  of  Sorel  in  1665.  Pop.  about 
10,000. 

SOBEL,  AGNES,  the  mistress  of  the 
worthless  Charles  VII.  of  France;  born 
in  the  village  of  Fromenteau,  Touraine, 
France,  in  1409.  She  came  to  court  in 
1431  in  the  train  of  the  Duchess  of  An- 
jou.  Her  influence  was  beneficial  as  long 
as  she  lived;  she  died  suddenly,  near 
Jumigny,  Feb.  9,  1450. 

SOBGHTJM,  a  genus  of  Andropogoneae, 
sometimes  made  a  synonym  of  Trachypo- 
gon.  S.  vulgare  is  the  Indian  or  great 
millet,  or  guinea  corn.  In  1918  the 
United  States  produced  16,532,382  gal- 
Ions  sorghum  molasses. 

SOBIA,  a  city  of  Spain,  in  Old  Castile, 
capital  of  a  province  of  its  own  name, 
en  the  Douro,  113  miles  N.  E.  of  Madrid. 
Adjacent  to  the  town,  on  the  N.,  are  the 
ruins  of  the  famous  city  of  Numantia, 
destroyed  by  the  Romans  132  B.  c.  Pop. 
(1918)  province,  157,856;  city,  7,500. 

SOBOLLA  Y  BASTIDA,  JOAQUIN,  a 

Spanish  figure,  landscape,  and  portrait 
painter,  born  at  Valencia,  in  1863.  He 
studied  art  at  the  academy  of  his  native 
city,  as  well  as  at  Madrid  and  in  Italy, 
but  was  especially  influenced  by  his  study 


in  Paris  of  the  works  of  Bastien-Lepage 
and  of  Menzel.  The  two  paintings  which 
brought  him  his  first  recognition  were 
"Another  Marguerite"  (1892),  now  at 
the  St.  Louis  (Mo.)  Museum,  and  "Fish- 
ing Boats'  Return,"  now  at  the  Luxem- 
bourg Museum,  Paris.  The  Grand  Prix 
awarded  to  him  at  the  Paris  Salon  in 
1900  stamped  him  as  one  of  the  most 
eminent  modern  painters,  and  from  then 
on  he  has  produced  an  almost  incredible 
number  of  paintings.  Although  using 
comparatively  simple  color  schemes,  he 
was  highly  successful  in  achieving  re- 
markable color  effects,  which,  together 
with  his  very  brilliant  technique  and  his 
sincere  representation,  have  made  his  pic- 
tures extremely  popular.  Highly  success- 
ful special  exhibitions  of  his  work  were 
held  in  Paris,  London,  and  New  York. 
His  principal  subjects  are  landscapes, 
marines,  mothers  with  babies,  children  at 
play,  and  fisherfolk,  almost  all  of  them 
placed  out  of  doors  in  brilliant  sunlight. 
His  portraits,  which  include  those  of  a 
large  number  of  prominent  people,  are 
distinguished  by  force  of  characterization 
and  brilliancy  of  technique.  He  has  been 
awarded  many  gold  medals  in  various 
countries,  and  examples  of  his  work  are 
to  be  found  in  most  of  the  prominent  pub- 
lic and  private  collections.  In  the  United 
States  he  is  especially  well  represented 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York. 

SOBOSIS,  in  botany,  a  collective  fruit, 
formed  of  a  number  of  separate  flowers, 
firmly  coherent  in  a  fleshy  or  pulpy  ma-ss 
with  the  thalamus  on  which  they  are  sit- 
uated. The  pineapple  is  an  example; 
each  hexagonal  division  represents  a 
flower,  while  the  crown  of  leaves  above 
consists  of  empty  bracts.  The  breadfruit, 
jackfruit,  and  mulberry  are  other  ex- 
amples. 

SOBBENTO  (Latin,  Surrentum),  a 
city  of  Italy,  on  the  S.  E.  side  of  the 
Bay  of  Naples,  on  the  promontory  which 
separates  it  from  the  Gulf  of  Salerno,  7 
miles  S.  W.  of  Castellamare.  It  is  an 
archiepiscopal  see  and  possesses  a  cathe- 
dral. The  manufacture  of  silk  and  the 
making  of  parquetry  are  extensively  car- 
ried on.  It  is  celebrated  for  the  mildness 
and  general  salubrity  of  its  climate,  for 
its  beautiful  situation  in  the  midst  of 
orange  groves  and  fruit  gardens.  In  the 
time  of  Augustus  it  was  noted  for  its 
fine  buildings;  but  few  traces  of  these 
now  exist.  Among  the  Romans  the  wine 
of  Sorrento  was  held  in  high  repute. 
Tasso  was  a  native.    Pop.  about  7,000. 

SOBSOGON,  a  province  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  It  is  situated  in  the  south- 
eastern portion  of  the  island  of  Luzon. 
Area,  755  square  miles.    It  is  almost  sur- 


SORSOGON 


495 


SOUBISE 


rounded  by  water  and  is  traversed  by 
forest-clad  mountains.  It  produces  hemp 
and  copra.  Before  1901  it  was  a  district 
of  the  Province  of  Albay.  Pop.  about 
150,000. 

SORSOGON,  the  capital  of  the  Province 
of  Sorsogon,  Philippine  Islands.  It  is 
situated  in  the  S.  of  the  island  of  Lu- 
zon, on  the  bay  of  Sorsogon.  The  bay 
which  almost  divides  the  province  is  6 
by  12  miles,  and  forms  a  good  harbor. 
The  town  is  connected  with  the  Strait  of 
Bernardino  on  the  route  from  Manila  to 
the  United  States.    Pop.  about  18,000. 

SOTHERN,    EDWARD    ASKEW,    an 

English-American  comedian;  born  in 
Liverpool,  England,  April  1,  1826.  De- 
clining the  Church,  medicine,  or  the  bar, 
in  184k  he  joined  a  company  of  players 
in  Jersey,  and  soon  afterward  passed 
into  the  stock  company  of  the  Theater 
Royal,  Birmingham.  From  1852  he  ap- 
peared in  the  United  States,  without 
much  success,  till  in  1858  "Our  American 
Cousin,"  by  Tom  Taylor,  was  brought  out 
in  New  York,  with  Sothern  cast  for  the 
small  part  (47  lines)  of  Lord  Dundreary. 
The  piece  was  a  poor  thing,  and  the 
character  of  the  English  peer  as  play- 
goers know  it  was  Sothern's  own  creation, 
bit  by  bit.  In  November,  1861,  the  play 
was  produced  in  London  at  the  Haymar- 
ket  and  ran  for  over  500  nights;  and  it 
was  again  and  again  revived  in  later 
years.  Sothern  essayed  many  other  char- 
acters, but  he  is  remembered  chiefly  as 
Dundreary;  his  other  most  memorable 
parts  were  David  Garrick  in  Robertson's 
comedy,  and  perhaps  Fitzaltamont  in 
"The  Crushed  Tragedian";  the  latter 
failed  utterly  in  England,  but  was  always 
popular  in  America,  whither  Sothern  re- 
turned several  times.  He  died  in  London, 
Jan.  21,  1881. 

SOTHERN,  EDWARD  HUGH,  an 
American  actor,  born  at  New  Orleans, 
in  1859,  the  son  of  E.  A.  Sothern  (q.  v.). 
He  was  educated  in  England  and  studied 
painting  in  Spain.  In  1879,  however,  he 
turned  his  interests  to  the  stage  and  ap- 
peared in  a  small  part  with  his  father 
at  Abbey's  Park  Theater,  New  York.  He 
later  toured  the  United  States  with  John 
McCullough,  and  England  in  1882  and 
1883.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  the 
leading  comedian  in  McCullough's  com- 
pany. Since  then  he  has  played  leading 
parts  in  "A  Scrap  of  Paper,"  "One  of 
Our  Girls,"  "Peg  Woflington,"  etc.  In 
1887  he  formed  a  company  of  his  own 
with  which  he  starred  in  "Lord  Chumley," 
"The  Prisoner  of  Zenda,"  "The  Sunken 
Bell,"  "Richard  Lovelace,"  "If  I  Were 
King,"  "John  the  Baptist,"  "Lord  Dun- 
dreary." "Don  Quixote,"  etc.     His  chief 


fame,  however,  is  based  on  his  interpre- 
tation of  Shakespearian  roles.  With  his 
company  he  has  produced  at  various  times 
"Hamlet,"  "Macbeth,"  "Twelfth  Night," 


EDWARD   HUGH   SOTHERN 

"As  You  Like  It,"  "Much  Ado  About 
Nothing,"  "Merchant  of  Venice,"  "Romeo 
and  Juliet,"  etc.  He  has  appeared  in  all 
parts  of  the  United  States  and  has  been 
highly  successful.  He  was  married  twice, 
first  to  Virginia  Harned,  and  later  to 
Julia  Marlowe. 

SOUBISE  (so-bez'),  BENJAMIN  DE 
ROHAN,  SEIGNEUR  DE,  a  famous 
Huguenot  captain;  born  in  Rochelle, 
France,  in  1583.  He  was  the  son  of  Rene 
de  Rohan,  and  brother  of  the  famous 
Henri  de  Rohan,  chief  of  the  Protestant 
party  under  Louis  XIV.  He  learned  the 
trade  of  arms  under  Maurice  of  Orange; 
and  when  the  religious  wars  again  broke 
out  in  1621  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
chief  command  in  Brittany,  Anjou,  and 
Poitou.  He  conducted  the  war  with  much 
spirit,  but  was  eventually  obliged  to  seek 
refuge  in  England.  In  1625  he  made  a 
dashing  attack  on  the  royalist  fleet  in  the 
river  Blavet,  seized  a  number  of  vessels, 
and  captured  the  islands  of  Oleron  and 
Re.  He  was  active  at  Rochelle  during  the 
famous  siege  in  1627  and  1628,  and  when 
the  town  was  captured  he  retired  once 
more  to  England.  He  died  in  London, 
England.  Oct.  9,  1642. 


S'OTJCHEZ 


496 


SOULT 


SOITCHEZ,  a  small  village  in  Artois, 
France,  about  four  miles  S.  W.  of  Lens, 
which  was  the  center  of  a  heavy  battle 
between  the  French  and  German  troops, 
beginning  on  May  9,  1915,  in  which  the 
German  lines  were  temporarily  broken. 
Most  of  the  fighting  occurred  in  and 
around  the  village  of  Souchez,  but  as  a 
whole  became  known  as  the  Battle  of 
Artois.  The  German  losses  were  esti- 
mated at  60,000,  while  those  of  the  French 
amounted  to  only  about  2,000. 

SOTJFRIERE,  a  volcano  of  the  island 
of  St.  Vincent,  West  Indies.  Its  height 
is  3,700  feet.  Violent  eruptions  have  oc- 
curred at  intervals  during  the  last  two 
centuries,  the  last  on  May  7,  1902,  simul- 
taneous with  the  eruption  of  Mont  Pelee, 
in  Martinique,  1,350  persons  being  killed, 
the  depth  of  rocks  and  dust  reaching 
in  some  places  60  feet. 

SOTTKHOMLINOFF,  GENERAL  W. 
A.,  a  Russian  officer,  Minister  of  War  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  in  1914. 
He  was  at  that  time  believed  to  be  of 
the  modern  school  of  military  officials  and 
it  was  supposed  that  he  was  largely 
responsible  for  the  modern  innovations 
which  had  been  instituted  in  the  Russian 
military  service  after  the  Russian-Japa- 
nese War  of  1904-5.  As  soon  developed, 
however,  the  Russian  Army  was  in  no 
such  state  of  efficiency  as  had  been  sup- 
posed, and  to  this  was  added  evidence 
©f  deliberate  treachery  in  the  lack  of 
supplies  of  war  munitions  at  critical  times 
during  the  operations  against  the  Ger- 
mans and  Austrians.  After  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1917  General  Soukhomlinoff, 
though  retired  before  that  event,  was 
brought  to  trial  for  deliberate  treason. 
This  trial  was  continued  after  the  rise 
©f  the  Bolsheviki  into  power,  in  Novem- 
ber, 1917,  when  he  was  found  guilty  and 
sentenced  to  life  imprisonment. 

SOULE,  PIERRE  (so-la'),  an  Ameri- 
can statesman;  born  in  Castillon,  France, 
in  September,  1802;  was  educated  at  the 
Jesuits'  College  at  Toulouse.  In  1817  he 
went  to  Bordeaux  to  complete  his  educa- 
tion, but  took  part  in  the  plot  against 
Louis  XVIII.,  was  detected  and  fled  to 
the  mountains  of  the  Beam  country.  He 
was  pardoned,  however,  and  returned  to 
Paris  in  1824,  where  he  became  editor  of 
"Le  Nain  Jaune"  ("The  Yellow  Dwarf"), 
a  paper  noted  for  its  extreme  liberal 
ideas.  For  the  publication  of  a  bitter 
article  attacking  the  ministers  of  Charles 
X.  he  was  sentenced  to  imprisonment,  but 
escaped  and  arrived  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  in 
1826.  Subsequently  he  went  to  New  Or- 
leans, where  he  entered  politics  and  was 
elected  to  the  State  Senate  in  1847.  In 
1847    he   was   appointed   to   the    United 


States  Senate  and  elected  to  a  full  term 
in  that  body  in  1849.  Later  he  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  Spain  with  the  object  of 
negotiating  for  the  acquisition  of  Cuba 
by  the  United  States;  and  in  1854  was 
one  of  the  ministers  who  framed  the  fa- 
mous "Ostend  Manifesto."  Up  to  the 
time  of  Abraham  Lincoln's  election  he 
had  advocated  secession,  but  thereafter 
favored  co-operation.  On  the  passage  by 
the  State  of  the  ordinances  of  secession, 
however,  he  tendered  his  services  to  the 
Confederate  government,  and  in  1862  be- 
came an  honorary  aide  on  the  staff  of 
General  Beauregard.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  he  returned  to  New  Orleans  and 
practiced  law  till  his  death  there,  March 
26,  1870. 

SOULT,  NICOLAS  JEAN  DE  DIETT 
(solt),  Duke  of  Dalmatia  and  Marshal 
of  France;  born  of  humble  parentage  in 
Saint  Amans  la  Bastide,  Tarn,  France, 
March  29,  1769.  In  1785  he  entered  an 
infantry  regiment  as  a  common  soldier. 
Raised  from  the  ranks,  he  became  suc- 
cessively lieutenant  and  captain  in  his 
regiment.  At  that  time  he  served  on  the 
upper  Rhine  and  greatly  distinguished 
himself  at  Kaiserslautern,  Weissenburg, 
Fleurus,  and  other  places,  and  after  suc- 
cessive promotions  was  named  General  of 
Division  by  Massena,  to  whose  army  he 
was  attached.  In  the  unsuccessful  cam- 
paign in  Italy  he  was  wounded  and  taken 
prisoner,  but  obtained  his  liberty  after 
the  victory  of  Marengo  in  1800.  In  1803 
he  had  the  command  of  one  of  the  three 
camps  of  the  army  intended  against  Eng- 
land, that  at  St.  Omer.  He  was  one  of 
the  marshals  created  immediately  after 
the  formation  of  the  empire  in  1804;  and 
in  the  Austrian  War,  in  1805,  distin- 
guished himself  at  Ulm  and  Austerlitz. 
He  acquired  new  fame  in  the  Prussian 
campaign;  and  in  1807;  after  the  battle 
of  Friedland,  took  Konigsberg.  From 
1808-1812  he  fought  in  Spain,  but,  over- 
matched by  Wellington,  was  unable  to 
gain  many  laurels.  In  1813  he  was  re- 
called in  consequence  of  Napoleon's  dis- 
asters, to  take  the  command  of  the  4th 
Corps  of  the  Grand  Army,  and  com- 
manded the  infantry  of  the  guard  at 
Lutzen.  On  the  news  of  Wellington's  vic- 
tory at  Vittoria  he  was  sent  back  to  re- 
organize the  French  force  in  Spain,  and 
did  his  utmost  to  oppose  Wellington's 
triumphant  career  till  Napoleon's  abdica- 
tion. Soult  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  Louis 
XVIII.,  who  appointed  him  commander  of 
the  13th  Military  Division;  and  in  1814 
made  him  Minister  of  War.  On  Napo- 
leon's return  he  joined  his  standard,  and 
held  the  post  of  ^  major-general  of  the 
army  in  the  campaign  of  Waterloo.  After 
the    second   restoration   he   took    up    his 


SOUND 


497 


SOUTH    AFRICA 


residence  at  Dusseldorf,  but  was  per- 
mitted to  return  to  France  in  1819;  and 
in  1827  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  After 
the  July  revolution  of  1830,  and  on  two 
subsequent  occasions,  he  held  ministerial 
office,  and  in  1846,  on  retiring  from  pub- 
lic life,  was  created  Grand-Marshal  of 
France.  He  died  in  St.  Amans,  Nov.  26, 
1851. 

SOUND,  strictly  the  sensation  which 
results  from  the  stimulating  action  of  at- 
mospheric or  other  vibrations  upon  the 
aural  nerves.  Beyond  ourselves  it  has 
no  existence,  it  is  purely  subjective,  and 
as  a  sensation  must  be  carefully  distin- 
guished from  the  vibratory  motion  which 
is  one  of  the  necessary  conditions  of  its 
existence.  Further,  the  existence  of  this 
vibratory  motion  is  itself  conditioned  by 
two  things — a  distributing  cause  and  a 
suitable  medium  for  transmitting  the  dis- 
turbance to  the  ear.  The  study  of  these 
in  all  their  possible  relations  constitutes 
the  science  or  theory  of  sound.  Sounds 
are  usually  classified  under  the  two  heads 
of  noises  and  musical  sounds.  A  musical 
sound  is  caused  by  a  regular  series  of 
exactly  similar  disturbances  or  pulses 
succeeding  each  other  at  precisely  equal 
intervals  of  time;  if  these  conditions  are 
not  fulfilled,  the  sound  is  a  noise. 

SOUNDING,  the  operation  of  trying 
the  depth  of  water  and  the  quality  of  the 
bottom,  especially  by  means  of  a  plummet 
sunk  from  a  ship.  In  navigation  two 
plummets  are  used,  one  called  the  hand 
lead,  weighing  about  eight  or  nine  pounds ; 
and  the  other,  the  deep  sea  lead,  weighing 
from  25  to  30  pounds.  The  former  is 
used  in  shallow  waters,  and  the  latter 
at  a  distance  from  shore.  The  nature 
of  the  bottom  is  commonly  ascertained 
by  using  a  piece  of  tallow  stuck  upon  the 
base  of  the  deep-sea  lead,  and  thus  bring- 
ing up  sand,  shells,  ooze,  etc.,  which 
adhere  to  it. 

The  Thomson  sounding  apparatus  con- 
sists of  an  iron  drum  attached  to  a  frame. 
The  wire  to  which  the  lead  is  attached  is 
wound  around  a  grooved  disk  controlled 
by  a  clutch.  A  dial  on  one  side  of  the 
frame  registers  the  depths.  The  Sigsbee 
sounding  device  is  the  invention  of  Ad- 
miral Sigsbee,  U.  S.  N. 

SOURABAYA,  or  SURABAYA,  a  sea- 
port of  Java,  capital  of  a  province  of  the 
same  name  (area,  2,091  square  miles; 
pop.,  about  3,000,000),  on  the  Strait  of 
Madura.  It  possesses  a  large  and  secure 
harbor;  a  building  yard,  graving  dock, 
and  an  extensive  trade  in  exports  of  na- 
tive produce,  and  imports  of  European 
manufactures.     Pop.  about  175,000. 

SOURAKARTA,  or  SOLO,  a  town  of 
Java,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 


name  (area,  2,404  square  miles;  pop. 
about  1,750,000),  140  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Sourabaya.  It  has  manufactures  of  cot- 
ton and  other  tissues,  leather,  etc.  Pop. 
about  125,000. 

SOUSA,  JOHN  PHILIP,  an  American 
musician  and  conductor,  born  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  in  1854.  He  studied  music  and 
began  teaching  at  the  age  of  15.  From 
1880  to  1892  he  was  the  leader  of  the 
United  States  Marine  Corps  band.  In  the 
latter  year  he  organized  his  own  band,  and 
for  many  years  successfully  toured  Eu- 
rope and  the  United  States.     In  1911  he 


JOHN    PHILIP   SOUSA 

made  a  tour  of  the  world.  He  was  a  pro- 
lific composer  of  music,  especially  of 
marches,  many  of  which  attained  wide 
success.  He  also  wrote  music  for  several 
operas.  He  wrote  "The  Fifth  String" 
(1905);  "The  Dwellers  in  the  Western 
World,"  and  "Through  the  Year  with 
Sousa"  (1910).  During  the  World  War 
he  conducted  musical  instruction  at  the 
Naval  Training  Station,  Great  Lakes,  and 
there  organized  a  remarkable  band  which 
was  used  in  recruiting  in  various  parts 
of  the  country. 

SOUTH  AFRICA,  UNION  OF,  a  polit- 
ical division  of  South  Africa,  extending 
from  the  southernmost  point  of  the  Afri- 
can Continent  to  the  course  of  the  Lim- 
popo river,  i.e.,  from  34°  50'-22°  S.  lati- 
tude, and  including  all  the  British  terri- 
tories within  those  limits,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Basutoland  and  the  Swaziland  and 
Bechuanaland  Protectorates,  while  provi- 


SOUTH    AFRICA 


498 


SOUTH    AFRICA 


sion  is  made  for  the  future  inclusion  with- 
in the  Union  of  those  territories  and  of 
the  territories  of  the  British  South  Af- 
frica  Company. 

Topography  and  Rivers. — The  southern- 
most province  contains  many  parallel 
ranges,  which  rise  in  steps  toward  the 
interior.  The  southwestern  peninsula  con- 
tains the  famous  "Table  Mountain"  (3,582 
feet),  while  the  "Great  Zwarte  Region" 
and  "Lange  Bergen"  run  in  parallel  lines 
from  W.  to  E.  of  the  Cape  province.  Be- 
tween these  two  ranges  and  the  "Rogge- 
veld"  and  "Nieuwveld"  to  the  N.  is  the 
Great  Karoo  Plateau,  which  is  bounded 
on  the  E.  by  the  "Sneeuwbergen,"  con- 
taining the  highest  summit  in  the  prov- 
ince ( Compassberg,  7,800  feet).  In  the 
E.  are  ranges  which  join  the  "Drakens- 
bergen"  (11,000  feet),  between  Natal  and 
the  Orange  Free  State.  The  Orange  Free 
State  presents  a  succession  of  undulating 
grassy  plains  with  good  pasture-land,  at 
a  general  elevation  of  some  3,800  feet, 
with  occasional  hills  or  kopjes.  The 
Transvaal  is  also  mainly  an  elevated  pla- 
teau with  parallel  ridges  in  the  "Maga- 
!ies"  and  "Waterberg"  ranges  of  no  great 
height.  The  veld  or  plains  of  this  north- 
ernmost province  is  divisible  into  the 
Hooge  Veld  of  the  S.,  the  Banker  Veld 
of  the  center,  and  the  Bush  veld  of  the 
N.  and  E.,  the  first  and  second  forming 
the  grazing  and  agricultural  region  of  the 
Transvaal  and  the  last  a  mimosa-covered 
waste.  The  eastern  province  of  Natal  has 
pastoral  lowlands  and  rich  agricultural 
land  between  the  slopes  of  the  Drakens- 
berg  and  the  coast,  the  interior  rising  in 
terraces  as  in  the  southern  provinces. 
The  Orange,  with  its  tributary,  the  Yaal, 
is  the  principal  river  of  the  S.,  rising 
in  the  Drakensbergen  and  flowing  into 
the  Atlantic  between  the  Protectorate  of 
Southwest  Africa  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  Limpopo,  or  Crocodile  river, 
in  the  N.,  rises  in  the  Transvaal  and  flows 
into  the  Indian  Ocean  through  Portu- 
guese East  Africa.  Most  of  the  remain- 
ing rivers  are  furious  torrents  after  rain, 
with  partially  dry  beds  at  other  seasons. 

Area  and  Population. — The  total  area 
of  the  Union  is  473,096  square  miles,  di- 
vided as  follows:  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
276,966;  Natal,  35,291;  Transvaal,  110,- 
450;  Orange  Free  State,  50,389  square 
miles.  The  white  population  in  1918  was 
1,436,611.  The  colored  population  in  1911, 
the  last  year  for  which  definite  figures 
are  available,  was  4,697,152.  The  princi- 
pal towns  are  Johannesburg,  Cape  Town, 
Durban,  Pretoria,  Port  Elizabeth,  Pieter- 
mariteburg,  East  London,  Benoni,  Kim- 
berley,  Germiston,  Bloemfontein,  Krugers- 
dorp,  and  Boksburg.  The  death  rate  is 
usually  slightly  ab^ve  10  per  thousand, 
but  in  1918,  as  the  result  of  the  influenza 


epidemic,  it  rose  to  over  17  per  thousand. 

Instruction. — In  April,  1918,  the  insti- 
tutions for  higher  education  were  reor- 
ganized, and  there  are  now  three  univer- 
sities, the  University  of  Cape  Town,  the 
University  of  Stellenbosch,  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  South  Africa.  There  are  also 
several  colleges  administratively  con- 
nected with  these  universities.  The  total 
number  of  students  in  1918  was  2,069,  the 
total  number  of  professors  and  instructors 
252.  Schools  other  than  those  for  higher 
education  in  1917  numbered  4,945  for 
white  scholars,  with  259,076  students;  and 
2,670  for  colored  students,  with  187,866 
students,  having  a  total  of  17,971  teach- 
ers, and  expenditures  of  £3,169,889.  There 
are  also  a  number  of  training  colleges  and 
special  schools. 

Finances. — The  ordinary  revenue  and 
expenditures  of  the  Union  in  1918-19  was 
£19,256,000  and  £19,858,824  respectively. 
The  public  debt  of  the  Union  on  March 
31,  1920,  was  estimated  at  £166,270,000. 

Defense. — Toward  the  end  of  the  World 
War  all  the  British  troops  stationed  in 
South  Africa  were  withdrawn  and  the 
Union  itself  provided  all  military  forces 
necessary  for  its  defense.  These  were 
raised  under  the  Defense  Act,  which 
makes  all  citizens  liable  to  service  within 
the  Dominion.  Only  a  certain  proportion 
of  the  younger  men,  however,  are  annu- 
ally enrolled  and  trained.  These  form  the 
Active  Citizen  Army,  the  members  of 
which,  after  four  years,  become  members 
of  the  Citizen  Reserve  Force,  until  the 
age  of  45.  There  are  also  a  Coast  Gar- 
rison Force,  a  Permanent  Force,  and  a 
National  Reserve,  the  latter  comprising 
all  citizens  between  the  ages  of  17  and 
60  not  belonging  to  any  of  the  other 
forces.  Boys  between  13  and  17  are  com- 
pulsorily  enrolled  in  a  cadet  corps,  wher- 
ever this  is  possible.  During  the  World 
War  136,070  white  and  92,837  natives  en- 
listed from  the  Union.  All  of  these,  with 
the  exception  of  an  infantry  brigade  and 
several  other  white  units,  as  well  as  some 
3,000  officers  of  the  Royal  Air  Force,  were 
used  in  the  operations  in  Africa. 

Agriculture  and  Production. — In  1918 
the  total  acreages  under  cultivation  were 
as  follows:  Cape  Province,  3,152,209;  Na- 
tal, 1,106.618;  Transvaal,  3,012,844;  Or- 
ange Free  State,  2,814,893.  In  the  same 
year  the  tota]  production  of  wheat  in  the 
entire  Union  *was  600,000,000  pounds, 
oats  335,000,000  pounds,  of  maize  l,942r 
000,000  pounds.  Other  important  crops 
were  barley,  rye,  kafir  corn,  peas  and 
beans,  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  onions, 
tobacco,  and  sugar.  The  live-stock  in  1918 
consisted  of  6,852,000  cattle,  781,000 
horses,  84,500  mules,  554,000  donkeys, 
314,000  ostriches,  30,000,000  sheep,  8,000,- 
000  goats,  1,000,000  pigs,  and  9,500,000 


SOUTH    AFRICA 


499 


SOUTH    AFRICA 


poultry.  The  export  of  wool  in  1918 
amounted  to  over  115,634,000  pounds,  of 
mohair  to  over  19,600,000  pounds,  of  hides 
to  over  12,500,000  pounds,  of  skins  to  over 
30,275,000  pounds,  and  of  mealies  to  over 
509,000,000  pounds.  Both  the  production 
of  cotton  and  sugar  is  on  the  increase. 
The  total  extent  of  forest  reserve  areas 
in  1919  was  about  2,092,000  acres.  The 
importance  of  the  dairying  industry  is 
steadily  growing,  and  in  1918  the  pro- 
duction of  butter  amounted  to  about 
20,000,000  pounds,  and  of  cheese  to  about 
6,000,000  pounds.  Irrigation  is  becoming 
of  greater  importance  every  year,  and  in 
1917-18  the  government  expenditure  for 
irrigation  amounted  to  more  than  £500,- 
000. 

Manufactures. — As  a  result  of  the 
World  War  and  the  shortage  of  shipping 
facilities  caused  by  it,  the  local  manufac- 
tures of  the  Union  received  a  great  im- 
petus. Among  the  most  important  indus- 
tries are  the  production  of  leather,  cement, 
beer,  matches,  tobacco,  dynamite,  soap, 
rope,  furniture,  vehicles,  etc.  The  indus- 
trial census  of  1917-18  showed  a  gross 
production  of  £60,828,440  in  5,919  facto- 
ries, with  a  total  capital  of  £53,171,000, 
and  an  average  number  of  employees  of 
134,211,  of  whom  49,908  were  white. 

Mining. — Gold  mining  is  the  chief 
source  of  the  Union's  wealth.  In  1918 
the  total  amount  of  gold  mined  was  18,- 
252,000  fine  oz.,  valued  at  £35,759,000. 
The  total  value  of  diamonds  was  £7,115,- 
000  and  of  coal  £3,225,000.  Copper,  tin, 
lime,  silver,  salt,  and  asbestos  are  other 
important  mineral  products,  and  the  total 
value  of  the  mineral  output  of  the  Union 
in  1918  was  £47,737,738.  In  the  various 
mining  industries  there  were  employed  in 
1918,  295,804  persons,  of  whom  32,820 
were  white. 

Commerce. — The  total  value  of  imports 
and  exports,  exclusive  of  specie,  in  1913, 
the  last  year  previous  to  the  World  War, 
were  respectively  £41,828,841  and  £66,- 
569,364.  In  1918  they  were  respectively 
£49,487,168  and  £32,949,237.  Over  50% 
of  the  imports  of  general  merchandise  in 
1918  came  from  the  United  Kingdom, 
about  14%  from  British  possessions,  or  a 
total  of  over  67%  from  the  British  Em- 
pire. The  United  States  leads  all  the 
foreign  countries  in  imports,  with  a  total 
value  of  £6,771,238,  or  13.8%  of  the  total. 
Japan,  the  Belgian  Congo,  Sweden,  Bra- 
zil, Argentine,  Switzerland,  France  and 
Holland  are  the  other  countries  from 
which  imports  of  considerable  value  are 
made. 

Shipping  and  Communications.  —  In 
1918  the  total  number  of  vessels  entered 
from  overseas  was  1,036,  of  2,989,000 
tons  net,  and  the  total  number  of  coast- 
wise vessels  was  1,780  of  2,541,000  tons 


net.  Upon  the  formation  of  the  Union 
the  former  state  railways  of  the  several 
colonies  were  merged  into  one  system, 
the  South  African  railways,  which  is 
under  the  control  of  the  Union  Govern- 
ment. In  1919  the  total  mileage  was 
9,542,  representing  a  total  capital  ex- 
penditure of  over  £93,000,000.  For  1918- 
19  the  gross  earnings  were  over  £15,- 
000,000,  and  the  net  loss,  after  payment 
of  interest,  £896,267.  At  the  end  of  1918 
there  were  2,623  post-offices,  15,951  miles 
of  telegraph  line,  and  3,214  miles  of  tele- 
phone line. 

Banks. — The  five  banks  of  the  Union 
in  1918  had  a  subscribed  capital  of  £10,- 
515,900,  of  which  over  £5,000,000  was 
paid  in,  and  deposits  of  over  £72,000,000. 
In  the  same  year  the  number  of  deposi- 
tors in  the  government  savings  banks 
was  288,833,  with  deposits  of  over  £7,- 
200,000. 

t  Government. — The  Union  of  South  Af- 
rica was  constituted  under  the  South 
Africa  Act  of  1909,  under  the  terms  of 
which  the  self-governing  colonies  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Natal,  the  Trans- 
vaal, and  the  Orange  River  Colony  were 
united  on  May  31,  1910,  in  a  legislative 
union  under  one  government.  These  col- 
onies became  original  provinces  of  the 
Union.  The  Governor-General,  appointed 
by  the  sovereign,  administers  the  execu- 
tive government  of  the  Union,  together 
with  an  executive  council,  the  members 
of  which  are  chosen  by  the  Governor- 
General.  Various  departments  of  state 
have  been  established,  the  heads  of 
which,  not  exceeding  ten  in  number, 
are  appointed  by  the  Governor-General. 
The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
Parliament  consisting  of  the  king,  a 
Senate,  and  a  House  of  Assembly.  Ses- 
sion of  Parliament  must  take  place  every 
year.  The  senate  consists  of  40  mem- 
bers, each  of  whom  must  be  a  British 
subject  of  European  descent.  The  House 
of  Assembly  consists  of  134  members  and 
is  elected  for  five  years.  The  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  elects  51,  Natal  17,  the 
Transvaal  49,  and  the  Orange  Free 
State  17  members.  In  most  respects 
membership  qualifications  are  similar  to 
those  existing  for  members  of  the  Brit- 
ish Parliament.  The  House  of  Assembly 
originates  money  bills.  It  cannot  pass 
a  bill  for  taxation  or  appropriation  un- 
less it  has  been  recommended  during  the 
session  by  a  message  from  the  Governor- 
General.  The  right  of  the  Senate  to 
amend  money  bills  is  restricted.  Pre- 
toria is  the  seat  of  the  Government  of 
the  Union.  Cape  Town  is  the  seat  of 
the  Legislature.  Each  province  is  ad- 
ministered by  an  administrator,  appoint- 
ed by  the  Governor-General  for  five  years, 
and  a  provincial  council  elected  for  three 


SOUTH    AFRICA 


600 


SOUTH    AFRICA 


years.  Both  the  English  and  Dutch  lan- 
guages are  official.  The  Governor-Gen- 
eral in  1920  was  Viscount  Buxton,  and 
the  Prime  Minister,  General  J.  C.  Smuts. 
The  Union  is  represented  in  London  by 
a  High  Commissioner.  The  administra- 
tion of  justice  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
various  courts,  consisting  of  the  Appel- 
late Division  and  several  provincial  di- 
visions of  the  Supreme  Court  of  South 
Africa. 

History. — The  history  of  the  Union  of 
South  Africa,  properly  speaking,  of 
course,  begins  only  with  the  formation 
of  the  Union  in  1910.  Previous  to  that 
jlate  the  history  is  identical  with  ^  that 
of  its  several  provinces,  where  it  is 
treated  more  extensively. 

The  first  Governor-General  was  Vis- 
count Gladstone,  the  son  of  the  famous 
British  statesman.  The  first  cabinet  of 
the  Union  was  headed  by  General  Botha 
and  included  among  others,  Generals 
Smuts,  Hertzog,  and  Fischer.  In  1912 
a  cabinet  crisis  developed  as  a  result  of 
General  Hertzog's  claims  that  Premier 
Botha  over-emphasized  the  interests  of 
the  British  Empire  as  compared  to  those 
of  the  Union,  and  showed  too  strong 
leanings  toward  imperialism.  The  points  i 
at  issue  were  closely  connected  with  the' 
opposition  to  the  presence  of  large  num- 
bers of  Hindoo  laborers,  and  with  the 
restrictive  legislation  against  these  Hin-^ 
doo  laborers  which  had  been  passed.  The; 
crisis  finally  resulted  in  the  splitting  of 
the  Nationalist  Party  into  two  factions. 
The  matter  eventually  was  settled,  at 
least  partially.  In  1913  an  extensive 
strike  of  the  miners  on  the  Rand  oc- 
curred. In  spite  of  considerable  violence 
and  the  calling  out  of  troops,  the  strike 
was  eventually  settled  by  the  interven- 
tion of  the  government.  A  general  strike 
of  all  miners  attempted  in  1914  failed 
as  a  result  of  the  quick  action  of  the 
government  in  arresting  the  leaders  and 
in  forcibly  deporting  them  to  England. 
The  Union  Parliament  passed  stringent 
Jaws  against  all  forms  of  picketing, 
strikes  on  public  works  were  made  a 
penal  offense,  and  the  Government  was 
given  permission  to  deport  anyone  con- 
victed of  public  violence  or  sedition.  The 
working  classes  of  the  Union  met  this 
legislation  by  organizing  a  Labor  Party, 
in  opposition  to  the  Nationalist  and 
Unionist  parties. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  in 
1914,  both  the  Government  and  the  Par- 
liament of  the  Union  immediately  pledged 
their  unfaltering  loyalty  to  the  Empire. 
The  government,  as  early  as  September, 
1914,  determined  upon  the  invasion  of 
German  Southwest  Africa.  The  details 
of  the  campaigns  of  the  Union  forces  in 
this  former   German  colony,  as  well  as 


those  of  the  later  campaigns  in  German 
East  Africa,  are  given  in  the  article  on 
the  World  War    (q.  v.). 

The  first  campaign  against  German 
pouth  Africa,  however,  was  interrupted 
in  October,  1914,  by  a  revolt  led  by  three 
former  Boer  leaders,  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Maritz,  General  Christian  de  Wet,  and 
General  Christian  F.  Byers.  General 
Botha  immediately  assumed  command 
against  his  three  former  comrades  at 
arms,  and  by  December,  1914,  the  revolt 
had  practically  collapsed  after  General 
de  Wet  had  been  made  a  prisoner  and 
General  Byers  had  been  killed.  Lieuten- 
ant-Colonel Maritz  had  been  forced  to 
flee  into  German  territory.  An  internal 
revolt  under  the  leadership  of  General 
Hertzog  broke  out  in  February,  1915, 
but  was  quickly  suppressed  by  the  arrest 
of  most  of  the  leaders.  All  these  were 
tried  and  sentenced  to  fines  and  terms  of 
imprisonment  of  varying  degrees. 

In  1915  the  Union  sent  an  expedition- 
ary force  to  the  western  front.  Anti- 
German  feeling  throughout  the  Union 
was  intense,  and  serious  demonstrations 
occurred,  especially  in  1916,  in  many 
of  the  larger  cities.  In  August,  1915, 
Parliament  was  dissolved.  The  new  Par- 
liament elected  in  October  contained  a 
majority  for  the  Government  indicating 
strong  popular  support  of  General  Bo- 
tha's policies.  Soon  after  the  meeting  of 
Parliament,  General  de  Wet  and  many 
of  his  followers,  all  of  whom  had  been 
convicted  of  high  treason,  were  pardoned. 
Parliament  passed  various  important 
bills  providing  for  the  reorganization  oi 
higher  education  and  for  the  unifying 
of  the  laws  of  the  separate  provinces.  A 
"Trading  with  the  Enemy  Act"  was  also 
passed.  In  January,  1917,  General 
Smuts,  then  in  command  of  the  Union 
forces  operating  in  German  East  Africa, 
was  sent  to  Europe  as  the  representa- 
tive of  the  Union  Government  at  the 
Imperial  War  Conference  in  London. 
Although  the  Nationalists  continued  their 
opposition  to  the  government  and  to  its 
principle  of  active  participation  in  the 
war,  this  opposition  did  not  reflect  truly 
the  popular  attitude,  and  the  Botha  gov- 
ernment was  not  only  able  to  maintain 
itself,  but  even  to  increase  its  majority 
in  Parliament.  Late  in  1917,  a  slight 
rapprochement  between  the  Unionists 
and  Nationalists  took  place. 

At  the  Peace  Conference  the  Union 
was  represented  by  General  Botha  and 
General  Smuts,  both  of  whom  took  an 
active  and  influential  part  in  the  delib- 
erations of  the  Conference.  In  May, 
1919,  the  Supreme  Council  awarded  the 
mandate  over  German  Southwest  Africa 
to  the  Union  of  South  Africa.  At  the 
time  the  Peace  Treaty  came  up  for  sig- 


I  *'«,.  ,' "...      «...    r,       "iwV>,      ,♦     >c?     «*#>•«    COLON,*   T£RI 


40'  M  35"  N 


SOUTH  AFRICAN  WAR 


501 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA 


nature,  General  Smuts  made  a  strong 
protest  against  some  of  its  terms  and 
announced  that  he  signed  the  Peace 
Treaty  only  under  protest.  General  Bo- 
tha returned  home  in  July,  1919,  and 
died  suddenly  at  Pretoria  on  Aug.  28, 
1919.  He  was  succeeded  as  Premier  by 
General  Smuts.  As  compared  with  most 
of  the  other  countries  which  had  been 
involved  in  the  World  War,  the  Union 
suffered,  during  1919  and  1920,  compar- 
atively few  of  the  difficulties  which  the 
return  to  peace  conditions  brought  about 
elsewhere.  Business  was  in  a  prosper- 
ous condition  and  the  far-sighted  policies 
of  the  government  in  respect  to  the  re- 
establishment  of  ex-soldiers  and  to  the 
prevention  of  unemployment,  met  the 
issues  at  stake  successfully. 

SOUTH  AFRICAN  WAR.  See  BOER 
War. 

SOUTH  AMBOY,  a  city  of  New  Jer- 
sey, in  Middlesex  co.  It  is  on  the  Rari- 
tan  river  and  bay,  directly  opposite 
Perth  Amboy,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania, 
the  Central  of  New  Jersey,  and  the  Rari- 
tan  River  railroads.  It  is  an  important 
manufacturing  city  and  has  pottery, 
terra  cotta,  underwear,  cigars,  and  brick 
manufactures.  Pop.  (1910)  7,007; 
(1920)    7,897. 

SOUTH  AMERICA.     See  America. 

SOUTHAMPTON,  a  borough  and  sea- 
port town  of  England,  in  the  county  of 
Hants,  on  a  peninsula  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Itchen,  near  the  head  of  Southamp- 
ton Water,  18  miles  N.  W.  of  Ports- 
mouth, and  79  miles  S.  W.  of  London. 
It  is  built  on  rising  ground,  and  consists 
of  an  old  and  a  new  town,  the  former 
at  one  time  surrounded  by  walls  flanked 
with  towers,  of  which  portions  still  re- 
main; and  entered  by  several  gates,  of 
which  three,  still  standing,  bear  the 
names  of  West  Gate,  South  Gate,  and 
Bar  Gate.  The  last,  a  remarkable  struc- 
ture, and  large  enough  to  contain  the 
Gildhall  in  the  upper  part  of  it,  is 
now,  in  consequence  of  the  growth  of  the 
town,  nearly  in  its  center,  and  being 
placed  across  the  principal  street,  di- 
vides it  into  two  parts,  the  part  to  the 
N.  being  named  Above-bar,  and  to  the 
S.  Below-bar  or  High  street.  The  streets 
in  the  older  quarters  are  very  irregular, 
while  those  in  the  more  modern  portion 
present  many  fine  ranges  of  buildings. 
St.  Michael's,  the  oldest  of  the  churches, 
situated  in  the  W.  part  of  the  town,  is 
a  spacious  Norman  structure  with  many 
interesting  features.  Other  buildings  of 
interest  are  the  Southampton  College, 
the  Hartley  Institution,  public  library, 
custom  house,  audit  house,  the  theater, 
philharmonic     rooms,     assembly     rooms, 


ordnance  map  office,  baths,  etc.  About 
6  miles  from  Southampton,  and  3  miles 
from  Netley  Abbey,  is  the  Victoria  Hos- 
pital for  sick  soldiers.  The  first  tidal 
dock  was  opened  for  business  in  1842. 
There  is  ample  dock  accommodation,  and 
Southampton  is  one  of  the  most  important 
ports  in  the  kingdom.  The  manufac- 
tures are  chiefly  confined  to  brewing, 
coach  building,  iron  casting,  sugar  re- 
fining, and  shipbuilding.  Southampton 
claims  to  be  a  borough  by  prescription, 
but  its  earliest  known  charter  was 
granted  by  Henry  II.  Pop.  (1919), 
131,289. 

SOUTHAMPTON,  THOMAS  WRIO- 
THESLEY, 1ST  EARL  OF;  born  about 
1490,  and  educated  at  Cambridge,  be- 
came lord-chancellor  of  Henry  VIII.  in 
1544.  He  was  one  of  the  executors  of 
the  will  of  Henry,  and  was  created  Earl 
of  Southampton  by  Edward  VI.  Died 
in  1549,  Henry  Wriothesley,  3d  earl, 
grandson  of  the  preceding;  born  in  1573; 
was  a  patron  of  Shakespeare,  who  dedi- 
cated to  him  the  poems  of  "Venus  and 
Adonis,"  and  the  "Rape  of  Lucrece." 
He  was  a  friend  of  the  Earl  of  Essex, 
and  was  accused  of  complicity  in  the 
latter's  treasonable  designs.  He  was 
convicted  and  sentenced  to  death  and 
attainder;  but  the  death  sentence  was 
remitted  by  Elizabeth,  and  the  attainder 
was  removed  by  Parliament  after  the 
accession  of  James.  He  was  a  firm  sup- 
porter of  liberty,  and  in  1621  was  com- 
mitted to  close  custody  by  the  king,  but 
was  released  through  the  influence  of 
Buckingham.  He  aided  the  Dutch  in 
their  struggle  against  Spain,  and  died 
in  Bergen-op-Zoom  in  1624.  Thomas 
Wriothesley,  4th  earl,  born  in  1607,  was 
at  first  a  supporter  of  the  Commons  in 
resisting  the  encroachments  of  Charles 
I.,  but  with  Strafford  went  over  to  the 
royal  side  and  was  made  a  privy  coun- 
cillor. Being  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
moderate  party  he  lived  unmolested  in 
England  during  the  Commonwealth. 
Upon  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  he 
was  made  lord  high  treasurer.  He  died 
in  1667. 

SOUTHAMPTON  WATER,  an  inlet 
of  the  sea,  in  the  S.  of  England,  about 
11  miles  in  length,  running  from  the 
Solent  into  Hampshire  in  a  N.  W.  direc- 
tion. It  receives  the  rivers  Anton,  Itch- 
en,  and  Hamble.  The  tidewater  being 
intercepted  each  way  by  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  it  has  four  tides  in  the  24  hours. 
The  port  of  Southampton  is  situated 
near  its  head. 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA,  a  state  of  the 
Commonwealth  of  Australia,  situated  be- 
tween 26°  and  37°  S.  lat.,  and  129°  and 


SOUTH   AUSTRALIA 


502 


SOUTH    BEND 


141°  E.  long.  Area,  380,070  square 
miles.  Population  (1920)  472,432.  The 
eastern  portion  of  the  state  is  divided 
longitudinally  by  the  Flinders  Range, 
which  extends  from  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Vincent  to  the  Lakes 
Torrens  and  Eyre.  The  western  portion 
is  partly  desert  which  can  never  be 
brought  into  cultivation.  The  northern 
portion  of  the  state,  between  Lake  Eyre 
and  26°  S.  lat.,  is  also  unpromising  in 
comparison  with  the  fertile  land  that 
surrounds  the  hill  country  of  the  E. 
Except  for  the  Murray,  which  flows 
for  some  250  miles  through  the  south- 
eastern corner  into  the  Southern  Ocean, 
there  are  no  rivers  of  importance  in 
South  Australia.  The  mean  annual  tem- 
perature at  Adelaide  is  63°,  the  winter 
temperature  (July- August)  averaging 
53°,  and  the  summer  (November-March) 
71°.  During  the  summer  months  the 
maximum  temperature  at  times  exceeds 
100°,  but  owing  to  the  purity  and  dry- 
ness of  the  atmosphere  the  inconvenience 
is  comparatively  slight.  The  average 
annual  rainfall  at  Adelaide  is  21.01 
inches. 

South  Australia  became  a  British 
province  in  1836,  and  in  1851  a  par- 
tially elected  Legislative  Council  was 
astablished.  The  present  constitution 
originated  in  1856,  and  vests  the  exec- 
utive authority  in  a  Governor  appointed 
by  the  Crown,  and  in  a  Council  of  six 
ministers,  and  a  Lieutenant-Governor. 
The  state  is  represented  in  London  by 
an  Agent-General.  Parliament  consists 
of  a  Legislative  Council  of  20  members, 
elected  for  six  years,  and  a  House  of 
Assembly  of  46  members,  elected  for 
three  years.  Election  to  the  House  is 
by  ballot  with  universal  adult  suffrage 
for  all  British  subjects,  male  and  (since 
1899)  female.  Electors  to  the  Legis- 
lative Council  must  meet  a  small  prop- 
erty  qualification. 

The  administration  of  law  and  justice 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  Supreme  Court, 
courts  of  vice-admiralty  and  insolvency, 
local  civil  courts,  and  police  courts. 

Public  education  is  compulsory,  secu- 
lar, and  free,  and  is  provided  by  the 
state  under  the  direction  of  a  responsible 
minister.  In  1918  there  were  913 
schools,  of  which  43  were  high  schools, 
with  73,502  pupils,  and  about  170  pri- 
vate schools  with  about  14,000  pupils. 
There  is  also  a  training  college  for 
teachers,  a  state  school  of  mines  and 
industries,  and  an  endowed  university 
at  Adelaide,  founded  in  1874,  with  about 
400  undergraduates  and  about  650  other 
students.  The  state  also  supports  or 
assists  the  public  library,  museum,  art 
gallery,  and  local  institutions.  The  ap- 
proximate number  of  churches  and  chap- 


els of  the  state  in  1920  was  1,750.  The 
state  does  not  give  any  financial  aid  for 
religious  purposes.  The  Church  of  Eng- 
land and  the  Methodists  have  the  largest 
membership,  followed  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  the  Lutherans,  Presby- 
terians, Baptists,  and  Congregationalists. 

The  revenue  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1919,  was  £5,798,314,  the  expenditure 
£5,876,807,  and  the  public  debt  £42,650,- 
206. 

About  5,000,000  acres  are  under  culti- 
vation, the  chief  crops  being  wheat,  hay, 
oats,  and  barley.  Fruits,  including  or- 
anges, lemons,  almonds  and  olives,  are 
grown  extensively.  About  30,000  acres 
are  in  the  form  of  vineyards,  and  the 
production  of  currants  and  raisins  is  of 
considerable  importance.  In  1918  there 
were  over  6,000,000  sheep,  about  315,000 
cattle,  about  265,000  horses,  and  about 
110,000  pigs. 

The  most  important  mineral  is  cop- 
per, the  production  of  which  since  the 
foundation  of  the  state,  is  estimated  at 
nearly  £32,000,000.  There  are  also  gold, 
silver,  lead,  manganese,  iron,  coal,  etc., 
and  the  total  mineral  production  in  1918 
was  valued  at  £1,500,000. 

In  1918  there  were  1,285  factories, 
with  26,634  employees,  and  a  production 
of  almost  £20,000,000.  The  export  of  the 
state  is  important,  averaging  about  £10,- 
000,000  annually,  and  consisting  chiefly 
of  wheat,  flour,  wool,  meats,  skins  and 
hides,  butter,  tallow,  leather,  etc.  The 
imports  in  1918-1919  were  valued  at  al- 
most £6,500,000.  In  1919  there  were 
3,400  miles  of  railway,  114  miles  of  elec- 
tric tramways,  and  44,000  miles  of  roads. 
There  were  also  813  post-offices. 

Besides  the  capital,  Adelaide  (q.  v.), 
with  a  population  of  (1918)  235,751, 
there  is  only  one  other  town  of  over 
10,000  inhabitants,  Port  Pirie  (13,000). 
Other  towns  are  Moonta,  Kadina,  Wal- 
laroo, Port  Augusta,  Gawler,  and  Mt. 
Gambier.  See  Australia:  Australian 
Commonwealth. 

SOUTH  BEND,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  St.  Joseph  co.,  Ind. ;  on  the  St.  Joseph 
river,  and  on  the  Vandalia,  the  Michigan 
Central,  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 
Southern,  Grand  Trunk,  the  Chicago,  In- 
diana and  Southern  and  the  New  Jersey, 
Indiana  and  Illinois  railroads;  88  miles 
E.  of  Chicago.  It  contains  the  Univer- 
sity of  Notre  Dame,  St.  Mary's  and  St. 
Joseph's  Academies  (R.  C),  a  public 
library,  high  school,  Protestant  and  Ro- 
man Catholic  hospitals,  street  railroad 
and  electric  light  plants,  waterworks, 
National  and  savings  banks,  and  daily, 
weekly,  and  monthly  periodicals.  South 
Bend  is  particularly  noted  for  the  man- 
ufacture   of    sewing    machines,    agricul- 


SOUTH  BETHLEHEM 


503 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


tural  implements,  carriages,  and  wagons. 
Besides  these  it  has  manufactories  of 
furniture,  varnish,  brick,  woolen  goods, 
chinaware,  toys,  boilers,  concrete  ma- 
chinery, patent  medicines,  pulp,  paper, 
etc.  The  city  is  built  on  historic  ground. 
In  1679  La  Salle  landed  here  during  his 
exploration  of  the  Mississippi.  At  that 
date  the  place  was  inhabited  by  the 
Miami  Indians  and  later  by  the  Potta- 
watomies.  Pop.  (1910)  53,684;  (1920) 
70,983. 

SOUTH  BETHLEHEM,  now  joined  to 
Bethlehem,  formerly  a  borough  in  North- 
ampton co.,  Pa.;  on  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading,  the  Lehigh  Valley,  and  the  Cen- 
tral of  New  Jersey  railroads;  57  miles 
N.  W.  of  Philadelphia.  It  contains  Le- 
high University,  Moravian  College  for 
Women,  St.  Luke's  Hospital,  water- 
works, street  railroad  and  electric  lights, 
National  and  private  banks,  and  several 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  Here  are 
the  Bethlehem  Steel  Works  and  manu- 
factories of  brass  goods,  machinery,  coke, 
zinc,  brick,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  19,973; 
(1920)    23,522. 

SOUTHBRIDGE,  a  town  in  Worcester 
co.,  Mass.;  on  the  Quinebaug  river,  and 
on  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hart- 
ford railroad;  20  miles  S.  W.  of  Worces- 
ter. It  comprises  the  villages  of  South- 
bridge,  Globe,  and  Sandersdale,  and  con- 
tains public  and  parochial  schools,  a 
public  library,  National  bank,  and  sev- 
eral weekly  newspapers.  It  has  manu- 
factories of  boots  and  shoes,  optical 
goods,  cutlery,  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
etc.     Pop.   (1910)   12,592;    (1920)   14,245. 

SOUTH  BRITAIN,  England  and 
Wales,  as  distinguished  from  Scotland, 
popularly  called  North  Britain. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA,  a  State  in  the 
South  Atlantic  Division  of  the  North 
American  Union ;  bounded  by  North  Caro- 
lina, Tennessee,  Georgia,  and  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean;  one  of  the  original  13  States; 
number  of  counties,  40;  capital,  Colum- 
bia; area,  30,170  square  miles;  popula- 
tion   (1910)    1,515,400;    (1920)    1,683,724. 

Topography. — The  State  has  a  sea- 
board of  210  miles,  and  running  W.  from 
this  is  a  low,  sandy,  and  in  places, 
marshy  plain,  from  80  to  100  miles  wide. 
Beyond  the  plain  is  what  is  known  as 
the  middle  country,  consisting  of  low 
sand  hills.  A  series  of  terraces  rises  W. 
of  this  and  terminates  in  the  Blue  Ridge 
Mountains,  passing  through  the  N.  W.  of 
the  State.  The  highest  elevation  in 
South  Carolina  is  Table  Mountain,  4,000 
feet,  on  the  Tennessee  border.  The  prin- 
cipal river,  the  Santee,  is  150  miles  long, 
and  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the 
Wateree  and  Congaree.    This  latter  river 


is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Broad  and 
Saluda  rivers.  Other  important  rivers 
are  Cooper  and  Ashley,  emptying  into 
Charleston  harbor;  the  Edisto  and  Cam- 
babee  into  St.  Helena  Sound;  the  Great 
Pedee,  Little  Pedee,  Waccamaw,  and 
Black,  emptying  into  Wingah  Bay; 
and  the  Oosawhatchie  into  Port  Royal 
Harbor. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy . — A  geological 
break  passing  through  the  center  of  the 
State  divides  it  into  two  distinct  forma- 
tions. The  "up  country"  in  the  W.  is  of 
Primary  origin,  and  the  "low  country" 
in  the  E.  is  of  Tertiary,  with  occasional 
outcroppings  of  the  Cretaceous.  The 
mountain  region  in  the  N.  W.  has  gneiss 
as  its  characteristic  rock,  with  granite, 
hornblende,  slates,  limestones  and  clay. 
The  chief  mineral  products  are  phos- 
phate rock,  granite,  and  clay  products. 
A  small  amount  of  gold  is  produced,  as 
well  as  some  silver,  iron  ore  and  lime. 
The  total  value  of  the  mineral  output  is 
about   $1,500,000   annually. 

Agriculture. — The  soil  is,  as  a  rule, 
either  loam  or  clay,  rich  in  phosphate, 
lime,  and  potash.  Cotton,  maize,  wheat, 
rice,  and  sweet  potatoes  are  the  chief 
staples.  The  magnolia  and  palmetto 
grow  abundantly  along  the  coast,  pine 
and  cypress  characterize  the  low  coun- 
try, and  hardwoods  the  highlands.  The 
acreage,  production,  and  value  of  the 
principal  crops  in  1919  was  as  follows: 
corn,  2,340,000  acres,  production  37,440,- 
000  bushels,  value  $73,757,000;  oats, 
510,000  acres,  production  11,730,000 
bushels,  value  $12,903,000;  wheat,  204,- 
000  acres,  production  1,836,000  bushels, 
value  $4,737,000;  tobacco,  135,000  acres, 
production  81,000,000  pounds,  value  $18,- 
468,000;  hay,  275,000  acres,  production 
358,000  tons,  value  $11,098,000;  pea- 
nuts, 13,000  acres,  production  585,000 
bushels,  value  $1,708,000;  potatoes,  27,- 
000  acres,  production  2,295,000  bushels, 
value  $4,590,000;  sweet  potatoes,  84,000 
acres,  production  7,560,000  bushels,  value 
$11,189,000;  cotton,  2,881,000  acres,  pro- 
duction 1,475,000  bales,  value  $263,288,- 
000. 

Manufactures. — In  1914  there  were 
1,885  manufacturing  establishments  in 
the  State.  These  gave  employment  to 
71,914  wage-earners.  The  capital  invest- 
ed was  $203,211,000,  the  amount  paid  in 
wages  was  $24,173,000,  the  value  of  the 
materials  used  $91,009,000,  and  the  value 
of  the  finished  product  $138,891,000. 
The  principal  industries  were  cotton 
manufactures,  lumber  and  timber  prod- 
ucts, fertilizers,  cottonseed  oil  and  cake, 
flour  and  grist  mill  products,  planing 
mill  products,  rice  cleaning  and  polish- 
ing, turpentine  and  rosin,  railroad  cars, 
cotton  ginning,  and  brick  and  tile. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


604 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


Banking. — On  Oct.  31,  1919,  there  were 
reported  79  National  banks  in  operation, 
having  $9,605,000  in  capital;  $7,008,000 
in  outstanding  circulation;  and  $27,599,- 
000  in  United  States  bonds.  There  were 
also  342  State  banks,  with  $13,286,000 
capital,  and  $6,062,000  surplus. 

Commerce. — The  imports  of  merchan- 
dise at  the  port  of  Charleston  in  the 
fiscal  year  1920  aggregated  in  value  $13,- 
941,871;  and  the  exports  $32,474,625. 

Education. — School  attendance  in  the 
State  is  not  compulsory,  but  the  employ- 
ment of  illiterate  children  in  factories  or 
mines  is  restricted.  Separate  schools  are 
maintained  for  white  and  colored  children. 
In  1918  there  were  194,687  white  and 
199,780  colored  children  enrolled  in  the 
schools.  There  were  2,464  public  schools 
for  white  children  and  2,408  schools  for 
negro  children.  There  were  5,620  white 
teachers  and  3,013  negro  teachers.  The 
State  appropriated  in  that  year  for 
schools  $497,500.  In  1909  there  was  en- 
acted an  elaborate  general  school  law. 
The  colleges  include  Claflin  College,  at 
Orangeburg;  Woffard  College,  at  Spar- 
tanburg; Furman  University,  at  Green- 
ville; South  Carolina  College,  at  Colum- 
bia; and  Newberry  College,  at  Newberry. 

Churches. — The  strongest  denomina- 
tions in  the  State  are  the  African  Metho- 
dist; Regular  Baptist,  Colored;  Regular 
Baptist,  South;  Methodist  Episcopal, 
South;  Methodist  Episcopal;  Presby- 
terian, South;  Lutheran,  United  Synod; 
Protestant  Episcopal ;  Presbyterian, 
North;  Roman  Catholic;  Disciples  of 
Christ;  Associate  Presbyterian;  and 
Methodist  Protestant. 

Railroads. — The  total  length  of  rail- 
roads within  the  State  on  Jan.  1,  1919, 
was  3,824  miles. 

Finances. — The  total  receipts  for  the 
year  ending  Dec.  31,  1919,  were  $7,195,- 
109,  and  the  expenditures  amounted  to 
$6,913,500.  The  public  debt  of  the  State 
on  Dec.  31,  1919,  was  $5,577,804. 

Charities  and  Corrections. — The  State 
maintains  a  number  of  charitable  institu- 
tions, including  a  hospital  for  the  insane, 
an  asylum  for  the  deaf,  dumb  and  blind, 
9  orphanages,  10  hospitals,  and  10  homes 
for  adults  and  children,  which  are  main- 
tained chiefly  by  private  charity. 

State  Government. — The  governor  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  two  years.  Legisla- 
tive sessions  are  held  annually  beginning 
on  the  second  Tuesday  in  January,  and 
are  limited  in  time  to  40  dayseach.  The 
Legislature  has  44  members  in  the  Sen- 
ate and  124  in  the  House.  There  are  7 
Representatives  in  Congress. 

History. — The  first  settlement  in  South 
Carolina  was  attempted  in  1562  by  a 
colony  of  French  Protestant  exiles,  who 
named    it    Carolina    in    honor    of    their 


monarch,  Charles  IX.,  King  of  France. 
In  1663,  Charles  II.,  King  of  England, 
granted  a  charter  to  a  company  of  Eng- 
lish nobles,  and  under  their  auspices  the 
first  successful  settlement  was  made  at 
Port  Royal,  previously  founded  by  the 
French.  In  1680  the  foundation  of 
Charleston  was  laid.  During  the  Revo- 
lution important  battles  occurred  at 
Charleston,  Fort  Moultrie,  Cowpens,  Cam- 
den, King's  Mountain,  and  Eutaw  Springs. 
The  State  constitution  was  adopted  in 
1776,  and  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  was  ratified  in  1788.  South  Caro- 
lina was  the  first  State  to  secede  from 
the  Union,  on  Dec.  20,  1860.  The  first 
hostile  act  in  the  Civil  War  was  the 
bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter,  in  April, 
1861.  During  the  war  the  State  suffered 
greatly,  her  harbors  were  blockaded,  and 
much  property  was  destroyed  by  the  Fed- 
eral soldiers  on  the  great  march  under 
General  Sherman.  In  1865  the  ordinance 
of  secession  was  repealed  and  slavery 
abolished.  A  new  constitution,  establish- 
ing perfect  equality  between  the  white 
and  the  colored  races,  was  voted  inl868; 
and  in  the  same  year  the  ratification  of 
the  15th  Amendment  to  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States  being  carried  by  a 
vote  of  18  to  1  in  the  Senate  and  88  to 
3  in  the  House,  the  State  was  readmitted 
to  representation  in  Congress. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA,  UNIVERSITY 
OF,  a  coeducational  non-sectarian  insti- 
tution in  Columbia,  S.  C;  founded  in 
1801;  reported  at  the  close  of  1919;  Pro- 
fessors and  instructors,  37;  students,  508; 
president,  W.  S.  Carrell,  LL.D. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA,  a  State  in  the 
North  Central  Division  of  the  North 
American  Union;  bounded  by  North  Da- 
kota, Minnesota,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Wyo- 
ming, and  Montana;  admitted  to  the 
Union,  Nov.  2,  1889;  number  of  counties, 
78;  capital,  Pierre;  area,  76,850  square 
miles;  pop.  (1910)  583,888;  (1920)  636,- 
547. 

Topography. — The  surface  of  the  E. 
portion  of  the  State  is  a  level  plain,  in- 
cluding the  great  plateau  of  the  Missouri 
and  a  similar  plateau  E.  of  the  James 
river.  W.  of  the  Missouri  river  the  sur- 
face is  broken,  and  contains  the  Black 
Hills,  averaging  6,000  feet  in  height.  This 
region  covers  an  area  of  3,200  square 
miles,  and  reaches  its  greatest  altitude 
in  Harney's  Peak,  7,368  feet.  The  chief 
rivers  in  the  E.  section  of  the  State  are 
the  Dakota  or  James,  entering  from 
North  Dakota,  and  the  Big  Sioux,  forming 
part  of  the  E.  boundary;  both  emptying 
into  the  Missouri  river.  W.  of  the  Mis- 
souri and  also  emptying  into  it  are  the 
White,    Cheyenne,    Grand,    and     Moreau. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


505 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


There  are  but  few  large  lakes,  Big  Stone 
and  Traverse^  forming  part  of  the  N.  E. 
boundary,  being  the  only  ones  of  any 
size. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — The  Black 
Hills,  of  Archaean  formation,  form  the 
center  of  a  system  of  concentric  circles 
of  geological  ages.  The  Palaeozoic  sur- 
rounds the  Archaean  core,  and  consists  of 
beds  of  Potsdam  sand  and  Trenton  lime. 
Around  this  is  a  circle  of  Jurassic  and 
Triassic  formations.  The  Miocene  period 
covers  the  region  W.  of  the  Missouri  and 
S.  of  the  Bad  river.  The  Black  Hills  con- 
tain some  of  the  most  valuable  mineral 
deposits  in  the  United  States.  Gold  is 
the  most  important  mineral  production 
in  the  State.  It  comes  almost  entirely 
from  the  Black  Hills.  The  production 
in  1919  was  254,820  ounces,  valued  at 
$5,267,600.  Other  mineral  products  in- 
clude copper,  lead,  stone,  and  clay 
products. 

Soil  and  Agriculture. — The  soil  is  a 
light  but  rich  loam  overlying  a  fertile 
clay  sub-soil,  and  is  especially  adapted 
to  raising  cereals.  Wild  fruits  grow  in 
great  abundance,  rich  grass  covers  the 
prairies  in  the  E.  and  Black  Hills  and 
Bad  Lands  afford  excellent  advantages 
for  dairy  farming  and  stock  raising. 
The  acreage,  pi  eduction,  and  value  of  the 
principal  crops  in  1919  was  as  follows: 
corn,  3,200,000  acres,  production  91,200,- 
000  bushels,  value  $108,528,000;  oats, 
1,850,000  acres,  production,  53,650,000 
bushels,  value  $33,800,000;  barley,  875,- 
000  acres,  production,  19,250,000  bushels, 
value  $22,138,000;  wheat,  3,725,000  acres, 
production  30,175,000  bushels,  value  $72,- 
420,000;  rye,  500,000  acres,  production 
6,500,000  bushels,  value  $8,125,000;  hay, 
890,000  acres,  production  1,558,000  tons, 
value  $21,033,000;  potatoes,  90,000  acres, 
production  4,500,000  bushels,  value  $8,- 
550,000. 

Manufactures. — There  were  in  1914 
898  manufacturing  establishments  in  the 
State,  giving  employment  to  3,788  wage 
earners.  The  capital  invested  was  $15,- 
060,000,  the  amount  paid  in  wages  $2,628,- 
000,  the  value  of  the  materials  used 
$17,080,000,  and  the  value  of  the  finished 
product  $24,139,000. 

Banking. — On  Oct.  31,  1919,  there  were 
reported  126  National  banks  in  operation, 
having  $5,675,000  in  capital;  $4,109,000 
rn  outstanding  circulation;  and  $13,496,- 
000  in  United  States  bonds.  There  were 
also  519  State  banks,  with  $10,038,000 
capital. 

Education.— -Both  elementary  and  sec- 
ondary education  are  free  to  all  persons 
from  6  to  21  years  of  age.  Attendance 
between  the  ages  of  8  and  16  at  a  public 
day  school  is  compulsory.  There  were 
in  1918,  88,848  pupils  enrolled  in  5,296 


elementary  schools.  The  teachers  num- 
bered 5,493.  There  were  326  secondary 
schools,  with  1,947  teachers  and  49,637 
pupils.  The  colleges  include  the  Univer- 
sity of  South  Dakota,  at  Vermilion; 
Agricultural  College  at  Brookings;  Au- 
gustana  College,  at  Canton;  Dakota  Uni- 
versity, at  Mitchell;  Yankton  College,  at 
Yankton;  Huron  College,  at  Huron;  Red- 
field  College,  at  Redfield;  and  Baptist 
College,  at  Sioux  Falls. 
<  Churches. — The  strongest  denomina- 
tions in  the  State  are  the  Roman  Catholic ; 
Lutheran,  Independent  Synod;  Methodist 
Episcopal ;  Congregational ;  Lutheran, 
General  Synod;  Presbyterian;  Regular 
Baptist;  Lutheran,  Synodical  Conference; 
Protestant  Episcopal;  Reformed;  and 
Evangelical  Association. 

Railroads. — The  total  length  of  rail- 
roads within  the  State  on  Jan.  1,  1920, 
was  4,300  miles. 

Finances- — There  was  a  balance  in  the 
treasury  on  July  1,  1918,  of  $3,144,924. 
The  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year  1919 
amounted  to  $7,937,044,  and  the  disburse- 
ments to  $7,441,146.  The  State  has  no 
bonded  debt.  The  assessed  value  of  real 
and  personal  property  in  1919  was 
$1,846,456,090. 

Charities  and  Corrections. — The  chari- 
table and  correctional  institutions  under 
the  control  of  the  State  include  the  Blind 
Asylum  at  Gary,  School  for  Deaf  Mutes 
at  Sioux  Falls,  Penitentiary  at  Sioux 
Falls,  Training  School  at  Plankinton, 
Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Yankton,  Sol- 
diers' Home  at  Hot  Springs,  School  for 
Feeble  Minded  at  Redfield,  and  Sanita- 
rium for  Tuberculosis  at  Custer.  These 
institutions  are  under  the  control  of  the 
State  Board  of  Charities  and  Corrections. 

State  Government. — The  governor  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  two  years.  Legis- 
lative sessions  are  held  biennially  in  odd 
years,  beginning  on  the  Tuesday  after 
the  first  Monday  in  January,  and  are 
limited  in  time  to  60  days  each.  The 
Legislature  has  45  members  in  the  Sen- 
ate and  135  in  the  House.  There  are 
3  Representatives  in  Congress. 

History. — The  country  now  known  as 
the  Dakotas  was  acquired  by  the  United 
States  as  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase. It  was  partly  explored  by  Lewis 
and  Clark  in  1804  and  1806,  by  Fre- 
mont in  1839,  and  by  Warner  in  1855. 
The  Territory  of  Dakota  was  created  in 
1861,  and  in  1868  Wyoming  Territory 
was  formed  from  part  of  its  area.  A 
scientific  expedition,  escorted  by  troops 
under  General  Custer,  entered  the  Black 
Hills  in  1874,  and  gave  the  first  authen- 
tic information  about  the  mineral  wealth 
of  that  region.  In  1883  a  convention  to 
frame  a  State  constitution  for  Dakota 
met  at  Sioux  Falls.     Dissensions  between 


SOUTH  DAKOTA  UNIVERSITY      506 


SOUTH  ISLAND 


the  people  of  the  two  sections  of  the  Ter- 
ritory followed,  and  in  1888  it  was  de- 
cided to  divide  the  territorial  area  into 
two  States,  under  the  names  of  North  and 
South  Dakota.  The  bill  for  their  admis- 
sion passed  Congress  and  was  signed  by 
the  President,  Feb.  22,  1889.  In  1890- 
1891  the  "Indian  Messiah"  excitement  led 
to  troubles  with  the  Sioux  Indians,  and 
in  1892  the  Yankton  Sioux  ceded  to  the 
government  a  large  part  of  their  reserva- 
tion between  the  Missouri  and  Choteau 
rivers. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA,  UNIVERSITY  OE, 
a  coeducational  non-sectarian  institution 
in  Vermilion,  S.  D.,  founded  in  1883 ; 
reported  at  the  close  of  1919:  Professors 
and  instructors,  64;  students,  825;  presi- 
dent, R.  L.  Slagel,  Ph.D. 

SOUTHEND,  an  English  watering- 
place,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames  estu- 
ary; 42  miles  E.  of  London.  It  has  good 
level  sands,  a  public  hall,  and  piers, 
pleasure  grounds,  etc.  It  was  bombarded 
by  the  Germans  during  the  World  War. 
Pop.  about  75,000. 

SOUTHERN  ALPS,  the  name  given  to 
the  Central  and  loftiest  portion  of  the 
great  dividing  range  of  the  S.  Island  of 
New  Zealand.  Many  of  the  peaks  are 
perpetually  snow-capped,  the  highest 
being  Mount  Cook  (13,200  feet).  The 
glaciers  of  the  southern  Alps  rival  those 
of  the  Swiss  Alps  in  magnitude,  and  on 
the  W.  side  extend  to  within  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  of  the  sea-level. 

SOUTHERN  BAPTISTS,  the  name 
applied  to  that  portion  of  the  Baptist 
denomination  in  the  southern  half  of  the 
United  States.  Its  communicants  num- 
ber more  than  half  of  the  total  number 
in  the  denomination.  See  Baptists.  The 
Southern  Baptists'  Convention  has  charge 
of  the  various  activities  of  the  body. 
These  include  mission  boards,  young 
people's  societies,  and  Sunday  schools. 
The  convention  supports  about  1,400  mis- 
sionaries. 

SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA,  UNI- 
VERSITY OF,  a  coeducational  institu- 
tion in  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  founded  in  1880 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church;  reported  at  the  close  of 
1919:  Professors  and  instructors,  314; 
students,  4,375;  president,  George  F. 
Bonard,  A.M.,  D.D. 

SOUTHERN  CROSS,  a  constellation 
of  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  composed  of 
four  stars,  one  of  which  is  of  the  first, 
and  two  of  the  second  magnitude;  they 
form  an  elongated  figure,  lying  parallel 
to  the  horizon,  nearly  at  the  height  of 
the  pole.  The  largest  of  the  four  stars 
is  the  pole  star  of  the  S. 


SOUTHEY,  ROBERT,  an  English 
poet;  born  in  Bristol,  England,  Aug.  12, 
1774.  Shortly  after  leaving  Oxford  he 
formed  the  acquaintance  of  Coleridge,  the 
two  friends  marrying  at  the  same  time 
two  sisters.  After  a  short  visit  to  Portu- 
gal, in  1796,  he  entered  as  a  student  of 
law  at  Gray's  Inn.  In  1801  he  devoted 
himself  to  literature,  and  soon  after  took 
up  his  residence  at  Keswick,  in  Cumber* 
land,  where  the  remainder  of  his  life  was 
passed,  he  being  thenceforth  classed  as 
one  of  the  Lake  poets.  In  1807  he  ob- 
tained a  pension  from  the  government, 
and  on  the  death  of  Pye  was  appointed 
poet  laureate.  In  1839,  two  years  after 
the  death  of  his  wife,  he  married  Caro- 
line Bowles.  The  latter  years  of  his  life 
were  clouded  by  a  mental  imbecility  which 
attended  him  to  his  death.  His  chief 
poems  are:  "Joan  of  Arc"  (1796)  ;  "Thai- 
aba"  (1801)  ;  "Madoc"  (1805)  ;  "The 
Curse  of  Kehama"  (1810)  ;  "Roderick" 
(1814)  ;  "A  Vision  of  Judgment"  (1821)  ; 
etc.  Among  his  prose  works  are :  "His- 
tory of  Brazil"  (1810);  "Life  of  Nelson" 
(1813)  ;  "Life  of  John  Wesley"  (1820)  ; 
"History  of  the  Peninsular  War"  (1823)  ; 
"Sir  Thomas  More"  (1829)  ;  "The  Doc- 
tor" (1834-1837).  Among  his  transla- 
tions was  "The  Chronicle  of  the  Cid." 
His  "Commonplace  Book,"  a  posthumous 
publication  in  four  volumes  8vo,  is  a 
marvelous  monument  of  his  reading  and 
research.  He  died  near  Keswick,  Eng- 
land, March  21,  1843. 

SOUTH  GEORGIA,  a  British  island 
in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean,  uninhabited, 
and  almost  perpetually  ice-bound;  nearly 
800  miles  E.  by  S.  of  the  Falkland  Isles, 
of  which  it  is  a  dependency;  area, 
1,000  square  miles.  Discovered  in  1675, 
it  was  taken  possession  of  by  Captain 
Cook  in  1775;  and  here  in  1882-1883  lived 
the  German  expedition  for  observing  the 
transit  of  Venus. 

SOUTH  HADLEY,  a  town  in  Massa- 
chusetts, in  Hampshire  co.  It  is  on  the 
Connecticut  river.  Its  industries  include 
the  manufacture  of  writing  paper,  brick, 
cotton  goods,  lumber  products,  etc.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Mount  Holyoke  College. 
Pop.  (1910)  4,894;   (1920)  5,527. 

SOUTHINGTON,  a  town  of  Connecti- 
cut, in  Hartford  co.  It  is  on  the  New 
York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford  railroad. 
The  principal  industries  are  the  manufac- 
ture of  hardware,  tools,  screws,  etc.  The 
town  contains  the  borough  of  the  same 
name.     Pop.   (1910)   5,085;    (1920)   8,440. 

SOUTH  ISLAND,  the  lower  of  the  two 
large  islands  which,  with  the  small  Stew- 
art Island,  form  the  British  colony  of 
New  Zealand. 


SOUTH  KINGSTON 


507 


SOUTH  SHETLANDS 


SOUTH  KINGSTON,  a  town  of 
Rhode  Island,  which  includes  West  King- 
ston, the  county-seat,  and  several  other 
villages.  It  is  on  the  New  York,  New 
Haven,  and  Hartford,  and  the  Narragan- 
sett  Pier  railroads.  It  has  manufactories 
of  woolen  and  worsted  goods.  The  village 
of  Kingston  is  the  seat  of  the  Rhode 
Island  College  of  Agriculture  and 
Mechanic  Arts.  It  is  the  center  of  an 
important  farming  region  and  has  also 
extensive  fishing  interests.  Pop.  (1910) 
5,176;   (1920)   5,181. 

SOUTH  MILWAUKEE,  a  city  of 
Wisconsin,  in  Milwaukee  co.  It  is  on  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroad.  Its 
industries  include  the  manufacture  of 
steam  shovels,  dredges,  mineral  wool, 
veneers,  electrical  appliances,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)    6,092;    (1920)    7,598. 

SOUTH  MOUNTAIN,  a  ridge  of  the 
Alleghanies,  near  Middletown,  Frederick 
co.,  Md. ;  the  scene  of  a  battle,  Sept.  14, 
1862,  between  the  Union  troops,  under 
General  Reno,  composed  of  Reno's  and 
Hooker's  corps  of  General  McClellan's 
army,  and  the  Confederates,  about  30,000 
strong,  under  Generals  Hill  and  Long- 
street,  in  which,  after  a  desperate 
struggle  continuing  throughout  the  day, 
the  Union  forces  were  victorious.  General 
Reno  was  killed  in  the  action. 

SOUTH  NOB, WALK,  formerly  a  city 
of  Connecticut,  incorporated  in  1913  with 
NORWALK    (q.  V.). 

SOUTH  ORANGE,  a  village  of  New 
Jersey,  in  Essex  co.  It  is  on  the  Dela- 
ware, Lackawanna  and  Western  railroad. 
It  is  entirely  a  residential  place  and  has 
many  handsome  private  residences.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Seton  Hall  College.  Pop. 
(1910)   6,014;    (1920)   7,274. 

SOUTH  PASADENA,  a  city  of  Cali- 
fornia, in  Los  Angeles  co.  It  is  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  Coast 
Line,  the  Salt  Lake  Route,  and  the  Pa- 
cific Electric  and  Southern  Pacific  rail- 
roads. It  is  the  center  of  an  important 
fruit-growing  region  and  has  large  os- 
trich farms.  Pop.  (1910)  4,649;  (1920) 
7,652. 

SOUTHPORT,  a  watering-place  of 
Lancashire,  England,  incorporated  in 
1867;  on  the  S.  shore  of  the  Ribble  estu- 
ary, 18  miles  N.  of  Liverpool.  There  are 
piers,  bathing  establishments,  churches, 
a  town  hall,  Cambridge  Hall,  the  Atkinson 
Free  Public  Library  and  Art  Gallery,  etc. 
There  are  winter  gardens  with  an  aqua- 
rium; botanic  gardens,  covering  upward 
of  20  acres,  and  containing  a  museum; 
and  the  Hesketh  Public  Park  of  30  acres, 
with  a  meteorological  institute.  A  small 
fishing  village   at  the   commencement  of 


the  19th  century,  Southport  is  now  a 
favorite  winter  resort  for  the  surround- 
ing manufacturing  centers.  Pop.  about 
65,000. 

SOUTH  PORTLAND,  a  city  of  Maine, 
in  Cumberland  co.  It  is  on  the  Fore 
river  and  is  opposite  Portland,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  ferry  and  four 
bridges.  Its  industries  include  iron  works, 
acid  works,  ship,  railway,  and  machine 
shops,  etc.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  State 
School  for  Boys.  Pop.  (1910)  7,471; 
(1920)   9,254. 

SOUTH  RIVER,  a  borough  of  New 
Jersey,  in  Middlesex  co.  It  is  on  the 
South  river  and  on  the  Raritan  River 
railroad.  Its  chief  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  bricks,  clay  products,  and 
fire-proofing  materials.  Pop.  (1910) 
4,772;    (1920)   6,596. 

SOUTH  SEA  BUBBLE,  a  disastrous 
financial  speculation  which  arose  in  Eng- 
land in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century. 
It  originated  with  the  directors  of  a  joint- 
stock  company,  which,  in  consideration 
of  certain  exclusive  privileges  of  trading 
to  the  South  Seas,  offered  the  government 
easier  terms  for  the  advance  or  negotia- 
tion of  loans  than  could  be  obtained  from 
the  general  public.  In  1720  the  proposal 
of  the  company  to  take  over  the  entire 
national  debt  (at  this  time  about  $155,- 
000,000)  in  consideration  of  receiving 
annually  5  per  cent.,  was  accepted,  and 
the  company  promised  in  return  for  this 
privilege  (as  it  was  regarded)  a  pre- 
mium in  their  own  stock  of  $37,500,000. 
Professing  to  possess  extensive  sources 
of  revenue,  the  directors  held  out  prom- 
ises to  the  public  of  paying  as  much  as 
60  per  cent  on  their  shares.  It  became 
soon  apparent  that  such  magnificent 
promises  could  never  be  fulfilled,  and  in 
a  few  months'  time  the  collapse  came 
which  ruined  thousands.  The  directors 
had  been  guilty  of  fraudulent  dealings, 
and  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and 
others  in  high  positions  were  implicated. 

SOUTH  SAINT  PAUL,  a  city  of  Min- 
nesota, in  Dakota  co.  It  is  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi river,  and  on  the  Chicago  Great 
Western,  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and 
Pacific,  and  other  railroads.  It  is  the 
center  of  an  important  stock-raising  re- 
gion and  has  extensive  meat-packing 
establishments,  car  foundries,  tanneries, 
etc.     Pop.   (1910)  4,510;    (1920)  6,860. 

SOUTH  SHETLANDS,  a  group  of 
islands  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  S.  of 
South  America,  on  the  Antarctic  circle; 
originally  discovered  by  a  Dutch  seaman 
named  Dirk  Cherrits  in  1599.  The  islands 
are  uninhabited,  and  covered  with  snow 
the  greater  part  of  the  year. 


SOUTH   VICTORIA  LAND 


508 


SOVIET 


SOUTH  VICTORIA  LAND,  or  VIC- 
TORIA LAND,  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  Victoria  quadrant  of  Antarctic  land. 
It  is  within  the  160th  and  170th  meridian 
E.  from  about  lat.  70°  to  beyond  lat.  83° 
S.  It  is  mountainous  and  covered  with 
snow  and  contains  the  volcanoes  Terror 
and  Erebus.  The  Magnetic  South  Pole 
is  near  the  northern  extremity.  Ross 
visited  Victoria  land  in  1841,  and  knowl- 
edge covering  it  gradually  increased  till 
it  was  mapped  in  1899  by  Borchgrevink. 
Nordenskjold,  Scott,  and  Shackleton  have 
more  recently  explored  it. 

SOUTHWARK,  a  metropolitan  and 
parliamentary  borough  of  central  London 
{q.  v.).  Among  its  principal  buildings 
are  St.  Saviour's  Church,  Guy's  Hospital, 
Bethlehem  Hospital  for  Lunatics,  Leather 
and  Borough  markets,  and  the  termini  of 
the  London,  Brighton  and  South  Coast 
railway  and  the  Southeastern  railway. 
The  Surrey  Commercial  Docks  and  many 
manufactories  of  various  kinds  are  in 
the  borough.    Pop.  about  300,000. 

SOUTHWELL,  a  town  of  Nottingham- 
shire, England,  since  1884  a  cathedral 
city,  on  the  ancient  Ermine  street,  7 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Newark.  A  church 
was  founded  here  by  Paulinus  about  630; 
but  the  stately  cruciform  minster,  which 
with  its  three  towers  resembles  York  on 
a  smaller  scale,  is  wholly  of  post-Con- 
quest date.  In  the  old  "Saracen's  Head" 
Charles  I.  surrendered  to  the  Scotch  com- 
missioners (1646)  ;  Byron's  mother  occu- 
pied Burgage  Manor  House  (1804-1807)  ; 
and  there  are  picturesque  ruins  of  the 
palace  of  the  Archbishops  of  York.  Pop. 
about  4,000. 

SOUTHWESTERN  BAPTIST  THEO- 
LOGICAL SEMINARY,  an  educational 
institution  in  Louisville,  Ky.;  founded  in 
1859  under  the  auspices  of  the  Baptist 
Church.  Both  men  and  women  are  ad- 
mitted for  instruction.  The  seminary  in 
1915  purchased  a  new  site  in  the  suburbs 
of  Louisville.  President,  E.  Y.  Mullins, 
D.D.,  LL.D. 

SOUTHWESTERN    UNIVERSITY,    a 

co-educational  institution  in  Georgetown, 
Tex.;  founded  in  1873  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  re- 
ported at  the  close  of  1919:  Professors 
and  instructors,  27;  students,  709;  presi- 
dent, C.  M.  Bishop,  A.M.,  D.D. 

SOUTHWORTH,  EMMA  DOROTHY 
ELIZA  NEVITTjii,  an  American  author; 
born  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Dec.  26,  1819; 
was  educated  by  her  stepfather,  J.  L. 
Henshaw,  at  whose  school  she  was  grad- 
uated in  1835.  She  taught  in  a  public 
school  in  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1844- 
1849,  and  while  so  occupied  began  to  write 


stories.  Her  first  one,  "The  Irish  Refu- 
gee," appeared  in  the  Baltimore  "Satur- 
day Visitor."  Subsequently  she  wrote  for 
the  "National  Era,"  and  in  1849  published 
the  first  of  her  serials,  "Retribution,"  in 
that  journal.  Her  novels,  about  66  in 
number,  include:  "Gloria";  "Nearest  and 
Dearest";  "An  Exile's  Bride";  "The  Fatal 
Secret";  etc.  She  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  June  30,  1899. 

SOUVESTRE,  EMILE,  a  French  au- 
thor; born  in  Morlaix,  France,  April  15, 
1806.  He  wrote:  "The  Last  of  the  Bre- 
tons" (1835-1837)  ;  "The  Breton  Fireside" 
(1884)  ;  "A  Philosopher  under  the  Roofs" 
(1850)  crowned  by  the  Academy;  "His- 
torical and  Literary  Conversations" 
(1854) ;  and  various  plays.  He  died  in 
Paris,  July  5,  1854. 

SOVEREIGN,  a  gold  coin,  the  stand- 
ard of  the  English  coinage.  It  equals 
20  shillings  sterling,  and  has  a  standard 
weight  of  123.274  grains,  being  of  22 
carats  fineness,  and  coined  at  the  rate  of 
1,869  sovereigns  from  40  pounds  troy  of 
gold;  worth  at  normal  rate  of  exchange 
in  United  States  money,  $4.8665. 

SOVEREIGNTY  OF  THE  SEA. 
Blackstone  lays  it  down  that  the  main  or 
high  seas  are  part  of  the  realm  of  Eng- 
land, as  the  courts  of  admiralty  have 
jurisdiction  there.  But  the  law  of  nations, 
as  now  understood,  recognizes  no  dominion 
in  any  one  nation  over  the  high  seas, 
which  are  the  highway  of  all  nations  and 
governed  by  the  public  law  of  the  civilized 
world.  Such  a  right  has,  however,  long 
been  claimed  over  the  four  seas  surround- 
ing the  British  Isles.  It  was  strongly 
asserted  by  Selden  and  denied  by  Grotius, 
and  measures  were  taken  to  vindicate  the 
right  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  The 
Dutch  claimed  the  supremacy  of  the  seas 
in  Cromwell's  time,  but  were  worsted  by 
Blake.  Every  nation  has  undoubtedly  a 
right  to  the  exclusive  dominion  of  the  sea 
within  a  certain  distance  from  the  shore, 
now  fixed  at  3  miles.  This  right  of  lord- 
ship includes  the  right  to  free  navigation, 
to  fishing,  to  taking  wrecks,  the  forbid- 
ding passage  to  enemies,  the  right  of 
flag,  of  jurisdiction,  etc.  By  the  law  of 
England  the  main  sea  begins  at  low-water 
mark;  and  between  low  and  high  water 
mark  the  common  law  and  admiralty 
have  a  divided  jurisdiction,  one  on  land 
when  left  dry,  the  other  on  the  water 
when  it  is  full  sea. 

SOVIET.  The  name  given  to  the 
Soldiers'  and  Workingmen's  Council,  es- 
tablished in  Russia,  following  the  over- 
throw of  the  provisional  government 
erected  by  the  revolution  of  1917.  See 
Council  of  Workingmen  and  Soldiers; 
Russia;  Lenine;   Nikolai;   World  War. 


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